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What was the name of the pig leader in George Orwell's Animal Farm?	tc_493	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "George_Orwell.txt", "Animal_Farm.txt" ], "title": [ "George Orwell", "Animal Farm" ], "wiki_context": [ "Eric Arthur Blair (25 June 1903 – 21 January 1950 ), who used the pen name George Orwell, was an English novelist, essayist, journalist, and critic. His work is marked by lucid prose, awareness of social injustice, opposition to totalitarianism, and outspoken support of democratic socialism. \n\nOrwell wrote literary criticism, poetry, fiction, and polemical journalism. He is perhaps best known for his dystopian novel Nineteen Eighty-Four (1949) and the allegorical novella Animal Farm (1945). His non-fiction works, including The Road to Wigan Pier (1937), documenting his experience of working class life in the north of England, and Homage to Catalonia (1938), an account of his experiences in the Spanish Civil War, are widely acclaimed, as are his essays on politics, literature, language, and culture. In 2008, The Times ranked him second on a list of \"The 50 greatest British writers since 1945\". \n\nOrwell's work continues to influence popular and political culture, and the term Orwellian—descriptive of totalitarian or authoritarian social practices—has entered the language together with many of his neologisms, including cold war, Big Brother, thought police, Room 101, memory hole, newspeak, doublethink, and thoughtcrime. \n\nLife\n\nEarly years\n\nEric Arthur Blair was born on 25 June 1903, in Motihari, Bengal Presidency (present-day Bihar), in British India. His great-grandfather Charles Blair was a wealthy country gentleman in Dorset who married Lady Mary Fane, daughter of the Earl of Westmorland, and had income as an absentee landlord of plantations in Jamaica. His grandfather, Thomas Richard Arthur Blair, was a clergyman. Although the gentility passed down the generations, the prosperity did not; Eric Blair described his family as \"lower-upper-middle class\". His father, Richard Walmesley Blair, worked in the Opium Department of the Indian Civil Service. His mother, Ida Mabel Blair (née Limouzin), grew up in Moulmein, Burma, where her French father was involved in speculative ventures. Eric had two sisters: Marjorie, five years older, and Avril, five years younger. When Eric was one year old, his mother took him and his older sister to England.Crick (1982), p. 48 His birthplace and ancestral house in Motihari has been declared a protected monument of historical importance. \n\nIn 1904, Ida Blair settled with her children at Henley-on-Thames in Oxfordshire. Eric was brought up in the company of his mother and sisters, and apart from a brief visit in mid-1907, they did not see the husband and father Richard Blair until 1912. His mother's diary from 1905 describes a lively round of social activity and artistic interests.\n\nThe family moved to Shiplake before the First World War, where Eric became friendly with the Buddicom family, especially their daughter Jacintha. When they first met, he was standing on his head in a field. On being asked why, he said, \"You are noticed more if you stand on your head than if you are right way up.\" Jacintha and Eric read and wrote poetry, and dreamed of becoming famous writers. He said that he might write a book in the style of H. G. Wells's A Modern Utopia. During this period, he also enjoyed shooting, fishing and birdwatching with Jacintha's brother and sister.\n\nAt the age of five, Eric was sent as a day-boy to a convent school in Henley-on-Thames, which Marjorie also attended. It was a Roman Catholic convent run by French Ursuline nuns, who had been exiled from France after religious education was banned in 1903. His mother wanted him to have a public school education, but his family could not afford the fees, and he needed to earn a scholarship. Ida Blair's brother Charles Limouzin recommended St Cyprian's School, Eastbourne, East Sussex. Limouzin, who was a proficient golfer, knew of the school and its headmaster through the Royal Eastbourne Golf Club, where he won several competitions in 1903 and 1904. The headmaster undertook to help Blair to win the scholarship, and made a private financial arrangement that allowed Blair's parents to pay only half the normal fees. In September 1911 Eric arrived at St Cyprian's. He boarded at the school for the next five years, returning home only for school holidays. He knew nothing of the reduced fees although he \"soon recognised that he was from a poorer home\". Blair hated the school and many years later wrote an essay \"Such, Such Were the Joys\", published posthumously, based on his time there. At St. Cyprian's, Blair first met Cyril Connolly, who became a noted writer and, as the editor of Horizon, published many of Orwell's essays.\n\nAs part of school work, Blair wrote two poems that were published in the Henley and South Oxfordshire Standard. He came second to Connolly in the Harrow History Prize, had his work praised by the school's external examiner, and earned scholarships to Wellington and Eton Colleges. But an Eton scholarship did not guarantee a place, and none was immediately available for Blair. He chose to stay at St Cyprian's until December 1916, in case a place at Eton became available.\n\nIn January, Blair took up the place at Wellington, where he spent the Spring term. In May 1917 a place became available as a King's Scholar at Eton. He studied at Eton until December 1921, when he left at age 18½. Wellington was \"beastly\", Orwell told his childhood friend Jacintha Buddicom, but he said he was \"interested and happy\" at Eton. His principal tutor was A. S. F. Gow, fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, who also gave him advice later in his career. Blair was briefly taught French by Aldous Huxley. Stephen Runciman, who was at Eton with Blair, noted that he and his contemporaries appreciated Huxley's linguistic flair. Cyril Connolly followed Blair to Eton, but because they were in separate years, they did not associate with each other.\n\nBlair's academic performance reports suggest that he neglected his academic studies, but during his time at Eton he worked with Roger Mynors to produce a College magazine, The Election Times, joined in the production of other publications—College Days and Bubble and Squeak—and participated in the Eton Wall Game. His parents could not afford to send him to university without another scholarship, and they concluded from his poor results that he would not be able to win one. Runciman noted that he had a romantic idea about the East and the family decided that Blair should join the Imperial Police, the precursor of the Indian Police Service. For this he had to pass an entrance examination. His father had retired to Southwold, Suffolk by this time; Blair was enrolled at a crammer there called Craighurst, and brushed up on his Classics, English and History. Blair passed the exam, coming seventh out of the 26 candidates who exceeded the pass mark. \n\nPolicing in Burma\n\nBlair's maternal grandmother lived at Moulmein, so he chose a posting in Burma. In October 1922 he sailed on board SS Herefordshire via the Suez Canal and Ceylon to join the Indian Imperial Police in Burma. A month later, he arrived at Rangoon and travelled to the police training school in Mandalay. After a short posting at Maymyo, Burma's principal hill station, he was posted to the frontier outpost of Myaungmya in the Irrawaddy Delta at the beginning of 1924.\n\nWorking as an imperial policeman gave him considerable responsibility while most of his contemporaries were still at university in England. When he was posted farther east in the Delta to Twante as a sub-divisional officer, he was responsible for the security of some 200,000 people. At the end of 1924, he was promoted to Assistant District Superintendent and posted to Syriam, closer to Rangoon. Syriam had the refinery of the Burmah Oil Company, \"the surrounding land a barren waste, all vegetation killed off by the fumes of sulphur dioxide pouring out day and night from the stacks of the refinery.\" But the town was near Rangoon, a cosmopolitan seaport, and Blair went into the city as often as he could, \"to browse in a bookshop; to eat well-cooked food; to get away from the boring routine of police life\". In September 1925 he went to Insein, the home of Insein Prison, the second largest jail in Burma. In Insein, he had \"long talks on every conceivable subject\" with Elisa Maria Langford-Rae (who later married Kazi Lhendup Dorjee). She noted his \"sense of utter fairness in minutest details\".Michael Shelden Orwell: The Authorised Biography, William Heinemann, 1991\n\nIn April 1926 he moved to Moulmein, where his maternal grandmother lived. At the end of that year, he was assigned to Katha in Upper Burma, where he contracted dengue fever in 1927. Entitled to a leave in England that year, he was allowed to return in July due to his illness. While on leave in England and on holiday with his family in Cornwall in September 1927, he reappraised his life. Deciding against returning to Burma, he resigned from the Indian Imperial Police to become a writer. He drew on his experiences in the Burma police for the novel Burmese Days (1934) and the essays \"A Hanging\" (1931) and \"Shooting an Elephant\" (1936).\n\nIn Burma, Blair acquired a reputation as an outsider. He spent much of his time alone, reading or pursuing non-pukka activities, such as attending the churches of the Karen ethnic group. A colleague, Roger Beadon, recalled (in a 1969 recording for the BBC) that Blair was fast to learn the language and that before he left Burma, \"was able to speak fluently with Burmese priests in 'very high-flown Burmese.'\" Blair made changes to his appearance in Burma that remained for the rest of his life. \"While in Burma, he acquired a moustache similar to those worn by officers of the British regiments stationed there. [He] also acquired some tattoos; on each knuckle he had a small untidy blue circle. Many Burmese living in rural areas still sport tattoos like this – they are believed to protect against bullets and snake bites.\" Later, he wrote that he felt guilty about his role in the work of empire and he \"began to look more closely at his own country and saw that England also had its oppressed ...\"\n\nLondon and Paris\n\nIn England, he settled back in the family home at Southwold, renewing acquaintance with local friends and attending an Old Etonian dinner. He visited his old tutor Gow at Cambridge for advice on becoming a writer. In 1927 he moved to London. Ruth Pitter, a family acquaintance, helped him find lodgings, and by the end of 1927 he had moved into rooms in Portobello Road; a blue plaque commemorates his residence there. Pitter's involvement in the move \"would have lent it a reassuring respectability in Mrs Blair's eyes.\" Pitter had a sympathetic interest in Blair's writing, pointed out weaknesses in his poetry, and advised him to write about what he knew. In fact he decided to write of \"certain aspects of the present that he set out to know\" and \"ventured into the East End of London – the first of the occasional sorties he would make to discover for himself the world of poverty and the down-and-outers who inhabit it. He had found a subject. These sorties, explorations, expeditions, tours or immersions were made intermittently over a period of five years.\" \n\nIn imitation of Jack London, whose writing he admired (particularly The People of the Abyss), Blair started to explore the poorer parts of London. On his first outing he set out to Limehouse Causeway, spending his first night in a common lodging house, possibly George Levy's 'kip'. For a while he \"went native\" in his own country, dressing like a tramp, adopting the name P. S. Burton and making no concessions to middle-class mores and expectations; he recorded his experiences of the low life for use in \"The Spike\", his first published essay in English, and in the second half of his first book, Down and Out in Paris and London (1933).\n\nIn early 1928 he moved to Paris. He lived in the Rue du Pot de Fer, a working class district in the 5th Arrondissement. His aunt Nellie Limouzin also lived in Paris and gave him social and, when necessary, financial support. He began to write novels, including an early version of Burmese Days but nothing else survives from that period. He was more successful as a journalist and published articles in Monde, a political/literary journal edited by Henri Barbusse, – his first article as a professional writer, \"La Censure en Angleterre\", appeared in that journal on 6 October 1928 – G. K.'s Weekly – where his first article to appear in England, \"A Farthing Newspaper\", was printed on 29 December 1928 – and Le Progrès Civique (founded by the left-wing coalition Le Cartel des Gauches). Three pieces appeared in successive weeks in Progrès Civique: discussing unemployment, a day in the life of a tramp, and the beggars of London, respectively. \"In one or another of its destructive forms, poverty was to become his obsessive subject – at the heart of almost everything he wrote until Homage to Catalonia.\" \n\nHe fell seriously ill in February 1929 and was taken to the Hôpital Cochin in the 14th arrondissement, a free hospital where medical students were trained. His experiences there were the basis of his essay \"How the Poor Die\", published in 1946. He chose not to identify the hospital, and indeed was deliberately misleading about its location. Shortly afterwards, he had all his money stolen from his lodging house. Whether through necessity or to collect material, he undertook menial jobs like dishwashing in a fashionable hotel on the rue de Rivoli, which he later described in Down and Out in Paris and London. In August 1929, he sent a copy of \"The Spike\" to John Middleton Murry's New Adelphi magazine in London. The magazine was edited by Max Plowman and Sir Richard Rees, and Plowman accepted the work for publication.\n\nSouthwold\n\nIn December 1929, after nearly two years in Paris, Blair returned to England and went directly to his parents' house in Southwold, which remained his base for the next five years. The family was well-established in the town and his sister Avril was running a tea-house there. He became acquainted with many local people, including Brenda Salkeld, the clergyman's daughter who worked as a gym-teacher at St Felix Girls' School, Southwold. Although Salkeld rejected his offer of marriage, she remained a friend and regular correspondent for many years. He also renewed friendships with older friends, such as Dennis Collings, whose girlfriend Eleanor Jacques was also to play a part in his life.\n\nIn early 1930 he stayed briefly in Bramley, Leeds, with his sister Marjorie and her husband Humphrey Dakin, who was as unappreciative of Blair as when they knew each other as children. Blair was writing reviews for Adelphi and acting as a private tutor to a disabled child at Southwold. He then became tutor to three young brothers, one of whom, Richard Peters, later became a distinguished academic. \"His history in these years is marked by dualities and contrasts. There is Blair leading a respectable, outwardly eventless life at his parents' house in Southwold, writing; then in contrast, there is Blair as Burton (the name he used in his down-and-out episodes) in search of experience in the kips and spikes, in the East End, on the road, and in the hop fields of Kent.\" He went painting and bathing on the beach, and there he met Mabel and Francis Fierz who later influenced his career. Over the next year he visited them in London, often meeting their friend Max Plowman. He also often stayed at the homes of Ruth Pitter and Richard Rees, where he could \"change\" for his sporadic tramping expeditions. One of his jobs was to do domestic work at a lodgings for half a crown a day. \n\nBlair now contributed regularly to Adelphi, with \"A Hanging\" appearing in August 1931. From August to September 1931 his explorations of poverty continued, and, like the protagonist of A Clergyman's Daughter, he followed the East End tradition of working in the Kent hop fields. He kept a diary about his experiences there. Afterwards, he lodged in the Tooley Street kip, but could not stand it for long and with financial help from his parents moved to Windsor Street, where he stayed until Christmas. \"Hop Picking\", by Eric Blair, appeared in the October 1931 issue of New Statesman, whose editorial staff included his old friend Cyril Connolly. Mabel Fierz put him in contact with Leonard Moore, who became his literary agent.\n\nAt this time Jonathan Cape rejected A Scullion's Diary, the first version of Down and Out. On the advice of Richard Rees, he offered it to Faber & Faber, whose editorial director, T. S. Eliot, also rejected it. Blair ended the year by deliberately getting himself arrested, so he could experience Christmas in prison, but the authorities did not regard his \"drunk and disorderly\" behaviour as imprisonable, and he returned home to Southwold after two days in a police cell.\n\nTeaching career\n\nIn April 1932 Blair became a teacher at The Hawthorns High School, a school for boys in Hayes, West London. This was a small school offering private schooling for children of local tradesmen and shopkeepers, and had only 14 or 16 boys aged between ten and sixteen, and one other master. While at the school he became friendly with the curate of the local parish church and became involved with activities there. Mabel Fierz had pursued matters with Moore, and at the end of June 1932, Moore told Blair that Victor Gollancz was prepared to publish A Scullion's Diary for a £40 advance, through his recently founded publishing house, Victor Gollancz Ltd, which was an outlet for radical and socialist works.\n\nAt the end of the summer term in 1932, Blair returned to Southwold, where his parents had used a legacy to buy their own home. Blair and his sister Avril spent the holidays making the house habitable while he also worked on Burmese Days. He was also spending time with Eleanor Jacques, but her attachment to Dennis Collings remained an obstacle to his hopes of a more serious relationship.\n\"Clink\", an essay describing his failed attempt to get sent to prison, appeared in the August 1932 number of Adelphi. He returned to teaching at Hayes and prepared for the publication of his book, now known as Down and Out in Paris and London. He wished to publish under a different name to avoid any embarrassment to his family over his time as a \"tramp\". In a letter to Moore (dated 15 November 1932), he left the choice of pseudonym to him and to Gollancz. Four days later, he wrote to Moore, suggesting the pseudonyms P. S. Burton (a name he used when tramping), Kenneth Miles, George Orwell, and H. Lewis Allways. He finally adopted the nom de plume George Orwell because, as he told Eleanor Jacques, \"It is a good round English name.\" Down and Out in Paris and London was published on 9 January 1933, as Orwell continued to work on Burmese Days. Down and Out was successful and was next published by Harper and Brothers in New York.\n\nIn mid-1933 Blair left Hawthorns to become a teacher at Frays College, in Uxbridge, West London. This was a much larger establishment with 200 pupils and a full complement of staff. He acquired a motorcycle and took trips through the surrounding countryside. On one of these expeditions he became soaked and caught a chill that developed into pneumonia. He was taken to Uxbridge Cottage Hospital, where for a time his life was believed to be in danger. When he was discharged in January 1934, he returned to Southwold to convalesce and, supported by his parents, never returned to teaching.\n\nHe was disappointed when Gollancz turned down Burmese Days, mainly on the grounds of potential suits for libel, but Harper were prepared to publish it in the United States. Meanwhile, Blair started work on the novel A Clergyman's Daughter, drawing upon his life as a teacher and on life in Southwold. Eleanor Jacques was now married and had gone to Singapore and Brenda Salkield had left for Ireland, so Blair was relatively isolated in Southwold—working on the allotments, walking alone and spending time with his father. Eventually in October, after sending A Clergyman's Daughter to Moore, he left for London to take a job that had been found for him by his Aunt Nellie Limouzin.\n\nHampstead\n\nThis job was as a part-time assistant in Booklovers' Corner, a second-hand bookshop in Hampstead run by Francis and Myfanwy Westrope, who were friends of Nellie Limouzin in the Esperanto movement. The Westropes were friendly and provided him with comfortable accommodation at Warwick Mansions, Pond Street. He was sharing the job with Jon Kimche, who also lived with the Westropes. Blair worked at the shop in the afternoons and had his mornings free to write and his evenings free to socialise. These experiences provided background for the novel Keep the Aspidistra Flying (1936). As well as the various guests of the Westropes, he was able to enjoy the company of Richard Rees and the Adelphi writers and Mabel Fierz. The Westropes and Kimche were members of the Independent Labour Party, although at this time Blair was not seriously politically active. He was writing for the Adelphi and preparing A Clergyman's Daughter and Burmese Days for publication.\n\nAt the beginning of 1935 he had to move out of Warwick Mansions, and Mabel Fierz found him a flat in Parliament Hill. A Clergyman's Daughter was published on 11 March 1935. In early 1935 Blair met his future wife Eileen O'Shaughnessy, when his landlady, Rosalind Obermeyer, who was studying for a master's degree in psychology at University College London, invited some of her fellow students to a party. One of these students, Elizaveta Fen, a biographer and future translator of Chekhov, recalled Orwell and his friend Richard Rees \"draped\" at the fireplace, looking, she thought, \"moth-eaten and prematurely aged.\" Around this time, Blair had started to write reviews for the New English Weekly.\n\nIn June, Burmese Days was published and Cyril Connolly's review in the New Statesman prompted Orwell (as he then became known) to re-establish contact with his old friend. In August, he moved into a flat in Kentish Town, which he shared with Michael Sayers and Rayner Heppenstall. The relationship was sometimes awkward and Orwell and Heppenstall even came to blows, though they remained friends and later worked together on BBC broadcasts. Orwell was now working on Keep the Aspidistra Flying, and also tried unsuccessfully to write a serial for the News Chronicle. By October 1935 his flatmates had moved out and he was struggling to pay the rent on his own. He remained until the end of January 1936, when he stopped working at Booklovers' Corner.\n\nThe Road to Wigan Pier\n\nAt this time, Victor Gollancz suggested Orwell spend a short time investigating social conditions in economically depressed northern England. Two years earlier J. B. Priestley had written about England north of the Trent, sparking an interest in reportage. The depression had also introduced a number of working-class writers from the North of England to the reading public.\n\nOn 31 January 1936, Orwell set out by public transport and on foot, reaching Manchester via Coventry, Stafford, the Potteries and Macclesfield. Arriving in Manchester after the banks had closed, he had to stay in a common lodging-house. The next day he picked up a list of contacts sent by Richard Rees. One of these, the trade union official Frank Meade, suggested Wigan, where Orwell spent February staying in dirty lodgings over a tripe shop. At Wigan, he visited many homes to see how people lived, took detailed notes of housing conditions and wages earned, went down Bryn Hall coal mine, and used the local public library to consult public health records and reports on working conditions in mines.\n\nDuring this time, he was distracted by concerns about style and possible libel in Keep the Aspidistra Flying. He made a quick visit to Liverpool and during March, stayed in south Yorkshire, spending time in Sheffield and Barnsley. As well as visiting mines, including Grimethorpe, and observing social conditions, he attended meetings of the Communist Party and of Oswald Mosley – \"his speech the usual claptrap—The blame for everything was put upon mysterious international gangs of Jews\" – where he saw the tactics of the Blackshirts – \"one is liable to get both a hammering and a fine for asking a question which Mosley finds it difficult to answer.\" He also made visits to his sister at Headingley, during which he visited the Brontë Parsonage at Haworth, where he was \"chiefly impressed by a pair of Charlotte Brontë's cloth-topped boots, very small, with square toes and lacing up at the sides.\" \n\nThe result of his journeys through the north was The Road to Wigan Pier, published by Gollancz for the Left Book Club in 1937. The first half of the book documents his social investigations of Lancashire and Yorkshire, including an evocative description of working life in the coal mines. The second half is a long essay on his upbringing and the development of his political conscience, which includes an argument for Socialism (although he goes to lengths to balance the concerns and goals of Socialism with the barriers it faced from the movement's own advocates at the time, such as 'priggish' and 'dull' Socialist intellectuals, and 'proletarian' Socialists with little grasp of the actual ideology). Gollancz feared the second half would offend readers and added a disculpatory preface to the book while Orwell was in Spain.\n\nOrwell needed somewhere he could concentrate on writing his book, and once again help was provided by Aunt Nellie, who was living at Wallington, Hertfordshire in a very small sixteenth-century cottage called the \"Stores\". Wallington was a tiny village thirty-five miles north of London and the cottage had almost no modern facilities. Orwell took over the tenancy and moved in on 2 April 1936. He started work on The Road to Wigan Pier by the end of April, but also spent hours working on the garden and testing the possibility of re-opening the Stores as a village shop. Keep the Aspidistra Flying was published by Gollancz on 20 April 1936. On 4 August Orwell gave a talk at the Adelphi Summer School held at Langham, entitled An Outsider Sees the Distressed Areas; others who spoke at the school included John Strachey, Max Plowman, Karl Polanyi and Reinhold Niebuhr.\n\nOrwell's research for The Road to Wigan Pier led to him being placed under surveillance by the Special Branch in 1936, for 12 years, until one year before the publication of Nineteen Eighty-Four. \n\nOrwell married Eileen O'Shaughnessy on 9 June 1936. Shortly afterwards, the political crisis began in Spain and Orwell followed developments there closely. At the end of the year, concerned by Francisco Franco's military uprising, (supported by Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy and local groups such as Falange), Orwell decided to go to Spain to take part in the Spanish Civil War on the Republican side. Under the erroneous impression that he needed papers from some left-wing organisation to cross the frontier, on John Strachey's recommendation he applied unsuccessfully to Harry Pollitt, leader of the British Communist Party. Pollitt was suspicious of Orwell's political reliability; he asked him whether he would undertake to join the International Brigade and advised him to get a safe-conduct from the Spanish Embassy in Paris. Not wishing to commit himself until he had seen the situation in situ, Orwell instead used his Independent Labour Party contacts to get a letter of introduction to John McNair in Barcelona.\n\nThe Spanish Civil War\n\nOrwell set out for Spain on about 23 December 1936, dining with Henry Miller in Paris on the way. The American writer told Orwell that going to fight in the Civil War there out of some sense of obligation or guilt was 'sheer stupidity,' and that the Englishman's ideas 'about combating Fascism, defending democracy, etc., etc., were all baloney.' A few days later, in Barcelona, Orwell met John McNair of the Independent Labour Party (ILP) Office who quoted him: \"I've come to fight against Fascism\". Orwell stepped into a complex political situation in Catalonia. The Republican government was supported by a number of factions with conflicting aims, including the Workers' Party of Marxist Unification (POUM – Partido Obrero de Unificación Marxista), the anarcho-syndicalist Confederación Nacional del Trabajo (CNT) and the Unified Socialist Party of Catalonia (a wing of the Spanish Communist Party, which was backed by Soviet arms and aid). The ILP was linked to the POUM so Orwell joined the POUM.\n\nAfter a time at the Lenin Barracks in Barcelona he was sent to the relatively quiet Aragon Front under Georges Kopp. By January 1937 he was at Alcubierre 1500 ft above sea level, in the depth of winter. There was very little military action, and Orwell was shocked by the lack of munitions, food, and firewood, and other extreme deprivations. Orwell, with his Cadet Corps and police training, was quickly made a corporal. On the arrival of a British ILP Contingent about three weeks later, Orwell and the other English militiaman, Williams, were sent with them to Monte Oscuro. The newly arrived ILP contingent included Bob Smillie, Bob Edwards, Stafford Cottman and Jack Branthwaite. The unit was then sent on to Huesca.\n\nMeanwhile, back in England, Eileen had been handling the issues relating to the publication of The Road to Wigan Pier before setting out for Spain herself, leaving Aunt Nellie Limouzin to look after The Stores. Eileen volunteered for a post in John McNair's office and with the help of Georges Kopp paid visits to her husband, bringing him English tea, chocolate and cigars. Orwell had to spend some days in hospital with a poisoned hand and had most of his possessions stolen by the staff. He returned to the front and saw some action in a night attack on the Nationalist trenches where he chased an enemy soldier with a bayonet and bombed an enemy rifle position.\n\nIn April, Orwell returned to Barcelona. Wanting to be sent to the Madrid front, which meant he \"must join the International Column\", he approached a Communist friend attached to the Spanish Medical Aid and explained his case. \"Although he did not think much of the Communists, Orwell was still ready to treat them as friends and allies. That would soon change.\" This was the time of the Barcelona May Days and Orwell was caught up in the factional fighting. He spent much of the time on a roof, with a stack of novels, but encountered Jon Kimche from his Hampstead days during the stay. The subsequent campaign of lies and distortion carried out by the Communist press, in which the POUM was accused of collaborating with the fascists, had a dramatic effect on Orwell. Instead of joining the International Brigades as he had intended, he decided to return to the Aragon Front. Once the May fighting was over, he was approached by a Communist friend who asked if he still intended transferring to the International Brigades. Orwell expressed surprise that they should still want him, because according to the Communist press he was a fascist. \"No one who was in Barcelona then, or for months later, will forget the horrible atmosphere produced by fear, suspicion, hatred, censored newspapers, crammed jails, enormous food queues and prowling gangs of armed men.\" \n\nAfter his return to the front, he was wounded in the throat by a sniper's bullet. At 6 ft 2 in (1.88 m) Orwell was considerably taller than the Spanish fighters and had been warned against standing against the trench parapet. Unable to speak, and with blood pouring from his mouth, Orwell was carried on a stretcher to Siétamo, loaded on an ambulance and after a bumpy journey via Barbastro arrived at the hospital at Lérida. He recovered sufficiently to get up and on 27 May 1937 was sent on to Tarragona and two days later to a POUM sanatorium in the suburbs of Barcelona. The bullet had missed his main artery by the barest margin and his voice was barely audible. It had been such a clean shot that the wound immediately went through the process of cauterisation. He received electrotherapy treatment and was declared medically unfit for service. \n\nBy the middle of June the political situation in Barcelona had deteriorated and the POUM—painted by the pro-Soviet Communists as a Trotskyist organisation—was outlawed and under attack. The Communist line was that the POUM were \"objectively\" Fascist, hindering the Republican cause. \"A particularly nasty poster appeared, showing a head with a POUM mask being ripped off to reveal a Swastika-covered face beneath.\" Members, including Kopp, were arrested and others were in hiding. Orwell and his wife were under threat and had to lie low, although they broke cover to try to help Kopp.\n\nFinally with their passports in order, they escaped from Spain by train, diverting to Banyuls-sur-Mer for a short stay before returning to England. In the first week of July 1937 Orwell arrived back at Wallington; on 13 July 1937 a deposition was presented to the Tribunal for Espionage & High Treason, Valencia, charging the Orwells with \"rabid Trotskyism\", and being agents of the POUM. The trial of the leaders of the POUM and of Orwell (in his absence) took place in Barcelona in October and November 1938. Observing events from French Morocco, Orwell wrote that they were \"—only a by-product of the Russian Trotskyist trials and from the start every kind of lie, including flagrant absurdities, has been circulated in the Communist press.\" Orwell's experiences in the Spanish Civil War gave rise to Homage to Catalonia (1938).\n\nRest and recuperation\n\nOrwell returned to England in June 1937, and stayed at the O'Shaughnessy home at Greenwich. He found his views on the Spanish Civil War out of favour. Kingsley Martin rejected two of his works and Gollancz was equally cautious. At the same time, the communist Daily Worker was running an attack on The Road to Wigan Pier, misquoting Orwell as saying \"the working classes smell\"; a letter to Gollancz from Orwell threatening libel action brought a stop to this. Orwell was also able to find a more sympathetic publisher for his views in Frederic Warburg of Secker & Warburg. Orwell returned to Wallington, which he found in disarray after his absence. He acquired goats, a rooster he called \"Henry Ford\", and a poodle puppy he called \"Marx\" and settled down to animal husbandry and writing Homage to Catalonia.\n\nThere were thoughts of going to India to work on the Pioneer, a newspaper in Lucknow, but by March 1938 Orwell's health had deteriorated. He was admitted to Preston Hall Sanatorium at Aylesford, Kent, a British Legion hospital for ex-servicemen to which his brother-in-law Laurence O'Shaughnessy was attached. He was thought initially to be suffering from tuberculosis and stayed in the sanatorium until September. A stream of visitors came to see him including Common, Heppenstall, Plowman and Cyril Connolly. Connolly brought with him Stephen Spender, a cause of some embarrassment as Orwell had referred to Spender as a \"pansy friend\" some time earlier. Homage to Catalonia was published by Secker & Warburg and was a commercial flop. In the latter part of his stay at the clinic Orwell was able to go for walks in the countryside and study nature.\n\nThe novelist L. H. Myers secretly funded a trip to French Morocco for half a year for Orwell to avoid the English winter and recover his health. The Orwells set out in September 1938 via Gibraltar and Tangier to avoid Spanish Morocco and arrived at Marrakech. They rented a villa on the road to Casablanca and during that time Orwell wrote Coming Up for Air. They arrived back in England on 30 March 1939 and Coming Up for Air was published in June. Orwell spent time in Wallington and Southwold working on a Dickens essay and it was in July 1939 that Orwell's father, Richard Blair, died.\n\nSecond World War and Animal Farm\n\nAt the outbreak of the Second World War, Orwell's wife Eileen started working in the Censorship Department of the Ministry of Information in central London, staying during the week with her family in Greenwich. Orwell also submitted his name to the Central Register for war work, but nothing transpired. \"They won't have me in the army, at any rate at present, because of my lungs\", Orwell told Geoffrey Gorer. He returned to Wallington, and in late 1939 he wrote material for his first collection of essays, Inside the Whale. For the next year he was occupied writing reviews for plays, films and books for The Listener, Time and Tide and New Adelphi. On 29 March 1940 his long association with Tribune began with a review of a sergeant's account of Napoleon's retreat from Moscow. At the beginning of 1940, the first edition of Connolly's Horizon appeared, and this provided a new outlet for Orwell's work as well as new literary contacts. In May the Orwells took lease of a flat in London at Dorset Chambers, Chagford Street, Marylebone. It was the time of the Dunkirk evacuation and the death in France of Eileen's brother Lawrence caused her considerable grief and long-term depression. Throughout this period Orwell kept a wartime diary.\n\nOrwell was declared \"unfit for any kind of military service\" by the Medical Board in June, but soon afterwards found an opportunity to become involved in war activities by joining the Home Guard. He shared Tom Wintringham's socialist vision for the Home Guard as a revolutionary People's Militia. His lecture notes for instructing platoon members include advice on street fighting, field fortifications, and the use of mortars of various kinds. Sergeant Orwell managed to recruit Frederic Warburg to his unit. During the Battle of Britain he used to spend weekends with Warburg and his new Zionist friend, Tosco Fyvel, at Warburg's house at Twyford, Berkshire. At Wallington he worked on \"England Your England\" and in London wrote reviews for various periodicals. Visiting Eileen's family in Greenwich brought him face-to-face with the effects of the blitz on East London. In mid-1940, Warburg, Fyvel and Orwell planned Searchlight Books. Eleven volumes eventually appeared, of which Orwell's The Lion and the Unicorn: Socialism and the English Genius, published on 19 February 1941, was the first. \n\nEarly in 1941 he started writing for the American Partisan Review which linked Orwell with The New York Intellectuals, like him anti-Stalinist, but committed to staying on the Left, and contributed to Gollancz anthology The Betrayal of the Left, written in the light of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact (although Orwell referred to it as the Russo-German Pact and the Hitler-Stalin Pact ). He also applied unsuccessfully for a job at the Air Ministry. Meanwhile, he was still writing reviews of books and plays and at this time met the novelist Anthony Powell. He also took part in a few radio broadcasts for the Eastern Service of the BBC. In March the Orwells moved to a seventh-floor flat at Langford Court, St John's Wood, while at Wallington Orwell was \"digging for victory\" by planting potatoes.\n\nIn August 1941, Orwell finally obtained \"war work\" when he was taken on full-time by the BBC's Eastern Service. He supervised cultural broadcasts to India to counter propaganda from Nazi Germany designed to undermine Imperial links. This was Orwell's first experience of the rigid conformity of life in an office, and it gave him an opportunity to create cultural programmes with contributions from T. S. Eliot, Dylan Thomas, E. M. Forster, Ahmed Ali, Mulk Raj Anand, and William Empson among others.\n\nAt the end of August he had a dinner with H. G. Wells which degenerated into a row because Wells had taken offence at observations Orwell made about him in a Horizon article. In October Orwell had a bout of bronchitis and the illness recurred frequently. David Astor was looking for a provocative contributor for The Observer and invited Orwell to write for him—the first article appearing in March 1942. In early 1942 Eileen changed jobs to work at the Ministry of Food and in mid-1942 the Orwells moved to a larger flat, a ground floor and basement, 10a Mortimer Crescent in Maida Vale/Kilburn – \"the kind of lower-middle-class ambience that Orwell thought was London at its best.\" Around the same time Orwell's mother and sister Avril, who had found work in a sheet-metal factory behind Kings Cross Station, moved into a flat close to George and Eileen. \n\nAt the BBC, Orwell introduced Voice, a literary programme for his Indian broadcasts, and by now was leading an active social life with literary friends, particularly on the political left. Late in 1942, he started writing regularly for the left-wing weekly Tribune directed by Labour MPs Aneurin Bevan and George Strauss. In March 1943 Orwell's mother died and around the same time he told Moore he was starting work on a new book, which turned out to be Animal Farm.\n\nIn September 1943, Orwell resigned from the BBC post that he had occupied for two years. His resignation followed a report confirming his fears that few Indians listened to the broadcasts, but he was also keen to concentrate on writing Animal Farm. Just six days before his last day of service, on 24 November 1943, his adaptation of the fairy tale, Hans Christian Andersen's The Emperor's New Clothes was broadcast. It was a genre in which he was greatly interested and which appeared on Animal Farms title-page. At this time he also resigned from the Home Guard on medical grounds. \n\nIn November 1943, Orwell was appointed literary editor at Tribune, where his assistant was his old friend Jon Kimche. Orwell was on staff until early 1945, writing over 80 book reviews and on 3 December 1943 started his regular personal column, \"As I Please\", usually addressing three or four subjects in each. He was still writing reviews for other magazines, including Partisan Review, Horizon, and the New York Nation and becoming a respected pundit among left-wing circles but also a close friend of people on the right such as Powell, Astor and Malcolm Muggeridge. By April 1944 Animal Farm was ready for publication. Gollancz refused to publish it, considering it an attack on the Soviet regime which was a crucial ally in the war. A similar fate was met from other publishers (including T. S. Eliot at Faber and Faber) until Jonathan Cape agreed to take it.\n\nIn May the Orwells had the opportunity to adopt a child, thanks to the contacts of Eileen's sister Gwen O'Shaughnessy, then a doctor in Newcastle upon Tyne. In June a V-1 flying bomb struck Mortimer Crescent and the Orwells had to find somewhere else to live. Orwell had to scrabble around in the rubble for his collection of books, which he had finally managed to transfer from Wallington, carting them away in a wheelbarrow.\n\nAnother bombshell was Cape's reversal of his plan to publish Animal Farm. The decision followed his personal visit to Peter Smollett, an official at the Ministry of Information. Smollett was later identified as a Soviet agent. \n\nThe Orwells spent some time in the North East, near Carlton, County Durham, dealing with matters in the adoption of a boy whom they named Richard Horatio Blair. By September 1944 they had set up home in Islington, at 27b Canonbury Square. Baby Richard joined them there, and Eileen gave up her work at the Ministry of Food to look after her family. Secker and Warburg had agreed to publish Animal Farm, planned for the following March, although it did not appear in print until August 1945. By February 1945 David Astor had invited Orwell to become a war correspondent for the Observer. Orwell had been looking for the opportunity throughout the war, but his failed medical reports prevented him from being allowed anywhere near action. He went to Paris after the liberation of France and to Cologne once it had been occupied by the Allies.\n\nIt was while he was there that Eileen went into hospital for a hysterectomy and died under anaesthetic on 29 March 1945. She had not given Orwell much notice about this operation because of worries about the cost and because she expected to make a speedy recovery. Orwell returned home for a while and then went back to Europe. He returned finally to London to cover the 1945 general election at the beginning of July. Animal Farm: A Fairy Story was published in Britain on 17 August 1945, and a year later in the US, on 26 August 1946.\n\nJura and Nineteen Eighty-Four\n\nAnimal Farm struck a particular resonance in the post-war climate and its worldwide success made Orwell a sought-after figure.\n\nFor the next four years Orwell mixed journalistic work – mainly for Tribune, The Observer and the Manchester Evening News, though he also contributed to many small-circulation political and literary magazines – with writing his best-known work, Nineteen Eighty-Four, which was published in 1949.\n\nIn the year following Eileen's death he published around 130 articles and a selection of his Critical Essays, while remaining active in various political lobbying campaigns. He employed a housekeeper, Susan Watson, to look after his adopted son at the Islington flat, which visitors now described as \"bleak\". In September he spent a fortnight on the island of Jura in the Inner Hebrides and saw it as a place to escape from the hassle of London literary life. David Astor was instrumental in arranging a place for Orwell on Jura. Astor's family owned Scottish estates in the area and a fellow Old Etonian Robert Fletcher had a property on the island. In late 1945 and early 1946 Orwell made several hopeless and unwelcome marriage proposals to younger women, including Celia Kirwan (who was later to become Arthur Koestler's sister-in-law), Ann Popham who happened to live in the same block of flats and Sonia Brownell, one of Connolly's coterie at the Horizon office. Orwell suffered a tubercular haemorrhage in February 1946 but disguised his illness. In 1945 or early 1946, while still living at Canonbury Square, Orwell wrote an article on \"British Cookery\", complete with recipes, commissioned by the British Council. Given the post-war shortages, both parties agreed not to publish it. His sister Marjorie died of kidney disease in May and shortly after, on 22 May 1946, Orwell set off to live on the Isle of Jura.\n\nBarnhill was an abandoned farmhouse with outbuildings near the northern end of the island, situated at the end of a five-mile (8 km), heavily rutted track from Ardlussa, where the owners lived. Conditions at the farmhouse were primitive but the natural history and the challenge of improving the place appealed to Orwell. His sister Avril accompanied him there and young novelist Paul Potts made up the party. In July Susan Watson arrived with Orwell's son Richard. Tensions developed and Potts departed after one of his manuscripts was used to light the fire. Orwell meanwhile set to work on Nineteen Eighty-Four. Later Susan Watson's boyfriend David Holbrook arrived. A fan of Orwell since school days, he found the reality very different, with Orwell hostile and disagreeable probably because of Holbrook's membership of the Communist Party. Susan Watson could no longer stand being with Avril and she and her boyfriend left.\n\nOrwell returned to London in late 1946 and picked up his literary journalism again. Now a well-known writer, he was swamped with work. Apart from a visit to Jura in the new year he stayed in London for one of the coldest British winters on record and with such a national shortage of fuel that he burnt his furniture and his child's toys. The heavy smog in the days before the Clean Air Act 1956 did little to help his health about which he was reticent, keeping clear of medical attention. Meanwhile, he had to cope with rival claims of publishers Gollancz and Warburg for publishing rights. About this time he co-edited a collection titled British Pamphleteers with Reginald Reynolds. As a result of the success of Animal Farm, Orwell was expecting a large bill from the Inland Revenue and he contacted a firm of accountants of which the senior partner was Jack Harrison. The firm advised Orwell to establish a company to own his copyright and to receive his royalties and set up a \"service agreement\" so that he could draw a salary. Such a company \"George Orwell Productions Ltd\" (GOP Ltd) was set up on 12 September 1947 although the service agreement was not then put into effect. Jack Harrison left the details at this stage to junior colleagues.\n\nOrwell left London for Jura on 10 April 1947. In July he ended the lease on the Wallington cottage. Back on Jura he worked on Nineteen Eighty-Four and made good progress. During that time his sister's family visited, and Orwell led a disastrous boating expedition, on 19 August, which nearly led to loss of life whilst trying to cross the notorious gulf of Corryvreckan and gave him a soaking which was not good for his health. In December a chest specialist was summoned from Glasgow who pronounced Orwell seriously ill and a week before Christmas 1947 he was in Hairmyres Hospital in East Kilbride, then a small village in the countryside, on the outskirts of Glasgow. Tuberculosis was diagnosed and the request for permission to import streptomycin to treat Orwell went as far as Aneurin Bevan, then Minister of Health. David Astor helped with supply and payment and Orwell began his course of streptomycin on 19 or 20 February 1948. By the end of July 1948 Orwell was able to return to Jura and by December he had finished the manuscript of Nineteen Eighty-Four. In January 1949, in a very weak condition, he set off for a sanatorium at Cranham, Gloucestershire, escorted by Richard Rees.\n\nThe sanatorium at Cranham consisted of a series of small wooden chalets or huts in a remote part of the Cotswolds near Stroud. Visitors were shocked by Orwell's appearance and concerned by the short-comings and ineffectiveness of the treatment. Friends were worried about his finances, but by now he was comparatively well-off. He was writing to many of his friends, including Jacintha Buddicom, who had \"rediscovered\" him, and in March 1949, was visited by Celia Kirwan. Kirwan had just started working for a Foreign Office unit, the Information Research Department, set up by the Labour government to publish anti-communist propaganda, and Orwell gave her a list of people he considered to be unsuitable as IRD authors because of their pro-communist leanings. Orwell's list, not published until 2003, consisted mainly of writers but also included actors and Labour MPs. Orwell received more streptomycin treatment and improved slightly. In June 1949 Nineteen Eighty-Four was published to immediate critical and popular acclaim.\n\nFinal months and death\n\nOrwell's health had continued to decline since the diagnosis of tuberculosis in December 1947. In mid-1949, he courted Sonia Brownell, and they announced their engagement in September, shortly before he was removed to University College Hospital in London. Sonia took charge of Orwell's affairs and attended him diligently in the hospital, causing concern to some old friends such as Muggeridge. In September 1949, Orwell invited his accountant Harrison to visit him in hospital, and Harrison claimed that Orwell then asked him to become director of GOP Ltd and to manage the company, but there was no independent witness. Orwell's wedding took place in the hospital room on 13 October 1949, with David Astor as best man. Orwell was in decline and visited by an assortment of visitors including Muggeridge, Connolly, Lucian Freud, Stephen Spender, Evelyn Waugh, Paul Potts, Anthony Powell, and his Eton tutor Anthony Gow. Plans to go to the Swiss Alps were mooted. Further meetings were held with his accountant, at which Harrison and Mr and Mrs Blair were confirmed as directors of the company, and at which Harrison claimed that the \"service agreement\" was executed, giving copyright to the company. Orwell's health was in decline again by Christmas. On the evening of 20 January 1950, Potts visited Orwell and slipped away on finding him asleep. Jack Harrison visited later and claimed that Orwell gave him 25% of the company. Early on the morning of 21 January, an artery burst in Orwell's lungs, killing him at age 46.\n\nOrwell had requested to be buried in accordance with the Anglican rite in the graveyard of the closest church to wherever he happened to die. The graveyards in central London had no space, and fearing that he might have to be cremated against his wishes, his widow appealed to his friends to see whether any of them knew of a church with space in its graveyard.\n\nDavid Astor lived in Sutton Courtenay, Oxfordshire, and arranged for Orwell to be interred in All Saints' Churchyard there. Orwell's gravestone bears the simple epitaph: \"Here lies Eric Arthur Blair, born June 25th 1903, died January 21st 1950\"; no mention is made on the gravestone of his more famous pen name.\n\nOrwell's son, Richard Horatio Blair, was brought up by Orwell's sister Avril after his father's death. He maintains a public profile as patron of the Orwell Society. He gives interviews about the few memories he has of his father.\n\nIn 1979, Sonia Brownell brought a High Court action against Harrison, who had in the meantime transferred 75% of the company's voting stock to himself and had dissipated much of the value of the company. She was considered to have a strong case, but was becoming increasingly ill and eventually was persuaded to settle out of court on 2 November 1980. She died on 11 December 1980, aged 62.\n\nLiterary career and legacy\n\nDuring most of his career, Orwell was best known for his journalism, in essays, reviews, columns in newspapers and magazines and in his books of reportage: Down and Out in Paris and London (describing a period of poverty in these cities), The Road to Wigan Pier (describing the living conditions of the poor in northern England, and class division generally) and Homage to Catalonia. According to Irving Howe, Orwell was \"the best English essayist since Hazlitt, perhaps since Dr Johnson.\" \n\nModern readers are more often introduced to Orwell as a novelist, particularly through his enormously successful titles Animal Farm and Nineteen Eighty-Four. The former is often thought to reflect degeneration in the Soviet Union after the Russian Revolution and the rise of Stalinism; the latter, life under totalitarian rule. Nineteen Eighty-Four is often compared to Brave New World by Aldous Huxley; both are powerful dystopian novels warning of a future world where the state machine exerts complete control over social life. In 1984, Nineteen Eighty-Four and Ray Bradbury's Fahrenheit 451 were honoured with the Prometheus Award for their contributions to dystopian literature. In 2011 he received it again for Animal Farm.\n\nComing Up for Air, his last novel before World War II is the most \"English\" of his novels; alarms of war mingle with images of idyllic Thames-side Edwardian childhood of protagonist George Bowling. The novel is pessimistic; industrialism and capitalism have killed the best of Old England, and there were great, new external threats. In homely terms, Bowling posits the totalitarian hypotheses of Borkenau, Orwell, Silone and Koestler: \"Old Hitler's something different. So's Joe Stalin. They aren't like these chaps in the old days who crucified people and chopped their heads off and so forth, just for the fun of it ... They're something quite new—something that's never been heard of before\".\n\nLiterary influences\n\nIn an autobiographical piece that Orwell sent to the editors of Twentieth Century Authors in 1940, he wrote: \"The writers I care about most and never grow tired of are: Shakespeare, Swift, Fielding, Dickens, Charles Reade, Flaubert and, among modern writers, James Joyce, T. S. Eliot and D. H. Lawrence. But I believe the modern writer who has influenced me most is Somerset Maugham, whom I admire immensely for his power of telling a story straightforwardly and without frills.\" Elsewhere, Orwell strongly praised the works of Jack London, especially his book The Road. Orwell's investigation of poverty in The Road to Wigan Pier strongly resembles that of Jack London's The People of the Abyss, in which the American journalist disguises himself as an out-of-work sailor to investigate the lives of the poor in London. In his essay \"Politics vs. Literature: An Examination of Gulliver's Travels\" (1946) Orwell wrote: \"If I had to make a list of six books which were to be preserved when all others were destroyed, I would certainly put Gulliver's Travels among them.\"\n\nOther writers admired by Orwell included: Ralph Waldo Emerson, George Gissing, Graham Greene, Herman Melville, Henry Miller, Tobias Smollett, Mark Twain, Joseph Conrad and Yevgeny Zamyatin. He was both an admirer and a critic of Rudyard Kipling, praising Kipling as a gifted writer and a \"good bad poet\" whose work is \"spurious\" and \"morally insensitive and aesthetically disgusting,\" but undeniably seductive and able to speak to certain aspects of reality more effectively than more enlightened authors. He had a similarly ambivalent attitude to G. K. Chesterton, whom he regarded as a writer of considerable talent who had chosen to devote himself to \"Roman Catholic propaganda\". \n\nOrwell as literary critic\n\nThroughout his life Orwell continually supported himself as a book reviewer, writing works so long and sophisticated they have had an influence on literary criticism. He wrote in the conclusion to his 1940 essay on Charles Dickens,\n\nGeorge Woodcock suggested that the last two sentences characterised Orwell as much as his subject. \n\nOrwell wrote a critique of George Bernard Shaw's play Arms and the Man. He considered this Shaw's best play and the most likely to remain socially relevant, because of its theme that war is not, generally speaking, a glorious romantic adventure. His 1945 essay In Defense of P.G. Wodehouse contains an amusing assessment of his writing and also argues that his broadcasts from Germany (during the war) did not really make him a traitor. He accused The Ministry of Information of exaggerating Wodehouse's actions for propaganda purposes.\n\nReception and evaluations of Orwell's works\n\nArthur Koestler mentioned Orwell's \"uncompromising intellectual honesty [which] made him appear almost inhuman at times.\" Ben Wattenberg stated: \"Orwell's writing pierced intellectual hypocrisy wherever he found it.\" According to historian Piers Brendon, \"Orwell was the saint of common decency who would in earlier days, said his BBC boss Rushbrook Williams, 'have been either canonised – or burnt at the stake'\". Raymond Williams in Politics and Letters: Interviews with New Left Review describes Orwell as a \"successful impersonation of a plain man who bumps into experience in an unmediated way and tells the truth about it.\" Christopher Norris declared that Orwell's \"homespun empiricist outlook – his assumption that the truth was just there to be told in a straightforward common-sense way – now seems not merely naive but culpably self-deluding\". The American scholar Scott Lucas has described Orwell as an enemy of the Left. John Newsinger has argued that Lucas could only do this by portraying \"all of Orwell's attacks on Stalinism [-] as if they were attacks on socialism, despite Orwell's continued insistence that they were not.\"\n\nOrwell's work has taken a prominent place in the school literature curriculum in England, with Animal Farm a regular examination topic at the end of secondary education (GCSE), and Nineteen Eighty-Four a topic for subsequent examinations below university level (A Levels). Alan Brown noted that this brings to the forefront questions about the political content of teaching practices. Study aids, in particular with potted biographies, might be seen to help propagate the Orwell myth so that as an embodiment of human values he is presented as a \"trustworthy guide\", while examination questions sometimes suggest a \"right ways of answering\" in line with the myth. \n\nHistorian John Rodden stated: \"John Podhoretz did claim that if Orwell were alive today, he'd be standing with the neo-conservatives and against the Left. And the question arises, to what extent can you even begin to predict the political positions of somebody who's been dead three decades and more by that time?\"\n\nIn Orwell's Victory, Christopher Hitchens argues, \"In answer to the accusation of inconsistency Orwell as a writer was forever taking his own temperature. In other words, here was someone who never stopped testing and adjusting his intelligence\". \n\nJohn Rodden points out the \"undeniable conservative features in the Orwell physiognomy\" and remarks on how \"to some extent Orwell facilitated the kinds of uses and abuses by the Right that his name has been put to. In other ways there has been the politics of selective quotation.\" Rodden refers to the essay \"Why I Write\", in which Orwell refers to the Spanish Civil War as being his \"watershed political experience\", saying \"The Spanish War and other events in 1936–37, turned the scale. Thereafter I knew where I stood. Every line of serious work that I have written since 1936 has been written directly or indirectly against totalitarianism and for Democratic Socialism as I understand it.\" (emphasis in original) Rodden goes on to explain how, during the McCarthy era, the introduction to the Signet edition of Animal Farm, which sold more than 20 million copies, makes use of \"the politics of ellipsis\":\n\nIf the book itself, Animal Farm, had left any doubt of the matter, Orwell dispelled it in his essay Why I Write: 'Every line of serious work that I've written since 1936 has been written directly or indirectly against Totalitarianism ... dot, dot, dot, dot.' \"For Democratic Socialism\" is vaporised, just like Winston Smith did it at the Ministry of Truth, and that's very much what happened at the beginning of the McCarthy era and just continued, Orwell being selectively quoted.\n\nFyvel wrote about Orwell: \"His crucial experience ... was his struggle to turn himself into a writer, one which led through long periods of poverty, failure and humiliation, and about which he has written almost nothing directly. The sweat and agony was less in the slum-life than in the effort to turn the experience into literature.\" \n\nIn October 2015 Finlay Publisher, for the Orwell Society, published George Orwell 'The Complete Poetry, compiled and presented by Dione Venables. \n\nInfluence on language and writing\n\nIn his essay Politics and the English Language (1946), Orwell wrote about the importance of precise and clear language, arguing that vague writing can be used as a powerful tool of political manipulation because it shapes the way we think. In that essay, Orwell provides six rules for writers:\n\n* Never use a metaphor, simile or other figure of speech which you are used to seeing in print.\n* Never use a long word where a short one will do.\n* If it is possible to cut a word out, always cut it out.\n* Never use the passive where you can use the active.\n* Never use a foreign phrase, a scientific word or a jargon word if you can think of an everyday English equivalent.\n* Break any of these rules sooner than say anything outright barbarous. \nAndrew N. Rubin argues, \"Orwell claimed that we should be attentive to how the use of language has limited our capacity for critical thought just as we should be equally concerned with the ways in which dominant modes of thinking have reshaped the very language that we use.\" \n\nThe adjective Orwellian connotes an attitude and a policy of control by propaganda, surveillance, misinformation, denial of truth, and manipulation of the past. In Nineteen Eighty-Four Orwell described a totalitarian government that controlled thought by controlling language, making certain ideas literally unthinkable. Several words and phrases from Nineteen Eighty-Four have entered popular language. Newspeak is a simplified and obfuscatory language designed to make independent thought impossible. Doublethink means holding two contradictory beliefs simultaneously. The Thought Police are those who suppress all dissenting opinion. Prolefeed is homogenised, manufactured superficial literature, film and music, used to control and indoctrinate the populace through docility. Big Brother is a supreme dictator who watches everyone.\n\nOrwell may have been the first to use the term cold war to refer to the state of tension between powers in the Western Bloc and the Eastern Bloc that followed the Second World War, in his essay, \"You and the Atom Bomb\", published in Tribune, 19 October 1945. He wrote:\nWe may be heading not for general breakdown but for an epoch as horribly stable as the slave empires of antiquity. James Burnham's theory has been much discussed, but few people have yet considered its ideological implications;— this is, the kind of world-view, the kind of beliefs, and the social structure that would probably prevail in a State which was at once unconquerable and in a permanent state of 'cold war' with its neighbours. \n\nMuseum\n\nIn 2014 it was announced that Orwell's birthplace, a bungalow in Motihari, Bihar, in India would become the world's first Orwell museum. \n\nPersonal life\n\nChildhood\n\nJacintha Buddicom's account Eric & Us provides an insight into Blair's childhood.Jacintha Buddicom Eric & Us Frewin 1974. She quoted his sister Avril that \"he was essentially an aloof, undemonstrative person\" and said herself of his friendship with the Buddicoms \"I do not think he needed any other friends beyond the schoolfriend he occasionally and appreciatively referred to as 'CC'\". She could not recall his having schoolfriends to stay and exchange visits as her brother Prosper often did in holidays. Cyril Connolly provides an account of Blair as a child in Enemies of Promise.\nYears later, Blair mordantly recalled his prep school in the essay \"Such, Such Were the Joys\", claiming among other things that he \"was made to study like a dog\" to earn a scholarship, which he alleged was solely to enhance the school's prestige with parents. Jacintha Buddicom repudiated Orwell's schoolboy misery described in the essay, stating that \"he was a specially happy child\". She noted that he did not like his name, because it reminded him of a book he greatly disliked – Eric, or, Little by Little, a Victorian boys' school story. \n\nConnolly remarked of him as a schoolboy, \"The remarkable thing about Orwell was that alone among the boys he was an intellectual and not a parrot for he thought for himself\". At Eton, John Vaughan Wilkes, his former headmaster's son recalled, \"... he was extremely argumentative—about anything—and criticising the masters and criticising the other boys ... We enjoyed arguing with him. He would generally win the arguments—or think he had anyhow.\" Roger Mynors concurs: \"Endless arguments about all sorts of things, in which he was one of the great leaders. He was one of those boys who thought for himself ...\"Roger Mynors in Stephen Wadhams Remembering Orwell Penguin Books 1984.\n\nBlair liked to carry out practical jokes. Buddicom recalls him swinging from the luggage rack in a railway carriage like an orangutan to frighten a woman passenger out of the compartment. At Eton he played tricks on John Crace, his Master in College, among which was to enter a spoof advertisement in a College magazine implying pederasty. Gow, his tutor, said he \"made himself as big a nuisance as he could\" and \"was a very unattractive boy\". Later Blair was expelled from the crammer at Southwold for sending a dead rat as a birthday present to the town surveyor. In one of his As I Please essays he refers to a protracted joke when he answered an advertisement for a woman who claimed a cure for obesity. \n\nBlair had an interest in natural history which stemmed from his childhood. In letters from school he wrote about caterpillars and butterflies, and Buddicom recalls his keen interest in ornithology. He also enjoyed fishing and shooting rabbits, and conducting experiments as in cooking a hedgehog or shooting down a jackdaw from the Eton roof to dissect it. His zeal for scientific experiments extended to explosives—again Buddicom recalls a cook giving notice because of the noise. Later in Southwold his sister Avril recalled him blowing up the garden. When teaching he enthused his students with his nature-rambles both at Southwold and Hayes. His adult diaries are permeated with his observations on nature.\n\nRelationships and marriage\n\nBuddicom and Blair lost touch shortly after he went to Burma, and she became unsympathetic towards him. She wrote that it was because of the letters he wrote complaining about his life, but an addendum to Eric & Us by Venables reveals that he may have lost her sympathy through an incident which was, at best, a clumsy attempt at seduction.\n\nMabel Fierz, who later became Blair's confidante, said: \"He used to say the one thing he wished in this world was that he'd been attractive to women. He liked women and had many girlfriends I think in Burma. He had a girl in Southwold and another girl in London. He was rather a womaniser, yet he was afraid he wasn't attractive.\"Stephen Wadhams Remembering Orwell Penguin Books 1984\n\nBrenda Salkield (Southwold) preferred friendship to any deeper relationship and maintained a correspondence with Blair for many years, particularly as a sounding board for his ideas. She wrote: \"He was a great letter writer. Endless letters, and I mean when he wrote you a letter he wrote pages.\" His correspondence with Eleanor Jacques (London) was more prosaic, dwelling on a closer relationship and referring to past rendezvous or planning future ones in London and Burnham Beeches. \n\nWhen Orwell was in the sanatorium in Kent, his wife's friend Lydia Jackson visited. He invited her for a walk and out of sight \"an awkward situation arose.\" Jackson was to be the most critical of Orwell's marriage to Eileen O'Shaughnessy, but their later correspondence hints at a complicity. Eileen at the time was more concerned about Orwell's closeness to Brenda Salkield. Orwell had an affair with his secretary at Tribune which caused Eileen much distress, and others have been mooted. In a letter to Ann Popham he wrote: \"I was sometimes unfaithful to Eileen, and I also treated her badly, and I think she treated me badly, too, at times, but it was a real marriage, in the sense that we had been through awful struggles together and she understood all about my work, etc.\" Similarly he suggested to Celia Kirwan that they had both been unfaithful. There are several testaments that it was a well-matched and happy marriage.Henry Dakin in Stephen Wadhams Remembering OrwellPatrica Donahue in Stephen Wadhams Remembering Orwell \n\nBlair was very lonely after Eileen's death, and desperate for a wife, both as companion for himself and as mother for Richard. He proposed marriage to four women, including Celia Kirwan, and eventually Sonia Brownell accepted. Orwell had met her when she was assistant to Cyril Connolly, at Horizon literary magazine. They were married on 13 October 1949, only three months before Orwell's death. Some maintain that Sonia was the model for Julia in Nineteen Eighty-Four.\n\nReligious views\n\nOrwell was a communicant member of the Church of England, he attended holy communion regularly, and allusions to Anglican life are made in his book A Clergyman's Daughter. Mulk Raj Anand has said that, at the BBC, Orwell could, and would, quote lengthy passages from the Book of Common Prayer. At the same time he found the church to be a \"selfish ... church of the landed gentry\" with its establishment \"out of touch\" with the majority of its communicants and altogether a pernicious influence on public life. Moreover, Orwell expressed some scepticism about religion: \"It seems rather mean to go to HC [Holy Communion] when one doesn't believe, but I have passed myself off for pious & there is nothing for it but to keep up with the deception.\" Yet, he was married according to the rites of the Church of England in both his first marriage at the church at Wallington, and in his second marriage on his deathbed in University College Hospital, and he left instructions that he was to receive an Anglican funeral. \n\nIn their 1972 study, The Unknown Orwell, the writers Peter Stansky and William Abrahams noted that at Eton Blair displayed a \"sceptical attitude\" to Christian belief. Crick observed that Orwell displayed \"a pronounced anti-Catholicism\". Evelyn Waugh, writing in 1946, acknowledged Orwell's high moral sense and respect for justice but believed \"he seems never to have been touched at any point by a conception of religious thought and life.\" \n\nThe ambiguity in his belief in religion mirrored the dichotomies between his public and private lives: Stephen Ingle wrote that it was as if the writer George Orwell \"vaunted\" his unbelief while Eric Blair the individual retained \"a deeply ingrained religiosity\". Ingle later noted that Orwell did not accept the existence of an afterlife, believing in the finality of death while living and advocating a moral code based on Judeo-Christian beliefs. Orwell wrote in part V of his essay, \"Such, Such Were the Joys\": \"Till about the age of fourteen I believed in God, and believed that the accounts given of him were true. But I was well aware that I did not love him.\" \n\nPolitical views\n\nOrwell liked to provoke arguments by challenging the status quo, but he was also a traditionalist with a love of old English values. He criticised and satirised, from the inside, the various social milieux in which he found himself – provincial town life in A Clergyman's Daughter; middle-class pretension in Keep the Aspidistra Flying; preparatory schools in \"Such, Such Were the Joys\"; colonialism in Burmese Days, and some socialist groups in The Road to Wigan Pier. In his Adelphi days he described himself as a \"Tory-anarchist.\" \n\nIn 1928, Orwell began his career as a professional writer in Paris at a journal owned by the French Communist Henri Barbusse. His first article, \"La Censure en Angleterre\", was an attempt to account for the 'extraordinary and illogical' moral censorship of plays and novels then practised in Britain. His own explanation was that the rise of the \"puritan middle class,\" who had stricter morals than the aristocracy, tightened the rules of censorship in the 19th century. Orwell's first published article in his home country, \"A Farthing Newspaper\", was a critique of the new French daily the Ami de Peuple. This paper was sold much more cheaply than most others, and was intended for ordinary people to read. Orwell pointed out that its proprietor François Coty also owned the right-wing dailies Le Figaro and Le Gaulois, which the Ami de Peuple was supposedly competing against. Orwell suggested that cheap newspapers were no more than a vehicle for advertising and anti-leftist propaganda, and predicted the world might soon see free newspapers which would drive legitimate dailies out of business. \n\nThe Spanish Civil War played the most important part in defining Orwell's socialism. He wrote to Cyril Connolly from Barcelona on 8 June 1937: \"I have seen wonderful things and at last really believe in Socialism, which I never did before.\" Having witnessed the success of the anarcho-syndicalist communities, for example in Anarchist Catalonia, and the subsequent brutal suppression of the anarcho-syndicalists, anti-Stalin communist parties and revolutionaries by the Soviet Union-backed Communists, Orwell returned from Catalonia a staunch anti-Stalinist and joined the Independent Labour Party, his card being issued on 13 June 1938. Although he was never a Trotskyist, he was strongly influenced by the Trotskyist and anarchist critiques of the Soviet regime, and by the anarchists' emphasis on individual freedom. In Part 2 of The Road to Wigan Pier, published by the Left Book Club, Orwell stated: \"a real Socialist is one who wishes – not merely conceives it as desirable, but actively wishes – to see tyranny overthrown.\" Orwell stated in \"Why I Write\" (1946): \"Every line of serious work that I have written since 1936 has been written, directly or indirectly, against totalitarianism and for democratic socialism, as I understand it.\" Orwell was a proponent of a federal socialist Europe, a position outlined in his 1947 essay \"Toward European Unity,\" which first appeared in Partisan Review. According to biographer John Newsinger,\n\nIn his 1938 essay \"Why I joined the Independent Labour Party,\" published in the ILP-affiliated New Leader, Orwell wrote:\n\nTowards the end of the essay, he wrote: \"I do not mean I have lost all faith in the Labour Party. My most earnest hope is that the Labour Party will win a clear majority in the next General Election.\" \n\nOrwell was opposed to rearmament against Nazi Germany—but he changed his view after the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact and the outbreak of the war. He left the ILP because of its opposition to the war and adopted a political position of \"revolutionary patriotism\". In December 1940 he wrote in Tribune (the Labour left's weekly): \"We are in a strange period of history in which a revolutionary has to be a patriot and a patriot has to be a revolutionary.\" During the war, Orwell was highly critical of the popular idea that an Anglo-Soviet alliance would be the basis of a post-war world of peace and prosperity. In 1942, commenting on journalist E. H. Carr's pro-Soviet views, Orwell stated: \"all the appeasers, e.g. Professor E. H. Carr, have switched their allegiance from Hitler to Stalin.\" \n\nOn anarchism, Orwell wrote in The Road to Wigan Pier: \"I worked out an anarchistic theory that all government is evil, that the punishment always does more harm than the crime and the people can be trusted to behave decently if you will only let them alone.\" He continued and argued that \"it is always necessary to protect peaceful people from violence. In any state of society where crime can be profitable you have got to have a harsh criminal law and administer it ruthlessly.\"\n\nIn his reply (dated 15 November 1943) to an invitation from the Duchess of Atholl to speak for the British League for European Freedom, he stated that he did not agree with their objectives. He admitted that what they said was \"more truthful than the lying propaganda found in most of the press\" but added that he could not \"associate himself with an essentially Conservative body\" that claimed to \"defend democracy in Europe\" but had \"nothing to say about British imperialism.\" His closing paragraph stated: \"I belong to the Left and must work inside it, much as I hate Russian totalitarianism and its poisonous influence in this country.\" \n\nOrwell joined the staff of Tribune as literary editor, and from then until his death, was a left-wing (though hardly orthodox) Labour-supporting democratic socialist. On 1 September 1944, about the Warsaw uprising, Orwell expressed in Tribune his hostility against the influence of the alliance with the USSR over the allies: \"Do remember that dishonesty and cowardice always have to be paid for. Do not imagine that for years on end you can make yourself the boot-licking propagandist of the sovietic regime, or any other regime, and then suddenly return to honesty and reason. Once a whore, always a whore.\" According to Newsinger, although Orwell \"was always critical of the 1945–51 Labour government's moderation, his support for it began to pull him to the right politically. This did not lead him to embrace conservatism, imperialism or reaction, but to defend, albeit critically, Labour reformism.\" Between 1945 and 1947, with A. J. Ayer and Bertrand Russell, he contributed a series of articles and essays to Polemic, a short-lived British \"Magazine of Philosophy, Psychology, and Aesthetics\" edited by the ex-Communist Humphrey Slater. \n\nWriting in early 1945 a long essay titled \"Antisemitism in Britain,\" for the Contemporary Jewish Record, Orwell stated that anti-Semitism was on the increase in Britain, and that it was \"irrational and will not yield to arguments.\" He argued that it would be useful to discover why anti-Semites could \"swallow such absurdities on one particular subject while remaining sane on others.\" He wrote: \"For quite six years the English admirers of Hitler contrived not to learn of the existence of Dachau and Buchenwald. ... Many English people have heard almost nothing about the extermination of German and Polish Jews during the present war. Their own anti-Semitism has caused this vast crime to bounce off their consciousness.\" In Nineteen Eighty-Four, written shortly after the war, Orwell portrayed the Party as enlisting anti-Semitic passions against their enemy, Goldstein.\n\nOrwell publicly defended P.G. Wodehouse against charges of being a Nazi sympathiser – occasioned by his agreement to do some broadcasts over the German radio in 1941 – a defence based on Wodehouse's lack of interest in and ignorance of politics. \n\nSpecial Branch, the intelligence division of the Metropolitan Police, maintained a file on Orwell for more than 20 years of his life. The dossier, published by The National Archives, states that, according to one investigator, Orwell had \"advanced Communist views and several of his Indian friends say that they have often seen him at Communist meetings.\" MI5, the intelligence department of the Home Office, noted: \"It is evident from his recent writings – 'The Lion and the Unicorn' – and his contribution to Gollancz's symposium The Betrayal of the Left that he does not hold with the Communist Party nor they with him.\" \n\nSocial interactions\n\nOrwell was noted for very close and enduring friendships with a few friends, but these were generally people with a similar background or with a similar level of literary ability. Ungregarious, he was out of place in a crowd and his discomfort was exacerbated when he was outside his own class. Though representing himself as a spokesman for the common man, he often appeared out of place with real working people. His brother-in-law Humphrey Dakin, a \"Hail fellow, well met\" type, who took him to a local pub in Leeds, said that he was told by the landlord: \"Don't bring that bugger in here again.\" Adrian Fierz commented \"He wasn't interested in racing or greyhounds or pub crawling or shove ha'penny. He just did not have much in common with people who did not share his intellectual interests.\" Awkwardness attended many of his encounters with working-class representatives, as with Pollitt and McNair, but his courtesy and good manners were often commented on. Jack Common observed on meeting him for the first time, \"Right away manners, and more than manners—breeding—showed through.\" \n\nIn his tramping days, he did domestic work for a time. His extreme politeness was recalled by a member of the family he worked for; she declared that the family referred to him as \"Laurel\" after the film comedian. With his gangling figure and awkwardness, Orwell's friends often saw him as a figure of fun. Geoffrey Gorer commented \"He was awfully likely to knock things off tables, trip over things. I mean, he was a gangling, physically badly co-ordinated young man. I think his feeling [was] that even the inanimate world was against him ...\" When he shared a flat with Heppenstall and Sayer, he was treated in a patronising manner by the younger men. At the BBC, in the 1940s, \"everybody would pull his leg,\"Sunday Wilshin in Stephen Wadhams Remembering Orwell Penguin Books 1984 and Spender described him as having real entertainment value \"like, as I say, watching a Charlie Chaplin movie.\" A friend of Eileen's reminisced about her tolerance and humour, often at Orwell's expense. Psychiatrist Michael Fitzgerald has speculated that Orwell's social awkwardness and monotone voice were the result of Asperger syndrome. \n\nOne biography of Orwell accused him of having had an authoritarian streak. In Burma, he struck out at a Burmese boy who, while \"fooling around\" with his friends, had \"accidentally bumped into him\" at a station, resulting in Orwell falling \"heavily\" down some stairs. One of his former pupils recalled being beaten so hard he could not sit down for a week. When sharing a flat with Orwell, Heppenstall came home late one night in an advanced stage of loud inebriation. The upshot was that Heppenstall ended up with a bloody nose and was locked in a room. When he complained, Orwell hit him across the legs with a shooting stick and Heppenstall then had to defend himself with a chair. Years later, after Orwell's death, Heppenstall wrote a dramatic account of the incident called \"The Shooting Stick\" and Mabel Fierz confirmed that Heppenstall came to her in a sorry state the following day. \n\nOrwell got on well with young people. The pupil he beat considered him the best of teachers, and the young recruits in Barcelona tried to drink him under the table—though without success. His nephew recalled Uncle Eric laughing louder than anyone in the cinema at a Charlie Chaplin film.\n\nIn the wake of his most famous works, he attracted many uncritical hangers-on, but many others who sought him found him aloof and even dull. With his soft voice, he was sometimes shouted down or excluded from discussions. At this time, he was severely ill; it was wartime or the austerity period after it; during the war his wife suffered from depression; and after her death he was lonely and unhappy. In addition to that, he always lived frugally and seemed unable to care for himself properly. As a result of all this, people found his circumstances bleak. Some, like Michael Ayrton, called him \"Gloomy George,\" but others developed the idea that he was a \"secular saint.\"\n\nAlthough Orwell was frequently heard on the BBC for panel discussion and one-man broadcasts, no recorded copy of his voice is known to exist. \n\nLifestyle\n\nOrwell was a heavy smoker, rolling his own cigarettes from strong shag tobacco, in spite of his bronchial condition. His penchant for the rugged life often took him to cold and damp situations, both in the long term as in Catalonia and Jura, and short term, for example, motorcycling in the rain and suffering a shipwreck. Described by The Economist as \"perhaps the 20th century's best chronicler of English culture\", he enjoyed strong tea—he had Fortnum & Mason's tea brought to him in Catalonia. His 1946 essay \"A Nice Cup of Tea\" appeared in the London Evening Standard on how to make tea, with Orwell writing, \"tea is one of the mainstays of civilisation in this country and causes violent disputes over how it should be made\", with the main issue being whether to put tea in the cup first and add the milk after, or the other way round, on which he states, \"in every family in Britain there are probably two schools of thought on the subject\". He appreciated English beer, taken regularly and moderately, despised drinkers of lager and wrote about an imagined, ideal British pub in his 1946 newspaper article \"The Moon Under Water\". Not as particular about food, he enjoyed the wartime \"Victory Pie\" extolled canteen food at the BBC, and once ate the cat's dinner by mistake. He preferred traditional English dishes, such as roast beef and kippers. Reports of his Islington days refer to the cosy afternoon tea table. \n\nHis dress sense was unpredictable and usually casual. In Southwold he had the best cloth from the local tailor, but was equally happy in his tramping outfit. His attire in the Spanish Civil War, along with his size-12 boots, was a source of amusement. David Astor described him as looking like a prep school master, while according to the Special Branch dossier, Orwell's tendency to dress \"in Bohemian fashion\" revealed that the author was \"a Communist\". \n\nOrwell's confusing approach to matters of social decorum—on the one hand expecting a working-class guest to dress for dinner, and on the other, slurping tea out of a saucer at the BBC canteen —helped stoke his reputation as an English eccentric.\n\nViews on homosexuality\n\nOrwell was openly homophobic, at a time when such prejudice was not uncommon. Speaking at the 2003 George Orwell Centenary Conference, Daphne Patai said: \"Of course he was homophobic. That has nothing to do with his relations with his homosexual friends. Certainly he had a negative attitude and a certain kind of anxiety, a denigrating attitude towards homosexuality. That is definitely the case. I think his writing reflects that quite fully.\" \n\nOrwell used the homophobic epithets \"Nancy\" and \"pansy\" as terms of abuse, notably in his expressions of contempt for what he called the \"pansy Left\", and \"nancy poets\", i.e. left-wing homosexual or bisexual writers and intellectuals such as Stephen Spender and W. H. Auden. The protagonist of Keep the Aspidistra Flying, Gordon Comstock, conducts an internal critique of his customers when working in a bookshop, and there is an extended passage of several pages in which he concentrates on a homosexual male customer, and sneers at him for his \"Nancy\" characteristics, including a lisp, which he identifies in detail, with some disgust. Dr Thomas S Veale, in The Banality of Virtue: A Multifaceted view of George Orwell as champion of the common man, refers to Orwell's \"homophobia most probably based on the perceived weakness of homosexuals and their preferences' betrayal of the natural order\". Stephen Spender, however, \"thought Orwell's occasional homophobic outbursts were part of his rebellion against the public school\". \n\nBiographies of Orwell\n\nOrwell's will requested that no biography of him be written, and his widow Sonia Brownell repelled every attempt by those who tried to persuade her to let them write about him. Various recollections and interpretations were published in the 1950s and '60s, but Sonia saw the 1968 Collected Works as the record of his life. She did appoint Malcolm Muggeridge as official biographer, but later biographers have seen this as deliberate spoiling as Muggeridge eventually gave up the work.D. J. Taylor Orwell: The Life. Henry Holt and Company. 2003. ISBN 0-8050-7473-2 In 1972, two American authors, Peter Stansky and William Abrahams, produced The Unknown Orwell, an unauthorised account of his early years that lacked any support or contribution from Sonia Brownell.\n\nSonia Brownell then commissioned Bernard Crick, a left-wing professor of politics at the University of London, to complete a biography and asked Orwell's friends to co-operate. Crick collated a considerable amount of material in his work, which was published in 1980, but his questioning of the factual accuracy of Orwell's first-person writings led to conflict with Brownell, and she tried to suppress the book. Crick concentrated on the facts of Orwell's life rather than his character, and presented primarily a political perspective on Orwell's life and work. \n\nAfter Sonia Brownell's death, other works on Orwell were published in the 1980s, with 1984 being a particularly fruitful year for Orwelliana. These included collections of reminiscences by Coppard and Crick and Stephen Wadhams.\n\nIn 1991, Michael Shelden, an American professor of literature, published a biography. More concerned with the literary nature of Orwell's work, he sought explanations for Orwell's character and treated his first-person writings as autobiographical. Shelden introduced new information that sought to build on Crick's work. Shelden speculated that Orwell possessed an obsessive belief in his failure and inadequacy.\n\nPeter Davison's publication of the Complete Works of George Orwell, completed in 2000, put most of the Orwell Archive in the public domain. Jeffrey Meyers, a prolific American biographer, was first to take advantage of this and published a book in 2001 that investigated the darker side of Orwell and questioned his saintly image. Why Orwell Matters (released in the UK as Orwell's Victory) was published by Christopher Hitchens in 2002. \n\nIn 2003, the centenary of Orwell's birth resulted in biographies by Gordon Bowker and D. J. Taylor, both academics and writers in the United Kingdom. Taylor notes the stage management which surrounds much of Orwell's behaviour, and Bowker highlights the essential sense of decency which he considers to have been Orwell's main motivation. \n\nAncestry\n\nBibliography\n\nNovels\n\n* 1934 – Burmese Days\n* 1935 – A Clergyman's Daughter\n* 1936 – Keep the Aspidistra Flying\n* 1939 – Coming Up for Air\n* 1945 – Animal Farm\n* 1949 – Nineteen Eighty-Four\n\nNonfiction\n\n* 1933 – Down and Out in Paris and London\n* 1937 – The Road to Wigan Pier\n* 1938 – Homage to Catalonia\n\nNotes", "Animal Farm is an allegorical and dystopian novella by George Orwell, first published in England on 17 August 1945. According to Orwell, the book reflects events leading up to the Russian Revolution of 1917 and then on into the Stalinist era of the Soviet Union. Orwell, a democratic socialist, was a critic of Joseph Stalin and hostile to Moscow-directed Stalinism, an attitude that was critically shaped by his experiences during the Spanish Civil War. The Soviet Union, he believed, had become a brutal dictatorship, built upon a cult of personality and enforced by a reign of terror. In a letter to Yvonne Davet, Orwell described Animal Farm as a satirical tale against Stalin (\"un conte satirique contre Staline\"), and in his essay \"Why I Write\" (1946), wrote that Animal Farm was the first book in which he tried, with full consciousness of what he was doing, \"to fuse political purpose and artistic purpose into one whole\".\n\nThe original title was Animal Farm: A Fairy Story; U.S. publishers dropped the subtitle when it was published in 1946, and only one of the translations during Orwell's lifetime kept it. Other titular variations include subtitles like \"A Satire\" and \"A Contemporary Satire\". Orwell suggested the title Union des républiques socialistes animales for the French translation, which abbreviates to URSA, the Latin for \"bear\", a symbol of Russia, which also played on the French name of the Soviet Union, Union des républiques socialistes soviétiques.\n\nOrwell wrote the book between November 1943 and February 1944, when the UK was in its wartime alliance with the Soviet Union and the British people and intelligentsia held Stalin in high esteem, a phenomenon Orwell hated. The manuscript was initially rejected by a number of British and American publishers, including one of Orwell's own, Victor Gollancz, which delayed its publication. It became a great commercial success when it did appear partly because international relations were transformed as the wartime alliance gave way to the Cold War. \n\nTime magazine chose the book as one of the 100 best English-language novels (1923 to 2005); it also featured at number 31 on the Modern Library List of Best 20th-Century Novels. It won a Retrospective Hugo Award in 1996, and is also included in the Great Books of the Western World selection.\n\nPlot summary\n\nOld Major, the old boar on the Manor Farm, summons the animals on the farm together for a meeting, during which he refers to humans as \"enemies\" and teaches the animals a revolutionary song called Beasts of England. When Major dies, two young pigs, Snowball and Napoleon, assume command and consider it a duty to prepare for the Rebellion. The animals revolt and drive the drunken and irresponsible farmer Mr. Jones from the farm, renaming it \"Animal Farm\". They adopt Seven Commandments of Animalism, the most important of which is, \"All animals are equal.\"\n\nSnowball teaches the animals to read and write, while Napoleon educates young puppies on the principles of Animalism. Food is plentiful, and the farm runs smoothly. The pigs elevate themselves to positions of leadership and set aside special food items, ostensibly for their personal health.\n\nSome time later, several men attack Animal Farm. Jones and his men are making an attempt to recapture the farm, aided by several other farmers who are terrified of similar animal revolts. Snowball, who has been studying the battles of Julius Caesar in anticipation of such a fight, orders the animals to retreat, then attacks the men and beats them back. Snowball's popularity soars and this event is proclaimed \"The Battle of the Cowshed\" and celebrated annually with the firing of a gun along with the anniversary of the Revolution.\n\nNapoleon and Snowball struggle for preeminence. When Snowball announces his plans to build a windmill, Napoleon has his dogs chase Snowball away and declares himself leader of Animal Farm.\n\nNapoleon enacts changes to the governance structure of the farm, replacing meetings with a committee of pigs who will run the farm. Through a young pig named Squealer, Napoleon claims credit for the windmill idea. The animals work harder with the promise of easier lives with the windmill. When the animals find the windmill collapsed after a violent storm, Napoleon and Squealer convince the animals that Snowball is trying to sabotage their project. Once Snowball becomes a scapegoat, Napoleon begins to purge the farm with his dogs, killing animals he accuses of consorting with his old rival. When some animals recall the Battle of the Cowshed, Napoleon (who was nowhere to be found during the battle) frequently smears Snowball as a collaborator of Jones, while falsely representing himself as the hero of the battle. Beasts of England is replaced with an anthem glorifying Napoleon, who appears to be adopting the lifestyle of a man. The animals remain convinced that they are better off than they were under Mr. Jones.\n\nMr Frederick, one of the neighbouring farmers, attacks the farm, using blasting powder to blow up the restored windmill. Though the animals win the battle, they do so at great cost, as many, including Boxer the workhorse, are wounded. Despite his injuries, Boxer continues working harder and harder, until he collapses while working on the windmill. Napoleon sends for a van to take Boxer to the veterinary surgeon, explaining that better care can be given there. Benjamin, the cynical donkey who \"could read as well as any pig\", notices that the van belongs to a knacker, and attempts a futile rescue. Squealer quickly assures the animals that the van had been purchased from the knacker by an animal hospital and the previous owner's signboard had not been repainted. In a subsequent report, Squealer reports sadly to the animals that Boxer died peacefully at the animal hospital; the pigs hold a festival one day after Boxer's death to further praise the glories of Animal Farm and have the animals work harder by taking on Boxer's ways. In unrelated news, Napoleon and his inner circle are simultaneously found to have acquired money to buy whisky for themselves. (In 1940s England, one way for farms to get cash was to sell large animals to a knacker, who would kill the animal and boil its remains into animal glue.)\n\nYears pass, and the windmill is rebuilt along with construction of another windmill, which makes the farm a good amount of income. However, the concepts which Snowball discussed, of animal stalls with running water and lighting are forgotten, with Napoleon advocating that the happiest animals live simple lives. Besides Boxer, many of the animals who participated in the Revolution are dead, as well as Jones, who died in another part of England. The pigs start to resemble humans, as they walk upright, carry whips, and wear clothes. The Seven Commandments are abridged to a single phrase: \"All animals are equal but some animals are more equal than others\". Napoleon holds a dinner party for the pigs and local farmers, with whom he celebrates a new alliance. He abolishes the practice of the revolutionary traditions and restores the name \"The Manor Farm\". As the animals look from pigs to humans, they realise they can no longer distinguish between the two.\n\nCharacters\n\nPigs\n\nOld Major – An aged prize Middle White boar provides the inspiration that fuels the Rebellion in the book. He is an allegorical combination of Karl Marx, one of the creators of communism, and Lenin, the communist leader of the Russian Revolution and the early Soviet nation, in that he draws up the principles of the revolution. His skull being put on revered public display recalls Lenin, whose embalmed body was put on display. \nNapoleon – \"A large, rather fierce-looking Berkshire boar, the only Berkshire on the farm, not much of a talker, but with a reputation for getting his own way\". An allegory of Joseph Stalin, Napoleon is the main villain of Animal Farm. In the first French version of Animal Farm, Napoleon is called ', the French form of Caesar, although another translation has him as '.\nSnowball – Napoleon's rival and original head of the farm after Jones' overthrow. He is mainly based on Leon Trotsky, but also combines elements from Lenin.\nSquealer – A small, white, fat porker who serves as Napoleon's second-in-command and minister of propaganda, holding a position similar to that of Vyacheslav Molotov.\nMinimus – A poetic pig who writes the second and third national anthems of Animal Farm after the singing of \"Beasts of England\" is banned.\nThe piglets – Hinted to be the children of Napoleon and are the first generation of animals subjugated to his idea of animal inequality.\nThe young pigs – Four pigs who complain about Napoleon's takeover of the farm but are quickly silenced and later executed. Based on the Great Purge of Grigori Zinoviev, Lev Kamenev, Nikolai Bukharin, and Alexei Rykov.\nPinkeye – A minor pig who is mentioned only once; he is the pig that tastes Napoleon's food to make sure it is not poisoned, in response to rumours about an assassination attempt on Napoleon.\n\nHumans\n\nMr Jones – The former owner of the farm, Jones is a very heavy drinker. The animals revolt against him after he drinks so much that he does not feed or take care of them. He is an allegory of Russian Tsar Nicholas II, who abdicated following the February Revolution of 1917 and was murdered, along with the rest of his family, by the Bolsheviks on 17 July 1918.\nMr Frederick – The tough owner of Pinchfield, a small but well-kept neighbouring farm, who briefly enters into an alliance with Napoleon. He is an allegory of Adolf Hitler, who enters into a neutrality pact with Joseph Stalin's USSR only to later break it by invading the Soviet Union. \nMr Pilkington – The easy-going but crafty and well-to-do owner of Foxwood, a large neighbouring farm overgrown with weeds. He is antithesis of Frederick, being wealthier and owning more land, but his farm is need of care as opposed to Frederick's smaller but more efficiently-run farm. Although on bad terms with Frederick, Pilkington is concerned about the animal revolution that deposed Jones, and worried a similar thing could happen to him, a concern shared by Frederick.\nMr Whymper – A man hired by Napoleon to act as the liaison between Animal Farm and human society. At first he is used to acquire goods needed for the farm, such as dog biscuits and paraffin, but later he procures luxuries like alcohol for the pigs.\n\nHorses and donkeys \n\nBoxer – A loyal, kind, dedicated, extremely strong, hard working, and respectable cart-horse, although quite naive and gullible. Boxer does a large share of the physical labor on the farm. He is shown to hold the belief that 'Napoleon is always right'. At one point, he had challenged Squealer's statement that Snowball was always against the welfare of the farm, earning him an attack from Napoleon's dogs. But Boxer's immense strength repels the attack, worrying the pigs that their authority can be challenged. Boxer has been compared to the Stakhanovite movement. He has been described as \"faithful and strong\"; he believes any problem can be solved if he works harder. However, when Boxer is injured, Napoleon sells him to a local knacker to buy himself whisky.\nMollie – A self-centered, self-indulgent and vain young white mare who quickly leaves for another farm after the revolution. She is only once mentioned again, in a manner similar to those who left Russia after the fall of the Tsar.\nClover - A gentle, caring female horse, who shows concern especially for Boxer, who often pushes himself too hard. Clover can read all the letters of the alphabet, but cannot \"put words together\". She seems to catch on to the sly tricks and schemes set up by Napoleon and Squealer.\nBenjamin – A donkey, one of the oldest, wisest animals on the farm, and one of the few who can read properly. He is skeptical, temperamental and cynical: his most frequent remark is, \"Life will go on as it has always gone on—that is, badly.\" The academic Morris Dickstein has suggested there is \"a touch of Orwell himself in this creature's timeless skepticism\"Cambridge Companion to Orwell, p. 141 and indeed, friends called Orwell \"Donkey George\", \"after his grumbling donkey Benjamin, in Animal Farm.\" \n\nOther animals\n\nMuriel – A wise old goat who is friends with all of the animals on the farm. She, like Benjamin and Snowball, is one of the few animals on the farm who can read.\nThe puppies – Offspring of Jessie and Bluebell, they were taken away at birth by Napoleon and reared by him to be his security force.\nMoses – The raven, \"Mr. Jones's especial pet, was a spy and a tale-bearer, but he was also a clever talker.\" Initially following Mrs. Jones into exile, he reappears several years later and resumes his role of talking but not working. He regales Animal Farm's denizens with tales of a wondrous place beyond the clouds called \"Sugarcandy Mountain, that happy country where we poor animals shall rest forever from our labours!\" Orwell portrays established religion as \"the black raven of priestcraft—promising pie in the sky when you die, and faithfully serving whoever happens to be in power.\" Napoleon brings the raven back (Ch. IX), as Stalin brought back the Russian Orthodox Church. \nThe sheep – They show limited understanding of the Animalism and the political atmosphere of the farm; yet nonetheless they blindly support Napoleon's ideals with vocal jingles during his speeches and meetings with Snowball.\nThe hens – The hens are promised at the start of the revolution that they will get to keep their eggs, which are stolen from them under Mr Jones. However their eggs are soon taken from them under the premise of buying goods from outside animal farm. The hens are among the first to rebel against Napoleon.\nThe cows – The cows are enticed into the revolution by promises that their milk will not be stolen, but can be used to raise their own calves. Their milk is stolen by the pigs, who learn to milk them. The milk is stirred into the pigs' mash every day, while the other animals are denied such luxuries. \nThe cat – Never seen to carry out any work, the cat is absent for long periods and is forgiven; because her excuses are so convincing and she \"purred so affectionately that it was impossible not to believe in her good intentions.\" She has no interest in the politics of the farm, and the only time she is recorded as having participated in an election, she is found to have actually \"voted on both sides.\"\n\nComposition and publication\n\nOrigin\n\nGeorge Orwell wrote the manuscript in 1943 and 1944 subsequent to his experiences during the Spanish Civil War, which he described in Homage to Catalonia (1938). In the preface of a 1947 Ukrainian edition of Animal Farm, he explained how escaping the communist purges in Spain taught him \"how easily totalitarian propaganda can control the opinion of enlightened people in democratic countries\". This motivated Orwell to expose and strongly condemn what he saw as the Stalinist corruption of the original socialist ideals.\n\nImmediately prior to his writing, Orwell had quit the BBC. He was also upset about a booklet for propagandists the Ministry of Information had put out. The booklet included instructions on how to quell ideological fears of the Soviet Union, such as directions to claim that the Red Terror was a figment of Nazi imagination. \n\nIn the preface, Orwell also described the source of the idea of setting the book on a farm:\n\nEfforts to find a publisher\n\nOrwell initially encountered difficulty getting the manuscript published, largely due to fears that the book might upset the alliance between Britain, the United States, and the Soviet Union. Four publishers refused; one had initially accepted the work but declined it after consulting the Ministry of Information. Eventually, Secker and Warburg published the first edition in 1945.\n\nDuring the Second World War, it became clear to Orwell that anti-Soviet literature was not something which most major publishing houses would touch — including his regular publisher Gollancz. He also submitted the manuscript to Faber and Faber, where the poet T. S. Eliot (who was a director of the firm) rejected it; Eliot wrote back to Orwell praising the book's \"good writing\" and \"fundamental integrity\", but declared that they would only accept it for publication if they had some sympathy for the viewpoint \"which I take to be generally Trotskyite\". Eliot said he found the view \"not convincing\", and contended that the pigs were made out to be the best to run the farm; he posited that someone might argue \"what was needed.. was not more communism but more public-spirited pigs\". Orwell let André Deutsch, who was working for Nicholson & Watson in 1944, read the typescript, and Deutsch was convinced that Nicholson & Watson would want to publish it; however, they did not, and \"lectured Orwell on what they perceived to be errors in Animal Farm.\" In his London Letter on 17 April 1944 for Partisan Review, Orwell wrote that it was \"now next door to impossible to get anything overtly anti-Russian printed. Anti-Russian books do appear, but mostly from Catholic publishing firms and always from a religious or frankly reactionary angle.\"\n\nThe publisher Jonathan Cape, who had initially accepted Animal Farm, subsequently rejected the book after an official at the British Ministry of Information warned him off — although the civil servant who it is assumed gave the order was later found to be a Soviet spy. Writing to Leonard Moore, a partner in the literary agency of Christy & Moore, publisher Jonathan Cape explained that the decision had been taken on the advice of a senior official in the Ministry of Information. Such flagrant anti-Soviet bias was unacceptable, and the choice of pigs as the dominant class was thought to be especially offensive. It may reasonably be assumed that the 'important official' was a man named Peter Smollett, who was later unmasked as a Soviet agent. Orwell was suspicious of Smollett/Smolka, and he would be one of the names Orwell included in his list of Crypto-Communists and Fellow-Travellers sent to the Information Research Department in 1949. Born Hans Peter Smolka in Vienna in 1912, he came to Britain in 1933 as an NKVD agent with the codename 'Abo', became a naturalised British subject in 1938, changed his name, and after the outbreak of World War II joined the Ministry of Information where he organised pro-Soviet propaganda, working with Kim Philby in 1943-45. Smollett's family have rejected the accusation that he was a spy. The publisher wrote to Orwell, saying:\n\nFrederic Warburg also faced pressures against publication, even from people in his own office and from his wife Pamela, who felt that it was not the moment for ingratitude towards Stalin and the heroic Red Army, which had played a major part in defeating Hitler. A Russian translation was printed in the paper Posev, and in giving permission for a Russian translation of Animal Farm, Orwell refused in advance all royalties. A translation in Ukrainian, which was produced in Germany, was confiscated in large part by the American wartime authorities and handed over to the Soviet repatriation commission. \n\nIn October 1945, Orwell wrote to Frederic Warburg expressing interest in pursuing the possibility that the political cartoonist David Low might illustrate Animal Farm. Low had written a letter saying that he had had \"a good time with ANIMAL FARM - an excellent bit of satire - it would illustrate perfectly.\" Nothing came of this, and a trial issue produced by Secker & Warburg in 1956 illustrated by John Driver was abandoned, but the Folio Society published an edition in 1984 illustrated by Quentin Blake and an edition illustrated by the cartoonist Ralph Steadman was published by Secker & Warburg in 1995 to celebrate the fiftieth anniversary of the first edition of Animal Farm. \n\nPreface\n\nOrwell originally wrote a preface complaining about British self-censorship and how the British people were suppressing criticism of the USSR, their World War II ally:\n\nAlthough the first edition allowed space for the preface, it was not included, and as of June 2009 most editions of the book have not included it. \n\nSecker and Warburg published the first edition of Animal Farm in 1945 without an introduction. However, the publisher had provided space for a preface in the author's proof composited from the manuscript. For reasons unknown, no preface was supplied, and the page numbers had to be renumbered at the last minute.\n\nIn 1972, Ian Angus found the original typescript titled \"The Freedom of the Press\", and Bernard Crick published it, together with his own introduction, in The Times Literary Supplement on 15September 1972 as \"How the essay came to be written\". Orwell's essay criticised British self-censorship by the press, specifically the suppression of unflattering descriptions of Stalin and the Soviet government. The same essay also appeared in the Italian 1976 edition of Animal Farm with another introduction by Crick, claiming to be the first edition with the preface. Other publishers were still declining to publish it.\n\nCritical response\n\nContemporary reviews of the work were not universally positive. Writing in the American New Republic magazine, George Soule expressed his disappointment in the book, writing that it \"puzzled and saddened me. It seemed on the whole dull. The allegory turned out to be a creaking machine for saying in a clumsy way things that have been said better directly.\" Soule believed that the animals were not consistent enough with their real world inspirations, and said, \"It seems to me that the failure of this book (commercially it is already assured of tremendous success) arises from the fact that the satire deals not with something the author has experienced, but rather with stereotyped ideas about a country which he probably does not know very well\". \n\nThe Guardian on 24 August 1945 called Animal Farm \"a delightfully humorous and caustic satire on the rule of the many by the few\". Tosco Fyvel, writing in Tribune on the same day, called the book \"a gentle satire on a certain State and on the illusions of an age which may already be behind us.\" Julian Symons responded, on 7September, \"Should we not expect, in Tribune at least, acknowledgement of the fact that it is a satire not at all gentle upon a particular State - Soviet Russia? It seems to me that a reviewer should have the courage to identify Napoleon with Stalin, and Snowball with Trotsky, and express an opinion favourable or unfavourable to the author, upon a political ground. In a hundred years time perhaps, Animal Farm may be simply a fairy story, today it is a political satire with a good deal of point.\"\n\nAnimal Farm has been subject to much comment in the decades since these early remarks. \n\nAnalysis\n\nAnimalism\n\nThe pigs Snowball, Napoleon, and Squealer adapt Old Major's ideas into \"a complete system of thought\", which they formally name Animalism, an allegoric reference to Communism. Soon after, Napoleon and Squealer partake in activities associated with the humans (drinking alcohol, sleeping in beds, trading), which were explicitly prohibited by the Seven Commandments. Squealer is employed to alter the Seven Commandments to account for this humanisation, an allusion to the Soviet government's revising of history in order to exercise control of the people's beliefs about themselves and their society.\n\nThe original commandments are:\n# Whatever goes upon two legs is an enemy.\n# Whatever goes upon four legs, or has wings, is a friend.\n# No animal shall wear clothes.\n# No animal shall sleep in a bed.\n# No animal shall drink alcohol.\n# No animal shall kill any other animal.\n# All animals are equal.\n\nThese commandments are also distilled into the maxim \"Four legs good, two legs bad!\" which is primarily used by the sheep on the farm, often to disrupt discussions and disagreements between animals on the nature of Animalism.\n\nLater, Napoleon and his pigs secretly revise some commandments to clear themselves of accusations of law-breaking. The changed commandments are as follows, with the changes bolded:\n\nNo animal shall sleep in a bed with sheets.\nNo animal shall drink alcohol to excess.\nNo animal shall kill any other animal without cause.\n\nEventually, these are replaced with the maxims, \"All animals are equal but some animals are more equal than others\", and \"Four legs good, two legs better!\" as the pigs become more human. This is an ironic twist to the original purpose of the Seven Commandments, which were supposed to keep order within Animal Farm by uniting the animals together against the humans and preventing animals from following the humans' evil habits. Through the revision of the commandments, Orwell demonstrates how simply political dogma can be turned into malleable propaganda.\n\nSignificance and allegory\n\nIn the Eastern Bloc, both Animal Farm and later Nineteen Eighty-Four were on the list of forbidden books until the end of communism in 1989, and were only available via clandestine Samizdat networks.\n\nOrwell biographer Jeffrey Meyers has written, \"virtually every detail has political significance in this allegory.\" Orwell himself wrote in 1946, \"Of course I intended it primarily as a satire on the Russian revolution..[and] that kind of revolution (violent conspiratorial revolution, led by unconsciously power hungry people) can only lead to a change of masters [-] revolutions only effect a radical improvement when the masses are alert.\" In a preface for a 1947 Ukrainian edition, he stated, \"... for the past ten years I have been convinced that the destruction of the Soviet myth was essential if we wanted a revival of the socialist movement. On my return from Spain [in 1937] I thought of exposing the Soviet myth in a story that could be easily understood by almost anyone and which could be easily translated into other languages.\" \n\nThe revolt of the animals against Farmer Jones is Orwell's analogy with the October 1917 Bolshevik Revolution. The Battle of the Cowshed has been said to represent the allied invasion of Soviet Russia in 1918, and the defeat of the White Russians in the Russian Civil War. The pigs' rise to pre-eminence mirrors the rise of a Stalinist bureaucracy in the USSR, just as Napoleon's emergence as the farm's sole leader reflects Stalin's emergence. The pigs' appropriation of milk and apples for their own use, \"the turning point of the story\" as Orwell termed it in a letter to Dwight Macdonald,Orwell, George. A Life in Letters, Penguin ISBN 978-0-141-19263-5 p. 334 stands as an analogy for the crushing of the left-wing 1921 Kronstadt revolt against the Bolsheviks, and the difficult efforts of the animals to build the windmill suggest the various Five Year Plans. The puppies controlled by Napoleon parallel the nurture of the secret police in the Stalinist structure, and the pigs' treatment of the other animals on the farm recalls the internal terror faced by the populace in the 1930s. In chapter seven, when the animals confess their nonexistent crimes and are killed, Orwell directly alludes to the purges, confessions and show trials of the late 1930s. These contributed to Orwell's conviction that the Bolshevik revolution had been corrupted and the Soviet system become rotten. \n\nPeter Edgerly Firchow and Peter Davison consider that the Battle of the Windmill represents the Great Patriotic War (World War II), especially the Battle of Stalingrad and the Battle of Moscow. During the battle, Orwell first wrote, \"All the animals, including Napoleon\" took cover. Orwell had the publisher alter this to \"All the animals except Napoleon\" in recognition of Stalin's decision to remain in Moscow during the German advance. Orwell requested the change after he met Joseph Czapski in Paris in March 1945. Czapski, a survivor of the Katyn Massacre and an opponent of the Soviet regime, told Orwell, as Orwell wrote to Arthur Koestler, that it had been \"the character [and] greatness of Stalin\" that saved Russia from the German invasion. \n\nOther connections that writers have suggested illustrate Orwell's telescoping of Russian history from 1917 to 1943 include the wave of rebelliousness that ran through the countryside after the Rebellion, which stands for the abortive revolutions in Hungary and in Germany (Ch IV); the conflict between Napoleon and Snowball (Ch V), paralleling \"the two rival and quasi-Messianic beliefs that seemed pitted against one another: Trotskyism, with its faith in the revolutionary vocation of the proletariat of the West; and Stalinism with its glorification of Russia's socialist destiny\"; Napoleon's dealings with Whymper and the Willingdon markets (Ch VI), paralleling the Treaty of Rapallo; and Frederick's forged bank notes, paralleling the Hitler-Stalin non-aggression pact of August 1939, after which Frederick attacks Animal Farm without warning and destroys the windmill.\n\nThe book's close, with the pigs and men in a kind of rapprochement, reflected Orwell's view of the 1943 Teheran Conference that seemed to display the establishment of \"the best possible relations between the USSR and the West\"—but in reality were destined, as Orwell presciently predicted, to continue to unravel. The disagreement between the allies and the start of the Cold War is suggested when Napoleon and Pilkington, both suspicious, \"played an ace of spades simultaneously\". \n\nSimilarly, the music in the novel, starting with Beasts of England and the later anthems, parallels The Internationale and its adoption and repudiation by the Soviet authorities as the Anthem of the USSR in the 1920s and 1930s.\n\nAdaptations\n\nA BBC radio version, produced by Rayner Heppenstall, was broadcast in January 1947. Orwell listened to the production at his home in Canonbury Square in London, with Hugh Gordon Porteous, amongst others. Orwell later wrote to Heppenstall that Porteous, \"who had not read the book, grasped what was happening after a few minutes.\" A further radio production, again using Orwell's own dramatisation of the book, was broadcast in January 2013 on BBC Radio 4. Tamsin Greig narrated and the cast included Nicky Henson as Napoleon, Toby Jones as the propagandist Squealer, and Ralph Ineson as Boxer. \n\nAnimal Farm has been adapted to film twice. The 1954 Animal Farm film was an animated feature and the 1999 Animal Farm film was a TV live action version. Both differ from the novel, and have been accused of taking significant liberties, including sanitising some aspects. In the 1954 version, Napoleon is apparently overthrown in a second revolution. The 1999 film shows Napoleon's regime collapsing in on itself, with the farm having new human owners, reflecting the collapse of Soviet communism, appropriating the new political reality to the story. In 2012, a HFR-3D version of Animal Farm potentially directed by Andy Serkis was announced. \n\nIn 1974 E. Howard Hunt revealed that he had been sent by the C.I.A.'s Psychological Warfare department to obtain the film rights from Orwell's widow, and that the resulting 1954 animation was funded by the agency. \n\nA theatrical version, with music by Richard Peaslee and lyrics by Adrian Mitchell, was staged at the National Theatre London on 25 April 1984, directed by Peter Hall. It toured nine cities in 1985. A solo version, adapted and performed by Guy Masterson, premièred at the Traverse Theatre Edinburgh in January 1995 and has toured worldwide since. \n\nPopular culture\n\nMusic\n\n Pink Floyd's 1977 record album Animals was partially inspired by Animal Farm. It categorises people as pigs, dogs, or sheep.\n* R.E.M.'s song \"Disturbance at the Heron House\" is based on Animal Farm. \nThe Clash used an image from the 1954 animated movie Animal Farm on their 45-RPM single \"English Civil War\". \nCanadian-based band Boxer the Horse takes its name from a character in the novel. \nDead prez based a song on their 2000 album Let's Get Free called \"Animal in Man\" based on the novella, putting emphasis on how the other animals should not trust the pigs during a revolution. \nThe lyrics of the song ″Arthur's Farm″ from the Half Man Half Biscuit album Back Again in the DHSS tell the story of Douglas Bader and Arthur Askey visiting Animal Farm. The song features the line \"Four legs good, but no legs best\" in apparent tribute to the two famous amputees. \nRadiohead's song \"Optimistic\" contains a lyric mentioning Animal Farm. \nThe Boston Crusaders Drum and Bugle Corps 2014 show was titled Animal Farm, which was based on the novel. \nAmerican metalcore band, Ice Nine Kills' song, The Nature of the Beast\" is inspired by Animal Farm \n\nTelevision\n\n In The Daleks' Master Plan, a 1966 episode of the long-running British science fiction show Doctor Who, a character references the modified seventh commandment of Animal Farm, saying: \"Though we are all equal partners with the Daleks on this great conquest, some of us are more equal than others.\" \n* In the seventh episode of the second season of the HBO series Oz was titled Animal Farm, in reference to the conniving and manipulation of the characters vying for control, similar to the characters of the novella. \n* In the third episode of the first season of the X-Men animated series, \"Enter Magneto,\" Beast is seen reading a copy of Animal Farm, and is mocked by the prison guards for \"reading a picture book\" and is asked if he \"sees any relatives in there\" because they assume he is an illiterate animal. \n* In the tenth episode of the second season of Johnny Bravo, \"Aunt Katie's Farm\", Johnny, while dressed in a pig costume, yells, \"Four feet good! Two feet bad!\". \n* The Lost episode \"Exposé\", in season three, involves flashbacks with Nikki and Paulo involving an argument with Kate about the handgun case. During this scene, Dr. Leslie Arzt yells at Kate that \"The pigs are walking,\" a reference to Animal Farm where Napoleon and his generals begin to adapt human characteristics and change their oath from \"Four legs good, two legs bad\" to \"Four legs good, two legs better.\" \nIn the ninth episode of the fourth season of Sex and the City, \"Sex and the Country\", Carrie goes with her new boyfriend Aidan to his cottage, and informs her friends that it reminds her of Animal Farm, and would not be surprised to hear an outburst of \"four legs good, two legs bad!\" \n\nEditions\n\n [http://lccn.loc.gov/46006290 LCCN 46006290] (hardcover, 1946, First American Edition)\n* ISBN 0-451-51679-6 (paperback, 1956, Signet Classic)\n* ISBN 0-582-02173-1 (paper text, 1989)\n* ISBN 0-15-107255-8 (hardcover, 1990)\n* ISBN 0-582-06010-9 (paper text, 1991)\n* ISBN 0-679-42039-8 (hardcover, 1993)\n* ISBN 0-606-00102-6 (prebound, 1996)\n* ISBN 0-15-100217-7 (hardcover, 1996, Anniversary Edition)\n* ISBN 0-452-27750-7 (paperback, 1996, Anniversary Edition)\n* ISBN 0-451-52634-1 (mass market paperback, 1996, Anniversary Edition)\n* ISBN 0-582-53008-3 (1996)\n* ISBN 1-56000-520-3 (cloth text, 1998, Large Type Edition)\n* ISBN 0-7910-4774-1 (hardcover, 1999)\n* ISBN 0-451-52536-1 (paperback, 1999)\n* ISBN 0-7641-0819-0 (paperback, 1999)\n* ISBN 0-8220-7009-X (e-book, 1999)\n* ISBN 0-7587-7843-0 (hardcover, 2002)\n* ISBN 0-15-101026-9 (hardcover, 2003, with Nineteen Eighty-Four)\n* ISBN 0-452-28424-4 (paperback, 2003, Centennial Edition)\n* ISBN 0-8488-0120-2 (hardcover)\n* ISBN 0-03-055434-9 (hardcover) Animal Farm with Connections\n* ISBN 0-395-79677-6 (hardcover) Animal Farm & Related Readings, 1997\n* ISBN 0-582-43447-5 (hardcover, 2007)\n* ISBN 0-14-103349-5 (paperback, 2007)\n* ISBN 978-0-141-39305-6 (paperback, 2013, puffin books edition)\n\nOn 17 July 2009, Amazon.com withdrew certain Amazon Kindle titles, including Animal Farm and Nineteen Eighty-Four by George Orwell, from sale, refunded buyers, and remotely deleted items from purchasers' devices after discovering that the publisher lacked rights to publish the titles in question. Notes and annotations for the books made by users on their devices were also deleted. After the move prompted outcry and comparisons to Nineteen Eighty-Four itself, Amazon spokesman Drew Herdener stated that the company is \"[c]hanging our systems so that in the future we will not remove books from customers' devices in these circumstances.\"" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Napoleon Buonaparte", "Napolean bonapart", "Bonaparte", "Napoleonist", "Napoleon Boneparte", "Le petit caporal", "Napoleaon", "Napolen's coup", "Napoleone Bonaparte", "Age of Napoleon", "Napoléon Buonaparte", "Napoleón", "Emperor Napoleon", "Napoleon the Great", "Napoleon I of France", "Napoleon I of France bibliography", "Napoléon", "Napolean Bonapart", "Napoléon I, Emperor of the French", "Napolean Bonaparte", "Napoleon Bonapart", "Napeoleon", "Napolean bonarparte", "Emperor Napoleon I", "Napolean", "Napoleon Bonaparte", "Napoloen", "Emperor of France Napoleon I", "Napoleon I Bonaparte", "Napoleone Buonaparte", "Napoleon bonaparte", "Napolian", "Napoléon Bonaparte", "Napoleon's", "Napoleonic", "Napoleon I, Emperor of the French", "Jupiter Scapin", "Nepolian", "Napoleon I of the French", "Little Corporal", "Napoleon I of Italy", "Napoleon bonepart", "Napoléon I", "Armed Soldier of Democracy", "Napoleon I the Great of the French bibliography", "Napoleon i of france", "Napoleon i of france bibliography", "Napoléon I of France", "Napoleon's height", "Napoleon Ier", "Napoleon I", "General Bonaparte", "Napoleone di Buonaparte", "Napoleón Bonaparte", "Général Bonaparte", "Jean d'Epee", "Napoleon", "Napoleon I of the French bibliography", "Napoleon Emperor of France", "Boneparte", "Napoleon of France", "Napoléon Ier", "Napoléon I Bonaparte" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "napolean bonaparte", "napoléon i bonaparte", "napoleone buonaparte", "napoleon of france", "age of napoleon", "napoleon bonapart", "napoleon i bonaparte", "général bonaparte", "napoléon bonaparte", "emperor of france napoleon i", "napoleon i great of french bibliography", "napolean", "napeoleon", "armed soldier of democracy", "general bonaparte", "napoleon i of french bibliography", "napoleonist", "napoleone di buonaparte", "napoleon i of france", "napolean bonarparte", "napoleón bonaparte", "napoléon buonaparte", "napoleon boneparte", "napoleon ier", "boneparte", "little corporal", "napoleon i of france bibliography", "napoleon bonaparte", "napoleon i of french", "napolean bonapart", "napoleon s", "napoleon emperor of france", "napoleon buonaparte", "napoléon", "emperor napoleon", "napoleon i", "napoléon ier", "napoléon i", "napoleone bonaparte", "nepolian", "napolian", "jean d epee", "napolen s coup", "napoleon i of italy", "emperor napoleon i", "napoleon i emperor of french", "napoleaon", "napoleonic", "napoleon great", "napoleon bonepart", "le petit caporal", "napoloen", "jupiter scapin", "bonaparte", "napoleon", "napoleon s height", "napoleón", "napoléon i emperor of french", "napoléon i of france" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "napoleon", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Napoleon" }
Tess Trueheart is the wife of what comic strip character?	tc_494	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe", "Search" ], "filename": [ "Tess_Trueheart_(character).txt", "Comic_strip.txt", "List_of_Dick_Tracy_characters.txt" ], "title": [ "Tess Trueheart (character)", "Comic strip", "List of Dick Tracy characters" ], "wiki_context": [ "Tess Trueheart is the love interest character in the American comic strip Dick Tracy which was created by Chester Gould in 1931. \n\nThe character eventually became the wife of Dick Tracy in the original comic strip. \n\nIn the 1934-1948 radio series Dick Tracy she was voiced by Helen Lewis. \n\nThe character of Tess Trueheart has been featured in films including, from 1990, Dick Tracy, which starred Glenne Headly as Tess Trueheart.", "A comic strip is a sequence of drawings arranged in interrelated panels to display brief humor or form a narrative, often serialized, with text in balloons and captions. Traditionally, throughout the 20th century and into the 21st, these have been published in newspapers and magazines, with horizontal strips printed in black-and-white in daily newspapers, while Sunday newspapers offered longer sequences in special color comics sections. With the development of the internet, they began to appear online as web comics.\n\nThere were more than 200 different comic strips and daily cartoon panels in American newspapers alone each day for most of the 20th century, for a total of at least 7,300,000 episodes. \n\nStrips are written and drawn by a comics artist or cartoonist. As the name implies, comic strips can be humorous (for example, \"gag-a-day\" strips such as Blondie, Bringing Up Father, Marmaduke, and Pearls Before Swine).\n\nStarting in the late 1920s, comic strips expanded from their mirthful origins to feature adventure stories, as seen in Popeye, Captain Easy, Buck Rogers, Tarzan, and The Adventures of Tintin. Soap-opera continuity strips such as Judge Parker and Mary Worth gained popularity in the 1940s. All are called, generically, comic strips, though cartoonist Will Eisner has suggested that \"sequential art\" would be a better genre-neutral name. \n\nIn the UK and the rest of Europe, comic strips are also serialized in comic book magazines, with a strip's story sometimes continuing over three pages or more. Comic strips have appeared in American magazines such as Liberty and Boys' Life and also on the front covers of magazines, such as the Flossy Frills series on The American Weekly Sunday newspaper supplement.\n\nHistory\n\nStorytelling using a sequence of pictures has existed through history. One medieval European example in textile form is the Bayeux Tapestry. Printed examples emerged in 19th-century Germany and in 18th-century England, where some of the first satirical or humorous sequential narrative drawings were produced. William Hogarth's 18th century English cartoons include both narrative sequences, such as A Rake's Progress, and single panels.\n\nThe Biblia pauperum (\"Paupers' Bible\"), a tradition of picture Bibles beginning in the later Middle Ages, sometimes depicted Biblical events with words spoken by the figures in the miniatures written on scrolls coming out of their mouths—which makes them to some extent ancestors of the modern cartoon strips.\n\nIn China, with its traditions of block printing and of the incorporation of text with image, experiments with what became lianhuanhua date back to 1884. \n\nNewspapers\n\nThe first newspaper comic strips appeared in North America in the late 19th century. The Yellow Kid is usually credited as the first. However, the art form combining words and pictures developed gradually and there are many examples which led up to the comic strip.\n\nSwiss author and caricature artist Rodolphe Töpffer (Geneva, 1799–1846) is considered the father of the modern comic strips. His illustrated stories such as Histoire de M. Vieux Bois (1827), first published in the USA in 1842 as The Adventures of Obadiah Oldbuck or Histoire de Monsieur Jabot (1831), inspired subsequent generations of German and American comic artists. In 1865, German painter, author, and caricaturist Wilhelm Busch created the strip Max and Moritz, about two trouble-making boys, which had a direct influence on the American comic strip. Max and Moritz was a series of severely moralistic tales in the vein of German children's stories such as Struwwelpeter (\"Shockheaded Peter\"); in one, the boys, after perpetrating some mischief, are tossed into a sack of grain, run through a mill, and consumed by a flock of geese. Max and Moritz provided an inspiration for German immigrant Rudolph Dirks, who created the Katzenjammer Kids in 1897. Familiar comic-strip iconography such as stars for pain, sawing logs for snoring, speech balloons, and thought balloons originated in Dirks' strip.\n\nHugely popular, Katzenjammer Kids occasioned one of the first comic-strip copyright ownership suits in the history of the medium. When Dirks left William Randolph Hearst for the promise of a better salary under Joseph Pulitzer, it was an unusual move, since cartoonists regularly deserted Pulitzer for Hearst. In a highly unusual court decision, Hearst retained the rights to the name \"Katzenjammer Kids\", while creator Dirks retained the rights to the characters. Hearst promptly hired Harold Knerr to draw his own version of the strip. Dirks renamed his version Hans and Fritz (later, The Captain and the Kids). Thus, two versions distributed by rival syndicates graced the comics pages for decades. Dirks' version, eventually distributed by United Feature Syndicate, ran until 1979.\n\nIn the United States, the great popularity of comics sprang from the newspaper war (1887 onwards) between Pulitzer and Hearst. The Little Bears (1893–96) was the first American comic with recurring characters, while the first color comic supplement was published by the Chicago Inter-Ocean sometime in the latter half of 1892, followed by the New York Journals first color Sunday comic pages in 1897. On January 31, 1912, Hearst introduced the nation's first full daily comic page in his New York Evening Journal. The history of this newspaper rivalry and the rapid appearance of comic strips in most major American newspapers is discussed by Ian Gordon. Numerous events in newspaper comic strips have reverberated throughout society at large, though few of these events occurred in recent years, owing mainly to the declining role of the newspaper comic strip as an entertainment form. \n\nThe longest running American comic strips are:\n1. Katzenjammer Kids (1897-present)\n2. Gasoline Alley (1918-present)\n3. Ripley's Believe It or Not! (1918-present) \n4. Barney Google and Snuffy Smith (1919-present)\n5. Thimble Theater/Popeye (1919-present)\n6. Little Orphan Annie (1924-2010) \n7. Blondie (1930-present)\n\nNewspaper comic strips come in two different types: daily strips and Sunday strips. Most newspaper comic strips are syndicated; a syndicate hires people to write and draw a strip and then distributes it to many newspapers for a fee. A few newspaper strips are exclusive to one newspaper. For example, the Pogo comic strip by Walt Kelly originally appeared only in the New York Star in 1948 and was not picked up for syndication until the following year. \n\nIn the United States, a daily strip appears in newspapers on weekdays, Monday through Saturday, as contrasted with a Sunday strip, which typically only appears on Sundays. Daily strips usually are printed in black and white, and Sunday strips are usually in color. However, a few newspapers have published daily strips in color, and some newspapers have published Sunday strips in black and white. The two conventional formats for newspaper comics are strips and single gag panels. The strips are usually displayed horizontally, wider than they are tall. Single panels are square, circular or taller than they are wide. Strips usually, but not always, are broken up into several smaller panels with continuity from panel to panel. A horizontal strip can also be used for a single panel with a single gag, as seen occasionally in Mike Peters' Mother Goose and Grimm.\n\nDuring the 1930s, the original art for a daily strip could be drawn as large as 25 inches wide by six inches high. As strips have become smaller, the number of panels have been reduced.\n\nThe popularity and accessibility of strips meant they were often clipped and saved; authors including John Updike and Ray Bradbury have written about their childhood collections of clipped strips. Often posted on bulletin boards, clipped strips had an ancillary form of distribution when they were faxed, photocopied or mailed. The Baltimore Suns Linda White recalled, \"I followed the adventures of Winnie Winkle, Moon Mullins and Dondi, and waited each fall to see how Lucy would manage to trick Charlie Brown into trying to kick that football. (After I left for college, my father would clip out that strip each year and send it to me just to make sure I didn’t miss it.)\" \n\nProof sheets were the means by which syndicates provided newspapers with black-and-white line art for the reproduction of strips (which they arranged to have colored in the case of Sunday strips). Michigan State University Comic Art Collection librarian Randy Scott describes these as \"large sheets of paper on which newspaper comics have traditionally been distributed to subscribing newspapers. Typically each sheet will have either six daily strips of a given title or one Sunday strip. Thus, a week of Beetle Bailey would arrive at the Lansing State Journal in two sheets, printed much larger than the final version and ready to be cut apart and fitted into the local comics page.\" Comic strip historian Allan Holtz described how strips were provided as mats (the plastic or cardboard trays in which molten metal is poured to make plates) or even plates ready to be put directly on the printing press. He also notes that with electronic means of distribution becoming more prevalent printed sheets \"are definitely on their way out.\" \n\nCartoon panels\n\nSingle panels usually, but not always, are not broken up and lack continuity. The daily Peanuts is a strip, and the daily Dennis the Menace is a single panel. J. R. Williams' long-run Out Our Way continued as a daily panel even after it expanded into a Sunday strip, Out Our Way with the Willets. Jimmy Hatlo's They'll Do It Every Time was often displayed in a two-panel format with the first panel showing some deceptive, pretentious, unwitting or scheming human behavior and the second panel revealing the truth of the situation.\n\nEarly daily strips were large, often running the entire width of the newspaper, and were sometimes three or more inches high.[http://www.newspaperarchive.com Newspaper Archive] Initially, a newspaper page included only a single daily strip, usually either at the top or the bottom of the page. By the 1920s, many newspapers had a comics page on which many strips were collected together. Over decades, the size of daily strips became smaller and smaller, until by the year 2000, four standard daily strips could fit in an area once occupied by a single daily strip.\n\nNEA Syndicate experimented briefly with a two-tier daily strip, Star Hawks, but after a few years, Star Hawks dropped down to a single tier.[http://www.toonopedia.com/ Toonopedia]\n\nIn Flanders, the two-tier strip is the standard publication style of most daily strips like Spike and Suzy and Nero. They appear Monday through Saturday; until 2003 there were no Sunday papers in Flanders. In the last decades, they have switched from black and white to color.\n\nSunday comics\n\nSunday newspapers traditionally included a special color section. Early Sunday strips, such as Thimble Theatre and Little Orphan Annie, filled an entire newspaper page, a format known to collectors as full page. Sunday pages during the 1930s and into the 1940s often carried a secondary strip by the same artist as the main strip. No matter whether it appeared above or below a main strip, the extra strip was known as the topper, such as The Squirrel Cage which ran along with Room and Board, both drawn by Gene Ahern.\n\nDuring the 1930s, the original art for a Sunday strip was usually drawn quite large. For example, in 1930, Russ Westover drew his Tillie the Toiler Sunday page at a size of 17\" × 37\". In 1937, the cartoonist Dudley Fisher launched the innovative Right Around Home, drawn as a huge single panel filling an entire Sunday page.\n\nFull-page strips were eventually replaced by strips half that size. Strips such as The Phantom and Terry and the Pirates began appearing in a format of two strips to a page in full-size newspapers, such as the New Orleans Times Picayune, or with one strip on a tabloid page, as in the Chicago Sun-Times. When Sunday strips began to appear in more than one format, it became necessary for the cartoonist to allow for rearranged, cropped or dropped panels. During World War II, because of paper shortages, the size of Sunday strips began to shrink. After the war, strips continued to get smaller and smaller because of increased paper and printing costs. The last full-page comic strip was the Prince Valiant strip for 11 April 1971.\n\nComic strips have also been published in Sunday newspaper magazines. Russell Patterson and Carolyn Wells' New Adventures of Flossy Frills was a continuing strip series seen on Sunday magazine covers. Beginning January 26, 1941, it ran on the front covers of Hearst's American Weekly newspaper magazine supplement, continuing until March 30 of that year. Between 1939 and 1943, four different stories featuring Flossy appeared on American Weekly covers.\n\nSunday comics sections employed offset color printing with multiple print runs imitating a wide range of colors. Printing plates were created with four or more colors—traditionally, the CMYK color model: cyan, magenta, yellow and \"K\" for black. With a screen of tiny dots on each printing plate, the dots allowed an image to be printed in a halftone that appears to the eye in different gradations. The semi-opaque property of ink allows halftone dots of different colors to create an optical effect of full-color imagery. \n\nUnderground comic strips\n\nThe decade of the 1960s saw the rise of underground newspapers, which often carried comic strips, such as Fritz the Cat and The Fabulous Furry Freak Brothers. Zippy the Pinhead initially appeared in underground publications in the 1970s before being syndicated. Bloom County and Doonesbury began as strips in college newspapers under different titles, and later moved to national syndication. Underground comic strips covered subjects that are usually taboo in newspaper strips, such as sex and drugs. Many underground artists, notably Vaughn Bode, Dan O'Neill, Gilbert Shelton, and Art Spiegelman went on to draw comic strips for magazines such as Playboy, National Lampoon, and Pete Millar's CARtoons. Jay Lynch graduated from undergrounds to alternative weekly newspapers to Mad and children's books.\n\nWebcomic\n\nWebcomics, also known as online comics and internet comics, are comics that are available to read on the Internet. Many are exclusively published online, but the majority of traditional newspaper comic strips have some Internet presence. King Features Syndicate and other syndicates often provide archives of recent strips on their websites. Some, such as Scott Adams, creator of Dilbert, include an email address in each strip.\n\nConventions and genres\n\nMost comic strip characters do not age throughout the strip's life, but in some strips, like Lynn Johnston's award-winning For Better or For Worse, the characters age as the years pass. The first strip to feature aging characters was Gasoline Alley.\n\nThe history of comic strips also includes series that are not humorous, but tell an ongoing dramatic story. Examples include The Phantom, Prince Valiant, Dick Tracy, Mary Worth, Modesty Blaise, Little Orphan Annie, \"Flash Gordon\", and Tarzan. Sometimes these are spin-offs from comic books, for example Superman, Batman, and The Amazing Spider-Man.\n\nA number of strips have featured animals ('funny animals') as main characters. Some are non-verbal (Marmaduke, The Angriest Dog in the World), some have verbal thoughts but are not understood by humans, (Garfield, Snoopy in Peanuts), and some can converse with humans (Bloom County, Calvin and Hobbes, Mutts, Citizen Dog, Buckles, Get Fuzzy, Pearls Before Swine, and Pooch Cafe). Other strips are centered entirely on animals, as in Pogo and Donald Duck. Gary Larson's The Far Side was unusual, as there were no central characters. Instead The Far Side used a wide variety of characters including humans, monsters, aliens, chickens, cows, worms, amoebas, and more. John McPherson's Close to Home also uses this theme, though the characters are mostly restricted to humans and real-life situations. Wiley Miller not only mixes human, animal, and fantasy characters, but also does several different comic strip continuities under one umbrella title, Non Sequitur. Bob Thaves's Frank & Ernest began in 1972 and paved the way for some of these strips, as its human characters were manifest in diverse forms — as animals, vegetables, and minerals.\n\nSocial and political influence\n\nThe comics have long held a distorted mirror to contemporary society, and almost from the beginning have been used for political or social commentary. This ranged from the conservative slant of Little Orphan Annie to the unabashed liberalism of Doonesbury. Pogo used animals to particularly devastating effect, caricaturing many prominent politicians of the day as animal denizens of Pogo's Okeefenokee Swamp. In a fearless move, Pogo's creator Walt Kelly took on Joseph McCarthy in the 1950s, caricaturing him as a bobcat named Simple J. Malarkey, a megalomaniac who was bent on taking over the characters' birdwatching club and rooting out all undesirables. Kelly also defended the medium against possible government regulation in the McCarthy era. At a time when comic books were coming under fire for supposed sexual, violent, and subversive content, Kelly feared the same would happen to comic strips. Going before the Congressional subcommittee, he proceeded to charm the members with his drawings and the force of his personality. The comic strip was safe for satire.\n\nDuring the early 20th century, comic strips were widely associated with publisher William Randolph Hearst, whose papers had the largest circulation of strips in the United States. Hearst was notorious for his practice of yellow journalism, and he was frowned on by readers of The New York Times and other newspapers which featured few or no comic strips. Hearst's critics often assumed that all the strips in his papers were fronts for his own political and social views. Hearst did occasionally work with or pitch ideas to cartoonists, most notably his continued support of George Herriman's Krazy Kat. An inspiration for Bill Watterson and other cartoonists, Krazy Kat gained a considerable following among intellectuals during the 1920s and 1930s.\n\nSome comic strips, such as Doonesbury and The Boondocks, may be printed on the editorial or op-ed page rather than the comics page because of their regular political commentary. For example, the August 12, 1974 Doonesbury strip awarded a 1975 Pulitzer Prize for its depiction of the Watergate scandal. Dilbert is sometimes found in the business section of a newspaper instead of the comics page because of the strip's commentary about office politics, and Tank McNamara often appears on the sports page because of its subject matter. Lynn Johnston's For Better or for Worse created an uproar when one of its supporting characters came out of the closet and announced he was gay. \n\nPublicity and recognition\n\nThe world's longest comic strip is long and on display at Trafalgar Square as part of the London Comedy Festival. The London Cartoon Strip was created by 15 of Britain's best known cartoonists and depicts the history of London.\n\nThe Reuben, named for cartoonist Rube Goldberg, is the most prestigious award for U.S. comic strip artists. Reuben awards are presented annually by the National Cartoonists Society (NCS).\n\nToday's strip artists, with the help of the NCS, enthusiastically promote the medium, which is considered to be in decline due to fewer markets (today few strips are published in newspapers outside the United States, the United Kingdom, and Canada, mainly because of the smaller interest there, with translated versions of popular strips - particularly in Spanish - are primarily read over the internet) and ever-shrinking newspaper space. One particularly humorous example of such promotional efforts is the Great Comic Strip Switcheroonie, held in 1997 on April Fool's Day, an event in which dozens of prominent artists took over each other's strips. Garfield’s Jim Davis, for example, switched with Blondie’s Stan Drake, while Scott Adams (Dilbert) traded strips with Bil Keane (The Family Circus). Even the United States Postal Service got into the act, issuing a series of commemorative stamps marking the comic-strip centennial in 1996.\n\nWhile the Switcheroonie was a one-time publicity stunt, for one artist to take over a feature from its originator is an old tradition in newspaper cartooning (as it is in the comic book industry). In fact, the practice has made possible the longevity of the genre's more popular strips. Examples include Little Orphan Annie (drawn and plotted by Harold Gray from 1924 to 1944 and thereafter by a succession of artists including Leonard Starr and Andrew Pepoy), and Terry and The Pirates, started by Milton Caniff in 1934 and picked up by George Wunder.\n\nA business-driven variation has sometimes led to the same feature continuing under a different name. In one case, in the early 1940s, Don Flowers' Modest Maidens was so admired by William Randolph Hearst that he lured Flowers away from the Associated Press and to King Features Syndicate by doubling the cartoonist's salary, and renamed the feature Glamor Girls to avoid legal action by the AP. The latter continued to publish Modest Maidens, drawn by Jay Allen in Flowers' style.\n\nIssues in U.S. newspaper comic strips\n\nAs newspapers have declined, the changes have affected comic strips. Jeff Reece, lifestyle editor of The Florida Times-Union, wrote, \"Comics are sort of the 'third rail' of the newspaper.\" \n\nSize\n\nIn the early decades of the 20th century, all Sunday comics received a full page, and daily strips were generally the width of the page. The competition between papers for having more cartoons than the rest from the mid-1920s, the growth of large-scale newspaper advertising during most of the thirties, paper rationing during World War II, the decline on news readership (as television newscasts began to be more common) and inflation (which has caused higher printing costs) beginning during the fifties and sixties led to Sunday strips being published on smaller and more diverse formats. Daily strips have suffered as well, in 1910 the strips had an unlimited amount of panels, covering the entire width page, while by 1930 most \"dailies\" had four or five panels covering six of the eight columns occupied by a traditional broadsheet paper, by 1958 those four panels would be narrower, and those would have half of the space a 1910 daily strip had, and by 1998 most strips would have three panels only (with a few exceptions), or even two or one on an occasional basis, apart from strips being smaller, as most papers became slightly narrower. While most cartoonist decided to follow the tide, some cartoonists have complained about this, with Pogo ending in 1975 as a form of protest from its creators against the practice. Since then Calvin and Hobbes creator Bill Watterson has written extensively on the issue, arguing that size reduction and dropped panels reduce both the potential and freedom of a cartoonist. After a lengthy battle with his syndicator, Watterson won the privilege of making half page-sized Sunday strips where he could arrange the panels any way he liked. Many newspaper publishers and a few cartoonists objected to this, and some papers continued to print Calvin and Hobbes at small sizes. Opus won that same privilege years after Calvin and Hobbes ended, while Wiley Miller circumvented further downsizings by making his Non Sequitur Sunday strip available only in an extremely vertical (near-page-long) arrangement. Few newspapers still run half-page strips, as with Prince Valiant and Hägar the Horrible in the front page of the Reading Eagle Sunday comics section. Actually Universal Uclick and United Media practically have no half-page comics, with the remaining strips from both syndicates in this format are published only as \"thirds\", \"fourths\", and \"sixths\" (also called \"third tabs\").\n\nFormat\n\nIn an issue related to size limitations, Sunday comics are often bound to rigid formats that allow their panels to be rearranged in several different ways while remaining readable. Such formats usually include throwaway panels at the beginning, which some newspapers will omit for space. As a result, cartoonists have less incentive to put great efforts into these panels. Garfield and Mutts were known during the mid-to-late 80s and 1990s respectively for their throwaways on their Sunday strips, however both strips now run \"generic\" title panels.\n\nWith the success of The Gumps during the 1920s, it became commonplace for strips (comedy- and adventure-laden alike) to have lengthy stories spanning weeks or months. The \"Monarch of Medioka\" story in Floyd Gottfredson's Mickey Mouse comic strip ran from September 8, 1937 to May 2, 1938. Between the 1960s and the late 1980s, as television news relegated newspaper reading to an occasional basis rather than daily, syndicators were abandoning long stories and urging cartoonists to switch to simple daily gags, or week-long \"storylines\" (with six consecutive (mostly unrelated) strips following a same subject), with longer storylines being used mainly on adventure-based and dramatic strips. Strips begun during the mid-1980s or after (such as Get Fuzzy, Over the Hedge, Monty, and others) are known for their heavy use of storylines, lasting between one and three weeks in most cases.\n\nThe writing style of comic strips changed as well after World War II. With an increase in the number of college-educated readers, there was a shift away from slapstick comedy and towards more cerebral humor. Slapstick and visual gags became more confined to Sunday strips, because as Garfield creator Jim Davis put it, \"Children are more likely to read Sunday strips than dailies.\"\n\nSecond author\n\nMany older strips are no longer drawn by the original cartoonist, who has either died or retired. Such strips are known as \"zombie strips\". A cartoonist, paid by the syndicate or sometimes a relative of the original cartoonist, continues writing the strip, a tradition that became commonplace in the early half of the 20th century. Hägar the Horrible and Frank and Ernest are both drawn by the sons of the creators. Some strips which are still in affiliation with the original creator are produced by small teams or entire companies, such as Jim Davis' Garfield, however there is some debate if these strips fall in this category.\n\nThis act is commonly criticized by modern cartoonists including Watterson and Pearls Before Swines Stephan Pastis. The issue was addressed in six consecutive Pearls strips in 2005. Charles Schulz, of Peanuts fame, requested that his strip not be continued by another cartoonist after his death. He also rejected the idea of hiring an inker or letterer, comparing it to a golfer hiring a man to make his putts. Schulz's family has honored his wishes and refused numerous proposals by syndicators to continue Peanuts with a new author.\n\nAssistants\n\nSince the consolidation of newspaper comics by the first quarter of the 20th century, most cartoonists have used a group of assistants (with usually one of them credited). However, quite a few cartoonists (e.g.: George Herriman and Charles Schulz, among others) have done their strips almost completely by themselves; often criticizing the use of assistants for the same reasons most have about their editors hiring anyone else to continue their work after their retirement.\n\nRights to the strips\n\nSince the dawn of comic strips, the ownership of them has been a recurrent issue. Traditionally, the syndicate owned the rights to the strips. However, throughout history there have been exceptions, with Mutt and Jeff being an early (if not the earliest) case in which the creator owned his works. However this was later limited to adaptations of animated properties. When it started in 1970, the Universal Press Syndicate gave cartoonists a 50-percent share on the ownership of their works, while the Creators Syndicate (founded in 1987) granted artists full rights to the strips, something that Universal Press did in 1990. followed by King Features in 1995, while before 1999 both the Tribune and United Feature services began granting rights to creators over their works; however the latter three syndicates only applied this to new strips, or to ones popular enough.\n\nCensorship\n\nStarting in the late 1940s, the national syndicates which distributed newspaper comic strips subjected them to very strict censorship. Li'l Abner was censored in September 1947 and was pulled from papers by Scripps-Howard. The controversy, as reported in Time, centered on Capp's portrayal of the U.S. Senate. Said Edward Leech of Scripps, \"We don't think it is good editing or sound citizenship to picture the Senate as an assemblage of freaks and crooks... boobs and undesirables.\" \n\nAs comics are easier for children to access compared to other types of media, they have a significantly more rigid censorship code than other media. Stephan Pastis has lamented that the \"unwritten\" censorship code is still \"stuck somewhere in the 1950s.\" Generally, comics are not allowed to include such words as \"damn\", \"sucks\", \"screwed\", and \"hell\", although there have been exceptions such as the September 22, 2010 Mother Goose and Grimm in which an elderly man says, \"This nursing home food sucks,\" and a pair of Pearls Before Swine comics from January 11, 2011 with a character named Ned using the word \"crappy\". Naked backsides and shooting guns cannot be shown, according to Dilbert cartoonist Scott Adams. Such comic strip taboos were detailed in Dave Breger's book But That's Unprintable (Bantam, 1955).\n\nMany issues such as sex, narcotics, and terrorism cannot or can very rarely be openly discussed in strips, although there are exceptions, usually for satire, as in Bloom County. This led some cartoonists to resort to double entendre or dialogue children do not understand, as in Greg Evans' Luann. Young cartoonists have claimed commonplace words, images, and issues should be allowed in the comics. Some of the taboo words and topics are mentioned daily on television and other forms of visual media. Web comics and comics distributed primarily to college newspapers are much freer in this respect.", "The comic strip Dick Tracy has introduced numerous characters.\n\nAllies\n\nTracy family\n\n Dick Tracy - The titular hero of the strip. Born in 1909 (eight years after creator Chester Gould). In 1931, before even joining the Police, he had captured his first villain Pinkie the Stabber. While leading a posse against the Arsons and Cutie Diamond, Tracy is seen in a Police uniform and not his regular plainclothes. He served as a lieutenant (senior grade) in US Navy Intelligence during World War II.\n* Tess Truheart - The detective's love interest and later wife. When she was first introduced, she was kidnapped by Big Boy Caprice's men after they robbed and shot her father Emil Truehart. She served as a WAC in World War II, and later opened her own photography agency. She is the mother of Bonnie Braids Tracy, Joseph Flintheart Tracy, and adoptive mother of Junior Tracy. Temporarily divorced her husband in the 1990s, but later reconciled with him.\n* Junior Tracy - The adopted son of Dick Tracy. First appeared in a Steve the Tramp storyline. In 1937's The Blank storyline he is 10 years old. He was originally named John \"Jackie\" Steele, and his birth parents were wealthy prospector Hank Steele and his wife Mary Steele, both of whom appeared in the strip. Became a police forensic artist.\n* Moon Maid - The beautiful first wife of Junior Tracy. She was one of the moon people, an alien race with large eyes, giraffe-like antennae, and laser powers. First introduced to the strip in 1963, Moon Maid was the daughter of the supreme ruler of the moon, known as the Moon Governor. She had blonde hair and wore a black body stocking, thigh high boots, and white gloves. She fell in love with Junior and took him back to the moon in Diet Smith's space coupe, then returned to Earth to live her life with her husband. She often used her laser powers to help the police capture criminals. In 1965 she and Junior had a beautiful daughter named Honeymoon. In 1978, Moon Maid was accidentally killed by a car bomb intended for Dick Tracy. After his daughter's death, the Moon Governor broke off all relations with Earth. In 2011, Moon Maid's first name was revealed to be Mysta, shortly after, the new \"Moon Maid\" destroyed Mysta's gravestone. \n* Sparkle Plenty - Daughter of B.O. Plenty and Gravel Gertie. She married Vera Alldid, divorced, then married Junior Tracy. She and Junior have one daughter named Sparkle Plenty Jr.\n* Crystal Plenty- Cousin of Sparkle Plenty, a vegan who practices New Age spiritual arts.\n* Bonnie Braids (Sometimes spelled Bonny) - Daughter of Dick Tracy and Tess Trueheart. Born in the back of a squad car May 4, 1951.\n* Joseph Flintheart Tracy - The younger son of Dick Tracy and Tess Trueheart, named after Vitamin Flintheart for his bravery in saving both Tess and Joseph.\n* Honeymoon Tracy - Daughter of Moon Maid and Junior, born in outer space. When very young, she witnessed her mother's death from a car bomb meant for Dick Tracy. She was later adopted by Sparkle Plenty when she and Junior were married. Half-sister of Sparkle Plenty Jr.\n* Sparkle Plenty Jr. - Daughter of Junior Tracy and Sparkle Plenty, granddaughter of Dick Tracy and Tess Trueheart and B.O. Plenty and Gravel Gertie. Half sister of Honeymoon Tracy.\n\nProfessional comrades\n\n* Chief Brandon - Chief of Police in the strip's first appearance on October 4, 1931. He joined the police in 1919 and later replaced Chief Norris who was elected Mayor. Brandon retired in 1949 after the murder of Brilliant Smith, an inventor who was under the department's protection. After retirement, he opened a hardware business named \"Lawn Order\" (a pun on \"Law and Order\"). Years later, Big Frost (who had tricked Brandon into getting access to Brillant Smith in order to kill him) tried to kill Brandon. Brandon was wounded and Big Frost was killed.\n* Pat Patton - Former steel worker turned police officer who was Tracy's long-time sidekick and partner on the police force. Later appointed Brandon's successor as Chief of Police upon which Sam Catchem became Tracy's new partner. He served as comic relief due to his inexperience although that role eventually was reduced as his various adventures allowed him to grow into his profession. The introduction of B.O. Plenty/Gravel Gertie and Vitamin Flintheart would later supplant him for humor. However, with Patton's ascension to Police Chief, his character took on a much more serious tone (although still slightly bumbling). Known for his \"Irish temper\". Shot by corrupt police officers Climer in 1982 and Lt. Teevo in 2007, but recovered both times. Recently reappointed as Chief after a successful treatment for cancer.\n* Sam Catchem (a pun on \"catch (th)em\") - Tracy's current partner since Pat Patton was appointed Chief. The 1990 film, Dick Tracy, featured both Pat Patton and Sam Catchem as Dick Tracy's partners.\n* Lizz Grove (née Worthington) - Former nightclub photographer turned police officer with a particular talent for hand to hand combat. Briefly married to a newspaper reporter named Jimmy until Jimmy's death. Even more briefly married to Officer Groovy Grove (see below). The ceremony was conducted as Officer Grove was on his deathbed. He died shortly after he and Lizz were declared man and wife. Served as Chief of Police during Pat Patton's temporary retirement. Her sister was murdered by Joe Period in the 1950s.\n* Diet Smith - Industrialist who supplied advanced equipment for Tracy and the police department. Responsible for the creation of the Space Coupe, the Wrist Radio, Wrist TV, Wrist Computer, and Wrist Genee. Originally suspected of murdering his partner in 1946 in his first appearance. Regularly seen drinking glasses of milk.\n* Brilliant - Son of Diet Smith, inventor of the Two-way Wrist Radio. His murder at the hands of mob leader Big Frost led to Chief Brandon's retirement and the promotion of Pat Patton to Chief.\n* George \"Cal\" Bullet Sr. - Highway Police Chief murdered by his own son Cal Bullet Jr. when he discovered his son's treasonous involvement with Pruneface. The accidental discovery of his body by Dick Tracy led to Pruneface's capture and the death of Cal Bullet Jr. at the hands of his own deadly poison gas.\n* J. Scotland Bumstead - British detective assigned to the European Secret Police. Brother of mob attorney Giorgio Spaldoni.\n* Constable Ferrett - Saved Tracy's life with a blood transfusion. After his daughter was killed in a car crash caused by Trigger Doom, Ferret saved Tracy's life again from a raging bull.\n* Deputy Sheriff Jim Lester - Murollo, California Deputy Sheriff mortally wounded in 1939 by criminal Whip Shute which led Tracy after Shute.\n* Frizzeltop - One-armed woman friend of Dick Tracy and Junior Tracy, named for the shock of frizzy hair on her head. {She was a US Military Nurse who lost her arm in a Japanese airplane attack on Bataan in 1941; she escaped capture after she was medically sent home to the United states}. After Pruneface's associate Clara is captured, Frizzeltop impersonates her to trick Cal Bullet Jr. into leading the law to Pruneface. Frizzeltop later married Dennis O'Copper.\n* Haku Kou - Native Hawaiian undercover cop in the Honolulu Police Department who worked with Tracy on the Willie the Fifth and Li'l Pineapple cases.\n* Dan Liu - Real-life Chinese-American Chief of the Honolulu PD at the time the Willie the Fifth and Li'l Pineapple cases were published, who made several prominent appearances in the strip, consulting with Tracy during those cases.\n* Lottie Latte - First appeared on April 8, 2006 as the criminal associate of Al Kinda in a plot to con the Plentys out of their lottery winnings. Lottie appeared to be either a male transvestite or a transgender person. After turning the tables on Al Kinda, it was revealed that Lottie is in fact the FBI's top undercover agent and \"best marksperson in the department.\"\n* Kitty - Comic relief pet cat addicted to cigar smoke. Belonged to Matty Square and Mr. Bribery. Member of the Police Department Zoo.\n* Li'l Dropout- A chimpanzee with a talent for painting. Member of the Police Department Zoo.\n* Mugg - A boxer dog who helped Dick Tracy bring down his own particular enemy Pear-Shape. Partial to riding on top of police cars. Member of the Police Department Zoo.\n* Captain Bowline - US Navy Intelligence and Tracy's superior. He appeared in the storylines for Flattop Jones and The Brow.\n* Lt. Marks - US Navy Intelligence plainclothes officer who assisted Tracy during The Brow case.\n* Nolan - Police clerk who helped Tracy trace ownership of Arthur \"Nip\" Dalton's wrecked car.\n* Detective Adonis - Hunky, mustachioed detective in the vein of Magnum P.I. Appeared in the strip in the 1980s.\n* Detective Frisk - Ambitious female detective on the police force antagonistic to Dick Tracy. Member of Major Crimes Unit. Jumped after criminal Sal Monella into the back of a garbage truck. After the trucks' contents were dumped into a garbage scow and then dumped into the river, the only trace found of her was a shoe. \n* Detective Lee Ebony - African-American policewoman and Tracy's partner in the Simon \"Sweatbox\" Baux case.\n* Patrolman Dawson - Uniformed beat patrolman who went with Tracy and Patton to investigate Schultze Innis' death.\n* Patrolman Ferris - Highway patrolman murdered by Mumbles' gang when he tried to stop them for driving a stolen car. Although Tracy had to release the Mumbles gang, subsequent events led to the gang's downfall.\n* Patrolman Grant - Highway Patrolman seen in The Brow storyline of 1944.\n* Patrolman Charles R. \"Groovy\" Grove - Ex-convict wrongly convicted of murder in 1958. When the real killer was exposed, Grove was released and later joined the police force in 1970, becoming a uniformed beat patrolman and the fiancé of Lizz. He was also the father of blind Tinky from his brief first marriage. In 1984 he was fatally wounded in the line of duty. Grove married Lizz while on his deathbed, so that she would receive the \"widow's benefits\" traditionally paid to the spouse of a police officer killed while on duty.\n* Patrolman Jenson - Unseen patrol officer who found block message left by The Blank in a dime store.\n* Patrolman Milligan - Stock character Irish uniformed beat patrolman who figured in many of the earliest stories (and died on several occasions). Nearly had neck broken when Pop Warner's son tried to break out of jail but was saved by Tracy.\n* Patrolman Murphy - Stock character of Irish uniformed beat patrolman who appears in several storylines, including 88 Keyes; Flattop Jones, The Brow and Pruneface. Although first appearing in the 1930s, he appeared as late as 1967 in the Haf and Haf storyline.\n* Officer Dennis O'Copper - Stock character of Irish uniformed cop; a state trooper appearing in the Pruneface storyline.\n* Patrolman O'Malley - Stock character of Irish uniformed beat patrolman sent in plainclothes by Tracy to contact B.B. Eyes' gang. B.B. Eyes delivered \"hot tires\" and O'Malley's body to Tracy. His murder would lead to B.B. Eyes' downfall in 1942.\n* Officer Shawn- Police officer killed in 1939 by Scardol during a car theft.\n* Chief Yellow Pony - Native American who formed a posse with Dick Tracy and Pat Patton to track down the Arson siblings and Cutie Diamond. Based on the Pawnee Chief Yellow Horse. A stereotype who can barely speak English. (Similar stereotypes appeared in the strip during the 1940s, such as the African-American doormen in the Mary-X storyline and railroad porters in the 88 Keyes storyline, and \"Jade\" the cowardly Jewish-American salesman.)\n* Town Marshal Wilke Wilkinson - Marshall of Layon Junction. Killed August 8, 1938 by the Jojo Nidle gang who had captured Junior Tracy and friend.\n* Trace (2008) - Police robot developed by Diet Smith Industries.\n* Special Agent Jim Trailer - FBI agent who helped Tracy in the Famon Brothers case and the Black Pearl episode. Also appears years later in further episodes, assigned to work with Tracy on the kidnapping of Diet Smith, and in other cases like Freez-Drei and the return of Pruneface\n* Jay Waljo (1971) - Narcotics officer who had been missing since 1969. His remains were found by Tracy in 11/11/1971.\n\nPersonal acquaintances\n\n* Bob Oscar \"B.O.\" Plenty - In his first appearance in 1945 he was a bachelor farmer living in a mess of a house, wearing torn clothes bought \"on account\", who hadn't left his farm for thirty years. \"B.O.\" constantly chews tobacco and is noted for having a rather \"musky\" scent that follows him around. He is a former criminal and later personal friend of the Tracys. After Shaky's body was discovered by his stepdaughter Breathless Mahoney, Breathless stole his estate money from her mother and met B.O. on the run. Plenty and Breathless eluded Tracy. Eventually, Plenty forced her to lead him to the bank where the money was hidden in a safety deposit box where he then nearly strangled and robbed her in the viewing room. After escaping with the money, he attempted to enjoy his wealth, which unfortunately drew the attention of the widow of B.B. Eyes and the sadistic gangster, Itchy, who robbed and attempted to murder him by tying him to a board and casting him into the city sewer system to drown. However, Plenty managed to safely exit the system and entered open sea where he was rescued by a tramp steamer headed for China. After returning to the city, he met Gravel Gertie and finally got his criminal charges resolved. Unable to pronounce Tracy's name correctly (usually calling him Macy or some variant thereof). He and Gertie are the parents of Sparkle Plenty, who married to Junior Tracy. In an Archie's TV Funnies episode, he appeared as a captive of \"Pear Shape\" Tone who tried to capture Dick Tracy.\n* Gravel Gertie - Former criminal and now wife of B.O. Plenty. Introduced in The Brow storyline in 1944. She was a widow for thirty years after her first husband sold her farm rights for a gravel pit and then died when his car backed into his own gravel pit. Tried to hide the Brow from the police after she found him in a wrecked car and was arrested when her hair from her clothes brush matched gray hair found near burning car. In a comic relief moment, the Brow fled in terror when he caught his first glimpse of his guardian angel. In his struggle to escape an old-fashioned lamp was knocked over burning her shack and her long hair. Later married B.O. Plenty and gave birth to Sparkle Plenty. In a later storyline, it was established that Gertie had spent part of her childhood in an orphanage; while she was there, criminals shaved her head and tattooed onto her bald pate a treasure map showing the location of their buried loot, then allowed her hair to regrow to conceal the map which was belatedly rediscovered well into Gertie's adulthood. Dick Tracy was a popular strip for the railroad workers, and Gravel Gertie is the affectionate nickname of a part of the Clifton Forge line of the C & O Railroad. It stretches from Hinton, West Virginia to Clifton Forge, Virginia and delivered limestone gravel quarried from Fort Spring to the iron furnaces of Virginia as a fluxing agent.\n* Vera Alldid - First husband of Sparkle Plenty, unilaterally divorced her. Cartoonist of \"The Invisible Tribe\", a strip revolving around a Native American tribe who speak but are never seen. Once a millionaire cartoonist, he was forced to work by Abner Kadaver into drawing horror comics for a living. He later created another popular comic strip that parodied Dick Tracy\n* Emil Trueheart - Father of Tess Trueheart. His murder by Big Boy's gangster \"Crutch\" would lead to Dick Tracy's vow to fight crime.\n* Kiss Andtel (1947) - A blonde singer engaged to Mumbles until she found out he was a thief. In revenge Mumbles stole her car which resulted in the death of a highway patrolman. Later she was forced to sing with his old group after he threatened to blind her. At sea in a cabin cruiser Mumbles tied her up and set up a bomb - which Dick Tracy threw overboard at last minute. She later becomes a singing star. Mother of Kisme Quick (1994) by Mumbles.\n* Mrs. Trueheart - Mother of Tess Trueheart. Present when her husband was murdered. Although wounded by Pruneface, her photograph of the villain helped lead to his downfall. She also made cameo appearances in the Flattop Jones and The Brow storylines.\n* Vitamin Flintheart - Former motion picture thespian who in his heyday made over $500.00 a week, now just a hypochondriac ham actor who when he is not quoting William Shakespeare has to take vitamin pills (which he cons Patrolman Murphy and Flattop to get for him) and Bismuth subgallate. Husband of Snowflake Falls, he first appeared in the Flattop Jones storyline at the age of 50 years. Also appeared in the storylines of The Brow and Shaky. His medicine bottle led to Flattop's doom while his fur coat brought about Shaky's demise. Was unwitting accomplice to Flattop's brother, Blowtop Jones. Both Vitamin and Snowflake made cameo appearances in the Freeze-Drei and Pruneface storylines. It has been established that one of Vitamin's film appearances was in The Bowery Boys Meet the Bard, presumably as the Bard.\n* Buddy Rogers - Son of wealthy parents who was kidnapped by Big Boy Caprice and smuggled aboard an ocean liner. Chased by Dick Tracy, Caprice tries to kill Tracy by throwing him overboard (Tracy survives) and later when Caprice is cornered by Tracy, Caprice throws his accomplice overboard and is stopped by Tracy from throwing Buddy Rogers overboard as well. After Rogers is returned, this leads to Alec Penn's exposure as a forger. (Based on Lindbergh kidnapping?)\n* Loma (1941) - Secretary/circus trapeze artist who saved Dick Tracy's life after Littleface Finny's henchman untied the window washer's platform Tracy was using to spy on Littleface. Later kidnapped by Littleface, she was knocked unconscious in a car accident after Littleface killed the driver of the hijacked car and subsequently found by Tracy.\n* Don Quick Oatie (Pun on Don Quixote) - Crazy senior citizen who dressed in medieval armour. Saved Tracy and Liz from the killer Oily when Oatie accidentally short circuited a fuse box in a garage causing snow to melt leading the roof to collapse, knocking Boily to fall into vat of boiling oil. Later Oatie attacked a \"dragon\" (electric windmill) in which Oily and Slick had taken refuge, causing Oily and Slick to fall to their deaths in an electric power plant. Oatie survived but was returned to the Leafy Acres mental asylum.\n* Hank Steele - Blind silver miner and biological father of Junior Tracy. Murdered by Stooge Viller while trying to protect his son.\n* Mary Steele - Mother of Junior Tracy. Reunited with her son in 1935. Instrumental in capturing Boris Arson. Was seen briefly in \"The Blank\" storyline in 1937.\n* Mary X (1940) (aka Luella Sunny) - An amnesia victim who (at first) could only lead Dick Tracy to the body of Freez. After Mason tried to kill her twice, the second attempt restored her memory. She became a singer with Rudy Seton's band.\n* Rudy Seton - Big-band leader and friend of Dick Tracy. His name \"Seton\" spelled backward is \"Notes\".\n* A. B. Helmet (1943) - Millionaire meat packer murdered by 88 Keyes' gang at the request of Helmet's wife\n* Homer 'Peanut Butter' Barley (1972) - Precocious 10-year-old scientific genius addicted to peanut butter sandwiches. Proved to be both a help and a source of irritation to Tracy.\n* George Tawara (2013) - Movie star who was imprisoned as a boy at Lake Freedom Internment camp during World War II.\n* Toad Spencer (2013) - Young girl who accidentally discovered evidence that led to the exposure of Simon \"Sweatbox\" Baux as a serial killer. Kidnapped by Baux to force George Tawara to make a false confession of murder. Toad was saved by the efforts of Mole and Pouch. To keep Baux from hurting Mole, Toad threw a baseball that stunned Baux long enough for Dick Tracy to arrive.\n* Mysta Chimera (2012) - Introduced as an apparently resurrected \"Moon Maid\", she was eventually revealed to be Glenna Ermine (a minor character of the 1960s strips), surgically and mentally altered to simulate the original one's appearance and powers, in a scheme (in which she was an unwitting pawn) to steal Diet Smith's Moon technology.\n\nEnemies\n\n* Abner Kadaver (2011-2013) - Horror movie host until replaced by Charles Addams-esque host Baron Clegg. Clegg later would be killed by hit-and-run driver Sizzler Sitzes, a hitman for \"The King of Crime\" who disappeared, only to be found dead by Honey Moon Tracy. His fog at the Panda Agency during a police raid accidentally caused Panda to be eaten by his own barracuda. Enforcer for B.B. Eyes. Charged in 2013 with 30 counts of first degree murder. Gimmick is a skeleton face along with a top hat. \n* Acres O'Reilly (1948) - Girlfriend of Heels Beals. Over six feet tall with long blonde hair.\n* Alec Penn (1932) - Had metal plate in skull after being shot while trying to desert from British Army in World War I; his postwar career included being a \"Don Juan\" thief, killer of wealthy women under the alias \"Count Gordon\", and forger of stocks and bond certificates. The forgeries came to light after Buddy Rogers was rescued by Dick Tracy. \"Penn\" is an abbreviation for \"penman\" (i.e. a forger).\n* Al Kinda (2006) - Kidnapped the Plentys in order to swindle them out of their lottery winnings, then tried to blow up the U.S. Capitol building until shot and killed by Lotte Latte.\n* \"Big Boy\" (1931-1934, 1978, 1979) - Crime boss patterned after Al Capone. After numerous attempts to kill Tracy, Caprice went one-on-one with him after Buddy Rogers' rescue, only to get the worst of it and be exposed as a cowardly thug who hides behind hired guns. Briefly escaped after associate boss Jim Herrod was killed but recaptured again after writer Jean Penfield survives being almost killed by Big Boy's associate Jimmy White. Years after being caught and imprisoned by Dick Tracy for kidnapping Buddy Rogers, Caprice died of a heart attack, raging because his greatest wish was unfulfilled: to kill and outlive Dick Tracy. In the 1990 movie Dick Tracy, \"Big Boy\" (played by Al Pacino) looked like villain Sketch Paree more than the character drawn by Chester Gould.\n* Angeltop Jones (1978, 1981, 1985) - One of the first villains to appear in the strip following Gould's retirement. Angeltop was Flattop's daughter. Her beautiful long blonde hair turned out to be a wig which concealed the hereditary flat cranium.\n* Arsons, The (1935) - Boris and Zora Arson were sibling bank robbers and cop-killers. Zora was killed and Boris was wounded and captured by Dick Tracy and a posse.\n* Art Dekko (1980) - Art forger and high class painting thief. Wounded by Tracy after he tried to ambush Detective in art gallery. Spoof of Art Deco style\n* Arthur \"Nip\" Dolton (1937) - Crime lord who fought the entire underworld to become czar of the city's slot machine racket. Member of the 1926 Redrum gang. Killed by the Blank and found by Tracy in the trunk of his own car after a train wreck. After his death, his slot machine empire was inherited by Czar Rinnis.\n* Astral Turf (1981-1982) - Green-haired phony psychic and accomplice of corrupt policeman Climer. Exposed as a phony by Tracy and arrested. The name is a pun on AstroTurf.\n* B-B Eyes (1942, 2011-2013) - Tire bootlegger, kidnapper, and head of a car and truck thief ring. He killed Patrolman O'Malley and tried to kill Dick Tracy and Pat Patton. While trying to escape from the police via a garbage scow, he was believed to have drowned at the bottom of a bay trapped in an old tire. However, in 2011 it was revealed that he had escaped and returned to a life of crime. In 2013 \"Mr. Crime\" put him in charge of a gang with enforcers Doubleup and Abner Kadaver. Charged with criminal conspiracy, assault on two police officers and the killing of Officer O'Malley. His trademark was unusually small eyes resembling BB pellets. Brother of B.D. Eyes and Jacques.\n* B.D. Eyes (1983) - Brother of B.B. Eyes and Jacques. Teamed up with Itchy Oliver's kid brother Twitchy in order to scare horror author Stephanie Queen out of the same house in which Itchy met his fate, for the coveted $100,000 which their older brothers hid in the house years earlier. \"B.D.\" is a pun on \"beady eyes\".\n* Belle (1932) - Broadway Bates' gang moll. Accidentally shot her own gang member in a fight between Bates and Dick Tracy and later arrested.\n* Bernard Breakdown (1980) - Diet Smith executive who kidnapped Smith and Dick Tracy. Tried to humiliate them both but was arrested. Gimmick was his quivering when under pressure.\n* Big Ace (2009) - Leader of casino scam and boss of One-Eyed Jack. Dick Tracy stopped him by pretending to be another casino swindler and concealing an ace of spades in his sleeve to beat him at a double-or-nothing gamble. Nose is shaped like the spades symbol.\n* Big Brass - (1974) Conman/swindler, seller of brass \"Health Rings\". Kidnapper/murderer killed by Dick Tracy.\n* Big Frost (1948, 2012) - Modeled after Gould's publisher Joseph Patterson. Murdered scientist Brilliant which prompted Chief Brandon to resign. Years later tried to kill Brandon but was himself killed. Among the visitors to the morgue where Frost's body was kept was Chester Gould himself. \n* Big Al (2004) - Public owner of Al's Waste Management Company; secret partner of Sal Monella. Killed in gun battle with Detective Frisk, February 29, 2004.\n* Bird Gang (2003) - Jay Hawk, Buzzard and Coot, a trio of jewelry store thugs who escaped from the state prison. They took revenge on an old member of their gang who squealed (Suds, murdered in his own laundry) and forced a stool pigeon named \"Tweety\" and Hawk's girlfriend \"Lovey Dove\" to try to trap Tracy. Dove had a change of heart and refused to trap Tracy. Tracy tried again to trap the gang only to be captured. The Bird gang tried to feed Tracy to a tiger but two of them ended up being killed by the tiger while the third member was killed by the police as he was about to shoot Dove. (June 24, 2003) \n* Blackjack (2012-2013) - A bank robber who took the guise of a western bandit from an old television show. Motivated not by a lust for money but a fanatical devotion to Dick Tracy and the wish to join Tracy's rogue's gallery. A deadly shot, he gave himself up only after shooting a hole through Tracy's hat.\n* Black Pearl (1940) - aka Pearl Erad (\"Dare\" spelled backwards). Government blueprint thief who nearly killed Dick Tracy and Pat Patton. Captured with Horace by Jim Trailer.\n* Blank, The (1937) - Alter-ego of Frankie \"Faceless\" Redrum, slot machine gang leader and killer who escaped from prison in 1927. Wearing a mask of cheesecloth that made his face appear to be blank, he killed nearly all of his old gang in revenge. Tried to kill Dick Tracy, Pat Patton and Stud Brozen by blowing up Brozen's boat. Later tried to kill Tracy and Brozen on Brozen's other boat. Patton knocked out The Blank and Tracy removed the mask to reveal the disfigured face of Redrum. In the 1990 film Dick Tracy, The Blank was manipulating both Tracy and \"Big Boy\" Caprice, only to be fatally shot by Big Boy before meeting his own doom. The unmasking revealed The Blank to be nightclub singer Breathless Mahoney (played by Madonna).\n* Blowtop Jones (1950, 1981, 1985) - Brother of Flattop, who tried to kill Dick Tracy by blowing up Tracy's house as an act of revenge for the death his brother. Also tried to kill Vitamin Flintheart. Captured after being caught in a barbed wire fence.\n* Bolo (1976) - Manager of singing star Irma from the musical group \"Gallstones.\" Got rich by secretly running off counterfeit copies of songs of the acts he managed.\n* \"Bookie\" Joe (1935)\n* B.O. Plenty (1945) - (See above)\n* Boris Arson (1934) - (See Arsons, The above)\n* Boss Jim Herod (1933) - Old time political city boss and politician who was secretly allied to crime boss \"Big Boy\" Caprice. Killed by police in gunfight.\n* Braces (2008) - Braces-wearing thug (similar to James Bond villain Jaws) with a robot accomplice. Tried to steal industrial secrets. Electrocuted by own robot after its wiring caught in his teeth's braces.\n* Brain (1974) - Eccentric gang leader who played an ocarina and wore a hat whose top was made to resemble a human brain. While trying to escape Tracy and Catchem, Brain and his gang drove into a train tunnel and were killed when they crashed into a freight train. (January 26, 1975)\n* Breathless Mahoney (1945) - Stepdaughter of Shaky who found his body and stole his strongbox keys. Took $50,000 hidden in strongbox and went on the run after killing a gardener who found her cache of money. Captured by Dick Tracy, she poisoned him and was again on the run after killing her landlady who was going to the police. Met with B.O. Plenty who nearly succeeded in strangling her and taking her money. Later she died of an illness in prison. Sister of Heartless Mahoney and aunt of Restless Mahoney. Played by Madonna in the 1990 film, in which Breathless disguised herself as The Blank.\n* Broadway Bates (1932, 2012) - Looked like Batman villain the Penguin. Kidnapped Dick Tracy for ransom money. After jumping bail, he tried to kill Tracy on a train in the woods but ended up thrown off of the train and stranded in the middle of nowhere.\n* Brow, The (1944) - Sadistic German spy ring leader nicknamed for his prominent brow ridges (and lack of ears). Kidnapped the Summer sisters and forced them into working for him by making one sister collect his spy reports while he tortured the other sister, not stopping until the reports had been delivered. One sister managed to shoot his henchmen but the Brow escaped; he later killed both sisters and a cab driver and ended up fleeing into the welcome arms of Gravel Gertie. Tracked down and beaten in hand-to-hand combat by Tracy before being arrested. Brow later tried to escape with a stolen police gun smuggled to him by Gravel Gertie. Before Brow could shoot, Tracy flung an inkwell at his head, knocking him through a window to be impaled on a flagpole. His son later worked with Angeltop Jones to get revenge on Tracy in the 1980s. In the 1990 movie, appeared as one of the five gangsters killed by Flattop and Itchy at the beginning of the film.\n* Bud Jenkins (1943) - 10-year-old pickpocket and blackmailer of Flattop Jones. After buying expensive skates with Flattop's hush money, fell through the ice while skating in park pond and drowned. Ironically, this is same pond in which Flattop also drowns trying to escape Dick Tracy.\n* Constable Caleb {1941} -law officer of Smallville; set by Tracy to keep an eye on Doc Codd; arrested with Codd by Tracy for taking a bribe from Doc Codd.\n* Cal Bullet (1942) - Chemical genius/traitor who murdered his own father when he discovered his son's treason. Tried to sell poison gas to \"Boche\" Pruneface. When he unknowingly led Tracy to Pruneface's hideout, Pruneface sadistically forced Cal to test his own poison gas. Before dying Cal confessed to the murder of his father to Tracy and names Boche as the head of the espionage ring.\n* Chameleon (1970)\n* Chameleon Gang (2003) Members tried to infiltrate a jury by dressing as an old woman, a boy scout leader and a preacher, but were discovered guilty and sentenced to 20 years.\n* Charlie (1944) - Flattop gang member killed in gun battle between Flattop and Tracy.\n* Charlie Yenom (1941, Yenom = Money) - Cold storage worker who saved Littleface Finny from icy death in exchange for $10,000.\n* Chin Chillar (1967, 1968) - Thief and murderer who at one time worked for Diet Smith on the moon. He wore a small beard on his chin and large earrings, as did his scantily-clad wife. Chin Chillar (first name George) and wife stole a police space coupe, freed Mr. Bribery from prison, and used the space coupe and a \"bird cage\" provided by Bribery to collect $100,000 that was orbiting the Earth.\n* Chuck Hole (1966) - Appeared in a Dick Tracy mini-comic in Reader's Digest using Tracy as a spokesman for an auto shocks and car battery manufacturer. Hole was a smuggler running counterfeit shock absorbers. Tracy and Catchem stopped his truck with a dynamite charge and arrested him. Tracy had figured out which truck in the convoy was carrying counterfeits by timing the speed between telephone poles: the truck with the lightest load (counterfeits) was the fastest vehicle between two poles. Hole's trademark is a \"hole\" in the top of his head. Resembled Elvis Presley.\n* Cinn (McKee) Ozone (1955) - Ex-wife of George Ozone who murdered him to get hold of hidden treasure. Accomplice of Mumbles who she also tried to kill but he killed her first. (July 7, 1955)\n* Clara (1942) - Jukebox operator who was part of Pruneface's sabotage ring. Served as contact between Cal Bullet Jr and Pruneface. Arrested.\n* Claw, The (1947) - From the film Dick Tracy's Dilemma. Stock character villain with a hook for a hand who, after robbing a fur warehouse, killed a night watchman, a fake blind peddler and his two accomplices before electrocuting himself with his hook trying to kill Dick Tracy.\n* Climer (1982) - His name is a pun on social climber. Corrupt Police Chief who shot retired Police Chief Pat Patton after Patton decided to write a tell-all book on corruption/organized crime within the Police Department. When Climer disbanded Major Police Squad, Tracy resigned in protest and formed his own detective agency. His first client was Patton's wife who wanted to know who had shot her husband. When Astral Turf revealed it was Climer behind the shooting, Tracy was knocked unconscious and put behind a police target made to resemble Flattop Jones Sr by Climer. However Tracy was able to free himself and Climer was accidentally shot and killed by a police cadet Feb 20, 1983. \n* Coffyhead (1947, 1981) - Shown constantly drinking coffee, and with a head shaped like a coffee pot. After serving his sentence, he reformed himself and became owner of an espresso shop.\n* Count Gordon (1932) - aka Alec Penn (see above)\n* Crewy Lou (1951) - A professional portrait photographer and criminal. Sported a crew cut hair style with combined braids. Inadvertently kidnapped Bonnie Braids while being pursued by Tracy. Later died falling from the window of an observation tower after Tracy threw tear gas into it. With her last breath she told Tracy where the baby was.\n* Crutch (1931) - Member of Big Boy Caprice's gang who killed Mr. Trueheart. First criminal killed by Dick Tracy, November 26, 1931.\n* Crystal (1974) - Girlfriend of Big Brass. She used a crystal ball to tell fortunes. Paid bond for Fencer, and was later killed by Brain after being forced to lead his gang to Big Brass's hidden cache of loot.\n* Crypto (2013) - Scotty dog and unwitting accomplice of the Jumbler.\n* Cueball (1946) - From the film Dick Tracy vs. Cueball. Bald thug who killed a diamond courier, a fence and an extortionist saloon owner before being killed by a train trying to escape from Dick Tracy.\n* \"Cut\" Famon (1935)\n* Cutie Diamond (1935) - Bank robber, cop killer and accomplice of Boris and Zora Arson. Boasted of killing of at least four murders-a bank teller and three law officers {Including an unknown victim who foolishly tried to come after him}. Hid in a cave guarded by wildcats in the Ozarks but was tracked down and killed by Dick Tracy and posse.\n* Czar Rennis (1941, \"sinner\" spelled backwards) - Crime boss successor to Arthur \"Nip\" Dalton of the slot machine racket. Killed by henchman Trigger Doom.\n* Dan \"The Squealer\" Mucelli (1932) - In charge, along with Texie Garcia, of the city's narcotics traffic as part of Big Boy's organization. Cousin of Ribs Mocco.\n* Danny Supeena (1937) - Crooked lawyer who injured and exploited his victims/accomplices (last of those Johnny Mintworth) to defraud insurance companies. He killed Mintworth's Mother who threatened to denounce him. Mortally wounded by Dick Tracy, Supeena confessed to Mrs Mintworth's killing before dying in hospital. His surname is a spoof of Subpoena.\n* Davy Mylar (2012) aka \"Mr. Crime\" (See Mr. Crime for biography)\n* Deafy Sweetfellow (1940)\n* Debbie Thorndike (1942) Socialite girl secretly married to Jacques. With boyfriend Sailor Kelly, she reopened the Bird Club. Nearly killed with Dick Tracy by former brother-in-law B.B. Eyes.\n* \"Dippy\" McDoogan (1933) - Thuggish accomplice of Steve \"the Tramp\" Brogan when Brogan was on the run after kidnapping Junior Tracy for a reward from Blind Hank Steele looking for his lost son. Brogan and McDoogan hijacked a railroad section hand car from two railroad workers to get away from Tracy. Too late they found themselves on a railroad trestle with a locomotive engine bearing down on them. Junior and Brogan dove to safety into a river but the train hit the handcar, killing McDoogan.\n* Dirks (1937) - Thug in the employ of Danny Supeena and former member of the old Redrum gang. Along with Neely tried to murder Junior Tracy. The Blank gassed them both in Dick Tracy's garage. \n* Doc (1944) - Brow's henchman who helped kill the Summer sisters and a cab driver. Later killed in car accident while trying to flee from the police.\n* Doc Codd {1941} - Greedy Physician who amputated Krome's left arm for $10,000; Bribed his friend Constable Caleb so he could escape with Krome's money. Both arrested by Dick Tracy who turned them over to State Attorney General for disposition.\n* Doc Hump (1934) - Mad scientist killed by one of the dogs he was experimenting on.\n* Dr. Kyros Freezedrei (1983,1985) - Brought Pruneface back to life from freezing. Together with Pruneface tried to sell secret of \"immortality\" so as to set up a new Fourth Reich & also take revenge on Dick Tracy for the death of Mrs. Pruneface. Freezedrei was supposedly killed in the explosion of his own laboratory, but reappeared years later working with Prunceface. After developing a viral blindness which he used on Tess Trueheart, he was killed after being crushed by a satellite dish he tried to drop on Dick Tracy and Sam Catchem.\n* Dr. Klippoff (1968) - Mad scientist who tried and failed to revive a frozen Purdy Faller.\n* Dr. Plain (1950)\n* Doubleup (2011-2013) - Tried to sabotage the shooting of a movie based on one of Dick's old cases. Verbal tic of repeating the last two words of his sentences. In 2013 he was an enforcer for B.B. Eyes charged with criminal conspiracy and assault.\n* Dubbs (1931)\n* Duke aka \"Duke the Dip\" (1941) - Pickpocket who almost succeeded in killing Dick Tracy. Kidnapper and armed car robber murdered by the Mole. Apparently a former member of Mole's old gang. After the body was found by police, the trail led to Mole.\n* Ed D. Edd aka Machine Gun Eddy (1943) - Flattop gang member before and after the kidnapping of Jim Trailer and Roloc Bard. Was killed in gun battle between Flattop and Dick Tracy.\n* Eddie Moppet (1952) - Racketeer killed in gunfight with Dick Tracy and Sam Catchem on June 1, 1952. His accomplice, a knife thrower, was captured after falling into hot grease.\n* Eddy (1944) - Member of Shaky's gang killed by jumping out of window in panic during apartment fire.\n* Edward Nuremoh (1939) - A former pro baseball player (his last name being \"home run\" backwards), Nuremoh seriously dated Tess during the period when Tess was annoyed that Tracy showed no signs of proposing marriage. At first, Junior was dazzled by Nuremoh's ability to hit a small target with a thrown baseball from an extreme distance, but then became disillusioned upon learning of Nuremoh's criminal activities. When Nuremoh accidentally killed his sweetheart instead of his wife, he took his mistress' body and jumped off a cliff.\nEl Tigress (1971) - Cigar-smoking revolutionary and client of Johnny Scorn. Killed with Molene in explosion of underground bunker\n 88 Keyes (1943) - Piano player (his name references the number of keys on a piano) and secret head of murder gang for hire; his interests are music, women, money and murder. Killed his own gang member \"Jinny the Girl Singer\" when she found out he was going to double cross her. Eloped with Mrs A.B. Helmet and killed her for insurance money. Killed accomplice \"Red Bluff\". The discovery of Bluff's body by police led to Keyes' own death in a railroad shed in a gun battle with Dick Tracy. In the 1990 film, he was the piano player for Big Boy at the club Ritz, and with the help of the Blank, framed Tracy for the murder of D.A. Fletcher.\n* Empty Williams (1951)\n* Filthy Flora (1945) - Proprietor of the Dripping Dagger saloon.\n* Fencer (1974) - Partner of Big Brass. Hid over $2,000,000 in stolen mob money in house. Just as Tracy and Catchem were recovering stolen loot, a tornado destroyed both house and loot. Committed suicide by jumping from city bridge, along with his dog as well but the pet was saved by Tracy.\n* Flattop aka Floyd \"Flattop\" Jones Sr. (1943-1944) - Came from Chester Gould's home state of Oklahoma. Contract killer hired to murder Dick Tracy for $5,000. Decided to hold Tracy hostage and blackmail his employers for more money before doing the job. However he only wounded Tracy in a gun battle which wiped out his own gang. On the run, Flattop killed conman Hawker Davis. Bribing a blackmailing Bud Jenkins led to Jenkins' accidental death and Flattop on the run again where he met Vitamin Flintheart. Captured after trying to shoot Dick Tracy, Flattop escaped again with Flintheart as a hostage. Tracked down by Tracy, Flattop accidentally drowned trying to escape. His name is based on the nickname for an aircraft carrier. Portrayed by William Forsythe in the film from 1990, he was the last gangster to be gunned down by Tracy. Shot multiple times, he didn't fall until his tommy gun ran out of ammo.\n* Flattop Jones Jr. (1956) - The son of Flattop, who strongly resembled him, was a talented artist and mechanical genius. A borderline juvenile delinquent, he lived in his car, which he modified by installing various electrical devices (including a stove) connected to the dashboard's cigarette lighter. Driven insane by ghost of girlfriend whom he had killed.\n* Flyface (1959, 2011) -\n* Frank Diamond - Member of Big Boy's gang.\n* Frankie \"Faceless\" Redrum (1937) - Slot machine gang leader and killer who escaped from prison in 1927 and disguised himself as The Blank to take revenge on his old gang.\n* Fred Mason (1940) - Factory owner who tried to kill Mary X for witnessing the murder of his partner Freez. Murdered by Junky Doolb after Mason failed to deliver rigged gambling equipment to the Doolb gang.\n* Gargles (1946) - Killer of Themesong's mother, driver of glass truck, and a few henchmen, and was finally caught in a glass store where Dick Tracy used a panel of bulletproof glass to walk towards him as he wasted all of his bullets, then fell off of a platform, and was impaled and dismembered by several falling shards of broken glass. Gargles profited illegally by manufacturing and bottling large quantities of ineffective mouthwash (water, sugar and a few drops of mint oil), which he and his strong-arm boys would bully druggists into purchasing as merchandise. Gargles had the habit of constantly gargling with mouthwash...but always made a point of using a legitimate brand, rather than his own worthless product.\n* Giorgio Spaldoni (1934) - Corrupt lawyer and Big Boy's mouthpiece. Murdered author Jean Penfield before she could expose his lucrative underworld connections, and framed Tess Trueheart for the crime. Made a last stand against Tracy in an abandoned refinery, and was subsequently killed by Tracy in a shootout. Appeared as a crime boss in the 1990 Dick Tracy movie played by James Caan, where he's known as \"Spuds\" Spaldoni: he refuses to submit to Caprice and dies to a car bomb.\n* Gravel Gertie (1944) (See above)\n* Gruesome (1947) - From the film Dick Tracy Meets Gruesome. Thuggish killer who by accident was exposed to a nerve gas which can simulate death. Killing the kidnapped scientist who engineered it, Prof. A. Tomic (Atomic), Gruesome manipulated Dr. Lee Thal (Lethal) into staging a bank holdup with the gas before later killing the man after he silence his love Dr. I.M. Learned. Dick Tracy managed to kill Gruesome and save his body before it was accidentally cremated in a furnace. Gruesome was played by Boris Karloff, whose post-death scene was a parody of the film Frankenstein where the monster, played by Karloff, is burned in a windmill fire.)\n* Habe Corpussle (1968) - Posie Ermine's lawyer and owner of J & X Florist shop. Hid Posie from the police. Also lawyer for the Human Hair gang. A play on Habeas corpus.\n* Hammerhead (1988)\n* Hantz Turtle (aka Agent 12) (1944) - Brow gunman killed by June Summers\n* Hawker Davis (1944) - Conman and street hawker beaten unconscious and burned to death by Flattop.\n* \"Heels\" Beals (1948) - \"Heels\" Beals was a midget who wore platform shoes with hollow built-up heels, in which he concealed stolen jewels. Beals eluded Tracy by hiding inside a giant soda bottle that was intended for use as part of an advertising billboard. While Beals was inside the bottle, workmen attached it to the billboard several hundred feet above the ground. Beals called for help but was unheard, and nearly died from thirst and exposure, before he was found and arrested. His name is a joke on the well-known expression of amazement: \"Hells Bells!\". Basically a reprint of villain Jerome Trohs.\n* Hed Hedges (1949) - Pear Shape gang member and part of jewelry swindle ring. Bitten by Mugg the Dog and captured by Dick Tracy.\n* Henry \"Hardcase\" Horan(2003) - A juvenile offender sentenced to 15 years in prison and released in 1994. He nearly killed Dick Tracy trapped in a snowbank but doesn't. Years later, while trying to fix a satellite navigation system, he spotted a sailboat in trouble in a storm and used a skiff to rescue the people aboard until a big wave overturned the boat. Horan sacrificed his life to save a child. \n* Hi-Top Jones (1991) - Descendant of Flattop, involved in a young urban gang notorious for killing an inner-city kid (Tim Vick, a pun on \"victim\") for his sneakers. Sported a high-top afro hairstyle popular in the 1990s.\n* Horace (1940) - Black Pearl gang member captured by Jim Trailer\n* Hy Habeas (1931)\n* Ice Man (1998)\n* Influence (1946-1947, 1981) - Used special colored contact lenses to hypnotize his victims. Was brought back thirty years later, reformed and working for the FBI. Appeared in the 1990 Dick Tracy film played by Henry Silva, but was seen without his mind control abilities.\n* Intro (1968) - Successor to \"Odds Zonn\". Gang leader who tried to control world economy with stolen moon gold. Took pains to keep identity hidden via a black mesh/chain mail mask (worn along with bulletproof underwear). Destroyed along with his entire organization by Dick Tracy with atomic laser beam. His real identity was never revealed.\n* Irma (1946)\n* Itchell \"Itchy\" Oliver (1945) - Gangster with a skin condition which caused him to constantly scratch, hence his sobriquet. Shaky's friend, was introduced by Shaky's wife, who hoped to recover her late husband's money. Both Itchy and Mrs. B.B. Eyes had attempted to starve Tracy to death in Mrs. B-B Eyes' basement as revenge for her husband's death. Killed by Tracy in self-defense on December 23, 1945. Brother Twitchy would later go on to face Tracy with another brother of B-B Eyes. In the film from 1990, he was often seen working alongside Flattop. He was the second to last gangster to be gunned down by Tracy.\n* J.C. Nitials (1941) - Littleface Finny gang member. After using a monogrammed handkerchief during a robbery, he was burned by Finny on the chest as punishment for leaving a clue and subsequently was sent to the hospital. However the burning was witnessed by building cleaners who reported the incident to police, which put Tracy on trail of Finny.\n* Jacques (1941) - Brother of B.B. Eyes and B.D. Eyes and owner of the Bird Club. Tried to kill Dick Tracy with a boulder. Later killed by Dick Tracy when he tried to kill his wife Debbie Thorndike.\n* Jenny the Girl Singer (1943) - AKA Jenny Linn. Part of 88 Keyes' gang. Murdered by 88 Keyes when she discovered he planned to double cross her and Piano Turner. After her body was found by Dick Tracy, Piano Turner confessed.\n* Jer (1967) - Henchman of Piggy Butcher who assisted Piggy in the forcible shave of Mrs. Chin Chillar.\n* Jerome Trohs and Mamma (1940) (Trohs is \"short\" spelled backwards. See also Mamma and the Midget) - Public lawyer and sadistic secret gang leader who abandoned his girlfriend Mamma to the police. Hid out as performer \"Joe Atom\" in a Wild West rodeo show. Swindled an old couple out of ownership of Mountaintop Lodge where Mamma tracked him down and scalded him to death in an outdoor shower.\n* Jim Pistol (1949) - Health spa owner appearing as comic relief in the Pear-Shape Tone storyline. Reappeared years later with Tone as his assistant.\n* Jimmy White (1933) - Thief and associate of Big Boy Caprice who twice tried to kill writer Jean Penfield from writing a book about Big Boy's crime organization. He only succeeded in killing himself in a car accident.\n* Joe Period (1955) - Partner to Flattop Jr. during city wide crime wave, responsible for the murder of Nothing Yonsen and the sister of Policewoman Lizz. Also killed Doctor Forbes and Paul Paperclip. Sentenced to life in prison.\n* Joe (1944) - Brow spy henchman, killed by June Summer\n* Johnny Ramm (1938) - Ran a protection racket until Tracy faked insanity/suicide and went undercover with Ramm gang under alias of Reppoc (\"copper\" backwards) to bring the Ramm gang to justice. Appears briefly in the big gangster meeting in the 1990s movie.\n* Johnny Nothing (2010) - Grandson of \"The Blank\". Appeared in a white blank face mask. Committed a murder during a play with Dick Tracy and almost killed Tracy as well. Wounded and in custody.\n* John Lavir (1939) - Brother of Lola Lavir, the mistress accidentally killed by Edward Nuremoh before his suicide. Stabbed/injured by Tess Trueheart - He was later killed by one of his own guard dogs whom he had cruelly treated.\n* Johnny Scorn (1971) - Partner of Pouch and Molene. His trademark was an addiction to popcorn. He kept a movie-style popcorn machine in his penthouse residence, with a jumbo-sized salt shaker and paper bags, and offered freshly popped popcorn to his visitors. After Molene blew herself up in an ammunition bunker, Pouch avenged her by placing blasting caps in Scorn's popcorn machine, killing Scorn.\n* JoJo Nidle (1938) - Leader of a gang of railroad robbers who kidnapped Junior Tracy and his friend. His gang killed a town marshal who accidentally came across Junior Tracy's kidnapping. The gang was almost lynched for officers murder before being arrested by Dick Tracy; Nidle tried to escape by hijacking a train engine but was pursed and killed by Dick Tracy.\n* Jules Sparkle (1945) - Jeweler.\n* Jumbler (2013) - Alias of K.T. Hunter. Wore glasses with the number 13 on them and a blue beret with the letter \"J\". On March 10, 2013 sent a video email to Dick Tracy claiming to be a Scottish rummage sale \"jumbler\". Had a tear-gas cane and a Scottish Terrier named Crypto. On March 18, 2013 he stole a collection bag from a merchant dressed as a \"reeve\" (olden precursor of sheriff) at a Madrigal festival. Later stole a collection of rare comic books and the proceeds from a jewelry store. Tracy discovered that Jumbler would \"announce\" his robbery subject via a hacked computer jumbled word puzzle that appeared in newspapers before he struck. Captured April 14, 1013 by Tracy with the help of a Jumbler ad. Synergistically, a series of syndicated Jumble word puzzles began April 3, 2013 featuring a cartoon of Dick Tracy with the puzzle. In a comics crossover, characters from Comic Strip Funky Winkerbean decided to attend a police auction of the stolen comics recovered from the Jumbler after his trial January 19, 2015. Likewise Dick Tracy was on the Funky Winkerbean comic strip at the police auction January 20, 2015!\n* Junky Doolb (1940) (Doolb = \"blood\" reversed) - Gang leader who killed Fred Mason. Later killed by police after being tricked by Jerome Trohs into escaping from jail with an empty gun.\n* Karpse (1938)\n* Kenneth Grebb (1932) - Blackmailer who ended up buried alive in landslide.\n* Kenno the Great{1974} - Professional knife thrower and exposed as the killer of Miss Rinkles half brother in 1962; shot and killed April 12, 1974 when he tried to stab Policewoman Liz.\n* The King (1951) - Powerful organized crime figure in Crewy Lou continuity who is, apparently, Big Boy's successor as boss of the city's mobs. Shot by Crewy Lou. Succeeded by Mr. Crime.\n* Kitten Sisters (1956) - Three triplets/robbers\n* Krome (1940) -\n* Laffy Smith (1943) - Died laughing in jail cell after accidentally cutting his wrist on broken ether bottle. His brother Lt. Kirk Smith was a war hero fighting in the China-Burma-India theater.\n* Larceny Lou (1932) - Leader of a gang of automobile thieves. \n* Lee Ting (1938) -\n* Lewis Rewes Jr. (1941) - Real name of \"The Mole\". Last name is \"sewer\" reversed.\n* Lispy (1976) - Secret head of a trio of female bank robbers gang and friend of Puckerpuss; two members of her gang are captured by police after one killed. \n* Lips Manlis [aka Bob Honor] (1936) - Early villain in the strip. Later reformed and renamed himself \"Bob Honor\", helping Tracy on a case. In the Dick Tracy film, Manlis (played by Paul Sorvino) was kidnapped by his former underling \"Big Boy\" Caprice and forced to sign over his crime assets, then put in concrete overshoes and dumped into the lake by Flattop.\n* Littleface Finny (1941, 2011)- Gang leader/murderer/car and taxi hijacker/kidnapper/racketeer nicknamed for his unusually small face, further emphasized by his large ears. Tried to escape from Dick Tracy after nearly drowning in a pond. He was recaptured by Tracy after losing both ears to frostbite from being trapped in a freezer (as well as being covered with bee stings). After release from prison in 2011, he worked with police in infiltrating the Panda/Mr Crime gang. In the 1990 film, was one of the five gangsters under Lips Manlis killed by Flattop and Itchy at the beginning of the movie. \n* Lt. Teevo (2007) - {Pun on T.V.}- Communications expert in Police Department and informant for Mr. Crime and Panda. Shot and wounded Chief Patton when Patton refused to be recruited for \"Mr Crime\". Killed by man eating plant when Panda talent agency was being raided by Police\n* Madam Parfum (1968) - Partner of Posie Ermine; owns a Perfume shop \"front\" for hijacked perfume; arrested\n* Mamma (1940) - Overweight thuggish and sadistic girlfriend of Jerome Trohs who crushed Dick Tracy's Hand; escaped from prison and became a truck and car hijacker; scalded Trohs to death in an outdoor shower. In hand-to-hand combat, Tracy used the sling from his injured hand to subdue \"Mamma\" by nearly strangling her; she ended up handcuffed and back in prison.\n* Mar, The (1946)\n* Marrg Plainsman (1967) - Secretary at research center who stole atomic device for Piggy Butcher only to be killed by him. A hidden tape recorder she had with Piggy before her death gave Tracy evidence of Piggy's involvement\n* Marty (1944) - Shaky gang member shot through hand and captured by Dick Tracy.\n* Matty Square (1965) - Stolen car parts gang leader who has a cigar smoking cat on his shoulder. Tries to kill Moon Maid after she \"Zaps\" three of his gang who tried to mug her/run her down; only succeeds in killing two of his own gang; after Tracy kills hitman Square hired-Square works for Mr. Bribery-who takes Square's cat-and his sister Ugly Christine. Accidentally boiled alive trying to set a trap for Dick Tracy\n* Max (1931) - Big Boy Gangster.\n* May and June Summer' (1944) - Pickpocket country twins who came to the city to break into radio. Ironically, they lost their biggest chance at show business, when after escaping from Pat Patton, they refused Vitamin Flintheart's offer to work in his show - after seeing him hanging out at Police Headquarters they mistaken him for a police spy. Both twins got mixed up with The Brow who blackmailed them into his service by torturing one sister and forcing the other sister to collect his spy reports. They managed to escape the Brow and were placed in protective custody. However, while leaving town, the Brow murdered their cab driver and the car crashed into the river, trapping and drowning both sisters. Tracy's investigation of their deaths led to the Brow's capture.\n* Measles Enog (1945, 1981, 2012) - Trademark is red spots on face. Head of a dope smuggling racket. Escaping from Dick Tracy after a train wreck, Measles boarded a train compartment and tried to take Vitamin Flintheart and his wife hostage, until Vitamin knocked him out with a liquor bottle. Escaping again from the train onto a flooded plain Measles tried to flee from Tracy using a stolen boat and a swimming horse but was captured. At the jail Measles tried to escape with smuggled tear gas capsules but only ended up teargassing himself and locked in a cell by Chief Brandon.\n* \"Melody\" Fiske (1947) - Henchman in the film Dick Tracy Meets Gruesome. Hospitalized after a nasty car crash during an attempt to evade Tracy, Melody eventually died within the night.\n* Micky (1941) - Trolley driver part of Littleface Gang who was killed in hospital by henchman J.C. and his accomplice as he was confessing his part in robbery gang.\n* Micky (1942) - B.B. Eyes gang member knocked out by his escaping boss and captured by police.\n* Mike DeLugo {1944} - ran the deserted Ajax Cafe which was used as an underworld harbor and gave a key to Shaky Trembly who used the building to kidnapped Snowflake {Falls} Flintheart after her marriage to ham actor Vitamin Flintheart Dec 15, 1944\n* Mindy Ermine (1968) - Spoiled juvenile delinquent daughter of Posie Ermine and evil twin counterpart of Sparkle Plenty. Arrested after trying to stab Lizz the policewoman when she recognized Lizz as an undercover detective.\n* Miss Deal (1965) - Secretary to Mr Bribery. When she unknowingly led police to Bribery's hideout he tried to kill her. She kicked him in the face before being arrested.\n* Miss Fire (1966) - Appeared in a Dick Tracy mini-comic, when Tracy was a spokesman for an auto shocks and car battery manufacturer. Miss Fire was a nightclub singer and part of a diamond smuggling ring who was foiled by Tracy and Catchem; her gimmick is singing - and speaking - in rhyme.\n* Miss Intro (1968) - see \"Painted Lady\"\n* Miss Rinkles (1973) - The discovery of a skull of a gangster who had been found beheaded in 1962 led Tracy and Liz to his psychotic half sister who resembled a female version of \"Pruneface\" and kept a guillotine in her basement.\n* Mistress of Death (2001) Con woman who got money by \"preaching\" that \"Life is short..do what you want.\" Hid money in an abandoned church. When three of her co-workers tried to rob her, she killed them and made it look like she and her children were victims. When the victims prove not to be the Mistress and her two children, Tracy releases an innocent suspect he accidentally comes in contact with Mistress daughter who really has found religion. The Mistress flees to Florida where to find more money to finance her lifestyle, she reinvents herself as a \"Mistress of Faith\". Before Tracy and Catchem can arrest her, she is electrocuted by lighting strikes a metal pole she was holding.\n* Mole, The (1941, 1971, 1981, 2012, 2013) - A career criminal since 1911 and ex-counterfeiter who was thought to have been killed by own gang in 1926. Literally brought from the underground from collapsed tunnel and captured by Dick Tracy. Confessed that he saved his own life by promising his gang a permanent hideout free of charge as long as he lived - instead killed them and took their money (see Duke the Dip above). The Mole reappeared 30 years later, reformed and stricken with arthritis, in a cameo concerning his granddaughter Molene, Johnny Scorn and Pouch. During this storyline, Tracy confided to his wife Tess that he had \"always liked the Mole.\" Along with Pouch, saved Spencer Toad from serial killer Simon \"Sweatbox\" Baux in 2013.\n* Molene (1971) - Granddaughter of \"The Mole\". Trapped in an underground munitions bunker by the police, she grabbed a hand grenade from an accomplice and blew up herself and the accomplice. Looked like a female version of the Mole, but usually kept her face veiled. Her partner Johnny Scorn escaped via a secret escape tunnel. All that was ever found of \"Molene\" was her hairnet on a bush.\n* Mona Clyde (1945) - Secretary to Mr. Sparkle.\n* Morgancoin AKA Agent 20 (1942) - Pruneface accomplice who was trapped by police in house after he tried to escape from, and was subsequently killed by, Pruneface.\n* Moron Plenty - Father of B.O. Plenty\n* Mousey (1949, 1981) - Shoplifter who created distractions by letting mice loose in shops. After serving her sentence, she reformed and opened up a pet store.\n* Mountain Man (1997) -\n* Mr. Bribery (1965, 2015) - Alias of \"Joie Packet,\" and brother of Ugly Christine. Murderer, drug smuggler, pickpocket, influence peddler, briber and blackmailer. Perhaps the most gruesome of Tracy's villains, Mr. Bribery decapitated people and shrunk their heads. He wanted Dick Tracy to be part of his collection, and set out to kill him. He owned a cigar-smoking cat and maintained discipline in his gang by branding them. He had a habit of talking to his rose plant and making decisions based on a Ouija board. Bribery was sent to the State Penitentiary. He escaped from prison by bribing the Chin Chillars to steal a space coupe with the offer of trying to recover a fortune of his money that was lost in orbit. After recovering the loot, the Chin Chillars gave Bribery alcohol to drink until he passed out and then \"returned\" Bribery to prison by dropping/killing him from a great height through the prison carpentry shop roof. The money was then destroyed while escaping from Dick Tracy. On June 25, 2015 it was revealed to a kidnapped Diet Smith that \"Mr. Bigg\" of the Blackhearts was in fact Mr. Bribery, who apparently survived the fall after all.\n* Mr. Crime (1952) - Powerful organized crime figure, apparently the King's successor as head of the city's (and possibly the nation's) mob. To all appearances a legitimate businessman named George Alpha, he was, in reality, the \"boss of all crime in America.\" After being killed in a shootout with Tracy and Catchem, he was replaced briefly by Odds Zonn and later by Willie the Fifth. On June 17, 2012, Davy Mylar found Alpha's old strongbox of blackmail information and used the internet to set himself up as the new Mr. Crime. Mylar was killed in the police raid on his HQ and his money was given to his mother by his associate Blaze Rise.\n* Mr. Kleen (2013) Criminal defense attorney. When asked by the late Mr. Crime's associates to represent B.B. Eyes, Doubleup and Abner Kadaver so they wouldn't \"sing\" to avoid long prison sentences, Kleen claimed he could get off Double Up and B-B Eyes, but not Kadaver.\n* Mr. Kroywen (1940)\n* Mr. Natnus (1939, Suntan spelled backwards)\n* Mr. Oily (Not to be confused with the 1941 Oily) (2001, 2006) - A killer whose main MO is boiling his victims in steaming oil. Was captured by Tracy in 2001 then broke free and kidnapped Tracy and Liz. He was eventually defeated by a minor ally, Don Quick Oatie, who caused a fire which caused Oily's accomplice \"Boily\" to fall back into his own vat of oil; later Oatie \"attacks\" a \"Dragon\" {an electric windmill} where Oily and Slick have taken refuge; Oily and Slick accidentally fall into an electric power plant and are killed when it blows up.\n* Mr. Pops (2009) - Former high tech weapons dealer who was ratted out by one of his employees. Found out that the employee used the Witness Protection Program to become Ringo, ringmaster, so he disguised himself as the clown Mr. Pops to kill Ringo. Nearly gets eaten by a tiger, but is rescued by Dick Tracy before being arrested.\n* Mrs. A.B. Helmet (1943) - Hired ex-lover 88 Keyes to murder her wealthy husband for insurance money, only to be murdered by 88 Keyes in return when he left her asleep in a car to be hit by a train.\n* Mrs. Anna Enog (1945) - Corrupt jail matron and part of dope smuggling ring at the County Jail where Gravel Gertie was imprisoned. When Gertie caught on to the fact that they were using her as part of the racket, Enog tried to push her into pump machinery but was killed when she accidentally slipped into the machinery herself. She was the mother of gangster Measles.\n* Mrs. Chin Chillar (1967, 1968, 2013) - Femme-fatale wife of George Chin Chillar and sister of Purdy Fallar. She was a young woman who wore a skimpy black bunny-like costume, high heel boots, large dangling earrings, feathery necklace with matching bracelets, a dagger tucked into her bustier, and upswept blonde hair. She also wore a small beard on her chin, as did her husband, who often called her \"Doll\" and \"Baby.\" The Chin Chillars conspired with Mr. Bribery to steal a police space coupe and collect $100,000 that was orbiting the Earth. The trio successfully captured the money, but the Chin Chillars got Bribery drunk and killed him by dropping him from a great height into the prison from which he had been freed. In a 1968 television documentary, Chester Gould identified Mrs. Chin Chillar as one of the most popular characters in the history of the Dick Tracy strip.\n* Mrs. Fencer (1974) - Wife of Fencer; killed by tornado\n* Mrs. Kincaid (1954)\n* Mrs. Mahoney (1945) - Fourth wife of Shaky and mother of Breathless Mahoney; knew of Shaky after she went to school with his sister. She also figured out where Shaky had hidden and had Breathless find Shaky's remains with the unwitting help of the police. After losing a contest to Breathless over who can stay awake the longest and keep Shaky's money {due to a bad heart} she tries to stop Breathless from leaving with Shaky's money by shooting Breathless in shoulder; taken into custody by police. Later hired Shoulders to recover the money. After wanting to go straight, she was talked into helping Itchy get the money from B.O. Plenty, was killed by Itchy when she betrayed him.\n* Mrs. Pruneface (1943) - The wife of Pruneface, tried to avenge him by killing Tracy, but later ended up getting stupidly drowned in a pool after killing a newly wedded man. It was later discovered that Pruneface was still alive, and Mrs. Pruneface had gotten herself killed for nothing at all. Like her husband, her face is also disfigured from a gasoline fire while escaping from the \"old Country\".\n* Mrs. Van Hoosen (1945) - Wealthy recluse who appears briefly in Breathless Mahoney episode. \n* Mrs. Volts (1948)\n* Mumbles (1947, 1955, 1979, 1990, 1994, 2011, 2012, 2013) - Guitar player of \"Mumbles Quartet\" singing band who also steals women's rings off their fingers; murderer and thief, later a blackmailer/extortionist. Twice appeared after seemingly being \"killed\" in 1947 and 1955. In 1979 Mumbles returns posing as his own clone in an attempt to swindle Diet Smith. In 1990 he was seen again in the comic strip after being arrested after serving as comic relief \"consultant\" in a Dick Tracy\" movie. Mumbles dies October 30, 1994 and is buried at sea-but comes back to a life in crime in 2011. His trademark is never speaking clearly—\"mumbling\". This was indicated whenever he speaks by letters being left out of his dialogue and third persons often asking \"What did he say?\" Played by Dustin Hoffman in the 1990 film.\n* Murky Depps (1986) - Involved in payola. Like Mumbles he doesn't speak clearly. This was indicated by just a squiggle in his dialogue balloons. His intent could be discerned by his close associates and they would echo what he had said.\n* Mussell (1941) Littleface Finny gang member-captured by Dick Tracy along with Littleface at end of episode.\n* Nah Tay (1965) Headshrinker works for Mr Bribery; when he decides to kill Bribery instead to Tracy, he is double crossed by Bribery who tips off Brother of a \"head shrinking\" victim; Nah Tay is kidnapped and thrown out of a borrowed space coup into outer space; body recovered by Dick Tracy\n* Nat the Fur King (1939)\n* Neely (1937) - Supeena thug along with \"Dirks\" tried to murder Junior Tracy. The Blank gassed them both in Dick Tracy's garage. Dirks and Neely were members of old Redrum Gang.\n* Nellie Wharton (1943; 2013) - Naive farm girl tricked by 88 Keyes into helping him escape from Dick Tracy and drive her father's stolen car. When she realized who he really was (after she sees him hold up and rob a country store), she wrecked the car to try to kill herself, 88 Keyes and Red Bluff. She survives and returns to the farm. Still appears as a young girl on father's farm July 2013!\n* Nellie Biggs (1949) - Part of diet swindle run by the villain Pear-Shape. Captured by Tracy. Sentenced to five years and paroled\n* Newsuit Nan (1952) - Information broker and associate of Mr. Crime; strangled by Mr. Crime November 4, 1952\n* Nilon Hoze (1946) - A pun on Nylon hose. Under arrest for murder he commits suicide by running in front of a speeding truck\n* No Face (2003) - Criminal who has no face.\n* Nofel aka Agent 26 (1944, Nofel is an anagram of felon) - An Axis spy in World War I and World War II and illegal alien who was the Brow's spy in a rooming house; captured by Dick Tracy. The Summer Sisters tried to pawn his field glasses and were captured by the Brow.\n* Nothing Yonson (1955) - Nightclub owner and employer of thug Joe Period. Shot by Flattop Jr and Joe Period during robbery.\n* Notta Fallar aka Notteema Fallar aka Mrs. Chin Chillar (see above)\n* Numbers - \"Big Boy\" Caprice's accountant. Portrayed by James Tolkan in the 1990 film.\n* Odds Zonn (1952, A pun on phrase \"Odds On\") - Successor to \"Mr. Crime.\" His gimmick was tossing dice in one hand. Tried to get rid of Tracy, first by murder and then by bribery. An armored car robbery caused him and his daughter to suffer radiation poisoning. Killed by own bullet which bounced off Tracy's bullet-proof glass.\n* Oily (1941) - Gas Station attendant and secret accomplice of The Mole. After being wounded and knocked unconscious by Mole he was taken away by police unblocking the hidden door to Mole's tunnel which allowed Tracy to escape. That specific strip was published the day after Pearl Harbor and is possibly the best known by those who kept December 8, 1941 issues of newspapers.\n* Old Mike the Smuggler (1933) - Tried to kill Chief Brandon and Junior Tracy by blowing his own ship up but only succeeded in killing himself.\n* One-Eyed Jack (2009) - Thief, owner of a high-end casino and Queenie's brother. He framed B.O. Plenty by giving him a large amount of money. He, like Queenie, dressed like a playing card, with the exception that he has only one eye. He was killed by the King of Clubs.\n* Oodles (1955)\n* Open-Mind Monty (1954)\n* Painted Lady aka \"Miss Intro\" (1968) - Beautiful daughter of Mr. Intro and head of a crime syndicate that stole women's hair. She drove her wig supplier nearly insane with demands for off white blond wigs. She owned a night club called \"The Painted Lady\" which served as a front for her criminal activities (women patrons were assaulted and their hair stolen). Most of her clothes were painted on. Later killed by her boyfriend Hy Jacky.\n* Palmy (1942) - Part of B-B Eyes' gang who helped kidnap Patrolman O'Malley; captured by Dick Tracy after gun battle.\n* Panda (1941, 1952, 2011) - Made a cameo appearance as a member of the Littleface Finny gang who collected the money for Charley Yenom's ransom for Littleface. The original Mr. Crime's right-hand man who tossed Tonsils to the barracuda. Captured by Dick Tracy, served prison, and was recruited by the new Mr. Crime to run his \"Injustice League\" of criminals. Had Kadaver kill the other three members of Mumbles' quartet. Killed by a barracuda when he accidentally fell into same pool Tonsils had been killed years before.\n* Paroll Lea (1966) - Ex-convict killed by his accomplices. Found by Tracy in a city park. His name is a play on the term \"parolee\".\n* Peaches De Cream (1972) - Used his smooth, beardless complexion to disguise himself as a woman. Arrested by Tracy for robbery in 1938 and exposed/arrested again by Tracy in 1972.\n* Pear-Shape Tone (1949, 1981) - Originally a pot-bellied swindler who operated a sham mail-order diet business as well as a stolen jewelry ring. After serving his sentence, he became a genuine health fanatic, slimmed down, reformed, and returned to the strip in a brief cameo as an assistant to Jim Pistol. He is Chester Gould's caricature of himself.\n* Pedro Zelene (1949) - Helicopter pilot blackmailed by Pear-Shape for his part in the robbery/murder of elderly widow Mrs. Waldo. Abandoned Pear-Shape in the lions' den in zoo.\n* Pete Reppoc (1938) - Member of Johnny Ramm's gang who after being bailed out of jail gave police evidence to convict Ramm's gang. Revealed to be Dick Tracy in disguise, his name (\"Reppoc\" being COPPER spelled backward) being a clue to his real identity.\n* Piano Tuner (1943) - Part of 88 Keyes gang who murdered A.B. Helmet for money. Confessed about the gang's activities after Jinny the Girl Singer was murdered. Boasted that A.B. Helmet was gang's 4th killing.\n* Piggy Butcher (1967, 1968) - Murderer and stolen car gang leader, never seen without his transistor radio and earphone. He took the Chin Chillars prisoner when they sought refuge on his \"farm\" (actually a stolen car operation) and made the beautiful Mrs. Chin Chillar his personal slave and paramour. The Chin Chillars then helped Dick Tracy and the police to invade Piggy's farm, and Piggy was successfully taken into custody when Moon Maid lasered him into submission. Obsessed with taking revenge on Moon Maid, Piggy concocted a crazy plan to kidnap her by sending Pollyanna and his men to a police ball to subdue her with a stolen laser gun. The plan failed when the laser gun accidentally went off, vaporizing Pollyanna and Piggy's men. On the run from Dick Tracy and bankrupt after his organization had been smashed by the police, Piggy was hunted down and killed by the Chin Chillars.\n* Pinhead (2002) - A bank robber who, with his gang of seven other people, pretended to be a group of terrorists, with Pinhead cleverly disguising his overly small head with a larger mask.\n* Pinkie the Stabber (1931) - First criminal arrested by Dick Tracy, before Tracy even joined the Police force. Ex-boxer and stick up ace who tried to disguise himself as a woman in police custody but was tricked into revealing himself by Tracy with a left hook.\n* Piston Puss (1966) - Appeared in a Dick Tracy mini-comic when Dick Tracy was also a spokesman for an auto shocks and car battery manufacturer. Piston was an auto parts store robber whose plans are foiled by Tracy and Catchem; his gimmick is a head shaped like an auto piston.\n* Pollyanna (1967) - Luscious moll of Piggy Butcher whom Piggy tried to use to kidnap Moon Maid. She dressed up like Moon Maid as part of a scheme to crash a police costume ball and capture Moon Maid. A laser gun used in this plot accidentally went off, killing her and three others.\n* Poptop Jones - The father of Flattop, Auntie Flattop, Blowtop, and Sharptop made his only appearance during the Sharptop continuity. Poptop was a laid-back rural character, similar to B.O. Plenty, with a penchant for guzzling soda (or perhaps beer?) from an endless supply of cans with \"pop-top\" openers. The consumption of all that carbonated beverage caused Poptop to belch constantly.\n* Posie Ermine (1968) - Wears dark glasses and Posie in hat; racketeer hijacker of stolen perfume and stolen guns. Killed a cereal company executive because his daughter didn't win a cereal contest trip to the moon. Captured after accidentally falling into his own quicksand trap.\n* Pouch (1971, 2013) - Accomplice of Molene and Johnny Scorn. Had a face vaguely resembling a kangaroo's face. Pouch was originally an immensely fat man who exhibited himself in a freak show. He drastically lost weight but his skin did not shrink; it formed a \"dewlap\" at his throat and similar pouches all over his body. Pouch had snap fasteners surgically implanted into these, and used the pouches to conceal contraband. Got away with killing Johnny Scorn because Tracy thinks Scorn death was an accident. Made a cameo appearance as a balloon-seller who helped Mole save Spencer Toad from killer Simon \"Sweatbox\" Baux {February 15, 2013}\n* Professor Emirc (1939; Emirc is crime spelled backwards) - Aided Stooge Viller after he got out of jail.\n* Professor Linwood J. Starling (1945) - Appeared in the Dick Tracy movie. A stargazing, charlatan-seer and extortionist. Killed by \"Splitface\".\n* Professor Roloc Bard (1940) - Scientist kidnapped by Yogee Yamma to make gas to hypnotize wealthy widows; rescued by Dick Tracy. In a 1986 Dick Tracy story Bard is kidnapped by Flattop Jones and handed over to Pruneface in 1944. This, despite Pruneface dying in 1942.\n* Pruneface aka Boche \"German\" (1942, 1983) - German sabotage agent whose plans against America are unraveled when his accomplice Cal Bullet Jr comes under investigation for the murder of his own father. Other accomplices are Tojo the spy, Clara the disk jockey and Morgancoin. He kills Cal Bullet Jr and tries to kill Dick Tracy and Patrolman O'Copper but ends up with a broken leg after trying to catch Junior Tracy who made off with sabotage device belonging to Pruneface. Cornered in a freezing house by Dick Tracy and Police, Pruneface is captured nearly frozen. Reappears years later with unrepentant Nazi Dr. Kryos Freezedrei who unfroze Pruneface back to life. Pruneface again tries to kill Tracy—for the death of Mrs. Pruneface—by freezing. Tracy \"dies\" but is brought back to life by Sam Catchem. Pruneface is captured by an Israeli agent and taken to trial abroad for war crimes (Years after his last appearance, the comic strip showed a movie version of Dick Tracy story being filmed which had actors playing Pruneface and Flattop Jones together firing machine guns at Dick Tracy). His trademark is wrinkled lines down the sides of his cheeks. In 1990 \"Dick Tracy\" movie, Pruneface was killed by the Blank after the abduction of Police spy Bug Bailey.\n* Prunella - Daughter of Pruneface. Partnered with fellow villainous female offspring Angeltop (daughter of Flattop) and Quiver (daughter of Shaky).\n* Pucker Puss (1976) - Killer who had false teeth and a small \"pucker\" of a mouth. Killed after kidnapping Lizz the policewoman.\n* Purdy Fallar (1968, 2013) - Murderer, thief, and brother of Notta Chin Chillar. He was quite handsome (Lizz and Moon Maid swooned when he flirted with them), and his name was a pun on \"pretty fellow.\" He grew extremely long sharp fingernails on the first two fingers of his right hand, which he used to slice open giant escargot (large snails native to the Moon) to extract their meat. Purdy kept in practice by slicing open grapefruits with his fingers. He came to Tracy's attention when he used his fingernails to slice open a man's throat, though Tracy could not prove it. Purdy worked for Diet Smith on the moon and used laser guns to mine gold. He conspired with an unnamed accomplice to steal gold and sell it to Mr. Intro, and eventually went solo in this venture after he used the laser gun to kill his partner. Before Purdy could complete his transaction with Intro, Tracy caught up with him on the moon and subdued him by beating him to a bloody pulp. In desperation, Purdy committed suicide by running out into the extreme cold of the moon, where he was quick frozen in a standing position. Dr. Klippoff later claimed to revive Purdy from his deep freeze, but this was exposed as a hoax. In 2013 Purdy is shown to be alive and in the care of his sister Notta.\n* Purple Cross Gang (1936) -\n* Putty-Puss aka Harley Niav (1986-1987, 1989-1990, 2011–2012) - A brilliant actor disfigured in a car \"accident\" created by a jealous colleague. Underwent an experimental surgical technique that allowed his face to become like putty, able to become any likeness but sagging after one hour. He decided to become a bank robber, using his skills and his face to impersonate David Letterman, Ronald Reagan, Albert Einstein and even Tracy himself. Eventually captured but has returned to plague Tracy several times.\n* Queenie aka \"Emerald Empress\" (2007) - Dressed like the \"Queen of Diamonds\" playing card. Held Dick Tracy at gunpoint until he threw a (fake) diamond behind him off the roof toward the river. She leaped after it and plummeted into the working smokestack of a tugboat.\n* Quiver (1984) - Daughter of Shaky, and partner of Angeltop; stepsister of Breathless Mahoney.\n* Red Bluff (1943) - Navy deserter killed by 88 Keyes. The discovery of his body by Police led to 88 Keyes' own death at the hands of Dick Tracy.\n* Ribs Mocco (1931) - Big Boy gang member. The first criminal, along with his associate Spike, to be arrested by Dick Tracy after becoming a policeman. He was a bane to Dick Tracy throughout the 1930s, not only in the weekly strips but also in the early Sunday editions as well. (The early Sunday editions had separate Dick Tracy stories from the weekly plot.) Mocco teamed with Stooge Viller to set up Dick Tracy by but failed. After Viller was arrested in 1934, Ribs fled town (and the comic strip). Appeared briefly during the big gangster meeting in the 1990 movie, and was referred to as \"Mocca\".\n* Rhodent (1959) - Noted as one of the Tracy villains who openly acknowledged that he looked unusual. In the movie, he was one of the five gangsters killed by Flattop and Itchy at the beginning of the movie.\n* Rod Bender (1966) - Appeared in a Dick Tracy mini-comic appearing in Reader's Digest as an advertisement for a shock absorber and car battery manufacturer. Bender was an underworld \"Torpedo\" (killer) who with an accomplice tried to blow up Tracy's squad car but was captured. Bender's trademark is bending an automobile rod in his hands.\n* Rughead (1955) - Wig-wearing gang leader who stole furs. Killed in gun battle with Dick Tracy in the sewers.\n* Sal Monella (2004) - Promoted a fake rock concert. When exposed, he tried to escape in back of a garbage truck but was followed by Detective Frisk. Shots were fired and the truck's contents were dumped into a garbage scow and then dumped into the bay. No trace of either found except one of Frisk's shoes. Declared missing March 9, 2004.\n* Sam \"The Lever\" Doty (1937) - Ex-member of the Redrum Gang and only member of the gang still in the slot machine racket. Kidnapped by The Blank, tied up and thrown out of a speeding car into police HQ. Tricked by Tracy into revealing that Blank's mug shot was in police files.\n* Scardol (1939) - Leader of a stolen car ring who killed three lawmen and tried to bury Dick Tracy under wet cement (but ended up under concrete himself).\n* Schultzie Innis (1937) - Former member of the Redrum gang of 1926. Killed by The Blank by being tossed out of airplane. His body was found after it crashed through a farmhouse roof.\n* Scorpio (1969) - Crime boss who had a \"scorpion\" outlined on his face.\n* Selbert DePool (1941) - Crazy killer who murdered his uncle so his aunt could inherit money. Killed his aunt and later killed an employee when she suspected his mental hospital past. Investigation of her death caused DePool to try to escape in a hijacked parade float; the part DePool was in hit an underpass and DePool was killed. \n* Shaky (1944) - Extortionist who tried to use model Snowflake Falls to extort money from a banker. She broke his hand and tried to turn him over to the police, but he escaped and kidnapped her. He fractured her bones and nearly succeeded in freezing and drowning her. After stealing Vitamin Flintheart's fur coat it caught fire. Shaky killed Fireman O'Brien and tried to escape Dick Tracy. However, he only succeeded in being trapped in an ice coffin. His body was discovered in 1945 by stepdaughter Breathless Mahoney. His trademark was the continuous \"shaking\" of his body, but he paradoxically liked to ponder his thoughts while doing delicate tasks that demand a steady hand. Uncle of Quiver and stepfather of Breathless Mahoney.\n* Sharptop Jones - Sharptop was Flattop's twin brother and exact double except for a distinctive cowlick which made one strand of Sharptop's hair protrude straight upwards from the familiar flat cranium. Sharptop and Flattop were raised separately and had almost no contact with each other; whereas Flattop became a notorious criminal, Sharptop had a respected career as a college professor and refused to discuss his infamous brother, whom he claimed he barely knew. During a post-Gould continuity, Sharptop was apparently possessed by the spirit of his deceased brother, forcing Sharptop to assemble a gang of henchmen and commit a crime wave. During his criminal activities, Sharptop used hair oil to slick down his cowlick, thus becoming a double of Flattop. Tracy was able to arrest him after Sharptop apparently managed to overcome the supernatural possession and evict Flattop's soul from his body. The strip never established whether a genuine supernatural occurrence had taken place, and Tracy himself refused to comment on it except to note that Sharptop's long respectable academic career would be taken into consideration by the district attorney.\n* Shoulders (1946) - Extremely broad-shouldered handsome thug hired by Mrs. Mahoney to recover Shaky's money. He acquired a brush salesman's sample case and used this to pose as a traveling salesman. In the movie, was one of the five gangsters killed by Flattop and Itchy at the beginning of the movie.\n* Short Circuit (1966) - Appeared in a Dick Tracy mini-comic advertisement for a shock absorber and car battery manufacturer. \"Little person\" diamond thief at a millionaire's ball whose plans were foiled by Tracy and Catchem.\n* Shorty the Dip (1945) - Part of the Measles gang. Killed in auto crash after Measles tried to kill Dick Tracy who was trapped on the bumper of the gangster's car.\n* Simon \"Sweatbox\" Baux (2013) - When Lake Freedom was drained on the site of a Japanese-American internment camp a box is found with a confession by Stephen Baux to a 1947 murder. An accidental discovery by Spencer Toad revealed additional murder victims and the discovery of Stephen's brother, philanthropist Simon Baux, as a secret serial killer. While trying to escape from Tracy and Detective Ebony, Baux was killed when his car skidded on ice and hit a moving train head on February 24, 2013. Nicknamed \"Sweatbox\" due to his continually sweating.\n* Simon Little (1945) - Diamond cutter for Mr. Sparkle.\n* Sketch Paree (1949) - Insane clothing designer responsible for the death of Talcum Freely, a rival clothing designer. Led Dick Tracy and Sam Catchem into a death trap in the river. Wore a sponge mask which he used to drown his victims. He also talked to a little doll named Babee. Later killed.\n* Sleet (1948) - Featured the first appearance of Sam Catchem as Tracy's new partner.\n* Slick (2006) - Mr. Oily's lawyer who had a scam to steal gasoline. Unsuccessfully urged Oily to stick to white collar crime. Killed when he fell off power windmill.\n* Sludge (2006) - Henchmen of Mr. Oily who captured Tracy and Liz. Accidentally crashed into Oily's garage. Unknown if killed in garage fire or arrested by police. \n* Snake Eyes (1992)\n* Snails (2001) - Overweight criminal mastermind. He first tricks two bank robbers into thinking he has followed them to find the proceeds of a bank robbery-in fact he stays in a hideout and at gunpoint forces them to run though a railing to their deaths in a street below. Tracy investigates but can't charge Snails with any crime. Snails recruits five accomplices to rob an armored car; because Snails takes the slowest taxi and causes traffic buildup but hasn't committed a crime, Tracy can't arrest him but can only follow him. Snails causes an armored car crash in which two guards and all his accomplices are killed either in the crashes or by Snails himself. Snails gives himself away with his craving for snails where he is captured in a restaurant and the stolen cash recovered. Gimmick is his craving for Snails and his saying \"I'm slow but...\". \n* Snowflake Falls (1944) - Model used by Shaky in a scheme to extort money from banker. Married Vitamin Flintheart despite their 30-year age difference. Kidnapped, suffered fractured bones, and nearly froze to death after being tossed off pier by Shaky.\n* Sphinx (1951) - Accomplice of Crewy Lou, was rendered mute after drinking poison meant for one of his enemies. Aliases are \"John Ren\" and \"Beaker\".\n* Spike (1931) - A Big Boy gang thug. Arrested along with Ribs Mocco for payroll robbery.\n* Splitface (1945) - Dick Tracy movie villain. A psychopath imprisoned for murder. He gets disfigured by an inmate's knife, hence the name. After being released, he intended to kill the fourteen members of the jury who sent him to prison. However, because of an extortionist \"professor\" who knew of his actions, Splitface only managed to kill two of the jury along with the \"professor\" and the mortician whom he stole the knives from before he kidnaps Tess Trueheart is kidnapped, with Junior Tracy leaving a trail for Tracy to follow and capture Splitface.\n* Spots (1960) - Always shown with spots in front of his face. Attempted to secure sums of money, first by fraudulent means that led him to commit murder and then by blackmail. Killed in street shootout with Tracy.\n* Steve \"The Tramp\" Brogan aka Inmate 27064 (1932-1934, 1941, 1986) - Started out as common thug guilty of assaults, prison escapes, and killing a US mailman. The Tramp tangled with Dick Tracy throughout 1933-1934 until he went back to prison in 1934. A reformed man, he was released in 1941 and opened up a fruit stand. He was framed by Duke for an armored car robbery, but was later freed by Tracy. It was later revealed that he was the second husband of Mary Steel, and the stepfather of Jackie Steel, AKA Junior Tracy, explaining how the both of them ended up together in their first appearance in the strip. {Junior's mother had run away with him when he was a wealthy prospector} In the film from 1990 he is beaten up by Tracy to save The Kid (Junior).\n* Stephen Baux (2013) - Baseball player who falsely confessed to a murder his brother committed but killed in jail before he could be tried. \n* Stooge Viller (1933, 1939) - Pickpocket who almost succeeded in framing Dick Tracy for a crime. Also a vehicle hijacker and prison escapee who teamed up with Steve the Tramp. He killed Blind Hank Steele Sr who was trying to protect his son John \"Hank\" Steele Jr (aka Junior Tracy). He was finally captured by Dick Tracy in late 1933. After getting out of prison in 1939, he started more trouble with Tracy as well as tried in vain to get to know his little daughter Binnie Viller. After trying to kill Tracy, Stooge was accidentally shot by Binnie, later on dying in the hospital, not before coming to an understanding with Tracy, and asking him to watch over his daughter. Based on Edward G. Robinson. In the 1990 film, was one of the five gangsters killed by Flattop and Itchy at the beginning of the movie.\n* Strip Gear (1966) - Appeared in a Dick Tracy mini-comic advertisement for a shock absorber and car battery manufacturer. \"Strip\" Gear was an ex-dancer and armored car hijacker those plans were foiled by Tracy and Chatchem.\n* Stud Bronzen (1937) - The only member of the Redrum gang not killed or turned over to police by The Blank. Supposedly got out of rackets but actually operated human smuggling ring under the cover of a salvage operation. Bronzen initially escaped to continue his criminal activity, but Tracy managed track him down and kill him in a gun battle.\nSuds - Former member of the Bird Gang turned laundry owner. Murdered for squealing by his old partners Jay Hawk, Buzzard and Coot after their escape from prison.\n Sugar (1941) - Girlfriend of Duke the Dip. While escaping from the police, she died in a car accident.\nLt Teevo(2007, 2011) - Communications expert and part of Major Crime Squad, he was the \"new\" Mr Crime's \"mole\" in the Police Department. After he was exposed as corrupt, he wounded Chief Patton and fled to Panda's headquarters where was killed by a man-eating plant. \n Texie Garcia (1931) - Big Boy's mistress/moll. Left holding the bag when Big Boy temporarily left town to get clear of Tracy's gangbusting activities. Later seen helping Dan \"The Squealer\" Mucelli operate the city's dope business. Modeled on night-club performer Texas Guinan. Cameo appearance in the 1990 film Dick Tracy at the big gangster meeting, portrayed by Catherine O'Hara.\n* Thunderchild (2012) - A professional wrestler who committed grand larceny by stealing a load of charity money. Attacked by the Mole, Dick Tracy, and former wrestler \"Crazy King\".\n* Tiger Lilly (1942) - Head of a gang that staged real disasters to record the sound effects. After unsuccessfully trying to kill Dick Tracy and a game warden, the gang tried to escape down a river but were trapped and captured when their raft ran against the water intake tunnel of a dam.\n* Tip (1940) - St. Bernard dog owned by Mamma and Jerome Trohs. After his capture by Dick Tracy, Jerome Trohs seized bag of money and \"rode\" his dog to escape.\n* Tojo (1942) - Stereotypical Japanese spy associate of Pruneface. He was captured by Dick Tracy.\n* Tonsils (1952) - Singer and associate of Mr Crime who shot and wounded Dick Tracy on July 30, 1952. Killed when thrown by Panda into a barracuda pool August 20, 1952. Remains found by Dick Tracy. \n* Trigger Doom (1941) - Stick-up man and killer of his own boss Czar Rennis. Tried to kill Dick Tracy with an enraged bull but was instead captured.\n* Trinka (1965) - Enemy pilot of Von Rhino spy ring; intercepted famed aviatrix Lita Flight July 1, 1937 in the mid Pacific; went off course and was trapped in the Arctic Circle and froze to death; body found in ice coffin in 1965. Tracy intercepts last 2 members of Rhino spy ring who are also trying to find body-one killed and the other wounded and arrested\n* \"Truffa\" Dolan (1933)\n* Tulza \"Haf-and-Haf\" Tuzon (1966-1967, 1978, 1990) - Born in 1923. A truck driver who, due to an accident in 1943, had half of his face scarred by acid similar to the Batman villain Two-Face. Later became a circus \"freak\". Had a scam in which dozens of trained crows would steal handbags. Murdered his wife in order to marry his lover, circus trapeze artist Zelda the Great. When Zelda discovered that Tulza had indeed killed, rather than divorced, his first wife, her threats to go the police led Tulza to attempt her murder, from which Dick Tracy rescued her. The fleeing Tulza attempted to romance the blind dowager Kora Steel (who had let her husband's body rot in a hidden room in order to cheat the inheritance tax) in order to murder her and inherit her money, but Tracy thwarted him again. Years later, Tulza, released from prison after undergoing plastic surgery at the hands of Dr. Will Carver, attempted once again to kill Zelda by means of a poisonous snake, for which Tracy provided the antidote. In revenge, Zelda hurled acid in Tulza's face, restoring his disfigurement.\n* Twitchell \"Twitchy\" Oliver (1983) - Itchy Oliver's equally nasty kid brother, who constantly twitched as a result of a nervous tic. Masterminded scheme with the late B-B Eyes's brother B.D. Eyes to scare Stephanie Queen, horror author, out of the same house wherein Itchy met his fate, in order to find $100,000 which their older brothers hid in the house years earlier.\n* \"Ugly\" Christine (Packet) (1965) - Sister and accomplice of Mr. Bribery. Captured after she tried to kill Dick Tracy. Despite Tracy and Lizz's efforts to stop her, Ugly Christine threw herself from a magnetic police coupe into a fiery chimney and was killed.\n* Warlock (1972)\n* Wetwash Wally (1945) - Laundry truck driver who tried to separate Breathless Mahoney from her money after she hid in his truck. Breathless knocked him out and met B.O. Plenty. Wally was revived and picked up by Pat Patton.\nWhip Chute(1939) -Criminal who tried to escape by climbing down a theater marquee sign which broke under his weight and killed him July 2, 1939\n Rono \"Nails\" Wolley (1939) - Conman/swindler who with two accomplices almost succeeded in killing accomplice Pop Warner's son and Jade the salesman. Wolley ended up being beaten up and captured by Dick Tracy.\n* Wormy Marrons (1949–1950, 1981, 2011) - One of the most grotesque villains in the entire history of the strip, Wormy's face looked as if it was made of live earthworms. He chained Dick Tracy to the back of his car and drove at top speed down a highway, intending to drag Tracy to death but merely injured him.\n* X-Ray (1947) - Comic relief henchman in Dick Tracy Movie \"Dick Tracy Meets Gruesome\". Ultimately the only survivor of Gruesome's gang, X-Ray is captured by Dick Tracy. Played by Skelton Knaggs.\n* Yogee Yamma (1940) - Con-man who used gas to hypnotize widows for contents of their safes. Kidnapped Professor Roloc Bard to make gas. Bard was rescued by Dick Tracy and Yamma was accidentally burned alive by gas while drunk.\n* Zero Naught (1977) - Felon trapped in walk-in refrigerator who tried to shoot it out with police - first with a luger then with a little .22 pistol stolen from Mrs. Aigg. Tried to kill Dick Tracy but was killed when the small gun misfired. (June 19, 1977)\n* Zolla (1943) - One of three blackmarketers who hired Flattop to kill Dick Tracy (the other two were not named). All three ended up captured by Dick Tracy instead and lost their $55,000 as well.\n* Zora Arson (1934) (see Arson Gang, The above) - Sister of Boris Arson and partner of Cutie Diamond in bank robberies and police killings. Killed by Dick Tracy and posse at diamond hideout.\n\nArchie tie-ins\n\nIn the 1970s, Archie's TV Funnies had cartoon \"shorts\" of Dick Tracy episodes. Guest villains included: B.B. Eyes; The Brow; 88 Keys; the Mole; Mumbles; P.S. Tone; Shaky; Shoulders; Sketch Paree. Cameos included appearances by Tess Trueheart, Moon Maid, B.O. Plenty, Mrs. Van Hoosen, Lizz Grove, Sam Catchem and Chief Patton. Likewise an episode (1/8) of the Josie and the Pussycats cartoon had an episode in which the musicians are chased by a \"Blank\" (faceless) criminal called \"Mastermind\"." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Dick tracy watch", "Plainclothes Tracy", "Dick Tracey", "Dick Tracy watch", "Dick Tracy", "Dick Tracy (radio series)" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "dick tracy radio series", "dick tracy watch", "plainclothes tracy", "dick tracey", "dick tracy" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "dick tracy", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Dick Tracy" }
In the Little Orphan Annie comic strip, what was the name of Daddy Warbucks's Giant bodyguard who wore a turban?	tc_495	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Little_Orphan_Annie.txt" ], "title": [ "Little Orphan Annie" ], "wiki_context": [ "Little Orphan Annie was a daily American comic strip created by Harold Gray (1894–1968) and syndicated by the Tribune Media Services. The strip took its name from the 1885 poem \"Little Orphant Annie\" by James Whitcomb Riley, and made its debut on August 5, 1924 in the New York Daily News. It ranked number one in popularity in a Fortune poll in 1937.\n\nThe plot follows the wide-ranging adventures of Annie, her dog Sandy and her benefactor Oliver \"Daddy\" Warbucks. Secondary characters include Punjab, the Asp and Mr. Am. The strip attracted adult readers with political commentary that targeted (among other things) organized labor, the New Deal and communism.\n\nFollowing Gray's death in 1968, several artists drew the strip and, for a time, \"classic\" strips were reruns. Little Orphan Annie inspired a radio show in 1930, film adaptations by RKO in 1932 and Paramount in 1938 and a Broadway musical Annie in 1977 (which was adapted into a film of the same name three times, one in 1982, one in 1999 and another in 2014). The strip's popularity declined over the years; it was running in only 20 newspapers when it was cancelled on June 13, 2010. The characters now appear occasionally as supporting ones in Dick Tracy. \n\nStory\n\nLittle Orphan Annie displays literary kinship with the picaresque novel in its seemingly endless string of episodic and unrelated adventures in the life of a character who wanders like an innocent vagabond through a corrupt world. In Annie's first year, the picaresque pattern that characterizes her story is set, with the major players – Annie, Sandy and \"Daddy\" Warbucks – introduced within the strip's first several weeks.\n\nThe story opens in a dreary, Dickensian orphanage where Annie is routinely abused by the cold, sarcastic matron, named Miss Asthma. One day, the wealthy but mean-spirited Mrs. Warbucks takes Annie into her home \"on trial.\" She makes it clear that she does not like her, and tries to send her back to \"the Home\", but one of her society friends catches her, and she immediately changes her mind, to her disgust.\n\nHer husband Oliver, who returned from a business trip, develops an instant paternal affection for Annie and instructs her to address him as \"Daddy.\" Originally, the Warbucks had a dog named One-Lung, who liked Annie. Their household staff also takes to Annie and they like her.\n\nHowever, the staff despises Mrs. Warbucks, the daughter of a nouveau riche plumber's assistant. Cold-hearted Mrs. Warbucks sends Annie back to \"the Home\" numerous times, and the staff hates her for that. \"Daddy\" (Oliver) keeps thinking of her as his \"daughter\". Mrs. Warbucks often argues with Oliver over how much he \"mortifies her when company comes\" and his affection for Annie. A very status-conscious woman, she feels that Oliver and Annie are ruining her socially. However, Oliver usually is able to put her in her place, especially when she criticizes Annie.\n\nAfter Mrs. Warbucks brings home another orphan, a snobby little boy (who has facial features similar to Mrs. Warbucks) named Selby Adelbert Piffleberry, she blatantly shows her favoritism by giving him Annie's old room and spiriting the girl to another part of the house.\n\nAnnie, however, is not fooled in the least by Selby or his polished manners. In fact, she refers to Selby as SAP, his initials, intended as an insult (she called him SAP at a formal dinner to Mr. Warbucks' amusement and Mrs. Warbucks' dismay). She also knows full well the hatred that Mrs. Warbucks has for her. With that in mind, she makes short work of her enemy by thrashing him at various points.\n\nOliver later realizes that Selby is a flunky to a grifter named Count De Tour, who has his eyes on the Warbucks' fortune. He maneuvers his way into the house by telling Mrs. Warbucks what she wants to hear, with the ultimate intent of stealing Warbucks' fortune. He tries to achieve this aim by playing cards with Warbucks and cheating. With Annie's help, Warbucks outwits the crooked duo and they throw them out of the mansion. At the end, De Tour thrashes Selby for the defeat.\n\nThe strip developed a series of formulas that ran over its course to facilitate a wide range of stories. The earlier strips relied on a formula by which Daddy Warbucks is called away on business and through a variety of contrivances, Annie is cast out of the Warbucks mansion, usually by her enemy, the nasty Mrs. Warbucks. Annie then wanders the countryside and has adventures meeting and helping new people in their daily struggles. Early stories dealt with political corruption, criminal gangs and corrupt institutions, which Annie would confront. Annie ultimately would encounter troubles with the villain, who would be vanquished by the returning Daddy Warbucks. Annie and Daddy would then be reunited, at which point, after several weeks, the formula would play out again. In the series, each strip represented a single day in the life of the characters. This device was dropped by the end of the '20s.\n\nBy the 1930s, during the Great Depression, the formula was tweaked: Daddy Warbucks lost his fortune due to a corrupt rival and ultimately died from despair at the election of Franklin D. Roosevelt. Annie remained an orphan, and for several years had adventures that involved more internationally based enemies. The contemporary events taking place in Europe were reflected in the strips during the 1940s and World War II. Daddy Warbucks was reunited with Annie, as his death was changed to coma, from which he woke in 1945.\n\nBy this time, the series enlarged its world with the addition of characters such as Asp and Punjab, bodyguards and servants to Annie and Daddy Warbucks. In world -trotting adventures, the characters traveled around the world, with Annie having adventures on her own or with her adopted family.\n\nCharacters\n\nAnnie is a 10-year-old orphan. Her distinguishing physical characteristics are a mop of red, curly hair, a red dress and vacant circles for eyes. Her catchphrases are \"Gee whiskers\" and \"Leapin' lizards!\" Annie attributes her lasting youthfulness to her birthday on February 29 in a leap year, and ages only one year in appearance for every four years that pass. Annie is a plucky, generous, compassionate, and optimistic youngster who can hold her own against bullies, and has a strong and intuitive sense of right and wrong.\n\nSandy enters the story in a January 1925 strip as a puppy of no particular breed which Annie rescues from a gang of abusive boys. The girl is working as a drudge in Mrs. Bottle's grocery store at the time and manages to keep the puppy briefly concealed. She finally gives him to Paddy Lynch, a gentle man who owns a \"steak joint\" and can give Sandy a good home. Sandy is a mature dog when he suddenly reappears in a May 1925 strip to rescue Annie from gypsy kidnappers. Annie and Sandy remain together thereafter.\n\nOliver \"Daddy\" Warbucks first appears in a September 1924 strip and reveals a month later he was formerly a small machine shop owner who acquired his enormous wealth producing munitions during World War I. He is a large, powerfully-built bald man, the idealized capitalist, who typically wears a tuxedo and diamond stickpin in his shirtfront. He likes Annie at once, instructing her to call him \"Daddy\", but his wife (a plumber's daughter) is a snobbish, gossiping nouveau riche who derides her husband's affection for Annie. When Warbucks is suddenly called to Siberia on business, his wife spitefully sends Annie back to the orphanage.\n\nOther major characters include Warbucks' right-hand men, Punjab, an eight-foot native of India, introduced in 1935, and the Asp, an inscrutably generalized East Asian, who first appeared in 1937. There was also the mysterious Mister Am, a friend of Warbucks' who wore a Santa Claus–like beard and was of a jovial personality. He claimed to have lived for millions of years and even had supernatural powers. Some strips hinted that he may even be God.\n\nBackground\n\nAfter World War I, cartoonist Harold Gray joined the Chicago Tribune which, at that time, was being reworked by owner Joseph Medill Patterson into an important national journal. As part of his plan, Patterson wanted to publish comic strips that would lend themselves to nationwide syndication and to film and radio adaptations. Gray's strips were consistently rejected by Patterson, but Little Orphan Annie was finally accepted and debuted in a test run on August 5, 1924 in the New York Daily News, a Tribune owned tabloid. Reader response was positive, and Annie began appearing as a Sunday strip in the Tribune on November 2 and as a daily strip on November 10. It was soon offered for syndication and picked up by the Toronto Star and The Atlanta Constitution. \n\nGray reported in 1952 that Annie's origin lay in a chance meeting he had with a ragamuffin while wandering the streets of Chicago looking for cartooning ideas. \"I talked to this little kid and liked her right away,\" Gray said, \"She had common sense, knew how to take care of herself. She had to. Her name was Annie. At the time some 40 strips were using boys as the main characters; only three were using girls. I chose Annie for mine, and made her an orphan, so she'd have no family, no tangling alliances, but freedom to go where she pleased.\"\n\nIn designing the strip, Gray was influenced by his midwestern farm boyhood, Victorian poetry and novels such as Charles Dickens's Great Expectations, Sidney Smith's wildly popular comic strip The Gumps, and the histrionics of the silent films and melodramas of the period. Initially, there was no continuity between the dailies and the Sunday strips, but by the early 1930s the two had become one. The strip (whose title was borrowed from James Whitcomb Riley's 1885 poem \"Little Orphant Annie\") was \"conservative and topical\", according to the editors of The Great Depression in America: A Cultural Encyclopedia, and \"represents the personal vision\" of Gray and Riley's \"homespun philosophy of hard work, respect for elders, and a cheerful outlook on life\". A Fortune popularity poll in 1937 indicated Little Orphan Annie ranked number one and ahead of Popeye, Dick Tracy, Bringing Up Father, The Gumps, Blondie, Moon Mullins, Joe Palooka, Li'l Abner and Tillie the Toiler.\n\n1929 to World War II\n\nGray was little affected by the stock market crash of 1929. The strip was more popular than ever and brought him a good income, which was only enhanced when the strip became the basis for a radio program in 1930 and two films in 1932 and 1938. Predictably, Gray was reviled by some for preaching in the strip to the poor about hard work, initiative, and motivation while living well on his income.\n\nIn 1935 Punjab, a gigantic, sword-wielding, beturbaned Indian, was introduced to the strip and became one of its iconic characters. Whereas Annie's adventures up to the point of Punjab's appearance were realistic and believable, her adventures following his introduction touched upon the supernatural, the cosmic, and the fantastic. \n\nIn November 1932 Franklin Delano Roosevelt was elected President and proposed his New Deal. Many, including Gray, saw this and other programs as government interference in private enterprise. Gray railed against Roosevelt and his programs. (Gray even killed Daddy Warbucks off in 1945, believing that Warbucks could not coexist in the world with FDR. But following FDR's death, Gary resurrected Warbucks, who said to Annie, \"Somehow I feel that the climate here has changed since I went away.\" ) Annie's life was complicated not only by thugs and gangsters but also by New Deal do-gooders and bureaucrats. Organized labor was feared by businessmen and Gray took their side. Some writers and editors took issue with this strip's criticisms of FDR's New Deal and 1930s labor unionism. The New Republic described Annie as \"Hooverism in the Funnies\", arguing that Gray's strip was defending utility company bosses then being investigated by the government. The Herald Dispatch of Huntington, West Virginia stopped running Little Orphan Annie, printing a front page editorial rebuking Gray's politics. A subsequent New Republic editorial praised the paper's move, and The Nation likewise voiced its support. \n\nIn the late 1920s, the strip had taken on a more adult and adventurous feel with Annie encountering killers, gangsters, spies, and saboteurs. It was about this time that Gray, whose politics seem to have been broadly conservative and libertarian with a decided populist streak, introduced some of his more controversial storylines. He would look into the darker aspects of human nature, such as greed and treachery. The gap between rich and poor was an important theme. His hostility toward labor unions was dramatized in the 1935 story \"Eonite\". Other targets were the New Deal, communism, and corrupt businessmen. \n\nGray was especially critical of the justice system, which he saw as not doing enough to deal with criminals. Thus, some of his storylines featured people taking the law into their own hands. This happened as early as 1927 in an adventure named \"The Haunted House\". Annie is kidnapped by a gangster called Mister Mack. Warbucks rescues her and takes Mack and his gang into custody. He then contacts a local senator who owes him a favor. Warbucks persuades the politician to use his influence with the judge and make sure that the trial goes their way and that Mack and his men get their just deserts. Annie questions the use of such methods but concludes, \"With all th' crooks usin' pull an' money to get off, I guess 'bout th' only way to get 'em punished is for honest police like Daddy to use pull an' money an' gun-men, too, an' beat them at their own game.\"\n\nWarbucks became much more ruthless in later years. After catching yet another gang of Annie kidnappers he announced that he \"wouldn't think of troubling the police with you boys\", implying that while he and Annie celebrated their reunion, the Asp and his men took the kidnappers away to be lynched. In another Sunday strip, published during World War II, a war-profiteer expresses the hope that the conflict would last another 20 years. An outraged member of the public physically assaults the man for his opinion, claiming revenge for his two sons who have already been killed in the fighting. When a passing policeman is about to intervene, Annie talks him out of it, suggesting, \"It's better some times to let folks settle some questions by what you might call democratic processes.\"\n\nWorld War II and Annie's Junior Commandos\n\nAs war clouds gathered, both the Chicago Tribune and the New York Daily News advocated neutrality; \"Daddy\" Warbucks, however, was gleefully manufacturing tanks, planes, and munitions. Journalist James Edward Vlamos deplored the loss of fantasy, innocence, and humor in the \"funnies\", and took to task one of Gray's sequences about espionage, noting that the \"fate of the nation\" rested on \"Annie's frail shoulders\". Vlamos advised readers to \"Stick to the saner world of war and horror on the front pages.\"\n\nWhen the US entered World War II, Annie not only played her part by blowing up a German submarine but organized and led groups of children called the Junior Commandos in the collection of newspapers, scrap metal, and other recyclable materials for the war effort. Annie herself wore an armband emblazoned with \"JC\" and called herself \"Colonel Annie\". In real life, the idea caught on, and schools and parents were encouraged to organize similar groups. Twenty thousand Junior Commandos were reportedly registered in Boston.\n\nGray was praised far and wide for his war effort brainchild. Editor & Publisher wrote, \"Harold Gray, Little Orphan Annie creator, has done one of the biggest jobs to date for the scrap drive. His 'Junior Commando' project, which he inaugurated some months ago, has caught on all around the country, and tons of scrap have been collected and contributed to the campaign. The kids sell the scrap, and the proceeds are turned into stamps and bonds.\" \n\nNot all was rosy for Gray however. He applied for extra gas coupons, reasoning that he would need them to drive about the countryside collecting plot material for the strip. But an Office of Price Administration clerk named Flack refused to give Gray the coupons, explaining that cartoons were not vital to the war effort. Gray requested a hearing and the original decision was upheld. Gray was furious and vented in the strip, with especial venom directed at Flack, government price controls, and other concerns. Gray had his supporters, but his neighbors defended Flack in the local newspaper and tongue-lashed Gray. Flack threatened to sue for libel, and some papers cancelled the strip. Gray showed no remorse, but did discontinue the sequence.\n\nGray was criticized by a Southern newspaper for including a black youngster among the white children in the Junior Commandos. Gray made it clear he was not a reformer, did not believe in breaking down the color line, and was no relation to Eleanor Roosevelt, an ardent supporter of civil rights. He pointed out that Annie was a friend to all, and that most cities in the North had \"large dark towns\". The inclusion of a black character in the Junior Commandos, he explained, was \"merely a casual gesture toward a very large block of readers.\" African American readers wrote letters to Gray thanking him for the incorporation of a black child in the strip.\n\nIn the summer of 1944 Franklin Delano Roosevelt was nominated for a fourth term as President of the United States, and Gray (who had little love for Roosevelt) killed off Warbucks in a month-long sequence of sentimental pathos. Readers were generally unhappy with Gray's decision, but some liberals advocated the same fate for Annie and her \"stale philosophy\". By the following November however, Annie was working as a maid in a Mrs. Bleating-Hart's home and suffering all sorts of torments from her mistress. The public begged Gray to have mercy on Annie, and he had her framed for her mistress's murder. She was exonerated. Following Roosevelt's death in April 1945, Gray resurrected Warbucks (who was only playing dead to thwart his enemies) and once again the billionaire began expounding the joys of capitalism.\n\nPost-war years\n\nIn the post-war years, Annie took on The Bomb, communism, teenage rebellion and a host of other social and political concerns, often provoking the enmity of clergymen, union leaders and others. For example, Gray believed children should be allowed to work. \"A little work never hurt any kid,\" Gray affirmed, \"One of the reasons we have so much juvenile delinquency is that kids are forced by law to loaf around on street corners and get into trouble.\" His belief brought upon him the wrath of the labor movement, which staunchly supported the child labor laws.\n\nA London newspaper columnist thought some of Gray's sequences a threat to world peace, but a Detroit newspaper supported Gray on his \"shoot first, ask questions later\" foreign policy. Gray was criticized for the gruesome violence in the strips, particularly a sequence in which Annie and Sandy were run over by a car. Gray responded to the criticism by giving Annie a year-long bout with amnesia that allowed her to trip through several adventures without Daddy. In 1956, a sequence about juvenile delinquency, drug addiction, switchblades, prostitutes, crooked cops, and the ties between teens and adult gangsters unleashed a firestorm of criticism from unions, the clergy and intellectuals with 30 newspapers cancelling the strip. The syndicate ordered Gray to drop the sequence and develop another adventure.\n\nGray's death\n\nGray died in May 1968 of cancer, and the strip was continued under other cartoonists. Gray's cousin Robert Leffingwell was the first on the job but proved inadequate and the strip was handed over to Tribune staff artist Henry Arnold and general manager Henry Raduta as the search continued for a permanent replacement. Tex Blaisdell, an experienced comics artist, got the job with Elliot Caplin as writer. Caplin avoided political themes and concentrated instead on character stories. The two worked together six years on the strip, but subscriptions fell off and both left at the end of 1973. The strip was passed to others and during this time complaints were registered regarding Annie's appearance, her conservative politics, and her lack of spunk. Early in 1974, David Lettick took the strip, but he left after three months. In April 1974, the decision was made to reprint Gray's classic strips, beginning in 1936. Subscriptions increased.\n\nFollowing the success of the Broadway musical Annie, the strip was resurrected in 1979 as Annie, written and drawn by Leonard Starr. Starr, the creator of Mary Perkins, On Stage, was the only one besides Gray to achieve notable success with the strip.\n\nUpon Starr's retirement in 2000, he was succeeded by Daily News writer Jay Maeder and artist Andrew Pepoy, beginning Monday, June 5, 2000. Pepoy was eventually succeeded by Alan Kupperberg (2001–2004) and Ted Slampyak (2004–2010). The new creators updated the strip's settings and characters for a modern audience, giving Annie a new hairdo and jeans rather than her trademark dress. However, Maeder's new stories never managed to live up to the pathos and emotional engagement of the stories by Gray and Starr. Annie herself was often reduced to a supporting role and was a far less complex character than the girl readers had known for seven decades. Maeder's writing style tended to make the stories feel like tongue-in-cheek adventures compared to the serious, heartfelt tales Gray and Starr favored. Annie gradually lost subscribers during the 2000s, and by 2010, it was running in fewer than 20 U.S. newspapers.\n\nCancellation\n\nOn May 13, 2010, Tribune Media Services announced that the strip's final installment would appear on Sunday June 13, 2010, ending after 86 years. At the time of the cancellation announcement, it was running in fewer than 20 newspapers, some of which, such as the New York Daily News, had carried the strip for its entire life. The final cartoonist, Ted Slampyak, said, \"It's kind of painful. It's almost like mourning the loss of a friend.\" \n\nThe last strip was the culmination of a story arc where Annie was kidnapped from her hotel by a wanted war criminal from eastern Europe who checked in under a phony name with a fake passport. Although Warbucks enlists the help of the FBI and Interpol to find her, by the end of the final strip he has begun to resign himself to the very strong possibility that Annie most likely will not be found alive. Unfortunately Warbucks is unaware that Annie is still alive and has made her way to Guatemala with her captor, known simply as the \"Butcher of the Balkans\". Although Annie wants to be let go, the Butcher tells her that he neither will let her go nor kill her — for fear of being captured and because he will not kill a child despite his many political killings — and adds that she has a new life now with him. The final panel of the strip reads \"And this is where we leave our Annie. For Now—\".\n\nSince the cancellation, rerun strips have been running on the GoComics site.\n\nFinal resolution: Warbucks calls on Dick Tracy\n\nIn 2013, the team behind Dick Tracy began a story line that would permanently resolve the fate of Annie for good. The week of June 10, 2013 featured several Annie characters in extended cameos complete with dialogue, including Warbucks, the Asp and Punjab. On June 16, Warbucks implies that Annie is still missing and that he might even enlist Tracy's help in finding her. Asp and Punjab appeared again in March 26, 2014. The caption says that these events will soon impact on the detective. \n\nThe storyline resumed on June 8, 2014, with Warbucks asking for Tracy's assistance in finding Annie. In the course of the story, Tracy receives a letter from Annie and determines her location. Meanwhile, the name of the kidnapper is revealed as Henrik Wilemse, and he has been tracked to the city where he is found and made to disappear. Tracy and Warbucks rescued Annie, and the storyline wrapped up on October 12. \n\nAnnie again visited 'Dick Tracy', visiting his granddaughter Honeymoon Tracy, starting June 6, 2015. This arc concluded Sept. 26 2015 with Dick Tracy sending the girls home from a crime scene to keep them out of the news.\n\nAdaptations\n\nRadio\n\nLittle Orphan Annie was adapted to a 15-minute radio show that debuted on WGN Chicago in 1930 and went national on NBC's Blue Network beginning April 6, 1931. The show was one of the first comic strips adapted to radio, attracted about 6 million fans, and left the air in 1942. Radio historian Jim Harmon attributes the show's popularity in The Great Radio Heroes to the fact that it was the only radio show to deal with and appeal to young children.\n\n1930s films based on the comic strip\n\nTwo film adaptations were released at the height of Annie's popularity in the 1930s. Little Orphan Annie, the first adaptation, was produced by David O. Selznick for RKO in 1932 and starred Mitzi Green as Annie. The plot was simple: Warbucks leaves on business and Annie finds herself in the orphanage again. She pals around with a little boy named Mickey, and when he is adopted by a wealthy woman, she visits him in his new home. Warbucks returns and holds a Christmas party for all. The film opened on Christmas Eve 1932. Variety panned it, and the New York Daily News was \"slightly disappointed\" with the film, thinking Green too \"big and buxom\" for the role. Paramount brought Ann Gillis to the role of Annie in their 1938 film adaptation, but this version was panned as well. One reviewer thought it \"stupid and thoroughly boresome\" and was uncomfortable with the \"sugar-coated Pollyanna characterization\" given Annie.\n\nThree years after the RKO release, Gray wrote a sequence for the strip that sent Annie to Hollywood. She is hired at low wages to play the stand-in and stunt double for the bratty child star Tootsie McSnoots. Young starlet Janey Spangles tips off Annie to the corrupt practices in Hollywood. Annie handles the information with maturity and has a good time with Janey while doing her job on the set. Annie doesn't become a star. As Bruce Smith remarks in The History of Little Orphan Annie, \"Gray was smart enough never to let [Annie] get too successful.\" \n\nBroadway\n\nIn 1977, Little Orphan Annie was adapted to the Broadway stage as Annie. With music by Charles Strouse, lyrics by Martin Charnin and book by Thomas Meehan, the original production ran from April 21, 1977 to January 2, 1983. The work has been staged internationally. The musical took considerable liberties with the original comic strip plot.\n\nThe Broadway Annies were Andrea McArdle, Shelly Bruce, Sarah Jessica Parker, Allison Smith and Alyson Kirk. Actresses who portrayed Miss Hannigan are Dorothy Loudon, Alice Ghostley, Betty Hutton, Ruth Kobart, Marcia Lewis, June Havoc, Nell Carter and Sally Struthers. Songs from the musical include \"Tomorrow\" and \"It's the Hard Knock Life\". There is also a children's version of Annie called Annie Junior. Two sequels to the musical, Annie 2: Miss Hannigan's Revenge (1989) and Annie Warbucks (1992-93), were written by the same creative team; neither show opened on Broadway.\n\nFilm adaptations of the Broadway musical\n\nIn addition to the two Annie films of the 1930s, there have been three film adaptations of the Broadway play. All have the same title. They are Annie (1982); a made-for-television adaptation, Annie (1999); and Annie (2014).\n\nThe 1982 version was directed by John Huston and starred Aileen Quinn as Annie, Albert Finney as Warbucks, Ann Reinking as his secretary Grace Farrell, and Carol Burnett as Miss Hannigan. The film departed from the Broadway production in several respects, most notably changing the climax of the story from Christmas to the Fourth of July. It also featured five new songs, \"Dumb Dog\", \"Sandy\", \"Let's Go to the Movies\", \"Sign\", and \"We Got Annie\", while cutting \"We'd like to Thank You, Herbert Hoover\", \"N.Y.C\", \"You Won't Be an Orphan for Long\", \"Something Was Missing\", \"Annie\", and \"New Deal for Christmas\". It received mixed critical reviews and, while becoming the 10th highest-grossing film of 1982, barely recouped its $50 million budget.\n\nA direct-to-video film, Annie: A Royal Adventure! was released in 1996 as a sequel to the 1982 film. It features Ashley Johnson as Annie and focuses on the adventures of Annie and her friends Hannah and Molly. It is set in England during 1943, about 10 years after the first film, when Annie and her friends Hannah and Molly sail to England after Daddy Warbucks is invited to receive a knighthood. None of the original 1982 cast appear and the film features no musical numbers apart from a reprise of \"Tomorrow\".\n\nThe 1999 television film was produced for The Wonderful World of Disney. It starred Victor Garber, Alan Cumming, Audra McDonald and Kristin Chenoweth, with Oscar winner Kathy Bates as Miss Hannigan and newcomer Alicia Morton as Annie. While its plot stuck closer to the original Broadway production, it also omitted \"We'd Like to Thank You, Herbert Hoover\", \"Annie\", \"New Deal for Christmas\", and a reprise of \"Tomorrow.\" Generally favorably received, the production earned two Emmy Awards and George Foster Peabody Award.\n\nAnnie is a film was produced by Jay-Z and Will Smith. It stars Quvenzhané Wallis in the title role and Jamie Foxx in the role of Will Stacks (an update of Daddy Warbucks). It was released on December 19, 2014.\n\nParodies, imitations and cultural citations\n\nBetween 1936 and October 17, 1959, the comic strip Belinda Blue-Eyes (later shortened to Belinda) ran in the United Kingdom in the Daily Mirror. Writers Bill Connor and Don Freeman and artists Stephen Dowling and Tony Royle all worked on the strip over the years. In The Penguin Book of Comics Belinda is described as \"a perpetual waif, a British counterpart to the transatlantic Little Orphan Annie.\" \n\nThe strip also influenced Little Annie Rooney (Jan. 10, 1927-1966) and Frankie Doodle (1934-1938).\n\nIn 1995, Little Orphan Annie was one of 20 American comic strips included in the Comic Strip Classics series of commemorative U.S. postage stamps.\n\nLittle Orphan Annie lent itself easily to parody, which was taken up by both Walt Kelly in Pogo (as \"Little Arf 'n Nonnie\" and later \"Lulu Arfin' Nanny\") and by Al Capp in Li'l Abner, where Punjab became Punjbag, an oleaginous slob.\n\nHarvey Kurtzman and Wally Wood satirized the strip in Mad #9 as \"Little Orphan Melvin\", and later Kurtzman produced a long-running series for Playboy, Little Annie Fanny, in which the lead character is a busty, voluptuous waif who continually loses her clothes and falls into strange sexual situations.\n\nIn The Fabulous Furry Freak Brothers, Gilbert Shelton satirized the strip as \"Little Orphan Amphetamine\", who is a 1960s teenager who runs away from home, and after being scarred by a series of sexual experiences, returns only to tell \"Daddy\" that he is a \"capitalist pig\" who should \"drop acid\".\n\nChildren's television host Chuck McCann became well known in the New York/New Jersey market for his imitations of newspaper comic characters; McCann put blank white circles over his eyes during his over-the-top impression of Annie.\n\nLittle Orphan Annie was also parodied in an episode of the stop-motion television series Robot Chicken in which Little Orphan Annie fails to grasp the true meaning of a hard knock life when a fellow orphan shows that their lives are relatively decent compared to orphans around the world. Annie reappears in another episode as a vulgar, demanding, and spoiled teenager featured in a parodic documentary chronicling her preparations for her ostentatious upcoming sixteenth birthday celebration in a sketch lampooning reality programs based on the same concept. She quickly tires of her gift from Daddy Warbucks— the planet Mars— and soon winds up suffocating to death after losing her helmet while exploring the planet.\n\nThe 1980s children's television program You Can't Do That on Television in its later banned \"Adoption\" episode, parodied the character as \"Little Orphan Andrea\". Andrea, like Annie, sported curly red hair and a red dress but unlike her, was a very naughty orphan who had a habit of beating up other kids. A less well-known (or rather, notorious) example was the 'Daddy Fleshbucks' side-story from American Flagg!. The title was parodied in The Simpsons episode Little Orphan Millie. In the early 1970s, a flavored ice treat for children called Otter Pops (with cartoon otters as flavored mascots such as \"Alexander the Grape\") featured a character dubbed \"Little Orphan Orange.\"\n\nIn the 1983 film A Christmas Story, the main character Ralph is a fan of the Little Orphan Annie radio drama, listening to the show religiously while waiting for his Ovaltine decoder pin. Once he receives the pin, he anxiously copies the show's secret code, but is frustrated upon decoding it to Ovaltine's slogan \"Be sure to drink your Ovaltine\".\n\nRapper Jay-Z has referenced Little Orphan Annie in at least two of his songs, as well as sampled \"It's the Hard Knock Life\" for \"Hard Knock Life (Ghetto Anthem)\".\n\nIn the film Bad Teacher, Elizabeth (Cameron Diaz) wears a \"Little Orphan Annie's wig\" when, pretending she is a journalist, she meets the state professor who is in charge of creating and distributing the exams forms, to seduce and put him to sleep. Her short tousled girlish hair-cut, along with the strict tailor-suit she dons, enhances her air of hidden perversion and makes it easy for her (with the help of a big glass of chardonnay mixed with two roofies) to put the professor on his knees. The wig is afterward missing from the school props box, and was much sought, before being retrieved in Elizabeth's drawer.\n\nIn medicine, \"Orphan Annie eye\" (empty or \"ground glass\") nuclei are a characteristic histological finding in papillary carcinoma of the thyroid gland.\n\nArchives\n\nHarold Gray's work is in the Howard Gotlieb Archival Research Center at Boston University. The Gray collection includes artwork, printed material, correspondence, manuscripts and photographs. Gray’s original pen and ink drawings for Little Orphan Annie daily strips date from 1924 to 1968. The Sunday strips date from 1924 to 1964. Printed material in the collection includes numerous proofs of Little Orphan Annie daily and Sunday strips (1925–68). Most of these are in bound volumes. There are proofsheets of Little Orphan Annie daily strips from the Chicago Tribune-New York Times Syndicate, Inc. for the dates 1943, 1959–61 and 1965–68, as well as originals and photocopies of the printed versions of Little Orphan Annie, both daily and Sunday strips. \n\nEpisode guide\n\n* 1924: From Rags to Riches (and Back Again); Just a Couple of Hurried Bites\n* 1925: The Silos; Count De Tour\n* 1926: School of Hard Knocks; Under the Big Top; Will Tomorrow Never Come?\n* 1927: The Blue Bell of Happiness; Haunted House; Other People's Troubles\n* 1928: Sherlock, Jr.; Mush and Milk; Just Before the Dawn\n* 1929: Farm Relief; Girl Next Door; One Blunder After Another\n* 1930: Seven Year Itch; The Frame, the Farm & the Flood; Shipwrecked\n* 1931: Busted!; Good Neighbor Policy; Down, But Not Out; And a Blind Man Shall Lead Them; Distant Relations; A Hundred to One\n* 1932: Don't Mess with Cupid; They Call Her Big Mama; A House Divided; Cosmic City\n* 1933: Pinching Pennies; Retribution; Who'd Chizzle a Blind Man?\n* 1934: Bleek House; Phil O. Blustered; The One-Way Road to Justice; Dust Yourself Off\n* 1935: Punjab the Wizard; Beware the Hate Mongers; Annie in Hollywood\n* 1936: Inkey; On the Lam; The Sole of the Matter; The Gila Story; Those Who are About to Die\n* 1937: The Million-Dollar Voice; The Omnipotent Mr. Am; Into the Fourth Dimension; Easy Money\n* 1938: A Rose, per Chance; The Last Port of Call; Men in Black\n* 1939: At Home on the Range; Assault on the Hacienda; Three Face East; Justice at Play\n* 1940: In the Nick of Time; Billy the Kid; Peg O' their Hearts\n* 1941: The Happy Warrior; Saints and Cynics; Never Trouble Trouble; On Needles and Pins\n* 1942: The Junior Commandos; Out on a Limb\n* 1943: The Rat Trap, Next Stop—Gooneyville\n* 1944: In a Den of Thieves, Death be Thy Name, Mrs. Bleating-Heart\n\nReprints\n\n* Between 1926–34, Cupples & Leon published nine collections of Annie strips:\n# Little Orphan Annie (1925 strips, reprinted by Dover and Pacific Comics Club)\n# In the Circus (1926 strips, reprinted by Pacific Comics Club)\n# Haunted House (1927 strips, reprinted by Pacific Comics Club)\n# Bucking the World (1928 strips, reprinted by Pacific Comics Club and in Nemo # 8)\n# Never Say Die (1929 strips, reprinted by Pacific Comics Club)\n# Shipwrecked (1930 strips, reprinted by Pacific Comics Club)\n# A Willing Helper (1931 strips, reprinted by Pacific Comics Club)\n# In Cosmic City (1932 strips, reprinted by Dover)\n# Uncle Dan (1933 strips, reprinted by Pacific Comics Club)\n* Arf: The Life and Hard Times of Little Orphan Annie (1970): reprints approximately half the daily strips from 1935-1945. However, many of the storylines are edited and shortened, with gaps of several months between some strips.\n* Dover Publications reprinted two of the Cupples & Leon books and an original collection Little Orphan Annie in the Great Depression which contains all the daily strips from January to September, 1931.\n* Pacific Comics Club has reprinted eight of the Cupples & Leon books. They have also published a new series of reprints, with complete runs of daily strip, in the same format at the C&L books, covering some of the daily strips from 1925 to 29:\n# The Sentence, 1925 strips\n# The Dreamer, strips from January 22, 1926 to April 30, 1926\n# Daddy, strips from September 6, 1926 to December 4, 1926.\n# The Hobo, strips from December 6, 1926 to March 5, 1927.\n# Rich Man, Poor Man, strips from March 7, 1927 to May 7, 1927.\n# The Little Worker, strips from October 8, 1927 to December 21, 1927.\n# The Business of Giving, strips from November 23, 1928 to March 2, 1929.\n# This Surprising World, strips from March 4, 1929 to June 11, 1929.\n# The Pro and the Con, strips from June 12, 1929 to September 19, 1929.\n# The Man of Mystery, strips from September 20, 1929 to December 31, 1929.\n\nConsidering both Cupples & Leon and Pacific Comics Club, the biggest gap is in 1928.\n\n* All of the daily and Sunday strips from 1931–1935 were reprinted by Fantagraphics in the 1990s, in five volumes, each covering a year, from 1931 to 1935.\n* Picking up where Fantagraphics left off, Comics Revue magazine reprinted both daily and Sunday strips from 1936 to 1941, starting in Comics Revue #167 and ending in #288.\n* Pacific Comics Club reprinted approximately the first six months of the strips from Comics Revue, under the title Home at Last, December 29, 1935 to April 5, 1936.\n* Dragon Lady Press reprinted daily and Sunday strips from September 3, 1945 to February 9, 1946.\n* In 2008, IDW Publishing started a reprint series The Complete Little Orphan Annie, under its Library of American Comics imprint. \n# Will Tomorrow Ever Come? (daily strips, August 1924 – October 1927)\n# Darkest Hour is Just before the Dawn (daily strips, October 1927 – December 1929; Sundays 1928)\n# And a Blind Man Shall Lead Them (daily strips, December 1929 – December 1931; Sundays April, 1930 – December 1931)\n# A House Divided (or Does Fate Trick Trixie?) (dailies and Sundays, January 1932 – July 1933)\n# The One-way Road to Justice (dailies and Sundays, July 1933 – February 1935)\n# Punjab the Wizard (dailies and Sundays, February 1935 – September 1936)\n# The Omnipotent Mr. Am (dailies and Sundays, October 1936 – June 1938)\n# The Last Port of Call (dailies and Sundays, June 1938 – February 1940)\n# Saints and Cynics (dailies and Sundays, March 1940 – November 1941)\n# Junior Commandos (dailies and Sundays, November 1941 - August 1943)\n# Death Be Thy Name (dailies and Sundays, August 1943 - April 1945)\n# It's Only a Paper Moon (dailies and Sundays, April 1945 - January 1947)\n# Spies and Counter Spies (dailies and Sundays, January 1947 - August 1948)" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "The land of five rivers", "Punjab area", "Punjab (region)", "Greater Punjab", "Punjab", "Greater Panjab", "پنجاب", "Punjab recion", "Punjab (Province)", "Punjab Region", "Punjáb", "Punjabi land", "पंजाब", "The Panjab", "Five rivers of the Punjab", "Panjāb", "Punjab region", "Punjabistan", "The Punjab", "Land of Five Rivers", "Panjab region", "Five rivers of Punjab", "Panjab", "Pentapotamia", "Punjaub" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "five rivers of punjab", "land of five rivers", "punjab region", "punjabistan", "panjāb", "punjab province", "punjab area", "punjaub", "پنجاب", "punjabi land", "greater panjab", "panjab", "punjab", "panjab region", "pentapotamia", "greater punjab", "punjáb", "punjab recion", "पंजाब" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "punjab", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Punjab" }
Who was British Prime Minister when World War II broke out?	tc_504	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe", "Search" ], "filename": [ "Prime_Minister_of_the_United_Kingdom.txt", "World_War_II.txt", "Winston_Churchill.txt" ], "title": [ "Prime Minister of the United Kingdom", "World War II", "Winston Churchill" ], "wiki_context": [ "The Prime Minister of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is the head of Her Majesty's Government in the United Kingdom. The prime minister (informal abbreviation: PM) and Cabinet (consisting of all the most senior ministers, most of whom are government department heads) are collectively accountable for their policies and actions to the Monarch, to Parliament, to their political party and ultimately to the electorate. The , Theresa May, leader of the Conservative Party, was appointed by the Queen on 13 July 2016.\n\nThe office is not established by any constitution or law but exists only by long-established convention, which stipulates that the monarch must appoint as prime minister the person most likely to command the confidence of the House of Commons; this individual is typically the leader of the political party or coalition of parties that holds the largest number of seats in that chamber. The position of Prime Minister was not created; it evolved slowly and erratically over three hundred years due to numerous acts of Parliament, political developments, and accidents of history. The office is therefore best understood from a historical perspective. The origins of the position are found in constitutional changes that occurred during the Revolutionary Settlement (1688–1720) and the resulting shift of political power from the Sovereign to Parliament. Although the Sovereign was not stripped of the ancient prerogative powers and legally remained the head of government, politically it gradually became necessary for him or her to govern through a Prime Minister who could command a majority in Parliament.\n\nBy the 1830s the Westminster system of government (or cabinet government) had emerged; the Prime Minister had become primus inter pares or the first among equals in the Cabinet and the head of government in the United Kingdom. The political position of Prime Minister was enhanced by the development of modern political parties, the introduction of mass communication (inexpensive newspapers, radio, television and the internet), and photography. By the start of the 20th century the modern premiership had emerged; the office had become the pre-eminent position in the constitutional hierarchy vis-à-vis the Sovereign, Parliament and Cabinet.\n\nPrior to 1902, the prime minister sometimes came from the House of Lords, provided that his government could form a majority in the Commons. However as the power of the aristocracy waned during the 19th century the convention developed that the Prime Minister should always sit in the lower house. As leader of the House of Commons, the Prime Minister's authority was further enhanced by the Parliament Act of 1911 which marginalised the influence of the House of Lords in the law-making process.\n\nThe Prime Minister is ex officio also First Lord of the Treasury and Minister for the Civil Service. Certain privileges, such as residency of 10 Downing Street, are accorded to Prime Ministers by virtue of their position as First Lord of the Treasury.\n\nAuthority\n\nAs the \"Head of Her Majesty's Government\" the modern Prime Minister leads the Cabinet (the Executive). In addition the Prime Minister leads a major political party and generally commands a majority in the House of Commons (the lower house of the legislature). As such the incumbent wields both legislative and executive powers. Under the British system there is a unity of powers rather than separation. In the House of Commons, the Prime Minister guides the law-making process with the goal of enacting the legislative agenda of their political party. In an executive capacity the Prime Minister appoints (and may dismiss) all other cabinet members and ministers, and co-ordinates the policies and activities of all government departments, and the staff of the Civil Service. The Prime Minister also acts as the public \"face\" and \"voice\" of Her Majesty's Government, both at home and abroad. Solely upon the advice of the Prime Minister, the Sovereign exercises many statutory and prerogative powers, including high judicial, political, official and Church of England ecclesiastical appointments; the conferral of peerages, knighthoods, decorations and other honours. Although they may sometimes appear to be heavily under the influence of their aides, in reality the Prime Minister is in control. \n\nConstitutional background\n\nThe British system of government is based on an uncodified constitution, meaning that it is not set out in any single document. The British constitution consists of many documents and, most importantly for the evolution of the office of Prime Minister, it is based on customs known as constitutional conventions that became accepted practice. In 1928, Prime Minister H. H. Asquith described this characteristic of the British constitution in his memoirs:\n\nIn this country we live ... under an unwritten Constitution. It is true that we have on the Statute-book great instruments like Magna Carta, the Petition of Right, and the Bill of Rights which define and secure many of our rights and privileges; but the great bulk of our constitutional liberties and ... our constitutional practices do not derive their validity and sanction from any Bill which has received the formal assent of the King, Lords and Commons. They rest on usage, custom, convention, often of slow growth in their early stages, not always uniform, but which in the course of time received universal observance and respect. \n\nThe relationships between the Prime Minister and the Sovereign, Parliament and Cabinet are defined largely by these unwritten conventions of the constitution. Many of the Prime Minister's executive and legislative powers are actually royal prerogatives which are still formally vested in the Sovereign, who remains the head of state. Despite its growing dominance in the constitutional hierarchy, the Premiership was given little formal recognition until the 20th century; the legal fiction was maintained that the Sovereign still governed directly. The position was first mentioned in statute only in 1917, in the schedule of the Chequers Estate Act. Increasingly during the 20th century, the office and role of Prime Minister featured in statute law and official documents; however, the Prime Minister's powers and relationships with other institutions still largely continue to derive from ancient royal prerogatives and historic and modern constitutional conventions. Prime Ministers continue to hold the position of First Lord of the Treasury and, since November 1968, that of Minister for the Civil Service, the latter giving them authority over the civil service.\n\nUnder this arrangement, Britain might appear to have two executives: the Prime Minister and the Sovereign. The concept of \"the Crown\" resolves this paradox. The Crown symbolises the state's authority to govern: to make laws and execute them, impose taxes and collect them, declare war and make peace. Before the \"Glorious Revolution\" of 1688, the Sovereign exclusively wielded the powers of the Crown; afterwards, Parliament gradually forced monarchs to assume a neutral political position. Parliament has effectively dispersed the powers of the Crown, entrusting its authority to responsible ministers (the Prime Minister and Cabinet), accountable for their policies and actions to Parliament, in particular the elected House of Commons.\n\nAlthough many of the Sovereign's prerogative powers are still legally intact,The Sovereign's prerogative powers are sometimes called reserve powers. They include the sole authority to dismiss a Prime Minister and government of the day in extremely rare and exceptional circumstances, and other essential powers (such as withholding Royal Assent, and summoning and proroguing Parliament) to preserve the stability of the nation. These reserve powers can be exercised without the consent of Parliament. Reserve powers, in practice, are the court of absolute last resort in resolving situations that fundamentally threaten the security and stability of the nation as a whole and are almost never used. constitutional conventions have removed the monarch from day-to-day governance, with ministers exercising the royal prerogatives, leaving the monarch in practice with three constitutional rights: to be kept informed, to advise, and to warn. \n\nFoundations of the office of Prime Minister\n\nRevolutionary settlement\n\nBecause the Premiership was not intentionally created, there is no exact date when its evolution began. A meaningful starting point, however, is 1688–9 when James II fled England and the Parliament of England confirmed William and Mary as joint constitutional monarchs, enacting legislation that limited their authority and that of their successors: the Bill of Rights (1689), the Mutiny Bill (1689), the Triennial Bill (1694), the Treason Act (1696) and the Act of Settlement (1701). Known collectively as the Revolutionary Settlement, these acts transformed the constitution, shifting the balance of power from the Sovereign to Parliament. They also provided the basis for the evolution of the office of Prime Minister, which did not exist at that time.\n\nTreasury Bench\n\nThe Revolutionary Settlement gave the Commons control over finances and legislation and changed the relationship between the Executive and the Legislature. For want of money, Sovereigns had to summon Parliament annually and could no longer dissolve or prorogue it without its advice and consent. Parliament became a permanent feature of political life. The veto fell into disuse because Sovereigns feared that if they denied legislation Parliament would deny them money. No Sovereign has denied royal assent since Queen Anne vetoed the Scottish Militia Bill in 1708. \n\nTreasury officials and other department heads were drawn into Parliament serving as liaisons between it and the Sovereign. Ministers had to present the government's policies, and negotiate with Members to gain the support of the majority; they had to explain the government's financial needs, suggest ways of meeting them and give an account of how money had been spent. The Sovereign's representatives attended Commons sessions so regularly that they were given reserved seats at the front, known as the Treasury Bench. This is the beginning of \"unity of powers\": the Sovereign's Ministers (the Executive) became leading members of Parliament (the Legislature). Today the Prime Minister (First Lord of the Treasury), the Chancellor of the Exchequer (responsible for The Budget) and other senior members of the Cabinet sit on the Treasury bench and present policies in much the same way Ministers did late in the 17th century.\n\nStanding Order 66\n\nAfter the Revolution, there was a constant threat that non-government members of Parliament would ruin the country's finances by proposing ill-considered money bills. Vying for control to avoid chaos, the Crown's Ministers gained an advantage in 1706, when the Commons informally declared, \"That this House will receive no petition for any sum of money relating to public Service, but what is recommended from the Crown.\" On 11 June 1713, this non-binding rule became Standing Order 66: that \"the Commons would not vote money for any purpose, except on a motion of a Minister of the Crown.\" Standing Order 66 remains in effect today (though renumbered as no. 48), essentially unchanged for three hundred years. \n\nEmpowering Ministers with sole financial initiative had an immediate and lasting impact. Apart from achieving its intended purpose – to stabilise the budgetary process – it gave the Crown a leadership role in the Commons; and, the Lord Treasurer assumed a leading position among Ministers.\n\nThe power of financial initiative was not, however, absolute. Only Ministers might initiate money bills, but Parliament now reviewed and consented to them. Standing Order 66 therefore represents the beginnings of Ministerial responsibility and accountability. \n\nThe term \"Prime Minister\" appears at this time as an unofficial title for the leader of the government, usually the head of the Treasury. Jonathan Swift, for example, wrote in 1713 about \"those who are now commonly called Prime Minister among us\", referring to Sidney Godolphin, 1st Earl of Godolphin and Robert Harley, Queen Anne's Lord Treasurers and chief ministers. Since 1721, every head of the Sovereign's government – with one exception in the 18th century (William Pitt the Elder) and one in the 19th (Lord Salisbury) – has been First Lord of the Treasury.\n\nBeginnings of the Prime Minister's party leadership\n\nPolitical parties first appeared during the Exclusion Crisis of 1678–1681. The Whigs, who believed in limited monarchy, wanted to exclude James Stuart from succeeding to the throne because he was a Catholic. The Tories, who believed in the \"Divine Right of Kings\", defended James' hereditary claim. These parties dominated British politics for over 150 years, with the Whigs evolving into the Liberal Party and the Tories into the Conservative. Even today, Conservatives are often called \"Tories\".\n\nPolitical parties were not well organised or disciplined in the 17th century. They were more like factions with \"members\" drifting in and out, collaborating temporarily on issues when it was to their advantage, then disbanding when it was not. A major deterrent to the development of opposing parties was the idea that there could only be one \"King's Party\" and to oppose it would be disloyal or even treasonous. This idea lingered throughout the 18th century. Nevertheless it became possible at the end of the 17th century to identify Parliaments and Ministries as being either \"Whig\" or \"Tory\" in composition.\n\nCabinet\n\nThe modern Prime Minister is also the leader of the Cabinet. A convention of the constitution, the modern Cabinet is a group of ministers who formulate policies. As the political heads of government departments Cabinet Ministers ensure that policies are carried out by permanent civil servants. Although the modern Prime Minister selects Ministers, appointment still rests with the Sovereign. With the Prime Minister as its leader, the Cabinet forms the executive branch of government.\n\nThe term \"Cabinet\" first appears after the Revolutionary Settlement to describe those ministers who conferred privately with the Sovereign. The growth of the Cabinet met with widespread complaint and opposition because its meetings were often held in secret and it excluded the ancient Privy Council (of which the Cabinet is formally a committee) from the Sovereign's circle of advisers, reducing it to an honorary body. The early Cabinet, like that of today, included the Treasurer and other department heads who sat on the Treasury bench. However, it might also include individuals who were not members of Parliament such as household officers (e.g. the Master of the Horse) and members of the royal family. The exclusion of non-members of Parliament from the Cabinet was essential to the development of ministerial accountability and responsibility.\n\nBoth William and Anne appointed and dismissed Cabinet members, attended meetings, made decisions, and followed up on actions. Relieving the Sovereign of these responsibilities and gaining control over the Cabinet's composition was an essential part of evolution of the Premiership. This process began after the Hanoverian Succession. Although George I (1714–1727) attended Cabinet meetings at first, after 1717 he withdrew because he did not speak fluent English and was bored with the discussions. George II (1727–1760) occasionally presided at Cabinet meetings but his grandson, George III (1760–1820), is known to have attended only two during his 60-year reign. Thus, the convention that Sovereigns do not attend Cabinet meetings was established primarily through royal indifference to the everyday tasks of governance. The Prime Minister became responsible for calling meetings, presiding, taking notes, and reporting to the Sovereign. These simple executive tasks naturally gave the Prime Minister ascendancy over his Cabinet colleagues. \n\nAlthough the first three Hanoverians rarely attended Cabinet meetings they insisted on their prerogatives to appoint and dismiss ministers and to direct policy even if from outside the Cabinet. It was not until late in the 18th century that Prime Ministers gained control over Cabinet composition (see section Emergence of Cabinet Government below).\n\n\"One Party Government\"\n\nBritish governments (or Ministries) are generally formed by one party. The Prime Minister and Cabinet are usually all members of the same political party, almost always the one that has a majority of seats in the House of Commons. Coalition governments (a ministry that consists of representatives from two or more parties) and minority governments (a one-party ministry formed by a party that does not command a majority in the Commons) are relatively rare. \"One party government\", as this system is sometimes called, has been the general rule for almost three hundred years.\n\nEarly in his reign, William III (1689–1702) preferred \"Mixed Ministries\" (or coalitions) consisting of both Tories and Whigs. William thought this composition would dilute the power of any one party and also give him the benefit of differing points of view. However, this approach did not work well because the members could not agree on a leader or on policies, and often worked at odds with each other.\n\nIn 1697, William formed a homogeneous Whig ministry. Known as the Junto, this government is often cited as the first true Cabinet because its members were all Whigs, reflecting the majority composition of the Commons. \n\nAnne (1702–1714) followed this pattern but preferred Tory Cabinets. This approach worked well as long as Parliament was also predominantly Tory. However, in 1708, when the Whigs obtained a majority, Anne did not call on them to form a government, refusing to accept the idea that politicians could force themselves on her merely because their party had a majority. She never parted with an entire Ministry or accepted an entirely new one regardless of the results of an election. Anne preferred to retain a minority government rather than be dictated to by Parliament. Consequently, her chief ministers Sidney Godolphin, 1st Earl of Godolphin and Robert Harley, who were called \"Prime Minister\" by some, had difficulty executing policy in the face of a hostile Parliament. \n\nWilliam's and Anne's experiments with the political composition of the Cabinet illustrated the strengths of one party government and the weaknesses of coalition and minority governments. Nevertheless, it was not until the 1830s that the constitutional convention was established that the Sovereign must select the Prime Minister (and Cabinet) from the party whose views reflect those of the majority in Parliament. Since then, most ministries have reflected this one party rule.\n\nDespite the \"one party\" convention, Prime Ministers may still be called upon to lead either minority or coalition governments. A minority government may be formed as a result of a \"hung parliament\" in which no single party commands a majority in the House of Commons after a general election or the death, resignation or defection of existing members. By convention the serving Prime Minister is given the first opportunity to reach agreements that will allow them to survive a vote of confidence in the House and continue to govern. The last minority government was led by Labour Prime Minister Harold Wilson for eight months after the February 1974 general election produced a hung parliament. In the October 1974 general election, the Labour Party gained 18 seats, giving Wilson a majority of three.\n\nA hung parliament may also lead to the formation of a coalition government in which two or more parties negotiate a joint programme to command a majority in the Commons. Coalitions have also been formed during times of national crisis such as war. Under such circumstances, the parties agree to temporarily set aside their political differences and to unite to face the national crisis. Coalitions are rare: since 1721, there have been fewer than a dozen.\n\nWhen the general election of 2010 produced a hung parliament, the Conservative and Liberal Democrat parties agreed to form the first Cameron ministry, the first coalition in seventy years. The previous coalition in the UK before 2010 was led by Conservative Prime Minister Winston Churchill during most of the Second World War, from May 1940 to May 1945. Clement Attlee, the leader of the Labour Party, served as deputy prime minister. After the general election of 2015, the nation returned to one party government after the Tories won an outright majority.\n\nTreasury Commission\n\nThe Premiership is still largely a convention of the constitution; its legal authority is derived primarily from the fact that the Prime Minister is also First Lord of the Treasury. The connection of these two offices – one a convention, the other a legal office – began with the Hanoverian Succession in 1714.\n\nWhen George I succeeded to the British throne in 1714, his German ministers advised him to leave the office of Lord High Treasurer vacant because those who had held it in recent years had grown overly powerful, in effect, replacing the Sovereign as head of the government. They also feared that a Lord High Treasurer would undermine their own influence with the new King. They therefore suggested that he place the office in \"commission\", meaning that a committee of five ministers would perform its functions together. Theoretically, this dilution of authority would prevent any one of them from presuming to be the head of the government. The King agreed and created the Treasury Commission consisting of the First Lord of the Treasury, the Second Lord, and three Junior Lords.\n\nNo one has been appointed Lord High Treasurer since 1714; it has remained in commission for three hundred years. The Treasury Commission ceased to meet late in the 18th century but has survived, albeit with very different functions: the First Lord of the Treasury is now the Prime Minister, the Second Lord is the Chancellor of the Exchequer (and actually in charge of the Treasury), and the Junior Lords are government Whips maintaining party discipline in the House of Commons; they no longer have any duties related to the Treasury, though when subordinate legislation requires the consent of the Treasury it is still two of the Junior Lords who sign on its behalf.See e.g. the various orders prescribing fees to be taken in public offices \n\nEarly prime ministers\n\n\"First\" Prime Minister\n\nSince the office evolved rather than being instantly created, it may not be totally clear-cut who was the first Prime Minister. However, this appellation is traditionally given to Sir Robert Walpole who became First Lord of the Treasury in 1721.\n\nIn 1720, the South Sea Company, created to trade in cotton, agricultural goods and slaves, collapsed, causing the financial ruin of thousands of investors and heavy losses for many others, including members of the royal family. King George I called on Robert Walpole, well known for his political and financial acumen, to handle the emergency. With considerable skill and some luck, Walpole acted quickly to restore public credit and confidence, and led the country out of the crisis. A year later, the King appointed him First Lord of the Treasury, Chancellor of the Exchequer, and Leader of the House of Commons – making him the most powerful minister in the government. Ruthless, crude, and hard-working, he had a \"sagacious business sense\" and was a superb manager of men. At the head of affairs for the next two decades, Walpole stabilised the nation's finances, kept it at peace, made it prosperous, and secured the Hanoverian Succession. \n\nWalpole demonstrated for the first time how a chief minister – a Prime Minister – could be the actual Head of the Government under the new constitutional framework. First, recognising that the Sovereign could no longer govern directly but was still the nominal head of the government, he insisted that he was nothing more than the \"King's Servant\". Second, recognising that power had shifted to the Commons, he conducted the nation's business there and made it dominant over the Lords in all matters. Third, recognising that the Cabinet had become the executive and must be united, he dominated the other members and demanded their complete support for his policies. Fourth, recognising that political parties were the source of ministerial strength, he led the Whig party and maintained discipline. In the Commons, he insisted on the support of all Whig members, especially those who held office. Finally, he set an example for future Prime Ministers by resigning his offices in 1742 after a vote of confidence, which he won by just 3 votes. The slimness of this majority undermined his power, even though he still retained the confidence of the Sovereign. \n\nAmbivalence and denial\n\nFor all his contributions, Walpole was not a Prime Minister in the modern sense. The King – not Parliament – chose him; and the King – not Walpole – chose the Cabinet. Walpole set an example, not a precedent, and few followed his example. For over 40 years after Walpole's fall in 1742, there was widespread ambivalence about the position. In some cases, the Prime Minister was a figurehead with power being wielded by other individuals; in others there was a reversion to the \"chief minister\" model of earlier times in which the Sovereign actually governed. At other times, there appeared to be two prime ministers. During Britain's participation in the Seven Years' War, for example, the powers of government were divided equally between the Duke of Newcastle and William Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham, leading to them both alternatively being described as Prime Minister. Furthermore, many thought that the title \"Prime Minister\" usurped the Sovereign's constitutional position as \"head of the government\" and that it was an affront to other ministers because they were all appointed by and equally responsible to the Sovereign.\n\nFor these reasons there was a reluctance to use the title. Although Walpole is now called the \"first\" Prime Minister, the title was not commonly used during his tenure. Walpole himself denied it. In 1741, during the attack that led to Walpole's downfall, Samuel Sandys declared that \"According to our Constitution we can have no sole and prime minister.\" In his defence, Walpole said \"I unequivocally deny that I am sole or Prime Minister and that to my influence and direction all the affairs of government must be attributed.\" George Grenville, Prime Minister in the 1760s, said it was \"an odious title\" and never used it. Lord North, the reluctant head of the King's Government during the American War of Independence, \"would never suffer himself to be called Prime Minister, because it was an office unknown to the Constitution.\" The 18th-century ambivalence causes problems for researchers trying to identify who was a Prime Minister and who was not. Every list of Prime Ministers may omit certain politicians. For instance, unsuccessful attempts to form ministries – such as the two-day government formed by the Earl of Bath in 1746, often dismissed as the \"Silly Little Ministry\" – may be included in a list or omitted, depending on the criteria selected.\n\nDenials of the Premiership's legal existence continued throughout the 19th century. In 1806, for example, one member of the Commons said, \"the Constitution abhors the idea of a prime minister\". In 1829, Lord Lansdowne said, \"nothing could be more mischievous or unconstitutional than to recognise by act of parliament the existence of such an office.\" \n\nBy the turn of the 20th century the Premiership had become, by convention, the most important position in the constitutional hierarchy. Yet there were no legal documents describing its powers or acknowledging its existence. The first official recognition given to the office had only been in the Treaty of Berlin in 1878, when Disraeli signed as \"First Lord of the Treasury and Prime Minister of her Britannic Majesty\". Incumbents had no statutory authority in their own right. As late as 1904, Arthur Balfour explained the status of his office in a speech at Haddington: \"The Prime Minister has no salary as Prime Minister. He has no statutory duties as Prime Minister, his name occurs in no Acts of Parliament, and though holding the most important place in the constitutional hierarchy, he has no place which is recognised by the laws of his country. This is a strange paradox.\" \n\nIn 1905 the position was given some official recognition when the \"Prime Minister\" was named in the order of precedence, outranked, among non-royals, only by the Archbishops of Canterbury and York, the Moderator of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland and the Lord Chancellor. \n\nThe first Act of Parliament to mention the Premiership – albeit in a schedule – was the Chequers Estate Act on 20 December 1917. This law conferred the Chequers Estate owned by Sir Arthur and Lady Lee, as a gift to the Crown for use as a country home for future Prime Ministers.\n\nUnequivocal legal recognition was given in the Ministers of the Crown Act 1937, which made provision for payment of a salary to the person who is both \"the First Lord of the Treasury and Prime Minister\". Explicitly recognising two hundred years' of ambivalence, the Act states that it intended \"To give statutory recognition to the existence of the position of Prime Minister, and to the historic link between the Premiership and the office of First Lord of the Treasury, by providing in respect to that position and office a salary of ...\" The Act made a distinction between the \"position\" (Prime Minister) and the \"office\" (First Lord of the Treasury), emphasising the unique political character of the former. Nevertheless, the brass plate on the door of the Prime Minister's home, 10 Downing Street, still bears the title of \"First Lord of the Treasury\", as it has since the 18th century.\n\n\"First among equals\"\n\nEmergence of Cabinet government\n \n\nDespite the reluctance to legally recognise the Premiership, ambivalence toward it waned in the 1780s. During the first 20 years of his reign, George III (1760–1820) tried to be his own \"prime minister\" by controlling policy from outside the Cabinet, appointing and dismissing ministers, meeting privately with individual ministers, and giving them instructions. These practices caused confusion and dissension in Cabinet meetings; King George's experiment in personal rule was generally a failure. After the failure of Lord North's ministry (1770–1782) in March 1782 due to Britain's defeat in the American Revolutionary War and the ensuing vote of no confidence by Parliament, the Marquess of Rockingham reasserted the Prime Minister's control over the Cabinet. Rockingham assumed the Premiership \"on the distinct understanding that measures were to be changed as well as men; and that the measures for which the new ministry required the royal consent were the measures which they, while in opposition, had advocated.\" He and his Cabinet were united in their policies and would stand or fall together; they also refused to accept anyone in the Cabinet who did not agree.This event also marks the beginnings of collective Cabinet responsibility. This principle states that the decisions made by any one Cabinet member become the responsibility of the entire Cabinet. King George threatened to abdicate but in the end reluctantly agreed out of necessity: he had to have a government.\n\nFrom this time, there was a growing acceptance of the position of Prime Minister and the title was more commonly used, if only unofficially. Associated initially with the Whigs, the Tories started to accept it. Lord North, for example, who had said the office was \"unknown to the constitution\", reversed himself in 1783 when he said, \"In this country some one man or some body of men like a Cabinet should govern the whole and direct every measure.\" In 1803, William Pitt the Younger, also a Tory, suggested to a friend that \"this person generally called the first minister\" was an absolute necessity for a government to function, and expressed his belief that this person should be the minister in charge of the finances.\n\nThe Tories' wholesale conversion started when Pitt was confirmed as Prime Minister in the election of 1784. For the next 17 years until 1801 (and again from 1804 to 1806), Pitt, the Tory, was Prime Minister in the same sense that Walpole, the Whig, had been earlier.\n\nTheir conversion was reinforced after 1810. In that year, George III, who had suffered periodically from mental instability (due to a blood disorder now known as porphyria), became permanently insane and spent the remaining 10 years of his life unable to discharge his duties. The Prince Regent was prevented from using the full powers of Kingship. The Regent became George IV in 1820, but during his 10-year reign was indolent and frivolous. Consequently, for 20 years the throne was virtually vacant and Tory Cabinets led by Tory Prime Ministers filled the void, governing virtually on their own.\n\nThe Tories were in power for almost 50 years, except for a Whig ministry from 1806 to 1807. Lord Liverpool was Prime Minister for 15 years; he and Pitt held the position for 34 years. Under their long, consistent leadership, Cabinet government became a convention of the constitution. Although subtle issues remained to be settled, the Cabinet system of government is essentially the same today as it was in 1830.\n\nUnder this form of government, called the Westminster system, the Sovereign is head of state and titular head of Her Majesty's Government. She selects as her Prime Minister the person who is able to command a working majority in the House of Commons, and invites him or her to form a government. As the actual Head of Government, the Prime Minister selects his Cabinet, choosing its members from among those in Parliament who agree or generally agree with his intended policies. He then recommends them to the Sovereign who confirms his selections by formally appointing them to their offices. Led by the Prime Minister, the Cabinet is collectively responsible for whatever the government does. The Sovereign does not confer with members privately about policy, nor attend Cabinet meetings. With respect to actual governance, the monarch has only three constitutional rights: to be kept informed, to advise, and to warn. In practice this means that the Sovereign reviews state papers and meets regularly with the Prime Minister, usually weekly, when she may advise and warn him or her regarding the proposed decisions and actions of Her Government. \n\nLoyal Opposition\n\nThe modern British system includes not only a government formed by the majority party (or coalition of parties) in the House of Commons but also an organised and open opposition formed by those who are not members of the governing party. Called Her Majesty's Most Loyal Opposition, they occupy the benches to the Speaker's left. Seated in the front, directly across from the ministers on the Treasury Bench, the leaders of the opposition form a \"Shadow Government\", complete with a salaried \"Shadow Prime Minister\", the Leader of the Opposition, ready to assume office if the government falls or loses the next election.\n\nOpposing the King's government was considered disloyal, even treasonous, at the end of the 17th century. During the 18th century this idea waned and finally disappeared as the two party system developed. The expression \"His Majesty's Opposition\" was coined by John Hobhouse, 1st Baron Broughton. In 1826, Broughton, a Whig, announced in the Commons that he opposed the report of a Bill. As a joke, he said, \"It was said to be very hard on His Majesty's ministers to raise objections to this proposition. For my part, I think it is much more hard on His Majesty's Opposition to compel them to take this course.\" The phrase caught on and has been used ever since. Sometimes rendered as the \"Loyal Opposition\", it acknowledges the legitimate existence of the two party system, and describes an important constitutional concept: opposing the government is not treason; reasonable men can honestly oppose its policies and still be loyal to the Sovereign and the nation.\n\nInformally recognized for over a century as a convention of the constitution, the position of Leader of the Opposition was given statutory recognition in 1937 by the Ministers of the Crown Act.\n\nGreat Reform Act and the Premiership\n\nBritish Prime Ministers have never been elected directly by the public. A Prime Minister need not be a party leader; David Lloyd George was not a party leader during his service as prime minister during World War I, and neither was Ramsay MacDonald from 1931 to 1935. Prime Ministers have taken office because they were members of either the Commons or Lords, and either inherited a majority in the Commons or won more seats than the opposition in a general election.\n\nSince 1722, most Prime Ministers have been members of the Commons; since 1902, all have had a seat there.Except Lord Home, who resigned his peerage to stand in a by-election soon after becoming Prime Minister Like other members, they are elected initially to represent only a constituency. Former Prime Minister Tony Blair, for example, represented Sedgefield in County Durham from 1983 to 2007. He became Prime Minister because in 1994 he was elected Labour Party leader and then led the party to victory in the 1997 general election, winning 418 seats compared to 165 for the Conservatives and gaining a majority in the House of Commons.\n\nNeither the Sovereign nor the House of Lords had any meaningful influence over who was elected to the Commons in 1997 or in deciding whether or not Blair would become Prime Minister. Their detachment from the electoral process and the selection of the Prime Minister has been a convention of the constitution for almost 200 years.\n\nPrior to the 19th century, however, they had significant influence, using to their advantage the fact that most citizens were disenfranchised and seats in the Commons were allocated disproportionately. Through patronage, corruption and bribery, the Crown and Lords \"owned\" about 30% of the seats (called \"pocket\" or \"rotten boroughs\") giving them a significant influence in the Commons and in the selection of the Prime Minister. \n\nIn 1830, Charles Grey, the 2nd Earl Grey and a life-long Whig, became Prime Minister and was determined to reform the electoral system. For two years, he and his Cabinet fought to pass what has come to be known as the Great Reform Bill of 1832. The greatness of the Great Reform Bill lay less in substance than in symbolism. As John Bright, a liberal statesman of the next generation, said, \"It was not a good Bill, but it was a great Bill when it passed.\" Substantively, it increased the franchise by 65% to 717,000; with the middle class receiving most of the new votes. The representation of 56 rotten boroughs was eliminated completely, together with half the representation of 30 others; the freed up seats were distributed to boroughs created for previously disenfranchised areas. However, many rotten boroughs remained and it still excluded millions of working class men and all women. \n\nSymbolically, however, the Reform Act exceeded expectations. It is now ranked with Magna Carta and the Bill of Rights as one of the most important documents of the British constitutional tradition.\n\nFirst, the Act removed the Sovereign from the election process and the choice of Prime Minister. Slowly evolving for 100 years, this convention was confirmed two years after the passage of the Act. In 1834, King William IV dismissed Melbourne as Premier, but was forced to recall him when Robert Peel, the King's choice, could not form a working majority. Since then, no Sovereign has tried to impose a Prime Minister on Parliament.\n\nSecond, the Bill reduced the Lords' power by eliminating many of their pocket boroughs and creating new boroughs in which they had no influence. Weakened, they were unable to prevent the passage of more comprehensive electoral reforms in 1867, 1884, 1918 and 1928 when universal equal suffrage was established. \n\nUltimately, this erosion of power led to the Parliament Act of 1911, which marginalised the Lords' role in the legislative process and gave further weight to the convention that had developed over the previous centuryAs early as 1839, the former Prime Minister Duke of Wellington had argued in the House of Lords that \"I have long entertained the view that the Prime Minister of this country, under existing circumstances, ought to have a seat in the other House of Parliament, and that he would have great advantage in carrying on the business of the Sovereign by being there.\" Quoted in Barnett, p. 246 that a Prime Minister cannot sit in the House of Lords. The last to do so was Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury, from 1895 to 1902.The last Prime Minister to be a member of the Lords during any part of his tenure was Alec Douglas-Home, 14th Earl of Home in 1963. Lord Home was the last Prime Minister who was a hereditary peer, but, within days of attaining office, he disclaimed his peerage, abiding by the convention that the Prime Minister should sit in the House of Commons. A junior member of his Conservative Party who had already been selected as candidate in a by-election in a staunch Conservative seat stood aside, allowing Home to contest and win the by-election, and thus procure a seat in the lower House. Throughout the 19th century, governments led from the Lords had often suffered difficulties governing alongside ministers who sat in the Commons. \n\nGrey set an example and a precedent for his successors. He was primus inter pares (first among equals), as Bagehot said in 1867 of the Prime Minister's status. Using his Whig victory as a mandate for reform, Grey was unrelenting in the pursuit of this goal, using every Parliamentary device to achieve it. Although respectful toward the King, he made it clear that his constitutional duty was to acquiesce to the will of the people and Parliament.\n\nThe Loyal Opposition acquiesced too. Some disgruntled Tories claimed they would repeal the Bill once they regained a majority. But in 1834, Robert Peel, the new Conservative leader, put an end to this threat when he stated in his Tamworth Manifesto that the Bill was \"a final and irrevocable settlement of a great constitutional question which no friend to the peace and welfare of this country would attempt to disturb\". \n\nPopulist prime ministers\n\nThe Premiership was a reclusive office prior to 1832. The incumbent worked with his Cabinet and other government officials; he occasionally met with the Sovereign, and attended Parliament when it was in session during the spring and summer. He never went out on the stump to campaign, even during elections; he rarely spoke directly to ordinary voters about policies and issues.\n\nAfter the passage of the Great Reform Bill, the nature of the position changed: Prime Ministers had to go out among the people. The Bill increased the electorate to 717,000. Subsequent legislation (and population growth) raised it to 2 million in 1867, 5.5 million in 1884 and 21.4 million in 1918. As the franchise increased, power shifted to the people and Prime Ministers assumed more responsibilities with respect to party leadership. It naturally fell on them to motivate and organise their followers, explain party policies, and deliver its \"message\". Successful leaders had to have a new set of skills: to give a good speech, present a favourable image, and interact with a crowd. They became the \"voice\", the \"face\" and the \"image\" of the party and ministry.\n\nRobert Peel, often called the \"model Prime Minister\", was the first to recognise this new role. After the successful Conservative campaign of 1841, J. W. Croker said in a letter to Peel, \"The elections are wonderful, and the curiosity is that all turns on the name of Sir Robert Peel. It's the first time that I remember in our history that the people have chosen the first Minister for the Sovereign. Mr. Pitt's case in '84 is the nearest analogy; but then the people only confirmed the Sovereign's choice; here every Conservative candidate professed himself in plain words to be Sir Robert Peel's man, and on that ground was elected.\" \n\nBenjamin Disraeli and William Ewart Gladstone developed this new role further by projecting \"images\" of themselves to the public. Known by their nicknames \"Dizzy\" and the \"Grand Old Man\", their colourful, sometimes bitter, personal and political rivalry over the issues of their time – Imperialism vs. Anti-Imperialism, expansion of the franchise, labour reform, and Irish Home Rule – spanned almost twenty years until Disraeli's death in 1881.Even after death their rivalry continued. When Disraeli died in 1881, Gladstone proposed a state funeral, but Disraeli's will specified that he have a private funeral and be buried next to his wife. Gladstone replied, \"As [Disraeli] lived, so he died—all display, without reality or genuineness.\" Disraeli, for his part, once said that GOM (the acronym for \"Grand Old Man\") really stood for \"God's Only Mistake\". Documented by the penny press, photographs and political cartoons, their rivalry linked specific personalities with the Premiership in the public mind and further enhanced its status.\n\nEach created a different public image of himself and his party. Disraeli, who expanded the Empire to protect British interests abroad, cultivated the image of himself (and the Conservative Party) as \"Imperialist\", making grand gestures such as conferring the title \"Empress of India\" on Queen Victoria in 1876. Gladstone, who saw little value in the Empire, proposed an anti-Imperialist policy (later called \"Little England\"), and cultivated the image of himself (and the Liberal Party) as \"man of the people\" by circulating pictures of himself cutting down great oak trees with an axe as a hobby.\n\nGladstone went beyond image by appealing directly to the people. In his Midlothian campaign – so called because he stood as a candidate for that county – Gladstone spoke in fields, halls and railway stations to hundreds, sometimes thousands, of students, farmers, labourers and middle class workers. Although not the first leader to speak directly to voters – both he and Disraeli had spoken directly to party loyalists before on special occasions – he was the first to canvass an entire constituency, delivering his message to anyone who would listen, encouraging his supporters and trying to convert his opponents. Publicised nationwide, Gladstone's message became that of the party. Noting its significance, Lord Shaftesbury said, \"It is a new thing and a very serious thing to see the Prime Minister on the stump.\" \n\nCampaigning directly to the people became commonplace. Several 20th century Prime Ministers, such as David Lloyd George and Winston Churchill, were famous for their oratorical skills. After the introduction of radio, motion pictures, television, and the internet, many used these technologies to project their public image and address the nation. Stanley Baldwin, a master of the radio broadcast in the 1920s and 1930s, reached a national audience in his talks filled with homely advice and simple expressions of national pride. Churchill also used the radio to great effect, inspiring, reassuring and informing the people with his speeches during the Second World War. Two recent Prime Ministers, Margaret Thatcher and Tony Blair (who both spent a decade or more as prime minister), achieved celebrity status like rock stars, but have been criticised for their more 'presidential' style of leadership. According to Anthony King, \"The props in Blair's theatre of celebrity included ... his guitar, his casual clothes ... footballs bounced skilfully off the top of his head ... carefully choreographed speeches and performances at Labour Party conferences.\" \n\nModern Premiership\n\nParliament Act and the Premiership\n\nIn addition to being the leader of a great political party and the head of Her Majesty's Government, the modern Prime Minister directs the law-making process, enacting into law his or her party's programme. For example, Tony Blair, whose Labour party was elected in 1997 partly on a promise to enact a British Bill of Rights and to create devolved governments for Scotland and Wales, subsequently stewarded through Parliament the Human Rights Act (1998), the Scotland Act (1998) and the Government of Wales Act (1998).\n\nFrom its appearance in the 14th century Parliament has been a bicameral legislature consisting of the Commons and the Lords. Members of the Commons are elected; those in the Lords are not. Most Lords are called \"Temporal\" with titles such as Duke, Marquess, Earl and Viscount. The balance are Lords Spiritual (prelates of the Anglican Church).\n\nFor most of the history of the Upper House, Lords Temporal were landowners who held their estates, titles and seats as an hereditary right passed down from one generation to the next – in some cases for centuries. In 1910, for example, there were nineteen whose title was created before 1500. Following a series of reforms in the 20th century the Lords now consists almost entirely of appointed members who hold their title only for their own lifetime. As of 11 June 2012 the Lords had 763 members (excluding 49 who were on leave of absence or otherwise disqualified from sitting), compared to 646 in the Commons. \n\nUntil 1911, Prime Ministers had to guide legislation through the Commons and the Lords and obtain majority approval in both houses for it to become law. This was not always easy, because political differences often separated the chambers. Representing the landed aristocracy, Lords Temporal were generally Tory (later Conservative) who wanted to maintain the status quo and resisted progressive measures such as extending the franchise. The party affiliation of members of the Commons was less predictable. During the 18th century its makeup varied because the Lords had considerable control over elections: sometimes Whigs dominated it, sometimes Tories. After the passage of the Great Reform Bill in 1832, the Commons gradually became more progressive, a tendency that increased with the passage of each subsequent expansion of the franchise.\n\nIn 1906, the Liberal party, led by Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman, won an overwhelming victory on a platform that promised social reforms for the working class. With 379 seats compared to the Conservatives' 132, the Liberals could confidently expect to pass their legislative programme through the Commons. At the same time, however, the Conservative Party had a huge majority in the Lords; it could easily veto any legislation passed by the Commons that was against their interests. \n\nFor five years, the Commons and the Lords fought over one bill after another. The Liberals pushed through parts of their programme, but the Conservatives vetoed or modified others. When the Lords vetoed the \"People's Budget\" in 1909, the controversy moved almost inevitably toward a constitutional crisis. \n\nIn 1910, Prime Minister H. H. AsquithCampbell-Bannerman retired and died in 1908 introduced a bill \"for regulating the relations between the Houses of Parliament\" which would eliminate the Lords' veto power over legislation. Passed by the Commons, the Lords rejected it. In a general election fought on this issue, the Liberals were weakened but still had a comfortable majority. At Asquith's request, King George V then threatened to create a sufficient number of new Liberal Peers to ensure the bill's passage. Rather than accept a permanent Liberal majority, the Conservative Lords yielded, and the bill became law. \n\nThe Parliament Act 1911 established the supremacy of the Commons. It provided that the Lords could not delay for more than one month any bill certified by the Speaker of the Commons as a money bill. Furthermore, the Act provided that any bill rejected by the Lords would nevertheless become law if passed by the Commons in three successive sessions provided that two years had elapsed since its original passage. The Lords could still delay or suspend the enactment of legislation but could no longer veto it. Subsequently the Lords \"suspending\" power was reduced to one year by the Parliament Act 1949.\n\nIndirectly, the Act enhanced the already dominant position of Prime Minister in the constitutional hierarchy. Although the Lords are still involved in the legislative process and the Prime Minister must still guide legislation through both Houses, the Lords no longer have the power to veto or even delay enactment of legislation passed by the Commons. Provided that he controls the Cabinet, maintains party discipline, and commands a majority in the Commons, the Prime Minister is assured of putting through his legislative agenda.\n\n\"Presidential\" Premiership\n\nThe role and power of the Prime Minister have been subject to much change in the last fifty years. There has gradually been a change from Cabinet decision-making and deliberation to the dominance of the Prime Minister. As early as 1965, in a new introduction to Walter Bagehot's classic work The English Constitution, Richard Crossman identified a new era of \"Prime Ministerial\" government. Some commentators, such as the political scientist Michael Foley, have argued there is a de facto \"British Presidency\". In Tony Blair's government, many sources such as former ministers have suggested that decision-making was controlled by him and Gordon Brown, and the Cabinet was no longer used for decision-making. Former ministers such as Clare Short and Chris Smith have criticised the lack of decision-making power in Cabinet. When she resigned, Short denounced \"the centralisation of power into the hands of the Prime Minister and an increasingly small number of advisers\". The Butler Review of 2004 condemned Blair's style of \"sofa government\".\n\nPrime Ministers may dominate the Cabinet so much that they become \"Semi-Presidents\". Examples are William Ewart Gladstone, David Lloyd George, Neville Chamberlain, Winston Churchill, Margaret Thatcher, and Tony Blair. The powers of some Prime Ministers waxed or waned, depending upon their own level of energy, political skills or outside events: Ramsay MacDonald, for example, was dominant in his Labour governments, but during his National Government his powers diminished so that he was merely the figurehead of the government. In modern times, Prime Ministers have never been merely titular; dominant or somewhat dominant personalities are the norm.\n\nGenerally, however, the Prime Minister is held responsible by the nation for the consequences of legislation or of general government policy. Margaret Thatcher's party forced her from power after the introduction of the poll tax; Sir Anthony Eden fell from power following the Suez Crisis; and Neville Chamberlain resigned in 1940 after the Allies were forced to retreat from Norway, as he believed a government supported by all parties was essential, and the Labour and Liberal parties would not join a government headed by him.\n\nThe Prime Minister's powers are also limited by the House of Commons, whose support the Government is obliged to maintain. The Commons checks the powers of the Prime Minister through committee hearings and through Prime Minister's Questions, a weekly occurrence in which the Prime Minister is obliged to respond to the questions of the Leader of the Opposition and other members of the House. In practice, however, a Government with a strong majority need rarely fear \"backbench rebellions\".\n\nPowers and constraints\n\nWhen commissioned by the Sovereign, a potential Prime Minister's first requisite is to \"form a Government\" – to create a cabinet of ministers that has the support of the House of Commons, of which they are expected to be a member. The Prime Minister then formally kisses the hands of the Sovereign, whose royal prerogative powers are thereafter exercised solely on the advice of the Prime Minister and Her Majesty's Government (\"HMG\"). The Prime Minister has weekly audiences with the Sovereign, whose rights are constitutionally limited: \"to warn, to encourage, and to be consulted\"; the extent of the Sovereign's ability to influence the nature of the Prime Ministerial advice is unknown, but presumably varies depending upon the personal relationship between the Sovereign and the Prime Minister of the day.\n\nThe Prime Minister will appoint all other cabinet members (who then become active Privy Counsellors) and ministers, although consulting senior ministers on their junior ministers, without any Parliamentary or other control or process over these powers. At any time, the PM may obtain the appointment, dismissal or nominal resignation of any other minister; the PM may resign, either purely personally or with the whole government. The Prime Minister generally co-ordinates the policies and activities of the Cabinet and Government departments, acting as the main public \"face\" of Her Majesty's Government.\n\nAlthough the Commander-in-Chief of the British Armed Forces is legally the Sovereign, under constitutional practice the Prime Minister can declare war, and through the Secretary of State for Defence (whom the PM may appoint and dismiss, or even appoint himself or herself to the position) as chair of the Defence Council the power over the deployment and disposition of British forces. The Prime Minister can authorise, but not directly order, the use of Britain's nuclear weapons and the Prime Minister is hence a Commander-in-Chief in all but name.\n\nThe Prime Minister makes all the most senior Crown appointments, and most others are made by Ministers over whom the PM has the power of appointment and dismissal. Privy Counsellors, Ambassadors and High Commissioners, senior civil servants, senior military officers, members of important committees and commissions, and other officials are selected, and in most cases may be removed, by the Prime Minister. The PM also formally advises the Sovereign on the appointment of Archbishops and Bishops of the Church of England,Barnett, p. 249 but the PM's discretion is limited by the existence of the Crown Nominations Commission. The appointment of senior judges, while constitutionally still on the advice of the Prime Minister, is now made on the basis of recommendations from independent bodies.\n\nPeerages, knighthoods, and most other honours are bestowed by the Sovereign only on the advice of the Prime Minister. The only important British honours over which the Prime Minister does not have control are the Order of the Garter, the Order of the Thistle, the Order of Merit, the Royal Victorian Order, and the Venerable Order of Saint John, which are all within the \"personal gift\" of the Sovereign.\n\nThe Prime Minister appoints officials known as the \"Government Whips\", who negotiate for the support of MPs and to discipline dissenters. Party discipline is strong since electors generally vote for individuals on the basis of their party affiliation. Members of Parliament may be expelled from their party for failing to support the Government on important issues, and although this will not mean they must resign as MPs, it will usually make re-election difficult. Members of Parliament who hold ministerial office or political privileges can expect removal for failing to support the Prime Minister. Restraints imposed by the Commons grow weaker when the Government's party enjoys a large majority in that House, or among the electorate. In most circumstances, however, the Prime Minister can secure the Commons' support for almost any bill by internal party negotiations, with little regard to Opposition MPs.\n\nHowever, even a government with a healthy majority can on occasion find itself unable to pass legislation. For example, on 9 November 2005, Tony Blair's Government was defeated over plans which would have allowed police to detain terror suspects for up to 90 days without charge, and on 31 January 2006, was defeated over certain aspects of proposals to outlaw religious hatred. On other occasions, the Government alters its proposals to avoid defeat in the Commons, as Tony Blair's Government did in February 2006 over education reforms. \n\nFormerly, a Prime Minister whose government lost a Commons vote would be regarded as fatally weakened, and the whole government would resign, usually precipitating a general election. In modern practice, when the Government party has an absolute majority in the House, only loss of supply and the express vote \"that this House has no confidence in Her Majesty's Government\" are treated as having this effect; dissenters on a minor issue within the majority party are unlikely to force an election with the probable loss of their seats and salaries.\n\nLikewise, a Prime Minister is no longer just \"first amongst equals\" in HM Government; although theoretically the Cabinet might still outvote the PM, in practice the PM progressively entrenches his or her position by retaining only personal supporters in the Cabinet. In occasional reshuffles, the Prime Minister can sideline and simply drop from Cabinet the Members who have fallen out of favour: they remain Privy Counsellors, but the Prime Minister decides which of them are summoned to meetings. The Prime Minister is responsible for producing and enforcing the Ministerial Code.\n\nPrecedence, privileges, and form of address\n\nBy tradition, before a new Prime Minister can occupy 10 Downing Street, they are required to announce to the country and the world that they have \"kissed hands\" with the reigning monarch, and have thus become Prime Minister. This is usually done by saying words to the effect of:\n\nHer Majesty the Queen [His Majesty the King] has asked me to form a government and I have accepted. \n\nThroughout the United Kingdom, the Prime Minister outranks all other dignitaries except members of the Royal Family, the Lord Chancellor, and senior ecclesiastical figures.These include: in England and Wales, the Anglican Archbishops of Canterbury and York; in Scotland, the Lord High Commissioner and the Moderator of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland; in Northern Ireland, the Anglican and Roman Catholic Archbishops of Armagh and Dublin and the Moderator of the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church.\n\nIn 2010 the Prime Minister received £142,500 including a salary of £65,737 as a member of parliament. Until 2006, the Lord Chancellor was the highest paid member of the government, ahead of the Prime Minister. This reflected the Lord Chancellor's position at the head of the judicial pay scale. The Constitutional Reform Act 2005 eliminated the Lord Chancellor's judicial functions and also reduced the office's salary to below that of the Prime Minister.\n\nThe Prime Minister is customarily a member of the Privy Council and thus entitled to the appellation \"The Right Honourable\". Membership of the Council is retained for life. It is a constitutional convention that only a Privy Counsellor can be appointed Prime Minister. Most potential candidates have already attained this status. The only case when a non-Privy Counsellor was the natural appointment was Ramsay MacDonald in 1924. The issue was resolved by appointing him to the Council immediately prior to his appointment as Prime Minister.\n\nAccording to the now defunct Department for Constitutional Affairs, the Prime Minister is made a Privy Counsellor as a result of taking office and should be addressed by the official title prefixed by \"The Right Honourable\" and not by a personal name. Although this form of address is employed on formal occasions, it is rarely used by the media. As \"Prime Minister\" is a position, not a title, the incumbent should be referred to as \"the Prime Minister\". The title \"Prime Minister\" (e.g. \"Prime Minister John Smith\") is technically incorrect but is sometimes used erroneously outside the United Kingdom, and has more recently become acceptable within it. Within the UK, the expression \"Prime Minister Smith\" is never used, although it, too, is sometimes used by foreign dignitaries and news sources.\n\n10 Downing Street, in London, has been the official place of residence of the Prime Minister since 1732; they are entitled to use its staff and facilities, including extensive offices. Chequers, a country house in Buckinghamshire, gifted to the government in 1917, may be used as a country retreat for the Prime Minister.\n\nUpon retirement, it is customary for the Sovereign to grant a Prime Minister some honour or dignity. The honour bestowed is commonly, but not invariably, membership of the United Kingdom's most senior order of chivalry, the Order of the Garter. The practice of creating a retired Prime Minister a Knight (or, in the case of Margaret Thatcher, a Lady) of the Garter (KG and LG respectively) has been fairly prevalent since the mid-19th century. On the retirement of a Prime Minister who is Scottish, it is likely that the primarily Scottish honour of Knight of the Thistle (KT) will be used instead of the Order of the Garter, which is generally regarded as an English honour.This circumstance is somewhat confused, however, as since the Great Reform Act 1832, only seven Scots have served as Prime Minister. Of these, two – Bonar Law and Ramsay MacDonald – died while still sitting in the Commons, not yet having retired; another, the Earl of Aberdeen, was appointed to both the Order of the Garter and the Order of the Thistle; yet another, Arthur Balfour, was appointed to the Order of the Garter, but represented an English constituency and may not have considered himself entirely Scottish; and of the remaining three, the Earl of Rosebery became a KG, Alec Douglas-Home became a KT, and Gordon Brown remained in the Commons as a backbencher until 2015.\n\nIt has also been common for Prime Ministers to be granted a peerage upon retirement from the Commons, which elevates the individual to the House of Lords. Formerly, the peerage bestowed was usually an earldom (which was always hereditary), with Churchill offered a dukedom. However, since the 1960s, hereditary peerages have generally been eschewed, and life peerages have been preferred, although in 1984 Harold Macmillan was created Earl of Stockton. Sir Alec Douglas-Home, Harold Wilson, James Callaghan and Margaret Thatcher accepted life peerages, although Douglas-Home had previously disclaimed his hereditary title as Earl of Home. Edward Heath, John Major and Tony Blair did not accept peerages of any kind, although Heath and Major were later appointed as Knights of the Garter. Gordon Brown remained a member of parliament until the 2015 general election, and has not, to date, accepted a peerage.\n\nLiving former Prime Ministers\n\nAs of , there are four living former Prime Ministers, as seen below.\n\nFile:JMajor.JPG\|Sir John Majorserved 1990–97born 1943 (age )\nFile:WORLD ECONOMIC FORUM ANNUAL MEETING 2009 - Tony Blair.jpg\|Tony Blairserved 1997–2007born 1953 (age )\nFile:Accelerating Infrastructure Development Gordon Brown (8412051140).jpg\|Gordon Brownserved 2007–10born 1951 (age )\nFile:Prime Minister David Cameron (5570842655).jpg\|David Cameron MPserved 2010–16born 1966 (age )", "World War II (often abbreviated to WWII or WW2), also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. In a state of \"total war\", the major participants threw their entire economic, industrial, and scientific capabilities behind the war effort, erasing the distinction between civilian and military resources. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust (in which approximately 11 million people were killed) and the strategic bombing of industrial and population centres (in which approximately one million were killed, and which included the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki), it resulted in an estimated 50 million to 85 million fatalities. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history.\n\nThe Empire of Japan aimed to dominate Asia and the Pacific and was already at war with the Republic of China in 1937, but the world war is generally said to have begun on 1 September 1939 with the invasion of Poland by Germany and subsequent declarations of war on Germany by France and the United Kingdom. From late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. The war continued primarily between the European Axis powers and the coalition of the United Kingdom and the British Commonwealth, with campaigns including the North Africa and East Africa campaigns, the aerial Battle of Britain, the Blitz bombing campaign, the Balkan Campaign as well as the long-running Battle of the Atlantic. In June 1941, the European Axis powers launched an invasion of the Soviet Union, opening the largest land theatre of war in history, which trapped the major part of the Axis' military forces into a war of attrition. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European territories in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific.\n\nThe Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, and Germany was defeated in North Africa and then, decisively, at Stalingrad in the Soviet Union. In 1943, with a series of German defeats on the Eastern Front, the Allied invasion of Sicily and the Allied invasion of Italy which brought about Italian surrender, and Allied victories in the Pacific, the Axis lost the initiative and undertook strategic retreat on all fronts. In 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy and captured key Western Pacific islands.\n\nThe war in Europe concluded with an invasion of Germany by the Western Allies and the Soviet Union, culminating in the capture of Berlin by Soviet and Polish troops and the subsequent German unconditional surrender on 8 May 1945. Following the Potsdam Declaration by the Allies on 26 July 1945 and the refusal of Japan to surrender under its terms, the United States dropped atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki on 6 August and 9 August respectively. With an invasion of the Japanese archipelago imminent, the possibility of additional atomic bombings, and the Soviet Union's declaration of war on Japan and invasion of Manchuria, Japan surrendered on 15 August 1945. Thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies.\n\nWorld War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world. The United Nations (UN) was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, and France—became the permanent members of the United Nations Security Council. The Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia and Africa began. Most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities and to create a common identity. \n\nChronology\n\nThe start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland; Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. \n\nOthers follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and the two wars merged in 1941. This article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935.; ; Yisreelit, Hevrah Mizrahit (1965). Asian and African Studies, p. 191.For 1941 see ; Kellogg, William O (2003). American History the Easy Way. Barron's Educational Series. p. 236 ISBN 0-7641-1973-7.There is also the viewpoint that both World War I and World War II are part of the same \"European Civil War\" or \"Second Thirty Years War\": ; . The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939.\n\nThe exact date of the war's end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945 (V-J Day), rather than the formal surrender of Japan (2 September 1945). A peace treaty with Japan was signed in 1951 to formally tie up any loose ends such as compensation to be paid to Allied prisoners of war who had been victims of atrocities. A treaty regarding Germany's future allowed the reunification of East and West Germany to take place in 1990 and resolved other post-World War II issues. \n\nBackground\n\nEurope\n\nWorld War I had radically altered the political European map, with the defeat of the Central Powers—including Austria-Hungary, Germany and the Ottoman Empire—and the 1917 Bolshevik seizure of power in Russia, which eventually led to the founding of the Soviet Union. Meanwhile, the victorious Allies of World War I, such as France, Belgium, Italy, Greece and Romania, gained territory, and new nation-states were created out of the collapse of Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman and Russian Empires.\n\nTo prevent a future world war, the League of Nations was created during the 1919 Paris Peace Conference. The organisation's primary goals were to prevent armed conflict through collective security, military and naval disarmament, and settling international disputes through peaceful negotiations and arbitration.\n\nDespite strong pacifist sentiment after World War I, its aftermath still caused irredentist and revanchist nationalism in several European states. These sentiments were especially marked in Germany because of the significant territorial, colonial, and financial losses incurred by the Treaty of Versailles. Under the treaty, Germany lost around 13 percent of its home territory and all of its overseas colonies, while German annexation of other states was prohibited, reparations were imposed, and limits were placed on the size and capability of the country's armed forces.\n\nThe German Empire was dissolved in the German Revolution of 1918–1919, and a democratic government, later known as the Weimar Republic, was created. The interwar period saw strife between supporters of the new republic and hardline opponents on both the right and left. Italy, as an Entente ally, had made some post-war territorial gains; however, Italian nationalists were angered that the promises made by Britain and France to secure Italian entrance into the war were not fulfilled with the peace settlement. From 1922 to 1925, the Fascist movement led by Benito Mussolini seized power in Italy with a nationalist, totalitarian, and class collaborationist agenda that abolished representative democracy, repressed socialist, left-wing and liberal forces, and pursued an aggressive expansionist foreign policy aimed at making Italy a world power, promising the creation of a \"New Roman Empire\".\n\nAdolf Hitler, after an unsuccessful attempt to overthrow the German government in 1923, eventually became the Chancellor of Germany in 1933. He abolished democracy, espousing a radical, racially motivated revision of the world order, and soon began a massive rearmament campaign. It was at this time that political scientists began to predict that a second Great War might take place. Meanwhile, France, to secure its alliance, allowed Italy a free hand in Ethiopia, which Italy desired as a colonial possession. The situation was aggravated in early 1935 when the Territory of the Saar Basin was legally reunited with Germany and Hitler repudiated the Treaty of Versailles, accelerated his rearmament programme, and introduced conscription.\n\nHoping to contain Germany, the United Kingdom, France and Italy formed the Stresa Front; however, in June 1935, the United Kingdom made an independent naval agreement with Germany, easing prior restrictions. The Soviet Union, concerned by Germany's goals of capturing vast areas of eastern Europe, drafted a treaty of mutual assistance with France. Before taking effect though, the Franco-Soviet pact was required to go through the bureaucracy of the League of Nations, which rendered it essentially toothless. The United States, concerned with events in Europe and Asia, passed the Neutrality Act in August of the same year.\n\nHitler defied the Versailles and Locarno treaties by remilitarising the Rhineland in March 1936. He encountered little opposition from other European powers. In October 1936, Germany and Italy formed the Rome–Berlin Axis. A month later, Germany and Japan signed the Anti-Comintern Pact, which Italy would join in the following year.\n\nAsia\n\nThe Kuomintang (KMT) party in China launched a unification campaign against regional warlords and nominally unified China in the mid-1920s, but was soon embroiled in a civil war against its former Chinese communist allies. In 1931, an increasingly militaristic Japanese Empire, which had long sought influence in China as the first step of what its government saw as the country's right to rule Asia, used the Mukden Incident as a pretext to launch an invasion of Manchuria and establish the puppet state of Manchukuo.\n\nToo weak to resist Japan, China appealed to the League of Nations for help. Japan withdrew from the League of Nations after being condemned for its incursion into Manchuria. The two nations then fought several battles, in Shanghai, Rehe and Hebei, until the Tanggu Truce was signed in 1933. Thereafter, Chinese volunteer forces continued the resistance to Japanese aggression in Manchuria, and Chahar and Suiyuan. After the 1936 Xi'an Incident, the Kuomintang and communist forces agreed on a ceasefire to present a united front to oppose Japan.\n\nPre-war events\n\nItalian invasion of Ethiopia (1935)\n\nThe Second Italo–Abyssinian War was a brief colonial war that began in October 1935 and ended in May 1936. The war began with the invasion of the Ethiopian Empire (also known as Abyssinia) by the armed forces of the Kingdom of Italy (Regno d'Italia), which was launched from Italian Somaliland and Eritrea. The war resulted in the military occupation of Ethiopia and its annexation into the newly created colony of Italian East Africa (Africa Orientale Italiana, or AOI); in addition, it exposed the weakness of the League of Nations as a force to preserve peace. Both Italy and Ethiopia were member nations, but the League did nothing when the former clearly violated the League's own Article X. Germany was the only major European nation to support the invasion. Italy subsequently dropped its objections to Germany's goal of absorbing Austria.\n\nSpanish Civil War (1936–39)\n\nWhen civil war broke out in Spain, Hitler and Mussolini lent military support to the Nationalist rebels, led by General Francisco Franco. The Soviet Union supported the existing government, the Spanish Republic. Over 30,000 foreign volunteers, known as the International Brigades, also fought against the Nationalists. Both Germany and the USSR used this proxy war as an opportunity to test in combat their most advanced weapons and tactics. The bombing of Guernica by the German Condor Legion in April 1937 heightened widespread concerns that the next major war would include extensive terror bombing attacks on civilians..Tony Judt said that the \"communist strategy in Spain turns out to have been a dry run for the seizure of power in Eastern Europe after 1945.\" See \nThe Nationalists won the civil war in April 1939; Franco, now dictator, bargained with both sides during the Second World War, but never concluded any major agreements. He did send volunteers to fight on the Eastern Front under German command but Spain remained neutral and did not allow either side to use its territory.\n\nJapanese invasion of China (1937)\n\nIn July 1937, Japan captured the former Chinese imperial capital of Beijing after instigating the Marco Polo Bridge Incident, which culminated in the Japanese campaign to invade all of China. The Soviets quickly signed a non-aggression pact with China to lend materiel support, effectively ending China's prior co-operation with Germany. Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek deployed his best army to defend Shanghai, but, after three months of fighting, Shanghai fell. The Japanese continued to push the Chinese forces back, capturing the capital Nanking in December 1937. After the fall of Nanking, tens of thousands if not hundreds of thousands of Chinese civilians and disarmed combatants were murdered by the Japanese. Totten, Samuel. Dictionary of Genocide. 2008, 298–9.\n\nIn March 1938, Nationalist Chinese forces won their first major victory at Taierzhuang but then the city of Xuzhou was taken by Japanese in May. In June 1938, Chinese forces stalled the Japanese advance by flooding the Yellow River; this manoeuvre bought time for the Chinese to prepare their defences at Wuhan, but the city was taken by October. Japanese military victories did not bring about the collapse of Chinese resistance that Japan had hoped to achieve; instead the Chinese government relocated inland to Chongqing and continued the war.\n\nSoviet-Japanese border conflicts\n\nIn the mid-to-late 1930s, Japanese forces in Manchukuo had sporadic border clashes with the Soviet Union and Mongolia. The Japanese doctrine of Hokushin-ron, which emphasised Japan's expansion northward, was favoured by the Imperial Army during this time. With the devastating Japanese defeat at Khalkin Gol in 1939 and ally Nazi Germany pursuing neutrality with the Soviets, this policy would prove difficult to maintain. Japan and the Soviet Union eventually signed a Neutrality Pact in April 1941, and Japan adopted the doctrine of Nanshin-ron, promoted by the Navy, which took its focus southward, eventually leading to its war with the United States and the Western Allies. \n\nEuropean occupations and agreements\n\nIn Europe, Germany and Italy were becoming more aggressive. In March 1938, Germany annexed Austria, again provoking little response from other European powers. Encouraged, Hitler began pressing German claims on the Sudetenland, an area of Czechoslovakia with a predominantly ethnic German population; and soon Britain and France followed the counsel of British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain and conceded this territory to Germany in the Munich Agreement, which was made against the wishes of the Czechoslovak government, in exchange for a promise of no further territorial demands. Soon afterwards, Germany and Italy forced Czechoslovakia to cede additional territory to Hungary and Poland.\n\nAlthough all of Germany's stated demands had been satisfied by the agreement, privately Hitler was furious that British interference had prevented him from seizing all of Czechoslovakia in one operation. In subsequent speeches Hitler attacked British and Jewish \"war-mongers\" and in January 1939 secretly ordered a major build-up of the German navy to challenge British naval supremacy. In March 1939, Germany invaded the remainder of Czechoslovakia and subsequently split it into the German Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia and a pro-German client state, the Slovak Republic. Hitler also delivered an ultimatum to Lithuania, forcing the concession of the Klaipėda Region.\n\nGreatly alarmed and with Hitler making further demands on the Free City of Danzig, Britain and France guaranteed their support for Polish independence; when Italy conquered Albania in April 1939, the same guarantee was extended to Romania and Greece. Shortly after the Franco-British pledge to Poland, Germany and Italy formalised their own alliance with the Pact of Steel. Hitler accused Britain and Poland of trying to \"encircle\" Germany and renounced the Anglo-German Naval Agreement and the German–Polish Non-Aggression Pact.\n\nIn August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, a non-aggression treaty with a secret protocol. The parties gave each other rights to \"spheres of influence\" (western Poland and Lithuania for Germany; eastern Poland, Finland, Estonia, Latvia and Bessarabia for the USSR). It also raised the question of continuing Polish independence. The agreement was crucial to Hitler because it assured that Germany would not have to face the prospect of a two-front war, as it had in World War I, after it defeated Poland.\n\nThe situation reached a general crisis in late August as German troops continued to mobilise against the Polish border. In a private meeting with the Italian foreign minister, Count Ciano, Hitler asserted that Poland was a \"doubtful neutral\" that needed to either yield to his demands or be \"liquidated\" to prevent it from drawing off German troops in the future \"unavoidable\" war with the Western democracies. He did not believe Britain or France would intervene in the conflict. On 23 August Hitler ordered the attack to proceed on 26 August, but upon hearing that Britain had concluded a formal mutual assistance pact with Poland and that Italy would maintain neutrality, he decided to delay it. \n\nIn response to British requests for direct negotiations to avoid war, Germany made demands on Poland, which only served as a pretext to worsen relations. On 29 August, Hitler demanded that a Polish plenipotentiary immediately travel to Berlin to negotiate the handover of Danzig, and to allow a plebiscite in the Polish Corridor in which the German minority would vote on secession. The Poles refused to comply with the German demands and on the night of 30–31 August in a violent meeting with the British ambassador Neville Henderson, Ribbentrop declared that Germany considered its claims rejected.\n\nCourse of the war\n\nWar breaks out in Europe (1939–40)\n\nOn 1 September 1939, Germany invaded Poland under the false pretext that the Poles had carried out a series of sabotage operations against German targets near the border. Two days later, on 3 September, after a British ultimatum to Germany to cease military operations was ignored, Britain and France, followed by the fully independent Dominions of the British Commonwealth—Australia (3 September), Canada (10 September), New Zealand (3 September), and South Africa (6 September)—declared war on Germany. However, initially the alliance provided limited direct military support to Poland, consisting of a cautious, half-hearted French probe into the Saarland.., observes that, while it is true that Poland was far away, making it difficult for the French and British to provide support, \"[f]ew Western historians of World War II ... know that the British had committed to bomb Germany if it attacked Poland, but did not do so except for one raid on the base of Wilhelmshafen. The French, who committed to attack Germany in the west, had no intention of doing so.\" The Western Allies also began a naval blockade of Germany, which aimed to damage the country's economy and war effort. Germany responded by ordering U-boat warfare against Allied merchant and warships, which was to later escalate into the Battle of the Atlantic.\n\nOn 17 September 1939, after signing a cease-fire with Japan, the Soviets invaded Poland from the east. The Polish army was defeated and Warsaw surrendered to the Germans on 27 September, with final pockets of resistance surrendering on 6 October. Poland's territory was divided between Germany and the Soviet Union, with Lithuania and Slovakia also receiving small shares. After the defeat of Poland's armed forces, the Polish resistance established an Underground State and a partisan Home Army. About 100,000 Polish military personnel were evacuated to Romania and the Baltic countries; many of these soldiers later fought against the Germans in other theatres of the war. Poland's Enigma codebreakers were also evacuated to France.\n\nOn 6 October Hitler made a public peace overture to Britain and France, but said that the future of Poland was to be determined exclusively by Germany and the Soviet Union. Chamberlain rejected this on 12 October, saying \"Past experience has shown that no reliance can be placed upon the promises of the present German Government.\" After this rejection Hitler ordered an immediate offensive against France, but bad weather forced repeated postponements until the spring of 1940. \n\nAfter signing the German–Soviet Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Demarcation, the Soviet Union forced the Baltic countries—Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania—to allow it to station Soviet troops in their countries under pacts of \"mutual assistance\". Finland rejected territorial demands, prompting a Soviet invasion in November 1939. The resulting Winter War ended in March 1940 with Finnish concessions. Britain and France, treating the Soviet attack on Finland as tantamount to its entering the war on the side of the Germans, responded to the Soviet invasion by supporting the USSR's expulsion from the League of Nations.\n\nIn June 1940, the Soviet Union forcibly annexed Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, and the disputed Romanian regions of Bessarabia, Northern Bukovina and Hertza. Meanwhile, Nazi-Soviet political rapprochement and economic co-operation gradually stalled, and both states began preparations for war.\n\nWestern Europe (1940–41)\n\nIn April 1940, Germany invaded Denmark and Norway to protect shipments of iron ore from Sweden, which the Allies were attempting to cut off by unilaterally mining neutral Norwegian waters. Denmark capitulated after a few hours, and despite Allied support, during which the important harbour of Narvik temporarily was recaptured from the Germans, Norway was conquered within two months. British discontent over the Norwegian campaign led to the replacement of the British Prime Minister, Neville Chamberlain, with Winston Churchill on 10 May 1940.\n\nGermany launched an offensive against France and, adhering to the Manstein Plan also attacked the neutral nations of Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg on 10 May 1940. That same day British forces landed in Iceland and the Faroes to preempt a possible German invasion of the islands. The U.S. in close co-operation with the Danish envoy to Washington D.C., agreed to protect Greenland, laying the political framework for the formal establishment of bases in April 1941. The Netherlands and Belgium were overrun using blitzkrieg tactics in a few days and weeks, respectively. The French-fortified Maginot Line and the main body the Allied forces which had moved into Belgium were circumvented by a flanking movement through the thickly wooded Ardennes region, mistakenly perceived by Allied planners as an impenetrable natural barrier against armoured vehicles. As a result, the bulk of the Allied armies found themselves trapped in an encirclement and were beaten. The majority were taken prisoner, whilst over 300,000, mostly British and French, were evacuated from the continent at Dunkirk by early June, although abandoning almost all of their equipment.\n\nOn 10 June, Italy invaded France, declaring war on both France and the United Kingdom. Paris fell to the Germans on 14 June and eight days later France signed an armistice with Germany and was soon divided into German and Italian occupation zones, and an unoccupied rump state under the Vichy Regime, which, though officially neutral, was generally aligned with Germany. France kept its fleet but the British feared the Germans would seize it, so on 3 July, the British attacked it.\n\nThe Battle of Britain began in early July with Luftwaffe attacks on shipping and harbours. On 19 July, Hitler again publicly offered to end the war, saying he had no desire to destroy the British Empire. The United Kingdom rejected this ultimatum. The main German air superiority campaign started in August but failed to defeat RAF Fighter Command, and a proposed invasion was postponed indefinitely on 17 September. The German strategic bombing offensive intensified as night attacks on London and other cities in the Blitz, but largely failed to disrupt the British war effort.\n\nUsing newly captured French ports, the German Navy enjoyed success against an over-extended Royal Navy, using U-boats against British shipping in the Atlantic. The British scored a significant victory on 27 May 1941 by sinking the German battleship Bismarck. Perhaps most importantly, during the Battle of Britain the Royal Air Force had successfully resisted the Luftwaffe's assault, and the German bombing campaign largely ended in May 1941.\n\nThroughout this period, the neutral United States took measures to assist China and the Western Allies. In November 1939, the American Neutrality Act was amended to allow \"cash and carry\" purchases by the Allies. In 1940, following the German capture of Paris, the size of the United States Navy was significantly increased. In September, the United States further agreed to a trade of American destroyers for British bases. Still, a large majority of the American public continued to oppose any direct military intervention into the conflict well into 1941.\n\nAlthough Roosevelt had promised to keep the United States out of the war, he nevertheless took concrete steps to prepare for war. In December 1940 he accused Hitler of planning world conquest and ruled out negotiations as useless, calling for the US to become an \"arsenal for democracy\" and promoted the passage of Lend-Lease aid to support the British war effort. In January 1941 secret high level staff talks with the British began for the purposes of determining how to defeat Germany should the US enter the war. They decided on a number of offensive policies, including an air offensive, the \"early elimination\" of Italy, raids, support of resistance groups, and the capture of positions to launch an offensive against Germany. \n\nAt the end of September 1940, the Tripartite Pact united Japan, Italy and Germany to formalise the Axis Powers. The Tripartite Pact stipulated that any country, with the exception of the Soviet Union, not in the war which attacked any Axis Power would be forced to go to war against all three. The Axis expanded in November 1940 when Hungary, Slovakia and Romania joined the Tripartite Pact. Romania would make a major contribution (as did Hungary) to the Axis war against the USSR, partially to recapture territory ceded to the USSR, partially to pursue its leader Ion Antonescu's desire to combat communism.\n\nMediterranean (1940–41)\n\nItaly began operations in the Mediterranean, initiating a siege of Malta in June, conquering British Somaliland in August, and making an incursion into British-held Egypt in September 1940. In October 1940, Italy started the Greco-Italian War because of Mussolini's jealousy of Hitler's success but within days was repulsed and pushed back into Albania, where a stalemate soon occurred. The United Kingdom responded to Greek requests for assistance by sending troops to Crete and providing air support to Greece. Hitler decided that when the weather improved he would take action against Greece to assist the Italians and prevent the British from gaining a foothold in the Balkans, to strike against the British naval dominance of the Mediterranean, and to secure his hold on Romanian oil. \n\nIn December 1940, British Commonwealth forces began counter-offensives against Italian forces in Egypt and Italian East Africa. The offensive in North Africa was highly successful and by early February 1941 Italy had lost control of eastern Libya and large numbers of Italian troops had been taken prisoner. The Italian Navy also suffered significant defeats, with the Royal Navy putting three Italian battleships out of commission by a carrier attack at Taranto, and neutralising several more warships at the Battle of Cape Matapan.\n\nThe Germans soon intervened to assist Italy. Hitler sent German forces to Libya in February, and by the end of March they had launched an offensive which drove back the Commonwealth forces which had been weakened to support Greece. In under a month, Commonwealth forces were pushed back into Egypt with the exception of the besieged port of Tobruk. The Commonwealth attempted to dislodge Axis forces in May and again in June, but failed on both occasions.\n\nBy late March 1941, following Bulgaria's signing of the Tripartite Pact, the Germans were in position to intervene in Greece. Plans were changed, however, because of developments in neighbouring Yugoslavia. The Yugoslav government had signed the Tripartite Pact on 25 March, only to be overthrown two days later by a British-encouraged coup. Hitler viewed the new regime as hostile and immediately decided to eliminate it. On 6 April Germany simultaneously invaded both Yugoslavia and Greece, making rapid progress and forcing both nations to surrender within the month. The British were driven from the Balkans after Germany conquered the Greek island of Crete by the end of May. Although the Axis victory was swift, bitter partisan warfare subsequently broke out against the Axis occupation of Yugoslavia, which continued until the end of the war.\n\nThe Allies did have some successes during this time. In the Middle East, Commonwealth forces first quashed an uprising in Iraq which had been supported by German aircraft from bases within Vichy-controlled Syria, then, with the assistance of the Free French, invaded Syria and Lebanon to prevent further such occurrences.\n\nAxis attack on the USSR (1941)\n\nWith the situation in Europe and Asia relatively stable, Germany, Japan, and the Soviet Union made preparations. With the Soviets wary of mounting tensions with Germany and the Japanese planning to take advantage of the European War by seizing resource-rich European possessions in Southeast Asia, the two powers signed the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact in April 1941. By contrast, the Germans were steadily making preparations for an attack on the Soviet Union, massing forces on the Soviet border.\n\nHitler believed that Britain's refusal to end the war was based on the hope that the United States and the Soviet Union would enter the war against Germany sooner or later. He therefore decided to try to strengthen Germany's relations with the Soviets, or failing that, to attack and eliminate them as a factor. In November 1940, negotiations took place to determine if the Soviet Union would join the Tripartite Pact. The Soviets showed some interest, but asked for concessions from Finland, Bulgaria, Turkey, and Japan that Germany considered unacceptable. On 18 December 1940, Hitler issued the directive to prepare for an invasion of the Soviet Union.\n\nOn 22 June 1941, Germany, supported by Italy and Romania, invaded the Soviet Union in Operation Barbarossa, with Germany accusing the Soviets of plotting against them. They were joined shortly by Finland and Hungary.. The primary targets of this surprise offensive were the Baltic region, Moscow and Ukraine, with the ultimate goal of ending the 1941 campaign near the Arkhangelsk-Astrakhan line, from the Caspian to the White Seas. Hitler's objectives were to eliminate the Soviet Union as a military power, exterminate Communism, generate Lebensraum (\"living space\") by dispossessing the native population and guarantee access to the strategic resources needed to defeat Germany's remaining rivals.\n\nAlthough the Red Army was preparing for strategic counter-offensives before the war, Barbarossa forced the Soviet supreme command to adopt a strategic defence. During the summer, the Axis made significant gains into Soviet territory, inflicting immense losses in both personnel and materiel. By the middle of August, however, the German Army High Command decided to suspend the offensive of a considerably depleted Army Group Centre, and to divert the 2nd Panzer Group to reinforce troops advancing towards central Ukraine and Leningrad. The Kiev offensive was overwhelmingly successful, resulting in encirclement and elimination of four Soviet armies, and made further advance into Crimea and industrially developed Eastern Ukraine (the First Battle of Kharkov) possible.\n\nThe diversion of three quarters of the Axis troops and the majority of their air forces from France and the central Mediterranean to the Eastern Front prompted Britain to reconsider its grand strategy. In July, the UK and the Soviet Union formed a military alliance against Germany The British and Soviets invaded Iran to secure the Persian Corridor and Iran's oil fields. In August, the United Kingdom and the United States jointly issued the Atlantic Charter.\n\nBy October Axis operational objectives in Ukraine and the Baltic region were achieved, with only the sieges of Leningrad and Sevastopol continuing. A major offensive against Moscow was renewed; after two months of fierce battles in increasingly harsh weather the German army almost reached the outer suburbs of Moscow, where the exhausted troops were forced to suspend their offensive. Large territorial gains were made by Axis forces, but their campaign had failed to achieve its main objectives: two key cities remained in Soviet hands, the Soviet capability to resist was not broken, and the Soviet Union retained a considerable part of its military potential. The blitzkrieg phase of the war in Europe had ended.\n\nBy early December, freshly mobilised reserves allowed the Soviets to achieve numerical parity with Axis troops. This, as well as intelligence data which established that a minimal number of Soviet troops in the East would be sufficient to deter any attack by the Japanese Kwantung Army, allowed the Soviets to begin a massive counter-offensive that started on 5 December all along the front and pushed German troops 100 - west. \n\nWar breaks out in the Pacific (1941)\n\nIn 1939 the United States had renounced its trade treaty with Japan and beginning with an aviation gasoline ban in July 1940 Japan had become subject to increasing economic pressure. During this time, Japan launched its first attack against Changsha, a strategically important Chinese city, but was repulsed by late September. Despite several offensives by both sides, the war between China and Japan was stalemated by 1940. To increase pressure on China by blocking supply routes, and to better position Japanese forces in the event of a war with the Western powers, Japan invaded and occupied northern Indochina. Afterwards, the United States embargoed iron, steel and mechanical parts against Japan. Other sanctions soon followed.\n\nIn August of that year, Chinese communists launched an offensive in Central China; in retaliation, Japan instituted harsh measures in occupied areas to reduce human and material resources for the communists. Continued antipathy between Chinese communist and nationalist forces culminated in armed clashes in January 1941, effectively ending their co-operation. In March, the Japanese 11th army attacked the headquarters of the Chinese 19th army but was repulsed during Battle of Shanggao. In September, Japan attempted to take the city of Changsha again and clashed with Chinese nationalist forces.\n\nGerman successes in Europe encouraged Japan to increase pressure on European governments in Southeast Asia. The Dutch government agreed to provide Japan some oil supplies from the Dutch East Indies, but negotiations for additional access to their resources ended in failure in June 1941. In July 1941 Japan sent troops to southern Indochina, thus threatening British and Dutch possessions in the Far East. The United States, United Kingdom and other Western governments reacted to this move with a freeze on Japanese assets and a total oil embargo.\n\nSince early 1941 the United States and Japan had been engaged in negotiations in an attempt to improve their strained relations and end the war in China. During these negotiations Japan advanced a number of proposals which were dismissed by the Americans as inadequate. At the same time the US, Britain, and the Netherlands engaged in secret discussions for the joint defence of their territories, in the event of a Japanese attack against any of them. Roosevelt reinforced the Philippines (an American protectorate scheduled for independence in 1946) and warned Japan that the US would react to Japanese attacks against any \"neighboring countries\".\n\nFrustrated at the lack of progress and feeling the pinch of the American-British-Dutch sanctions, Japan prepared for war. On 20 November it presented an interim proposal as its final offer. It called for the end of American aid to China and to supply oil and other resources to Japan. In exchange they promised not to launch any attacks in Southeast Asia and to withdraw their forces from their threatening positions in southern Indochina. The American counter-proposal of 26 November required that Japan evacuate all of China without conditions and conclude non-aggression pacts with all Pacific powers. That meant Japan was essentially forced to choose between abandoning its ambitions in China, or seizing the natural resources it needed in the Dutch East Indies by force;: \"The United States cut off oil exports to Japan in the summer of 1941, forcing Japanese leaders to choose between going to war to seize the oil fields of the Netherlands East Indies or giving in to U.S. pressure.\", listing various military and diplomatic developments, observes that \"the threat to Japan was not purely economic.\" the Japanese military did not consider the former an option, and many officers considered the oil embargo an unspoken declaration of war.\n\nJapan planned to rapidly seize European colonies in Asia to create a large defensive perimeter stretching into the Central Pacific; the Japanese would then be free to exploit the resources of Southeast Asia while exhausting the over-stretched Allies by fighting a defensive war. To prevent American intervention while securing the perimeter it was further planned to neutralise the United States Pacific Fleet and the American military presence in the Philippines from the outset. On 7 December 1941 (8 December in Asian time zones), Japan attacked British and American holdings with near-simultaneous offensives against Southeast Asia and the Central Pacific. These included an attack on the American fleet at Pearl Harbor, the Philippines, landings in Thailand and Malaya and the battle of Hong Kong.\n\nThese attacks led the United States, Britain, China, Australia and several other states to formally declare war on Japan, whereas the Soviet Union, being heavily involved in large-scale hostilities with European Axis countries, maintained its neutrality agreement with Japan. Germany, followed by the other Axis states, declared war on the United States in solidarity with Japan, citing as justification the American attacks on German war vessels that had been ordered by Roosevelt. \n\nAxis advance stalls (1942–43)\n\nIn January 1942, the Big Four (the United States, Britain, Soviet Union, China) and 22 smaller or exiled governments issued the Declaration by United Nations, thereby affirming the Atlantic Charter, and agreeing to not to sign a separate peace with the Axis powers.\n\nDuring 1942, Allied officials debated on the appropriate grand strategy to pursue. All agreed that defeating Germany was the primary objective. The Americans favoured a straightforward, large-scale attack on Germany through France. The Soviets were also demanding a second front. The British, on the other hand, argued that military operations should target peripheral areas to wear out German strength, lead to increasing demoralisation, and bolster resistance forces. Germany itself would be subject to a heavy bombing campaign. An offensive against Germany would then be launched primarily by Allied armour without using large-scale armies. Eventually, the British persuaded the Americans that a landing in France was infeasible in 1942 and they should instead focus on driving the Axis out of North Africa. \n\nAt the Casablanca Conference in early 1943, the Allies reiterated the statements issued in the 1942 Declaration by the United Nations, and demanded the unconditional surrender of their enemies.\nThe British and Americans agreed to continue to press the initiative in the Mediterranean by invading Sicily to fully secure the Mediterranean supply routes. Although the British argued for further operations in the Balkans to bring Turkey into the war, in May 1943, the Americans extracted a British commitment to limit Allied operations in the Mediterranean to an invasion of the Italian mainland and to invade France in 1944. \n\nPacific (1942–43)\n\nBy the end of April 1942, Japan and its ally Thailand had almost fully conquered Burma, Malaya, the Dutch East Indies, Singapore, and Rabaul, inflicting severe losses on Allied troops and taking a large number of prisoners. Despite stubborn resistance by Filipino and US forces, the Philippine Commonwealth was eventually captured in May 1942, forcing its government into exile. On 16 April, in Burma, 7,000 British soldiers were encircled by the Japanese 33rd Division during the Battle of Yenangyaung and rescued by the Chinese 38th Division. Japanese forces also achieved naval victories in the South China Sea, Java Sea and Indian Ocean, and bombed the Allied naval base at Darwin, Australia. In January 1942, the only Allied success against Japan was a Chinese victory at Changsha. These easy victories over unprepared US and European opponents left Japan overconfident, as well as overextended.\n\nIn early May 1942, Japan initiated operations to capture Port Moresby by amphibious assault and thus sever communications and supply lines between the United States and Australia. The planned invasion was thwarted when an Allied task force centered on two American fleet carriers fought Japanese naval forces to a draw in the Battle of the Coral Sea. Japan's next plan, motivated by the earlier Doolittle Raid, was to seize Midway Atoll and lure American carriers into battle to be eliminated; as a diversion, Japan would also send forces to occupy the Aleutian Islands in Alaska. In early June, Japan put its operations into action but the Americans, having broken Japanese naval codes in late May, were fully aware of the plans and force dispositions and used this knowledge to achieve a decisive victory at Midway over the Imperial Japanese Navy.\n\nWith its capacity for aggressive action greatly diminished as a result of the Midway battle, Japan chose to focus on a belated attempt to capture Port Moresby by an overland campaign in the Territory of Papua. The Americans planned a counter-attack against Japanese positions in the southern Solomon Islands, primarily Guadalcanal, as a first step towards capturing Rabaul, the main Japanese base in Southeast Asia. \n\nBoth plans started in July, but by mid-September, the Battle for Guadalcanal took priority for the Japanese, and troops in New Guinea were ordered to withdraw from the Port Moresby area to the northern part of the island, where they faced Australian and United States troops in the Battle of Buna-Gona. Guadalcanal soon became a focal point for both sides with heavy commitments of troops and ships in the battle for Guadalcanal. By the start of 1943, the Japanese were defeated on the island and withdrew their troops. In Burma, Commonwealth forces mounted two operations. The first, an offensive into the Arakan region in late 1942, went disastrously, forcing a retreat back to India by May 1943. The second was the insertion of irregular forces behind Japanese front-lines in February which, by the end of April, had achieved mixed results.\n\nEastern Front (1942–43)\n\nDespite considerable losses, in early 1942 Germany and its allies stopped a major Soviet offensive in central and southern Russia, keeping most territorial gains they had achieved during the previous year. In May the Germans defeated Soviet offensives in the Kerch Peninsula and at Kharkov, and then launched their main summer offensive against southern Russia in June 1942, to seize the oil fields of the Caucasus and occupy Kuban steppe, while maintaining positions on the northern and central areas of the front. The Germans split Army Group South into two groups: Army Group A advanced to the lower Don River and struck south-east to the Caucasus, while Army Group B headed towards the Volga River. The Soviets decided to make their stand at Stalingrad on the Volga.\n\nBy mid-November, the Germans had nearly taken Stalingrad in bitter street fighting when the Soviets began their second winter counter-offensive, starting with an encirclement of German forces at Stalingrad and an assault on the Rzhev salient near Moscow, though the latter failed disastrously. By early February 1943, the German Army had taken tremendous losses; German troops at Stalingrad had been forced to surrender, and the front-line had been pushed back beyond its position before the summer offensive. In mid-February, after the Soviet push had tapered off, the Germans launched another attack on Kharkov, creating a salient in their front line around the Russian city of Kursk.\n\nWestern Europe/Atlantic & Mediterranean (1942–43)\n\nExploiting poor American naval command decisions, the German navy ravaged Allied shipping off the American Atlantic coast. By November 1941, Commonwealth forces had launched a counter-offensive, Operation Crusader, in North Africa, and reclaimed all the gains the Germans and Italians had made. In North Africa, the Germans launched an offensive in January, pushing the British back to positions at the Gazala Line by early February, followed by a temporary lull in combat which Germany used to prepare for their upcoming offensives. Concerns the Japanese might use bases in Vichy-held Madagascar caused the British to invade the island in early May 1942. An Axis offensive in Libya forced an Allied retreat deep inside Egypt until Axis forces were stopped at El Alamein. On the Continent, raids of Allied commandos on strategic targets, culminating in the disastrous Dieppe Raid, demonstrated the Western Allies' inability to launch an invasion of continental Europe without much better preparation, equipment, and operational security.\n\nIn August 1942, the Allies succeeded in repelling a second attack against El Alamein and, at a high cost, managed to deliver desperately needed supplies to the besieged Malta. A few months later, the Allies commenced an attack of their own in Egypt, dislodging the Axis forces and beginning a drive west across Libya. This attack was followed up shortly after by Anglo-American landings in French North Africa, which resulted in the region joining the Allies. Hitler responded to the French colony's defection by ordering the occupation of Vichy France; although Vichy forces did not resist this violation of the armistice, they managed to scuttle their fleet to prevent its capture by German forces. The now pincered Axis forces in Africa withdrew into Tunisia, which was conquered by the Allies in May 1943.\n\nIn early 1943 the British and Americans began the Combined Bomber Offensive, a strategic bombing campaign against Germany. The goals were to disrupt the German war economy, reduce German morale, and \"de-house\" the civilian population. \n\nAllies gain momentum (1943–44)\n\nAfter the Guadalcanal Campaign, the Allies initiated several operations against Japan in the Pacific. In May 1943, Canadian and U.S. forces were sent to eliminate Japanese forces from the Aleutians. Soon after, the U.S. with support from Australian and New Zealand forces began major operations to isolate Rabaul by capturing surrounding islands, and to breach the Japanese Central Pacific perimeter at the Gilbert and Marshall Islands. By the end of March 1944, the Allies had completed both of these objectives, and additionally neutralised the major Japanese base at Truk in the Caroline Islands. In April, the Allies launched an operation to retake Western New Guinea.\n\nIn the Soviet Union, both the Germans and the Soviets spent the spring and early summer of 1943 preparing for large offensives in central Russia. On 4 July 1943, Germany attacked Soviet forces around the Kursk Bulge. Within a week, German forces had exhausted themselves against the Soviets' deeply echeloned and well-constructed defences and, for the first time in the war, Hitler cancelled the operation before it had achieved tactical or operational success. This decision was partially affected by the Western Allies' invasion of Sicily launched on 9 July which, combined with previous Italian failures, resulted in the ousting and arrest of Mussolini later that month. Also, in July 1943 the British firebombed Hamburg killing over 40,000 people.\n\nOn 12 July 1943, the Soviets launched their own counter-offensives, thereby dispelling any chance of German victory or even stalemate in the east. The Soviet victory at Kursk marked the end of German superiority, giving the Soviet Union the initiative on the Eastern Front. The Germans tried to stabilise their eastern front along the hastily fortified Panther-Wotan line, but the Soviets broke through it at Smolensk and by the Lower Dnieper Offensives.\n\nOn 3 September 1943, the Western Allies invaded the Italian mainland, following Italy's armistice with the Allies. Germany responded by disarming Italian forces, seizing military control of Italian areas, and creating a series of defensive lines. German special forces then rescued Mussolini, who then soon established a new client state in German occupied Italy named the Italian Social Republic, causing an Italian civil war. The Western Allies fought through several lines until reaching the main German defensive line in mid-November.\n\nGerman operations in the Atlantic also suffered. By May 1943, as Allied counter-measures became increasingly effective, the resulting sizeable German submarine losses forced a temporary halt of the German Atlantic naval campaign. In November 1943, Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston Churchill met with Chiang Kai-shek in Cairo and then with Joseph Stalin in Tehran. The former conference determined the post-war return of Japanese territory, while the latter included agreement that the Western Allies would invade Europe in 1944 and that the Soviet Union would declare war on Japan within three months of Germany's defeat. \n\nFrom November 1943, during the seven-week Battle of Changde, the Chinese forced Japan to fight a costly war of attrition, while awaiting Allied relief. . In January 1944, the Allies launched a series of attacks in Italy against the line at Monte Cassino and tried to outflank it with landings at Anzio. By the end of January, a major Soviet offensive expelled German forces from the Leningrad region, ending the longest and most lethal siege in history.\n\nThe following Soviet offensive was halted on the pre-war Estonian border by the German Army Group North aided by Estonians hoping to re-establish national independence. This delay slowed subsequent Soviet operations in the Baltic Sea region. By late May 1944, the Soviets had liberated Crimea, largely expelled Axis forces from Ukraine, and made incursions into Romania, which were repulsed by the Axis troops. The Allied offensives in Italy had succeeded and, at the expense of allowing several German divisions to retreat, on 4 June, Rome was captured.; .The weeks after the fall of Rome saw a dramatic upswing in German atrocities in Italy (). The period featured massacres with victims in the hundreds at Civitella (; ), Fosse Ardeatine (), and Sant'Anna di Stazzema (), and is capped with the Marzabotto massacre.\n\nThe Allies had mixed success in mainland Asia. In March 1944, the Japanese launched the first of two invasions, an operation against British positions in Assam, India, and soon besieged Commonwealth positions at Imphal and Kohima. In May 1944, British forces mounted a counter-offensive that drove Japanese troops back to Burma, and Chinese forces that had invaded northern Burma in late 1943 besieged Japanese troops in Myitkyina. The second Japanese invasion of China aimed to destroy China's main fighting forces, secure railways between Japanese-held territory and capture Allied airfields. By June, the Japanese had conquered the province of Henan and begun a new attack on Changsha in the Hunan province. \n\nAllies close in (1944)\n\nOn 6 June 1944 (known as D-Day), after three years of Soviet pressure,: \"Stalin always believed that Britain and America were delaying the second front so that the Soviet Union would bear the brunt of the war.\" the Western Allies invaded northern France. After reassigning several Allied divisions from Italy, they also attacked southern France. These landings were successful, and led to the defeat of the German Army units in France. Paris was liberated by the local resistance assisted by the Free French Forces, both led by General Charles de Gaulle, on 25 August and the Western Allies continued to push back German forces in western Europe during the latter part of the year. An attempt to advance into northern Germany spearheaded by a major airborne operation in the Netherlands failed. After that, the Western Allies slowly pushed into Germany, but failed to cross the Rur river in a large offensive. In Italy, Allied advance also slowed due to the last major German defensive line. \n\nOn 22 June, the Soviets launched a strategic offensive in Belarus (\"Operation Bagration\") that destroyed the German Army Group Centre almost completely. Soon after that another Soviet strategic offensive forced German troops from Western Ukraine and Eastern Poland. The Soviet advance prompted resistance forces in Poland to initiate several uprisings against the German occupation. However, the largest of these in Warsaw where German soldiers massacred 200,000 civilians and a national uprising in Slovakia did not receive Soviet support and were subsequently suppressed by the Germans. The Red Army's strategic offensive in eastern Romania cut off and destroyed the considerable German troops there and triggered a successful coup d'état in Romania and in Bulgaria, followed by those countries' shift to the Allied side. \n\nIn September 1944, Soviet troops advanced into Yugoslavia and forced the rapid withdrawal of German Army Groups E and F in Greece, Albania and Yugoslavia to rescue them from being cut off. By this point, the Communist-led Partisans under Marshal Josip Broz Tito, who had led an increasingly successful guerrilla campaign against the occupation since 1941, controlled much of the territory of Yugoslavia and engaged in delaying efforts against German forces further south. In northern Serbia, the Red Army, with limited support from Bulgarian forces, assisted the Partisans in a joint liberation of the capital city of Belgrade on 20 October. A few days later, the Soviets launched a massive assault against German-occupied Hungary that lasted until the fall of Budapest in February 1945. Unlike impressive Soviet victories in the Balkans, bitter Finnish resistance to the Soviet offensive in the Karelian Isthmus denied the Soviets occupation of Finland and led to a Soviet-Finnish armistice on relatively mild conditions, although Finland later shifted to the Allied side.\n\nBy the start of July 1944, Commonwealth forces in Southeast Asia had repelled the Japanese sieges in Assam, pushing the Japanese back to the Chindwin River while the Chinese captured Myitkyina. In China, the Japanese had more successes, having finally captured Changsha in mid-June and the city of Hengyang by early August. Soon after, they invaded the province of Guangxi, winning major engagements against Chinese forces at Guilin and Liuzhou by the end of November and successfully linking up their forces in China and Indochina by mid-December. \n\nIn the Pacific, US forces continued to press back the Japanese perimeter. In mid-June 1944, they began their offensive against the Mariana and Palau islands, and decisively defeated Japanese forces in the Battle of the Philippine Sea. These defeats led to the resignation of the Japanese Prime Minister, Hideki Tojo, and provided the United States with air bases to launch intensive heavy bomber attacks on the Japanese home islands. In late October, American forces invaded the Filipino island of Leyte; soon after, Allied naval forces scored another large victory in the Battle of Leyte Gulf, one of the largest naval battles in history. \n\nAxis collapse, Allied victory (1944–45)\n\nOn 16 December 1944, Germany made a last attempt on the Western Front by using most of its remaining reserves to launch a massive counter-offensive in the Ardennes to split the Western Allies, encircle large portions of Western Allied troops and capture their primary supply port at Antwerp to prompt a political settlement. By January, the offensive had been repulsed with no strategic objectives fulfilled. In Italy, the Western Allies remained stalemated at the German defensive line. In mid-January 1945, the Soviets and Poles attacked in Poland, pushing from the Vistula to the Oder river in Germany, and overran East Prussia. On 4 February, US, British, and Soviet leaders met for the Yalta Conference. They agreed on the occupation of post-war Germany, and on when the Soviet Union would join the war against Japan. \n\nIn February, the Soviets entered Silesia and Pomerania, while Western Allies entered western Germany and closed to the Rhine river. By March, the Western Allies crossed the Rhine north and south of the Ruhr, encircling the German Army Group B, while the Soviets advanced to Vienna. In early April, the Western Allies finally pushed forward in Italy and swept across western Germany, while Soviet and Polish forces stormed Berlin in late April. American and Soviet forces joined on Elbe river on 25 April. On 30 April 1945, the Reichstag was captured, signalling the military defeat of Nazi Germany. \n\nSeveral changes in leadership occurred during this period. On 12 April, President Roosevelt died and was succeeded by Harry Truman. Benito Mussolini was killed by Italian partisans on 28 April. Two days later, Hitler committed suicide, and was succeeded by Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz. \n\nGerman forces surrendered in Italy on 29 April. Total and unconditional surrender was signed on 7 May, to be effective by the end of 8 May. German Army Group Centre resisted in Prague until 11 May. \n\nIn the Pacific theatre, American forces accompanied by the forces of the Philippine Commonwealth advanced in the Philippines, clearing Leyte by the end of April 1945. They landed on Luzon in January 1945 and recaptured Manila in March following a battle which reduced the city to ruins. Fighting continued on Luzon, Mindanao, and other islands of the Philippines until the end of the war. On the night of 9–10 March, B-29 bombers of the US Army Air Forces struck Tokyo with incendiary bombs, which killed 100,000 people within a few hours. Over the next five months, American bombers firebombed 66 other Japanese cities, causing the destruction of untold numbers of buildings and the deaths of between 350,000–500,000 Japanese civilians. \n\nIn May 1945, Australian troops landed in Borneo, over-running the oilfields there. British, American, and Chinese forces defeated the Japanese in northern Burma in March, and the British pushed on to reach Rangoon by 3 May. Chinese forces started to counterattack in Battle of West Hunan that occurred between 6 April and 7 June 1945. American naval and amphibious forces also moved towards Japan, taking Iwo Jima by March, and Okinawa by the end of June. At the same time American bombers were destroying Japanese cities, American submarines cut off Japanese imports, drastically reducing Japan's ability to supply its overseas forces. \n\nOn 11 July, Allied leaders met in Potsdam, Germany. They confirmed earlier agreements about Germany, and reiterated the demand for unconditional surrender of all Japanese forces by Japan, specifically stating that \"the alternative for Japan is prompt and utter destruction\". During this conference, the United Kingdom held its general election, and Clement Attlee replaced Churchill as Prime Minister. \n\nThe Allies called for unconditional Japanese surrender in the Potsdam declaration of 27 July, but the Japanese government was internally divided on whether to make peace and did not respond. In early August, the United States dropped atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Like the Japanese cities previously bombed by American airmen, the US and its allies justified the atomic bombings as a military necessity, to avoid invading the Japanese home islands which would cost the lives of between 250,000–500,000 Allied troops and millions of Japanese troops and civilians. Between the two bombings, the Soviets, pursuant to the Yalta agreement, invaded Japanese-held Manchuria, and quickly defeated the Kwantung Army, which was the largest Japanese fighting force. The Red Army also captured Sakhalin Island and the Kuril Islands. On 15 August 1945, Japan surrendered, with the surrender documents finally signed aboard the deck of the American battleship USS Missouri on 2 September 1945, ending the war. \n\nAftermath\n\nThe Allies established occupation administrations in Austria and Germany. The former became a neutral state, non-aligned with any political bloc. The latter was divided into western and eastern occupation zones controlled by the Western Allies and the USSR, accordingly. A denazification program in Germany led to the prosecution of Nazi war criminals and the removal of ex-Nazis from power, although this policy moved towards amnesty and re-integration of ex-Nazis into West German society. \n\nGermany lost a quarter of its pre-war (1937) territory. Among the eastern territories, Silesia, Neumark and most of Pomerania were taken over by Poland, East Prussia was divided between Poland and the USSR, followed by the expulsion of the 9 million Germans from these provinces, as well as the expulsion of 3 million Germans from the Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia to Germany. By the 1950s, every fifth West German was a refugee from the east. The Soviet Union also took over the Polish provinces east of the Curzon line, from which 2 million Poles were expelled; north-east Romania, parts of eastern Finland, and the three Baltic states were also incorporated into the USSR. \n\nIn an effort to maintain peace, the Allies formed the United Nations, which officially came into existence on 24 October 1945, and adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948, as a common standard for all member nations..The UDHR is viewable here [http://www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/]. The great powers that were the victors of the war—the United States, Soviet Union, China, Britain, and France—formed the permanent members of the UN's Security Council. The five permanent members remain so to the present, although there have been two seat changes, between the Republic of China and the People's Republic of China in 1971, and between the Soviet Union and its successor state, the Russian Federation, following the dissolution of the Soviet Union. The alliance between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union had begun to deteriorate even before the war was over. \n\nGermany had been de facto divided, and two independent states, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic were created within the borders of Allied and Soviet occupation zones, accordingly. The rest of Europe was also divided into Western and Soviet spheres of influence. Most eastern and central European countries fell into the Soviet sphere, which led to establishment of Communist-led regimes, with full or partial support of the Soviet occupation authorities. As a result, Poland, Hungary, East Germany, Czechoslovakia, Romania, and Albania became Soviet satellite states. Communist Yugoslavia conducted a fully independent policy, causing tension with the USSR. \n\nPost-war division of the world was formalised by two international military alliances, the United States-led NATO and the Soviet-led Warsaw Pact; the long period of political tensions and military competition between them, the Cold War, would be accompanied by an unprecedented arms race and proxy wars. \n\nIn Asia, the United States led the occupation of Japan and administrated Japan's former islands in the Western Pacific, while the Soviets annexed Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands. Korea, formerly under Japanese rule, was divided and occupied by the US in the South and the Soviet Union in the North between 1945 and 1948. Separate republics emerged on both sides of the 38th parallel in 1948, each claiming to be the legitimate government for all of Korea, which led ultimately to the Korean War. \n\nIn China, nationalist and communist forces resumed the civil war in June 1946. Communist forces were victorious and established the People's Republic of China on the mainland, while nationalist forces retreated to Taiwan in 1949. In the Middle East, the Arab rejection of the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine and the creation of Israel marked the escalation of the Arab-Israeli conflict. While European colonial powers attempted to retain some or all of their colonial empires, their losses of prestige and resources during the war rendered this unsuccessful, leading to decolonisation. \n\nThe global economy suffered heavily from the war, although participating nations were affected differently. The US emerged much richer than any other nation; it had a baby boom and by 1950 its gross domestic product per person was much higher than that of any of the other powers and it dominated the world economy. The UK and US pursued a policy of industrial disarmament in Western Germany in the years 1945–1948.. Because of international trade interdependencies this led to European economic stagnation and delayed European recovery for several years. .\n\nRecovery began with the mid-1948 currency reform in Western Germany, and was sped up by the liberalisation of European economic policy that the Marshall Plan (1948–1951) both directly and indirectly caused. . The post-1948 West German recovery has been called the German economic miracle. Italy also experienced an economic boom and the French economy rebounded. By contrast, the United Kingdom was in a state of economic ruin, and although it received a quarter of the total Marshall Plan assistance, more than any other European country, continued relative economic decline for decades. \n\nThe Soviet Union, despite enormous human and material losses, also experienced rapid increase in production in the immediate post-war era. Japan experienced incredibly rapid economic growth, becoming one of the most powerful economies in the world by the 1980s. China returned to its pre-war industrial production by 1952. \n\nImpact\n\nCasualties and war crimes\n\nEstimates for the total number of casualties in the war vary, because many deaths went unrecorded. Most suggest that some 75 million people died in the war, including about 20 million military personnel and 40 million civilians. \nMany of the civilians died because of deliberate genocide, massacres, mass-bombings, disease, and starvation.\n\nThe Soviet Union lost around 27 million people during the war, including 8.7 million military and 19 million civilian deaths. The largest portion of military dead were 5.7 million ethnic Russians, followed by 1.3 million ethnic Ukrainians. A quarter of the people in the Soviet Union were wounded or killed. Germany sustained 5.3 million military losses, mostly on the Eastern Front and during the final battles in Germany. \n\nOf the total number of deaths in World War II, approximately 85 percent—mostly Soviet and Chinese—were on the Allied side and 15 percent were on the Axis side. Many of these deaths were caused by war crimes committed by German and Japanese forces in occupied territories. An estimated 11 to 17 million. civilians died either as a direct or as an indirect result of Nazi ideological policies, including the systematic genocide of around 6 million Jews during the Holocaust, along with a further 5 to 6 million ethnic Poles and other Slavs (including Ukrainians and Belarusians) —Roma, homosexuals, and other ethnic and minority groups. Hundreds of thousands (varying estimates) of ethnic Serbs, along with gypsies and Jews, were murdered by the Axis-aligned Croatian Ustaše in Yugoslavia, and retribution-related killings were committed just after the war ended.\n\nIn Asia and the Pacific, between 3 million and more than 10 million civilians, mostly Chinese (estimated at 7.5 million ), were killed by the Japanese occupation forces. The best-known Japanese atrocity was the Nanking Massacre, in which fifty to three hundred thousand Chinese civilians were raped and murdered. Mitsuyoshi Himeta reported that 2.7 million casualties occurred during the Sankō Sakusen. General Yasuji Okamura implemented the policy in Heipei and Shantung. \n\nAxis forces employed biological and chemical weapons. The Imperial Japanese Army used a variety of such weapons during its invasion and occupation of China (see Unit 731) and in early conflicts against the Soviets. Both the Germans and Japanese tested such weapons against civilians and, sometimes on prisoners of war. \n\nThe Soviet Union was responsible for the Katyn massacre of 22,000 Polish officers, and the imprisonment or execution of thousands of political prisoners by the NKVD, in the Baltic states, and eastern Poland annexed by the Red Army.\n\nThe mass-bombing of civilian areas, notably the cities of Warsaw, Rotterdam and London; including the aerial targeting of hospitals and fleeing refugees by the German Luftwaffe, along with the bombing of Tokyo, and German cities of Dresden, Hamburg and Cologne by the Western Allies may be considered as war crimes. The latter resulted in the destruction of more than 160 cities and the death of more than 600,000 German civilians. However, no positive or specific customary international humanitarian law with respect to aerial warfare existed before or during World War II. \n\nConcentration camps, slave labour, and genocide\n\nThe German government led by Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party was responsible for the Holocaust, the killing of approximately 6 million Jews, as well as 2.7 million ethnic Poles, and 4 million others who were deemed \"unworthy of life\" (including the disabled and mentally ill, Soviet prisoners of war, homosexuals, Freemasons, Jehovah's Witnesses, and Romani) as part of a programme of deliberate extermination. About 12 million, most of whom were Eastern Europeans, were employed in the German war economy as forced labourers. \n\nIn addition to Nazi concentration camps, the Soviet gulags (labour camps) led to the death of citizens of occupied countries such as Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia, as well as German prisoners of war (POWs) and even Soviet citizens who had been or were thought to be supporters of the Nazis. Sixty percent of Soviet POWs of the Germans died during the war. Richard Overy gives the number of 5.7 million Soviet POWs. Of those, 57 percent died or were killed, a total of 3.6 million. Soviet ex-POWs and repatriated civilians were treated with great suspicion as potential Nazi collaborators, and some of them were sent to the Gulag upon being checked by the NKVD. \n\nJapanese prisoner-of-war camps, many of which were used as labour camps, also had high death rates. The International Military Tribunal for the Far East found the death rate of Western prisoners was 27.1 percent (for American POWs, 37 percent), seven times that of POWs under the Germans and Italians. While 37,583 prisoners from the UK, 28,500 from the Netherlands, and 14,473 from the United States were released after the surrender of Japan, the number of Chinese released was only 56. \n\nAccording to historian Zhifen Ju, at least five million Chinese civilians from northern China and Manchukuo were enslaved between 1935 and 1941 by the East Asia Development Board, or Kōain, for work in mines and war industries. After 1942, the number reached 10 million. The US Library of Congress estimates that in Java, between 4 and 10 million romusha (Japanese: \"manual laborers\"), were forced to work by the Japanese military. About 270,000 of these Javanese labourers were sent to other Japanese-held areas in South East Asia, and only 52,000 were repatriated to Java. \n\nOn 19 February 1942, Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066, interning about 100,000 Japanese living on the West Coast. Canada had a similar program. In addition, 14,000 German and Italian citizens who had been assessed as being security risks were also interned..\n\nIn accordance with the Allied agreement made at the Yalta Conference millions of POWs and civilians were used as forced labour by the Soviet Union. In Hungary's case, Hungarians were forced to work for the Soviet Union until 1955. \n\nOccupation\n\nIn Europe, occupation came under two forms. In Western, Northern and Central Europe (France, Norway, Denmark, the Low Countries, and the annexed portions of Czechoslovakia) Germany established economic policies through which it collected roughly 69.5 billion reichmarks (27.8 billion US Dollars) by the end of the war, this figure does not include the sizeable plunder of industrial products, military equipment, raw materials and other goods. Thus, the income from occupied nations was over 40 percent of the income Germany collected from taxation, a figure which increased to nearly 40 percent of total German income as the war went on. \n\nIn the East, the much hoped for bounties of Lebensraum were never attained as fluctuating front-lines and Soviet scorched earth policies denied resources to the German invaders. Unlike in the West, the Nazi racial policy encouraged excessive brutality against what it considered to be the \"inferior people\" of Slavic descent; most German advances were thus followed by mass executions. Although resistance groups formed in most occupied territories, they did not significantly hamper German operations in either the East or the West until late 1943.\n\nIn Asia, Japan termed nations under its occupation as being part of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, essentially a Japanese hegemony which it claimed was for purposes of liberating colonised peoples. Although Japanese forces were originally welcomed as liberators from European domination in some territories, their excessive brutality turned local public opinion against them within weeks. During Japan's initial conquest it captured 4000000 oilbbl of oil (~5.5×105 tonnes) left behind by retreating Allied forces, and by 1943 was able to get production in the Dutch East Indies up to , 76 percent of its 1940 output rate. \n\nHome fronts and production\n\nIn Europe, before the outbreak of the war, the Allies had significant advantages in both population and economics. In 1938, the Western Allies (United Kingdom, France, Poland and British Dominions) had a 30 percent larger population and a 30 percent higher gross domestic product than the European Axis (Germany and Italy); if colonies are included, it then gives the Allies more than a 5:1 advantage in population and nearly 2:1 advantage in GDP. In Asia at the same time, China had roughly six times the population of Japan, but only an 89 percent higher GDP; this is reduced to three times the population and only a 38 percent higher GDP if Japanese colonies are included.\n\nThough the Allies' economic and population advantages were largely mitigated during the initial rapid blitzkrieg attacks of Germany and Japan, they became the decisive factor by 1942, after the United States and Soviet Union joined the Allies, as the war largely settled into one of attrition. While the Allies' ability to out-produce the Axis is often attributed to the Allies having more access to natural resources, other factors, such as Germany and Japan's reluctance to employ women in the labour force, Allied strategic bombing, and Germany's late shift to a war economy contributed significantly. Additionally, neither Germany nor Japan planned to fight a protracted war, and were not equipped to do so. To improve their production, Germany and Japan used millions of slave labourers; Germany used about 12 million people, mostly from Eastern Europe, while Japan used more than 18 million people in Far East Asia.\n\nAdvances in technology and warfare\n\nAircraft were used for reconnaissance, as fighters, bombers, and ground-support, and each role was advanced considerably. Innovation included airlift (the capability to quickly move limited high-priority supplies, equipment, and personnel); and of strategic bombing (the bombing of enemy industrial and population centres to destroy the enemy's ability to wage war). Anti-aircraft weaponry also advanced, including defences such as radar and surface-to-air artillery, such as the German 88 mm gun. The use of the jet aircraft was pioneered and, though late introduction meant it had little impact, it led to jets becoming standard in air forces worldwide. \n\nAdvances were made in nearly every aspect of naval warfare, most notably with aircraft carriers and submarines. Although aeronautical warfare had relatively little success at the start of the war, actions at Taranto, Pearl Harbor, and the Coral Sea established the carrier as the dominant capital ship in place of the battleship. \n\nIn the Atlantic, escort carriers proved to be a vital part of Allied convoys, increasing the effective protection radius and helping to close the Mid-Atlantic gap. Carriers were also more economical than battleships because of the relatively low cost of aircraft and their not requiring to be as heavily armoured. Submarines, which had proved to be an effective weapon during the First World War, were anticipated by all sides to be important in the second. The British focused development on anti-submarine weaponry and tactics, such as sonar and convoys, while Germany focused on improving its offensive capability, with designs such as the Type VII submarine and wolfpack tactics. Gradually, improving Allied technologies such as the Leigh light, hedgehog, squid, and homing torpedoes proved victorious.\n\nLand warfare changed from the static front lines of World War I to increased mobility and combined arms. The tank, which had been used predominantly for infantry support in the First World War, had evolved into the primary weapon. In the late 1930s, tank design was considerably more advanced than it had been during World War I, and advances continued throughout the war with increases in speed, armour and firepower.\n\nAt the start of the war, most commanders thought enemy tanks should be met by tanks with superior specifications. This idea was challenged by the poor performance of the relatively light early tank guns against armour, and German doctrine of avoiding tank-versus-tank combat. This, along with Germany's use of combined arms, were among the key elements of their highly successful blitzkrieg tactics across Poland and France. Many means of destroying tanks, including indirect artillery, anti-tank guns (both towed and self-propelled), mines, short-ranged infantry antitank weapons, and other tanks were utilised. Even with large-scale mechanisation, infantry remained the backbone of all forces, and throughout the war, most infantry were equipped similarly to World War I. \n\nThe portable machine gun spread, a notable example being the German MG34, and various submachine guns which were suited to close combat in urban and jungle settings. The assault rifle, a late war development incorporating many features of the rifle and submachine gun, became the standard postwar infantry weapon for most armed forces. \n\nMost major belligerents attempted to solve the problems of complexity and security involved in using large codebooks for cryptography by designing ciphering machines, the most well known being the German Enigma machine. Development of SIGINT (signals intelligence) and cryptanalysis enabled the countering process of decryption. Notable examples were the Allied decryption of Japanese naval codes and British Ultra, a pioneering method for decoding Enigma benefiting from information given to Britain by the Polish Cipher Bureau, which had been decoding early versions of Enigma before the war. Another aspect of military intelligence was the use of deception, which the Allies used to great effect, such as in operations Mincemeat and Bodyguard. Other technological and engineering feats achieved during, or as a result of, the war include the world's first programmable computers (Z3, Colossus, and ENIAC), guided missiles and modern rockets, the Manhattan Project's development of nuclear weapons, operations research and the development of artificial harbours and oil pipelines under the English Channel.", "Sir Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill, (30 November 1874 – 24 January 1965) was a British statesman who was the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1940 to 1945 and again from 1951 to 1955. Churchill was also an officer in the British Army, a non-academic historian, a writer (as Winston S. Churchill), and an artist. He won the Nobel Prize in Literature, and was the first person to be made an honorary citizen of the United States.\n\nChurchill was born into the family of the Dukes of Marlborough, a branch of the Spencer family. His father, Lord Randolph Churchill, was a charismatic politician who served as Chancellor of the Exchequer; his mother, Jennie Jerome, was an American socialite. As a young army officer, he saw action in British India, the Anglo–Sudan War, and the Second Boer War. He gained fame as a war correspondent and wrote books about his campaigns.\n\nAt the forefront of politics for fifty years, he held many political and cabinet positions. Before the First World War, he served as President of the Board of Trade, Home Secretary, and First Lord of the Admiralty as part of Asquith's Liberal government. During the war, he continued as First Lord of the Admiralty until the disastrous Gallipoli Campaign caused his departure from government. He then briefly resumed active army service on the Western Front as commander of the 6th Battalion of the Royal Scots Fusiliers. He returned to government under Lloyd George as Minister of Munitions, Secretary of State for War, Secretary of State for Air, then Secretary of State for the Colonies. After two years out of Parliament, he served as Chancellor of the Exchequer in Baldwin's Conservative government of 1924–1929, controversially returning the pound sterling in 1925 to the gold standard at its pre-war parity, a move widely seen as creating deflationary pressure on the UK economy.\n\nOut of office and politically \"in the wilderness\" during the 1930s because of his opposition to increased home rule for India and his resistance to the 1936 abdication of Edward VIII, Churchill took the lead in warning about Nazi Germany and in campaigning for rearmament. At the outbreak of the Second World War, he was again appointed First Lord of the Admiralty. Following the resignation of Neville Chamberlain on 10 May 1940, Churchill became Prime Minister. His speeches and radio broadcasts helped inspire British resistance, especially during the difficult days of 1940–41 when the British Commonwealth and Empire stood almost alone in its active opposition to Adolf Hitler. He led Britain as Prime Minister until victory over Nazi Germany had been secured.\n\nAfter the Conservative Party lost the 1945 election, he became Leader of the Opposition to the Labour Government. He publicly warned of an \"Iron Curtain\" of Soviet influence in Europe and promoted European unity. After winning the 1951 election, Churchill again became Prime Minister. His second term was preoccupied by foreign affairs, including the Malayan Emergency, Mau Mau Uprising, Korean War, and a UK-backed coup d'état in Iran. Domestically his government laid great emphasis on house-building. Churchill suffered a serious stroke in 1953 and retired as Prime Minister in 1955, although he remained a Member of Parliament until 1964. Upon his death aged ninety in 1965, Elizabeth II granted him the honour of a state funeral, which saw one of the largest assemblies of world statesmen in history. Named the Greatest Briton of all time in a 2002 poll, Churchill is widely regarded as being among the most influential people in British history, consistently ranking well in opinion polls of Prime Ministers of the United Kingdom.\n\nFamily and early life\n\nBorn into the aristocratic family of the Dukes of Marlborough, a branch of the noble Spencer family, Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill, like his father, used the surname \"Churchill\" in public life. His ancestor George Spencer had changed his surname to Spencer-Churchill in 1817 when he became Duke of Marlborough, to highlight his descent from John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough. Churchill's father, Lord Randolph Churchill, the third son of John Spencer-Churchill, 7th Duke of Marlborough, was a politician; and his mother, Lady Randolph Churchill ( Jennie Jerome) was the daughter of American millionaire Leonard Jerome. Churchill was born on 30 November 1874, two months prematurely, in a bedroom in Blenheim Palace, Woodstock, Oxfordshire. \n\nFrom age two to six, he lived in Dublin, where his grandfather had been appointed Viceroy and employed Churchill's father as his private secretary. Churchill's brother, John Strange Spencer-Churchill, was born during this time in Ireland. It has been claimed that the young Churchill first developed his fascination with military matters from watching the many parades pass by the Vice Regal Lodge (now Áras an Uachtaráin, the official residence of the President of Ireland). \n\nChurchill's earliest exposure to education occurred in Dublin, where a governess tried teaching him reading, writing, and arithmetic (his first reading book was called 'Reading Without Tears'). With limited contact with his parents, Churchill became very close to his nanny, 'Mrs' Elizabeth Ann Everest, whom he called 'Old Woom' (some references 'Woomany' ). She served as his confidante, nurse, and mother substitute. The two spent many happy hours playing in Phoenix Park. \n\nIndependent and rebellious by nature, Churchill generally had a poor academic record in school. He was educated at three independent schools: St. George's School, Ascot, Berkshire; Brunswick School in Hove, near Brighton (the school has since been renamed Stoke Brunswick School and relocated to Ashurst Wood in West Sussex); and at Harrow School from 17 April 1888. Within weeks of his arrival at Harrow, Churchill had joined the Harrow Rifle Corps. \n\nWhen young Winston started attending Harrow School, he was listed under the S's as Spencer Churchill. At that time Winston was a stocky boy with red hair who talked with a stutter and a lisp. Winston did so well in mathematics in his Harrow entrance exam that he was put in the top division for that subject. In his first year at Harrow he was recognized as being the best in his division for history. Winston entered the school, however, as the boy with the lowest grades in the lowest class, and he remained in that position. Winston never even made it into the upper school because he would not study the classics. Though he did poorly in his schoolwork, he grew to love the English language. He hated Harrow. His mother rarely visited him, and he wrote letters begging her either to come to the school or to allow him to come home. His relationship with his father was distant; he once remarked that they barely spoke to one another. His father died on 24 January 1895, aged 45, leaving Churchill with the conviction that he too would die young and so should be quick about making his mark on the world. \n\nAt age 18, while visiting his aunt Lady Wimborne in Bournemouth, Winston nearly died when he fell from a bridge over a seaside chine (either Branksome Dene or Alum Chine) at a height of 29 feet. As a result of injuries sustained in the fall, he was unconscious for three days and bedridden for three months. \n\nWinston Churchill was a member of the freemasons and a member of the Loyal Waterloo Lodge of the National Independent Order of Odd Fellows. \n\nSpeech impediment\n\nChurchill had a lateral lisp that continued throughout his career, reported consistently by journalists of the time and later. Authors writing in the 1920s and 1930s, before sound recording became common, also mentioned Churchill having a stutter, describing it in terms such as \"severe\" or \"agonising\". The Churchill Centre and Museum says the majority of records show his impediment was a lateral lisp, while Churchill's stutter is a myth. \n\nHis dentures were specially designed to aid his speech (Demosthenes' pebbles). After many years of public speeches carefully prepared not only to inspire, but also to avoid hesitations, he could finally state, \"My impediment is no hindrance\". \n\nMarriage and children\n\nChurchill met his future wife, Clementine Hozier, in 1904 at a ball in Crewe House, home of the Earl of Crewe and Crewe's wife Margaret Primrose (daughter of Archibald Primrose, 5th Earl of Rosebery, and Hannah Rothschild). In 1908, they met again at a dinner party hosted by Susan Jeune, Baroness St Helier. Churchill found himself seated beside Clementine, and they soon began a lifelong romance. He proposed to Clementine during a house party at Blenheim Palace on 10 August 1908, in a small Temple of Diana. \n\nOn 12 September 1908, he and Clementine were married in St. Margaret's, Westminster. The church was packed; the Bishop of St Asaph conducted the service. The couple spent their honeymoon at Highgrove House in Eastcote. In March 1909, the couple moved to a house at 33 Eccleston Square.\n\nTheir first child, Diana, was born in London on 11 July 1909. After the pregnancy, Clementine moved to Sussex to recover, while Diana stayed in London with her nanny. On 28 May 1911, their second child, Randolph, was born at 33 Eccleston Square. \n\nTheir third child, Sarah, was born on 7 October 1914 at Admiralty House. The birth was marked with anxiety for Clementine, as Churchill had been sent to Antwerp by the Cabinet to \"stiffen the resistance of the beleaguered city\" after news that the Belgians intended to surrender the town. \n\nClementine gave birth to her fourth child, Marigold Frances Churchill, on 15 November 1918, four days after the official end of the First World War. In the early days of August 1921, the Churchills' children were entrusted to a French nursery governess in Kent named Mlle. Rose. Clementine, meanwhile, travelled to Eaton Hall to play tennis with Hugh Grosvenor, 2nd Duke of Westminster, and his family. While still under the care of Mlle. Rose, Marigold had a cold, but was reported to have recovered from the illness. As the illness progressed with hardly any notice, it turned into septicaemia. Following advice from a landlady, Rose sent for Clementine. However the illness proved fatal on 23 August 1921, and Marigold was buried in the Kensal Green Cemetery three days later. \n\nOn 15 September 1922, the Churchills' last child, Mary, was born. Later that month, the Churchills bought Chartwell, which would be their home until Winston's death in 1965. \n\nMilitary service\n\nAfter Churchill left Harrow in 1893, he applied to attend the Royal Military College, Sandhurst. He tried three times before passing the entrance exam; he applied to be trained for the cavalry rather than the infantry because the required grade was lower and he was not required to learn mathematics, which he disliked. He graduated eighth out of a class of 150 in December 1894, and although he could now have transferred to an infantry regiment as his father had wished, chose to remain with the cavalry and was commissioned as a cornet (second lieutenant) in the 4th Queen's Own Hussars on 20 February 1895. In 1941, he received the honour of being appointed Regimental Colonel of the 4th Hussars, an honour which was increased after the Second World War when he was appointed as Colonel-in-Chief; this privilege is usually reserved for members of the royal family.\n\nChurchill's pay as a second lieutenant in the 4th Hussars was £300 annually. However, he believed that he needed at least a further £500 (equivalent to £55,000 in 2012 terms) to support a style of life equal to that of other officers of the regiment. His mother provided an allowance of £400 per year, but this was repeatedly overspent. According to biographer Roy Jenkins, this is one reason why he took an interest in war correspondence. He did not intend to follow a conventional career of promotion through army ranks, but rather to seek out all possible chances of military action, using his mother's and family influence in high society to arrange postings to active campaigns. His writings brought him to the attention of the public, and earned him significant additional income. He acted as a war correspondent for several London newspapers and wrote his own books about the campaigns.\n\nCuba\n\nIn 1895, during the Cuban War of Independence, Churchill, and fellow officer Reginald Barnes, travelled to Cuba to observe the Spanish fight the Cuban guerrillas; he had obtained a commission to write about the conflict from the Daily Graphic. He came under fire on his twenty-first birthday, the first of about 50 times during his life, and the Spanish awarded him his first medal. Churchill had fond memories of Cuba as a \"... large, rich, beautiful island ...\". While there, he soon acquired a taste for Havana cigars, which he would smoke for the rest of his life. While in New York, he stayed at the home of Bourke Cockran, an admirer of his mother. Bourke was an established American politician, and a member of the House of Representatives. He greatly influenced Churchill, both in his approach to oratory and politics, and encouraging a love of America. \n\nHe soon received word that his nanny, Mrs Everest, was dying; he then returned to England and stayed with her for a week until she died. He wrote in his journal, \"She was my favourite friend.\" In My Early Life he wrote: \"She had been my dearest and most intimate friend during the whole of the twenty years I had lived.\" \n\nIndia and self-education\n\nIn early October 1896, he was transferred to Bombay, British India. He was considered one of the best polo players in his regiment and led his team to many prestigious tournament victories. On arrival Churchill badly wrenched his shoulder while leaping from the boat, an injury which would plague him throughout his life and would later require him to play polo with his upper arm strapped to his side. \n\nChurchill came to Bangalore in 1896 as a young army officer. In his book, 'My Early Life', he describes Bangalore as a city with excellent weather, and his allotted house as ‘a magnificent pink and white stucco palace in the middle of a large and beautiful garden' with servants, dhobi (to wash clothes), gardener, watchman and a water-carrier. It was in Bangalore he met Pamela Plowden, daughter of a civil servant; she became his first love. He privately described most British women in India as “nasty” and scoffed at their belief in their own beauty. His letters home show him to have been obsessed with British politics, advocating a centrist coalition between Lord Rosebery and Joseph Chamberlain, and critical of Lord Lansdowne’s proposal for increased spending on the army (opposition to which had been one of Lord Randolph’s reasons for resigning in December 1886; Churchill preferred Britain to concentrate on keeping a strong Royal Navy).\n\nPartly at his mother’s urging, Churchill passed the long hot afternoons reading. He read multi-volume historical works by Gibbon (\"The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire\") and Macaulay (\"History of England”) as well as Plato’s \"Republic\" and works of economics. He toyed with the idea of studying for a degree in history, politics and economics, but regretted he did not have enough knowledge of Latin and Greek which were then a requirement of university entrance. He also read Winwood Reade’s work “The Martyrdom of Man”, writing to his mother that its critique of religion confirmed what he had reluctantly come to believe. Churchill believed that religion, although mostly not literally true, was a useful “crutch” until men were ready to rely on reason alone. He also wrote to his old headmaster James Welldon, now Bishop of Calcutta, opposing Christian missions in India. Churchill argued that the State was perfectly entitled to dictate the doctrines of the Established Church of England and advocated non-denominational teaching in schools, by secular teachers, based on the Bible and “Hymns Ancient and Modern”. Keith Robbins writes that Churchill’s opinions were largely formed at this time, and without the “scrutiny and criticism” to which they would have been subjected at a university, although he also suggests that Churchill’s love of the English language might not have flourished to the same degree under university conditions. John Charmley concurs, commenting that Churchill’s self-education had not given him any training in the weighing of arguments and the absorption of the views of others, although he also points out that Lord Moran, Churchill’s doctor in the 1940s, recorded Churchill's sympathy for adults who educated themselves later in life. \n\nWith some reluctance because of the weight and cost, his mother also sent out copies of Parliamentary debates of the last few generations. Churchill would write down his opinion of each issue (e.g. the Judicature Acts of 1873 and 1875) before reading the debate, and then record his opinion again. He was highly critical of Lord Salisbury’s Conservative-dominated Government, in power from the autumn of 1895, writing to his mother in March 1897, in an obvious echo of what he perceived his late father’s position to have been, that he was a Liberal in all but name, remaining a “Tory Democrat” solely because of the issue of Irish Home Rule. \n\nNorth-West Frontier\n\nIn 1897, Churchill attempted to travel to both report on and, if necessary, fight in the Greco-Turkish War, but this conflict effectively ended before he could arrive. Later, while preparing for a leave in England, he heard that three brigades of the British Army were going to fight against a Pashtun tribe in the North West Frontier of India and he asked his superior officer if he could join the fight. In 1899 he departed for the North West Frontier to fight in the Second Anglo-Afghan War. He fought under the command of General Jeffery, the commander of the second brigade operating in Malakand, in the Frontier region of British India. Jeffery sent him with fifteen scouts to explore the Mamund Valley; while on reconnaissance, they encountered an enemy tribe, dismounted from their horses and opened fire. After an hour of shooting, their reinforcements, the 35th Sikhs arrived, the firing gradually ceased and the brigade and the Sikhs marched on. Hundreds of tribesmen then ambushed them and opened fire, forcing them to retreat. As they were retreating, four men were carrying an injured officer, but the fierceness of the fight forced them to leave him behind. The man who was left behind was slashed to death before Churchill's eyes; afterwards he wrote of the killer, \"I forgot everything else at this moment except a desire to kill this man.\" However, the Sikhs' numbers were being depleted, so the next commanding officer told Churchill to get the rest of the men to safety.\n\nBefore he left, he asked for a note so that he would not be charged with desertion. He received the note, quickly signed, headed up the hill and alerted the other brigade, whereupon they then engaged the army. The fighting in the region dragged on for another two weeks before the dead could be recovered. He wrote in his journal: \"Whether it was worth it I cannot tell.\" An account of the Siege of Malakand was published in December 1900 as The Story of the Malakand Field Force. He received £600 for his account. During the campaign, he also wrote articles for the newspapers The Pioneer and The Daily Telegraph. His account of the battle was one of his first published stories, for which he received £5 per column from The Daily Telegraph. \n\nSudan\n\nChurchill was transferred to Egypt in 1898. He visited Luxor before joining an attachment of the 21st Lancers serving in the Sudan under the command of General Herbert Kitchener. During this time he encountered two military officers with whom he would work during the First World War: Douglas Haig, then a captain, and David Beatty, then a gunboat lieutenant. While in the Sudan, he participated in what has been described as the last meaningful British cavalry charge, at the Battle of Omdurman in September 1898. He also worked as a war correspondent for the Morning Post. By October 1898, he had returned to Britain and begun his two-volume work, The River War, an account of the conquest of the Sudan which was published the following year. Churchill resigned from the British Army effective from 5 May 1899.\n\nOldham\n\nHe soon had his first opportunity to begin a Parliamentary career, when he was invited by Robert Ascroft to be the second Conservative Party candidate in Ascroft's Oldham constituency. Ascroft's sudden death caused a double by-election and Churchill was one of the candidates. In the midst of a national trend against the Conservatives, both seats were lost; however, Churchill impressed by his vigorous campaigning.\n\nSouth Africa\n\nHaving failed at Oldham, Churchill looked about for some other opportunity to advance his career. On 12 October 1899, the Second Boer War between Britain and the Boer Republics broke out and he obtained a commission to act as war correspondent for The Morning Post with a salary of £250 per month. He rushed to sail on the same ship as the newly appointed British commander, Sir Redvers Buller. After some weeks in exposed areas, he accompanied a scouting expedition in an armoured train, leading to his capture and imprisonment in a POW camp in Pretoria (converted school building for Pretoria High School for Girls). His actions during the ambush of the train led to speculation that he would be awarded the Victoria Cross, Britain's highest award to members of the armed forces for gallantry in the face of the enemy, but this was not possible, as he was a civilian.\n\nHe escaped from the prison camp and, with the assistance of an English mine manager, travelled almost 300 mi to safety in Portuguese East Africa. His escape made him a minor national hero for a time in Britain though, instead of returning home, he rejoined General Buller's army on its march to relieve the British at the Siege of Ladysmith and take Pretoria. This time, although continuing as a war correspondent, he gained a commission in the South African Light Horse. He was among the first British troops into Ladysmith and Pretoria. He and his cousin, the Duke of Marlborough, were able to get ahead of the rest of the troops in Pretoria, where they demanded and received the surrender of 52 Boer prison camp guards. \n\nIn 1900, Churchill returned to England on the , the same ship on which he had set sail for South Africa eight months earlier. The same year he published London to Ladysmith via Pretoria and a second volume of Boer war experiences, Ian Hamilton's March. \n\nTerritorial Service and advancement\n\nIn 1900, he retired from the regular army, and in 1902 joined the Imperial Yeomanry, where he was commissioned as a Captain in the Queen's Own Oxfordshire Hussars on 4 January 1902. In that same year, he was initiated into Freemasonry at Studholme Lodge #1591, London, and raised to the Third Degree on 25 March 1902. In April 1905, he was promoted to Major and appointed to command of the Henley Squadron of the Queen's Own Oxfordshire Hussars. In September 1916, he transferred to the territorial reserves of officers, where he remained until retiring in 1924, at the age of fifty.\n\nWestern Front\n\nAfter his resignation from the government in 1915, Churchill rejoined the British Army, attempting to obtain an appointment as brigade commander, but settling for command of a battalion. After spending some time as a Major with the 2nd Battalion, Grenadier Guards, he was appointed Lieutenant-Colonel, commanding the 6th Battalion, Royal Scots Fusiliers (part of the 9th (Scottish) Division), on 1 January 1916. Correspondence with his wife shows that his intent in taking up active service was to rehabilitate his reputation, but this was balanced by the serious risk of being killed. During his period of command, his battalion was stationed at Ploegsteert but did not take part in any set battle. Although he disapproved strongly of the mass slaughter involved in many Western Front actions, he exposed himself to danger by making excursions to the front line or into No Man's Land. \n\nPolitical career to the Second World War, 1900–39\n\nEarly years in Parliament\n\nChurchill stood again for the seat of Oldham at the 1900 general election. After winning the seat, he went on a speaking tour throughout Britain and the United States, raising £10,000 for himself (about £ today). From 1903 until 1905, Churchill was also engaged in writing Lord Randolph Churchill, a two-volume biography of his father which was published in 1906 and received much critical acclaim. \n\nIn Parliament, he became associated with a faction of the Conservative Party led by Lord Hugh Cecil; the Hughligans. During his first parliamentary session, he opposed the government's military expenditure and Joseph Chamberlain's proposal of extensive tariffs, which were intended to protect Britain's economic dominance. His own constituency effectively deselected him, although he continued to sit for Oldham until the next general election. In the months leading up to his ultimate change of party from the Conservatives to the Liberals, Churchill made a number of evocative speeches against the principles of Protectionism; ‘to think you can make a man richer by putting on a tax is like a man thinking that he can stand in a bucket and lift himself up by the handle.' [Winston Churchill, Speech to the Free Trade League, 19 February 1904.] As a result of his disagreement with leading members of the Conservative Party over tariff reform, he made the decision to cross the floor. After the Whitsun recess in 1904, he crossed the floor to sit as a member of the Liberal Party. As a Liberal, he continued to campaign for free trade. When the Liberals took office with Henry Campbell-Bannerman as prime minister, in December 1905, Churchill became Under-Secretary of State for the Colonies, dealing mainly with South Africa after the Boer War. As Under-Secretary of State for the Colonies from 1905 to 1908, Churchill's primary focus was on settling the Transvaal Constitution, which was accepted by Parliament in 1907. This was essential for providing stability in South Africa. He campaigned in line with the Liberal Government to install responsible rather than representative government. This would alleviate pressure from the British government to control domestic affairs, including issues of race, in the Transvaal, delegating a greater proportion of power to the Boers themselves.\n\nFollowing his deselection in the seat of Oldham, Churchill was invited to stand for Manchester North West. He won the seat at the 1906 general election with a majority of 1,214 and represented the seat for two years. When Campbell-Bannerman was succeeded by H. H. Asquith in 1908, Churchill was promoted to the Cabinet as President of the Board of Trade. Under the law at the time, a newly appointed Cabinet Minister was obliged to seek re-election at a by-election; Churchill lost his seat but was soon back as a member for Dundee constituency. As President of the Board of Trade he joined newly appointed Chancellor Lloyd George in opposing First Lord of the Admiralty Reginald McKenna's proposed huge expenditure for the construction of Navy dreadnought warships, and in supporting the Liberal reforms. In 1908, he introduced the Trade Boards Bill setting up the first minimum wages in Britain. In 1909, he set up Labour Exchanges to help unemployed people find work. He helped draft the first unemployment pension legislation, the National Insurance Act of 1911. As a supporter of eugenics, he participated in the drafting of the Mental Deficiency Act 1913; however, the Act, in the form eventually passed, rejected his preferred method of sterilisation of the feeble-minded in favour of their confinement in institutions. \n\nChurchill also assisted in passing the People's Budget, becoming President of the Budget League, an organisation set up in response to the opposition's Budget Protest League. The budget included the introduction of new taxes on the wealthy to allow for the creation of new social welfare programmes. After the budget bill was passed by the Commons in 1909 it was vetoed by the House of Lords. The Liberals then fought and won two general elections in January and December 1910 to gain a mandate for their reforms. The budget was passed after the first election, and after the second election the Parliament Act 1911, for which Churchill also campaigned, was passed. In 1910, he was promoted to Home Secretary. His term was controversial after his responses to the Cambrian Colliery dispute, the Siege of Sidney Street and the suffragettes.\n\nThe People's Budget attempted to introduce a heavy tax on land value, inspired by the economist and philosopher Henry George. In 1909, Churchill made several speeches with strong Georgist rhetoric, stating that land ownership is at the source of all monopoly. Furthermore, Churchill emphasizes the difference between productive investment in capital (which he supports) and land speculation which gains an unearned income and has only negative consequences to society at large (\"an evil\"). \n\nIn 1910, a number of coal miners in the Rhondda Valley began what has come to be known as the Tonypandy Riot. The Chief Constable of Glamorgan requested troops be sent in to help police quell the rioting. Churchill, learning that the troops were already travelling, allowed them to go as far as Swindon and Cardiff, but blocked their deployment. On 9 November, The Times criticised this decision. In spite of this, the rumour persists that Churchill had ordered troops to attack, and his reputation in Wales and in Labour circles never recovered. \n\nIn early January 1911, Churchill made a controversial visit to the Siege of Sidney Street in London. There is some uncertainty as to whether he attempted to give operational commands, and his presence attracted much criticism. After an inquest, Arthur Balfour remarked, \"he [Churchill] and a photographer were both risking valuable lives. I understand what the photographer was doing, but what was the right honourable gentleman doing?\" A biographer, Roy Jenkins, suggests that he went simply because \"he could not resist going to see the fun himself\" and that he did not issue commands. Another account said the police had the miscreants—Latvian anarchists wanted for murder—surrounded in a house, but Churchill called in the Scots Guards from the Tower of London and, dressed in top hat and astrakhan collar greatcoat, directed operations. The house caught fire and Churchill prevented the fire brigade from dousing the flames so that the men inside were burned to death. \"I thought it better to let the house burn down rather than spend good British lives in rescuing those ferocious rascals.\" \n\nChurchill's proposed solution to the suffragette issue was a referendum on the issue, but this found no favour with Asquith and women's suffrage remained unresolved until after the First World War. \n\nFirst Lord of the Admiralty (1911–15)\n\nIn October 1911, Churchill was appointed First Lord of the Admiralty and continued in the post into the First World War. While serving in this position, he put strong emphasis on modernisation and was also in favour of using aeroplanes in combat. He undertook flying lessons himself. He launched a programme to replace coal power with oil power. When he assumed his position, oil was already being used on submarines and destroyers, but most ships were still coal-powered, though oil was sprayed on the coals to boost maximum speed. Churchill began this programme by ordering that the upcoming s were to be built with oil-fired engines. He established a Royal Commission chaired by Admiral Sir John Fisher, which confirmed the benefits of oil over coal in three classified reports, and judged that ample supplies of oil existed, but recommended that oil reserves be maintained in the event of war. The delegation then travelled to the Persian Gulf, and the government, largely through Churchill's advice, eventually invested in the Anglo-Persian Oil Company, bought most of its stock, and negotiated a secret contract for a 20-year supply. \n\nFirst World War and the Post-War Coalition\n\nOn 5 October 1914, Churchill went to Antwerp, which the Belgian government proposed to evacuate. The Royal Marine Brigade was there and at Churchill's urgings the 1st and 2nd Naval Brigades were also committed. Antwerp fell on 10 October with the loss of 2500 men. At the time he was attacked for squandering resources. It is more likely that his actions prolonged the resistance by a week (Belgium had proposed surrendering Antwerp on 3 October) and that this time saved Calais and Dunkirk. \n\nChurchill was involved with the development of the tank, which was financed from the Navy budget. He appointed the Landships Committee, which oversaw the design and production of the first British tanks. In 1915, he was one of the political and military engineers of the disastrous Gallipoli landings in the Dardanelles during the First World War. He took much of the blame for the fiasco, and when Prime Minister Asquith formed an all-party coalition government, the Conservatives demanded his demotion as the price for entry. \n\nFor several months Churchill served in the sinecure of Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster. However, on 15 November 1915 he resigned from the government, feeling his energies were not being used. Although remaining a member of parliament, on 5 January 1916 he was given the temporary British Army rank of lieutenant colonel and served for several months on the Western Front, commanding the 6th Battalion of the Royal Scots Fusiliers. While in command at Ploegsteert he personally made 36 forays into no man's land. In March 1916, Churchill returned to England after he had become restless in France and wished to speak again in the House of Commons. Future prime minister David Lloyd George acidly commented: \"You will one day discover that the state of mind revealed in (your) letter is the reason why you do not win trust even where you command admiration. In every line of it, national interests are completely overshadowed by your personal concern.\" In July 1917, Churchill was appointed Minister of Munitions, and in January 1919, Secretary of State for War and Secretary of State for Air. He was the main architect of the Ten Year Rule, a principle that allowed the Treasury to dominate and control strategic, foreign and financial policies under the assumption that \"there would be no great European war for the next five or ten years\". \n\nA major preoccupation of his tenure in the War Office was the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War. Churchill was a staunch advocate of foreign intervention, declaring that Bolshevism must be \"strangled in its cradle\". He secured, from a divided and loosely organised Cabinet, intensification and prolongation of the British involvement beyond the wishes of any major group in Parliament or the nation—and in the face of the bitter hostility of Labour. In 1920, after the last British forces had been withdrawn, Churchill was instrumental in having arms sent to the Poles when they invaded Ukraine. He was also instrumental in having para-military forces (Black and Tans and Auxiliaries) intervene in the Irish War of Independence. He became Secretary of State for the Colonies in 1921 and was a signatory of the Anglo-Irish Treaty of 1921, which established the Irish Free State. Churchill was involved in the lengthy negotiations of the treaty and, to protect British maritime interests, he engineered part of the Irish Free State agreement to include three Treaty Ports—Queenstown (Cobh), Berehaven and Lough Swilly—which could be used as Atlantic bases by the Royal Navy. In 1938, however, under the terms of the Chamberlain-De Valera Anglo-Irish Trade Agreement, the bases were returned to Ireland.\n\nIn 1919, Churchill sanctioned the use of tear gas on Kurdish tribesmen in Iraq. Though the British did consider the use of non-lethal poison gas in putting down Kurdish rebellions, it was not used, as conventional bombing was considered effective.\n\nIn 1923, Churchill acted as a paid consultant for Burmah Oil (now BP plc) to lobby the British government to allow Burmah to have exclusive rights to Persian (Iranian) oil resources, which were successfully granted. \n\nIn September, the Conservative Party withdrew from the Coalition government, following a meeting of backbenchers dissatisfied with the handling of the Chanak Crisis, a move that precipitated the looming November 1922 general election. Churchill fell ill during the campaign, and had to have an appendectomy. This made it difficult for him to campaign, and a further setback was the internal division which continued to beset the Liberal Party. He came fourth in the poll for Dundee, losing to prohibitionist Edwin Scrymgeour. Churchill later quipped that he left Dundee \"without an office, without a seat, without a party and without an appendix\". He stood for the Liberals again in the 1923 general election, losing in Leicester.\n\nConstitutionalist\n\nIn January 1924, the first Labour Government had taken office amongst fears of threats to the Constitution. Churchill was noted at the time for being particularly hostile to socialism. He believed that the Labour Party as a socialist party, did not fully support the existing British Constitution. In March 1924 Churchill sought election at the Westminster Abbey by-election, 1924. He had originally sought the backing of the local Unionist association which happened to be called the Westminster Abbey Constitutional Association. He adopted the term 'Constitutionalist' to describe himself during the by-election campaign. After the by-election Churchill continued to use the term and talked about setting up a Constitutionalist Party. Any plans that Churchill may have had to create a Constitutionalist Party were shelved with the calling of another general election. Churchill and 11 others decided to use the label Constitutionalist rather than Liberal or Unionist. He was returned at Epping against a Liberal and with the support of the Unionists. After the election the seven Constitutionalist candidates, including Churchill, who were elected did not act or vote as a group. When Churchill accepted the post of Chancellor of the Exchequer in Stanley Baldwin's Unionist government the description 'Constitutionalist' dropped out of use.\n\nRejoining the Conservative Party\n\nChancellor of the Exchequer (1924–29)\n\nHe formally rejoined the Conservative Party, commenting wryly that \"anyone can rat, but it takes a certain ingenuity to re-rat.\" \nChurchill as Chancellor of the Exchequer oversaw Britain's disastrous return to the Gold Standard, which resulted in deflation, unemployment, and the miners' strike that led to the General Strike of 1926. His decision, announced in the 1924 Budget, came after long consultation with various economists including John Maynard Keynes, the Permanent Secretary to the Treasury, Sir Otto Niemeyer and the board of the Bank of England. This decision prompted Keynes to write The Economic Consequences of Mr. Churchill, arguing that the return to the gold standard at the pre-war parity in 1925 (£1=$4.86) would lead to a world depression. However, the decision was generally popular and seen as 'sound economics' although it was opposed by Lord Beaverbrook and the Federation of British Industries. \n\nChurchill later regarded this as the greatest mistake of his life; in discussions at the time with former Chancellor Reginald McKenna, Churchill acknowledged that the return to the gold standard and the resulting 'dear money' policy was economically bad. In those discussions he maintained the policy as fundamentally political—a return to the pre-war conditions in which he believed. In his speech on the Bill he said \"I will tell you what it [the return to the Gold Standard] will shackle us to. It will shackle us to reality.\" \n\nThe return to the pre-war exchange rate and to the Gold Standard depressed industries. The most affected was the coal industry, already suffering from declining output as shipping switched to oil. As basic British industries like cotton came under more competition in export markets, the return to the pre-war exchange was estimated to add up to 10% in costs to the industry. In July 1925, a Commission of Inquiry reported generally favouring the miners rather than the mine owners' position. \n\nBaldwin, with Churchill's support proposed a subsidy to the industry while a Royal Commission prepared a further report. That Commission solved nothing and the miners' dispute led to the General Strike of 1926. Churchill edited the Government's newspaper, the British Gazette. Churchill was one of the more hawkish members of the Cabinet and recommended that the route of food convoys from the docks into London should be guarded by tanks, armoured cars and hidden machine guns. This was rejected by the Cabinet. Exaggerated accounts of Churchill's belligerency during the strike soon began to circulate. Immediately afterwards the New Statesman claimed that Churchill had been leader of a \"war party\" in the Cabinet and had wished to use military force against the strikers. He consulted the Attorney-General Sir Douglas Hogg, who advised that although he had a good case for Criminal libel, it would be inadvisable to have confidential Cabinet discussions aired in open court. Churchill agreed to let the matter drop. \n\nLater economists, as well as people at the time, also criticised Churchill's budget measures. These were seen as assisting the generally prosperous rentier banking and salaried classes (to which Churchill and his associates generally belonged) at the expense of manufacturers and exporters which were known then to be suffering from imports and from competition in traditional export markets, and as paring the Armed Forces, and especially the Royal Navy, too heavily. \n\nPolitical isolation\n\nThe Conservative government was defeated in the 1929 general election. Churchill did not seek election to the Conservative Business Committee, the official leadership of the Conservative MPs. Over the next two years, Churchill became estranged from Conservative leadership over the issues of protective tariffs and Indian Home Rule, by his political views and by his friendships with press barons, financiers and people whose character was seen as dubious. When Ramsay MacDonald formed the National Government in 1931, Churchill was not invited to join the Cabinet. He was at the low-point in his career, in a period known as \"the wilderness years\".\n\nHe spent much of the next few years concentrating on his writing, works including Marlborough: His Life and Times—a biography of his ancestor John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough—and A History of the English Speaking Peoples (though the latter was not published until well after the Second World War), Great Contemporaries and many newspaper articles and collections of speeches. He was one of the best paid writers of his time. His political views, set forth in his 1930 Romanes Lecture and published as Parliamentary Government and the Economic Problem (republished in 1932 in his collection of essays \"Thoughts and Adventures\") involved abandoning universal suffrage, a return to a property franchise, proportional representation for the major cities and an economic 'sub parliament'. \n\nIndian independence\n\nChurchill opposed Gandhi's peaceful disobedience revolt and the Indian Independence movement in the 1920s and 30s, arguing that the Round Table Conference \"was a frightful prospect\". In response to Gandhi's civil disobedience campaign, Churchill proclaimed in 1920 that Gandhi \"ought to be lain bound hand and foot at the gates of Delhi, and then trampled on by an enormous elephant with the new Viceroy seated on its back.\" Later reports indicate that Churchill favoured letting Gandhi die if he went on a hunger strike. During the first half of the 1930s, Churchill was outspoken in his opposition to granting Dominion status to India. He was a founder of the India Defence League, a group dedicated to the preservation of British power in India. Churchill brooked no moderation. \"The truth is,\" he declared in 1930, \"that Gandhi-ism and everything it stands for will have to be grappled with and crushed.\" In speeches and press articles in this period, he forecast widespread unemployment in Britain and civil strife in India should independence be granted. The Viceroy Lord Irwin, who had been appointed by the prior Conservative Government, engaged in the Round Table Conference in early 1931 and then announced the Government's policy that India should be granted Dominion Status. In this the Government was supported by the Liberal Party and, officially at least, by the Conservative Party. Churchill denounced the Round Table Conference.\n\nAt a meeting of the West Essex Conservative Association, specially convened so that Churchill could explain his position, he said \"It is alarming and also nauseating to see Mr Gandhi, a seditious Middle Temple lawyer, now posing as a fakir of a type well known in the East, striding half-naked up the steps of the Vice-regal palace ... to parley on equal terms with the representative of the King-Emperor.\" He called the Indian National Congress leaders \"Brahmins who mouth and patter principles of Western Liberalism\". \n\nTwo incidents damaged Churchill's reputation greatly within the Conservative Party in this period. Both were taken as attacks on the Conservative front bench. The first was his speech on the eve of the St George by-election in April 1931. In a secure Conservative seat, the official Conservative candidate Duff Cooper was opposed by an independent Conservative. The independent was supported by Lord Rothermere, Lord Beaverbrook and their respective newspapers. Although arranged before the by-election was set, Churchill's speech was seen as supporting the independent candidate and as a part of the press baron's campaign against Baldwin. Baldwin's position was strengthened when Duff Cooper won, and when the civil disobedience campaign in India ceased with the Gandhi-Irwin Pact. The second issue was a claim by Churchill that Sir Samuel Hoare and Lord Derby had pressured the Manchester Chamber of Commerce to change evidence it had given to the Joint Select Committee considering the Government of India Bill, and in doing so had breached Parliamentary privilege. He had the matter referred to the House of Commons Privilege Committee which, after investigations in which Churchill gave evidence, reported to the House that there had been no breach. The report was debated on 13 June. Churchill was unable to find a single supporter in the House and the debate ended without a division.\n\nChurchill permanently broke with Stanley Baldwin over Indian independence and never again held any office while Baldwin was prime minister. Some historians see his basic attitude to India as being set out in his book My Early Life (1930). Another source of controversy about Churchill's attitude towards Indian affairs arises over what some historians term the Indian 'nationalist approach' to the Bengal famine of 1943, which has sought to place significant blame on Churchill's wartime government for the excessive mortality of up to four million people. While some commentators point to the disruption of the traditional marketing system and maladministration at the provincial level, Arthur Herman, author of Churchill and Gandhi, contends, 'The real cause was the fall of Burma to the Japanese, which cut off India's main supply of rice imports when domestic sources fell short ... [though] it is true that Churchill opposed diverting food supplies and transports from other theatres to India to cover the shortfall: this was wartime.' In response to an urgent request by the Secretary of State for India, Leo Amery, and Viceroy of India, Wavell, to release food stocks for India, Churchill responded with a telegram to Wavell asking, if food was so scarce, \"why Gandhi hadn't died yet.\" In July 1940, newly in office, he welcomed reports of the emerging conflict between the Muslim League and the Indian Congress, hoping \"it would be bitter and bloody\".\n\nGerman and Italian rearmament and conflicts in Afro-Eurasia\n\nBeginning in 1932, when he opposed those who advocated giving Germany the right to military parity with France, Churchill spoke often of the dangers of Germany's rearmament. He later, particularly in The Gathering Storm, portrayed himself as being for a time, a lone voice calling on Britain to strengthen itself to counter the belligerence of Germany. However Lord Lloyd was the first to so agitate. \n\nIn 1932, Churchill accepted the presidency of the newly founded New Commonwealth Society, a peace organisation which he described in 1937 as \"one of the few peace societies that advocates the use of force, if possible overwhelming force, to support public international law\". \n\nChurchill's attitude towards the fascist dictators was ambiguous. After the First World War defeat of Germany, a new danger occupied conservatives' political consciousness—the spread of communism. A newspaper article penned by Churchill and published on 4 February 1920, had warned that \"civilisation\" was threatened by the Bolsheviks, a movement which he linked through historical precedence to Jewish conspiracy. He wrote in part:\n\nThis movement among Jews is not new ... but a \"world-wide conspiracy for the overthrow of civilisation and for the reconstitution of society on the basis of arrested development, of envious malevolence, and impossible equality.\" \n\nIn 1931, he warned against the League of Nations opposing the Japanese in Manchuria: \"I hope we shall try in England to understand the position of Japan, an ancient state ... On the one side they have the dark menace of Soviet Russia. On the other the chaos of China, four or five provinces of which are being tortured under communist rule.\" In contemporary newspaper articles he referred to the Spanish Republican government as a communist front, and Franco's army as the \"Anti-red movement.\" He supported the Hoare-Laval Pact and continued up until 1937 to praise Benito Mussolini. He regarded Mussolini's regime as a bulwark against the perceived threat of communist revolution, going as far (in 1933) as to call Mussolini the \"Roman genius ... the greatest lawgiver among men.\" However, he stressed that the UK must stick with its tradition of Parliamentary democracy, not adopt fascism. \n\nSpeaking in the House of Commons in 1937, Churchill said, \"I will not pretend that, if I had to choose between communism and Nazism, I would choose communism.\" In a 1935 essay titled \"Hitler and his Choice\", which was republished in his 1937 book Great Contemporaries, Churchill expressed a hope that Hitler, if he so chose, and despite his rise to power through dictatorial action, hatred and cruelty, might yet \"go down in history as the man who restored honour and peace of mind to the great Germanic nation and brought it back serene, helpful and strong to the forefront of the European family circle.\" Churchill's first major speech on defence on 7 February 1934 stressed the need to rebuild the Royal Air Force and to create a Ministry of Defence; his second, on 13 July urged a renewed role for the League of Nations. These three topics remained his themes until early 1936. In 1935, he was one of the founding members of The Focus, which brought together people of differing political backgrounds and occupations who were united in seeking \"the defence of freedom and peace.\" The Focus led to the formation of the much wider Arms and the Covenant Movement in 1936.\n\nChurchill, holidaying in Spain when the Germans reoccupied the Rhineland in February 1936, returned to a divided Britain. The Labour opposition was adamant in opposing sanctions and the National Government was divided between advocates of economic sanctions and those who said that even these would lead to a humiliating backdown by Britain as France would not support any intervention. Churchill's speech on 9 March was measured, and praised by Neville Chamberlain as constructive. But within weeks Churchill was passed over for the post of Minister for Co-ordination of Defence in favour of Attorney General Sir Thomas Inskip. A. J. P. Taylor called this \"an appointment rightly described as the most extraordinary since Caligula made his horse a consul.\" In June 1936, Churchill organised a deputation of senior Conservatives who shared his concern to see Baldwin, Chamberlain and Halifax. He had tried to have delegates from the other two parties and later wrote, \"If the leaders of the Labour and Liberal oppositions had come with us there might have been a political situation so intense as to enforce remedial action.\" As it was, the meeting achieved little, Baldwin arguing that the Government was doing all it could, given the anti-war feeling of the electorate.\n\nOn 12 November, Churchill returned to the topic. Speaking in the Address in Reply debate, after giving some specific instances of Germany's war preparedness, he said \"The Government simply cannot make up their mind or they cannot get the prime minister to make up his mind. So they go on in strange paradox, decided only to be undecided, resolved to be irresolute, adamant for drift, solid for fluidity, all powerful for impotency. And so we go on preparing more months more years precious perhaps vital for the greatness of Britain for the locusts to eat.\" \n\nR. R. James called this one of Churchill's most brilliant speeches during this period, Baldwin's reply sounding weak and disturbing the House. The exchange gave new encouragement to the Arms and the Covenant Movement. \n\nAbdication crisis\n\nIn June 1936, Walter Monckton told Churchill that the rumours that King Edward VIII intended to marry Mrs Wallis Simpson were true. Churchill then advised against the marriage and said he regarded Mrs Simpson's existing marriage as a 'safeguard'. In November, he declined Lord Salisbury's invitation to be part of a delegation of senior Conservative backbenchers who met with Baldwin to discuss the matter. On 25 November he, Attlee and Labour leader Archibald Sinclair met with Baldwin, were told officially of the King's intention, and asked whether they would form an administration if Baldwin and the National Government resigned should the King not take the Ministry's advice. Both Attlee and Sinclair said they would not take office if invited to do so. Churchill's reply was that his attitude was a little different but he would support the government. \n\nThe Abdication crisis became public, coming to a head in the first two weeks of December 1936. At this time, Churchill publicly gave his support to the King. The first public meeting of the Arms and the Covenant Movement was on 3 December. Churchill was a major speaker and later wrote that in replying to the Vote of Thanks, he made a declaration 'on the spur of the moment' asking for delay before any decision was made by either the King or his Cabinet. Later that night Churchill saw the draft of the King's proposed wireless broadcast and spoke with Beaverbrook and the King's solicitor about it. On 4 December, he met with the King and again urged delay in any decision about abdication. On 5 December, he issued a lengthy statement implying that the Ministry was applying unconstitutional pressure on the King to force him to make a hasty decision. On 7 December, he tried to address the Commons to plead for delay. He was shouted down. Seemingly staggered by the unanimous hostility of all Members, he left. \n\nChurchill's reputation in Parliament and England as a whole was badly damaged. Some such as Alistair Cooke saw him as trying to build a King's Party. Others like Harold Macmillan were dismayed by the damage Churchill's support for the King had done to the Arms and the Covenant Movement. Churchill himself later wrote \"I was myself so smitten in public opinion that it was the almost universal view that my political life was at last ended.\" Historians are divided about Churchill's motives in his support for Edward VIII. Some such as A. J. P. Taylor see it as being an attempt to 'overthrow the government of feeble men'. Others such as R. R. James see Churchill's motives as entirely honourable and disinterested, that he felt deeply for the King. \n\nReturn from exile\n\nChurchill later sought to portray himself as an isolated voice warning of the need to rearm against Germany. While it is true that he had a small following in the House of Commons during much of the 1930s, he was given privileged information by some elements within the Government, particularly by disaffected civil servants in the War Ministry. The \"Churchill group\" in the latter half of the decade consisted of only himself, Duncan Sandys and Brendan Bracken. It was isolated from the other main factions within the Conservative Party pressing for faster rearmament and a stronger foreign policy; one meeting of anti-Chamberlain forces decided that Churchill would make a good Minister of Supply. \n\nEven during the time Churchill was campaigning against Indian independence, he received official and otherwise secret information. From 1932, Churchill's neighbour, Major Desmond Morton, with Ramsay MacDonald's approval, gave Churchill information on German air power. From 1930 onwards Morton headed a department of the Committee of Imperial Defence charged with researching the defence preparedness of other nations. Lord Swinton as Secretary of State for Air, and with Baldwin's approval, in 1934 gave Churchill access to official and otherwise secret information.\n\nSwinton did so, knowing Churchill would remain a critic of the government, but believing that an informed critic was better than one relying on rumour and hearsay. Churchill was a fierce critic of Neville Chamberlain's appeasement of Adolf Hitler and in private letters to Lloyd George (13 August) and Lord Moyne (11 September) just before the Munich Agreement, he wrote that the government were faced with a choice between \"war and shame\" and that having chosen shame would later get war on less favourable terms. \n\nFirst term as prime minister (1940–45)\n\nReturn to the Admiralty\n\nOn 3 September 1939, the day Britain declared war on Germany following the outbreak of the Second World War, Churchill was appointed First Lord of the Admiralty, the same position he had held during the first part of the First World War. As such he was a member of Chamberlain's small War Cabinet. \n\nIn this position, he proved to be one of the highest-profile ministers during the so-called \"Phoney War,\" when the only noticeable action was at sea and the USSR's attack on Finland. Churchill advocated the pre-emptive occupation of the neutral Norwegian iron-ore port of Narvik and the iron mines in Kiruna, Sweden, early in the war. However, Chamberlain and the rest of the War Cabinet disagreed, and the operation was delayed until the successful German invasion of Norway.\n\n\"We shall never surrender\"\n\nOn 10 May 1940, hours before the German invasion of France by a lightning advance through the Low Countries, it became clear that, following failure in Norway, the country had no confidence in Chamberlain's prosecution of the war and so Chamberlain resigned. The commonly accepted version of events states that Lord Halifax turned down the post of prime minister because he believed he could not govern effectively as a member of the House of Lords instead of the House of Commons. Although the prime minister does not traditionally advise the King on the former's successor, Chamberlain wanted someone who would command the support of all three major parties in the House of Commons. A meeting between Chamberlain, Halifax, Churchill and David Margesson, the government Chief Whip, led to the recommendation of Churchill, and, as constitutional monarch, George VI asked Churchill to be prime minister. Churchill's first act was to write to Chamberlain to thank him for his support. \n\nIn June 1940, to encourage the neutral Irish state to join with the Allies, Churchill indicated to the Taoiseach Éamon de Valera that the United Kingdom would push for Irish unity, but believing that Churchill could not deliver, de Valera declined the offer. The British did not inform the Government of Northern Ireland that they had made the offer to the Dublin government, and De Valera's rejection was not publicised until 1970.\n\nChurchill was still unpopular among many Conservatives and the Establishment, who opposed his replacing Chamberlain; the former prime minister remained party leader until dying in November. Churchill probably could not have won a majority in any of the political parties in the House of Commons, and the House of Lords was completely silent when it learned of his appointment. An American visitor reported in late 1940 that, \"Everywhere I went in London people admired [Churchill's] energy, his courage, his singleness of purpose. People said they didn't know what Britain would do without him. He was obviously respected. But no one felt he would be Prime Minister after the war. He was simply the right man in the right job at the right time. The time being the time of a desperate war with Britain's enemies.\" \n\nAn element of British public and political sentiment favoured a negotiated peace with Germany, among them Halifax as Foreign Secretary, but Churchill refused to consider an armistice. Although at times personally pessimistic about Britain's chances for victory—Churchill told Hastings Ismay on 12 June 1940 that \"[y]ou and I will be dead in three months' time\" —his use of rhetoric hardened public opinion against a peaceful resolution and prepared the British for a long war. Coining the general term for the upcoming battle, Churchill stated in his \"finest hour\" speech to the House of Commons on 18 June, \"I expect that the Battle of Britain is about to begin.\" By refusing an armistice with Germany, Churchill kept resistance alive in the British Empire and created the basis for the later Allied counter-attacks of 1942–45, with Britain serving as a platform for the supply of the Soviet Union and the liberation of Western Europe.\n\nIn response to previous criticisms that there had been no clear single minister in charge of the prosecution of the war Churchill created and took the additional position of Minister of Defence, making him the most powerful wartime prime minister in British history. He immediately put his friend and confidant, industrialist and newspaper baron Lord Beaverbrook, in charge of aircraft production. It was Beaverbrook's business acumen that allowed Britain to quickly gear up aircraft production and engineering, which eventually made the difference in the war. \n\nThe war energised Churchill, who was 65 years old when he became Prime Minister. An American journalist wrote in 1941: \"The responsibilities which are his now must be greater than those carried by any other human being on earth. One would think such a weight would have a crushing effect upon him. Not at all. The last time I saw him, while the Battle of Britain was still raging, he looked twenty years younger than before the war began ... His uplifted spirit is transmitted to the people\". Churchill's speeches were a great inspiration to the embattled British. His first as prime minister was the famous, \"I have nothing to offer but blood, toil, tears, and sweat\" speech. One historian has called its effect on Parliament as \"electrifying\". The House of Commons that had ignored him during the 1930s \"was now listening, and cheering\". Churchill followed that closely with two other equally famous ones, given just before the Battle of Britain. One included the words:\n\nThe other:\n\nAt the height of the Battle of Britain, his bracing survey of the situation included the memorable line \"Never in the field of human conflict was so much owed by so many to so few\", which engendered the enduring nickname The Few for the RAF fighter pilots who won it. He first spoke these famous words upon his exit from No. 11 Group's underground bunker at RAF Uxbridge, now known as the Battle of Britain Bunker on 16 August 1940. One of his most memorable war speeches came on 10 November 1942 at the Lord Mayor's Luncheon at Mansion House in London, in response to the Allied victory at the Second Battle of El Alamein. Churchill stated:\n\nWithout having much in the way of sustenance or good news to offer the British people, he took a risk in deliberately choosing to emphasise the dangers instead.\n\n\"Rhetorical power\", wrote Churchill, \"is neither wholly bestowed, nor wholly acquired, but cultivated.\" Not all were impressed by his oratory. Robert Menzies, prime minister of Australia and himself a gifted phrase-maker, said of Churchill during the Second World War: \"His real tyrant is the glittering phrase so attractive to his mind that awkward facts have to give way.\" Another associate wrote: \"He is ... the slave of the words which his mind forms about ideas ... And he can convince himself of almost every truth if it is once allowed thus to start on its wild career through his rhetorical machinery.\" \n\nMental and physical health\n\nSince the appearance in 1966 of Lord Moran's memoir of his years as Churchill's doctor, with its claim that \"Black Dog\" was the name Churchill gave to \"the prolonged fits of depression from which he suffered\", many authors have suggested that throughout his life Churchill was a victim of, or at risk from, clinical depression. Formulated in this way, Churchill's mental health history contains unmistakable echoes of the seminal interpretation of Lord Moran's Black Dog revelations made by Dr Anthony Storr. In drawing so heavily on Moran for what he took to be the latter's totally reliable, first-hand clinical evidence of Churchill's lifelong struggle with \"prolonged and recurrent depression\" and its associated \"despair\", Storr produced a seemingly authoritative and persuasive diagnostic essay that, in the words of John Ramsden, \"strongly influenced all later accounts.\" \n\nHowever, Storr was not aware that Moran, as Moran's biographer Professor Richard Lovell has shown and contrary to the impression created in Moran's book, kept no diary, in the dictionary sense of the word, during his years as Churchill's doctor. Nor was Storr aware that Moran's book as published was a much rewritten account which mixed together Moran's contemporaneous jottings with later material acquired from other sources. As Wilfred Attenborough has demonstrated, the key Black Dog 'diary' entry for 14 August 1944 was an arbitrarily dated pastiche in which the explicit reference to Black Dog—the first of the few in the book (with an associated footnote definition of the term)—was taken, not from anything Churchill had said to Moran, but from much later claims made to Moran by Brendan Bracken (a non-clinician, of course) in 1958. Although seemingly unnoticed by Dr Storr and those he influenced, Moran later on in his book retracts his earlier suggestion, also derived from Brendan Bracken, that, towards the end of the Second World War, Churchill was succumbing to \"the inborn melancholia of the Churchill blood\"; also unnoticed by Storr et al., Moran, in his final chapter, states that Churchill, before the start of the First World War, \"had managed to extirpate bouts of depression from his system\". \n\nDespite the difficulties with Moran's book, the many illustrations it provides of a Churchill understandably plunged into temporary low mood by military defeats and other severely adverse developments constitute a compelling portrait of a great man reacting to, but not significantly impeded by, worry and overstrain, a compelling portrait that is entirely consistent with the portraits of others who worked closely with Churchill. Moreover, it can be readily deduced from Moran's book that Churchill did not receive medication for depression—the amphetamine that Moran prescribed for special occasions, especially for big speeches from the autumn of 1953 onwards, was to combat the effects of Churchill's stroke of that year. \n\nChurchill himself seems, in a long life, to have written about Black Dog on one occasion only: the reference, a backward-looking one, occurs in a private handwritten letter to Clementine Churchill dated July 1911 which reports the successful treatment of a relative's depression by a doctor in Germany. His ministerial circumstances at that date, the very limited treatments available for serious depression pre-1911, the fact of the relative's being \"complete cured\", and, not least, the evident deep interest Churchill took in the fact of the complete cure, can be shown to point to Churchill's pre-1911 Black Dog depression's having been a form of mild (i.e. non-psychotic) anxiety-depression, as that term is defined by Professor Edward Shorter. \n\nThere is serious doubt about the reliability of the evidential foundations of the dominant, essentially Storrian, perception that Churchill's mental health was an open-and-shut case of clinical depression. Moran himself leaned strongly in the direction of his patient's being \"by nature very apprehensive\"; close associates of Churchill have disputed the idea that apprehension was a defining feature of Churchill's temperament, although they readily concede that he was noticeably worried and anxious about some matters, especially in the buildup to important speeches in the House of Commons and elsewhere. And Churchill himself all but openly acknowledged in his book 'Painting as a Pastime' that he was prey to the \"worry and mental overstrain [experienced] by persons who, over prolonged periods, have to bear exceptional responsibilities and discharge duties upon a very large scale\". The fact that he found a remedy in painting and bricklaying is a strong indicator that the condition as he defined it did not amount to 'clinical depression', certainly not as that term was understood during the lifetimes of himself and Lord Moran. \n\nAccording to Lord Moran, during the war years Churchill sought solace in his tumbler of whisky and soda and his cigar. Churchill was also a very emotional man, unafraid to shed tears when appropriate. During some of his broadcast speeches it was noticed that he was trying to hold back the tears. Nevertheless, although the fall of Tobruk was, by Churchill's own account \"one of the heaviest blows\" he received during the war, there seem to have been no tears. Certainly, the next day Moran found him animated and vigorous. Field Marshal Alanbrooke, Chief of the Imperial General Staff, who had been present when President Roosevelt broke the news of the tragedy to Churchill, focused afterwards in his diary on the superbly well judged manner in which the President made his offer of immediate military assistance, despite Alanbrooke's being ever ready to highlight what he perceived to be Churchill's contradictory motivations and flawed character during the war. For example, in his diary entry for 10 September 1944:\n\nAlanbrooke, in the words of Paul Reid, \"was egalitarian: he criticized everybody, American and British\". \n\nChurchill's physical health became more fragile during the war, as shown by a mild heart attack he suffered in December 1941 at the White House and also in December 1943 when he contracted pneumonia. Despite this, he travelled over 100000 mi throughout the war to meet other national leaders. For security, he usually travelled using the alias Colonel Warden. \n\nRelations with the United States\n\nChurchill's good relationship with US President Franklin D. Roosevelt—between 1939 and 1945 they exchanged an estimated 1700 letters and telegrams and met 11 times; Churchill estimated that they had 120 days of close personal contact —helped secure vital food, oil and munitions via the North Atlantic shipping routes. It was for this reason that Churchill was relieved when Roosevelt was re-elected in 1940. Upon re-election, Roosevelt immediately set about implementing a new method of providing military hardware and shipping to Britain without the need for monetary payment. Roosevelt persuaded Congress that repayment for this immensely costly service would take the form of defending the US; and so Lend-Lease was born. Churchill had 12 strategic conferences with Roosevelt which covered the Atlantic Charter, Europe first strategy, the Declaration by the United Nations and other war policies.\nAfter Pearl Harbor was attacked, Churchill's first thought in anticipation of US help was, \"We have won the war!\" On 26 December 1941, Churchill addressed a joint meeting of the US Congress, asking of Germany and Japan, \"What kind of people do they think we are?\" Churchill initiated the Special Operations Executive (SOE) under Hugh Dalton's Ministry of Economic Warfare, which established, conducted and fostered covert, subversive and partisan operations in occupied territories with notable success; and also the Commandos which established the pattern for most of the world's current Special Forces. The Russians referred to him as the \"British Bulldog\".\n\nChurchill was party to treaties that would redraw post-Second World War European and Asian boundaries. These were discussed as early as 1943. At the Second Quebec Conference in 1944 he drafted and, together with Roosevelt, signed a less-harsh version of the original Morgenthau Plan, in which they pledged to convert Germany after its unconditional surrender \"into a country primarily agricultural and pastoral in its character.\" Proposals for European boundaries and settlements were officially agreed to by President Harry S. Truman, Churchill, and Joseph Stalin at Potsdam. Churchill's strong relationship with Harry Truman was also of great significance to both countries. While he clearly regretted the loss of his close friend and counterpart Roosevelt, Churchill was enormously supportive of Truman in his first days in office, calling him, \"the type of leader the world needs when it needs him most.\" \n\nRelations with the Soviet Union\n\nWhen Hitler invaded the Soviet Union, Winston Churchill, a vehement anti-communist, famously stated \"If Hitler invaded Hell, I would at least make a favourable reference to the Devil in the House of Commons,\" regarding his policy toward Stalin. Soon, British supplies and tanks were flowing to help the Soviet Union. \n\nThe Casablanca Conference, a meeting of Allied powers held in Casablanca, Morocco, on 14 January through 23 January 1943, produced what was to be known as the \"Casablanca Declaration\". In attendance were Churchill, Franklin Roosevelt and Charles de Gaulle. Joseph Stalin had bowed out, citing the need for his presence in the Soviet Union to attend to the Stalingrad crisis. It was in Casablanca that the Allies made a unified commitment to continue the war through to the \"unconditional surrender\" of the Axis powers. In private, however, Churchill did not fully subscribe to the doctrine of \"unconditional surrender,\" and was taken by surprise when Franklin Roosevelt announced this to the world as Allied consensus. \n\nThe settlement concerning the borders of Poland, that is, the boundary between Poland and the Soviet Union and between Germany and Poland, was viewed as a betrayal in Poland during the post-war years, as it was established against the views of the Polish government in exile. It was Winston Churchill, who tried to motivate Mikołajczyk, who was prime minister of the Polish government in exile, to accept Stalin's wishes, but Mikołajczyk refused. Churchill was convinced that the only way to alleviate tensions between the two populations was the transfer of people, to match the national borders.\n\nAs he expounded in the House of Commons on 15 December 1944, \"Expulsion is the method which, insofar as we have been able to see, will be the most satisfactory and lasting. There will be no mixture of populations to cause endless trouble ... A clean sweep will be made. I am not alarmed by these transferences, which are more possible in modern conditions.\" However the resulting expulsions of Germans were carried out in a way which resulted in much hardship and, according to a 1966 report by the West German Ministry of Refugees and Displaced Persons, the death of over 2.1 million. Churchill opposed the effective annexation of Poland by the Soviet Union and wrote bitterly about it in his books, but he was unable to prevent it at the conferences. \n\nDuring October 1944, he and Eden were in Moscow to meet with the Russian leadership. At this point, Russian forces were beginning to advance into various eastern European countries. Churchill held the view that until everything was formally and properly worked out at the Yalta conference, there had to be a temporary, war-time, working agreement with regard to who would run what. The most significant of these meetings was held on 9 October 1944 in the Kremlin between Churchill and Stalin. During the meeting, Poland and the Balkan problems were discussed.Resis, Albert. The Churchill-Stalin Secret \"Percentages\" Agreement on the Balkans, Moscow, October 1944. The American Historical Review, Vol. 83, No. 2. (April 1978), pp. 368–87 [http://www.jstor.org/pss/1862322 in JSTOR] Churchill told Stalin:\n\nStalin agreed to this Percentages agreement, ticking a piece of paper as he heard the translation. In 1958, five years after the account of this meeting was published (in The Second World War), authorities of the Soviet Union denied that Stalin accepted the \"imperialist proposal\".\n\nOne of the conclusions of the Yalta Conference was that the Allies would return all Soviet citizens that found themselves in the Allied zone to the Soviet Union. This immediately affected the Soviet prisoners of war liberated by the Allies, but was also extended to all Eastern European refugees. Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn called the Operation Keelhaul \"the last secret\" of the Second World War. The operation decided the fate of up to two million post-war refugees fleeing eastern Europe.\n\nDresden bombings controversy\n\nBetween 13–15 February 1945, British and US bombers attacked the German city of Dresden, which was crowded with German wounded and refugees. There were an unknown number of refugees in Dresden, so historians Matthias Neutzner, Götz Bergander and Frederick Taylor have used historical sources and deductive reasoning to estimate that the number of refugees in the city and surrounding suburbs was around 200,000 or less on the first night of the bombing. Because of the cultural importance of the city, and of the number of civilian casualties close to the end of the war, this remains one of the most controversial Western Allied actions of the war. Following the bombing Churchill stated in a top-secret telegram:\n\nOn reflection, under pressure from the Chiefs of Staff and in response to the views expressed by Sir Charles Portal (Chief of the Air Staff) and Sir Arthur Harris (AOC-in-C of RAF Bomber Command), among others, Churchill withdrew his memo and issued a new one. This final version of the memo completed on 1 April 1945, stated: \n\nUltimately, responsibility for the British part of the attack lay with Churchill, which is why he has been criticised for allowing the bombings to occur. German historian Jörg Friedrich claims that Churchill's decision was a \"war crime\", and writing in 2006 the philosopher A. C. Grayling questioned the whole strategic bombing campaign by the RAF, presenting the argument that although it was not a war crime it was a moral crime that undermines the Allies' contention that they fought a just war. On the other hand, it has also been asserted that Churchill's involvement in the bombing of Dresden was based on the strategic and tactical aspects of winning the war. The destruction of Dresden, while immense, was designed to expedite the defeat of Germany. As historian and journalist Max Hastings wrote in an article subtitled \"the Allied Bombing of Dresden\": \"I believe it is wrong to describe strategic bombing as a war crime, for this might be held to suggest some moral equivalence with the deeds of the Nazis. Bombing represented a sincere, albeit mistaken, attempt to bring about Germany's military defeat.\" British historian Frederick Taylor asserts that \"All sides bombed each other's cities during the war. Half a million Soviet citizens, for example, died from German bombing during the invasion and occupation of Russia. That's roughly equivalent to the number of German citizens who died from Allied raids.\" \n\nEnd of the Second World War \n\nIn June 1944, the Allied Forces invaded Normandy and pushed the Nazi forces back into Germany on a broad front over the coming year. After being attacked on three fronts by the Allies, and in spite of Allied failures, such as Operation Market Garden, and German counter-attacks, including the Battle of the Bulge, Germany was eventually defeated. On 7 May 1945 at the SHAEF headquarters in Rheims the Allies accepted Germany's surrender. On the same day in a BBC news flash John Snagge announced that 8 May would be Victory in Europe Day. On Victory in Europe Day, Churchill broadcast to the nation that Germany had surrendered and that a final cease fire on all fronts in Europe would come into effect at one minute past midnight that night. Afterwards, Churchill told a huge crowd in Whitehall: \"This is your victory.\" The people shouted: \"No, it is yours\", and Churchill then conducted them in the singing of \"Land of Hope and Glory\". In the evening he made another broadcast to the nation asserting the defeat of Japan in the coming months. The Japanese later surrendered on 15 August 1945.\n\nSoon after VE day there came a dispute with Britain over French mandates Syria and Lebanon known as the Levant which quickly developed into a major diplomatic incident. In May, Charles de Gaulle had sent more French troops to re-establish their presence provoking an outbreak of nationalism. On 20 May, French troops opened fire on demonstrators in Damascus with artillery and dropped bombs from the air. Finally, on 31 May, with the death toll exceeding a thousand Syrians Churchill decided to act and sent de Gaulle an ultimatum saying, \"In order to avoid a collision between British and French forces, we request you immediately to order French troops to cease fire and withdraw to their barracks\". This was ignored by both De Gaulle and the French forces and thus Churchill ordered British troops and armoured cars under General Bernard Paget to invade Syria from nearby Transjordan. The invasion went ahead and the British swiftly moved in cutting the French General Fernand Oliva-Roget's telephone line with his base at Beirut. Eventually, heavily outnumbered, Oliva-Roget ordered his men back to their bases near the coast who were then escorted by the British. A furious row then broke out between Britain and France.\n\nChurchill's relationship with de Gaulle was at this time rock bottom in spite of his efforts to preserve French interests at Yalta and a visit to Paris the previous year. In January he told a colleague that he believed that de Gaulle was \"a great danger to peace and for Great Britain. After five years of experience, I am convinced that he is the worst enemy of France in her troubles ... he is one of the greatest dangers to European peace.... I am sure that in the long run no understanding will be reached with General de Gaulle\". In France, there were accusations that Britain had armed the demonstrators and De Gaulle raged against 'Churchill's ultimatum', saying that \"the whole thing stank of oil\".\n\nAs Europe celebrated peace at the end of six years of war, Churchill was concerned with the possibility that the celebrations would soon be brutally interrupted. He concluded that the UK and the US must anticipate the Red Army ignoring previously agreed frontiers and agreements in Europe, and prepare to \"impose upon Russia the will of the United States and the British Empire.\" According to the Operation Unthinkable plan ordered by Churchill and developed by the British Armed Forces, the Third World War could have started on 1 July 1945 with a sudden attack against the allied Soviet troops. The plan was rejected by the British Chiefs of Staff Committee as militarily unfeasible.\n\nIn opposition, 1945–51\n\nCaretaker government and 1945 election\n\nWith a general election looming (there had been none for almost a decade), and with the Labour Ministers refusing to continue the wartime coalition, Churchill resigned as Prime Minister on 23 May. Later that day, he accepted the King's invitation to form a new government, known officially as the National Government, like the Conservative-dominated coalition of the 1930s, but in practice known as the Churchill caretaker ministry. The government contained Conservatives, National Liberals and a few non-party figures such as Sir John Anderson and Lord Woolton, but not Labour or Archibald Sinclair's Official Liberals. Although Churchill continued to carry out the functions of Prime Minister, including exchanging messages with the US administration about the upcoming Potsdam Conference, he was not formally reappointed until 28 May. \n\nAlthough polling day was 5 July, the results of the 1945 election did not become known until 26 July, owing to the need to collect the votes of those serving overseas. Clementine, who together with his daughter Mary had been at the count at Churchill's constituency in Essex (although unopposed by the major parties, Churchill had been returned with a much-reduced majority against an independent candidate) returned to meet her husband for lunch. To her suggestion that election defeat might be \"a blessing in disguise\" he retorted that \"at the moment it seems very effectively disguised\". That afternoon Churchill's doctor Lord Moran commiserated with him on the \"ingratitude\" of the British public, to which Churchill replied \"I wouldn't call it that. They have had a very hard time\". Having lost the election, despite enjoying much support amongst the British population, he resigned as Prime Minister that evening, this time handing over to a Labour Government. Many reasons for his defeat have been given, key among them being that a desire for post-war reform was widespread amongst the population and that the man who had led Britain in war was not seen as the man to lead the nation in peace. Although the Conservative Party was unpopular, many electors appear to have wanted Churchill to continue as Prime Minister whatever the outcome, or to have wrongly believed that this would be possible. \n\nOn the morning of 27 July, Churchill held a farewell Cabinet. On the way out of the Cabinet Room he told Eden \"Thirty years of my life have been passed in this room. I shall never sit in it again. You will, but I shall not\". However, contrary to expectations, Churchill did not hand over the Conservative leadership to Anthony Eden, who became his deputy but who was disinclined to challenge his leadership. It would be another decade before Churchill finally did hand over the reins. \n\nOpposition leader\n\nFor six years he was to serve as the Leader of the Opposition. During these years Churchill continued to influence world affairs. During his 1946 trip to the United States, Churchill famously lost a lot of money in a poker game with Harry Truman and his advisors. (He also liked to play Bezique, which he learned while serving in the Boer War.)\n\nDuring this trip he gave his Iron Curtain speech about the USSR and the creation of the Eastern Bloc. Speaking on 5 March 1946 at Westminster College in Fulton, Missouri, he declared:\n\nChurchill told the Irish Ambassador to London in 1946 \"I said a few words in parliament the other day about your country because I still hope for a united Ireland. You must get those fellows in the north in, though; you can't do it by force. There is not, and never was, any bitterness in my heart towards your country.\" He later said \"You know I have had many invitations to visit Ulster but I have refused them all. I don't want to go there at all, I would much rather go to southern Ireland. Maybe I'll buy another horse with an entry in the Irish Derby.\" \n\nHe continued to lead his party after losing the 1950 general election.\n\nEuropean unity\n\nIn the summer of 1930, inspired by the ideas being floated by Aristide Briand and by his recent tour of the US in the autumn of 1929, Churchill wrote an article lamenting the instability which had been caused by the independence of Poland and the disintegration of Austria-Hungary into petty states, and called for a \"United States of Europe\", although he wrote that Britain was \"with Europe but not of it\". \n\nIdeas about closer European union continued to circulate, driven by Paul-Henri Spaak, from 1942 onwards. As early as March 1943 a Churchill speech on postwar reconstruction annoyed the US administration not only by not mentioning China as a great power but by proposing a purely European \"Council of Europe\". Harry Hopkins passed on President Roosevelt's concerns, warning Eden that it would \"give free ammunition to (US) isolationists\" who might propose an American \"regional council\". Churchill urged Eden, on a visit to the US at the time, to \"listen politely\" but give \"no countenance\" to Roosevelt's proposals for the US, UK, USSR and Chiang Kai-Shek's China to act together to enforce \"Global Collective Security\" with the Japanese and French Empires taken into international trusteeship. \n\nNow out of office, Churchill gave a speech at Zurich on 19 September 1946 in which he called for \"a kind of United States of Europe\" centred around a Franco-German partnership, with Britain and the Commonwealth, and perhaps the US, as \"friends and sponsors of the new Europe\". \"The Times\" wrote of him \"startling the world\" with \"outrageous propositions\" and warned that there was as yet little appetite for such unity, and that he appeared to be assuming a permanent division between Eastern and Western Europe, and urged \"more humdrum\" economic agreements. The speech was praised by Leo Amery and by Count Coudenhove-Kalergi who wrote that it would galvanise governments into action. \n\nChurchill expressed similar sentiments at a meeting of the Primrose League at the Albert Hall on 18 May 1947. He declared \"let Europe arise\" but was \"absolutely clear\" that \"we shall allow no wedge to be driven between Britain and the United States\". Churchill's speeches helped to encourage the foundation of the Council of Europe. \n\nIn June 1950, Churchill was strongly critical of the Attlee Government's failure to send British representatives to Paris (to discuss the Schuman Plan for setting up the European Coal and Steel Community), declaring that les absents ont toujours tort and calling it \"a squalid attitude\" which \"derange(d) the balance of Europe\", and risked Germany dominating the new grouping. He called for world unity through the UN (against the backdrop of the communist invasion of South Korea), whilst stressing that Britain was uniquely placed to exert leadership through her links to the Commonwealth, the US and Europe. However, Churchill did not want Britain to actually join any federal grouping. Jenkins, p. 810 and pp. 819–14 In September 1951 a declaration of the American, French and British foreign ministers welcomed the Schuman plan, stressing that it would revive economic growth and encourage the development of a democratic Germany, part of the Atlantic community. \n\nAfter returning as Prime Minister, Churchill issued a note for the Cabinet on 29 November 1951. He listed British Foreign Policy priorities as Commonwealth unity and consolidation, \"fraternal association\" of the English-speaking world (i.e. the Commonwealth and the US), then thirdly \"United Europe, to which we are a closely—and specially-related ally and friend … (it is) only when plans for uniting Europe take a federal form that we cannot take part, because we cannot subordinate ourselves or the control of British policy to federal authorities\". \n\nIn 1956, after retiring as Prime Minister, Churchill went to Aachen to receive the Charlemagne Prize for his contribution to European Unity. Churchill is today listed as one of the \"Founding fathers of the European Union\", a claim which in Boris Johnson's view contains \"a very large dollop of truth\". However, Johnson suggests that if Churchill had been in power in 1950 he might have led Europe down the path of inter-governmental cooperation rather than federalism.\n\nIn July 1962 Field-Marshal Montgomery told the press that the aged Churchill, whom he had just visited in hospital where he was being treated for a broken hip, was opposed to Macmillan’s negotiations for Britain to enter the EEC (which would, in the event, be vetoed by the French President, General de Gaulle, the following January). Churchill told his granddaughter Edwina that Montgomery’s behaviour in leaking a private conversation was “monstrous”. \n\nSecond term as prime minister (1951–55)\n\nReturn to government\n\nDomestic policy\n\nAfter the general election of October 1951, Churchill again became prime minister, and his second government lasted until his resignation in April 1955. He also held the office of Minister of Defence from October 1951 until 1 March 1952, when he handed the portfolio to Field Marshal Alexander. \n\nIn domestic affairs, various reforms were introduced such as the Mines and Quarries Act of 1954 and the Housing Repairs and Rent Act of 1955. The former measure consolidated legislation dealing with the employment of young persons and women in mines and quarries, together with safety, health, and welfare. The latter measure extended previous housing Acts, and set out details in defining housing units as \"unfit for human habitation.\" In addition, tax allowances were raised, construction of council housing was accelerated, and pensions and national assistance benefits were increased. Controversially, however, charges for prescription medicines were introduced. \n\nHousing was an issue the Conservatives were widely recognised to have made their own, after the Churchill government of the early 1950s, with Harold Macmillan as Minister for Housing, gave housing construction far higher political priority than it had received under the Attlee administration (where housing had been attached to the portfolio of Health Minister Aneurin Bevan, whose attention was concentrated on his responsibilities for the National Health Service). Macmillan had accepted Churchill's challenge to meet the latter's ambitious public commitment to build 300,000 new homes a year, and achieved the target a year ahead of schedule. \n\nColonial affairs\n\nKenya and Malaya\n\nChurchill's domestic priorities in his last government were overshadowed by a series of foreign policy crises, which were partly the result of the continued decline of British military and imperial prestige and power. Being a strong proponent of Britain as an international power, Churchill would often meet such moments with direct action. One example was his dispatch of British troops to Kenya to deal with the Mau Mau rebellion. Trying to retain what he could of the Empire, he once stated that, \"I will not preside over a dismemberment.\"\n\nThis was followed by events which became known as the Malayan Emergency. In Malaya, a rebellion against British rule had been in progress since 1948. Once again, Churchill's government inherited a crisis, and Churchill chose to use direct military action against those in rebellion while attempting to build an alliance with those who were not. While the rebellion was slowly being defeated, it was equally clear that colonial rule from Britain was no longer sustainable.\n\nRelations with the US and the quest for a summit\n\nIn the early 1950s Britain was still attempting to remain a third major power on the world stage. This was \"the time when Britain stood up to the United States as strongly as she was ever to do in the postwar world\". However, Churchill devoted much of his time in office to Anglo-American relations and attempted to maintain the Special Relationship. He made four official transatlantic visits to America during his second term as prime minister. \n\nChurchill and Eden visited Washington in January 1952. The Truman Administration was supporting the plans for a European Defence Community (EDC), hoping that this would allow controlled West German rearmament and enable American troop reductions. Churchill affected to believe that the proposed EDC would not work, scoffing at the supposed difficulties of language. Churchill asked in vain for a US military commitment to support Britain's position in Egypt and Middle East (where the Truman Administration had recently pressured Attlee not to intervene against Mossadeq in Iran); this did not meet with American approval—the US expected British support to fight communism in Korea, but saw any US commitment to the Middle East as supporting British imperialism, and were unpersuaded that this would help prevent pro-Soviet regimes from coming to power. \n\nBy early 1953, the Cabinet's Foreign Policy priority was Egypt and nationalist, anti-imperialist Egyptian Revolution. After Stalin's death Churchill, the last of the wartime Big Three, wrote to Dwight D. Eisenhower, who had just assumed office as US President, on 11 March proposing a summit meeting with the Soviets; Eisenhower wrote back pouring cold water on the suggestions as the Soviets might use it for propaganda. \n\nSome of Churchill's colleagues hoped that he might retire after the Queen's Coronation in May 1953. Eden wrote to his son on 10 April \"W gets daily older & is apt to ... waste a great deal of time ... the outside world has little idea how difficult that becomes. Please make me retire before I am 80!\" However, Eden's serious illness (he nearly died after a series of botched operations on his bile duct) allowed Churchill to take control of foreign affairs from April 1953. \n\nAfter further discouragement from President Eisenhower (this was the McCarthy era in the US, in which Secretary of State Dulles took a Manichean view of the Cold War), Churchill announced his plans in the House of Commons on 11 May. The US Embassy in London noted that this was a rare occasion on which Churchill did not mention Anglo-American solidarity in a speech. Ministers like Lord Salisbury (acting Foreign Secretary) and Nutting were concerned at the irritation caused to the Americans and the French, although Selwyn Lloyd supported Churchill's initiative, as did most Conservatives. In his diary a year later, Eden wrote of Churchill's actions with fury. \n\nStroke and resignation\n\nChurchill had suffered a mild stroke while on holiday in the south of France in the summer of 1949. By the time he formed his next government he was slowing down noticeably enough for George VI, as early as December 1951, to consider inviting Churchill to retire in the following year in favour of Anthony Eden, but it is not recorded if the king made that approach before his own death in February 1952.\n\nThe strain of carrying the Premiership and Foreign Office contributed to his second stroke at 10 Downing Street after dinner on the evening of 23 June 1953. Despite being partially paralysed down one side, he presided over a Cabinet meeting the next morning without anybody noticing his incapacity. Thereafter his condition deteriorated, and it was thought that he might not survive the weekend. Had Eden been fit, Churchill's premiership would most likely have been over. News of this was kept from the public and from Parliament, who were told that Churchill was suffering from exhaustion. He went to his country home, Chartwell, to recuperate, and by the end of June he astonished his doctors by being able, dripping with perspiration, to lift himself upright from his chair. He joked that news of his illness had chased the trial of the serial killer John Christie off the front pages. \n\nChurchill was still keen to pursue a meeting with the Soviets and was open to the idea of a reunified Germany. He refused to condemn the Soviet crushing of East Germany, commenting on 10 July 1953 that \"The Russians were surprisingly patient about the disturbances in East Germany\". He thought this might have been the reason for the removal of Beria. Churchill returned to public life in October 1953 to make a speech at the Conservative Party conference at Margate. In December 1953 Churchill met Eisenhower in Bermuda. \n\nChurchill was cross about friction between Eden and Dulles (June 1954). On the trip home from another Anglo-American conference, the diplomat Pierson Dixon compared US actions in Guatemala to Soviet policy in Korea and Greece, causing Churchill to retort that Guatemala was a \"bloody place\" he'd \"never heard of\". Churchill was still keen for a trip to Moscow, and threatened to resign, provoking a crisis in the Cabinet when Lord Salisbury threatened to resign if Churchill had his way. In the end the Soviets proposed a five power conference, which did not meet until after Churchill had retired. By the autumn Churchill was again postponing his resignation. Eden, now partly recovered from his operations, became a major figure on the world stage in 1954, helping to negotiate peace in Indo-China, an agreement with Egypt and to broker an agreement between the countries of Western Europe after the French rejection of the EDC. \n\nAware that he was slowing down both physically and mentally, Churchill at last retired as prime minister in 1955 and was succeeded by Anthony Eden. He suffered another mild stroke in December 1956.\n\nRetirement and death (1955–65)\n\nElizabeth II offered to create Churchill Duke of London, but this was declined as a result of the objections of his son Randolph, who would have inherited the title on his father's death. He did, however, accept a knighthood as Garter Knight. After leaving the premiership, Churchill spent less time in parliament until he stood down at the 1964 general election.\nChurchill spent most of his retirement at Chartwell and at his home in Hyde Park Gate, in London, and became a habitué of high society on the French Riviera. \n\nAlthough publicly supportive, Churchill was privately scathing about Eden's Suez Invasion. His wife believed that he had made a number of visits to the US in the following years in an attempt to help repair Anglo-American relations. \n\nBy the time of the 1959 general election Churchill seldom attended the House of Commons. Despite the Conservative landslide, his own majority fell by more than a thousand. It is widely believed that as his mental and physical faculties decayed, he began to lose the battle he had supposedly fought for so long against the so-called \"Black Dog\" of depression. However, as was suggested in a previous section of this article, the nature, incidence and severity of Churchill's Black Dog is problematical. Anthony Montague Browne, Personal Secretary to Churchill during the latter's final ten years of life, wrote that he never heard Churchill make reference to Black Dog, and he vigorously contested the suggestion that the former prime minister, his health progressively ravaged by advanced old age, multiple strokes and other serious illness, was, independently of circumstances, afflicted also by inherent depression. \n\nThere was speculation that Churchill may have had Alzheimer's disease in his last years, although others maintain that his reduced mental capacity was simply the cumulative result of the ten strokes and the increasing deafness he suffered from during the period 1949–1963. In 1963, US President John F. Kennedy, acting under authorisation granted by an Act of Congress, proclaimed him an Honorary Citizen of the United States, but he was unable to attend the White House ceremony.\n\nDespite poor health, Churchill still tried to remain active in public life, and on St George's Day 1964, sent a message of congratulations to the surviving veterans of the 1918 Zeebrugge Raid who were attending a service of commemoration in Deal, Kent, where two casualties of the raid were buried in the Hamilton Road Cemetery. On 15 January 1965, Churchill suffered a severe stroke that left him gravely ill. He died at his London home nine days later, at age 90, on the morning of Sunday 24 January 1965, 70 years to the day after his father's death.Jenkins, p. 911\n\nFuneral\n\nChurchill's funeral plan had been initiated in 1953, after he suffered a major stroke, under the name Operation Hope Not. The purpose was to commemorate Churchill \"on a scale befitting his position in history\", as the Queen declared. The funeral was the largest state funeral in world history up to that time, with representatives from 112 nations; only China did not send an emissary. In Europe 350 million people, including 25 million in Britain, watched the funeral on television, and only Ireland did not broadcast it live. By decree of the Queen, his body lay in state in Westminster Hall for three days and a state funeral service was held at St Paul's Cathedral on 30 January 1965. One of the largest assemblages of statesmen in the world was gathered for the service. Unusually, the Queen attended the funeral because Churchill was the first commoner since William Gladstone to lie-in-State. As Churchill's lead-lined coffin passed up the River Thames from Tower Pier to Festival Pier on the , dockers lowered their crane jibs in a salute. \n\nThe Royal Artillery fired the 19-gun salute due a head of government, and the RAF staged a fly-by of sixteen English Electric Lightning fighters. The coffin was then taken the short distance to Waterloo station where it was loaded onto a specially prepared and painted carriage as part of the funeral train for its rail journey to , seven miles north-west of Oxford. \nThe funeral train of Pullman coaches carrying his family mourners was hauled by Battle of Britain class steam locomotive No. 34051 Winston Churchill. In the fields along the route, and at the stations through which the train passed, thousands stood in silence to pay their last respects. At Churchill's request, he was buried in the family plot at St Martin's Church, Bladon, near Woodstock, not far from his birthplace at Blenheim Palace. Churchill's funeral van—former Southern Railway van S2464S—is now part of a preservation project with the Swanage Railway, having been repatriated to the UK in 2007 from the US, to where it had been exported in 1965. \n\nLater in 1965 a memorial to Churchill, cut by the engraver Reynolds Stone, was placed in Westminster Abbey. \n\nArtist, historian, and writer\n\nChurchill was an accomplished artist and took great pleasure in painting, especially after his resignation as First Lord of the Admiralty in 1915. He found a haven in art to overcome the spells of depression which he suffered throughout his life. As William Rees-Mogg has stated, \"In his own life, he had to suffer the 'black dog' of depression. In his landscapes and still lives there is no sign of depression.\" Churchill was persuaded and taught to paint by his artist friend, Paul Maze, whom he met during the First World War. Maze was a great influence on Churchill's painting and became a lifelong painting companion. \n\nChurchill's best known paintings are impressionist landscapes, many of which were painted while on holiday in the South of France, Egypt or Morocco. Using the pseudonym \"Charles Morin\", he continued his hobby throughout his life and painted hundreds of paintings, many of which are on show in the studio at Chartwell as well as private collections. Most of his paintings are oil-based and feature landscapes, but he also did a number of interior scenes and portraits. In 1925 Lord Duveen, Kenneth Clark, and Oswald Birley selected his Winter Sunshine as the prize winner in a contest for anonymous amateur artists. Due to obvious time constraints, Churchill attempted only one painting during the Second World War. He completed the painting from the tower of the Villa Taylor in Marrakesh. \n\nSome of his paintings can today be seen in the Wendy and Emery Reves Collection at the Dallas Museum of Art. Emery Reves was Churchill's American publisher, as well as a close friend and Churchill often visited Emery and his wife at their villa, La Pausa, in the South of France, which had originally been built in 1927 for Gabrielle \"Coco\" Chanel by her lover Bendor, 2nd Duke of Westminster. The villa was rebuilt within the museum in 1985 with a gallery of Churchill paintings and memorabilia. \n\nDespite his lifelong fame and upper-class origins, Churchill always struggled to keep his income at a level which would fund his extravagant lifestyle. MPs before 1946 received only a nominal salary (and in fact did not receive anything at all until the Parliament Act 1911) so many had secondary professions from which to earn a living. From his first book in 1898 until his second stint as Prime Minister, Churchill's income while out of office was almost entirely made from writing books and opinion pieces for newspapers and magazines. The most famous of his newspaper articles are those that appeared in the Evening Standard from 1936 warning of the rise of Hitler and the danger of the policy of appeasement.\n\nChurchill was also a prolific writer of books, under the pen name \"Winston S. Churchill\", which he used by agreement with the American novelist of the same name to avoid confusion between their works. His output included a novel, two biographies, three volumes of memoirs, and several histories. He was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1953 \"for his mastery of historical and biographical description as well as for brilliant oratory in defending exalted human values\". Two of his most famous works, published after his first premiership brought his international fame to new heights, were his six-volume memoir The Second World War and A History of the English-Speaking Peoples; a four-volume history covering the period from Caesar's invasions of Britain (55 BC) to the beginning of the First World War (1914). A number of volumes of Churchill's speeches were also published. the first of which, Into Battle, was published in the United States under the title Blood, Sweat and Tears, and was included in Life Magazine's list of the 100 outstanding books of 1924–1944. \n\nChurchill was also an amateur bricklayer, constructing buildings and garden walls at his country home at Chartwell, where he also bred butterflies. As part of this hobby Churchill joined the Amalgamated Union of Building Trade Workers, but was expelled because of his membership of the Conservative Party.\n\nHonours\n\nIn addition to the honour of a state funeral, Churchill received a wide range of awards and other honours, including the following, chronologically:\n* Churchill was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1941\n* In 1945, while Churchill was mentioned by Halvdan Koht as one of seven appropriate candidates for the Nobel Prize in Peace, the nomination went to Cordell Hull. \n* In 1953, Churchill received the Nobel Prize in Literature for his numerous published works, especially his six-volume set The Second World War.\n* In a BBC poll of the \"100 Greatest Britons\" in 2002, he was proclaimed \"The Greatest of Them All\" based on approximately a million votes from BBC viewers. Churchill was also rated as one of the most influential leaders in history by TIME. Churchill College, Cambridge was founded in 1958 in his honour.\n* In 1963, Churchill was named an Honorary Citizen of the United States by Public Law 88-6/H.R. 4374 (approved/enacted 9 April 1963). \n* On 29 November 1995, during a visit to the United Kingdom, President Bill Clinton of the United States announced to both Houses of Parliament that an would be named the . This was the first United States warship to be named after a non-citizen of the United States since 1975.\n\nHonorary degrees\n\n* University of Rochester, Rochester, New York, United States (LLD) in 1941 \n* Harvard University in Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States (LLD) in 1943\n* McGill University in Montreal, Canada (LLD) in 1944\n* Westminster College in Fulton, Missouri, United States 5 March 1946\n* Leiden University in Leiden, Netherlands, honorary doctorate in 1946 \n* University of Miami in Miami, Florida, United States in 1947\n* University of Copenhagen in Copenhagen, Denmark (PhD) in 1950\n\nAncestry\n\nPortrayal in film and television\n\nChurchill has been portrayed in film and television on multiple occasions. Portrayals of Churchill include Dudley Field Malone (An American in Paris, 1951); Peter Sellers (The Man Who Never Was, 1956); Richard Burton (Winston Churchill: The Valiant Years, 1961); Simon Ward (Young Winston, 1972); Warren Clarke (Jennie: Lady Randolph Churchill, 1974); Wensley Pithey (Edward and Mrs Simpson, 1978); Timothy West (Churchill and the Generals, 1979, Hiroshima, 1995); William Hootkins (The Life and Times of David Lloyd George, 1981); Robert Hardy (Winston Churchill: The Wilderness Years, 1981, War and Remembrance, 1989); Bob Hoskins (World War II: When Lions Roared 1994); Albert Finney (The Gathering Storm 2002); Ian Mune (Ike: Countdown to D-Day, 2004); Rod Taylor (Inglourious Basterds, 2009); Brendan Gleeson (Into the Storm, 2009); Ian McNeice (Doctor Who: \"Victory of the Daleks\"; \"The Pandorica Opens\"; \"The Wedding of River Song\" in 2010 and 2011); Timothy Spall (The King's Speech, 2010),; Michael Gambon (Churchill's Secret, 2016) and John Lithgow (The Crown, 2016)." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Neville Chaimberlain", "Arthur Neville Chamberlain", "Neville Chamberlaine", "Arthur neville chamberlain", "Neville Chamberlin", "Neville Chamberlain", "Chamberlain, Neville", "Neville chamberlain", "Nevil Chamberlain" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "nevil chamberlain", "neville chaimberlain", "neville chamberlain", "neville chamberlin", "neville chamberlaine", "arthur neville chamberlain", "chamberlain neville" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "neville chamberlain", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Neville Chamberlain" }
How was Oflag IVC prison camp better known?	tc_505	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Oflag_IV-C.txt", "Prisoner_of_war.txt" ], "title": [ "Oflag IV-C", "Prisoner of war" ], "wiki_context": [ "Oflag IV-C, often referred to as Colditz Castle because of its location, was one of the most noted German Army prisoner-of-war camps for captured enemy officers during World War II; Oflag is a shortening of Offizierslager, meaning \"officers camp\". It was located in Colditz Castle situated on a cliff overlooking the town of Colditz in Saxony.\n\nColditz Castle as a POW camp\n\nThis thousand year old fortress was in the heart of Hitler's Reich, some four hundred miles (650 km) from any frontier not under Nazi control. Its outer walls were seven feet (two meters) thick and the cliff on which it was built had a sheer drop of some two hundred and fifty feet (75meters) to the River Mulde below.[http://uktv.co.uk/yesterday/item/aid/595034 \"The Story of Colditz\"]\n\nTime line\n\n* 1939: The first prisoners arrived in November 1939; they were 140 Polish officers from the September Campaign who were regarded as escape risks. However, later most of them were transferred to other Oflags.\n* 1940: In October, Donald Middleton, Keith Milne, and Howard Wardle (a Canadian who joined the RAF just before the war) became the first British prisoners at Colditz.\nOn 7November, six British officers, the \"Laufen Six\", named after the camp (Oflag VII) from which they made their first escape, arrived: Harry Elliott, Rupert Barry (later Sir Rupert Barry), Pat Reid, Dick Howe, Peter Allan, and Kenneth Lockwood. They were soon joined by a handful of British Army officers and later by Belgian officers. By Christmas 1940 there were 60 Polish officers, 12 Belgians, 50 French, and 30 British, a total of no more than 200 with their orderlies. \n 1941: February, 200 French officers arrived. A number of the French demanded that French Jewish officers be segregated from them and the camp commander obliged; they were moved to the attics. By the end of July 1941, there were more than 500 officers: over 250 French, 150 Polish, 50 British and Commonwealth, 2 Yugoslavian. In April 1941, a French officer, Alain Le Ray, become the first prisoner ever to escape from the Colditz Castle.\n* On 24 July, 68 Dutch officers arrived, mostly members of the Royal Dutch East Indies Army, who had refused to sign a declaration that they would take no part in the war against Germany. According to the German Security Officer, Captain Reinhold Eggers, the Dutch officers appeared to be model prisoners at first. Importantly for other internees in the camp, among the 68 Dutch was Hans Larive with his knowledge of the Singen route. This route into Switzerland was discovered by Larive in 1940 on his first escape attempt from an Oflag in Soest. Larive was caught at the Swiss border near Singen. The interrogating Gestapo officer was so confident the war would soon be won by Germany that he told Larive the safe way across the border near Singen. Larive did not forget and many prisoners later escaped using this route. \n* 13 August: Within days after their arrival, the Dutch escape officer, Captain Machiel van den Heuvel, planned and executed his first of many escape plans. On 13 August the first two Dutchmen escaped successfully from the castle followed by many more of which six officers made it to England. Afterwards a number of would-be escapees would borrow Dutch greatcoats as their disguise. When the Wehrmacht invaded the Netherlands they were short on material for uniforms, so they confiscated anything available. The coats in Dutch field grey in particular remained unchanged in colour, since it was similar to the tone already in use by the Germans, thus these greatcoats would be nearly identical with very minor alterations.\n\n* 1943: In May, the Wehrmacht High Command decided that Colditz should house only Americans and British, so in June the Dutch were moved out, followed shortly thereafter by the Poles, the Belgians, and the French; with the final French group leaving 12 July 1943. By the end of July there were a few Free French officers, and 228 British officers, with a contingent consisting of Canadians, Australians, New Zealanders, South Africans, Irish, and one Indian.\n* 1944: On 23 August Colditz received its first Americans: 49-year-old Colonel Florimund Duke — the oldest American paratrooper of the war, Captain Guy Nunn, and Alfred Suarez. They were all counter-intelligence operatives parachuted into Hungary to prevent it joining forces with Germany. Population was approximately 254 at the start of the early winter that year.\n* 1945: On 19 January six French Generals — Lieutenant-General Jean Adolphe Louis Robert Flavigny, Major-General Louis Léon Marie André Buisson, Major-General Arsène Marie Paul Vauthier, Brigadier-General Albert Joseph Daine, and Brigadier-General René Jacques Mortemart de Boisse — were brought from the camp at Königstein to Colditz Castle. Major-General Gustave Marie Maurice Mesny was killed on the way from Königstein to Colditz Castle.\n* On 5 February, Polish General Tadeusz Bór-Komorowski, deputy commander of the Armia Krajowa (Home Army) and responsible for the Warsaw Uprising, arrived with his entourage.\n* In March, 1200 French prisoners were brought to Colditz Castle, with 600 more being imprisoned in the town below.\n* 16 April, Oflag IV C was captured by American soldiers from 1st US Army. \n\nThe \"Prominente\" and notable inmates\n\nAmong the more notable inmates were British fighter ace Douglas Bader; Pat Reid, the man who brought Colditz to public attention with his post war books; Airey Neave, the first British officer to escape from Colditz and later a British Member of Parliament; New Zealand Army Captain Charles Upham, the only combat soldier ever to receive the Victoria Cross twice; and Sir David Stirling, founder of the wartime Special Air Service.\n\nThere were also prisoners called Prominente (German for 'celebrities'), relatives of Allied VIPs. The first one was Giles Romilly, a civilian journalist who was captured in Narvik, Norway who was also a nephew of Winston Churchill's wife. Adolf Hitler himself specified that Romilly was to be treated with the utmost care and that:\n\n# The Kommandant and Security Officer answer for Romilly's security with their heads.\n# His security is to be assured by any and every exceptional measure you care to take.\n\nWhen the end of the war approached, the number of Prominente increased. Eventually there were Viscount George Lascelles and John Alexander Elphinstone, 17th Lord Elphinstone, nephews of British King George VI and Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother; Captain George Haig, son of WWI field marshal Douglas Haig; Charles Hope, son of Victor Hope, the Viceroy of India; Lieutenant John Winant Jr., son of John Gilbert Winant, US ambassador to Britain; Tadeusz Bór-Komorowski, commander of Armia Krajowa and the Warsaw Uprising; and five other Polish generals. British Commando Michael Alexander claimed to be a nephew of field marshal Harold Alexander in order to escape execution, but was merely a distant cousin.\n\nMicky Burn, another well-known inmate of Colditz, was a British commando captured at Saint-Nazaire. Burn had been a journalist like Romilly before the war, working for The Times. Burn had briefly been an admirer of the Nazi Party and in 1936 had met Adolf Hitler, who signed his copy of Mein Kampf. After war broke out Burn shifted politically to Marxism and gave lectures to prisoners at Colditz, but due to his pre-war interest in Nazi philosophy he was widely regarded with distrust and scorn.\n\nJohn Arundell, 16th Baron Arundell of Wardour (1907–1944) was an aristocrat held at Colditz who, despite his pedigree, was not awarded Prominente status. Arundell made a habit of exercising in the winter snow; he contracted tuberculosis and died in Chester Military Hospital.\n\nAnother officer, not listed as among the Prominente but who became famous after the end of the war, was French military chaplain and Catholic priest Yves Congar, who was captured as a POW and later sent there after repeated attempts to escape. He became a noted theologian and was made cardinal in 1994, at age 90. \n\nAt 1:30 a.m. on 13 April 1945, while the final battles of the war approached the area, the Prominente were moved under guard and the cover of darkness. The Allies and prisoners became especially concerned that the Prominente might be used as hostages, bargaining chips and human shields, or that the SS might try to kill them out of spite; they prepared for resistance and, if possible, to take over the castle. The Germans moved all the Prominente out of the castle, over the protestations of the other prisoners. When U.S. troops reached the area, the prisoners persuaded the leader of their guards, Obergruppenführer Gottlob Berger, to surrender in secret in order to save him from the revenge of the SS. With his aid they reached American lines a couple of weeks later. He would later receive a lessened sentence after his hearing in 1949 because of his actions regarding the Prominente.\n\nNew Zealander Charles Upham VC and Bar was held captive at Olflag IVC from 14 October 1944 until Colditz was liberated in 1945.\n\nThe German staff and visitors\n\nKeeping the castle running in a secure and efficient manner was a difficult task, and the Germans maintained a larger garrison at the castle than at many of their other prison camps. Between the years 1939 and 1945 more than 70 German officers and enlisted men worked in a wide variety of staff positions, as well as overseeing prisoners' labour.\n\nThere was also a large contingent of civilians and local townspeople who worked on the castle grounds. Some were in maintenance, some in medical roles, some were there in a supervisory role (Nazi Party leaders, Swiss Red Cross observers, etc.). Some family members of the German military officers lived at the camp.\n\nSecurity Officers\n\n* Captain Paul Priem was the first Security Officer. Pat Reid said he \"possessed a rare quality among Germans - a sense of humour\". \n* Captain Reinhold Eggers was Security Officer from November 1940 until April 1945, promoted to chief of security in 1944. He was also the only English-speaker among the Germans at Colditz, thus was involved in every interaction with the prisoners or between the Senior Officers and the Kommandant serving as translator.http://www.herofiles.org/resources/books.shtml Dutchman Lieutenant Damiaen J. van Doorninck said of him, \"This man was our opponent, but nevertheless he earned our respect by his correct attitude, self-control and total lack of rancour despite all the harassment we gave him.\"\n\nKommandants\n\n* Oberst Schmidt 1939 – August 1941\n* Oberst Glaesche 1 August 1942 – 13 February 1943\n* Oberst Prawitt 14 February 1943 – 15 April 1945 \n\nLife in the camp\n\nIn Colditz, the Wehrmacht followed the Geneva Convention. Would-be escapees were punished with solitary confinement, instead of being summarily executed. In principle, the security officers recognized that it was the duty of the POWs to try to escape and that their own job was to stop them. Prisoners could even form gentlemen's agreements with the guards, such as not using borrowed tools for escape attempts.\n\nMost of the guard company was composed of WWI veterans and young soldiers not fit for the front. Because Colditz was a high security camp, the Germans organized three and then later four Appells (roll calls) per day to count the prisoners. If they discovered someone had escaped, they alerted every police and train station within a 40 km radius, and many local members of the Hitler Youth would help to recapture any escapees.\n\nBecause of the number of Red Cross food parcels, prisoners sometimes ate better than their guards, who had to rely on Wehrmacht rations. Prisoners could use their relative luxuries for trade and, for example, exchange their cigarettes for German Reichsmarks that they hoped could later use in their escape attempts. Occasionally this turned to be a mistake as several of the bills they received were of the earlier Papiermark varieties that were no longer considered valid. There were also other currencies in circulation, including the Registermark, utilized for travelling and investments in Germany; the Reisemark, for tourists; the Kreditsperrmark, for sales of property belonging to foreigners; the Effektensperrmark, arising from the sale of securities in Germany; the Reichskreditkassenschein in occupied territories; and the Behelfszahlungsmittel (Auxiliary Payment Certificates) for the German Armed Forces. The Kreditsperrmark and Effektensperrmark were consolidated into the Handelsperrmark in 1939. Because of the massive variety of currency types and uses, in several escape attempts, escapees with one of these various currencies printed before 1939 were told their money was no good — leaving them moneyless and easier to recapture.\n\nPrisoners had to make their own entertainment. In August 1941 the first camp Olympics were organized by the Polish prisoners. Events were held in football (soccer), volleyball, boxing, and chess, but the closing ceremony was interrupted by a German fire drill. \"The British came in last place in every event cheerfully, to the dismay of the other participants who took the competition deadly seriously,\" according to the British inmate John Wilkens in a 1986 interview. Prisoners also formed a Polish choir, a Dutch Hawaiian guitar band, and a French orchestra.\n\nThe British put on homemade revues, classical plays and farces including: Gas Light, Rope, The Man Who Came to Dinner, Pygmalion, and The Importance of Being Earnest. Several prisoners intentionally grew their hair long so as better to portray female roles. Prisoner Jock Hamilton-Baillie used to shave his legs, rub them in brown shoe polish, and draw a line down the back of his legs in pencil to simulate the appearance of silk stockings. This allowed him special \"bath privileges\" in the German guards washroom, since the prisoners' showers were unable to get the polish off his legs. Staging these plays even gained the prisoners access to \"parole tools\", tools which were used to build the sets and promised not to be used to escape. During the summer months, the theatre's peak periods, there were new productions every two weeks. The biggest success of the theatre however would be the Christmas themed Ballet Nonsense which premiered on November 16, 1941 and ran until the November 18, 1941 show which Hauptmann Priem (the first prison warden of Colditz) attended.\n\nAnother pastime which occupied much of the prisoners' time was the production of moonshine alcohol. Initially started by the Polish contingent using a recipe of yeast, water, German jam and sugar from their Red Cross parcels, and then taken up by other prisoners, it did not take long for stills to be secreted all across Colditz (one of which remained undiscovered until a tourist trip in 1984). Prisoner Michael Farr, whose family ran Hawker's Gin (the sole purveyors of Sloe gin with a Royal Warrant), managed to make a sparkling wine dubbed \"Château Colditz\". Some prisoners would get black teeth or even temporary blindness from consuming this beverage — a condition known as \"jam-happy\" — as it contained many impurities. Although the German guards despised the drunken prisoners, they generally turned a blind eye to the distilling.\n\nOfficers also studied languages, learning from each other, and told stories. Most popular of these stories were the embellished retelling of BBC broadcasts by Jim Rogers. Since mail was regularly screened by censors, and the German newspapers received by prisoners contained much Nazi propaganda, the only reliable information prisoners could obtain on the progress of the war in Europe was through BBC broadcasts received via one of two radios which were secreted in the castle. These radios were smuggled in by French prisoner Frédérick Guigues and named \"Arthur 1\" and \"Arthur 2\". The first radio was quickly discovered because of a mole, but the second would remain secreted until Guigues returned and removed it during a tour of the castle in 1965. The prisoners' \"Radio Laboratory\" would not be permanently exposed until 1992 during repairs to the roof.[http://www.colditz-4c.com/tour/p14/p14.htm Colditz Castle : Virtual Tour : Page 14: Attic Secrets]\n\nLater the most popular way to pass the time was stoolball, a particularly rough version of rugby, where there were two stools at either end of the prisoners' courtyard and goals were scored by touching the opponent's stool with the ball. This game served as an outlet for pent-up aggression, and also provided noise to cover the sounds of tunnel-digging.\n\nIn addition to escape attempts, prisoners also tried to make the life of their guards more miserable by resorting to \"goon-baiting\", making nuisances of themselves by harassing the guards. For example, they would drop water bombs on the guards. Douglas Bader encouraged his junior officers to do the same. British Flight Lieutenant Pete Tunstall especially tried to cause havoc by disturbing the roll call even if nobody was trying to escape, so that the guards would not become suspicious when somebody was. He went through a total of five courts-martial and suffered a total of 415 days in solitary confinement.\n\nEscape attempts\n\nOflag IV-C in popular culture\n\nOflag IV-C provided the inspiration for both television and film because of the widely popular retellings by Pat Reid and Airey Neave. This started as early as 1955 with the release of The Colditz Story, followed by The Birdmen in 1971, continuing until 2005 with the Colditz mini-series. The escape stories of Colditz Castle have inspired several board and video games, such as Escape from Colditz and Commandos. In contrast, the existence of Colditz is virtually unknown in Germany today. Eggers wrote a book based on his experiences of the German side of events. \n\nCinema\n\n* The Colditz Story (1955) was a dramatic film re-enactment of life in the camp during WWII, based entirely on the books of Pat Reid, directed by Guy Hamilton for a British Academy of Film and Television Arts Award in 1956. It has been called an \"Outstanding factual World War Two drama about Allied POW's held in Germany's most secure wartime prison.\"[http://www.britmovie.co.uk/genres/drama/filmography/031.html The Colditz Story (1955)]\n\nTelevision and TV movies\n\n* Escape of the Birdmen (1971) was a television movie loosely based on Pat Reid's book. This movie is of note in that it is the first movie based on Pat Reid's books to reference the Colditz glider, devised and built by Bill Goldfinch with Jack Best his partner in the construction.\n* Colditz (1972–1974) was a television drama series aired on BBC1 television. It ran for a total of 28 episodes across two seasons, progressing in time from the opening of the camp until its liberation in 1945. The first three episodes of the series acted as an introduction to the plot of the show and introduced the viewers to the three central characters by following the events that led up to their arrival at the camp. The series was a joint production between the BBC and Universal TV (an American company), but for reasons unknown, it never aired in the United States. Episodes 24 \"A Very Important Person\" and 25 \"Chameleon\" did however air in the US as a two-hour TV movie entitled Escape From Colditz, in 1974. A review of the film was printed in the newspaper The News Of The World, which praised it saying: \"It has all the realism, dignity and courage of the men it commemorates.\" Its more notable actors include Jack Hedley as Lieutenant Colonel John Preston from 1972–74, Edward Hardwicke as Captain Pat Grant from 1972–73, Robert Wagner as Major Phil Carrington from 1972–74, David McCallum as Flight Lieutenant Simon Carter from 1972–74, and Dan O'Herlihy as Lieutenant Colonel Max Dodd in 1974.\n* Escape from Colditz (2001) is a British television movie.\n* Colditz (2005) was a mini-series on ITV1, based on Henry Chancellor's book Colditz: The Definitive History, directed by Stuart Orme. This tale is much more fictional than its predecessors, with fictional characters and situations that are merely based on real people and events. It features Jason Priestley (Beverly Hills, 90210) as Rhett Barker, James Fox as Lt. Col. Jimmy Fordham, Damian Lewis (Band of Brothers) as Lt. Nicholas McGrade, Tom Hardy (Black Hawk Down) as Lt. Jack Rose, Sophia Myles (Thunderbirds) as Lizzie Carter, Guy Henry as Capt. Sawyer and Timothy West as Warren.\n* In PBS's NOVA documentary series, \"Escape From Nazi Alcatraz\" (Season 41, Episode 12), is about a planned escape by a group of British officers from Colditz Castle.\n\nFiction\n\nThe Colditz Legacy, Guy Walters, Headline, London, 2005, ISBN 0-7553-2717-9\nYes, Farewell, Michael Burn, Jonathan Cape, London, 1946 ISBN 1-4191-7221-2\nThe Narrow Door at Colditz, Robert L. Wise, Broadman & Holman Publishers, Nashville, 2004, ISBN 0-8054-3072-5\n\nGames\n\n Escape from Castle Colditz — a board game from Invicta Games in 1972.[http://www.boardgamegeek.com/game/5742 Escape from Colditz Castle \| BoardGameGeek] \n* Escape from Colditz — a board game from Parker Brothers in 1973. This game was designed by Pat Reid[http://www.boardgamecompany.co.uk/ColditzParker(VG135).htm Vintage 'ESCAPE FROM COLDITZ' board game by Parker: THE BOARD GAME COMPANY] and later re-designed by Gibson Games in the 1980s[http://www.boardgamecompany.co.uk/ColditzGibson(VG126).htm 'ESCAPE FROM COLDITZ' vintage board game: The Board Game Company] and as Skedaddle! by Crowhurst Games in 1992 and re-released again in 2011.[http://www.crowhurstgames.com Skedaddle! \| BoardGameGeek]\n* Escape from Colditz — a 1991 video game developed by Digital Magic for the Commodore Amiga, was based on the Parker Brothers board game.\nPrisoner of War (video game) has two levels set in Colditz.\nCommandos 2: Men of Courage — the mission, Castle Colditz, is based on the same castle and involves assisting the escape of all allied prisoners in the castle.\n\nMusic\n\n* Melbourne band \"Colditz Glider\" is named after the construction of a glider to escape Oflag IV-C. The group draws parallels between the prisoners drawn together to escape and the band creating music to escape.\n\nOther media\n\nThe Doctor Who audio play Colditz by Big Finish is based in Colditz, with the Seventh Doctor's companion Ace mentioning several well-known names and escape attempts.", "A prisoner of war (POW, PoW, PW, P/W, WP, PsW, enemy prisoner of war (EPW) or \"missing-captured\") is a person, whether combatant or non-combatant, who is held in custody by a belligerent power during or immediately after an armed conflict. The earliest recorded usage of the phrase \"prisoner of war\" dates to 1660.\n\nBelligerents hold prisoners of war in custody for a range of legitimate and illegitimate reasons, such as isolating them from enemy combatants still in the field (releasing and repatriating them in an orderly manner after hostilities), demonstrating military victory, punishing them, prosecuting them for war crimes, exploiting them for their labor, recruiting or even conscripting them as their own combatants, collecting military and political intelligence from them, or indoctrinating them in new political or religious beliefs. \n\nAncient times\n\nFor most of human history, depending on the culture of the victors, enemy combatants on the losing side in a battle who had surrendered and been taken as a prisoner of war could expect to be either slaughtered or enslaved. The first Roman gladiators were prisoners of war and were named according to their ethnic roots such as Samnite, Thracian, and the Gaul (Gallus). Homer's Iliad describes Greek and Trojan soldiers offering rewards of wealth to opposing forces who have defeated them on the battlefield in exchange for mercy, but their offers are not always accepted; see Lycaon for example.\n\nTypically, little distinction was made between enemy combatants and enemy civilians, although women and children were more likely to be spared. Sometimes, the purpose of a battle, if not a war, was to capture women, a practice known as raptio; the Rape of the Sabines was a large mass abduction by the founders of Rome. Typically women had no rights, and were held legally as chattel.\n\nIn the fourth century AD, Bishop Acacius of Amida, touched by the plight of Persian prisoners captured in a recent war with the Roman Empire, who were held in his town under appalling conditions and destined for a life of slavery, took the initiative of ransoming them, by selling his church's precious gold and silver vessels, and letting them return to their country. For this he was eventually canonized. \n\nMiddle Ages and Renaissance\n\nDuring Childeric's siege and blockade of Paris in 464, the nun Geneviève (later canonised as the city's Patron Saint) pleaded with the Frankish King for the welfare of prisoners of war and met with a favourable response. Later, Clovis I liberated captives after Genevieve urged him to do so. \n\nMany French prisoners of war were killed during the Battle of Agincourt in 1415. This was done in retaliation for the French killing of the boys and other non-combatants handling the baggage and equipment of the army, and because the French were attacking again and Henry was afraid that they would break through and free the prisoners to fight again.\n\nIn the later Middle Ages, a number of religious wars aimed to not only defeat but eliminate their enemies. In Christian Europe, the extermination of heretics was considered desirable. Examples include the 13th century Albigensian Crusade and the Northern Crusades. When asked by a Crusader how to distinguish between the Catholics and Cathars once they'd taken the city of Béziers, the Papal Legate Arnaud Amalric famously replied, \"Kill them all, God will know His own\". \n\nLikewise, the inhabitants of conquered cities were frequently massacred during the Crusades against the Muslims in the 11th and 12th centuries. Noblemen could hope to be ransomed; their families would have to send to their captors large sums of wealth commensurate with the social status of the captive. \n\nIn feudal Japan there was no custom of ransoming prisoners of war, who were for the most part summarily executed. \n\nThe expanding Mongol Empire was famous for distinguishing between cities or towns that surrendered - where the population were spared but required to support the conquering Mongol army - and those that resisted, where their city was ransacked and destroyed, and all the population killed. In Termez, on the Oxus: \"all the people, both men and women, were driven out onto the plain, and divided in accordance with their usual custom, then they were all slain\". \n\nThe Aztecs were constantly at war with neighbouring tribes and groups, with the goal of this constant warfare being to collect live prisoners for sacrifice. For the re-consecration of Great Pyramid of Tenochtitlan in 1487, \"between 10,000 and 80,400 persons\" were sacrificed. \n \n\nDuring the early Muslim conquests, Muslims routinely captured large number of prisoners. Aside from those who converted, most were ransomed or enslaved. Christians who were captured during the Crusades, were usually either killed or sold into slavery if they could not pay a ransom. During his lifetime, Muhammad made it the responsibility of the Islamic government to provide food and clothing, on a reasonable basis, to captives, regardless of their religion; however if the prisoners were in the custody of a person, then the responsibility was on the individual. The freeing of prisoners was highly recommended as a charitable act.\n\nModern times\n\nThe 1648 Peace of Westphalia, which ended the Thirty Years' War, established the rule that prisoners of war should be released without ransom at the end of hostilities and that they should be allowed to return to their homelands. \n\nThere also evolved the right of parole, French for \"discourse\", in which a captured officer surrendered his sword and gave his word as a gentleman in exchange for privileges. If he swore not to escape, he could gain better accommodations and the freedom of the prison. If he swore to cease hostilities against the nation who held him captive, he could be repatriated or exchanged but could not serve against his former captors in a military capacity.\n\nEuropean settlers captured in North America\n\nEarly historical narratives of captured colonial Europeans, including perspectives of literate women captured by the indigenous peoples of North America, exist in some number. The writings of Mary Rowlandson, captured in the brutal fighting of King Philip's War, are an example. Such narratives enjoyed some popularity, spawning a genre of the captivity narrative, and had lasting influence on the body of early American literature, most notably through the legacy of James Fenimore Cooper's Last of the Mohicans. Some Native Americans continued to capture Europeans and use them both as laborers and bargaining chips into the 19th century; see for example John R. Jewitt, an Englishman who wrote a memoir about his years as a captive of the Nootka people on the Pacific northwest coast from 1802–1805.\n\nFrench Revolutionary wars and Napoleonic wars\n\nThe earliest known purposely built prisoner-of-war camp was established at Norman Cross, England in 1797 to house the increasing number of prisoners from the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars. The average prison population was about 5,500 men. The lowest number recorded was 3,300 in October 1804 and 6,272 on 10 April 1810 was the highest number of prisoners recorded in any official document. Norman Cross was intended to be a model depot providing the most humane treatment of prisoners of war. The British government went to great lengths to provide food of a quality at least equal to that available to locals. The senior officer from each quadrangle was permitted to inspect the food as it was delivered to the prison to ensure it was of sufficient quality. Despite the generous supply and quality of food, some prisoners died of starvation after gambling away their rations. Most of the men held in the prison were low-ranking soldiers and sailors, including midshipmen and junior officers, with a small number of privateers. About 100 senior officers and some civilians \"of good social standing\", mainly passengers on captured ships and the wives of some officers, were given parole d'honneur outside the prison, mainly in Peterborough although some further afield in Northampton, Plymouth, Melrose and Abergavenny. They were afforded the courtesy of their rank within English society.\n\nPrisoner exchanges\n\nThe extensive period of conflict during the American Revolutionary War and Napoleonic Wars (1793–1815), followed by the Anglo-American War of 1812, led to the emergence of a cartel system for the exchange of prisoners, even while the belligerents were at war. A cartel was usually arranged by the respective armed service for the exchange of like-ranked personnel. The aim was to achieve a reduction in the number of prisoners held, while at the same time alleviating shortages of skilled personnel in the home country.\n\nAmerican Civil War\n\nAt the start of the civil war a system of paroles operated. Captives agreed not to fight until they were officially exchanged. Meanwhile, they were held in camps run by their own army where they were paid but not allowed to perform any military duties. The system of exchanges collapsed in 1863 when the Confederacy refused to exchange black prisoners. In the late summer of 1864, a year after the Dix-Hill Cartel was suspended; Confederate officials approached Union General Benjamin Butler, Union Commissioner of Exchange, about resuming the cartel and including the black prisoners. Butler contacted Grant for guidance on the issue, and Grant responded to Butler on August 18, 1864 with his now famous statement. He rejected the offer, stating in essence, that the Union could afford to leave their men in captivity, the Confederacy could not. After that about 56,000 of the 409,000 POWs died in prisons during the American Civil War, accounting for nearly 10% of the conflict's fatalities. Of the 45,000 Union prisoners of war confined in Camp Sumter, located near Andersonville, Georgia, 13,000 (28%) died. At Camp Douglas in Chicago, Illinois, 10% of its Confederate prisoners died during one cold winter month; and Elmira Prison in New York state, with a death rate of 25% (2,963), very nearly equalled that of Andersonville. \n\nAmelioration\n\nDuring the 19th century, there were increased efforts to improve the treatment and processing of prisoners. As a result of these emerging conventions, a number of international conferences were held, starting with the Brussels Conference of 1874, with nations agreeing that it was necessary to prevent inhumane treatment of prisoners and the use of weapons causing unnecessary harm. Although no agreements were immediately ratified by the participating nations, work was continued that resulted in new conventions being adopted and becoming recognized as international law that specified that prisoners of war be treated humanely and diplomatically.\n\nHague and Geneva Conventions\n\nChapter II of the Annex to the 1907 Hague Convention IV – The Laws and Customs of War on Land covered the treatment of prisoners of war in detail. These provisions were further expanded in the 1929 Geneva Convention on the Prisoners of War and were largely revised in the Third Geneva Convention in 1949.\n\nArticle 4 of the Third Geneva Convention protects captured military personnel, some guerrilla fighters, and certain civilians. It applies from the moment a prisoner is captured until he or she is released or repatriated. One of the main provisions of the convention makes it illegal to torture prisoners and states that a prisoner can only be required to give their name, date of birth, rank and service number (if applicable).\n\nThe ICRC has a special role to play, with regards to international humanitarian law, in restoring and maintaining family contact in times of war, in particular concerning the right of prisoners of war and internees to send and receive letters and cards (Geneva Convention (GC) III, art.71 and GC IV, art.107).\n\nHowever, nations vary in their dedication to following these laws, and historically the treatment of POWs has varied greatly. During World War II, Imperial Japan and Nazi Germany (towards Soviet POWs and Western Allied commandos) were notorious for atrocities against prisoners of war. The German military used the Soviet Union's refusal to sign the Geneva Convention as a reason for not providing the necessities of life to Soviet POWs; and the Soviets similarly killed Axis prisoners or used them as slave labor. The Germans also routinely executed Western Allied commandos captured behind German lines per the Commando Order. North Korean and North and South Vietnamese forces routinely killed or mistreated prisoners taken during those conflicts.\n\nQualifications\n\nTo be entitled to prisoner-of-war status, captured persons must be lawful combatants entitled to combatant's privilege—which gives them immunity from punishment for crimes constituting lawful acts of war such as killing enemy combatants. To qualify under the Third Geneva Convention, a combatant must be part of a chain of command, wear a \"fixed distinctive marking, visible from a distance\", bear arms openly, and have conducted military operations according to the laws and customs of war. (The Convention recognizes a few other groups as well, such as \"[i]nhabitants of a non-occupied territory, who on the approach of the enemy spontaneously take up arms to resist the invading forces, without having had time to form themselves into regular armed units\".)\n\nThus, uniforms and/or badges are important in determining prisoner-of-war status; and francs-tireurs, terrorists, saboteurs, mercenaries, and spies do not qualify because they do not always follow the laws and customs of war and therefore they fall under the category of unlawful combatants. In practice, these criteria are rarely interpreted strictly. Guerrillas, for example, usually do not wear a uniform or carry arms openly, but captured guerrillas are often granted POW status.\n\nThe criteria are applied primarily to international armed conflicts; in civil wars, insurgents are often treated as traitors or criminals by government forces, and are sometimes executed. However, in the American Civil War, both sides treated captured troops as POWs, presumably out of reciprocity, although the Union regarded Confederate personnel as separatist rebels. However, guerrillas and other irregular combatants generally cannot expect to receive benefits from both civilian and military status simultaneously.\n\nRights\n\nUnder the Third Geneva Convention, prisoners of war (POW) must be:\n\nTreated humanely with respect for their persons and their honor\nAble to inform their next of kin and the International Committee of the Red Cross of their capture\nAllowed to communicate regularly with relatives and receive packages\nGiven adequate food, clothing, housing, and medical attention\nPaid for work done and not forced to do work that is dangerous, unhealthy, or degrading\nReleased quickly after conflicts end\nNot compelled to give any information except for name, age, rank, and service number \n\nIn addition, if wounded or sick on the battlefield, the prisoner will receive help from the International Committee of the Red Cross. \n\nWhen a country is responsible for breaches of prisoner of war rights, those accountable will be punished accordingly. An example of this is the Nuremberg and Tokyo Trials. German and Japanese military commanders were prosecuted for preparing and initiating a war of aggression, murder, ill treatment, and deportation of individuals, and genocide during World War II. Most were executed or sentenced to life in prison for their crimes.\n\nU.S. Code of Conduct and terminology\n\nThe United States Military Code of Conduct was promulgated in 1955 via Executive Order 10631 under President Dwight D. Eisenhower to serve as a moral code for United States service members who have been taken prisoner. It was created primarily in response to the breakdown of leadership and organization, specifically when U.S. forces were POWs during the Korean War.\n\nWhen a military member is taken prisoner, the Code of Conduct reminds them that the chain of command is still in effect (the highest ranking service member eligible for command, regardless of service branch, is in command), and requires them to support their leadership. The Code of Conduct also requires service members to resist giving information to the enemy (beyond identifying themselves, that is, \"name, rank, serial number\"), receiving special favors or parole, or otherwise providing their enemy captors aid and comfort.\n\nSince the Vietnam War, the official U.S. military term for enemy POWs is EPW (Enemy Prisoner of War). This name change was introduced in order to distinguish between enemy and U.S. captives. \n\nIn 2000, the U.S. military replaced the designation \"Prisoner of War\" for captured American personnel with \"Missing-Captured\". A January 2008 directive states that the reasoning behind this is since \"Prisoner of War\" is the international legal recognized status for such people there is no need for any individual country to follow suit. This change remains relatively unknown even among experts in the field and \"Prisoner of War\" remains widely used in the Pentagon which has a \"POW/Missing Personnel Office\" and awards the Prisoner of War Medal. \n\nWorld War I\n\nDuring World War I, about eight million men surrendered and were held in POW camps until the war ended. All nations pledged to follow the Hague rules on fair treatment of prisoners of war, and in general the POWs had a much higher survival rate than their peers who were not captured. Individual surrenders were uncommon; usually a large unit surrendered all its men. At Tannenberg 92,000 Russians surrendered during the battle. When the besieged garrison of Kaunas surrendered in 1915, 20,000 Russians became prisoners. Over half the Russian losses were prisoners as a proportion of those captured, wounded or killed. About 3.3 million men became prisoners. \n\nThe German Empire held 2.5 million prisoners; Russia held 2.9 million, and Britain and France held about 720,000, mostly gained in the period just before the Armistice in 1918. The US held 48,000. The most dangerous moment for POW's was the act of surrender, when helpless soldiers were sometimes and mistakenly shot down. Once prisoners reached a POW camp conditions were better (and often much better than in World War II), thanks in part to the efforts of the International Red Cross and inspections by neutral nations.\n\nThere was however much harsh treatment of POWs in Germany, as recorded by the American ambassador to Germany (prior to America's entry into the war), James W. Gerard, who published his findings in \"My Four Years in Germany\". Even worse conditions are reported in the book \"Escape of a Princess Pat\" by the Canadian George Pearson. It was particularly bad in Russia, where starvation was common for prisoners and civilians alike; a quarter of the over 2 million POWs held there died. Nearly 375,000 of the 500,000 Austro-Hungarian prisoners of war taken by Russians perished in Siberia from smallpox and typhus. In Germany food was short but only 5% died. \n\nThe Ottoman Empire often treated prisoners of war poorly. Some 11,800 British soldiers, most of them Indians, became prisoners after the five-month Siege of Kut, in Mesopotamia, in April 1916. Many were weak and starved when they surrendered and 4,250 died in captivity. \n\nDuring the Sinai and Palestine campaign 217 Australian and unknown numbers of British, New Zealand and Indian soldiers were captured by Ottoman Empire forces. About 50% of the Australian prisoners were light horsemen including 48 missing believed captured on 1 May 1918 in the Jordan Valley. Australian Flying Corps pilots and observers were captured in the Sinai Peninsula, Palestine and the Levant. One third of all Australian prisoners were captured on Gallipoli including the crew of the submarine AE2 which made a passage through the Dardanelles in 1915. Forced marches and crowded railway journeys preceded years in camps where disease, poor diet and inadequate medical facilities prevailed. About 25% of other ranks died, many from malnutrition, while only one officer died. \n\nThe most curious case came in Russia where the Czechoslovak Legion of Czechoslovak prisoners (from the Austro-Hungarian army): they were released in 1917, armed themselves, briefly culminating into a military and diplomatic force during the Russian Civil War.\n\nRelease of prisoners\n\nAt the end of the war in 1918 there were believed to be 140,000 British prisoners of war in Germany, including 3,000 internees held in neutral Switzerland. The first British prisoners were released and reached Calais on 15 November. Plans were made for them to be sent via Dunkirk to Dover and a large reception camp was established at Dover capable of housing 40,000 men, which could later be used for demobilisation.\n\nOn 13 December 1918, the armistice was extended and the Allies reported that by 9 December 264,000 prisoners had been repatriated. A very large number of these had been released en masse and sent across Allied lines without any food or shelter. This created difficulties for the receiving Allies and many released prisoners died from exhaustion. The released POWs were met by cavalry troops and sent back through the lines in lorries to reception centres where they were refitted with boots and clothing and dispatched to the ports in trains.\n\nUpon arrival at the receiving camp the POWs were registered and \"boarded\" before being dispatched to their own homes. All commissioned officers had to write a report on the circumstances of their capture and to ensure that they had done all they could to avoid capture. Each returning officer and man was given a message from King George V, written in his own hand and reproduced on a lithograph. It read as follows: \n\nWhile the Allied prisoners were sent home at the end of the war, the same treatment was not granted to Central Powers prisoners of the Allies and Russia, many of which had to serve as forced labour, e.g. in France, until 1920. They were released after many approaches by the ICRC to the Allied Supreme Council. \n\nWorld War II\n\nHistorian Niall Ferguson, in addition to figures from Keith Lowe, tabulated the total death rate for POWs in World War II as follows: \n\nTreatment of POWs by the Axis\n\nEmpire of Japan\n\nThe Empire of Japan, which had signed but never ratified the 1929 Geneva Convention on Prisoners of War, did not treat prisoners of war in accordance with international agreements, including provisions of the Hague Conventions, either during the Second Sino-Japanese War or during the Pacific War because the Japanese viewed surrender as dishonorable. Moreover, according to a directive ratified on 5 August 1937 by Hirohito, the constraints of the Hague Conventions were explicitly removed on Chinese prisoners. \n\nPrisoners of war from China, the United States, Australia, Britain, Canada, India, the Netherlands, New Zealand, and the Philippines held by the Japanese armed forces were subject to murder, beatings, summary punishment, brutal treatment, forced labour, medical experimentation, starvation rations, poor medical treatment and cannibalism. The most notorious use of forced labour was in the construction of the Burma–Thailand Death Railway. After 20 March 1943, the Imperial Navy was under orders to execute all prisoners taken at sea. \n\nAccording to the findings of the Tokyo Tribunal, the death rate of Western prisoners was 27.1%, seven times that of POWs under the Germans and Italians. The death rate of Chinese was much higher. Thus, while 37,583 prisoners from the United Kingdom, Commonwealth, and Dominions, 28,500 from the Netherlands, and 14,473 from the United States were released after the surrender of Japan, the number for the Chinese was only 56. Of the 27,465 United States Army and United States Army Air Forces POWs in the Pacific Theater, they had a 40.4% death rate. The War Ministry in Tokyo issued an order at the end of the war to kill all surviving POWs. \n\nNo direct access to the POWs was provided to the International Red Cross. Escapes among Caucasian prisoners were almost impossible because of the difficulty of men of Caucasian descent hiding in Asiatic societies. \n\nAllied POW camps and ship-transports were sometimes accidental targets of Allied attacks. The number of deaths which occurred when Japanese \"hell ships\"—unmarked transport ships in which POWs were transported in harsh conditions—were attacked by US Navy submarines was particularly high. Gavan Daws has calculated that \"of all POWs who died in the Pacific War, one in three was killed on the water by friendly fire\". Daves states that 10,800 of the 50,000 POWs shipped by the Japanese were killed at sea while Donald L. Miller states that \"approximately 21,000 Allied POWs died at sea, about 19,000 of them killed by friendly fire.\" \n\nLife in the POW camps was recorded at great risk to themselves by artists such as Jack Bridger Chalker, Philip Meninsky, Ashley George Old, and Ronald Searle. Human hair was often used for brushes, plant juices and blood for paint, and toilet paper as the \"canvas\". Some of their works were used as evidence in the trials of Japanese war criminals.\n\nResearch into the conditions of the camps has been conducted by The Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine. \n\nFile:Bosbritsurrendergroup.jpg\|Troops of the Suffolk Regiment surrendering to the Japanese, 1942\nFile:March of Death from Bataan to the prison camp - Dead soldiers.jpg\|Many US and Filipino POWs died as a result of the Bataan Death March, in May 1942\nFile:Portrait of \"Dusty\" Rhodes by Ashley George Old.jpg\|Water colour sketch of \"Dusty\" Rhodes by Ashley George Old\nImage:POWs Burma Thai RR.jpg\|Australian and Dutch POWs at Tarsau, Thailand in 1943\nFile:Army nurses rescued from Santo Tomas 1945h.jpg\|U.S. Army Nurses in Santo Tomas Internment Camp, 1943\nFile:Navy Nurses Rescued from Los Banos.jpg\|U.S. Navy nurses rescued from Los Baños Internment Camp, March 1945\nFile:Gaunt allied prisoners of war at Aomori camp near Yokohama cheer rescuers from U.S. Navy. Waving flags of the United... - NARA - 520992.tif\|Allied prisoners of war at Aomori camp near Yokohama, Japan waving flags of the United States, Great Britain, and the Netherlands in August 1945.\nFile:Canadian POWs at the Liberation of Hong Kong.gif\|Canadian POWs at the Liberation of Hong Kong\nFile:Giving a sick man a drink as US POWs of Japanese, Philippine Islands, Cabanatuan prison camp.jpg\|POW art depicting Cabanatuan prison camp, produced in 1946\nFile:LeonardGSiffleet.jpg\|Australian POW Leonard Siffleet captured at New Guinea moments before his execution with a Japanese shin gunto sword in 1943.\nFile:Japanese atrocities imperial war museum K9923.jpg\|Captured soldiers of the British Indian Army executed by the Japanese.\n\nGermany\n\nFrench soldiers\n\nAfter the French armies surrendered in summer 1940, Germany seized two million French prisoners of war and sent them to camps in Germany. About one third were released on various terms. Of the remainder, the officers and non-commissioned officers were kept in camps and did not work. The privates were sent out to work. About half of them worked for German agriculture, where food supplies were adequate and controls were lenient. The others worked in factories or mines, where conditions were much harsher. \n\nWestern Allies' POWs\n\nGermany and Italy generally treated prisoners from the British Commonwealth, France, the USA, and other western Allies in accordance with the Geneva Convention, which had been signed by these countries. Consequently, western Allied officers were not usually made to work and some personnel of lower rank were usually compensated, or not required to work either. The main complaints of western Allied prisoners of war in German POW camps—especially during the last two years of the war—concerned shortages of food.\n\nOnly a small proportion of western Allied POWs who were Jews—or whom the Nazis believed to be Jewish—were killed as part of the Holocaust or were subjected to other antisemitic policies. For example, Major Yitzhak Ben-Aharon, a Palestinian Jew who had enlisted in the British Army, and who was captured by the Germans in Greece in 1941, experienced four years of captivity under entirely normal conditions for POWs. \n\nHowever, a small number of Allied personnel were sent to concentration camps, for a variety of reasons including being Jewish. As the US historian Joseph Robert White put it: \"An important exception ... is the sub-camp for U.S. POWs at Berga an der Elster, officially called Arbeitskommando 625 [also known as Stalag IX-B]. Berga was the deadliest work detachment for American captives in Germany. 73 men who participated, or 21 percent of the detachment, perished in two months. 80 of the 350 POWs were Jews.\" Another well-known example was a group of 168 Australian, British, Canadian, New Zealand and US aviators who were held for two months at Buchenwald concentration camp; two of the POWs died at Buchenwald. Two possible reasons have been suggested for this incident: German authorities wanted to make an example of Terrorflieger (\"terrorist aviators\") and/or these aircrews were classified as spies, because they had been disguised as civilians or enemy soldiers when they were apprehended.\n\nInformation on conditions in the stalags is contradictory depending on the source. Some American POWs claimed the Germans were victims of circumstance and did the best they could, while others accused their captors of brutalities and forced labor. In any case, the prison camps were miserable places where food rations were meager and conditions squalid. One American admitted \"The only difference between the stalags and concentration camps was that we weren't gassed or shot in the former. I do not recall a single act of compassion or mercy on the part of the Germans.\" Typical meals consisted of a bread slice and watery potato soup, which however was still more substantial than what Soviet POWs or concentration camp inmates received. Another prisoner stated that \"The German plan was to keep us alive, yet weakened enough that we wouldn't attempt escape.\" \n\nAs Soviet ground forces approached some POW camps in early 1945, German guards forced western Allied POWs to walk long distances towards central Germany, often in extreme winter weather conditions. It is estimated that, out of 257,000 POWs, about 80,000 were subject to such marches and up to 3,500 of them died as a result.\n\nItalian POWs\n\nEastern European POWs\n\nGermany did not apply the same standard of treatment to non-western prisoners, especially many Polish and Soviet POWs who suffered harsh conditions and died in large numbers while in captivity.\n\nBetween 1941 and 1945, the Axis powers took about 5.7 million Soviet prisoners. About one million of them were released during the war, in that their status changed but they remained under German authority. A little over 500,000 either escaped or were liberated by the Red Army. Some 930,000 more were found alive in camps after the war. The remaining 3.3 million prisoners (57.5% of the total captured) died during their captivity. Between the launching of Operation Barbarossa in the summer of 1941 and the following spring, 2.8 million of the 3.2 million Soviet prisoners taken died while in German hands. According to Russian military historian General Grigoriy Krivosheyev, 4.6 million Soviet prisoners were taken by the Axis powers, of which 1.8 million were found alive in camps after the war and 318,770 were released by the Axis during the war and were then drafted into the Soviet armed forces again. By comparison, 8,348 Western Allied prisoners died in German camps during 1939–45 (3.5% of the 232,000 total). \n\n An official justification used by the Germans for this policy was that the Soviet Union had not signed the Geneva Convention. This was not legally justifiable, however, as under article 82 of the Geneva Convention, signatory countries had to give POWs of all signatory and non-signatory countries the rights assigned by the convention. Shortly after the German invasion in 1941, an offer was made by the USSR for a reciprocal adherence to the Hague Conventions. This 'note' was left unanswered by Third Reich officials. In contrast, Tolstoy discusses that the German Government as well as the International Red Cross made several efforts to regulate reciprocal treatment of prisoners until early 1942, but received no answers from the Soviet side. Further, the Soviets took a harsh position towards captured Soviet soldiers as they expected each soldier to fight to the death and automatically excluded any prisoner from the \"Russian community\". Some Soviet POWs and forced labourers transported to Nazi Germany were, on their return to the USSR, treated as traitors and sent to gulag prison camps.\n\nTreatment of POWs by the Soviet Union\n\nGermans, Romanians, Italians, Hungarians, Finns\n\nAccording to some sources, the Soviets captured 3.5 million Axis servicemen (excluding Japanese) of which more than a million died. One specific example is that of the German POWs after the Battle of Stalingrad, where the Soviets captured 91,000 German troops in total (completely exhausted, starving and sick) of whom only 5,000 survived the captivity.\n\nGerman soldiers were kept as forced labour for many years after the war. The last German POWs like Erich Hartmann, the highest-scoring fighter ace in the history of aerial warfare, who had been declared guilty of war crimes but without due process, were not released by the Soviets until 1955, three years after Stalin died. \n\nPolish\n\nAs a result of the Soviet invasion of Poland in 1939, hundreds of thousands of Polish soldiers became prisoners of war in the Soviet Union. Thousands of them were executed; over 20,000 Polish military personnel and civilians perished in the Katyn massacre. Out of Anders' 80,000 evacuees from Soviet Union gathered in the United Kingdom only 310 volunteered to return to Poland in 1947. \n\nOut of the 230,000 Polish prisoners of war taken by the Soviet army, only 82,000 survived. \n\nJapanese\n\nWith the Soviet invasion of Manchuria, in 1945, Japanese soldiers became prisoners in the Soviet Union, where they, just as other Axis POWs, had to work.\n\nAmericans\n\nThere were stories during the Cold War to the effect that 23,000 Americans who had been held in German POW camps were seized by the Soviets and never repatriated. This myth had been perpetuated after the release of people like John H. Noble. Careful scholarly studies have demonstrated this is a myth based on a misinterpretation of a telegram that was talking about Soviet prisoners held in Italy. \n\nTreatment of POW's by the Western Allies\n\nGermans\n\nDuring the war, the armies of Western Allied nations such as the US, UK, Canada, and Australia were ordered to treat Axis prisoners strictly in accordance with the Geneva Convention. Some breaches of the Convention took place, however. According to Stephen E. Ambrose, of the roughly 1,000 US combat veterans that he had interviewed, only one admitted to shooting a prisoner, saying that he \"felt remorse, but would do it again\". However, one-third told him they had seen US troops kill German prisoners. \n\nTowards the end of the war in Europe, as large numbers of Axis soldiers surrendered, the US created the designation of Disarmed Enemy Forces (DEF) so as not to treat prisoners as POWs. A lot of these soldiers were kept in open fields in various Rheinwiesenlagers. Controversy has arisen about how Eisenhower managed these prisoners (see Other Losses).\n\nAfter the surrender of Germany in May 1945, the POW status of the German prisoners was in many cases maintained, and they were for several years used as forced labour in countries such as the UK and France. Many died when forced to clear minefields in Norway, France etc.; \"by September 1945 it was estimated by the French authorities that two thousand prisoners were being maimed and killed each month in accidents\" \n\nIn 1946, the UK had more than 400,000 German prisoners, many had been transferred from POW camps in the US and Canada. Many of these were for over three years after the German surrender used as forced labour, as a form of \"reparations\". A public debate ensued in the UK, where words such as \"forced labour\", \"slaves\", \"slave labour\" were increasingly used in the media and in the House of Commons. In 1947 the Ministry of Agriculture argued against repatriation of working German prisoners, since by then they made up 25 percent of the land workforce, and they wanted to use them also in 1948.\n\nThe \"London Cage\", an MI19 prisoner of war facility in the UK used for interrogating prisoners before they were sent to prison camps during and immediately after World War II, was subject to allegations of torture.\n\nAfter the German surrender, the International Red Cross was prohibited from providing aid such as food or visiting prisoner camps in Germany. However, after making approaches to the Allies in the autumn of 1945 it was allowed to investigate the camps in the British and French occupation zones of Germany, as well as to provide relief to the prisoners held there.Staff. [http://www.icrc.org/web/eng/siteeng0.nsf/htmlall/57jnwx?opendocument ICRC in WW II: German prisoners of war in Allied hands], 2 February 2005 On 4 February 1946, the Red Cross was permitted to visit and assist prisoners also in the US occupation zone of Germany, although only with very small quantities of food. \"During their visits, the delegates observed that German prisoners of war were often detained in appalling conditions. They drew the attention of the authorities to this fact, and gradually succeeded in getting some improvements made\".\n\nThe Allies also shipped POWs between them, with for example 6,000 German officers transferred from Western Allied camps to the Sachsenhausen concentration camp that now was under Soviet Union administration. The US also shipped 740,000 German POWs as forced labourers to France from where newspaper reports told of very bad treatment. Judge Robert H. Jackson, Chief US prosecutor in the Nuremberg trials, in October 1945 told US President Harry S. Truman that the Allies themselves:\nhave done or are doing some of the very things we are prosecuting the Germans for. The French are so violating the Geneva Convention in the treatment of prisoners of war that our command is taking back prisoners sent to them. We are prosecuting plunder and our Allies are practicing it. \n\nHungarians\n\nHungarians became POWs of the Western Allies. Some of these were, like Germans, used as forced labour in France after the cessation of hostilities. \nAfter the war the POWs were handed over to the Soviets, and after the POWs were transported to the USSR for forced labor. It is called even today in Hungary malenkij robot - little work.\n\nThe last surviving member of these victims was András Toma, a Hungarian soldier who was taken prisoner by the Red Army in 1944, then discovered living in a Russian psychiatric hospital in 2000. He was probably the last prisoner of war from the Second World War to be repatriated.[1] The case was covered in 137 countries.\nAs he knew no Russian and nobody at the hospital spoke Hungarian, he had apparently not had a single conversation in over 50 years, a situation of great interest in the fields of psychiatry and psycholinguistics.\n\nJapanese\n\nAlthough thousands of Japanese were taken prisoner, most fought until they were killed or committed suicide. Of the 22,000 Japanese soldiers present at the beginning of the Battle of Iwo Jima, over 20,000 were killed and only 216 were taken prisoner. Of the 30,000 Japanese troops that defended Saipan, fewer than 1,000 remained alive at battle's end. Japanese prisoners sent to camps fared well; however, some Japanese were killed when trying to surrender or were massacred just after they had surrendered (see Allied war crimes during World War II in the Pacific). In some instances, Japanese prisoners were tortured by a variety of methods. A method of torture used by the Chinese National Revolutionary Army (NRA) included suspending the prisoner by the neck in a wooden cage until they died. In very rare cases, some were beheaded by sword, and a severed head was once used as a soccer ball by Chinese National Revolutionary Army (NRA) soldiers. \n\nAfter the war, many Japanese were kept on as Japanese Surrendered Personnel until mid-1947 and used as forced labour doing menial tasks, while 35,000 were kept on in arms within their wartime military organisation and under their own officers and used in combat alongside British troops seeking to suppress the independence movements in the Dutch East Indies and French Indochina.\n\nItalians\n\nIn 1943, Italy overthrew Mussolini and became a co-belligerent with the Allies. This did not mean any change in status for Italian POWs however, since due to the labour shortages in the UK and the USA, they were retained as POWs there. \n\nIn September 1943, Italian officers were arrested and taken to German internment camps in East Europe, where they were held for the duration of WW2. The International Red Cross could do nothing for them, as they were not regarded as POW's, but the prisoners held the status of \"Military Internees\". Treatment of the prisoners was generally poor. The author Giovanni Guareschi was among those interned and wrote about this time in his life. The book was translated and published as \"My Secret Diary\". He wrote about the hungers of semi-starvation, the casual murder of individual prisoners by guards and how when they were released (now in a German camp) they found a deserted German town, filled with foodstuffs that they (with other released prisoners) ate.\n\nCossacks\n\nOn 11 February 1945, at the conclusion of the Yalta Conference, the United States and the United Kingdom signed a Repatriation Agreement with the USSR. The interpretation of this Agreement resulted in the forcible repatriation of all Soviets (Operation Keelhaul) regardless of their wishes. The forced repatriation operations took place in 1945–1947. \n\nTransfers between the Allies\n\nThe United States handed over 740,000 German prisoners to France, a signatory of the Geneva Convention. The Soviet Union had not signed the Geneva Convention. According to Edward Peterson, the U.S. chose to hand over several hundred thousand German prisoners to the Soviet Union in May 1945 as a \"gesture of friendship\". U.S. forces also refused to accept the surrender of German troops attempting to surrender to them in Saxony and Bohemia, and handed them over to the Soviet Union instead. It is also known that 6000 of the German officers who were sent from camps in the West to the Soviets were subsequently imprisoned in the Sachsenhausen concentration camp, which at the time was one of the NKVD special camp. \n\nPost-World War II\n\nDuring the Korean War, the North Koreans developed reputation for severely mistreating prisoners of war (see Crimes against POWs). Their POWs were housed in three camps, according to their potential usefulness to the North Korean army. Peace camps and reform camps were for POWs that were either sympathetic to the cause or who had valued skills that could be useful in the army and thus these enemy soldiers were indoctrinated and sometimes conscripted into the North Korean army. The regular prisoners of war were usually very poorly treated. POWs in peace camps were reportedly treated with more consideration. \n\nIn 1952, the 1952 Inter-Camp P.O.W. Olympics were held during 15 and 27 November 1952, in Pyuktong, North Korea. The Chinese hoped to gain worldwide publicity and while some prisoners refused to participate some 500 P.O.W.s of eleven nationalities took part. They were representative of all the prison camps in North Korea and competed in: football, baseball, softball, basketball, volleyball, track and field, soccer, gymnastics, and boxing. For the P.O.W.s this was also an opportunity to meet with friends from other camps. The prisoners had their own photographers, announcers, even reporters, who after each day's competition published a newspaper, the \"Olympic Roundup\". \n\nOf about 16,500 French soldiers who fought at the Battle of Dien Bien Phu in French Indochina, more than 3,000 were killed in battle, while almost all of the 11,721 men taken prisoner died in the hands of the Viet Minh on death marches to distant POW camps, and in those camps in the last three months of the war. \n\nThe Vietcong and North Vietnamese captured many United States service members as prisoners of war during the Vietnam War, who suffered from mistreatment and torture during the war. Some American prisoners were held in the prison called the Hanoi Hilton.\n\nCommunist Vietnamese held in custody by South Vietnamese and American forces were also tortured and badly treated. After the war, millions of South Vietnamese servicemen and government workers were sent to \"re-education\" camps where many perished.\n\nLike in previous conflicts, there has been speculation without evidence that there were a handful of American pilots captured by the North Koreans and the North Vietnamese who were transferred to the Soviet Union and were never repatriated. \n\nRegardless of regulations determining treatment to prisoners, violations of their rights continue to be reported. Many cases of POW massacres have been reported in recent times, including October 13 massacre in Lebanon by Syrian forces and June 1990 massacre in Sri Lanka.\n\nIn 1991, during the Persian Gulf War, American, British, Italian, and Kuwaiti POWs (mostly crew members of downed aircraft and special forces) were tortured by the Iraqi secret police. An American military doctor, Major Rhonda Cornum, a 37-year-old flight surgeon captured when her Blackhawk UH-60 was shot down, was also subjected to sexual abuse. \n\nDuring the 1990s Yugoslav Wars, Serb paramilitary forces supported by JNA forces killed POWs at Vukovar and Škarbrnja while Bosnian Serb forces killed POWs at Srebrenica.\n\nIn 2001, there were reports concerning two prisoners that India had taken during the Sino-Indian War, Yang Chen and Shih Liang. The two were imprisoned as spies for three years before being interned in a mental asylum in Ranchi, where they spent the next 38 years under a special prisoner status. The last prisoners of Iran–Iraq War (1980–1988) were exchanged in 2003. \n\nNumbers of POWs\n\nThis is a list of nations with the highest number of POWs since the start of World War II, listed in descending order. These are also the highest numbers in any war since the Convention Relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War entered into force on 19 June 1931. The USSR had not signed the Geneva convention. \n\nIn popular culture\n\nMovies & Television\n\n1971\nAndersonville\nAnother Time, Another Place\nAs Far as My Feet Will Carry Me [German: So weit die Füße tragen]\nBlood Oath\nThe Bridge on the River Kwai\nThe Brylcreem Boys\nThe Colditz Story\nDanger Within\nThe Deer Hunter\nEmpire of the Sun\nEscape to Athena\n\"Escape from Sobibor\nFaith of My Fathers\nGrand Illusion\nThe Great Escape\nThe Great Raid\nHanoi Hilton\nHart's War\nHogan's Heroes\nKing Rat\nLife Is Beautiful\n\nThe McKenzie Break\nMerry Christmas, Mr. Lawrence\nMissing in Action\nThe One That Got Away\nParadise Road\nThe Purple Heart\nPrisoner of War (Several films of this title are listed here[http://www.imdb.com/find?sall&q\nprisoner+of+war IMDb Search])\nRambo: First Blood Part II\nRescue Dawn\nSchindler's List\nSlaughterhouse Five\nSome Kind of Hero\nStalag 17\nSummer of My German Soldier\nTea with Mussolini\nTo End All Wars\nUnbroken\nUncommon Valor\nVon Ryan's Express\nThe Pianist\nThe Walking Dead\nWho Goes Next?\nThe Wooden Horse\n\nSongs\n\"Prisoners of War\" by Funker Vogt\n\"Captured\" by Malevhhjjolent Creation\n\"Take No Prisoners\" by Megadeth" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Colditz" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "colditz" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "colditz", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Colditz" }
Who succeeded Theodore Roosevelt as President?	tc_506	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Theodore_Roosevelt.txt", "President_of_the_United_States.txt" ], "title": [ "Theodore Roosevelt", "President of the United States" ], "wiki_context": [ "Theodore Roosevelt Jr. ( ; October 27, 1858 – January 6, 1919) was an American statesman, author, explorer, soldier, naturalist, and reformer who served as the 26th President of the United States from 1901 to 1909. As a leader of the Republican Party during this time, he became a driving force for the Progressive Era in the United States in the early 20th century.\n\nBorn a sickly child with debilitating asthma, Roosevelt successfully overcame his health problems by embracing a strenuous lifestyle. He integrated his exuberant personality, vast range of interests, and world-famous achievements into a \"cowboy\" persona defined by robust masculinity. Home-schooled, he became a lifelong naturalist before attending Harvard College. His first of many books, The Naval War of 1812 (1882), established his reputation as both a learned historian and as a popular writer. Upon entering politics, he became the leader of the reform faction of Republicans in New York's state legislature. Following the deaths of his wife and mother, he took time to grieve by escaping to the wilderness of the American West and operating a cattle ranch in the Dakotas for a time, before returning East to run unsuccessfully for Mayor of New York City in 1886. He served as Assistant Secretary of the Navy under William McKinley, resigning after one year to serve with the Rough Riders, where he gained national fame for courage during the Spanish–American War. Returning a war hero, he was elected governor of New York in 1898. The state party leadership distrusted him, so they took the lead in moving him to the prestigious but powerless role of vice president as McKinley's running mate in the election of 1900. Roosevelt campaigned vigorously across the country, helping McKinley's re-election in a landslide victory based on a platform of peace, prosperity, and conservatism.\n\nFollowing the assassination of President McKinley in September 1901, Roosevelt, at age 42, succeeded to the office, becoming the youngest United States President in history. Leading his party and country into the Progressive Era, he championed his \"Square Deal\" domestic policies, promising the average citizen fairness, breaking of trusts, regulation of railroads, and pure food and drugs. Making conservation a top priority, he established a myriad of new national parks, forests, and monuments intended to preserve the nation's natural resources. In foreign policy, he focused on Central America, where he began construction of the Panama Canal. He greatly expanded the United States Navy, and sent the Great White Fleet on a world tour to project the United States' naval power around the globe. His successful efforts to end the Russo-Japanese War won him the 1906 Nobel Peace Prize.\n\nElected in 1904 to a full term, Roosevelt continued to promote progressive policies, but many of his efforts and much of his legislative agenda were eventually blocked in Congress. Roosevelt successfully groomed his close friend, William Howard Taft, to succeed him in the presidency. After leaving office, Roosevelt went on safari in Africa and toured Europe. Returning to the USA, he became frustrated with Taft's approach as his successor. He tried but failed to win the presidential nomination in 1912. Roosevelt founded his own party, the Progressive, so-called \"Bull Moose\" Party, and called for wide-ranging progressive reforms. The split among Republicans enabled the Democrats to win both the White House and a majority in the Congress in 1912. The Democrats in the South had also gained power by having disenfranchised most blacks (and Republicans) from the political system from 1890 to 1908, fatally weakening the Republican Party across the region, and creating a Solid South dominated by their party alone. Republicans aligned with Taft nationally would control the Republican Party for decades.\n\nFrustrated at home, Roosevelt led a two-year expedition in the Amazon Basin, nearly dying of tropical disease. During World War I, he opposed President Woodrow Wilson for keeping the U.S. out of the war against Germany, and offered his military services, which were never summoned. Although planning to run again for president in 1920, Roosevelt suffered deteriorating health and died in early 1919. Roosevelt has consistently been ranked by scholars as one of the greatest U.S. presidents. His face was carved into Mount Rushmore alongside those of George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, and Abraham Lincoln.\n\nEarly life and family\n\nTheodore Roosevelt Jr. was born on October 27, 1858, at East 20th Street in New York City, New York. He was the second of four children born to socialite Martha Stewart \"Mittie\" Bulloch and glass businessman and philanthropist Theodore Roosevelt Sr. He had an older sister, Anna (nicknamed \"Bamie\"), a younger brother, Elliott, and a younger sister, Corinne. Elliott was later the father of First Lady Anna Eleanor Roosevelt, the wife of Theodore's distant cousin, President Franklin Delano Roosevelt. His paternal grandfather was of Dutch descent; his other ancestry included primarily Scottish and Scots-Irish, English and smaller amounts of German, Welsh, and French. Theodore Sr. was the fifth son of businessman Cornelius Van Schaack \"C.V.S.\" Roosevelt and Margaret Barnhill. Thee's fourth cousin, James Roosevelt I, who was also a businessman, was the father of President Franklin Delano Roosevelt. Mittie was the younger daughter of Major James Stephens Bulloch and Martha P. \"Patsy\" Stewart. Through the Van Schaacks Roosevelt is a descendant of the Schuyler family. \n\nRoosevelt's youth was largely shaped by his poor health and debilitating asthma. He repeatedly experienced sudden nighttime asthma attacks that caused the experience of being smothered to death, which terrified both Theodore and his parents. Doctors had no cure. Nevertheless, he was energetic and mischievously inquisitive. His lifelong interest in zoology began at age seven when he saw a dead seal at a local market; after obtaining the seal's head, Roosevelt and two cousins formed what they called the \"Roosevelt Museum of Natural History\". Having learned the rudiments of taxidermy, he filled his makeshift museum with animals that he killed or caught; he then studied the animals and prepared them for display. At age nine, he recorded his observation of insects in a paper entitled \"The Natural History of Insects\"..\n\nRoosevelt's father significantly influenced him. His father had been a prominent leader in New York's cultural affairs; he helped to found the Metropolitan Museum of Art, and had been especially active in mobilizing support for the Union war effort. Roosevelt wrote: \"My father, Theodore Roosevelt, was the best man I ever knew. He combined strength and courage with gentleness, tenderness, and great unselfishness. He would not tolerate in us children selfishness or cruelty, idleness, cowardice, or untruthfulness.\" Family trips abroad, including tours of Europe in 1869 and 1870, and Egypt in 1872, also had a lasting impact. Hiking with his family in the Alps in 1869, Roosevelt found that he could keep pace with his father. He had discovered the significant benefits of physical exertion to minimize his asthma and bolster his spirits. With encouragement from his father, Roosevelt began a heavy regime of exercise. After being manhandled by two older boys on a camping trip, he found a boxing coach to teach him to fight and strengthen his weakened body.\n\nRoosevelt later articulated the abiding influence of the courageous men he read about, including those in his family: \"I was nervous and timid. Yet from reading of the people I admired—ranging from the soldiers of Valley Forge and Morgan's riflemen, to the heroes of my favorite stories—and from hearing of the feats of my southern forefathers and kinsfolk and from knowing my father, I felt a great admiration for men who were fearless and who could hold their own in the world, and I had a great desire to be like them.\"\n\nEducation\n\nRoosevelt was mostly home schooled by tutors and his parents. Biographer H. W. Brands argues that \"The most obvious drawback to the home schooling Roosevelt received was uneven coverage of the various areas of human knowledge\". He was solid in geography (as a result of self study during travels), and bright in history, biology, French, and German; however, he struggled in mathematics and the classical languages. He entered Harvard College on September 27, 1876; his father told him \"Take care of your morals first, your health next, and finally your studies\".\n\nAfter recovering from devastation over his father's death on February 9, 1878, Roosevelt doubled his activities. He did well in science, philosophy, and rhetoric courses but continued to struggle in Latin and Greek. He studied biology intently and was already an accomplished naturalist and a published ornithologist; he read prodigiously with an almost photographic memory. While at Harvard, Roosevelt participated in rowing and boxing; he was once runner-up in a Harvard boxing tournament. Roosevelt was a member of the Alpha Delta Phi literary society, the Delta Kappa Epsilon fraternity, and the Porcellian Club; he was also an editor of The Harvard Advocate. On June 30, 1880, Roosevelt graduated Phi Beta Kappa (22nd of 177) from Harvard with an A.B. magna cum laude.\n\nHe entered Columbia Law School, and was an able student, but he often found law to be irrational; he spent much of his time writing a book on the War of 1812. Roosevelt eventually became entirely disenchanted with law and diverted his attention to politics at Morton Hall on 59th Street, the headquarters for New York's 21st District Republican Association. When the members of the association encouraged him to run for public office, he dropped out of law school to do so, later saying, \"I intended to be one of the governing class.\"\n\nNaval history and strategy\n\nWhile at Harvard, Roosevelt began a systematic study of the role played by the young US Navy in the War of 1812. Assisted by two uncles, he scrutinized original source materials and official US Navy records. Roosevelt's carefully researched book, published in 1882, remains one of the most important scholarly studies of the war, complete with drawings of individual and combined ship maneuvers, charts depicting the differences in iron throw weights of cannon shot between rival forces, and analyses of the differences between British and American leadership down to the ship-to-ship level. Published after Roosevelt's graduation from Harvard, The Naval War of 1812 was praised for its scholarship and style, and it showed Roosevelt to be a scholar of history. It remains a standard study of the war. Roosevelt waved the Stars and Stripes:\nIt must be but a poor spirited American whose veins do not tingle with pride when he reads of the cruises and fights of the sea-captains, and their grim prowess, which kept the old Yankee flag floating over the waters of the Atlantic for three years, in the teeth of the mightiest naval power the world has ever seen. \n\nWith the publication of The Influence of Sea Power upon History, 1660–1783 in 1890, Navy Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan was immediately hailed as the outstanding naval theorist by the leaders of Europe. Roosevelt paid very close attention to Mahan's emphasis that only a nation with the world's most powerful fleet could dominate the world's oceans, exert its diplomacy to the fullest, and defend its own borders. He incorporated Mahan's ideas into American naval strategy when he served as assistant secretary of the Navy in 1897-98. As president, 1901-1909, Roosevelt made building up a world-class fighting fleet of high priority, sending his \"white fleet\" around the globe in 1908-1909 to make sure all the naval powers understood the United States was now a major player. Roosevelt's fleet still did not challenge the superior British fleet, but it did become dominant in the Western Hemisphere. Building the Panama Canal was designed not just to open Pacific trade to East Coast cities, but also to enable the new Navy to move back and forth across the globe. \n\nFirst marriage and widowerhood\n\nOn his 22nd birthday, Roosevelt married socialite Alice Hathaway Lee, daughter of banker George Cabot Lee and Caroline Watts Haskell. Their daughter, Alice Lee Roosevelt, was born on February 12, 1884. Roosevelt's wife died two days after giving birth due to an undiagnosed case of kidney failure (called Bright's disease at the time), which had been masked by the pregnancy. In his diary, Roosevelt wrote a large 'X' on the page and then, \"The light has gone out of my life.\" His mother, Mittie, had died of typhoid fever eleven hours earlier at 3:00 a.m., in the same house. Distraught, Roosevelt left baby Alice in the care of his sister Bamie in New York City while he grieved. He assumed custody of his daughter when she was three.\n\nRoosevelt also reacted by focusing on work, specifically by re-energizing a legislative investigation into corruption of the New York City government, which arose from a concurrent bill proposing that power be centralized in the mayor's office. For the rest of his life, he rarely spoke about his wife Alice and did not write about her in his autobiography. While working with Joseph Bucklin Bishop on a biography that included a collection of his letters, Roosevelt did not mention his marriage to Alice nor his second marriage to Edith Kermit Carow. \n\nEarly political career\n\nState Assemblyman\n\nRoosevelt was soon put forth as the Republican party's candidate for the District's House seat in Albany. He was a member of the New York State Assembly (New York Co., 21st D.) in 1882, 1883 and 1884. He immediately began making his mark, specifically in corporate corruption issues. He blocked a corrupt effort by financier Jay Gould to lower his taxes. Roosevelt exposed suspected collusion in the matter by Judge Theodore Westbrook, and argued for and received approval for an investigation to proceed, aiming for the impeachment of the judge. The investigation committee rejected impeachment, but Roosevelt had exposed the potential corruption in Albany, and thus assumed a high and positive political profile in multiple New York publications. In 1883, Roosevelt became the Assembly Minority Leader. In 1884, he lost the nomination for Speaker to Titus Sheard by a vote of 41 to 29 in the GOP caucus. Roosevelt was also Chairman of the Committee on Affairs of Cities; he wrote more bills than any other legislator. \n\nPresidential election of 1884\n\nWith numerous presidential hopefuls to choose from, Roosevelt supported Senator George F. Edmunds of Vermont, a colorless reformer. The state GOP preferred the incumbent president, New York City's Chester Arthur, who was known as a spoilsman. Roosevelt fought hard and succeeded in influencing the Manhattan delegates at the state convention in Utica. He then took control of the state convention, bargaining through the night and outmaneuvering the supporters of Arthur and James G. Blaine; he gained a national reputation as a key person in New York State. \n\nRoosevelt attended the 1884 GOP National Convention in Chicago and fought alongside the Mugwump reformers; they lost to the Stalwart faction, who nominated James G. Blaine. In a crucial moment of his budding political career, Roosevelt resisted the demand of the Mugwumps that he bolt from Blaine. He bragged about his one small success: \"We achieved a victory in getting up a combination to beat the Blaine nominee for temporary chairman... To do this needed a mixture of skill, boldness and energy... to get the different factions to come in... to defeat the common foe.\" He was also impressed by an invitation to speak before an audience of ten thousand, the largest crowd he had addressed up to that date. Having gotten a taste of national politics, Roosevelt felt less aspiration for advocacy on the state level; he then retired to his new \"Chimney Butte Ranch\" on the Little Missouri. Roosevelt refused to join other Mugwumps in supporting Grover Cleveland, the governor of New York and the Democratic nominee in the general election. He debated the pros and cons of staying loyal with his political friend, Henry Cabot Lodge. After Blaine won the nomination, Roosevelt had carelessly said that he would give \"hearty support to any decent Democrat\". He distanced himself from the promise, saying that it had not been meant \"for publication\". When a reporter asked if he would support Blaine, Roosevelt replied, \"That question I decline to answer. It is a subject I do not care to talk about.\" In the end, he realized that he had to support Blaine to maintain his role in the GOP, and he did so in a press release on July 19. \n\nIn 1886, Roosevelt was the Republican candidate for mayor of New York City, portraying himself as \"The Cowboy of the Dakotas\". GOP precinct workers warned voters that the independent radical candidate Henry George was leading and that Roosevelt would lose, thus causing a last-minute defection of GOP voters to the Democratic candidate Abram Hewitt. Roosevelt took third place with 27% (60,435 votes). Hewitt won with 41% (90,552 votes), and George was held to 31% (68,110 votes). \n\nCowboy in Dakota\n\nRoosevelt built a second ranch named Elk Horn, thirty-five miles (56 km) north of the boomtown of Medora, North Dakota. On the banks of the Little Missouri, Roosevelt learned to ride western style, rope and hunt; though he earned the respect of the authentic cowboys, they were not overly impressed. However, he identified with the herdsman of history, a man he said possesses, \"few of the emasculated, milk-and-water moralities admired by the pseudo-philanthropists; but he does possess, to a very high degree, the stern, manly qualities that are invaluable to a nation\". He reoriented, and began writing about frontier life for national magazines; he also published three books – Hunting Trips of a Ranchman, Ranch Life and the Hunting-Trail, and The Wilderness Hunter.\n\nAs a deputy sheriff, Roosevelt pursued three outlaws who had stolen his riverboat and escaped north up the Little Missouri. He captured them, but decided against a vigilante hanging; instead, he sent his foreman back by boat, and conveyed the thieves to Dickinson for trial. He assumed guard over them for forty hours without sleep, while reading Leo Tolstoy to keep himself awake. When he ran out of his own books, he read a dime store western that one of the thieves was carrying. On another occasion, while searching for a group of relentless horse thieves, Roosevelt met Seth Bullock, the famous sheriff of Deadwood, South Dakota. The two would remain friends for life.\n\nRoosevelt brought his desire to address the common interests of citizens to the west. He successfully led efforts to organize ranchers to address the problems of overgrazing and other shared concerns; his work resulted in the formation of the Little Missouri Stockmen's Association. He was also compelled to coordinate conservation efforts and was able to form the Boone and Crockett Club, whose primary goal was the conservation of large game animals and their habitats. After the uniquely severe US winter of 1886–87 wiped out his herd of cattle and those of his competitors, and with it over half of his $80,000 investment, Roosevelt returned to the East.\n\nSecond marriage\n\nOn December 2, 1886, Roosevelt married his childhood and family friend, Edith Kermit Carow (August 6, 1861 – September 30, 1948), a daughter of Charles Carow and Gertrude Elizabeth Tyler. The couple married at St George's, Hanover Square in London, England. English diplomat Cecil Arthur Spring Rice, Roosevelt's close friend, served as best man. The couple honeymooned in Europe, and while there, Roosevelt led a group to the summit of Mont Blanc, an achievement that resulted in his induction into the Royal Society of London. They had five children: Theodore \"Ted\" III (1887–1944), Kermit (1889–1943), Ethel (1891–1977), Archibald (1894–1979), and Quentin (1897–1918). At the time of Ted's birth, Roosevelt was both eager and worried for Edith after losing his first wife, Alice, shortly after childbirth.\n\nReentering public life\n\nCivil Service Commission\n\nIn the 1888 presidential election, Roosevelt successfully campaigned, primarily in the Midwest, for Benjamin Harrison. President Harrison appointed Roosevelt to the United States Civil Service Commission, where he served until 1895. While in office, Roosevelt vigorously fought the spoilsmen and demanded enforcement of civil service laws. The New York Sun then described Roosevelt as \"irrepressible, belligerent, and enthusiastic\". Despite Roosevelt's support for Harrison's reelection bid in the presidential election of 1892, the eventual winner, Grover Cleveland (a Bourbon Democrat), reappointed him to the same post. Roosevelt's close friend and biographer, Joseph Bucklin Bishop, described his assault on the spoils system:\n\nNew York City Police Commissioner\n\nIn 1894, a group of reform Republicans approached Roosevelt about running for Mayor of New York again; he declined, mostly due to his wife's resistance to being removed from the Washington social set. Soon after he declined, he realized that he had missed an opportunity to reinvigorate a dormant political career. He retreated to the Dakotas for a time; his wife Edith regretted her role in the decision and vowed that there would be no repeat of it.\n\nRoosevelt became president of the board of the New York City Police Commissioners for two years in 1895 and radically reformed the police force. The New York Police Department (NYPD) was reputed as one of the most corrupt in America; the NYPD's history division records that Roosevelt was \"an iron-willed leader of unimpeachable honesty, (who) brought a reforming zeal to the New York City Police Commission in 1895\". Roosevelt implemented regular inspections of firearms and annual physical exams; he appointed 1,600 recruits based on their physical and mental qualifications, regardless of political affiliation, established Meritorious Service Medals and closed corrupt police hostelries. During his tenure, a Municipal Lodging House was established by the Board of Charities, and Roosevelt required officers to register with the Board; he also had telephones installed in station houses. \n\nIn 1894, Roosevelt met Jacob Riis, the muckraking Evening Sun newspaper journalist who was opening the eyes of New Yorkers to the terrible conditions of the city's millions of poor immigrants with such books as How the Other Half Lives. Riis described how his book affected Roosevelt:\n\nRoosevelt made a habit of walking officers' beats late at night and early in the morning to make sure that they were on duty. He made a concerted effort to uniformly enforce New York's Sunday closing law; in this, he ran up against boss Tom Platt as well as Tammany Hall—he was notified that the Police Commission was being legislated out of existence. Roosevelt chose to defer rather than split with his party. As Governor of New York State before becoming Vice President in March 1901, Roosevelt signed an act replacing the Police Commissioners with a single Police Commissioner. \n\nEmergence as a national figure\n\nAssistant Secretary of the Navy\n\nRoosevelt had demonstrated, through his research and writing, a fascination with naval history; President William McKinley, urged by Roosevelt's close friend Congressman Henry Cabot Lodge, appointed Roosevelt as the Assistant Secretary of the Navy in 1897. Secretary of the Navy John D. Long was more concerned about formalities than functions, was in poor health, and left major decisions to Roosevelt. Roosevelt seized the opportunity and began pressing his national security views regarding the Pacific and the Caribbean on McKinley. Roosevelt was particularly adamant that Spain be ejected from Cuba, to foster the latter's independence and to demonstrate the U.S. resolve to reinforce the Monroe Doctrine. Ten days after the battleship Maine exploded in the harbor of Havana, Cuba, the Secretary left the office and Roosevelt became Acting Secretary for four hours. Roosevelt cabled the Navy worldwide to prepare for war, ordered ammunition and supplies, brought in experts and went to Congress asking for the authority to recruit as many sailors as he wanted. Roosevelt was instrumental in preparing the Navy for the Spanish–American War. Roosevelt had an analytical mind, even as he was itching for war. He explained his priorities to one of the Navy's planners in late 1897:\n\nWar in Cuba\n\nPrior to his service in the Spanish–American War, Roosevelt had already seen reserve military service from 1882 to 1886 with the New York National Guard. Commissioned on August 1, 1882 as a 2nd Lieutenant with B Company, 8th Regiment, he was promoted to Captain and company commander a year later, and he remained in command until he resigned his commission. \n\nWhen the United States and Spain declared war against each other in late April 1898, Roosevelt resigned from his civilian leadership job with the Navy on May 6 and formed the First US Volunteer Cavalry Regiment along with Army Colonel Leonard Wood. Referred to by the press as the \"Rough Riders\", the regiment was one of many temporary units active only for the duration of the war.\n\nAfter securing modern multiple-round Krag smokeless carbines, Lieutenant Colonel Roosevelt arrived on May 15. The regiment trained for several weeks in San Antonio, Texas, and in his autobiography Roosevelt wrote that his prior National Guard experience had been invaluable, in that it enabled him to immediately begin teaching his men basic soldiering skills. The Rough Riders used some standard issue gear and some of their own design, purchased with gift money. Diversity characterized the regiment, which included Ivy Leaguers, professional and amateur athletes, upscale gentlemen as well as cowboys, frontiersmen, Native Americans, hunters, miners, prospectors, former soldiers, tradesmen, and sheriffs. The Rough Riders were part of the cavalry division commanded by former Confederate general Joseph Wheeler. It was one of three divisions in the V Corps under Lieutenant General William Rufus Shafter. Roosevelt and his men departed Tampa on June 13, landed in Daiquiri, Cuba, on June 23, 1898, and marched to Siboney. Wheeler sent parts of the 1st and 10th Regular Cavalry on the lower road northwest and sent the \"Rough Riders\" on the parallel road running along a ridge up from the beach. To throw off his infantry rival, Wheeler left one regiment of his Cavalry Division, the 9th, at Siboney so that he could claim that his move north was only a limited reconnaissance if things went wrong. Roosevelt was promoted to colonel and took command of the regiment when Wood was put in command of the brigade.\n\nThe Rough Riders had a short, minor skirmish known as the Battle of Las Guasimas; they fought their way through Spanish resistance and, together with the Regulars, forced the Spaniards to abandon their positions. \n\nUnder his leadership, the Rough Riders became famous for the charge up Kettle Hill on July 1, 1898, while supporting the regulars. Roosevelt had the only horse, and rode back and forth between rifle pits at the forefront of the advance up Kettle Hill, an advance that he urged despite the absence of any orders from superiors. He was forced to walk up the last part of Kettle Hill, because his horse had been entangled in barbed wire. The victories came at a cost of 200 killed and 1000 wounded.\n\nRoosevelt commented on his role in the battles: \"On the day of the big fight I had to ask my men to do a deed that European military writers consider utterly impossible of performance, that is, to attack over open ground an unshaken infantry armed with the best modern repeating rifles behind a formidable system of entrenchments. The only way to get them to do it in the way it had to be done was to lead them myself.\"\n\nRoosevelt as a veteran\n\nIn August, Roosevelt and other officers demanded that the soldiers be returned home. Roosevelt always recalled the Battle of Kettle Hill (part of the San Juan Heights) as \"the great day of my life\" and \"my crowded hour\". In 2001, Roosevelt was posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor for his actions; he had been nominated during the war, but Army officials, annoyed at his grabbing the headlines, blocked it. After returning to civilian life, Roosevelt preferred to be known as \"Colonel Roosevelt\" or \"The Colonel\". However, \"Teddy\" remained much more popular with the public, even though Roosevelt openly despised it. Men working closely with Roosevelt customarily called him \"Colonel\" or \"Theodore\".\n\nGovernor of New York\n\nAfter leaving the Army, Roosevelt discovered that New York Republicans needed him, because their current governor was tainted by scandal and would probably lose. He campaigned vigorously on his war record, winning the 1898 state election by a historical margin of 1%.\n\nAs governor, Roosevelt learned much about ongoing economic issues and political techniques that later proved valuable in his presidency. He was exposed to the problems of trusts, monopolies, labor relations, and conservation. Chessman argues that Roosevelt's program \"rested firmly upon the concept of the square deal by a neutral state\". The rules for the Square Deal were \"honesty in public affairs, an equitable sharing of privilege and responsibility, and subordination of party and local concerns to the interests of the state at large\".\n\nBy holding twice-daily press conferences—which was an innovation—Roosevelt remained connected with his middle-class political base. Roosevelt successfully pushed the Ford Franchise-Tax bill, which taxed public franchises granted by the state and controlled by corporations, declaring that \"a corporation which derives its powers from the State, should pay to the State a just percentage of its earnings as a return for the privileges it enjoys\". He rejected \"boss\" Thomas C. Platt's worries that this approached Bryanite Socialism, explaining that without it, New York voters might get angry and adopt public ownership of streetcar lines and other franchises.\n\nThe New York state government affected many interests, and the power to make appointments to policy-making positions was a key role for the governor. Platt insisted that he be consulted; Roosevelt appeared to comply, but then made his own decisions. Historians marvel that Roosevelt managed to appoint so many first-rate men with Platt's approval. He even enlisted Platt's help in securing reform, such as in the spring of 1899, when Platt pressured state senators to vote for a civil service bill that the secretary of the Civil Service Reform Association called \"superior to any civil service statute heretofore secured in America\".\n\nChessman argues that as governor, Roosevelt developed the principles that shaped his presidency, especially insistence upon the public responsibility of large corporations, publicity as a first remedy for trusts, regulation of railroad rates, mediation of the conflict of capital and labor, conservation of natural resources and protection of the less fortunate members of society.\n\nVice President\n\nIn November 1899, William McKinley's first Vice-President Garret Hobart died of heart failure. Theodore Roosevelt had anticipated a second term as governor or, alternatively, a cabinet post in the War Department; his friends (especially Henry Cabot Lodge) saw this as a dead end. They supported him for Vice President, and no one else of prominence was actively seeking that job. Some people in the GOP wanted Roosevelt as Vice President. His friends were pushing, and so were his foes. Roosevelt's reforming zeal ran afoul of the insurance and franchise businesses, who had a major voice in the New York GOP. Platt engineered Roosevelt's removal from the state by pressuring him to accept the GOP nomination. McKinley refused to consider Roosevelt as Secretary of War, but saw no risk in making him Vice President. Roosevelt accepted the nomination, although his campaign manager, Mark Hanna, thought Roosevelt was too cowboy-like. While the party executives were pleased with their success in engineering Roosevelt's next political foray, Roosevelt, very much to the contrary, thought he had \"stood the state machine on its head\". Roosevelt proved highly energetic, and an equal match for William Jennings Bryan's famous barnstorming style of campaigning. Roosevelt's theme was that McKinley had brought America peace and prosperity and deserved reelection. In a whirlwind campaign, Roosevelt made 480 stops in 23 states. Roosevelt showed the nation his energy, crisscrossing the land denouncing the radicalism of William Jennings Bryan, in contrast to the heroism of the soldiers and sailors who fought and won the war against Spain. Bryan had strongly supported the war itself, but he denounced the annexation of the Philippines as imperialism, which would spoil America's innocence. Roosevelt countered that it was best for the Filipinos to have stability, and the Americans to have a proud place in the world. With the nation basking in peace and prosperity, the voters gave conservative McKinley an even larger landslide than in 1896. The Republicans won by a landslide.\n\nThe office of Vice President was a powerless sinecure, and did not suit Roosevelt's aggressive temperament. Roosevelt's six months as Vice President (March to September 1901) were uneventful. On September 2, 1901, Roosevelt first publicized an aphorism that thrilled his supporters at the Minnesota State Fair: \"Speak softly and carry a big stick, and you will go far.\"\n\nPresidency (1901–09)\n\nOn September 6, President McKinley was shot by an anarchist acting alone while in Buffalo, New York. Initial reports suggested that his condition was improving, so Roosevelt, after visiting the ailing president, embarked for the west. When McKinley's condition worsened, Roosevelt rushed back. McKinley died on September 14, and Roosevelt was sworn in at the Ansley Wilcox House. The following month, Roosevelt invited Booker T. Washington to dinner at the White House. To his dismay, this sparked a bitter, and at times vicious, reaction across the heavily segregated South. Roosevelt reacted with astonishment and protest, saying that he looked forward to many future dinners with Washington. Upon further reflection, Roosevelt wanted to ensure that this had no effect on political support in the South, and further dinner invitations to Washington were avoided; their next meeting was scheduled as typical business at 10:00am instead. Roosevelt kept McKinley's Cabinet and promised to continue McKinley's policies. In the November 1904 presidential election, Roosevelt won the presidency in his own right in a landslide victory against Alton Brooks Parker. His vice president was Charles Warren Fairbanks of Indiana.\n\nDomestic policies\n\nTrust busting\n\nOne of Roosevelt's first notable acts as president was to deliver a 20,000-word address to Congress asking it to curb the power of large corporations (called \"trusts\"). He also spoke in support of organized labor to further chagrin big business, but to their delight, he endorsed the gold standard, protective tariffs and lower taxes. For his aggressive use of United States antitrust law, he became known as the \"trust-buster\". He brought 40 antitrust suits, and broke up major companies, such as the largest railroad and Standard Oil, the largest oil company. \n\nCoal strike\n\nIn May 1902, anthracite coal miners went on strike, threatening a national energy shortage. After threatening the coal operators with intervention by federal troops, Roosevelt won their agreement to an arbitration of the dispute by a commission, which succeeded in stopping the strike, dropping coal prices and retiring furnaces; the accord with J.P. Morgan resulted in the workers getting more pay for fewer hours, but with no union recognition. Journalist Ray Baker quoted Roosevelt concerning his policy towards capitalists and laborers: \"My action on labor should always be considered in connection with my action as regards capital, and both are reducible to my favorite formula—a square deal for every man.\"\n\nRailroads\n\nRoosevelt thought it was particularly important for the government to supervise the workings of the railway to avoid corruption in interstate commerce related to the shipment of coal and other commodities and goods. The result was enactment of the Hepburn Act in 1906, that established Federal control over railroad rates.\n\nPure Food and drugs\n\nRoosevelt responded to public anger over the abuses in the food packing industry by pushing Congress to pass the Meat Inspection Act of 1906 and the Pure Food and Drug Act. The Meat Inspection Act of 1906 banned misleading labels and preservatives that contained harmful chemicals. The Pure Food and Drug Act banned food and drugs that were impure or falsely labeled from being made, sold, and shipped. Roosevelt also served as honorary president of the American School Hygiene Association from 1907 to 1908, and in 1909 he convened the first White House Conference on the Care of Dependent Children.\n\nBusiness\n\nDuring the Panic of 1907, nearly all agreed that a more flexible system to ensure liquidity was needed—the Republicans sought a response to the money supply through the bankers, whereas the Democrats sought government control; Roosevelt was unsure, but leaned towards the Republican view while continuing to denounce corporate corruption. Nonetheless, in 1910, Roosevelt commented on \"enormously wealthy and economically powerful men\" and suggested \"a graduated inheritance tax on big fortunes... increasing rapidly in amount with the size of the estate\". \n\nRoosevelt was also inclined to extend the regulatory reach of his office. In a moment of frustration, House Speaker Joseph Gurney Cannon commented on Roosevelt's desire for executive branch control in domestic policy-making: \"That fellow at the other end of the avenue wants everything from the birth of Christ to the death of the devil.\" Biographer Brands states, \"Even his friends occasionally wondered whether there wasn't any custom or practice too minor for him to try to regulate, update or otherwise improve.\" In fact, Roosevelt's willingness to exercise his power included attempted rule changes in the game of football; at the Naval Academy, he sought to force retention of martial arts classes and to revise disciplinary rules. He even ordered changes made in the minting of a coin whose design he disliked, and ordered the Government Printing Office to adopt simplified spellings for a core list of 300 words, according to reformers on the Simplified Spelling Board. He was forced to rescind the latter after substantial ridicule from the press and a resolution of protest from the House of Representatives.\n\nConservation\n\nOf all Roosevelt's achievements, he was proudest of his work in conservation of natural resources, and extending Federal protection to land and wildlife. Roosevelt established the United States Forest Service, signed into law the creation of five National Parks, and signed the 1906 Antiquities Act, under which he proclaimed 18 new U.S. National Monuments. He also established the first 51 Bird Reserves, four Game Preserves, and 150 National Forests, including Shoshone National Forest, the nation's first. The area of the United States that he placed under public protection totals approximately 230000000 acre. He worked closely with Gifford Pinchot. \n\nForeign policy\n\nIn the late 1890s, Roosevelt had been an ardent imperialist, and vigorously defended the permanent acquisition of the Philippines in the 1900 election campaign. After the rebellion ended in 1901, he largely lost interest in the Philippines and Asian expansion in general, despite the contradictory opinion of his Secretary of War, William Howard Taft. As president, he primarily focused the nation's overseas ambitions on the Caribbean, especially locations that had a bearing on the defense of his pet project, the Panama Canal.\n\nIn 1905, Roosevelt offered to mediate a treaty to end the Russo-Japanese War. The parties agreed to meet in Portsmouth, New Hampshire and they resolved the final conflict over the division of Sakhalin– Russia took the northern half, and Japan the south; Japan also dropped its demand for an indemnity. Roosevelt won the Nobel Peace Prize for his successful efforts. George E. Mowry concludes that Roosevelt handled the arbitration well, doing an \"excellent job of balancing Russian and Japanese power in the Orient, where the supremacy of either constituted a threat to growing America\". \n\nThe Gentlemen's Agreement of 1907 resolved unpleasant racial tensions with Japan. Tokyo was angered over the segregation of Japanese children in San Francisco schools. The tensions were ended, but Japan also agreed not to allow unskilled workers to emigrate to the U.S.\n\nLatin America\n\nRoosevelt's attention concerning Latin American turmoil was heightened by his plans for building a canal. In December 1902, the Germans, English, and Italians sought to impose a naval blockade against Venezuela in order to force the repayment of delinquent loans. Roosevelt was particularly concerned with the motives of Germany's Kaiser Wilhelm. He succeeded in getting the aggressors to agree to arbitration by a tribunal at The Hague, and averted the Venezuela Crisis of 1902–1903. The latitude granted to the Europeans by the arbiters was in part responsible for the \"Roosevelt Corollary\" to the Monroe Doctrine, which the President issued in 1904: \"Chronic wrongdoing or an impotence which results in a general loosening of the ties of civilized society, may in America, as elsewhere, ultimately require intervention by some civilized nation, and in the Western Hemisphere, the adherence of the United States to the Monroe doctrine may force the United States, however reluctantly, in flagrant cases of such wrongdoing or impotence, to the exercise of an international police power.\"\n\nThe pursuit of an isthmus canal in Central America during this period focused on two possible routes—Nicaragua and Panama, which was then a rebellious district within Colombia. Roosevelt convinced Congress to approve the Panamanian alternative, and a treaty was approved, only to be rejected by the Colombian government. When the Panamanians learned of this, a rebellion followed, was supported by Roosevelt, and succeeded. A treaty with the new Panama government for construction of the canal was then reached in 1903. \n\nIn 1906, following a disputed election, an insurrection ensued in Cuba; Roosevelt sent Taft, the Secretary of War, to monitor the situation; he was convinced that he had the authority to unilaterally authorize Taft to deploy Marines if necessary, without congressional approval.\n\nExamining the work of numerous scholars, Ricard (2014) reports that:\n\nThe most striking evolution in the twenty-first century historiography of Theodore Roosevelt is the switch from a partial arraignment of the imperialist to a quasi-unanimous celebration of the master diplomatist.... [Regarding British relations these studies] have underlined cogently Roosevelt's exceptional statesmanship in the construction of the nascent twentieth-century \"special relationship\". ...The twenty-sixth president's reputation as a brilliant diplomatist and realpolitician has undeniably reached new heights in the twenty-first century...yet, his Philippine policy still prompts criticism. \n\nThe media\n\nBuilding on McKinley's effective use of the press, Roosevelt made the White House the center of news every day, providing interviews and photo opportunities. After noticing the reporters huddled outside the White House in the rain one day, he gave them their own room inside, effectively inventing the presidential press briefing. The grateful press, with unprecedented access to the White House, rewarded Roosevelt with ample coverage.\n\nRoosevelt normally enjoyed very close relationships with the press, which he used to keep in daily contact with his middle-class base. While out of office, he made a living as a writer and magazine editor. He loved talking with intellectuals, authors, and writers. He drew the line, however, at expose-oriented scandal-mongering journalists who, during his term, set magazine subscriptions soaring by their attacks on corrupt politicians, mayors, and corporations. Roosevelt himself was not usually a target, but his speech in 1906 coined the term \"muckraker\" for unscrupulous journalists making wild charges. \"The liar,\" he said, \"is no whit better than the thief, and if his mendacity takes the form of slander he may be worse than most thieves.\" \n\nThe press did briefly target Roosevelt in one instance. Ever since 1904, he had been periodically criticized for the manner in which he facilitated the Panama Canal. In the least judicious use of executive power, according to biographer Brands, Roosevelt, near the end of his term, demanded that the Justice Department bring charges of criminal libel against Joseph Pulitzer's New York World. The publication had accused him of \"deliberate misstatements of fact\" in defense of family members who were criticized as a result of the Panama affair. Though indictment was obtained, the case was ultimately dismissed in federal court—it was not a federal offense, but one enforceable at the state court level. The Justice Department had predicted that result, and had also advised Roosevelt accordingly.\n\nElection of 1904\n\nThe control and management of the Republican Party lay in the hands of chairman Mark Hanna until McKinley's death. Hanna's domination, and potential rivalry for the party's nomination in 1904, began to wane with his own health issues; he died early that year. In deference to Hanna's conservative loyalists, Roosevelt at first offered the party chairmanship to Cornelius Bliss, but he declined. Roosevelt turned to his own man, George B. Cortelyou of New York, the first Secretary of Commerce and Labor. To buttress his hold on the party's nomination, Roosevelt made it clear that anyone opposing Cortelyou would be considered to be opposing the President. The President secured his own nomination, but his preferred vice-presidential running mate, Robert R. Hitt, was not nominated. Charles Warren Fairbanks gained the nomination.\n\nWhile Roosevelt followed the tradition of incumbents in not actively campaigning on the stump, he sought to control the campaign's message through specific instructions to Cortelyou. He also attempted to manage the press's release of White House statements by forming the Ananias Club. Any journalist who repeated a statement made by the president without approval was penalized by restriction of further access.\n\nThe Democratic Party's nominee in 1904 was Alton Brooks Parker. Roosevelt won 56% of the popular vote, and Parker received 38%; Roosevelt also won the Electoral College vote, 336 to 140. Before his inauguration ceremony, Roosevelt declared that he would not serve another term.\n\nSecond-term troubles\n\nRoosevelt, moving to the left of his Republican Party base, called for a series of reforms that were mostly not passed. He sought a national incorporation law (at a time when all corporations had state charters, which varied greatly state by state). He called for a federal income tax, but the Supreme Court in the 1890s had ruled any income tax would require a constitutional amendment. Roosevelt sought an inheritance tax so the great fortunes could not pay out in perpetuity. In the area of labor legislation, Roosevelt called for limits on the use of court injunctions against labor unions during strikes; injunctions were a powerful weapon that mostly helped business. He wanted an employee liability law for industrial injuries (pre-empting state laws). He called for an eight-hour law for federal employees. In other areas he also sought a postal savings system (to provide competition for local banks), and he asked for campaign reform laws. He secured passage of the Hepburn Bill, with help from Democrats, which increased the regulating power of the Interstate Commerce Commission. Eventually some of his proposals were enacted under his successors. When Roosevelt ran for president on an independent Progressive Party ticket in 1912, in addition to these policies he proposed stringent new controls on the court system, especially state courts, to make a more democratic. His court policies in particular caused his anointed successor, William Howard Taft, to lead a counter-crusade that defeated Roosevelt in 1912. \n\nPost-presidency\n\nElection of 1908\n\nBefore leaving office, while attempting to push through the nomination of William Howard Taft for the Presidency in 1908, Roosevelt declared Taft to be a \"genuine progressive\". In January of that year, Roosevelt wrote the following to Taft: \"Dear Will: Do you want any action about those federal officials? I will break their necks with the utmost cheerfulness if you say the word!\" Just weeks later he branded as \"false and malicious\"; the charge was that he was using the offices at his disposal to favor Taft.\n\nTaft easily defeated three-time candidate William Jennings Bryan. Taft promoted a progressivism that stressed the rule of law; he preferred that judges rather than administrators or politicians make the basic decisions about fairness. Taft usually proved to be a less adroit politician than Roosevelt and lacked the energy and personal magnetism, along with the publicity devices, the dedicated supporters, and the broad base of public support that made Roosevelt so formidable. When Roosevelt realized that lowering the tariff would risk creating severe tensions inside the Republican Party by pitting producers (manufacturers and farmers) against merchants and consumers, he stopped talking about the issue. Taft ignored the risks and tackled the tariff boldly, encouraging reformers to fight for lower rates, and then cutting deals with conservative leaders that kept overall rates high. The resulting Payne-Aldrich tariff of 1909 was too high for most reformers, but instead of blaming this on Senator Nelson Wilmarth Aldrich and big businesses, Taft took credit, calling it the best tariff ever. He managed to alienate all sides. While the crisis was building inside the Party, Roosevelt was touring Africa and Europe, to allow Taft to be his own man. \n\nRepublican Party schism\n\nRoosevelt had attempted to refashion Taft into a younger version of himself, but as soon as Taft began to display his individuality, the former president expressed his disenchantment. He was offended on election night when Taft wrote and indicated that his success had been possible not just through the efforts of Roosevelt, but also his brother Charley. Roosevelt was further alienated when Taft, intent on becoming his own man, did not consult him about cabinet appointments. Lodge empathized with Roosevelt, and therefore declined an offer to become Secretary of State.\n\nUnlike Roosevelt, Taft never attacked business or businessmen in his rhetoric. However, he was attentive to the law, so he launched 90 antitrust suits, including one against the largest corporation, US Steel, for an acquisition which Roosevelt had personally approved. Consequently, Taft lost the support of antitrust reformers (who disliked his conservative rhetoric), of big business (which disliked his actions), and of Roosevelt, who felt humiliated by his protégé. More trouble came when Taft fired Roosevelt's friend and appointee Gifford Pinchot, a leading conservationist. Pinchot alleged that Taft's Secretary of the Interior, Richard Ballinger, was in league with big timber interests. Conservationists sided with Pinchot, and Taft alienated yet another vocal constituency. The left wing of the Republican Party began turning against Taft.\n\nSenator Robert M. La Follette Sr. of Wisconsin joined with Pinchot, William White and Hiram Johnson to create the National Progressive Republican League; their objectives were to defeat the power of political bossism at the state level and to replace Taft at the national level. Roosevelt declined to join this group—he was reluctant to leave the GOP. Back from Europe, Roosevelt unexpectedly launched an attack on the courts. He gave a notable speech at Osawatomie, Kansas, in August 1910, which was the most radical of his career and openly initiated his break with the Taft administration and the conservative Republicans. Osawatomie was well known as the base used by John Brown when he launched his bloody attacks on slavery. Advocating a program of \"New Nationalism\", Roosevelt emphasized the priority of labor over capital interests, a need to more effectively control corporate creation and combination, and proposed a ban on corporate political contributions.\n\nRoosevelt shortly thereafter made it clear in a meeting with Lloyd Carpenter Griscom, a New York Republican regular, that Taft no longer enjoyed his support, since he had \"deliberately abandoned\" their previous close relations. Taft was deeply upset. In the 1910 Congressional elections, Democrats won a majority in the House, and significantly diminished the Republicans' hold on the Senate. From 1890 to 1908, Southern legislatures dominated by white conservative Democrats had completed the disenfranchisement of most blacks, and therefore most Republicans in the region, through a series of new constitutions and laws creating barriers to voter registration. Democrats built the Solid South, a one-party region, which was maintained as such nearly into the late 1960s.\n\nThese changes made Taft's reelection in 1912 doubtful. The Republican progressives interpreted the 1910 defeats as compelling argument for the complete reorganization of the party in 1911, and Roosevelt reacted with renewed interest in more personal political endeavors. Despite skepticism of La Follette's new League, Roosevelt expressed general support for progressive principles; between January and April 1911, Roosevelt wrote a series of articles for The Outlook, defending what he called \"the great movement of our day, the progressive nationalist movement against special privilege, and in favor of an honest and efficient political and industrial democracy\".\n\nSmithsonian-Roosevelt African Expedition (1909–10)\n\nIn March 1909, shortly after the end of his presidency, Roosevelt left New York for the Smithsonian-Roosevelt African Expedition, a safari in east and central Africa outfitted by the Smithsonian Institution. Roosevelt's party landed in Mombasa, British East Africa (now Kenya), traveled to the Belgian Congo (now Democratic Republic of the Congo), before following the Nile to Khartoum in modern Sudan. Financed by Andrew Carnegie and by his own writings, Roosevelt's party hunted for specimens for the Smithsonian Institution and for the American Museum of Natural History in New York. The group, led by the legendary hunter-tracker RJ Cunninghame, included scientists from the Smithsonian, and was joined from time to time by Frederick Selous, the famous big game hunter and explorer. Among other items, Roosevelt brought with him four tons of salt for preserving animal hides, a lucky rabbit's foot given to him by boxer John L. Sullivan, a Holland & Holland double rifle in .500/450 donated by a group of 56 admiring Britons, a Winchester 1895 rifle in .405 Winchester, an Army (M1903) Springfield in .30-06 caliber stocked and sighted for him, a Fox No. 12 shotgun, and the famous Pigskin Library, a collection of classics bound in pig leather and transported in a single reinforced trunk. Participants on the expedition included Kermit Roosevelt, Edgar Alexander Mearns, Edmund Heller, and John Alden Loring. \n\nRoosevelt and his companions killed or trapped approximately 11,400 animals, from insects and moles to hippopotamuses and elephants. The 1000 large animals included 512 big game animals, including six rare White rhinos. Tons of salted animals and their skins were shipped to Washington; it took years to mount them all, and the Smithsonian shared many duplicate specimens with other museums. Regarding the large number of animals taken, Roosevelt said, \"I can be condemned only if the existence of the National Museum, the American Museum of Natural History, and all similar zoological institutions are to be condemned\".\n\nAlthough the safari was ostensibly conducted in the name of science, it was as much a political and social event as it was a hunting excursion; Roosevelt interacted with renowned professional hunters and land-owning families, and met many native peoples and local leaders. Roosevelt had become a life member of the National Rifle Association in 1907. He wrote a detailed account of the safari in the book African Game Trails, recounting the excitement of the chase, the people he met, and the flora and fauna he collected in the name of science. \n\nElection of 1912\n\nRepublican primaries and convention\n\nIn November 1911, a group of Ohio Republicans endorsed Roosevelt for the party's nomination for president; the endorsers included James R. Garfield and Dan Hanna. This was notable, as the endorsement was made by leaders of President Taft's home state. Roosevelt conspicuously declined to make a statement requested by Garfield—that he flatly refuse a nomination. Soon thereafter, Roosevelt said, \"I am really sorry for Taft... I am sure he means well, but he means well feebly, and he does not know how! He is utterly unfit for leadership and this is a time when we need leadership.\" In January 1912, Roosevelt declared \"if the people make a draft on me I shall not decline to serve\". Later that year, Roosevelt spoke before the Constitutional Convention in Ohio, openly identifying as a progressive and endorsing progressive reforms—even endorsing popular review of state judicial decisions. In reaction to Roosevelt's proposals for popular overrule of court decisions, Taft said, \"Such extremists are not progressives—they are political emotionalists or neurotics\".\n\nRoosevelt began to envision himself as the savior of the Republican party (the \"GOP\") from defeat in the upcoming Presidential election and declared as a candidate for the GOP banner. In February 1912, Roosevelt announced in Boston, \"I will accept the nomination for president if it is tendered to me. I hope that so far as possible the people may be given the chance through direct primaries to express who shall be the nominee. Both Elihu Root and Henry Cabot Lodge thought that division of the party would lead to its defeat in the next election; Taft believed he was witnessing the end of his political career—it was only a matter of whether he would be defeated by his own party or in the general election.\n\nThe 1912 primaries represented the first extensive use of the presidential primary, a reform achievement of the progressive movement. The primaries in the South, where party regulars dominated, went for Taft, as did results in New York, Indiana, Michigan, Kentucky and Massachusetts. Meanwhile, Roosevelt won in Illinois, Minnesota, Nebraska, South Dakota, California, Maryland and Pennsylvania; Roosevelt also won Taft's home state of Ohio. These primary elections, while demonstrating Roosevelt's continuing popularity with the electorate, were not pivotal. The final credentials of the state delegates at the national convention were determined by the national committee, which was controlled by the party leaders, headed by the incumbent president.\n\nAt the Republican Convention in Chicago, though Taft's victory was not immediate, the hard fought outcome was in his favor. Black delegates from the South played a key role: they voted heavily for Taft and put him over the top. Roosevelt said \"Seven-eights of the negro delegates, and about the same proportion of white men representing negro districts in the South, went for Mr. Taft.\" \n\nThe Progressive (\"Bull Moose\") Party\n\nOnce his defeat as the GOP nominee was probable, Roosevelt announced that he would \"accept the progressive nomination on a progressive platform and I shall fight to the end, win or lose\". At the same time, Roosevelt prophetically said, \"My feeling is that the Democrats will probably win if they nominate a progressive\". After two weeks at the GOP convention, Roosevelt asked his followers to leave the hall, and they moved to the Auditorium Theatre. Then Roosevelt, along with key allies such as Pinchot and Albert Beveridge, created the Progressive Party, structuring it as a permanent organization that would field complete tickets at the presidential and state level. It was popularly known as the \"Bull Moose Party\", after Roosevelt told reporters, \"I'm as fit as a bull moose\". At the convention Roosevelt cried out, \"We stand at Armageddon and we battle for the Lord.\"\n\nRoosevelt's platform echoed his 1907–8 proposals, calling for vigorous government intervention to protect the people from the selfish interests;\n\nMany Progressive party supporters in the North were supporters of civil rights for blacks. Roosevelt did not want to alienate them. On the other hand, his chief advisors in the South insisted the Progressive party had to be a white man's party there. Rival all-white and all-black delegations from four southern states arrived at the Progressive national convention. Roosevelt decided to seat the all-white delegations. He ran a \"lily-white\" campaign in the South in 1912. Nevertheless, he won little support outside mountain Republican strongholds. Out of nearly 1100 counties in the South, Roosevelt won two counties in Alabama, one in Arkansas, seven in North Carolina, three in Georgia, 17 in Tennessee two in Texas, one in Virginia, and none in Florida, Louisiana, Mississippi, or South Carolina. \n\nAssassination attempt\n\nOn October 14, 1912, while campaigning in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, Roosevelt was shot by a saloonkeeper named John Flammang Schrank. The bullet lodged in his chest after penetrating his steel eyeglass case and passing through a thick (50 pages) single-folded copy of the speech he was carrying in his jacket. Roosevelt, as an experienced hunter and anatomist, correctly concluded that since he was not coughing blood, the bullet had not reached his lung, and he declined suggestions to go to the hospital immediately. Instead, he delivered his scheduled speech with blood seeping into his shirt. He spoke for 90 minutes. His opening comments to the gathered crowd were, \"Ladies and gentlemen, I don't know whether you fully understand that I have just been shot, but it takes more than that to kill a Bull Moose.\" Afterwards, probes and an x-ray showed that the bullet had lodged in Roosevelt's chest muscle, but did not penetrate the pleura, and it would be less dangerous to leave it in place. Roosevelt carried the bullet with him for the rest of his life. \n\nBecause of the bullet wound, Roosevelt was taken off the campaign trail in the final weeks of the race (which ended on election day, November 5). Though the other two campaigners stopped their own campaigns during the week Roosevelt was in the hospital, they resumed it once he was released. The bullet lodged in his chest exacerbated his rheumatoid arthritis and prevented him from doing his daily stint of exercises; Roosevelt soon became obese..\n\nElection of 1912\n\nIn an era of party loyalty, Roosevelt failed to move enough Republicans to vote a third party ticket. He won 4.1 million votes (27%), compared to Taft's 3.5 million (23%). The Democratic candidate, New Jersey governor Woodrow Wilson gained 6.3 million votes (42% of the total), enough for a massive landslide in the Electoral College, with 435 electoral votes; Roosevelt won 88 electoral votes, and Taft had 8. Pennsylvania was the only eastern state won by Roosevelt; in the Midwest, he carried Michigan, Minnesota, and South Dakota; in the West, California, and Washington. The South as usual was solidly Democratic. \n\n1913–14 South American Expedition\n\nA friend of Roosevelt's, Father John Augustine Zahm, a Catholic priest and scientist at the University of Notre Dame, had searched for new adventures and found them in the forests of South America. After a briefing of several of his own expeditions, he persuaded Roosevelt to participate in such an expedition in 1912. To finance the expedition, Roosevelt received support from the American Museum of Natural History, promising to bring back many new animal specimens. Roosevelt's popular book, Through the Brazilian Wilderness describes his expedition into the Brazilian jungle in 1913 as a member of the Roosevelt-Rondon Scientific Expedition, co-named after its leader, Brazilian explorer Cândido Rondon. The book describes the scientific discovery, scenic tropical vistas, and exotic flora and fauna experienced during the adventure.\n\nOnce in South America, a new, far more ambitious goal was added: to find the headwaters of the Rio da Duvida, the River of Doubt, and trace it north to the Madeira and thence to the Amazon River. It was later renamed Roosevelt River in honor of the former President. Roosevelt's crew consisted of his son Kermit, naturalist Colonel Rondon, George K. Cherrie, sent by the American Museum of Natural History, Brazilian Lieutenant João Lira, team physician Dr. José Antonio Cajazeira, and 16 skilled paddlers and porters (called camaradas [comrades] in Portuguese). The initial expedition started somewhat tenuously on December 9, 1913, at the height of the rainy season. The trip down the River of Doubt started on February 27, 1914. \n\nDuring the trip down the river, Roosevelt suffered a minor leg wound after he jumped into the river to try to prevent two canoes from smashing against the rocks. The flesh wound he received, however, soon gave him tropical fever that resembled the malaria he had contracted while in Cuba fifteen years before. Because the bullet lodged in his chest from the assassination attempt in 1912 was never removed, his health worsened from the infection. This weakened Roosevelt so greatly that six weeks into the adventure, he had to be attended to day and night by the expedition's physician and his son Kermit. By then, he could not walk because of the infection in his injured leg and an infirmity in the other, which was due to a traffic accident a decade earlier. Roosevelt was riddled with chest pains, fighting a fever that soared to 103 °F (39 °C) and at times made him delirious. Regarding his condition as a threat to the survival of the others, Roosevelt insisted he be left behind to allow the poorly provisioned expedition to proceed as rapidly as it could. Only an appeal by his son persuaded him to continue. \n\nDespite Roosevelt's continued decline and loss of over 50 pounds (20 kg), Commander Rondon reduced the pace of the expedition to allow for his commission's mapmaking and other geographical tasks, which required regular stops to fix the expedition's position by sun-based survey. Upon Roosevelt's return to New York, friends and family were startled by his physical appearance and fatigue. Roosevelt wrote, perhaps prophetically, to a friend that the trip had cut his life short by ten years. For the rest of his few remaining years, he would be plagued by flare-ups of malaria and leg inflammations so severe as to require surgery. Before Roosevelt had even completed his sea voyage home, critics raised doubts over his claims of exploring and navigating a completely uncharted river over 625 miles (1,000 km) long. When he had recovered sufficiently, he addressed a standing-room-only convention organized in Washington, D.C., by the National Geographic Society and satisfactorily defended his claims.\n\nWorld War I\n\nWhen World War I began in 1914, Roosevelt strongly supported the Allies and demanded a harsher policy against Germany, especially regarding submarine warfare. Roosevelt angrily denounced the foreign policy of President Wilson, calling it a failure regarding the atrocities in Belgium and the violations of American rights. In 1916, he campaigned energetically for Charles Evans Hughes and repeatedly denounced Irish-Americans and German-Americans whom he described as unpatriotic, saying they put the interests of Ireland and Germany ahead of America's by supporting neutrality. He insisted that one had to be 100% American, not a \"hyphenated American\" who juggled multiple loyalties. In March 1917, Congress gave Roosevelt the authority to raise a maximum of four divisions similar to the Rough Riders, and Major Frederick Russell Burnham was put in charge of both the general organization and recruitment. However, the Commander-in-chief, President Woodrow Wilson, announced to the press that he would not send Roosevelt and his volunteers to France, but instead would send an American Expeditionary Force under the command of General John J. Pershing. Roosevelt was forced to disband the volunteers. He never forgave Wilson, and quickly published The Foes Of Our Own Household, an indictment of the sitting president. \n\nRoosevelt's attacks on Wilson helped the Republicans win control of Congress in the off-year elections of 1918. Roosevelt was popular enough to contest the 1920 Republican nomination, but his health was broken by 1918, because of the lingering malaria. His family and supporters threw their support behind Roosevelt's old military companion, General Leonard Wood, who was ultimately defeated by Taft supporter Warren G. Harding. Roosevelt's youngest son, Quentin, a pilot with the American forces in France, was shot down behind German lines on July 14, 1918, at the age of 20. It is said that Quentin's death distressed Roosevelt so much that he never recovered from his loss. \n\nDeath\n\nOn the night of January 5, 1919, Roosevelt suffered breathing problems. He felt better after treatment from his physician, Dr. George W. Faller, and went to bed. Roosevelt's last words were \"Please put out that light, James\" to his family servant James Amos. Between 4:00 and 4:15 the next morning, Roosevelt died in his sleep at Sagamore Hill; a blood clot had detached from a vein and traveled to his lungs. Upon receiving word of his death, his son Archibald telegraphed his siblings: \"The old lion is dead.\" Woodrow Wilson's vice president, Thomas R. Marshall, said that \"Death had to take Roosevelt sleeping, for if he had been awake, there would have been a fight.\" Following a private farewell service in the North Room at Sagamore Hill, a simple funeral was held at Christ Episcopal Church in Oyster Bay. Vice President Thomas R. Marshall, Charles Evans Hughes, Warren Harding, Henry Cabot Lodge, and William Howard Taft were among the mourners. The snow-covered procession route to Youngs Memorial Cemetery was lined with spectators and a squad of mounted policemen who had ridden from New York City. Roosevelt was buried on a hillside overlooking Oyster Bay.\n\nPolitical positions and speeches\n\nTheodore Roosevelt introduced the phrase \"Square Deal\" to describe his progressive views in a speech delivered after leaving the office of the Presidency in August 1910. In his broad outline, he stressed equality of opportunity for all citizens and emphasized the importance of fair government regulations of corporate \"special interests\". Roosevelt was one of the first Presidents to make conservation a national issue. In his speech at Osawatomie, Kansas, on August 31, 1910, he outlined his views on conservation of the lands of the United States. He favored using America's natural resources, but opposed wasteful consumption. One of his most lasting legacies was his significant role in the creation of 5 national parks, 18 national monuments, and 150 National Forests, among other works of conservation. Roosevelt was instrumental in conserving about 230 e6acre of American soil among various parks and other federal projects. In the 21st century, historians have paid renewed attention to President Roosevelt as \"The Wilderness Warrior\" and his energetic promotion of the conservation movement. He collaborated with his chief advisor, Gifford Pinchot, the chief of the Forest Service. Pinchot and Roosevelt scheduled a series of news events that garnered nationwide media attention in magazines and newspapers. They used magazine articles, speeches, press conferences, interviews, and especially large-scale presidential commissions. Roosevelt's goal was to encourage his middle-class reform-minded base to add conservation to their list of issues. \n\nPositions on immigration, minorities, civil rights, and eugenics\n\nImmigration\n\nIn an 1894 article on immigration, Roosevelt said, \"We must Americanize in every way, in speech, in political ideas and principles, and in their way of looking at relations between church and state. We welcome the German and the Irishman who becomes an American. We have no use for the German or Irishman who remains such... He must revere only our flag, not only must it come first, but no other flag should even come second.\"\n\nRoosevelt took an active interest in immigration, and had launched an extensive reorganization of the federal immigration depot at Ellis Island within months of assuming the presidency. Roosevelt \"straddled the immigration question\", taking the position that \"we cannot have too much immigration of the right sort, and we should have none whatever of the wrong sort\". As president, his stated preferences were relatively inclusive, across the then diverse and mostly European sources of immigration:\n\nMinorities and Civil Rights\n\nHe was the first president to appoint a Jewish cabinet member—Secretary of Commerce and Labor, Oscar Solomon Straus, who served from 1906 to 1909. Straus, who had helped co-found the Immigration Protective League in 1898, was the Roosevelt Administration's cabinet official overseeing immigration; he helped secure the passage and implementation of the Immigration Act of 1907. \n\nIn 1886, Roosevelt criticized the morals of Indians he had seen:\nI don't go so far as to think that the only good Indians are dead Indians, but I believe nine out of ten are, and I shouldn't like to inquire too closely into the case of the tenth. The most vicious cowboy has more moral principle than the average Indian. Turn three hundred low families of New York into New Jersey, support them for fifty years in vicious idleness, and you will have some idea of what the Indians are. Reckless, revengeful, fiendishly cruel, they rob and murder, not the cowboys, who can take care of themselves, but the defenseless, lone settlers on the plains. \n\nRegarding African-Americans, Roosevelt told a civil rights leader:\nI have not been able to think out any solution of the terrible problem offered by the presence of the Negro on this continent, but of one thing I am sure, and that is that inasmuch as he is here and can neither be killed nor driven away, the only wise and honorable and Christian thing to do is to treat each black man and each white man strictly on his merits as a man, giving him no more and no less than he shows himself worthy to have. \n\nRoosevelt appointed numerous African Americans to federal offices, such as Walter L. Cohen of New Orleans, a leader of the Black and Tan Republican faction, whom Roosevelt named register of the federal land office. \n\nContrasting the European conquest of North America with that of Australia, Roosevelt wrote: \"The natives [of Australia] were so few in number and of such a low type, that they practically offered no resistance at all, being but little more hindrance than an equal number of ferocious beasts\"; however, the Native Americans were \"the most formidable savage foes ever faced ever encountered by colonists of European stock\". He regarded slavery as \"a crime whose shortsighted folly was worse than its guilt\" because it \"brought hordes of African slaves, whose descendants now form immense populations in certain portions of the land\". Contrasting the European conquest of North America with that of South Africa, Roosevelt felt that the fate of the latter's colonists would be different because, unlike the Native American, the African \"neither dies out nor recedes before their advance\", meaning the colonists would likely \"be swallowed up in the overwhelming mass of black barbarism\".\n\nRace suicide and eugenics\n\nRoosevelt was intensely active in warning against race suicide, and held a Neo-Lamarkist viewpoint. When Roosevelt used the word 'race', he meant the entirety of the human race or Americans as one race and culture. Americans, he repeatedly said, were getting too soft and having too few children and were thus dying out. While he agreed with some of the ideas of eugenics, he strongly opposed the core eugenics movement principle that some people should have fewer children. As historian Thomas Dyer explains, Roosevelt, \"Strenuously dissented from the ideas which contravened the race suicide..... And categorically rejected any measure which would not produce enough children to maintain racial integrity and national preeminence.\" Roosevelt attacked the fundamental axioms of eugenics, warning against \"twisted eugenics\". \n\nIn 1914 he said: \"I wish very much that the wrong people could be prevented entirely from breeding; and when the evil nature of these people is sufficiently flagrant, this should be done. Criminals should be sterilized and feeble-minded persons forbidden to leave offspring behind them.\" \n\nWhen Madison Grant published his book The Passing of the Great Race, Roosevelt wrote this to Scribner's Magazine to promote it:\nThe book is a capital book; in purpose, in vision, in grasp of the facts our people most need to realize. It shows an extraordinary range of reading and a wide scholarship. It shows a habit of singular serious thought on the subject of most commanding importance. It shows a fine fearlessness in assailing the popular and mischievous sentimentalities and attractive and corroding falsehoods which few men dare assail. It is the work of an American scholar and gentleman; and all Americans should be sincerely grateful to you for writing it. \n\nRoosevelt was greatly impressed by the performance of ethnic American soldiers in the world war. Biographer Kathleen Dalton says:\nHe insisted to [Madison] Grant that race and ethnicity did not matter because men of foreign parentage across the nation fought well, including Jews....Roosevelt took the final step toward believing in racial equality. At the end of his life TR repudiated the Madison Grants and other racists and promised W.E.B. DuBois to work with more energy for racial justice. \n\nWriter\n\nRoosevelt was a prolific author, writing with passion on subjects ranging from foreign policy to the importance of the national park system. Roosevelt was also an avid reader of poetry. Poet Robert Frost said that Roosevelt \"was our kind. He quoted poetry to me. He knew poetry.\" \n\nAs an editor of Outlook magazine, Roosevelt had weekly access to a large, educated national audience. In all, Roosevelt wrote about 18 books (each in several editions), including his autobiography, The Rough Riders, History of the Naval War of 1812, and others on subjects such as ranching, explorations, and wildlife. His most ambitious book was the four volume narrative The Winning of the West, focused on the American frontier in the 18th and early 19th centuries. Roosevelt said that the American character – indeed a new \"American race\" (ethnic group) had emerged from the heroic wilderness hunters and Indian fighters, acting on the frontier with little government help. Roosevelt also published an account of his 1909–10 African expedition entitled African Game Trails.\n\nIn 1907, Roosevelt became embroiled in a widely publicized literary debate known as the nature fakers controversy. A few years earlier, naturalist John Burroughs had published an article entitled \"Real and Sham Natural History\" in the Atlantic Monthly, attacking popular writers of the day such as Ernest Thompson Seton, Charles G. D. Roberts, and William J. Long for their fantastical representations of wildlife. Roosevelt agreed with Burroughs' criticisms, and published several essays of his own denouncing the booming genre of \"naturalistic\" animal stories as \"yellow journalism of the woods\". It was the President himself who popularized the negative term \"nature faker\" to describe writers who depicted their animal characters with excessive anthropomorphism. \n\nCharacter and beliefs\n\nRoosevelt intensely disliked being called \"Teddy\", and was quick to point out this fact to those who referred to him as such, though it would become widely used by newspapers during his political career. He attended church regularly. In 1907, concerning the motto \"In God We Trust\" on money, he wrote, \"It seems to me eminently unwise to cheapen such a motto by use on coins, just as it would be to cheapen it by use on postage stamps, or in advertisements.\" He was also a member of the Freemasons and Sons of the American Revolution. \n\nRoosevelt had a lifelong interest in pursuing what he called, in an 1899 speech, \"The Strenuous Life\". To this end, he exercised regularly and took up boxing, tennis, hiking, rowing, polo, and horseback riding. As governor of New York, he boxed with sparring partners several times each week, a practice he regularly continued as President until being hit so hard in the face he became blind in his left eye (a fact not made public until many years later). Thereafter, he practiced judo, attaining a third degree brown belt; he also continued his habit of skinny-dipping in the Potomac River during the winter. \n\nRoosevelt was an enthusiastic singlestick player and, according to Harper's Weekly, showed up at a White House reception with his arm bandaged after a bout with General Leonard Wood in 1905. Roosevelt was an avid reader, reading tens of thousands of books, at a rate of several per day in multiple languages. Along with Thomas Jefferson, Roosevelt was the most well-read of all American politicians. \n\nLegacy\n\nHistorians credit Roosevelt for changing the nation's political system by permanently placing the presidency at center stage and making character as important as the issues. His notable accomplishments include trust busting and conservationism. He is a hero to liberals for his proposals in 1907–12 that presaged the modern welfare state of the New Deal Era, and put the environment on the national agenda. Conservatives admire his \"big stick\" diplomacy and commitment to military values. Dalton says, \"Today he is heralded as the architect of the modern presidency, as a world leader who boldly reshaped the office to meet the needs of the new century and redefined America's place in the world.\"\n\nHowever, liberals have criticized him for his interventionist and imperialist approach to nations he considered \"uncivilized\". Conservatives reject his vision of the welfare state and emphasis on the superiority of government over private action. Historians typically rank Roosevelt among the top five presidents. \n\nPersona and masculinity\n\nDalton says Roosevelt is remembered as, \"one of the most picturesque personalities who has ever enlivened the landscape\". His friend, historian Henry Adams, proclaimed:\n\nRecent biographers have stressed Roosevelt's personality. Cooper compared him with Woodrow Wilson, and discovered that both of them played the roles of warrior and priest. Dalton stressed Roosevelt's strenuous life. Sarah Watts examined the desires of the \"Rough Rider in the White House\". Brands calls Roosevelt \"the last romantic\", arguing that his romantic concept of life emerged from his belief that \"physical bravery was the highest virtue and war the ultimate test of bravery\".\n\nRoosevelt as the exemplar of American masculinity has become a major theme. As president, he repeatedly warned men that they were becoming too office-bound, too complacent, too comfortable with physical ease and moral laxity, and were failing in their duties to propagate the race and exhibit masculine vigor. French historian Serge Ricard says, \"the ebullient apostle of the Strenuous Life offers ideal material for a detailed psycho-historical analysis of aggressive manhood in the changing socio-cultural environment of his era; McKinley, Taft, or Wilson would perhaps inadequately serve that purpose\". He promoted competitive sports and the Boy Scouts of America, founded in 1910, as the way forward. Brands shows that heroic displays of bravery were essential to Roosevelt's image and mission:\n\nMemorials\n\nRoosevelt was included with Presidents George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, and Abraham Lincoln at the Mount Rushmore Memorial, designed in 1927 with the approval of Republican President Calvin Coolidge. For his gallantry at San Juan Hill, Roosevelt's commanders recommended him for the Medal of Honor. In the late 1990s, Roosevelt's supporters again recommended the award. On January 16, 2001, President Bill Clinton awarded Theodore Roosevelt the Medal of Honor posthumously for his charge on San Juan Hill, Cuba, during the Spanish–American War. \nThe United States Navy named two ships for Roosevelt: the , a submarine that was in commission from 1961 to 1982, and the , an aircraft carrier that has been on active duty in the Atlantic Fleet since 1986. On November 18, 1956, the United States Postal Service released a 6¢ Liberty Issue postage stamp honoring Roosevelt. A 32¢ stamp was issued on February 3, 1998, as part of the Celebrate the Century stamp sheet series. \n\nIn 2008, Columbia Law School awarded a law degree to Roosevelt, posthumously making him a member of the class of 1882. In Chicago, the city renamed 12th Street to Roosevelt Road four months after Roosevelt's death. \n\nTheodore Roosevelt Association\n\nIn 1919, the Theodore Roosevelt Association (originally known as the Permanent Memorial National Committee) was founded by friends and supporters of Roosevelt. Soon renamed the Roosevelt Memorial Association (RMA), it was chartered in 1920 under Title 36 of the United States Code. In parallel with the RMA was an organization for women, The Women's Theodore Roosevelt Association, that had been founded in 1919 by an act of the New York State Assembly. Both organizations merged in 1956 under the current name. This organization preserved Roosevelt's papers in a 20-year project, preserved his photos and established four public sites: the reconstructed Theodore Roosevelt Birthplace National Historic Site, New York City, dedicated in 1923 and donated to the National Park Service in 1963; Theodore Roosevelt Memorial Park, Oyster Bay, Long Island, New York, dedicated in 1928 and given to the people of Oyster Bay; Theodore Roosevelt Island in the Potomac River in Washington, D.C., given to the federal government in 1932; Sagamore Hill (house), Roosevelt's Oyster Bay home, opened to the public in 1953 and was donated to the National Park Service in 1963 and is now the Sagamore Hill National Historic Site. The organization has its own web site at http://www.theodoreroosevelt.org and maintains a Facebook page at https://www.facebook.com/pages/Theodore-Roosevelt-Association/41852696878.\n\nOther locations named for Roosevelt include Theodore Roosevelt National Park in North Dakota, and Theodore Roosevelt Lake and Theodore Roosevelt Dam in Arizona.\n\nIn popular culture\n\nRoosevelt's \"Speak Softly and Carry a Big Stick\" ideology is still quoted by politicians and columnists in different countries—not only in English, but also in translations to various other languages.\n\nOne lasting, popular legacy of Roosevelt is the stuffed toy bears—teddy bears—named after him following an incident on a hunting trip in Mississippi in 1902. Roosevelt famously refused to shoot a defenseless black bear that had been tied to a tree. After the cartoonist Clifford K. Berryman illustrated the President with a bear, a toy maker heard the story and named the teddy bear after Roosevelt. Bears, and later bear cubs, became closely associated with Roosevelt in political cartoons, despite Roosevelt openly despising being called \"Teddy\". On June 26, 2006, Roosevelt was on the cover of TIME magazine with the lead story, \"The Making of America—Theodore Roosevelt—The 20th Century Express\": \"At home and abroad, Theodore Roosevelt was the locomotive President, the man who drew his flourishing nation into the future.\" \n\nIn 1905, Roosevelt, an admirer of various western figures, named Captain Bill McDonald of the Texas Rangers as his bodyguard and entertained the legendary Texan at the White House. Ironically, in the 1912 campaign, McDonald was Woodrow Wilson's bodyguard. Wilson thereafter named the Democrat McDonald as the U.S. Marshal for the Northern district of Texas. \n\nRoosevelt has been portrayed many times in film and on television. Karl Swenson played him in the 1967 western picture Brighty of the Grand Canyon, the story of a real-life burro who guided Roosevelt on a hunting trip to find mountain lions. Brian Keith played Roosevelt in the 1975 film The Wind and the Lion. He was also portrayed by actor Tom Berenger in 1997 for the TNT movie Rough Riders, a made-for-cable film about his exploits during the Spanish–American War in Cuba. Frank Albertson played Roosevelt in the episode \"Rough and Ready\" of the CBS series My Friend Flicka.\" Robin Williams portrayed Roosevelt in the form of a wax mannequin that comes to life in Night at the Museum and its sequels Night at the Museum: Battle of the Smithsonian and Night at the Museum: Secret of the Tomb.\n\nIn Don Rosa's comic book series The Life and Times of Scrooge McDuck (1994–96), Roosevelt meets and befriends Scrooge McDuck in 1882 when both were visiting the Dakota badlands and later again in 1902 at Fort Duckburg. In Don Rosa's story The Sharpie of the Culebra Cut (2001), collected in The Life and Times of Scrooge McDuck Companion, they meet for the third time during the construction of the Panama Canal in 1906.\n\nMedia\n\n* Theodore Roosevelt was one of the first presidents whose voice was recorded for posterity. Several of his recorded speeches survive. A 4.6-minute voice recording, which preserves Roosevelt's lower timbre ranges particularly well for its time, is among those available from the Michigan State University libraries (this is the 1912 recording of The Right of the People to Rule, recorded by Edison at Carnegie Hall). The audio clip sponsored by the Authentic History Center includes his defense of the Progressive Party in 1912, wherein he proclaims it the \"party of the people\", in contrast with the other major parties.\n\n* [http://www.loc.gov/item/mp76000114/ Roosevelt goes for a ride] in Arch Hoxsey's plane in October 1910\n\nAncestry\n\nSource:", "The President of the United States of America (POTUS) is the elected head of state and head of government of the United States. The president leads the executive branch of the federal government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces.\n\nThe President of the United States is considered one of the world's most powerful people, leading the world's only contemporary superpower. The role includes being the commander-in-chief of the world's most expensive military with the largest nuclear arsenal and leading the nation with the largest economy by real and nominal GDP. The office of the president holds significant hard and soft power both in the United States and abroad.\n\nArticle II of the U.S. Constitution vests the executive power of the United States in the president. The power includes execution of federal law, alongside the responsibility of appointing federal executive, diplomatic, regulatory and judicial officers, and concluding treaties with foreign powers with the advice and consent of the Senate. The president is further empowered to grant federal pardons and reprieves, and to convene and adjourn either or both houses of Congress under extraordinary circumstances. The president is largely responsible for dictating the legislative agenda of the party to which the president is enrolled. The president also directs the foreign and domestic policy of the United States. Since the founding of the United States, the power of the president and the federal government has grown substantially. \n\nThe president is indirectly elected by the people through the Electoral College to a four-year term, and is one of only two nationally elected federal officers, the other being the Vice President of the United States. The Twenty-second Amendment, adopted in 1951, prohibits anyone from ever being elected to the presidency for a third full term. It also prohibits a person from being elected to the presidency more than once if that person previously had served as president, or acting president, for more than two years of another person's term as president. In all, 43 individuals have served 44 presidencies (counting Cleveland's two non-consecutive terms separately) spanning 56 full four-year terms. On January 20, 2009, Barack Obama became the 44th and current president. On November 6, 2012, he was re-elected and is currently serving the 57th term. The next presidential election is scheduled to take place on November 8, 2016; on January 20, 2017, the newly elected president will take office.\n\nOrigin\n\nIn 1776, the Thirteen Colonies, acting through the Second Continental Congress, declared political independence from Great Britain during the American Revolution. The new states, though independent of each other as nation states, recognized the necessity of closely coordinating their efforts against the British. Desiring to avoid anything that remotely resembled a monarchy, Congress negotiated the Articles of Confederation to establish a weak alliance between the states. As a central authority, Congress under the Articles was without any legislative power; it could make its own resolutions, determinations, and regulations, but not any laws, nor any taxes or local commercial regulations enforceable upon citizens. This institutional design reflected the conception of how Americans believed the deposed British system of Crown and Parliament ought to have functioned with respect to the royal dominion: a superintending body for matters that concerned the entire empire. Out from under any monarchy, the states assigned some formerly royal prerogatives (e.g., making war, receiving ambassadors, etc.) to Congress, while severally lodging the rest within their own respective state governments. Only after all the states agreed to a resolution settling competing western land claims did the Articles take effect on March 1, 1781, when Maryland became the final state to ratify them.\n\nIn 1783, the Treaty of Paris secured independence for each of the former colonies. With peace at hand, the states each turned toward their own internal affairs. By 1786, Americans found their continental borders besieged and weak, their respective economies in crises as neighboring states agitated trade rivalries with one another, witnessed their hard currency pouring into foreign markets to pay for imports, their Mediterranean commerce preyed upon by North African pirates, and their foreign-financed Revolutionary War debts unpaid and accruing interest. Civil and political unrest loomed.\n\nFollowing the successful resolution of commercial and fishing disputes between Virginia and Maryland at the Mount Vernon Conference in 1785, Virginia called for a trade conference between all the states, set for September 1786 in Annapolis, Maryland, with an aim toward resolving further-reaching interstate commercial antagonisms. When the convention failed for lack of attendance due to suspicions among most of the other states, the Annapolis delegates called for a convention to offer revisions to the Articles, to be held the next spring in Philadelphia. Prospects for the next convention appeared bleak until James Madison and Edmund Randolph succeeded in securing George Washington's attendance to Philadelphia as a delegate for Virginia.\n\nWhen the Constitutional Convention convened in May 1787, the 12 state delegations in attendance (Rhode Island did not send delegates) brought with them an accumulated experience over a diverse set of institutional arrangements between legislative and executive branches from within their respective state governments. Most states maintained a weak executive without veto or appointment powers, elected annually by the legislature to a single term only, sharing power with an executive council, and countered by a strong legislature. New York offered the greatest exception, having a strong, unitary governor with veto and appointment power elected to a three-year term, and eligible for reelection to an indefinite number of terms thereafter. It was through the closed-door negotiations at Philadelphia that the presidency framed in the U.S. Constitution emerged.\n\nPowers and duties\n\nArticle I legislative role\n\nThe first power the Constitution confers upon the president is the veto. The Presentment Clause requires any bill passed by Congress to be presented to the president before it can become law. Once the legislation has been presented, the president has three options:\n# Sign the legislation; the bill then becomes law.\n# Veto the legislation and return it to Congress, expressing any objections; the bill does not become law, unless each house of Congress votes to override the veto by a two-thirds vote.\n# Take no action. In this instance, the president neither signs nor vetoes the legislation. After 10 days, not counting Sundays, two possible outcomes emerge:\n#* If Congress is still convened, the bill becomes law.\n#* If Congress has adjourned, thus preventing the return of the legislation, the bill does not become law. This latter outcome is known as the pocket veto.\n\nIn 1996, Congress attempted to enhance the president's veto power with the Line Item Veto Act. The legislation empowered the president to sign any spending bill into law while simultaneously striking certain spending items within the bill, particularly any new spending, any amount of discretionary spending, or any new limited tax benefit. Congress could then repass that particular item. If the president then vetoed the new legislation, Congress could override the veto by its ordinary means, a two-thirds vote in both houses. In Clinton v. City of New York, , the U.S. Supreme Court ruled such a legislative alteration of the veto power to be unconstitutional.\n\nArticle II executive powers\n\nWar and foreign affairs powers\n\nPerhaps the most important of all presidential powers is the command of the United States Armed Forces as its commander-in-chief. While the power to declare war is constitutionally vested in Congress, the president has ultimate responsibility for direction and disposition of the military. The present-day operational command of the Armed Forces (belonging to the Department of Defense) is normally exercised through the Secretary of Defense, with assistance of the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, to the Combatant Commands, as outlined in the presidentially approved Unified Command Plan (UCP). The framers of the Constitution took care to limit the president's powers regarding the military; Alexander Hamilton explains this in Federalist No. 69: Congress, pursuant to the War Powers Resolution, must authorize any troop deployments longer than 60 days, although that process relies on triggering mechanisms that have never been employed, rendering it ineffectual. Additionally, Congress provides a check to presidential military power through its control over military spending and regulation. While historically presidents initiated the process for going to war, critics have charged that there have been several conflicts in which presidents did not get official declarations, including Theodore Roosevelt's military move into Panama in 1903, the Korean War, the Vietnam War, and the invasions of Grenada in 1983 and Panama in 1990.\n\nAlong with the armed forces, the president also directs U.S. foreign policy. Through the Department of State and the Department of Defense, the president is responsible for the protection of Americans abroad and of foreign nationals in the United States. The president decides whether to recognize new nations and new governments, and negotiates treaties with other nations, which become binding on the United States when approved by two-thirds vote of the Senate.\n\nAlthough not constitutionally provided, presidents also sometimes employ \"executive agreements\" in foreign relations. These agreements frequently regard administrative policy choices germane to executive power; for example, the extent to which either country presents an armed presence in a given area, how each country will enforce copyright treaties, or how each country will process foreign mail. However, the 20th century witnessed a vast expansion of the use of executive agreements, and critics have challenged the extent of that use as supplanting the treaty process and removing constitutionally prescribed checks and balances over the executive in foreign relations. Supporters counter that the agreements offer a pragmatic solution when the need for swift, secret, and/or concerted action arises.\n\nAdministrative powers\n\nThe president is the head of the executive branch of the federal government and is constitutionally obligated to \"take care that the laws be faithfully executed.\" The executive branch has over four million employees, including members of the military. \n\nPresidents make numerous executive branch appointments: an incoming president may make up to 6,000 before taking office and 8,000 more while serving. Ambassadors, members of the Cabinet, and other federal officers, are all appointed by a president with the \"advice and consent\" of a majority of the Senate. When the Senate is in recess for at least ten days, the president may make recess appointments. Recess appointments are temporary and expire at the end of the next session of the Senate.\n\nThe power of a president to fire executive officials has long been a contentious political issue. Generally, a president may remove purely executive officials at will. However, Congress can curtail and constrain a president's authority to fire commissioners of independent regulatory agencies and certain inferior executive officers by statute. \n\nThe president additionally possesses the ability to direct much of the executive branch through executive orders that are grounded in federal law or constitutionally granted executive power. Executive orders are reviewable by federal courts and can be superseded by federal legislation.\n\nTo manage the growing federal bureaucracy, Presidents have gradually surrounded themselves with many layers of staff, who were eventually organized into the Executive Office of the President of the United States. Within the Executive Office, the President's innermost layer of aides (and their assistants) are located in the White House Office.\n\nJuridical powers\n\nThe president also has the power to nominate federal judges, including members of the United States courts of appeals and the Supreme Court of the United States. However, these nominations do require Senate confirmation. Securing Senate approval can provide a major obstacle for presidents who wish to orient the federal judiciary toward a particular ideological stance. When nominating judges to U.S. district courts, presidents often respect the long-standing tradition of Senatorial courtesy. Presidents may also grant pardons and reprieves, as is often done just before the end of a presidential term, not without controversy.\n\nHistorically, two doctrines concerning executive power have developed that enable the president to exercise executive power with a degree of autonomy. The first is executive privilege, which allows the president to withhold from disclosure any communications made directly to the president in the performance of executive duties. George Washington first claimed privilege when Congress requested to see Chief Justice John Jay's notes from an unpopular treaty negotiation with Great Britain. While not enshrined in the Constitution, or any other law, Washington's action created the precedent for the privilege. When Richard Nixon tried to use executive privilege as a reason for not turning over subpoenaed evidence to Congress during the Watergate scandal, the Supreme Court ruled in United States v. Nixon, , that executive privilege did not apply in cases where a president was attempting to avoid criminal prosecution. When President Bill Clinton attempted to use executive privilege regarding the Lewinsky scandal, the Supreme Court ruled in Clinton v. Jones, , that the privilege also could not be used in civil suits. These cases established the legal precedent that executive privilege is valid, although the exact extent of the privilege has yet to be clearly defined. Additionally, federal courts have allowed this privilege to radiate outward and protect other executive branch employees, but have weakened that protection for those executive branch communications that do not involve the president. \n\nThe state secrets privilege allows the president and the executive branch to withhold information or documents from discovery in legal proceedings if such release would harm national security. Precedent for the privilege arose early in the 19th century when Thomas Jefferson refused to release military documents in the treason trial of Aaron Burr and again in Totten v. United States , when the Supreme Court dismissed a case brought by a former Union spy. However, the privilege was not formally recognized by the U.S. Supreme Court until United States v. Reynolds , where it was held to be a common law evidentiary privilege. Before the September 11 attacks, use of the privilege had been rare, but increasing in frequency. Since 2001, the government has asserted the privilege in more cases and at earlier stages of the litigation, thus in some instances causing dismissal of the suits before reaching the merits of the claims, as in the Ninth Circuit's ruling in Mohamed v. Jeppesen Dataplan, Inc. Critics of the privilege claim its use has become a tool for the government to cover up illegal or embarrassing government actions. \n\nLegislative facilitator\n\nThe Constitution's Ineligibility Clause prevents the President (and all other executive officers) from simultaneously being a member of Congress. Therefore, the president cannot directly introduce legislative proposals for consideration in Congress. However, the president can take an indirect role in shaping legislation, especially if the president's political party has a majority in one or both houses of Congress. For example, the president or other officials of the executive branch may draft legislation and then ask senators or representatives to introduce these drafts into Congress. The president can further influence the legislative branch through constitutionally mandated, periodic reports to Congress. These reports may be either written or oral, but today are given as the State of the Union address, which often outlines the president's legislative proposals for the coming year. Additionally, the president may attempt to have Congress alter proposed legislation by threatening to veto that legislation unless requested changes are made.\n\nIn the 20th century critics began charging that too many legislative and budgetary powers have slid into the hands of presidents that should belong to Congress. As the head of the executive branch, presidents control a vast array of agencies that can issue regulations with little oversight from Congress. One critic charged that presidents could appoint a \"virtual army of 'czars' – each wholly unaccountable to Congress yet tasked with spearheading major policy efforts for the White House.\" Presidents have been criticized for making signing statements when signing congressional legislation about how they understand a bill or plan to execute it. This practice has been criticized by the American Bar Association as unconstitutional. Conservative commentator George Will wrote of an \"increasingly swollen executive branch\" and \"the eclipse of Congress.\"\n\nAccording to Article II, Section 3, Clause 2 of the Constitution, the president may convene either or both houses of Congress. If both houses cannot agree on a date of adjournment, the president may appoint a date for Congress to adjourn.\n\nCeremonial roles\n\nAs head of state, the president can fulfill traditions established by previous presidents. William Howard Taft started the tradition of throwing out the ceremonial first pitch in 1910 at Griffith Stadium, Washington, D.C., on the Washington Senators' Opening Day. Every president since Taft, except for Jimmy Carter, threw out at least one ceremonial first ball or pitch for Opening Day, the All-Star Game, or the World Series, usually with much fanfare. \n\nThe President of the United States has served as the honorary president of the Boy Scouts of America since the founding of the organization. \n\nOther presidential traditions are associated with American holidays. Rutherford B. Hayes began in 1878 the first White House egg rolling for local children. Beginning in 1947 during the Harry S. Truman administration, every Thanksgiving the president is presented with a live domestic turkey during the annual national thanksgiving turkey presentation held at the White House. Since 1989, when the custom of \"pardoning\" the turkey was formalized by George H. W. Bush, the turkey has been taken to a farm where it will live out the rest of its natural life. \n\nPresidential traditions also involve the president's role as head of government. Many outgoing presidents since James Buchanan traditionally give advice to their successor during the presidential transition. Ronald Reagan and his successors have also left a private message on the desk of the Oval Office on Inauguration Day for the incoming president. \n\nDuring a state visit by a foreign head of state, the president typically hosts a State Arrival Ceremony held on the South Lawn, a custom begun by John F. Kennedy in 1961. This is followed by a state dinner given by the president which is held in the State Dining Room later in the evening. \n\nThe modern presidency holds the president as one of the nation's premier celebrities. Some argue that images of the presidency have a tendency to be manipulated by administration public relations officials as well as by presidents themselves. One critic described the presidency as \"propagandized leadership\" which has a \"mesmerizing power surrounding the office.\" Administration public relations managers staged carefully crafted photo-ops of smiling presidents with smiling crowds for television cameras. One critic wrote the image of John F. Kennedy was described as carefully framed \"in rich detail\" which \"drew on the power of myth\" regarding the incident of PT 109 and wrote that Kennedy understood how to use images to further his presidential ambitions. As a result, some political commentators have opined that American voters have unrealistic expectations of presidents: voters expect a president to \"drive the economy, vanquish enemies, lead the free world, comfort tornado victims, heal the national soul and protect borrowers from hidden credit-card fees.\"\n\nCritics of presidency's evolution\n\nMost of the nation's Founding Fathers expected the Congress, which was the first branch of government described in the Constitution, to be the dominant branch of government; they did not expect a strong executive. However, presidential power has shifted over time, which has resulted in claims that the modern presidency has become too powerful, unchecked, unbalanced, and \"monarchist\" in nature. Critic Dana D. Nelson believes presidents over the past thirty years have worked towards \"undivided presidential control of the executive branch and its agencies.\" She criticizes proponents of the unitary executive for expanding \"the many existing uncheckable executive powers – such as executive orders, decrees, memorandums, proclamations, national security directives and legislative signing statements – that already allow presidents to enact a good deal of foreign and domestic policy without aid, interference or consent from Congress.\" Activist Bill Wilson opined that the expanded presidency was \"the greatest threat ever to individual freedom and democratic rule.\"\n\nSelection process\n\nEligibility\n\nArticle II, Section 1, Clause 5 of the Constitution sets the following qualifications for holding the presidency:\n* be a natural-born citizen of the United States;Foreign-born American citizens who met the age and residency requirements at the time the Constitution was adopted were also eligible for the presidency. However, this allowance has since become obsolete.\n* be at least thirty-five years old;\n* be a resident in the United States for at least fourteen years.\n\nThe Twelfth Amendment precludes anyone ineligible to being the president from becoming the vice president.\n\nA person who meets the above qualifications is still disqualified from holding the office of president under any of the following conditions:\n* Under the Twenty-second Amendment, no person can be elected president more than twice. The amendment also specifies that if any eligible person serves as president or acting president for more than two years of a term for which some other eligible person was elected president, the former can only be elected president once. Scholars disagree over whether a person precluded by the Twenty-second Amendment to being elected president is also precluded to being vice president. \n* Under Article I, Section 3, Clause 7, upon conviction in impeachment cases, the Senate has the option of disqualifying convicted individuals from holding federal office, including that of president. \n* Under Section 3 of the Fourteenth Amendment, no person who swore an oath to support the Constitution, and later rebelled against the United States, can become president. However, this disqualification can be lifted by a two-thirds vote of each house of Congress.\n\nCampaigns and nomination\n\nThe modern presidential campaign begins before the primary elections, which the two major political parties use to clear the field of candidates before their national nominating conventions, where the most successful candidate is made the party's nominee for president. Typically, the party's presidential candidate chooses a vice presidential nominee, and this choice is rubber-stamped by the convention. The most common previous profession by U.S. presidents is lawyer. \n\nNominees participate in nationally televised debates, and while the debates are usually restricted to the Democratic and Republican nominees, third party candidates may be invited, such as Ross Perot in the 1992 debates. Nominees campaign across the country to explain their views, convince voters and solicit contributions. Much of the modern electoral process is concerned with winning swing states through frequent visits and mass media advertising drives.\n\nElection and oath\n\nThe president is elected indirectly. A number of electors, collectively known as the Electoral College, officially select the president. On Election Day, voters in each of the states and the District of Columbia cast ballots for these electors. Each state is allocated a number of electors, equal to the size of its delegation in both Houses of Congress combined. Generally, the ticket that wins the most votes in a state wins all of that state's electoral votes and thus has its slate of electors chosen to vote in the Electoral College.\n\nThe winning slate of electors meet at its state's capital on the first Monday after the second Wednesday in December, about six weeks after the election, to vote. They then send a record of that vote to Congress. The vote of the electors is opened by the sitting vice president—acting in that role's capacity as President of the Senate—and read aloud to a joint session of the incoming Congress, which was elected at the same time as the president.\n\nPursuant to the Twentieth Amendment, the president's term of office begins at noon on January 20 of the year following the election. This date, known as Inauguration Day, marks the beginning of the four-year terms of both the president and the vice president. Before executing the powers of the office, a president is constitutionally required to take the presidential oath:\n\nAlthough not required, presidents have traditionally palmed a Bible while swearing the oath and have added, \"So help me God!\" to the end of the oath. Further, although the oath may be administered by any person authorized by law to administer oaths, presidents are traditionally sworn in by the Chief Justice of the United States.\n\nTenure and term limits\n\nThe term of office for president and vice president is four years. George Washington, the first president, set an unofficial precedent of serving only two terms, which subsequent presidents followed until 1940. Before Franklin D. Roosevelt, attempts at a third term were encouraged by supporters of Ulysses S. Grant and Theodore Roosevelt; neither of these attempts succeeded. In 1940, Franklin D. Roosevelt declined to seek a third term, but allowed his political party to \"draft\" him as its presidential candidate and was subsequently elected to a third term. In 1941, the United States entered World War II, leading voters to elect Roosevelt to a fourth term in 1944. But Roosevelt died only 82 days after taking office for the fourth term on 12 April 1945.\n\nAfter the war, and in response to Roosevelt being elected to third and fourth terms, the Twenty-second Amendment was adopted. The amendment bars anyone from being elected president more than twice, or once if that person served more than half of another president's term. Harry S. Truman, president when this amendment was adopted, was exempted from its limitations and briefly sought a third (a second full) term before withdrawing from the 1952 election.\n\nSince the amendment's adoption, four presidents have served two full terms: Dwight D. Eisenhower, Ronald Reagan, Bill Clinton, and George W. Bush. Barack Obama has been elected to a second term, and will complete his term on 20 January 2017, if he does not die or resign before that date. Jimmy Carter and George H. W. Bush sought a second term, but were defeated. Richard Nixon was elected to a second term, but resigned before completing it. Lyndon B. Johnson was the only president under the amendment to be eligible to serve more than two terms in total, having served for only fourteen months following John F. Kennedy's assassination. However, Johnson withdrew from the 1968 Democratic Primary, surprising many Americans. Gerald Ford sought a full term, after serving out the last two years and five months of Nixon's second term, but was not elected.\n\nVacancy or disability\n\nVacancies in the office of President may arise under several possible circumstances: death, resignation and removal from office.\n\nArticle II, Section 4 of the Constitution allows the House of Representatives to impeach high federal officials, including the president, for \"treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors.\" Article I, Section 3, Clause 6 gives the Senate the power to remove impeached officials from office, given a two-thirds vote to convict. The House has thus far impeached two presidents: Andrew Johnson in 1868 and Bill Clinton in 1998. Neither was subsequently convicted by the Senate; however, Johnson was acquitted by just one vote.\n\nUnder Section 3 of the Twenty-fifth Amendment, the president may transfer the presidential powers and duties to the vice president, who then becomes acting president, by transmitting a statement to the Speaker of the House and the President pro tempore of the Senate stating the reasons for the transfer. The president resumes the discharge of the presidential powers and duties upon transmitting, to those two officials, a written declaration stating that resumption. This transfer of power may occur for any reason the president considers appropriate; in 2002 and again in 2007, President George W. Bush briefly transferred presidential authority to Vice President Dick Cheney. In both cases, this was done to accommodate a medical procedure which required Bush to be sedated; both times, Bush returned to duty later the same day. \n\nUnder Section 4 of the Twenty-fifth Amendment, the vice president, in conjunction with a majority of the Cabinet, may transfer the presidential powers and duties from the president to the vice president by transmitting a written declaration to the Speaker of the House and the president pro tempore of the Senate that the president is unable to discharge the presidential powers and duties. If this occurs, then the vice president will assume the presidential powers and duties as acting president; however, the president can declare that no such inability exists and resume the discharge of the presidential powers and duties. If the vice president and Cabinet contest this claim, it is up to Congress, which must meet within two days if not already in session, to decide the merit of the claim.\n\nThe United States Constitution mentions the resignation of the president, but does not regulate its form or the conditions for its validity. Pursuant to federal law, the only valid evidence of the president's resignation is a written instrument to that effect, signed by the president and delivered to the office of the Secretary of State. This has only occurred once, when Richard Nixon delivered a letter to Henry Kissinger to that effect.\n\nSection 1 of the Twenty-fifth Amendment states that the vice president becomes president upon the removal from office, death or resignation of the preceding president. The Presidential Succession Act of 1947 provides that if the offices of President and Vice President are each either vacant or are held by a disabled person, the next officer in the presidential line of succession, the Speaker of the House, becomes acting president. The line then extends to the President pro tempore of the Senate, followed by every member of the Cabinet. These persons must fulfill all eligibility requirements of the office of President to be eligible to become acting president; ineligible individuals are skipped. There has never been a special election for the office of President.\n\nCompensation\n\nSince 2001, the president has earned a $400,000 annual salary, along with a $50,000 annual expense account, a $100,000 nontaxable travel account, and $19,000 for entertainment. The most recent raise in salary was approved by Congress and President Bill Clinton in 1999 and went into effect in 2001.\n\nThe White House in Washington, D.C., serves as the official place of residence for the president. As well as access to the White House staff, facilities available to the president include medical care, recreation, housekeeping, and security services. The government pays for state dinners and other official functions, but the president pays for personal, family and guest dry cleaning and food; the high food bill often amazes new residents. Naval Support Facility Thurmont, popularly known as Camp David, is a mountain-based military camp in Frederick County, Maryland, used as a country retreat and for high alert protection of the president and guests. Blair House, located next to the Eisenhower Executive Office Building at the White House Complex and Lafayette Park, is a complex of four connected townhouses exceeding 70000 sqft of floor space which serves as the president's official guest house and as a secondary residence for the president if needed. \n\nFor ground travel, the president uses the presidential state car, which is an armored limousine built on a heavily modified Cadillac-based chassis.[http://www.secretservice.gov/press/GPA02-09_Limo.pdf New Presidential Limousine enters Secret Service Fleet] U.S. Secret Service Press Release (January 14, 2009) Retrieved on January 20, 2009. One of two identical Boeing VC-25 aircraft, which are extensively modified versions of Boeing 747-200B airliners, serve as long distance travel for the president and are referred to as Air Force One while the president is on board (although any U.S. Air Force aircraft the President is aboard is designated as \"Air Force One\" for the duration of the flight). In-country trips are typically handled with just one of the two planes while overseas trips are handled with both, one primary and one backup. Any civilian aircraft the President is aboard is designated Executive One for the flight. The president also has access to a fleet of thirty-five U.S. Marine Corps helicopters of varying models, designated Marine One when the president is aboard any particular one in the fleet. Flights are typically handled with as many as five helicopters all flying together and frequently swapping positions as to disguise which helicopter the President is actually aboard to any would-be threats.\n\nThe U.S. Secret Service is charged with protecting the sitting president and the first family. As part of their protection, presidents, first ladies, their children and other immediate family members, and other prominent persons and locations are assigned Secret Service codenames. The use of such names was originally for security purposes and dates to a time when sensitive electronic communications were not routinely encrypted; today, the names simply serve for purposes of brevity, clarity, and tradition. \n\nFile:White House lawn (1).tif\|The White House\n\nFile:Camp David 1959.jpg\|Camp David\nFile:Blair House daylight.jpg\|Blair House\nFile:GPA02-09 US SecretService press release 2009 Limousine Page 3 Image.jpg\|State car\nFile:Air Force One over Mt. Rushmore.jpg\|Air Force One\nFile:Marine One (1970).jpg\|Marine One\n\nPost-presidency\n\nBeginning in 1959, all living former presidents were granted a pension, an office, and a staff. The pension has increased numerous times with Congressional approval. Retired presidents now receive a pension based on the salary of the current administration's cabinet secretaries, which was $199,700 each year in 2012. Former presidents who served in Congress may also collect congressional pensions. The Former Presidents Act, as amended, also provides former presidents with travel funds and franking privileges. Prior to 1997, all former presidents, their spouses, and their children until age 16 were protected by the Secret Service until the president's death. In 1997, Congress passed legislation limiting secret service protection to no more than 10 years from the date a president leaves office. On January 10, 2013, President Obama signed legislation reinstating lifetime secret service protection for him, George W. Bush, and all subsequent presidents. A spouse who remarries is no longer eligible for secret service protection.\n\nSome presidents have had significant careers after leaving office. Prominent examples include William Howard Taft's tenure as Chief Justice of the United States and Herbert Hoover's work on government reorganization after World War II. Grover Cleveland, whose bid for reelection failed in 1888, was elected president again four years later in 1892. Two former presidents served in Congress after leaving the White House: John Quincy Adams was elected to the House of Representatives, serving there for seventeen years, and Andrew Johnson returned to the Senate in 1875. John Tyler served in the provisional Congress of the Confederate States during the Civil War and was elected to the Confederate House of Representatives, but died before that body first met.\n\nPresidents may use their predecessors as emissaries to deliver private messages to other nations or as official representatives of the United States to state funerals and other important foreign events. Richard Nixon made multiple foreign trips to countries including China and Russia and was lauded as an elder statesman. Jimmy Carter has become a global human rights campaigner, international arbiter, and election monitor, as well as a recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize. Bill Clinton has also worked as an informal ambassador, most recently in the negotiations that led to the release of two American journalists, Laura Ling and Euna Lee, from North Korea. Clinton has also been active politically since his presidential term ended, working with his wife Hillary on her 2008 and 2016 presidential bids and President Obama on his reelection campaign.\n\nFile:Carter 2k14.tif\|Jimmy Carter39th (1977–81)\nFile:President George H. W.tif\|George H. W. Bush41st (1989–93)\nFile:Clinton 2k15.tif\|Bill Clinton42nd (1993–2001)\nFile:Bush 2k14.tif\|George W. Bush43rd (2001–09)\n\nPresidential libraries\n\nSince Herbert Hoover, each president has created a repository known as a presidential library for preserving and making available his papers, records and other documents and materials. Completed libraries are deeded to and maintained by the National Archives and Records Administration (NARA); the initial funding for building and equipping each library must come from private, non-federal sources. There are currently thirteen presidential libraries in the NARA system. There are also presidential libraries maintained by state governments and private foundations and Universities of Higher Education, such as the Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum, which is run by the State of Illinois, the George H.W. Bush Presidential Library and Museum, which is run by Texas A&M University and the Lyndon Baines Johnson Presidential Library and Museum, which is run by the University of Texas at Austin.\n\nAs many presidents live for many years after leaving office, several of them have personally overseen the building and opening of their own presidential libraries, some even making arrangements for their own burial at the site. Several presidential libraries therefore contain the graves of the president they document, such as the Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum in Yorba Linda, California and the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library in Simi Valley, California. The graves are viewable by the general public visiting these libraries.\n\nTimeline of Presidents" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "W.H. Taft", "Chief Justice Taft", "HoWard TaFt", "Big Bill Taft", "William Taft", "Billy Possum", "Taft Administration", "Howard Taft", "WH Taft", "Presidency of William Howard Taft", "Howard TaFt", "W. H. Taft", "Willliam H. Taft", "William H Taft", "Justice Taft", "William Howard Taft", "President Taft", "Taft (president)", "W H Taft", "HoWard Taft", "William H. 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To whom did the Bee Gees pay tribute in Tapestry Revisited?	tc_507	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "Search" ], "filename": [ "Carole_King.txt" ], "title": [ "Carole King" ], "wiki_context": [ "Carole King (born February 9, 1942) is an American composer and singer-songwriter. \n\nKing's career began in the 1960s when she, along with her then husband Gerry Goffin, wrote more than two dozen chart hits for numerous artists, many of which have become standards. She has continued writing for other artists since then. King's success as a performer in her own right did not come until the 1970s, when she sang her own songs, accompanying herself on the piano, in a series of albums and concerts. After experiencing commercial disappointment with her debut album Writer, King scored her breakthrough with the album Tapestry, which topped the U.S. album chart for 15 weeks in 1971 and remained on the charts for more than six years. \n\nIn 2000 Billboard pop music researcher Joel Whitburn named King the most successful female songwriter of 1955–99 because she wrote or co-wrote 118 pop hits on the Billboard Hot 100. King wrote 61 hits that charted in the UK. In 2005 music historian Stuart Devoy found her the most successful female songwriter on the UK singles charts 1952–2005. \n\nKing has made 25 solo albums, the most successful being Tapestry, which held the record for most weeks at No. 1 by a female artist for more than 20 years. Her most recent non-compilation album was Live at the Troubadour in 2010, a collaboration with James Taylor that reached number 4 on the charts in its first week and has sold over 600,000 copies. Her records sales were estimated at more than 75 million copies worldwide. \n\nShe has won four Grammy Awards and was inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame and the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame for her songwriting. She is the recipient of the 2013 Library of Congress Gershwin Prize for Popular Song, the first woman to be so honored. She is also a 2015 Kennedy Center Honoree.\n\nEarly life and '60s song-writing (1942–69)\n\nKing was born Carol Joan Klein in February 1942 in Manhattan, to a Jewish family. Her mother, Eugenia (née Cammer), was a teacher, and her father, Sidney N. Klein, was a firefighter for the New York City Fire Department. She grew up in Brooklyn, learned the piano when she was four years old, and appeared on The Horn and Hardart Children's Hour with a school friend, performing \"If I Knew You Were Comin' I'd've Baked a Cake\" when she was eight. While at James Madison High School in the 1950s, Carol Klein changed her name to Carole King, formed a band called the Co-Sines, and made demo records with her friend Paul Simon for $25 a session. \n\nHer first official recording was the promotional single \"The Right Girl\", released by ABC-Paramount in 1958, which she wrote and sang to an arrangement by Don Costa. She attended Queens College, where she met Gerry Goffin, who was to become her song-writing partner. When she was 17, they married in a Jewish ceremony on Long Island in August 1959 after King had become pregnant with her first daughter, Louise.Weller, Sheila. Girls Like Us: Carole King, Joni Mitchell, Carly Simon-and the Journey of a Generation New York, Washington Square Press, 2008. ISBN 978-0-7434-9147-1 They left college and took daytime jobs, Goffin working as an assistant chemist and King as a secretary, while writing songs together in the evening at an office belonging to Don Kirshner's Aldon Music at 1650 Broadway opposite the Brill Building. \n\nNeil Sedaka, who'd dated King when he was still in high school, had a hit in 1959 with \"Oh! Carol\". Goffin took the tune and wrote the playful response \"Oh! Neil\", which King recorded and released as a single the same year. The B-side contained the Goffin-King song \"A Very Special Boy\". The single was not a success. After writing The Shirelles' Billboard Hot 100 #1 hit \"Will You Love Me Tomorrow\", the first No.1 hit by a black girl group, Goffin and King gave up the daytime jobs to concentrate on writing. \"Will You Love Me Tomorrow\" became a standard. \n\nDuring the sixties, with King writing the music and Goffin the lyrics, the two wrote a string of classic songs for a variety of artists. King and Goffin were also the songwriting team behind Don Kirshner's Dimension Records, which produced songs including \"Chains\" (later covered by the Beatles), \"The Loco-Motion\" for their babysitter Little Eva, and \"It Might as Well Rain Until September\" which King recorded herself in 1962—her first hit. King would record a few follow-up singles in the wake of \"September\", but none of them sold much, and her already sporadic recording career was entirely abandoned (albeit temporarily) by 1966.\n\nOther songs of King's early period (through 1967) include \"Half Way To Paradise\" [Tony Orlando, covered by Billy Fury in U.K.], \"Take Good Care of My Baby\" for Bobby Vee, \"Up on the Roof\" for the Drifters, \"I'm into Something Good\" for Earl-Jean (later covered by Herman's Hermits), \"One Fine Day\" for The Chiffons, \"Pleasant Valley Sunday\" for the Monkees (inspired by their move to suburban West Orange, New Jersey), and \"(You Make Me Feel Like) A Natural Woman\" for Aretha Franklin. \n\nBy 1968, Goffin and King were divorced and were starting to lose contact. King moved to Laurel Canyon in Los Angeles with her two daughters and reactivated her recording career by forming \"The City\", a music trio consisting of Charles Larkey, her future husband, on bass; Danny Kortchmar on guitar and vocals; and King on piano and vocals. The City produced one album, Now That Everything's Been Said in 1968, but King's reluctance to perform live meant sales were slow. A change of distributors meant that the album was quickly deleted; the group disbanded in 1969. The album was re-discovered by Classic Rock radio in the early 1980s and the cut \"Snow Queen\" received nominal airplay for a few years. Cleveland's WMMS played it every few weeks from 1981 to 1985, and the long-out-of-print LP became sought after by fans of Carole King who like the edgy sound of the music.\n\nSeventies singer-songwriter and Tapestry (1970–79)\n\nWhile in Laurel Canyon, King met James Taylor and Joni Mitchell as well as Toni Stern, with whom she would collaborate on songs. King made her first solo album, Writer, in 1970 for Lou Adler's Ode label, with Taylor playing acoustic guitar and providing backing vocals. It peaked at number 84 in the Billboard Top 200. The same year, King played keyboards on B.B. King's album Indianola Mississippi Seeds.\n\nKing followed Writer in 1971 with Tapestry, which featured new compositions as well as reinterpretations of \"Will You Love Me Tomorrow\" and \"(You Make Me Feel Like) A Natural Woman.\" The album was recorded concurrently with Taylor's Mud Slide Slim, with an overlapping set of musicians including King, Danny Kortchmar and Joni Mitchell. Both albums included \"You've Got a Friend\", which was a number 1 hit for Taylor; King said in a 1972 interview that she \"didn't write it with James or anybody really specifically in mind. But when James heard it he really liked it and wanted to record it\". \n\nTapestry was an instant success. With numerous hit singles – including a Billboard No.1 with \"It's Too Late\" – Tapestry held the No.1 spot for 15 consecutive weeks, remained on the charts for nearly six years, and has sold over 25 million copies worldwide. The album garnered four Grammy Awards including Album of the Year; Best Pop Vocal Performance, Female; Record of the Year (\"It's Too Late,\" lyrics by Toni Stern); and Song of the Year, with King becoming the first woman to win the award (\"You've Got a Friend\"). The album appeared on Rolling Stone's \"500 Greatest Albums of All Time\" list at number 36. In addition, \"It's Too Late\" was number 469 on Rolling Stone's 500 Greatest Songs of All Time.\n\nCarole King: Music was released in December 1971, certified gold on December 9, 1971. It entered the top ten at 8, becoming the first of many weeks Tapestry and Carole King: Music simultaneously occupied the top 10. The following week it rose to No.3 and finally to No.1 on January 1, 1972, staying there for three weeks. The album also spawned a top 10 hit, \"Sweet Seasons\" (US No.9 and AC No.2). Carole King: Music stayed on the Billboard pop album charts for 44 weeks and was eventually certified platinum.\n\nRhymes and Reasons (1972), and Fantasy (1973) followed, each earning gold certifications. Rhymes and Reasons produced another hit, \"Been to Canaan\" (US No.24 and AC No.1), and Fantasy produced two hits, \"Believe in Humanity\" (US No.28) and \"Corazon\" (US No.37 and AC No.5), as well as another song that charted on the Hot 100, \"You Light Up My Life\" (US No.67 and AC No.6).\n\nIn 1973, King performed a free concert in New York City's Central Park with 100,000 attending. \n\nIn September 1974, King released her album Wrap Around Joy, which was certified gold on October 16, 1974, and entered the top ten at 7 on October 19, 1974. Two weeks later it reached 1 and stayed there one week. Wrap Around Joy spawned two hits. \"Jazzman\" was a single and reached 2 on November 9 but fell out of the top ten the next week. \"Nightingale\", a single on December 17, went to No. 9 on March 1, 1975.\n\nIn 1975, King scored songs for the animated TV production of Maurice Sendak's Really Rosie, released as an album by the same name, with lyrics by Sendak.\n\nThoroughbred (1976) was the last studio album she made under the Ode label. In addition to enlisting her long-time friends such as David Crosby, Graham Nash, James Taylor and Waddy Wachtel, King reunited with Gerry Goffin to write four songs for the album. Their partnership continued intermittently. King also did a promotional tour for the album in 1976.\n\nIn 1977, King collaborated with another songwriter Rick Evers on Simple Things, the first release with a new label distributed by Capitol Records. Shortly after that King and Evers were married; he died of a cocaine overdose one year later, while King and daughter Sherry were in Hawaii. Simple Things was her first album that failed to reach the top 10 on the Billboard since Tapestry, and it was her last Gold-certified record by the RIAA, except a compilation entitled Her Greatest Hits the following year, and Live at the Troubadour in 2010.\n\nDespite its Gold-certified record status, Simple Things was named \"The Worst Album of 1977\" by Rolling Stone magazine. Neither Welcome Home (1978), her debut as a co-producer on an album, nor Touch the Sky (1979), reached the top 100. Pearls – The Songs of Goffin and King (1980) yielded a hit single, an updated version of \"One Fine Day\".\n\nLater life and work (1982–present)\n\nKing moved to Atlantic Records for One to One (1982), and Speeding Time in 1983, which was a reunion with Tapestry-era producer Lou Adler. After a well-received concert tour in 1984, journalist Catherine Foster of the Christian Science Monitor dubbed King \"a Queen of Rock\". She also called King's performing \"all spunk and exuberance.\" \n\nIn 1985, she wrote and performed \"Care-A-Lot\", the theme to The Care Bears Movie. Also in 1985, she scored and performed (with David Sanborn) the soundtrack to the Martin Ritt-directed movie Murphy's Romance. The soundtrack, again produced by Adler, included the songs \"Running Lonely\" and \"Love For The Last Time (Theme from 'Murphy's Romance')\", although a soundtrack album was apparently never officially released. King made a cameo appearance in the film as Tillie, a town hall employee.\n\nIn 1989, she returned to Capitol Records and recorded City Streets, with Eric Clapton on two tracks and Branford Marsalis on one, followed by Color of Your Dreams (1993), with an appearance by Slash. Her song, \"Now and Forever\", was in the opening credits to the 1992 movie A League of Their Own, and was nominated for a Grammy Award.\n\nIn 1988, she starred in the off-Broadway production A Minor Incident, and in 1994, she played Mrs Johnstone on Broadway in Blood Brothers. In 1996, she appeared in Brighton Beach Memoirs in Ireland, directed by Peter Sheridan. In 1991, she wrote with Mariah Carey the song \"If It's Over\", for Carey's second album Emotions.\n\nEarly 1991 saw King's song \"It's Too Late\" covered by Dina Carroll on the Quartz album Perfect Timing. The cover topped the dance charts worldwide and reached No.8 in the UK Singles Chart in 1991. It was hoped that King would appear in the filming of the video for the song but she declined, citing her heavy tour schedule at that time.\n\nIn 1997, she wrote \"Wall Of Smiles/Torre De Marfil\" with Soraya for her 1997 album of the same title. the same year King wrote and recorded backing vocals on \"The Reason\" for Celine Dion on her album Let's Talk About Love. The song sold worldwide, including one million in France. It went to number 1 in France, 11 in the UK, and 13 in Ireland. The pair performed a duet on the first VH1 Divas Live benefit concert. King also performed her \"You've Got A Friend\" with Celine Dion, Gloria Estefan and Shania Twain as well as \"(You Make Me Feel Like) A Natural Woman\" with Aretha Franklin and others, including Mariah Carey. In 1998, King wrote \"Anyone at All\", and performed it in You've Got Mail, starring Tom Hanks and Meg Ryan.\n\nIn 2001, King appeared in a television ad for the Gap, with her daughter, Louise Goffin. She performed a new song, \"Love Makes the World\", which became a title track for her studio album in autumn 2001 on her own label, Rockingale, distributed by Koch Records. The album includes songs she wrote for other artists during the mid-1990s and features Celine Dion, Steven Tyler, Babyface and k.d. lang. Love Makes the World went to 158 in the US and No. 86 in the UK. It also debuted on Billboard′s Top Independent Albums chart and Top Internet Albums chart at No. 20. An expanded edition of the album was issued six years later called Love Makes the World Deluxe Edition. It contains a bonus disc with five additional tracks, including a remake of \"Where You Lead (I Will Follow)\" co-written with Toni Stern. \n\nThe same year, King and Stern wrote \"Sayonara Dance\", recorded by Yuki, former lead vocalist of the Japanese band Judy and Mary, on her first solo album Prismic the following year. Also in 2001, King composed a song for All About Chemistry album by Semisonic, with the band's frontman Dan Wilson.\n\nKing launched her Living Room Tour in July 2004 at the Auditorium Theatre in Chicago. That show, along with shows at the Greek Theater in Los Angeles and the Cape Cod Melody Tent (Hyannis, Massachusetts), were recorded as The Living Room Tour in July 2005. The album sold 44,000 copies in its first week in the US, landing at 17 on the Billboard 200, her highest-charting album since 1977. The album also charted at 51 in Australia. It has sold 330,000 copies in the United States. In August 2006 the album re-entered the Billboard 200 at 151. The tour stopped in Canada, Australia and New Zealand. A DVD of the tour, called Welcome to My Living Room, was released in October 2007. \n\nIn November 2007, King toured Japan with Mary J. Blige and Fergie from the Black Eyed Peas. Japanese record labels Sony and Victor reissued most of King's albums, including the works from the late 1970s previously unavailable on compact disc. King recorded a duet of the Goffin/King composition \"Time Don't Run Out on Me\" with Anne Murray on Murray's 2007 album Anne Murray Duets: Friends and Legends. The song had previously been recorded by Murray for her 1984 album Heart Over Mind.\n\nIn 2010, King and James Taylor staged their Troubadour Reunion Tour together, recalling the first time they played at The Troubadour, West Hollywood in 1970. The pair had reunited two and a half years earlier in 2007 with the band they used in 1970 to mark the club's 50th anniversary. They enjoyed it so much that they decided to take the band on the road for 2010. The touring band featured players from that original band: Russ Kunkel, Leland Sklar, and Danny Kortchmar. Also present was King's son-in-law, Robbie Kondor. King played piano and Taylor guitar on each other's songs, and they sang together some of the numbers they were both associated with. The tour began in Australia in March, returning to the United States in May. It was a major commercial success, with King playing to some of the largest audiences of her career. Total ticket sales exceeded 700,000 and the tour grossed over 59 million dollars, making it one of the most successful tours of the year. \n\nDuring their Troubadour Reunion Tour, Carole King released two albums, one with James Taylor. The first, released on April 27, 2010, The Essential Carole King, is a two-disc compilation album. The first disc features many songs Carole King has recorded, mostly her hit singles. The second disc features recordings by other artists of songs that King wrote, most of which made the top 40, and many of which reached No.1. The second album was released on May 4, 2010 and is a collaboration of King and James Taylor called Live at the Troubadour, which debuted at No.4 in the United States with sales of 78,000 copies. Live at the Troubadour has since received a gold record from the RIAA for shipments of over 500,000 copies in the US and has remained on the charts for 34 weeks, currently (2011) charting at No.170 on the Billboard 200. \n\nOn December 22, 2010, Carole King's mother, Eugenia Gingold, died in the Hospice Care unit at Delray Medical Center in Delray Beach, Florida at the age of 94. King stated that the cause of death was congestive heart failure. Gingold's passing was reported by the Miami Herald on January 1, 2011. \n\nIn the fall of 2011 she released A Holiday Carole, which includes holiday standards and new songs written by her daughter Louise Goffin who also is producer for the album. The album would garner a Grammy nomination for Best Traditional Pop Album.\n\nHer autobiography \"A Natural Woman: A Memoir\" was published by Grand Central in the United States on April 10, 2012. It entered the NYT best seller list at No.6. \n\nOn Thursday, May 10, 2012, it was announced that Carole King was retiring from music and that her days in music have most likely ended. King herself also doubted she would ever write another song and said that her 2010 Troubadour Reunion Tour with James Taylor was probably the last tour of her life, saying that it \"was a good way to go out.\" King also stated that she will most likely not be writing or recording any new music. However, on May 22, King wrote on her Facebook page that she never said she was actually retiring, and insisted that she was just \"taking a break.\" Carole campaigned for Idahoan Nicole Lefavour and Barack Obama in 2012.\n\nEarly in December 2012, Carole received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. In 2012 she was given the benefit concert 'Painted Turtle – a celebration of Carole King'. King also did an Australian tour in February 2013. Following the Boston Marathon bombings of April 2013, she performed in Boston with James Taylor in order to help victims of the bombing. \n\nIn late 2012, the Library of Congress announced that Carole King had been named the 2013 recipient of the prestigious Gershwin Prize for Popular Song – the first woman to receive the distinction given to songwriters for a body of work. President and Mrs. Barack Obama hosted the award concert at the White House on May 22, 2013, with the President presenting the prize and reading the citation. In June 2013 she campaigned in Massachusetts for US Representative Ed Markey, the Democratic nominee in a special election for the US Senate to succeed John Kerry who had resigned to become Secretary of State.\n\nCarole King was honored as MusiCares Person of the Year in January 2014. \n\nIn December 2015, King was honored as a Kennedy Center Honoree. She was the headline performer at the British Summer Time Festival held in Hyde Park, London on July 3, 2016, playing all of Tapestry. \n\nActing career\n\nKing has appeared sporadically in acting roles, notably three appearances as guest star on the TV series Gilmore Girls as Sophie, the owner of the Stars Hollow music store. King's song \"Where You Lead (I Will Follow)\" was also the theme song to the series, in a version sung with her daughter Louise. King also appeared as Mrs. Johnstone as a replacement in the original Broadway production of Blood Brothers.\n\nPersonal life and family\n\nKing has been married four times, to Gerry Goffin, Charles Larkey, Rick Evers, and Rick Sorenson. In her 2012 memoir A Natural Woman, King wrote that she had been physically abused by her third husband, Rick Evers, on a regular basis. Evers died of a cocaine overdose days after they broke up in 1978. \n\nHer children are musicians Louise Goffin and Sherry Goffin Kondor, artist Molly Larkey, and Levi Larkey. \n\nFilmography\n\nPolitical and environmental activism\n\nAfter relocating to Idaho in 1977, King became involved in environmental issues. Since 1990, she has been working with the Alliance for the Wild Rockies and other groups towards passage of the Northern Rockies Ecosystem Protection Act (NREPA). King has testified on Capitol Hill three times on behalf of NREPA: in 1994, 2007 and again in 2009. \n\nKing is also politically active in the United States Democratic Party. In 2003, she began campaigning for John Kerry, performing in private homes for caucus delegates during the Democratic primaries. On July 29, 2004, she made a short speech and sang at the Democratic National Convention, about two hours before Kerry made his acceptance speech for the Democratic nomination for President. King continued her support of Kerry throughout the general election. When Kerry was named Secretary of State in 2013 she campaigned with US Representative Ed Markey, the Democratic nominee to succeed Kerry in a special election.\n\nIn 2008, King appeared on the March 18 episode of The Colbert Report, touching on her politics again. She said she was supporting Hillary Clinton, and said the choice had nothing to do with gender. She also said she would have no issues if Barack Obama won the election. Before the show's conclusion, she returned to the stage to perform \"I Feel the Earth Move\". \n\nOn October 6, 2014, she performed at a Democratic fundraiser at the Beverly Wilshire Hotel in Beverly Hills, California, attended by Vice President Joe Biden. \n\nTributes and covers\n\nAn all-star roster of artists paid tribute to King on the 1995 album Tapestry Revisited: A Tribute to Carole King. From the album, Rod Stewart's version of \"So Far Away\" and Celine Dion's cover of \"A Natural Woman\" were both Adult Contemporary chart hits. Other artists who appeared on the album included Amy Grant (\"It's Too Late\"), Richard Marx (\"Beautiful\"), Aretha Franklin (\"You've Got a Friend\"), Faith Hill (\"Where You Lead\"), and the Bee Gees (\"Will You Love Me Tomorrow?\").\n\nFormer Monkee Micky Dolenz released King for a Day, a tribute album consisting of songs written or co-written by King, in 2010. The album includes \"Sometime in the Morning\", a King-penned song originally recorded by the Monkees in 1967. Dolenz had previously recorded another of King's Monkees compositions, \"Porpoise Song\", on his lullaby-themed CD Micky Dolenz Puts You to Sleep. \n\nMany other cover versions of King's work have appeared over the years. Most notably, \"You've Got a Friend\" was a smash No.1 hit for James Taylor in 1971 and a top 40 hit for Roberta Flack and Donny Hathaway that same year. Isaac Hayes recorded \"It's Too Late\" for his No.1 R&B live album Live at the Sahara Tahoe. Barbra Streisand had a top 40 hit in 1972 with \"Where You Lead\" twice – by itself and as part of a live medley with \"Sweet Inspiration\". Streisand also covered \"No Easy Way Down\" in 1971, \"Beautiful\" and \"You've Got A Friend\" in 1972, and \"Being At War With Each Other\" in 1974. Helen Reddy covered two Carole King penned tunes: the first was \"No Sad Song\" in 1971; the second was \"I Can't Hear You No More\" in 1976. The Carpenters recorded King's \"It's Going to Take Some Time\" in 1972, and reached number 12 on the Billboard charts. Richard Carpenter produced a version of \"You've Got A Friend\" with then teen singer/actor Scott Grimes in 1989. Martika had a number 25 hit in 1989 with her version of \"I Feel the Earth Move\", and \"It's Too Late\" reappeared on the Adult Contemporary chart in 1995 by Gloria Estefan. Linda Ronstadt recorded a new version of \"Oh No Not My Baby\" in 1993. Celine Dion also recorded King's song \"The Reason\" on her 1997 album Let's Talk About Love with Carole King singing backup and it became a million-seller and was certified Diamond in France. \"Where You Lead\" (lyrics by Toni Stern) became the title song of TV show Gilmore Girls. Mandy Moore covered \"I Feel the Earth Move\" on her 2003 album, Coverage.\n\nFilm biography\n\nIn 1996, a film very loosely based on King's life, Grace of My Heart, was written and directed by Allison Anders. In the film, an aspiring singer sacrifices her own singing career to write hit songs that launch the careers of other singers. Mirroring King's life, the film follows her from her first break, through the pain of rejection from the recording industry and a bad marriage, to her final triumph in realizing her dream to record her own hit album. \n\nThe story includes material and characters loosely based on King's songwriting colleagues, as well as the singers for whom they wrote their material, and various producers involved in the creative environment that existed at the Brill Building from 1958 to 1964 and in the California music scene from 1965 to 1971.\n\nBroadway musical biography\n\nA musical version of King's life and career debuted in pre-Broadway tryouts in September 2013, in San Francisco, titled Beautiful: The Carole King Musical. It starred Jessie Mueller in the title role. Previews on Broadway began on November 21, 2013 at the Stephen Sondheim Theatre, with the official opening on January 12, 2014. The book is by Douglas McGrath. Reviews were mixed, but generally warm. Jessie Mueller won the Tony Award for Best Performance by an Actress in a Leading Role in a Musical for her portrayal of King, and Brian Ronan won the Tony Award for Best Sound Design of a Musical. \n\nAwards\n\n;Grammy\n\n\|-\n\| rowspan=\"4\" \| 1972\n\| Tapestry\n\| Album of the Year\n\| \n\|-\n\| \"It's Too Late\"\n\| Record of the Year\n\| \n\|-\n\| \"You've Got A Friend\"\n\| Song of the Year\n\| \n\|-\n\| \"Tapestry\"\n\| rowspan=\"2\" \| Best Female Pop Vocal Performance\n\| \n\|-\n\| 1975\n\| \"Jazzman\"\n\| \n\|-\n\| 1976\n\| Really Rosie\n\| Best Album for Children\n\| \n\|-\n\| 1993\n\| \"Now and Forever\"\n\| Best Song Written Specifically for a Motion Picture or Television\n\| \n\|-\n\| 1998\n\| Tapestry\n\| rowspan=\"3\" \| Grammy Hall of Fame\n\| \n\|-\n\| 2002\n\| \"You've Got a Friend\"\n\| \n\|-\n\| 2002\n\| \"It's Too Late\"\n\| \n\|-\n\| 2004\n\| Carole King\n\| Grammy Trustees Award\n\| \n\|-\n\| rowspan=\"2\" \| 2013\n\| Lifetime Achievement\n\| Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award\n\| \n\|-\n\| A Holiday Carole\n\| Best Traditional Pop Vocal Album\n\| \n\|-\n\|\| 2014\n\| Carole King\n\| MusiCares Person of the Year\n\| \n\|}\n\n;Primetime Emmy\n\n\|-\n\| 2000\n\| \"Song of Freedom\"\n\| Outstanding Music and Lyrics\n\| \n\|}\n\n;Satellite\n\n\|-\n\| 1998\n\| \"Anyone At All\"\n\| Best Original Song\n\| \n\|}\n\nRecognition\n\n* In 1987, Goffin and King were inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame.\n* In 1988, Goffin and King received the National Academy of Songwriters Lifetime Achievement Award.\n* In 1990, King was inducted, along with Goffin, into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in the non-performer category for her songwriting achievements.\n* In 2002, King was given the \"Johnny Mercer Award\" by the Songwriters Hall of Fame.\n* In 2004, Goffin and King were awarded the Grammy Trustees Award.\n* King was inducted into the Long Island Music Hall of Fame in 2007. \n* In 2012 (December 3), King received the 2,486th star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.\n* In February 2013, King was awarded the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award.\n* On Tuesday, May 21, 2013, the Library of Congress hosted an invitation-only concert at their Coolidge Auditorium in honor of Carole King. The all-star tribute included performances by Siedah Garrett, Colbie Caillat, Gian Marco, Shelby Lynne, Patti Austin, Arturo Sandoval and King's daughter, Louise Goffin. \n* On the following night, May 22, 2013, at the White House, King was joined by other star performers including James Taylor, Gloria Estefan, Emeli Sandé, Trisha Yearwood, Jesse McCartney and Billy Joel. President Barack Obama presented Carole King with the fourth Library of Congress Gershwin Prize for Popular Song, the first awarded to a woman composer. The White House concert and awards ceremony capped off two days of events celebrating Carole King.\nOn December 6, 2015, she was honored at the Kennedy Center Honors for her lifetime contribution to American culture through the performing arts.\n\nDiscography\n\n Writer (1970)\n* Tapestry (1971)\n* Music (1971)\n* Rhymes & Reasons (1972)\n* Fantasy (1973)\n* Wrap Around Joy (1974)\n* Really Rosie soundtrack (1975)\n* Thoroughbred (1976)\n* Simple Things (1977)\n* Welcome Home (1978)\n* Touch the Sky (1979)\n* Pearls: Songs of Goffin and King (1980)\n* One to One (1982)\n* Speeding Time (1983)\n* City Streets (1989)\n* Colour of Your Dreams (1993)\n* Love Makes the World (2001)\n* A Holiday Carole (2011)\n\nCertifications\n\nThe years given are the years the albums and singles were released, and not necessarily the years in which they achieved their peak.\n\nU.S. Billboard Top 10 Albums\n* 1971 – Tapestry (No.1)\n* 1971 – Music (No.1)\n* 1972 – Rhymes & Reasons (No.2)\n* 1973 – Fantasy (No.6)\n* 1974 – Wrap Around Joy (No.1)\n* 1976 – Thoroughbred (No.3)\n* 2010 – Live at the Troubadour (with James Taylor) (No.4)\n\nU.S. Billboard Top 10 'Pop' Singles\n* 1971 – \"I Feel the Earth Move\" (No.1)\n* 1971 – \"It's Too Late\" (No.1)\n* 1971 – \"Sweet Seasons\" (No.9)\n* 1974 – \"Jazzman\" (No.2)\n* 1974 – \"Nightingale\" (No.9)\n\nAlbums and singles certifications" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Goffin and King", "The City (group)", "Now That Everything's Been Said", "Now That Everything's Been Said (The City Album)", "Carol Joan Klein", "Carole King", "Carole Klein" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "carol joan klein", "city group", "now that everything s been said", "goffin and king", "carole klein", "now that everything s been said city album", "carole king" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "carole king", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Carole King" }
Who was born first, James Caan or Michael Douglas?	tc_508	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "James_Caan.txt" ], "title": [ "James Caan" ], "wiki_context": [ "James Edmund Caan (born March 26, 1940) is an American actor. After early roles in The Glory Guys (1965) and El Dorado (1966), he came to prominence in the 1970s with significant roles in films such as Brian's Song (1971), The Gambler (1974), Funny Lady (1975) and A Bridge Too Far (1977). For his signature role in The Godfather (1972), that of hot-tempered Sonny Corleone, Caan was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor and the corresponding Golden Globe.\n\nCaan's subsequent notable performances include roles in Thief (1981), Misery (1990), For the Boys (1991), Bottle Rocket (1996) and Elf (2003), as well as the role of \"Big Ed\" Deline in the television series Las Vegas (2003-08). He also prominently lent his voice to Cloudy with a Chance of Meatballs (2009) and Cloudy with a Chance of Meatballs 2 (2013) as Tim Lockwood, father of Bill Hader's protagonist Flint Lockwood.\n\nEarly life\n\nCaan was born on March 26, 1940 in the Bronx, New York, the son of Sophie (née Falkenstein) and Arthur Caan, Jewish immigrants from Germany. His father was a meat dealer and butcher. Stated on Inside the Actors Studio, 2000 One of three siblings, Caan grew up in Sunnyside, Queens, New York City. He was educated in New York City, and later attended Michigan State University. He later transferred to Hofstra University in Hempstead, New York, but did not graduate. His classmates at Hofstra included Lainie Kazan and Francis Ford Coppola.\n\nWhile studying at Hofstra University, however, he became intrigued by acting and was interviewed for, accepted to, and graduated from, New York City's Neighborhood Playhouse School of the Theatre. There, one of his instructors was Sanford Meisner. He studied at the school for five years.\n\nCareer\n\n1961–1969\n\nCaan began appearing on Off-Broadway before making his Broadway debut with Blood, Sweat and Stanley Poole. \n\nHe began appearing in such television series as The Untouchables, The Alfred Hitchcock Hour, Kraft Suspense Theatre, Combat!, Ben Casey, Dr. Kildare, The Wide Country, Alcoa Premiere, Route 66, and Naked City. For example, in \"The Hunt\" on episode 9, season 1 for Suspense Theater, he was the young surfer being hunted by the sadistic sheriff played by Mickey Rooney.\n\nIn 1964, he starred as Jewish athlete Jeff Brubaker in the episode \"My Son, the All-American\" of Channing, a drama about college life. His first substantial film role was as a punk hoodlum in the 1964 thriller Lady in a Cage, which starred Olivia de Havilland. In 1965, he landed his first starring role, in Howard Hawks' auto-racing drama Red Line 7000. \n\nIn 1966, Caan appeared as Alan Bourdillion Traherne, aka Mississippi, in El Dorado, with John Wayne and Robert Mitchum. He had a starring role in Robert Altman's second feature film, Countdown, in 1968. In 1969, he had an uncredited role as \"Rupert of Rathskeller\" on the spy sitcom Get Smart. That same year he won praise for his role as a brain-damaged football player in The Rain People (1969) directed by Francis Ford Coppola. \n\n1970–1981\n\nIn 1971, Caan won more acclaim, as dying football player Brian Piccolo, opposite Billy Dee Williams, in the television movie Brian's Song, which was later released theatrically.\n\nThe following year, Coppola cast him as the short-tempered Sonny Corleone in The Godfather. Originally, Caan was cast as Michael Corleone (Sonny's youngest brother); both Coppola and Caan demanded that this role be played by Al Pacino, so Caan could play Sonny instead. Although another actor was already signed to play Sonny, the studio insisted on having Caan, so he remained in the production.\n\nCaan was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for his performance in the film, competing with co-stars Robert Duvall and Pacino. Caan was closely identified with the role for years afterward: \"They called me a wiseguy. I won Italian of the Year twice in New York, and I'm not Italian.... I was denied in a country club once. Oh yeah, the guy sat in front of the board, and he says, 'No, no, he's a wiseguy, been downtown. He's a made guy.' I thought, What? Are you out of your mind?\" \n\nFrom 1971-82, Caan appeared in many films, playing a wide variety of roles. His films included T.R. Baskin, Cinderella Liberty, Freebie and the Bean, The Godfather Part II, Rollerball, a musical turn in Funny Lady, Harry and Walter Go to New York, A Bridge Too Far, Comes A Horseman, and Neil Simon's autobiographical Chapter Two. \n\nIn 1980, Caan directed Hide in Plain Sight, a film about a father searching for his children, who were lost in the Witness Protection Program. Despite critical praise, the film was not a hit with the public.\n\nThe following year, Caan appeared in the neo-noir movie Thief, directed by Michael Mann, in which he played a professional safe cracker. Although the film was not successful at the time, Caan's performance was widely lauded and the movie has acquired something of a cult following. Caan always praised Mann's script and direction and has often said that next to The Godfather, Thief is the movie of which he is proudest. \n\nCaan rejected a series of starring roles that proved to be successes for other actors, including The French Connection, One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest, Close Encounters of the Third Kind, Kramer vs. Kramer, Apocalypse Now, Blade Runner, Love Story and Superman. \n\nIn 1977, Caan rated several of his movies out of ten – The Godfather (10), Freebie and the Bean (4), Cinderella Liberty (8), The Gambler (8), Funny Lady (9), Rollerball (8), The Killer Elite (5), Harry and Walter Go to New York (0), Slither (4), A Bridge Too Far (7), Another Man Another Chance (10) and Kiss Me Goodbye (0). He also liked his performances in The Rain People and Thief. \n\n1982–1986\n\nFrom 1982 to 1987, Caan suffered from depression over his sister's death from leukemia, a growing problem with cocaine, and what he described as \"Hollywood burnout,\" and did not act in any films. In a 1991 interview, Caan claimed that making the 1982 film Kiss Me Goodbye was another factor in this self-imposed exile. Caan called it one of the worst experiences of his life and professed that director Robert Mulligan was the most incompetent filmmaker he had ever worked with. He walked off the set of The Holcroft Covenant and was replaced by Michael Caine. Caan devoted much of his time during these years to coaching children's sports. \n\nComeback\n\nHe returned to acting in 1987, when Coppola cast him as an army platoon sergeant for the 3rd US Infantry Regiment (\"The Old Guard\") in Gardens of Stone, a film that dealt with the effect of the Vietnam War on the United States homefront. \n\nIn 1988 and 1990, Caan starred in the films Alien Nation, Dick Tracy, and Misery, a hit film that marked a comeback for Caan. Since the script for Misery called for Caan's character, Paul Sheldon, to spend most of his time lying in bed, the role was turned down by many of Hollywood's leading actors before Caan accepted.\n\nIn 1992, Caan appeared in Honeymoon in Vegas, and in 1993, he played Coach Winters in The Program, alongside Halle Berry. In 1996, he appeared in Bottle Rocket, and with Arnold Schwarzenegger in Eraser, and later starred as kingpin Frank Colton in Bulletproof with Adam Sandler and Damon Wayans. In 1998, Caan portrayed Philip Marlowe in the HBO film Poodle Springs.\n\nSome of his more recent appearances have been in Mickey Blue Eyes (1999), The Way of the Gun (2000), The Yards (2000), City of Ghosts (2002), Night at the Golden Eagle (2002), Dogville (2003), and Elf (2003).\n\nLas Vegas\n\nIn 2003, Caan auditioned for and won the role of Montecito Hotel/Casino president \"Big Ed\" Deline in Las Vegas. \n\nOn February 27, 2007, Caan announced that he would not return to the show for its fifth season to return to film work; he was replaced by Tom Selleck.\n\nRecent years\n\nCaan played the President of the United States in the 2008 film Get Smart, and had a part in the movie Cloudy with a Chance of Meatballs as the voice of the father of the lead character, Flint.\n\nIn 2012, Caan was a guest-star on the re-imagined Hawaii Five-0, playing opposite his son, Scott Caan who plays Danny \"Danno\" Williams. As of 2010 Caan is the chairman of an Internet company, Openfilm, intended to help upcoming filmmakers. \n\nIn 2013, Caan portrayed Chicago mob kingpin Sy Berman in the Starz TV drama Magic City. The series was not renewed for a third season, and Caan's character was apparently killed by \"the Butcher\" Ben Diamond, his erstwhile protege, portrayed by Danny Huston.\n\nIn 2014, Caan appeared in the dramatic-comedy Preggoland, playing a father who is disappointed with his daughter's lack of ambition, but who becomes overjoyed when she (falsely) announces that she is pregnant. The film premiered in the Special Presentations section at the 2014 Toronto International Film Festival The film had its US premiere on January 28, 2015 at the Santa Barbara International Film Festival.\n\nCrackle premiered The Throwaways on January 30, 2015. Caan plays Lt. Col. Christopher Holden, who leads a team fighting a cyberterrorist. \n\nOn March 13, 2016, Caan appeared with his co-stars at the South by Southwest premiere of The Waiting (2016); the film was picked up for theatrical distribution by Vertical Entertainment in May of 2016. \n\nOther work\n\nCaan is a practicing martial artist. He has trained with Takayuki Kubota for nearly thirty years, earning various ranks. He is a Master (Rank 6 Dan) of Gosoku Ryu Karate and was granted the title of Soke Dai by the International Karate Association. Caan trained the Culver City Police Department in martial arts use.\n\nPersonal life\n\nCaan has been married four times. In 1961, he married Dee Jay Mathis; they divorced in 1966. They had a daughter, Tara (born 1964). Caan's second marriage to Sheila Marie Ryan (a former girlfriend of Elvis Presley) in 1976 was short-lived; they divorced the following year. Their son, Scott Caan, who also is an actor, was born August 23, 1976.\n\nCaan was married to Ingrid Hajek from September 1990 to March 1994; they had a son, Alexander James Caan, born 1991. He married Linda Stokes on October 7, 1995, they have two sons, James Arthur Caan (born 1995) and Jacob Nicholas Caan (born 1998). Caan filed for divorce on November 20, 2009, citing irreconcilable differences.\n\nCaan has described his political views as \"ultra conservative\". \n\nIn 1994 he was arrested after being accused by a Los Angeles rap artist of pulling a gun on him. \n\nAccording to a Fortune Magazine profile of Barry Minkow, during the production of the biopic based on the investor's life, Caan socialized with Minkow and was made aware by him that the financing of the film involved illegally obtained funds. However, nothing suggests Caan had any involvement with any illegalities. \n\nChildren\n\nJames Caan has five children and four grandchildren, three from his eldest daughter Tara and one from his son Scott. \n\nFilmography\n\nFilm\n\nTelevision" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "James Con", "James Caan (actor)", "James Cuhn", "James Kawn", "Caan, James", "Sheila Marie Ryan", "James Kon", "James Caan", "James Kaan", "Jimmy Caan", "James Kohn", "James Konn", "James Conn", "James Cawn" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "james con", "james caan actor", "sheila marie ryan", "james caan", "caan james", "james cawn", "james kohn", "james konn", "james kawn", "james conn", "james kon", "james kaan", "jimmy caan", "james cuhn" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "james caan", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "James Caan" }
In which country is the deepwater ort of Brindisi?	tc_512	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Province_of_Brindisi.txt" ], "title": [ "Province of Brindisi" ], "wiki_context": [ "The Province of Brindisi () is a province in the Apulia region of Italy. Its capital is the city of Brindisi. It has an area of 1839 km2 and a total population of 401,652 (2013). \n\nGeography\n\nThe Province of Brindisi is situated in southeastern Italy, extending for 1839 km2, the second smallest province in the region after the Province of Barletta-Andria-Trani. It was established in 1927 from the ancient Terra d'Otranto. With the Adriatic Sea to the east, it is bordered to the north by the Province of Bari, on the west by the Province of Taranto and to the south-east by the Province of Lecce. The northern, central and western parts are hilly with much woodland, with the Murgia hills of particular note, while to the north-west, bordering on the provinces of Taranto and Bari, it is lower-lying, with the Itria Valley (Valle d'Itria). The maximum height reached within the province is 414 m above sea level, near Selva di Fasano. The other peaks are slightly lower and are all located in the north-central area. The coastline in the province is long, partly rocky, with many alternating stretches of sandy beaches, small harbours and bays. To the south it is essentially flat and widely used for crops.\n\nThe province, according to the Geological Map of Italy, prepared by the Geological Survey of Italy, is composed of various types of land: in the central-southern area there is a predominance of dolomitic limestone (present generally in the inhabited zone from the plateau of the Murgia), small eluvial deposits, sand, clay, grey silted marshes (around Francavilla Fontana, Oria and San Donaci), chalk and limestone, including firm bioclastic limestone and chalky sandstone. \nIn the north-central part, particularly Bari and Mola, the limestone stems from the Late Cretaceous, and deposits of limestone and sandstone date back to the Pleistocene. There are no significant rivers, because of the karst terrain, but there are many springs that gush out producing little streams. As for waterways, the longest is the Canale Reale, which flows into the territory of Villa Castelli, bordering Francavilla Fontana, and flows into the Natural Reserve of Torre Guaceto. Along the coast, in addition, there are numerous ponds and small freshwater lakes, fed by underground aquifers.\n\nDemography\n\nIn 1861, the province had a total population of 114,790 which grew steadily until 2001 when there were 402,422 inhabitants. It has been more or less static since 2002 when there were 401,534 inhabitants, rising to 403,163 in 2010 but falling again to 401,867 in 2011. In 2010, only 7,437 foreigners (1.8% of the total) resided in the province. \n\nMain communes \n\nThere are 20 comunes (Italian: comuni) in the province:\n\nEconomy\n\nSurrounded by vineyards, artichoke and olive groves, the city of Brindisi is a major sailing port for the southern part of Italy. In modern times, the province has experienced a process of change in its economic structure, with a progressive decrease in the weight of industry and growth of the tertiary sector. A significant increase in tourism, due to a good infrastructure has been witnessed, as well as the growth of its artistic and culinary assets. \n\nIn 2011, the principal sectors of activity in the province were commerce (30%), agriculture (27%) and construction (13%), together representing 70% of the economy. The number of enterprises rose to a peak of 38,435 in 2005 but thereafter fell to 37,304 in 2011. Of these, 8,453 were active in agriculture, mainly in crop production with small percentages in the areas of livestock, agricultural support and mixed farming. \n\nLandmarks and attractions\n\nIn addition to Brindisi, Oria, with its 13th century castle built by Frederick II, is one of the province's main attractions. Ostuni, still protected by its town walls, is noted for its citadel, its cathedral and numerous mansions." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Environment of Italy", "Italiën", "Subdivisions of Italy", "Republic of Italy", "ItalY", "ISO 3166-1:IT", "Etymology of Italy", "Itali", "Pollution in Italy", "Administrative divisions of Italy", "Austrian Empire (Italy)", "Italija", "Italie", "Italia", "Italian Republic", "Second Italian Republic", "Italy", "Italio", "Repubblica Italiana", "Itàlia", "The Italian republic" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "second italian republic", "itàlia", "italio", "iso 3166 1 it", "italija", "etymology of italy", "repubblica italiana", "itali", "italia", "austrian empire italy", "republic of italy", "italiën", "subdivisions of italy", "italy", "pollution in italy", "administrative divisions of italy", "italie", "italian republic", "environment of italy" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "italy", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Italy" }
The word anchorman was credited by Sig Michelson about which CBS News Legend?	tc_514	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "CBS_News.txt" ], "title": [ "CBS News" ], "wiki_context": [ "CBS News is the news division of American television and radio service CBS. The president of CBS News is David Rhodes. CBS News' broadcasts include the CBS Evening News, CBS This Morning, news magazine programs CBS Sunday Morning, 60 Minutes and 48 Hours, and Sunday morning political affairs program Face the Nation. CBS operates a 24-hour news network called CBSN, the first live anchored 24-hour streaming news network that is exclusively online and on smart devices.\n\nHistory\n\nIn 1929 the Columbia Broadcasting System began making regular radio news broadcasts — five-minute summaries taken from reports from the United Press, one of the three wire services that supplied newspapers with national and international news. In December 1930 CBS chief William S. Paley hired journalist Paul W. White away from United Press as CBS's news editor. Paley put the radio network's news operation at the same level as entertainment, and authorized White to interrupt programming if events warranted. Along with other networks, CBS chafed at the breaking news embargo imposed upon radio by the wire services, which prevented them from using bulletins until they first appeared in print. CBS disregarded an embargo when it broke the story of the Lindbergh kidnapping in 1932, using live on-the-air reporting. Radio networks scooped print outlets with news of the 1932 presidential election. \n\nIn March 1933 White was named vice president and general manager in charge of news at CBS. As the first head of CBS News, he began to build an organization that soon established a legendary reputation.\n\nIn 1935 White hired Edward R. Murrow, and sent him to London in 1937 to run CBS Radio's European operation. White led a staff that would come to include Charles Collingwood, William L. Shirer, Eric Sevareid, John Charles Daly, Joseph C. Harsch Cecil Brown, Elmer Davis, Quincy Howe, H. V. Kaltenborn and Robert Trout. \n\n\"CBS was getting its ducks in a row for the biggest news story in history, World War II\", wrote radio historian John Dunning.\n\nTelevision\n\nUpon becoming commercial station WCBW (channel 2, now WCBS-TV) in 1941, the pioneer CBS television station in New York City broadcast two daily news programs, at 2:30 and 7:30 p.m. weekdays, anchored by Richard Hubbell. Most of the newscasts featured Hubbell reading a script with only occasional cutaways to a map or still photograph. When Pearl Harbor was bombed on December 7, 1941, WCBW (which was usually off the air on Sunday to give the engineers a day off), took to the air at 8:45 p.m. with an extensive special report. The national emergency even broke down the unspoken wall between CBS radio and television. WCBW executives convinced radio announcers and experts such as George Fielding Elliot and Linton Wells to come down to the Grand Central studios during the evening and give information and commentary on the attack. The WCBW special report that night lasted less than 90 minutes. But that special broadcast pushed the limits of live television in 1941 and opened up new possibilities for future broadcasts. As CBS wrote in a special report to the FCC, the unscheduled live news broadcast on December 7 \"was unquestionably the most stimulating challenge and marked the greatest advance of any single problem faced up to that time.\"\n\nAdditional newscasts were scheduled in the early days of the war. In May 1942, WCBW (like almost all television stations) sharply cut back its live program schedule and the newscasts were canceled, since the station temporarily suspended studio operations, resorting exclusively to the occasional broadcast of films. This was primarily because much of the staff had either joined the service or were redeployed to war related technical research, and to prolong the life of the early, unstable cameras which were now impossible to repair due to the wartime lack of parts.\n\nIn May 1944, as the war began to turn in favor of the Allies, WCBW reopened the studios and the newscasts returned, briefly anchored by Ned Calmer, and then by Everett Holles. After the war, expanded news programs appeared on the WCBW schedule – whose call letters were changed to WCBS-TV in 1946 – first anchored by Milo Boulton, and later by Douglas Edwards. On May 3, 1948, Edwards began anchoring CBS Television News, a regular 15-minute nightly newscast on the CBS television network, including WCBS-TV. It aired every weeknight at 7:30 p.m., and was the first regularly scheduled, network television news program featuring an anchor (the nightly Lowell Thomas NBC radio network newscast was simulcast on television locally on NBC's WNBT—now WNBC—for a time in the early 1940s and the previously mentioned Richard Hubbell, Ned Calmer, Everett Holles and Milo Boulton on WCBW in the early and mid-1940s, but these were local television broadcasts seen only in New York City). NBC's offering at the time, NBC Television Newsreel (which premiered in February 1948), was simply film footage with voice narration.\n\nIn 1950, the name of the nightly newscast was changed to Douglas Edwards with the News, and the following year, it became the first news program to be broadcast on both coasts, thanks to a new coaxial cable connection, prompting Edwards to use the greeting \"Good evening everyone, coast to coast.\" The broadcast was renamed the CBS Evening News when Walter Cronkite replaced Edwards in 1962. Edwards remained with CBS News with various daytime television newscasts and radio news broadcasts until his retirement on April 1, 1988.\n\nBroadcast history\n\nThe information on programs listed in this section came directly from CBS News in interviews with the Vice President of Communications and NewsWatch Dallas.\n\nAccording to the CBS News Library and source Sandy Genelius (Vice President, CBS News Communications), the \"CBS Evening News\" was the program title for both Saturday and Sunday evening broadcasts. The program title for the Sunday late night news beginning in 1963 was the \"CBS Sunday Night News\". These titles were also seen on the intro slide of the program's opening. The program airs on Sadurday, and Sunday nights at 7:00 - 7:30PM UTC (Eastern Time) on CBS.\n\nCurrent CBS News broadcasts\n\nCBS Overnight News\nCBS Morning News\nCBS This Morning\nCBS This Morning Saturday\nCBS News Sunday Morning\nFace the Nation\nCBS Evening News\nCBS Weekend News\n60 Minutes\n48 Hours \n\nPrime time/evening news program history\n\nWest 57th (Meredith Vieira, John Ferrugia) (August 13, 1985 – September 9, 1989)\n48 Hours (January 19, 1988–present)\n60 Minutes II (January 13, 1999 – September 2, 2005)\nAmerica Tonight (Dan Rather, Charles Kuralt, Lesley Stahl, Robert Krulwich, Edie Magnus) (October 1, 1990 – 1991)\nStreet Stories (Ed Bradley; January 9, 1992 – June 10, 1993)\nEye to Eye with Connie Chung (June 17, 1993 – May 25, 1995)\nPublic Eye with Bryant Gumbel (October 1, 1997 – 1998)\nCBS Newsbreak\nPerson to Person\n\nMorning news program history\n\nCBS Morning News (1963–1979)\nThe Morning Program (1987)\nCBS This Morning (1987–1999; 2012–present)\nThe Early Show (1999–2012)\nCBS News Saturday Morning (1997–1999)\nThe Saturday Early Show (1999–2012)\nCBS Sunday Morning (1979–present)\n\nLate night/early morning program history\n\n* CBS News Nightwatch (1982–1992)\n* CBS Morning News (1982–present)\n* CBS Up to the Minute (1992–2015)\n\nCBSN\n\nCBSN is a 24-hour streaming news channel available from the CBS News website and launched on November, 4th 2014. The channel feature live news from 9am to midnight on weekdays. The channel makes all of the resources of CBS News available directly on digital platforms with live, anchored coverage 15 hours each week. It is a first for a U.S. 24-hour news channel to forgo cable and be available exclusively only on line and on smart devices such as smart TV's Apple TV, Roku, Amazon Fire and others. The Channel is based at CBS's New York City headquarters.\n\nCBS Newspath\n\nCBS Newspath is CBS News' satellite news-gathering service (similar to CNN Newsource). Newspath provides national hard news, sports highlights, regional spot news, features and live coverage of major breaking news events for affiliate stations to use in their local news broadcasts. The service has a team of domestic and global correspondents and freelance reporters dedicated to reporting for affiliates, and offers several different national or international stories fronted by reporters on a daily basis. CBS Newspath also relies heavily on local affiliates sharing content. Stations will often contribute locally obtained footage that may be of national interest. It replaced a similar service, CBS News NewsNet.\n\nNetwork News Service (NNS) is a pioneering news organization formed by ABC NewsOne, CBS Newspath and Fox NewsEdge. Launched in June 2000, its subscriber list already includes more than 500 ABC, CBS and Fox affiliates throughout the United States. The three news distributors created NNS to cost-effectively pool resources for developing and delivering second tier news stories and b-roll footage. The goal was to realize cost savings in the creation and distribution of these news images, while news organizations and member television stations continued to independently develop and deliver their own signature coverage of top news stories.\n\nCBS Radio News\n\nThe branch of CBS News that produces newscasts and features to radio stations is CBS Radio News, which airs on the CBS Radio Network. The radio network is the oldest unit of CBS and traced its roots to the company's founding in 1927, and the news division took shape over the following 10 years. The list of CBS News correspondents (below) includes those reporting on CBS Radio News.\n\nCBS Radio News produces the oldest daily news show on radio or television, the CBS World News Roundup, which first aired in 1938 and celebrated its 75th anniversary in 2013. The World News Roundup airs twice every weekday: a morning edition is anchored by Steve Kathan and produced by Paul Farry, while a \"late edition\" is anchored by Bill Whitney and produced by Greg Armstrong. The evening Roundup, previously known as The World Tonight, has aired in its current form since 1956 and has been anchored by Blair Clark, Douglas Edwards, Dallas Townsend and Christopher Glenn (Glenn also anchored the morning Roundup before his death in 2006).\n\nThe CBS Radio Network provides newscasts at the top of the hour, regular updates at :31 minutes past the hour, the popular Newsfeeds for affiliates (including WCBS and KYW) at :35 minutes past the hour, and breaking news updates when developments warrant, often at :20 and :50 minutes past the hour. Westwood One handles the distribution.\n\nBureaus and offices\n\nDomestic bureaus\n\nAtlanta, Georgia\nChicago, Illinois\nDallas, Texas\nDenver, Colorado \nLos Angeles, California\nMiami, Florida\nNew York City (Broadcast Headquarters)\nSan Francisco, California\nWashington, D.C.\n\nForeign bureaus\n\nLatin America\n*Havana, Cuba\nEurope\nRome, Italy\nLondon, United Kingdom\nMiddle East\nAmman, Jordan\nBaghdad, Iraq\nTel Aviv, Israel\nAsia\nIslamabad, Pakistan\nKabul, Afghanistan\nBeijing, China\nTokyo, Japan\nAfrica\nJohannesburg, South Africa\n\nPersonnel\n\nCurrent correspondents\n\nNew York World Headquarters\n\nSharyn Alfonsi - substitute anchor, CBS Evening News; correspondent, 60 Minutes Sports\nJim Axelrod - national correspondent\nJames Brown - special correspondent\nVladimir Duthiers - Correspondent\nBill Geist - correspondent, CBS Sunday Morning\nJeff Glor - Anchor CBSN, special correspondent, CBS This Morning\nAnne-Marie Green - anchor, CBS Morning News and Up To The Minute\nPeter Greenberg - travel editor\nArmen Keteyian - correspondent, 60 Minutes Sports\nGayle King - co-anchor, CBS This Morning\nSteve Kroft - co-editor, 60 Minutes\nMaureen Maher - correspondent, 48 Hours\nWynton Marsalis - cultural correspondent\nAnthony Mason - senior business correspondent; co-anchor, CBS This Morning Saturday\nMichelle Miller - correspondent\nErin Moriarty - correspondent, 48 Hours and CBS Sunday Morning\nVinita Nair - correspondent; co-anchor CBS This Morning Saturday\nNorah O'Donnell - co-anchor, CBS This Morning\nCharles Osgood - anchor, CBS Sunday Morning\nScott Pelley - anchor, CBS Evening News; correspondent, 60 Minutes\nElaine Quijano - correspondent\nTroy Roberts - correspondent, 48 Hours\nMo Rocca - correspondent, CBS Sunday Morning\nCharlie Rose - co-anchor, CBS This Morning and Person to Person\nRichard Schlesinger - correspondent, 48 Hours\nTracy Smith - correspondent, CBS Sunday Morning and 48 Hours\nLesley Stahl - co-editor, 60 Minutes\nPeter Van Sant - correspondent, 48 Hours\nBill Whitaker - correspondent, 60 Minutes \n\nWashington, D.C.\nRita Braver - CBS Sunday Morning senior correspondent\nMargaret Brennan - State Department correspondent\nNancy Cordes - congressional correspondent\nJan Crawford - chief legal correspondent\nJohn Dickerson - political director; anchor, Face the Nation\nMajor Garrett - chief White House correspondent\nJulianna Goldman - correspondent\nLara Logan - correspondent, 60 Minutes and co-anchor, Person to Person \nDavid Martin - national security correspondent\nSusan McGinnis - correspondent\nJeff Pegues - Justice and Homeland Security correspondent\nBill Plante - senior White House correspondent\nChip Reid - national correspondent\nSusan Spencer - correspondent, 48 Hours and CBS Sunday Morning\n\nLos Angeles\nLee Cowan - national correspondent\nBen Tracy - national correspondent\n\nLondon\nElizabeth Palmer - correspondent\nMark Phillips - correspondent\n\nDenver\nBarry Petersen - correspondent\n\nBeijing\nSeth Doane - correspondent\n\nJohannesburg\nDebora Patta - correspondent\n\nContributors\nSerena Altschul - CBS Sunday Morning correspondent (based in New York)\nAnderson Cooper - 60 Minutes correspondent; also as CNN\nNancy Giles - CBS Sunday Morning correspondent (based in New York)\nSanjay Gupta - medical correspondent (based in Atlanta); also as CNN\nSteve Hartman - \"On The Road\" correspondent for the CBS Evening News (based in New York)\nJane Pauley - CBS Sunday Morning correspondent (based in New York)\nBen Stein - CBS Sunday Morning contributor\n\nCBS Newspath\n;New York\nAlexis Christoforous - business correspondent\nAlison Harmelin - CBS News MoneyWatch correspondent\nClaire Leka - CBS News MoneyWatch correspondent\n\nCBS Radio News\nHoward Arenstein - Washington, D.C. correspondent/bureau manager\nCami McCormick - Washington, D.C. correspondent\nDan Raviv - Washington, D.C. national correspondent\nBill Whitney - New York anchor\n\nPast correspondents\n\nBetsy Aaron\nJim Acosta - now at CNN\nMartin Agronsky +\nRon Allen - now at NBC News\nBob Allison\nDavid Andelman\nBob Arnot\nLowell Bergman - now at PBS\nDr. Jennifer Ashton - now at ABC News\nThalia Assuras\nSharyl Attkisson\nJose Diaz-Balart - now at MSNBC\nRoberta Baskin\nNelson Benton +\nRegina Blakely\nEd Bradley +\nRay Brady\nMarvin Breckinridge Patterson +\nHeywood Hale Broun +\nCecil Brown +\nTerrell Brown\nMika Brzezinski - now at MSNBC\nWinston Burdett +\nNed Calmer +\nGretchen Carlson - now at Fox News Channel\nJulie Chen - now on The Talk\nConnie Chung (retired)\nLou Cioffi +\nBlair Clark +\nMandy Clark\nJane Clayson\nRon Cochran +\nCharles Collingwood +\nVictoria Corderi - now at NBC News\nKatie Couric\nWalter Cronkite +\nFrank Currier\nJohn Charles Daly +\nFaith Daniels\nRandy Daniels\nMorton Dean (retired)\nDavid Dick +\nNancy Dickerson +\nLinda Douglass\nHarold Dow +\nBill Downs +\nKimberly Dozier\nTerry Drinkwater +\nDouglas Edwards +\nEric Engberg\nTom Fenton\nGiselle Fernández\nJohn Ferrugia\nMurray Fromson\nMonica Gayle - now at WJBK\nKendis Gibson - now at ABC News\nMichelle Gielan\nChristopher Glenn +\nBernard Goldberg\nFred Graham\nJeff Greenfield\nBryant Gumbel - now at HBO Sports\nTony Guida - now at CUNY-TV\nJohn Hart (retired)\nDavid Henderson\nGeorge Herman +\nErica Hill - now at NBC News\nDon Hollenbeck +\nRichard C. Hottelet +\nAllan Jackson +\nRebecca Jarvis - now at ABC News\nWhit Johnson - now at KNBC\nPhil Jones\nGordon Joseloff\nBernard Kalb (retired)\nMarvin Kalb (retired)\nPeter Kalischer +\nH.V. Kaltenborn +\nHattie Kauffman\nFrank Kearns +\nAlexander Kendrick +\nDana King (retired)\nJeffrey Kofman\nRobert Krulwich\nCharles Kuralt +\nBill Kurtis (retired)\nBill Leonard\nLarry LeSueur +\nStan Levey\nBill Lynch\nVicki Mabrey\nSheila MacVicar - now at Al Jazeera America\nPaul Manning +\nCarol Marin - now at WMAQ\nChris Mavridis\nMelissa McDermott\nMark McEwen\nDerek McGinty - later at WUSA\nBob McKeown\nBill McLaughlin\nJim McManus +\nRuss Mitchell - now at WKYC\nEdward P. Morgan +\nBruce Morton +\nBill Moyers - now at PBS\nRoger Mudd (retired)\nEdward R. Murrow +\nPaul K. Niven Jr. +\nBetty Nguyen - now at NBC News and MSNBC\nDeborah Norville - now weekday anchor, Inside Edition\nStuart Novins +\nMeg Oliver\nBill O'Reilly - now at Fox News Channel\nIke Pappas +\nTerry Phillips\nRobert Pierpoint +\nRandall Pinkston - now at Al Jazeera America\nByron Pitts now at ABC News\nGeorge Polk +\nDave Price - now at WNBC\nJane Bryant Quinn\nSally Quinn\nDan Rather - now at AXS TV\nHarry Reasoner +\nTrish Regan - now at Bloomberg TV\nFrank Reynolds +\nJane Robelot - now at WYFF-TV\nJohn Roberts now at Fox News\nNorman Robinson\nMaggie Rodriguez\nAndy Rooney +\nHughes Rudd +\nMorley Safer - co-editor, 60 Minutes +\nMarlene Sanders +\nDiane Sawyer - now at ABC News\nForrest Sawyer\nStephen Schiff\nDavid Schoenbrun +\nDaniel Schorr +\nDavid Schoumacher\nBarry Serafin\nDon Hewitt +\nEric Sevareid +\nBill Shadel +\nBernard Shaw (retired)\nJohn Sheahan\nWilliam L. Shirer +\nMaria Shriver - now at NBC News\nDaniel Sieberg\nBob Simon +\nBob Sirott\nHarry Smith - now at NBC News\nHoward K. Smith +\nTerence Smith\nJoan Snyder +\nBianca Solorzano\nHari Sreenivasan - now weekend anchor, PBS Newshour\nMike Stanley\nJohn Stehr - now main anchor at WTHR\nAlison Stewart\nHannah Storm - now at ESPN and ESPN on ABC\nBill Stout +\nKathleen Sullivan\nRene Syler\nLowell Thomas +\nRichard Threlkeld +\nDallas Townsend +\nLiz Trotta\nRobert Trout +\nLem Tucker +\nMeredith Vieira - now at NBC News\nRichard Wagner\nJane Wallace\nKelly Wallace - now at CNN\nMike Wallace +\nClarissa Ward - now at CNN\nChris Wragge - now at WCBS\nNick Young\nPaula Zahn (now at Investigation Discovery)\n+ - deceased\n\nPresidents of CBS News\n\nRichard S. Salant (1961–1964)\nFred W. Friendly (1964–1966)\nRichard S. Salant (1966–1979)\nBill Leonard (1979–1982)\nVan Gordon Sauter (1982–1983)\nEd Joyce (1983–1986)\nVan Gordon Sauter (1986)\nHoward Stringer (1986–1988)\nDavid W. Burke (1988–1990)\nEric Ober (1990–1996)\nAndrew Heyward (1996–2005)\nSean McManus (2005–2011)\n*David Rhodes (2011–)\n\nInternational broadcasts\n\nCBS Evening News is shown on Sky News to viewers in Europe and Africa. In Australia, the CBS Evening News is shown at 11.30 a.m. Monday to Saturday, and at 12.30 p.m. on Sundays on Sky News Australia.\n\nIn the Philippines, CBS Evening News (during Katie Couric's era) was broadcast via satellite on QTV 11 (a now-defunct sister station of GMA Network, rebranded to GMA News TV) at 7:30 p.m. with replays at 1:00 p.m. after Balitanghali. CBS Evening News broadcasts were stopped on QTV 11 in late 2010 to make way for a public affairs look-back program (NAPA-Strip and Power Review). 60 Minutes is currently broadcast on CNN Philippines (formerly Talktv, Solar News Channel and 9TV ) as a part of their Stories block, which includes non-CNN documentaries and is broadcast on Wednesday at 8:00 p.m. before CNN Philippines Nightly News with replays in a capacity as a stand-alone program on Saturdays at 8:00 a.m. & 5:00 pm and Sundays at 6:00 a.m, all in local time (UTC + 8).\n\nCBS is not shown outside the Americas on a channel in its own right. However, CBS News programming is shown for a few hours a day on Orbit News in Europe, Africa and the Middle East. CBS News stories are a common occurrence on Australia's Ten News on Network Ten, as part a CBS programming content deal. They also air CBS This Morning each weekday as well." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Cronkite, Walter Leland, Jr.", "Old Ironpants", "Walter Cronkite Jr.", "And that's the way it is", "Walter Leland Cronkite, Jr.", "Walter conkrite", "Walter Cronkite", "Walter L. Cronkite Jr.", "Walter Leland Cronkite", "Walter Conkrite", "Walter Leland Cronkite Jr.", "Walter Kronkite" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "walter l cronkite jr", "walter kronkite", "walter cronkite", "walter leland cronkite jr", "and that s way it is", "old ironpants", "cronkite walter leland jr", "walter leland cronkite", "walter conkrite", "walter cronkite jr" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "walter cronkite", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Walter Cronkite" }
Who wrote The Picture Of Dorian Gray?	tc_521	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "The_Picture_of_Dorian_Gray.txt" ], "title": [ "The Picture of Dorian Gray" ], "wiki_context": [ "The Picture of Dorian Gray is a philosophical novel by Oscar Wilde, first published complete in the July 1890 issue of Lippincott's Monthly Magazine. The magazine's editor feared the story was indecent, and without Wilde's knowledge, deleted roughly five hundred words before publication. Despite that censorship, The Picture of Dorian Gray offended the moral sensibilities of British book reviewers, some of whom said that Oscar Wilde merited prosecution for violating the laws guarding the public morality. In response, Wilde aggressively defended his novel and art in correspondence with the British press, although he personally made excisions of some of the most controversial material when revising and lengthening the story for book publication the following year.\n\nThe longer and revised version of The Picture of Dorian Gray published in book form in 1891 featured an aphoristic preface—a defence of the artist's rights and of art for art's sake—based in part on his press defences of the novel the previous year. The content, style, and presentation of the preface made it famous in its own right, as a literary and artistic manifesto. In April 1891, the publishing firm of Ward, Lock and Company, who had distributed the shorter, more inflammatory, magazine version in England the previous year, published the revised version of The Picture of Dorian Gray. \n\nThe only novel written by Wilde, The Picture of Dorian Gray exists in several versions: the 1890 magazine edition (in 13 Chapters), with important material deleted before publication by the magazine's editor, J. M. Stoddart; the \"uncensored\" version submitted to Lippincott's Monthly Magazine for publication (also in 13 chapters), with all of Wilde's original material intact, first published in 2011 by Harvard University Press; and the 1891 book edition (in 20 Chapters). As literature of the 19th century, The Picture of Dorian Gray is an example of Gothic fiction with strong themes interpreted from Faust. \n\nSummary\n\nDorian Gray is the subject of a full-length portrait in oil by Basil Hallward, an artist who is impressed and infatuated by Dorian's beauty; he believes that Dorian’s beauty is responsible for the new mode in his art as a painter. Through Basil, Dorian meets Lord Henry Wotton, and he soon is enthralled by the aristocrat's hedonistic worldview: that beauty and sensual fulfilment are the only things worth pursuing in life.\n\nNewly understanding that his beauty will fade, Dorian expresses the desire to sell his soul, to ensure that the picture, rather than he, will age and fade. The wish is granted, and Dorian pursues a libertine life of varied and amoral experiences, while staying young and beautiful; all the while his portrait ages and records every soul-corrupting sin. \n\nPlot\n\nThe Picture of Dorian Gray begins on a beautiful summer day in Victorian era England, where Lord Henry Wotton, an opinionated man, is observing the sensitive artist Basil Hallward painting the portrait of Dorian Gray, a handsome young man who is Basil's ultimate muse. While sitting for the painting, Dorian listens to Lord Henry espousing his hedonistic world view, and begins to think that beauty is the only aspect of life worth pursuing. This prompts Dorian to wish that the painted image of himself would age in his stead.\n\nUnder the hedonist influence of Lord Henry, Dorian fully explores his sensuality. He discovers the actress Sibyl Vane, who performs Shakespeare plays in a dingy, working-class theatre. Dorian approaches and courts her, and soon proposes marriage. The enamoured Sibyl calls him \"Prince Charming\", and swoons with the happiness of being loved, but her protective brother, James, a sailor, warns that if \"Prince Charming\" harms her, he will kill Dorian Gray.\n\nDorian invites Basil and Lord Henry to see Sibyl perform in Romeo and Juliet. Sibyl, whose only knowledge of love was love of the theatre, forgoes her acting career for the experience of true love with Dorian Gray. Disheartened at her quitting the stage, Dorian rejects Sibyl, telling her that acting was her beauty; without that, she no longer interests him. On returning home, Dorian notices that the portrait has changed; his wish has come true, and the man in the portrait bears a subtle sneer of cruelty.\n\nConscience-stricken and lonely, Dorian decides to reconcile with Sibyl, but he is too late, as Lord Henry informs him that Sibyl killed herself by swallowing prussic acid. Dorian then understands that, where his life is headed, lust and good looks shall suffice. In the following eighteen years, Dorian experiments with every vice, influenced by a morally poisonous French novel, a gift received from the decadent Lord Henry Wotton.\n\n[The narrative does not reveal the title of the French novel, but, at trial, Wilde said that the novel Dorian Gray read was À Rebours ('Against Nature', 1884), by Joris-Karl Huysmans. ]\n\nOne night, before leaving for Paris, Basil goes to Dorian's house to ask him about rumours of his self-indulgent sensualism. Dorian does not deny his debauchery, and takes Basil to a locked room to see the portrait, made hideous by Dorian's corruption. In anger, Dorian blames his fate on Basil, and stabs him dead. Dorian then calmly blackmails an old friend, the scientist Alan Campbell, into using his knowledge of chemistry to destroy the body of Basil Hallward.\n\nTo escape the guilt of his crime, Dorian goes to an opium den, where James Vane is unknowingly present. Upon hearing someone refer to Dorian as \"Prince Charming\", James seeks out and tries to shoot Dorian dead. In their confrontation, Dorian deceives James into believing that he is too young to have known Sibyl, who killed herself eighteen years earlier, as his face is still that of a young man. James relents and releases Dorian, but is then approached by a woman from the opium den who reproaches James for not killing Dorian. She confirms that the man was Dorian Gray and explains that he has not aged in eighteen years; understanding too late, James runs after Dorian, who has gone.\n\nOne evening, during dinner at home, Dorian spies James stalking the grounds of the house. Dorian fears for his life. Days later, during a shooting party, one of the hunters accidentally shoots and kills James Vane who was lurking in a thicket. On returning to London, Dorian tells Lord Henry that he will be good from then on; his new probity begins with not breaking the heart of the naïve Hetty Merton, his current romantic interest. Dorian wonders if his new-found goodness has reverted the corruption in the picture, but sees only an uglier image of himself. From that, Dorian understands that his true motives for the self-sacrifice of moral reformation were the vanity and curiosity of his quest for new experiences.\n\nDeciding that only full confession will absolve him of wrongdoing, Dorian decides to destroy the last vestige of his conscience. Enraged, he takes the knife with which he murdered Basil Hallward, and stabs the picture. The servants of the house awaken on hearing a cry from the locked room; on the street, passers-by who also heard the cry fetch the police. On entering the locked room, the servants find an unknown old man, stabbed in the heart, his face and figure withered and decrepit. The servants identify the disfigured corpse by the rings on his fingers to belong to their master; beside him is the picture of Dorian Gray, reverted to its original beauty.\n\nCharacters\n\nOscar Wilde said that, in the novel The Picture of Dorian Gray (1891), three of the characters were reflections of himself:\n\n;The characters of the story are\n* Dorian Gray – a handsome, narcissistic young man enthralled by Lord Henry's \"new\" hedonism. He indulges in every pleasure (moral and immoral) and virtually every sin, studying its effect upon him, which eventually leads to his death.\n* Basil Hallward – a deeply moral man, the painter of the portrait, and infatuated with Dorian, whose patronage realises his potential as an artist. The picture of Dorian Gray is Basil's masterpiece.\n* Lord Henry \"Harry\" Wotton – an imperious aristocrat and a decadent dandy who espouses a philosophy of self-indulgent hedonism. Initially Basil's friend, he neglects him for Dorian's beauty. The character of witty Lord Harry is a critique of Victorian culture at the Fin de siècle — of Britain at the end of the 19th century. Lord Harry's libertine world view corrupts Dorian, who then successfully emulates him. To the aristocrat Harry, the observant artist Basil says, \"You never say a moral thing, and you never do a wrong thing.\" Lord Henry takes pleasure in impressing, influencing, and even misleading his acquaintances (to which purpose he bends his considerable wit and eloquence) but appears not to observe his own hedonistic advice, preferring to study himself with scientific detachment. His distinguishing feature is total indifference to the consequences of his actions. Scholars generally accept the character is partly inspired by Wilde's friend Lord Ronald Gower. \n* Sibyl Vane – a talented actress and singer, she is the beautiful girl, of a poor family, with whom Dorian falls in love. Her love for Dorian ruins her acting ability, because she no longer finds pleasure in portraying fictional love as she is now experiencing real love in her life. She kills herself on learning that Dorian no longer loves her; at that, Lord Henry likens her to Ophelia, in Hamlet.\n* James Vane – Sibyl's brother, a sailor who leaves for Australia. He is very protective of his sister, especially as their mother cares only for Dorian's money. Believing that Dorian means to harm Sibyl, James hesitates to leave, and promises vengeance upon Dorian if any harm befalls her. After Sibyl's suicide, James becomes obsessed with killing Dorian, and stalks him, but a hunter accidentally kills James. The brother's pursuit of vengeance upon the lover (Dorian Gray), for the death of the sister (Sibyl) parallels that of Laertes vengeance against Prince Hamlet.\n* Alan Campbell – chemist and one-time friend of Dorian who ended their friendship when Dorian's libertine reputation devalued such a friendship. Dorian blackmails Alan into destroying the body of the murdered Basil Hallward; Campbell later shoots himself dead.\n* Lord Fermor – Lord Henry's uncle, who tells his nephew, Lord Henry Wotton, about the family lineage of Dorian Gray.\n* Adrian Singleton - A youthful friend of Dorian's, whom he evidently introduced to opium addiction, which induced him to forge a check and made him a total outcast from his family and social set.\n* Victoria, Lady Wotton – Lord Henry's wife, whom he treats disdainfully; she divorces him.\n\nThemes and motifs\n\nAestheticism and duplicity\n\nThe greatest theme in The Picture of Dorian Gray (1891) is aestheticism and its conceptual relation to living a double life. Throughout the story, the narrative presents aestheticism as an absurd abstraction, which disillusions more than it dignifies the concept of Beauty. Despite Dorian being a hedonist when Basil accuses him of making a \"by-word\" of the name of Lord Henry's sister, Dorian curtly replies, \"Take care, Basil. You go too far ...\"; thus, in Victorian society, public image and social standing do matter to Dorian. Yet, Wilde highlights the protagonist's hedonism: Dorian enjoyed \"keenly the terrible pleasure of a double life\", by attending a high-society party only twenty-four hours after committing a murder.\n\nMoral duplicity and self-indulgence are evident in Dorian's patronising the opium dens of London. Wilde conflates the images of the upper-class man and lower-class man in Dorian Gray, a gentleman slumming for strong entertainment in the poor parts of London town. Lord Henry philosophically had earlier said to him that: \"Crime belongs exclusively to the lower orders. ... I should fancy that crime was to them what art is to us, simply a method of procuring extraordinary sensations\"—implying that Dorian is two men, a refined aesthete and a coarse criminal. That authorial observation is a thematic link to the double life recounted in The Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde (1886), by Robert Louis Stevenson, a novella admired by Oscar Wilde.\n\nAllusions\n\nThe Republic\n\nIn Book 2 of Plato's The Republic, Glaucon and Adeimantus present the myth of the Ring of Gyges, by means of which Gyges made himself invisible. They then ask Socrates, \"If one came into possession of such a ring, why should he act justly?\" Socrates replies that although no one can see one's body, the soul is disfigured by the evils one commits. The disfigured and corrupted soul (antithesis of the beautiful soul) is imbalanced and disordered, and, in itself, is undesirable, regardless of any advantage derived from acting unjustly. The picture of Dorian Gray is the means by which other people, such as his friend Basil Hallward, may see Dorian's distorted soul.\n\nTannhäuser\n\nDorian attends a performance of Tannhäuser, by Richard Wagner, and the narrative identifies him with the protagonist of the opera. Disruptive beauty is the thematic resemblance between the opera and The Picture of Dorian Gray. Based upon a mediaeval historical figure, Tannhäuser is a singer whose art is so beautiful that Venus becomes enamoured of him. The Roman goddess of love then offers him eternal life with her in the Venusberg, and he accepts; yet, Tannhäuser becomes dissatisfied with life in the Venusberg, and returns to the harsh reality of the mortal world. After participating in a singing contest, Tannhäuser is censured for the sensuality of his art; eventually, he dies searching for repentance and the love of a good woman.\n\nFaust\n\nAbout the literary hero, the author Oscar Wilde said, “in every first novel the hero is the author as Christ or Faust.” As in the legend of Faust, in The Picture of Dorian Gray a temptation (ageless beauty) is placed before the protagonist, which he indulges. In each story, the protagonist entices a beautiful woman to love him, and then destroys her life. In the preface to the novel (1891), Wilde said that the notion behind the tale is \"old in the history of literature\", but was a thematic subject to which he had \"given a new form\". \n\nUnlike the academic Faust, the gentleman Dorian makes no deal with the Devil, who is represented by the cynical hedonist Lord Henry, who presents the temptation that will corrupt the virtue and innocence that Dorian possesses at the start of the story. Throughout, Lord Henry appears unaware of the effect of his actions upon the young man; and so frivolously advises Dorian, that \"the only way to get rid of a temptation is to yield to it. Resist it, and your soul grows sick with longing.\" As such, the devilish Lord Henry is \"leading Dorian into an unholy pact, by manipulating his innocence and insecurity.\" \n\nShakespeare\n\nIn the preface to The Picture of Dorian Gray (1891), Wilde speaks of the sub-human Caliban character from The Tempest. When Dorian tells Lord Henry about his new love Sibyl Vane, he mentions the Shakespeare plays in which she has acted, and refers to her by the name of the heroine of each play. Later, Dorian speaks of his life by quoting Hamlet, a privileged character who impels his girlfriend (Ophelia) to suicide, and prompts her brother (Laertes) to swear mortal revenge.\n\nJoris-Karl Huysmans\n\nThe anonymous \"poisonous French novel\" that leads Dorian to his fall is a thematic variant of À rebours (1884), by Joris-Karl Huysmans. In the biography, Oscar Wilde (1989), the literary critic Richard Ellmann said that: Wilde does not name the book, but at his trial he conceded that it was, or almost [was], Huysmans's À rebours ... to a correspondent, he wrote that he had played a 'fantastic variation' upon À rebours, and [that] someday must write it down. The references in Dorian Gray to specific chapters are deliberately inaccurate. \n\nLiterary significance\n\nPossible Disraeli influence\n\nSome commentaters have suggested that The Picture of Dorian Gray was influenced by the British Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli’s (anonymously published) first novel “Vivian Grey” (1826) as, “a kind of homage from one outsider to another.” The name of Dorian Gray’s love interest, Sibyl Vane, may be a modified fusion of the title of Disraeli’s best known novel (“Sybil”) and Vivian Grey’s love interest Violet Fane, who, like Sibyl Vane, dies tragically. There is also a scene in \"Vivian Grey\" in which the eyes in the portrait of a \"beautiful being\" move when its subject dies. \n\nPublication history\n\nThe Picture of Dorian Gray originally was a short novel submitted to Lippincott's Monthly Magazine for serial publication. In 1889, J. M. Stoddart, an editor for Lippincott, was in London to solicit short novels to publish in the magazine. On 30 August 1889, Stoddart dined with Oscar Wilde, Sir Arthur Conan Doyle and T. P. Gill at the Langham Hotel, and commissioned short novels from each writer. Conan Doyle promptly submitted The Sign of the Four (1890) to Stoddart, but Wilde was more dilatory; Conan Doyle's second Sherlock Holmes novel was published in the February 1890 edition of Lippincott's Monthly Magazine, yet Stoddart did not receive Wilde's manuscript for The Picture of Dorian Gray until 7 April 1890, nine months after having commissioned the novel from him.\n\nThe literary merits of The Picture of Dorian Gray impressed Stoddart, but, as an editor, he told the publisher, George Lippincott, \"in its present condition there are a number of things an innocent woman would make an exception to. ...\" Among the pre-publication deletions that Stoddart and his editors made to the text of Wilde's original manuscript were: (i) passages alluding to homosexuality and to homosexual desire; (ii) all references to the fictional book title Le Secret de Raoul and its author, Catulle Sarrazin; and (iii) all \"mistress\" references to Gray's lovers, Sibyl Vane and Hetty Merton.\n\nThe Picture of Dorian Gray was published on 20 June 1890, in the July issue of Lippincott's Monthly Magazine. British reviewers condemned the novel's immorality, and said condemnation was so controversial that the W H Smith publishing house withdrew every copy of the July 1890 issue of Lippincott's Monthly Magazine from its bookstalls in railway stations.\nConsequent to the harsh criticism of the 1890 magazine edition, Wilde ameliorated the homoerotic references, in order to simplify the moral message of the story. In the magazine edition (1890), Basil tells Lord Henry how he \"worships\" Dorian, and begs him not to \"take away the one person that makes my life absolutely lovely to me.\" In the magazine edition, Basil concentrates upon love, whereas, in the book edition (1891), Basil concentrates upon his art, saying to Lord Henry, “the one person who gives my art whatever charm it may possess: my life as an artist depends on him.\"\n\nThe magazine edition of The Picture of Dorian Gray (1890) was expanded from thirteen to twenty chapters; and the magazine edition’s final chapter was divided into two chapters, the nineteenth and twentieth chapters of the book edition of The Picture of Dorian Gray (1891). Wilde's textual additions were about \"fleshing out of Dorian as a character\" and providing details of his ancestry that made his \"psychological collapse more prolonged and more convincing.\" \n\nThe introduction of the James Vane character to the story develops the socio-economic background of the Sibyl Vane character, thus emphasising Dorian's selfishness and foreshadowing James's accurate perception of the essentially immoral character of Dorian Gray; thus, he correctly deduced Dorian’s dishonourable intent towards Sibyl. The sub-plot about James Vane's dislike of Dorian gives the novel a Victorian tinge of class struggle. With such textual changes, Oscar Wilde meant to diminish the moralistic controversy about the novel The Picture of Dorian Gray.\n\nPreface\n\nConsequent to the harsh criticism of the magazine edition of the novel, the textual revisions to The Picture of Dorian Gray included a preface in which Wilde addressed the criticisms and defended the reputation of his novel. To communicate how the novel should be read, in the Preface, Wilde explains the role of the artist in society, the purpose of art, and the value of beauty. It traces Wilde's cultural exposure to Taoism and to the philosophy of Chuang Tsǔ (Zhuang Zhou). Earlier, before writing the preface, Wilde had written a book review of Herbert Giles's translation of the work of Zhuang Zhou. The preface was first published in the 1891 edition of the novel; nonetheless, by June 1891, Wilde was defending The Picture of Dorian Gray against accusations that it was a bad book. \n\nIn the essay The Artist as Critic, Oscar Wilde said that:\n\nCriticism\n\nIn the 19th century, the critical reception of the novel The Picture of Dorian Gray (1890) was poor. The book critic of The Irish Times said, The Picture of Dorian Gray was \"first published to some scandal.\" Such book reviews achieved for the novel a \"certain notoriety for being 'mawkish and nauseous', 'unclean', 'effeminate' and 'contaminating'.\" Such moralistic scandal arose from the novel's homoeroticism, which offended the sensibilities (social, literary, and aesthetic) of Victorian book critics. Yet, most of the criticism was personal, attacking Wilde for being a hedonist with a distorted view of conventional morality of Victorian Britain. In the 30 June 1890 issue, the Daily Chronicle the book critic said that Wilde's novel contains \"one element ... which will taint every young mind that comes in contact with it.\" In the 5 July 1890 issue, of the Scots Observer, the reviewer asked, \"Why must Oscar Wilde 'go grubbing in muck-heaps?'\" In response to such criticism, Wilde obscured the homoeroticism of the story and expanded the personal background of the characters. \n\nTextual revisions\n\nAfter the initial publication of the magazine edition of The Picture of Dorian Gray (1890), Wilde expanded the text from 13 to 20 chapters and obscured the homoerotic themes of the story. In the novel version of The Picture of Dorian Gray (1891), chapters 3, 5, and 15 to 18, inclusive, are new; and chapter 13 of the magazine edition was divided, and became chapters 19 and 20 of the novel edition. In 1895, at his trials, Oscar Wilde said he revised the text of The Picture of Dorian Gray, because of letters sent to him, by the cultural critic Walter Pater. \n\nPassages revised for the novel\n* (Basil about Dorian) \"He has stood as Paris in dainty armour, and as Adonis with huntsman's cloak and polished boar-spear. Crowned with heavy lotus-blossoms, he has sat on the prow of Adrian's barge, looking into the green, turbid Nile. He has leaned over the still pool of some Greek woodland, and seen in the water's silent silver the wonder of his own beauty.\"\n* (Lord Henry describes \"fidelity\") \"It has nothing to do with our own will. It is either an unfortunate accident, or an unpleasant result of temperament.\"\n* \"You don't mean to say that Basil has got any passion or any romance in him?\" / \"I don't know whether he has any passion, but he certainly has romance,\" said Lord Henry, with an amused look in his eyes. / \"Has he never let you know that?\" / \"Never. I must ask him about it. I am rather surprised to hear it.\"\n* (Basil Hallward described) \"Rugged and straightforward as he was, there was something in his nature that was purely feminine in its tenderness.\"\n* (Basil to Dorian) \"It is quite true that I have worshipped you with far more romance of feeling than a man usually gives to a friend. Somehow, I had never loved a woman. I suppose I never had time. Perhaps, as Harry says, a really grande passion is the privilege of those who have nothing to do, and that is the use of the idle classes in a country.\"\n* (Basil confronts Dorian) \"Dorian, Dorian, your reputation is infamous. I know you and Harry are great friends. I say nothing about that now, but surely you need not have made his sister's name a by-word.\" (The first part of this passage was deleted from the 1890 magazine text; the second part of the passage was inserted to the 1891 novel text.)\n\nPassages added to the novel\n* \"Each class would have preached the importance of those virtues, for whose exercise there was no necessity in their own lives. The rich would have spoken on the value of thrift, and the idle grown eloquent over the dignity of labour.\"\n* \"A grande passion is the privilege of people who have nothing to do. That is the one use of the idle classes of a country. Don't be afraid.\"\n* \"Faithfulness! I must analyse it some day. The passion for property is in it. There are many things that we would throw away, if we were not afraid that others might pick them up.\"\n\nThe uncensored edition\n\nIn 2011, the Belknap Press published The Picture of Dorian Gray: An Annotated, Uncensored Edition. The edition includes text that was deleted by JM Stoddart, Wilde's initial editor, before the story's publication in Lippincott's Monthly Magazine in 1890. \n\nAdaptations\n\nCultural impact\n\nWilde's novel was not only the origin of many adaptations for stage and film, it also inspired numerous artists and others to new works or to pay tribute to Wilde and his work. These include but may not limited to the following.\n\n;Film\n* The novel is mentioned a few times in Billy Wilder's film The Seven Year Itch (1955)\n\n;Music\n* Dorian Gray is referred in the American band Styx_(band) song \"Sing for the Day\" (\"Pieces of Eight\", 1978). \n* The novel was referred to in the song The Ocean by the Irish band U2. \n* Dorian Gray, a 1980s Croatian music group\n* Dorian Gray, stage name of UK pop singer Tony Ellingham whose only hit was \"I've Got You on My Mind\" (1968)\n* Soren Mounir, Swiss singer-songwriter, also known as \"Dorian Gray\"\n* \"The Picture of Dorian Gray\", a song by prog band Nirvana (UK)\n* \"A Picture of Dorian Gray\", a song by Television Personalities from ...And Don't the Kids Just Love It (1981) - also covered by the Futureheads\n* \"Dorian Gray\", a song by William Control from Noir (2010)\n* \"Ballad of Dorian Gray\", a song by Michael Peter Smith\n* \"Tears And Rain\" by popstar James Blunt features the line: 'Hides my true shape, like Dorian Gray' from Back to Bedlam (2003)\n* \"The Picture of Dorian Gray\", a song by Cherry Five\n\n;Other\n* Dorian Gray syndrome, a mental disorder of people who don't stand and accept the natural aging process of their own body \n* Dorian Gray, a 2008 contemporary dance adaptation by choreographer Matthew Bourne of the novel\n* Dorian Gray, a former nightclub in Frankfurt am Main, Germany\n\nEditions\n\n* The Picture of Dorian Gray, Wordsworth Classics 1992, ISBN 1-85326-015-0\n* The Picture of Dorian Gray, Modern Library 1992, ISBN 978-0-679-60001-5\n* The Picture of Dorian Gray, Penguin Classics 1986, ISBN 0-14-043187-X\n* The Picture of Dorian Gray, Tor 1999, ISBN 0-8125-6711-0\n* The Picture of Dorian Gray, Books, Inc. 1994\n* The Picture of Dorian Gray, Broadview Press 1998, ISBN 978-1-55111-126-1\n* The Picture of Dorian Gray, Barnes and Noble Classics 2003, ISBN 978-1-59308-025-9\n* The Picture of Dorian Gray, Macmillan Readers 2005, ISBN 978-0-230-02922-4\n* The Picture of Dorian Gray, Macmillan Readers 2005 (with CD pack), ISBN 978-1-4050-7658-6\n* The Picture of Dorian Gray, Penguin Classics 2006, ISBN 978-0-14-144203-7\n* The Picture of Dorian Gray, Oxford World's Classics 2006, ISBN 978-0-19-280729-8\n* The Picture of Dorian Gray, Dalmatian Press Classics 2007, ISBN 978-1-4037-3908-7\n* The Picture of Dorian Gray, Four Corners Books 2007, ISBN 978-0-9545025-4-6\n* The Picture of Dorian Gray, Oneworld Classics 2008, ISBN 978-1-84749-018-6\n* [http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674057920 The Picture of Dorian Gray: An Annotated, Uncensored Edition], Belknap Press 2011, ISBN 978-0-674-05792-0\n* The Picture of Dorian Gray, Illustrated Editions CO., INC. 1931 Illustrated by Lui Trugo. \n* The Picture of Dorian Gray , The Folio Society 2012, illustrated by Emma Chichester Clark\n* [http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674066311 The Uncensored Picture of Dorian Gray], Belknap Press 2011, ISBN 978-0-674-06631-1\nThe Picture of Dorian Gray Critical Edition: Original Unexpurgated 1890, 13-Chapter Version, CreateSpace 2015, ISBN 978-1-5089-9821-1\nThe Picture of Dorian Gray (Wisehouse Classics - with original illustrations by Eugene Dété), this is the authentic reproduction of the 1891 authoritative edition, and the only edition in print which contains all the illustrations by Eugene Dété. The ebook edition of this edition is available for free and for all platforms. Wisehouse Classics 2015, ISBN 978-9176371145" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Oscar Wild", "Flahertie", "C. 3. 3. 3", "Oscar Wilde", "O'Flahertie", "C. 3. 3. 3.", "O Wilde", "Oscar O'Flahertie Wills Wilde", "Oscar O'flaherty Wilde", "Oscar wilde", "Sebastian Melmoth", "Oscar Fingal O'Flaherty Wills Wilde", "Theocritus: a villanelle", "Oscar Wilde/Biblio", "Oscar Fingal O'Flahertie Wills Wilde", "Cyril Wilde" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "o flahertie", "theocritus villanelle", "flahertie", "oscar wilde biblio", "oscar fingal o flahertie wills wilde", "o wilde", "oscar fingal o flaherty wills wilde", "oscar wilde", "oscar o flaherty wilde", "c 3 3 3", "sebastian melmoth", "oscar o flahertie wills wilde", "oscar wild", "cyril wilde" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "oscar wilde", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Oscar Wilde" }
Who sang the title song for the Bond film You Only Live Twice?	tc_522	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "Search" ], "filename": [ "You_Only_Live_Twice_(song).txt", "You_Only_Live_Twice_(film).txt" ], "title": [ "You Only Live Twice (song)", "You Only Live Twice (film)" ], "wiki_context": [ "\"You Only Live Twice\", performed by Nancy Sinatra, is the theme song to the 1967 James Bond film of the same name. Music was composed and produced by veteran James Bond composer John Barry, with lyrics by Leslie Bricusse. The song is widely recognized for its striking opening bars, featuring a simple 2-bar theme in the high octaves of the violins and lush harmonies from French horns. It is considered by some to be among the best James Bond theme songs, and has become one of Nancy Sinatra's best known hits. Shortly after Barry's production, Sinatra's producer Lee Hazlewood released a more guitar-based single version.\n\nThe song has been extensively covered by artists, from Coldplay to Soft Cell, Björk and Little Anthony & The Imperials to Shirley Bassey. Robbie Williams notably re-recorded the opening bars of the song for his hit \"Millennium\".\n\nBackground\n\nJames Bond veteran John Barry returned to the franchise to produce the score. The lyrics were by Leslie Bricusse, who had previously cowritten the lyrics for the theme to Goldfinger. Julie Rogers was asked to perform the song, and recorded it with a 50 or 60 piece orchestra at CTS Studios. The song was quite different from the later Sinatra version, with a more Oriental flavour. Jazz singer, Lorraine Chandler also recorded a version of the song that differed greatly from the other two. Chandler's version has a bombastic, Shirley Bassey-sound, which differs from the mellow alternate versions. John Barry said: \"It was usually the producers that said 'this isn't working, there's a certain something that it needed'. If that energy wasn't there, if that mysterioso kind of thing wasn't there, then it wasn't going to work for the movie.\" The song shares only two lines with Sinatra's, \"You only live twice\", and \"you’ll pay the price\". The film's producer Cubby Broccoli, wanted his friend Frank Sinatra to perform the song. Frank suggested that they use his daughter instead. Barry wanted to use Aretha Franklin, but the producers insisted that he use Nancy instead, who was enjoying great popularity in the wake of her single, \"These Boots Are Made For Walkin'\". \n\nThe version (2:46) featured in the film's opening title sequence and on the soundtrack LP is in the key of B and has a single vocal track. The song was recorded with a 60 piece orchestra on 2 May 1967 at the CTS Studios in Bayswater, London. Sinatra later recalled that she was incredibly nervous during the recording, and it took around 30 takes to acquire enough material. Producer John Barry eventually created the final product by incorporating vocals from 25 takes.\n\nSinatra's American producer Lee Hazlewood created the version that was released as a single. It is in the key of C and features vocal overdubbing, backing chorus, brass and stinging twangy guitar, with a running time of 2:56.\n\nThe recognizable opening string melody of the song originates from Alexander Tcherepnin's First Piano Concerto (op.12), composed in 1919, although in his version the initial motif is succeeded by a falling octave pattern instead of transposing and repeating the motif in a different key, as is characteristic to \"You Only Live Twice\".\n\nCritical reception\n\nRoy Wood described Barry's string introduction to his song \"You Only Live Twice\" as \"absolute perfection\". Mark Monahan of The Daily Telegraph described the lyrics as \"mysterious, romantically carpe diem ... at once velvety, brittle and quite bewitching\". David Ehrlich of Rolling Stone ranked \"You Only Live Twice\" the third best James Bond theme song, calling it \"a classic.\" \n\nCover versions\n\nThe song is one of the most covered Bond themes.\n* Little Anthony & The Imperials included a cover of the song on their album Movie Grabbers. \n* English synthpop duo Soft Cell included a cover on the B-side of their 1984 single \"Soul Inside\".\n* Australian band The Scientists released a heavy guitar version of the song as a single in 1985.\n* Acen sampled the string section on his song \"Trip II the Moon\" in 1992.\n* Robbie Williams re-recorded portions of the song (notably the opening strings) for use in his 1998 song \"Millennium\". The music was re-recorded rather than sampled, as this was less expensive than licensing the original recording.\n* Coldplay released their cover as a B-side on their \"Don't Panic\" single. \n* Bjork recorded a version for the 1997 album Shaken and Stirred: The David Arnold James Bond Project but it was not included on the album. It is available as a free download from bjork.com.\n* Natacha Atlas included a cover, that appears to use the exact same arrangement of the song David Arnold prepared for Bjork, on her 2005 compilation album The Best of Natacha Atlas.\n* Shirley Bassey, the vocalist for the title songs from the Bond films Goldfinger, Diamonds Are Forever, and Moonraker, performed the song on her 2007 album Get the Party Started.\n* Indie-pop group The Postmarks recorded a version for their 2008 album By the Numbers.\n* Cee-Lo Green samples the song for his 2011 single \"Bright Lights Bigger City\".\n* Mark Lanegan included a cover of this song on his 2013 covers album Imitations.\n* Ex Chameleons front man Mark Burgess covered this in 1993 as Mark Burgess & the Sons of God on the album Zima Junction\n* Lea Michele sampled the trademark notes in her Louder 's song, \"You're Mine\".\n* Bill Frisell covers it on his 2016 album \"When You Wish Upon a Star\", an album devoted to covers of songs from movies and television. This version is sung by Petra Haden, the daughter of Frissell's frequent collaborator bassist Charlie Haden.\n\nUse in popular culture\n\nThe song was used in the closing montage of Mad Mens season five finale, \"The Phantom\". A parody of the song was created for The Simpsons episode \"YOLO\".\n\nCharts", "You Only Live Twice (1967) is the fifth spy film in the James Bond series, and the fifth to star Sean Connery as the fictional MI6 agent James Bond. The film's screenplay was written by Roald Dahl, and loosely based on Ian Fleming's 1964 novel of the same name. It is the first James Bond film to discard most of Fleming's plot, using only a few characters and locations from the book as the background for an entirely new story.\n\nIn the film, Bond is dispatched to Japan after American and Soviet manned spacecraft disappear mysteriously in orbit. With each nation blaming the other amidst the Cold War, Bond travels secretly to a remote Japanese island in order to find the perpetrators and comes face to face with Ernst Stavro Blofeld, the head of SPECTRE. The film reveals the appearance of Blofeld, who was previously a partially unseen character. SPECTRE is extorting the government of an unnamed Asian power, implied to be the People's Republic of China, in order to provoke war between the superpowers. \n\nDuring the filming in Japan, it was announced that Sean Connery would retire from the role of Bond. But after a hiatus, he returned in 1971's Diamonds Are Forever and later 1983's non-Eon Bond film Never Say Never Again. You Only Live Twice is the first Bond film to be directed by Lewis Gilbert, who later directed the 1977 film The Spy Who Loved Me and the 1979 film Moonraker, both starring Roger Moore.\n\nYou Only Live Twice was a great success, receiving positive reviews and grossing over $111 million in worldwide box office.\n\nPlot\n\nAn American NASA spacecraft is hijacked from orbit by an unidentified spacecraft. The U.S. suspect it to be the work of the Soviets, but the British suspect Japanese involvement since the spacecraft landed in the Sea of Japan. To investigate, MI6 operative James Bond is sent to Tokyo after faking his own death in Hong Kong and being buried at sea from the .\n\nUpon his arrival, Bond is contacted by Aki, assistant to the Japanese secret service leader Tiger Tanaka while watching sumo. Aki introduces Bond to local MI6 operative Dikko Henderson. Henderson claims to have critical evidence about the rogue craft, but is killed before he can elaborate. Bond chases and kills the assailant, taking the assailant's clothing as a disguise and escapes in the getaway car, which takes him to Osato Chemicals. Once there, Bond subdues the driver and breaks into the office safe of president Mr. Osato. After stealing documents, Bond is pursued by armed security, but is rescued by Aki, who flees to a secluded subway station. Bond chases her, but falls down a trap door leading to Tanaka's office. The stolen documents are examined and found to include a photograph of the cargo ship Ning-Po with a microdot message saying the tourist who took the photo was killed as a security precaution.\n\nBond goes to Osato Chemicals to meet Mr. Osato himself, masquerading as a potential new buyer. Osato humours Bond but, after their meeting, orders his secretary, Helga Brandt, to have him killed. Outside the building, assassins open fire on Bond before Aki rescues him again. Bond and Aki drive to Kobe, where the Ning-Po is docked. They investigate the company's dock facilities and discover that the ship was delivering elements for rocket fuel. They are discovered, but Bond eludes the henchmen until Aki gets away; however, Bond himself is captured and knocked out. He wakes, tied up in SPECTRE operative Helga Brandt's cabin on the Ning-Po. She interrogates Bond, but he thinks he has managed to bribe his way to freedom. Brandt then flies Bond to Tokyo but, en route, she sets off a flare in the plane and bails out. Bond manages to land the plane.\n\nAfter finding out where the Ning-Po unloaded, Bond flies over the area in a heavily armed autogyro created by Q. Near a volcano, Bond is attacked by helicopters, which he defeats, confirming his suspicions that the enemy's base is nearby. A Soviet spacecraft is then captured in orbit by another unidentified craft, heightening tensions between Russia and the US. The mysterious spaceship lands in an extensive base hidden inside the volcano. It is revealed that the true mastermind behind this is Ernst Stavro Blofeld and SPECTRE. Blofeld seems to forgive Brandt for her failure to kill Bond, but as she leaves, he activates a mechanism that drops her into a pool of piranha. Blofeld instructs Osato to kill Bond. \n\nBond trains with Tanaka's ninjas, during which an attempted assassination kills Aki instead. Bond is disguised as an Oriental in a fake marriage to Tanaka's student, Kissy Suzuki. Acting on a lead from Suzuki, the pair reconnoiter a cave and the volcano above it. Establishing that the mouth of the volcano is a disguised hatch to the secret rocket base, Bond slips in, while Kissy goes to alert Tanaka. Bond locates and frees the captured astronauts and, with their help, steals a spacesuit in attempt to infiltrate the SPECTRE spacecraft \"Bird One\". However, Blofeld spots Bond, and he is detained while Bird One is launched. \n\nBird One closes in on the American space capsule, and US forces prepare to launch a nuclear attack on the USSR. Meanwhile, the Japanese ninjas approach the base's entrance, but are detected and fired upon. Bond manages to open the hatch, letting in the ninjas. During the ensuing battle, Bond fights his way to the control room and activates Bird One's self-destruct before it reaches the American craft. The Americans stand down their forces.\n\nBlofeld activates the base's self-destruct system and escapes. Bond, Kissy, Tanaka, and the surviving ninjas leave before the base explodes.\n\nCast\n\n* Sean Connery as James Bond: An MI6 agent.\n* Akiko Wakabayashi as Aki: An agent with the Japanese SIS who assists Bond.\n* Mie Hama as Kissy Suzuki: An Ama diving girl who replaces Aki after her death.\n* Donald Pleasence as Ernst Stavro Blofeld: The megalomaniacal head of the terrorist syndicate known as SPECTRE. He intends to ignite a global nuclear war.\n* Tetsurō Tamba as Tiger Tanaka: Head of Japanese secret service.\n* Teru Shimada as Mr. Osato: A Japanese industrialist secretly affiliated to SPECTRE.\n* Karin Dor as Helga Brandt/No. 11: Osato's secretary and a SPECTRE assassin.\n* Bernard Lee as M: The head of MI6.\n* Charles Gray as Dikko Henderson: British contact living in Japan.\n* Burt Kwouk as Spectre 3: one of Blofeld's henchmen.\n* Lois Maxwell as Miss Moneypenny: M's secretary.\n* Desmond Llewelyn as Q: Head of MI6 technical department.\n* Tsai Chin as Ling: Undercover MI6 agent in Hong Kong. \n* Ronald Rich as Hans: Blofeld's personal bodyguard.\n* David Toguri as Assassin in Bedroom: one of Osato's henchmen, who kills Aki.\n* Peter Maivia as Car Driver: one of Osato's henchmen, who fights Bond.\n\nProduction\n\nOn Her Majesty's Secret Service was the intended next film, but the producers decided to adapt You Only Live Twice instead because OHMSS would require searching for high and snowy locations. Lewis Gilbert originally declined the offer to direct, but accepted after producer Albert R. Broccoli called him saying: \"You can't give up this job. It's the largest audience in the world.\" Peter R. Hunt, who edited the first five Bond films, believed that Gilbert had been contracted by the producers for other work but they found they had to use him. \n\nGilbert, producers Broccoli and Harry Saltzman, production designer Ken Adam and director of photography Freddie Young then went to Japan, spending three weeks searching for locations. SPECTRE’s shore fortress headquarters was changed to an extinct volcano after the team learned that the Japanese do not build castles by the sea. The group was due to return to the UK on a BOAC Boeing 707 flight (BOAC Flight 911) on 5 March 1966, but cancelled after being told they had a chance to watch a ninja demonstration. That flight crashed 25 minutes after takeoff, killing all on board. In Tokyo, the crew also found Hunt, who decided to go on holiday after having his request to direct declined. Hunt was invited to direct the second unit for You Only Live Twice and accepted the job. \n\nUnlike most James Bond films featuring various locations around the world, almost the entire film is set in one country and several minutes are devoted to an elaborate Japanese wedding. This is in keeping with Fleming's original novel, which also devoted a number of pages to the discussion of Japanese culture. Toho Studios provided soundstages, personnel, and the female Japanese stars to the producers. \n\nWriting\n\nThe producers had Harold Jack Bloom come to Japan with them to write a screenplay. Bloom's work was ultimately rejected, but since several of his ideas were used in the final script, Bloom was given the credit of \"Additional Story Material\". Among the elements were the opening with Bond's fake death and burial at sea, and the ninja attack.Soter, Tom. [http://www.tomsoter.com/?qnode/829 Roald Dahl]. Starlog, August 1991. Retrieved 15 February 2011. As the screenwriter of the previous Bond films Richard Maibaum was unavailable, Roald Dahl, a close friend of Ian Fleming, was chosen to write the adaptation despite having no prior experience writing a screenplay except for the uncompleted The Bells of Hell Go Ting-a-ling-a-ling.\n\nDahl said that the original novel was \"Ian Fleming’s worst book, with no plot in it which would even make a movie\", and compared it to a travelogue, stating that he had to create a new plot \"[though] I could retain only four or five of the original story's ideas.\" On creating the plot, Dahl said he \"didn't know what the hell Bond was going to do\" despite having to deliver the first draft in six weeks, and decided to do a basic plot similar to Dr. No. Dahl was given a free rein on his script, except for the character of Bond and \"the girl formula\", involving three women for Bond to seduce: an ally and a henchwoman who both get killed, and the main Bond girl. While the third involved a character from the book, Kissy Suzuki, Dahl had to create Aki and Helga Brandt to fulfil the rest. \n\nGilbert was mostly collaborative with Dahl's work, as the writer declared: \"He not only helped in script conferences, but had some good ideas and then left you alone, and when you produced the finished thing, he shot it. Other directors have such an ego that they want to rewrite it and put their own dialogue in, and it's usually disastrous. What I admired so much about Lewis Gilbert was that he just took the screenplay and shot it. That's the way to direct: You either trust your writer or you don't.\"\n\nCasting\n\nWhen the time came to begin You Only Live Twice, the producers were faced with the problem of a disenchanted star. Sean Connery had stated that he was tired of playing James Bond and all of the associated commitment (time spent filming and publicising each movie), together with finding it difficult to do other work, which would potentially lead to typecasting. Saltzman and Broccoli were able to persuade Connery by increasing his fee for the film, but geared up to look for a replacement.\n\nJan Werich was originally cast by producer Harry Saltzman to play Blofeld. Upon his arrival at the Pinewood set, both producer Albert R. Broccoli and director Lewis Gilbert felt that he was a poor choice, resembling a \"poor, benevolent Santa Claus\". Nonetheless, in an attempt to make the casting work, Gilbert continued filming. After several days, both Gilbert and Broccoli determined that Werich was not menacing enough, and recast Blofeld with Donald Pleasence in the role. Pleasence's ideas for Blofeld's appearance included a hump, a limp, a beard, and a lame hand, before he settled on the scar. He found it uncomfortable, though, because of the glue that attached it to his eye.\n\nMany European models were tested for Helga Brandt including German actress Eva Renzi who passed on the film, with German actress Karin Dor being cast. Dor performed the stunt of diving into a pool to depict Helga's demise herself, without the use of a double. Strangely, for the German version Dor was dubbed by somebody else. \n\nGilbert had chosen Tetsurō Tamba after working with him in The 7th Dawn. A number of actual martial arts experts were hired as the ninjas. The two Japanese female parts proved difficult to cast, due to most of the actresses tested having limited English. Akiko Wakabayashi and Mie Hama were eventually chosen and started taking English classes in the UK. Hama, initially cast in the role of Tanaka's assistant, had difficulty with the language, so the producers switched her role with Wakabayashi, who had been cast as Kissy, a part with significantly less dialogue. Wakabayashi only requested that her character name, \"Suki\", be changed to \"Aki\".\n\nFilming\n\nFilming of You Only Live Twice lasted from July 1966 to March 1967. The film was shot primarily in Japan. Himeji Castle in Hyōgo was depicted as Tanaka's ninja training camp. His private transportation hub was filmed at the Tokyo Metro's Nakano-shimbashi Station. As of 2011, many of the fixtures in the station are unchanged from the time of filming. \n\nThe Hotel New Otani Tokyo served as the outside for Osato Chemicals and the hotel's gardens were used for scenes of the ninja training. Bōnotsu in Kagoshima served as the fishing village, the Kobe harbour was used for the dock fight and Mount Shinmoe-dake in Kyūshū was used for the exteriors of SPECTRE's headquarters. Large crowds were present in Japan to see the shooting. A Japanese fan began following Sean Connery with a camera, and the police were called several times to prevent invasions during shooting. \n\nThe heavily armed WA-116 autogyro \"Little Nellie\" was included after Ken Adam heard a radio interview with its inventor, RAF Wing Commander Ken Wallis. Little Nellie was named after music hall star Nellie Wallace, who has a similar surname to its inventor. Wallis piloted his invention, which was equipped with various mock-up armaments by John Stears' special effects team, during production.\n\n\"Nellie's\" battle with helicopters proved to be difficult to film. The scenes were initially shot in Miyazaki, first with takes of the gyrocopter, with more than 85 take-offs, 5 hours of flight and Wallis nearly crashing into the camera several times. A scene filming the helicopters from above created a major downdraft and cameraman John Jordan's foot was severed by the craft's rotor. The concluding shots involved explosions, which the Japanese government did not allow in a national park. So, the crew moved to Torremolinos, Spain, which was found to resemble the Japanese landscape.\n\nThe sets of SPECTRE's volcano base were constructed at a lot inside Pinewood Studios, with a cost of $1 million and including operative heliport and monorail. The 45 m tall set could be seen from 5 km away, and attracted many people from the region. Locations outside Japan included using the Royal Navy frigate , then in Gibraltar, for the sea burial, Hong Kong for the scene where Bond fakes his death, and Norway for the Soviet radar station.\n\nSean Connery's then wife Diane Cilento did the swimming scenes for at least five Japanese actresses, including Mie Hama. Martial arts expert Donn F. Draeger provided martial arts training, and also doubled for Connery. Lewis Gilbert's regular editor, Thelma Connell, was originally hired to edit the film. However, after her initial, almost three-hour cut received a terrible response from test audiences, Peter R. Hunt was asked to re-edit the film. Hunt's cut proved a much greater success, and he was awarded the director's chair on the next film as a result.\n\nMusic\n\nThe soundtrack was the fourth of the series to be composed by John Barry. He tried to incorporate the \"elegance of the Oriental sound\" with Japanese music-inspired tracks. The theme song, \"You Only Live Twice\", was composed by Barry and lyricist Leslie Bricusse and sung by Nancy Sinatra after her father Frank Sinatra passed on the opportunity. Nancy Sinatra was reported to be very nervous while recording – first she wanted to leave the studio; then she claimed to sometimes \"sound like Minnie Mouse\". Barry declared that the final song uses 25 different takes. British singer Julie Rogers recorded an alternative song for the titles, but this was not used.\n\nThere are two versions of the song \"You Only Live Twice\", sung by Nancy Sinatra, one directly from the movie soundtrack, and a second one for record release arranged by Billy Strange. The movie soundtrack song is widely recognised for its striking opening bars and oriental flavour, and was far more popular on radio. The record release made No. 44 on the Billboard charts in the USA, No. 11 in UK. Both versions of the title song are available on CD.\n\nIn 1992, Acen sampled the title song \"You Only Live Twice\" for his song \"Trip II the Moon Part 2\". In 1997, Icelandic singer Björk recorded a cover version. In 1998, Robbie Williams used the distinctive string figure for his song \"Millennium\", (although it was re-recorded, rather than sampled from the movie for cost reasons). Coldplay covered it when they toured in 2001, and it was covered by Natacha Atlas for her 2005 compilation album The Best of Natacha Atlas. Shirley Bassey, who has three original Bond themes to her credit, has also covered the song.\n\nA different title song was originally recorded by Julie Rogers, but eventually discarded. Only two lines from that version were kept in the final lyrics, and the orchestral part was changed to fit Nancy Sinatra's vocal range. Rogers' version only appeared in a James Bond 30th Anniversary CD, with no singer credit. In the 1990s, an alternative example of a possible theme song (also called \"You Only Live Twice\" and sung by Lorraine Chandler) was discovered in the vaults of RCA Records. It became a very popular track with followers of the Northern Soul scene (Chandler was well known for her high-quality soul output on RCA) and can be found on several RCA soul compilations. \n\nPromotion\n\nTo promote the film, Eon Productions produced a one-hour colour television programme entitled Welcome to Japan, Mr. Bond first aired on 2 June 1967 in the United States on NBC. Bond regulars Lois Maxwell and Desmond Llewelyn appeared playing respectively \"Miss Moneypenny\" and \"Q\". Kate O'Mara appears as Miss Moneypenny's assistant. The programme shows clips from You Only Live Twice and the then four existing Bond films. and contained a storyline of Moneypenny trying to establish the identity of Bond's bride. \n\nRelease and reception\n\nYou Only Live Twice premiered at the Odeon Leicester Square in London. It was the first premiere of a James Bond film that Queen Elizabeth II attended. The film grossed $43 million in the United States and over $111 million worldwide. \n\nCritical response today is mostly positive, with Rotten Tomatoes giving a 72% rating. But most reviews pointed out various flaws in the film. James Berardinelli said that the first half was good, but \"during the second half, as the plot escalates beyond the bounds of preposterousness, that the film starts to fragment\", criticising Blofeld's appearance and stating \"rockets that swallow up spacecraft are a bit too extravagant.\" \n\nRoger Ebert criticised the focus on gadgets, declaring that the James Bond formula \"fails to work its magic\". John Brosnan in his book James Bond in the Cinema compared the film to an episode of Thunderbirds with a reliance on gadgetry but admitted it had pace and spectacle. Christopher Null considered the film one of James Bond's most memorable adventures, but the plot \"protracting and quite confusing\". \n\nAli Barclay of BBC Films panned Dahl's script displaying \"a whole new world of villainy and technology.\" Leo Goldsmith lauded the volcano base as \"the most impressive of Ken Adam's sets for the franchise.\" Danny Peary wrote that You Only Live Twice \"should have been about twenty minutes shorter\" and described it as \"not a bad Bond film, but it doesn’t compare to its predecessors – the formula had become a little stale.\" \n\nIGN ranked You Only Live Twice as the fourth best Bond film, and Entertainment Weekly as the second best, considering that it \"pushes the series to the outer edge of coolness\". But Norman Wilner of MSN chose it as the fifth worst, criticising the plot, action scenes and little screentime for Blofeld. Literary critic Paul Simpson called the film one of the most colourful of the series and credited the prefecture of Kagoshima for adding \"a good flavour\" of Japanese influence on the film, but he panned the depiction of Blofeld as a \"let-down\", \"small, bald and a whooping scar.\" Simon Winder said that the film is \"perfect\" for parodies of the series." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Nancy sinatra", "For My Dad", "Country, My Way", "Nancy Sinatra", "How Does It Feel (album)" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "nancy sinatra", "for my dad", "country my way", "how does it feel album" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "nancy sinatra", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Nancy Sinatra" }
Who had a big 90s No 1 with This Is How We Do It?	tc_523	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "This_Is_How_We_Do_It.txt" ], "title": [ "This Is How We Do It" ], "wiki_context": [ "\"This Is How We Do It\" is the debut single by American singer Montell Jordan. It was released by Def Jam Recordings on February 6, 1995 as the lead single from his debut album of the same name. The single was Def Jam's first R&B release.\n\nThe song is representative of the hip hop soul style popular at the time, featuring Jordan singing over an enhanced sample of Slick Rick's \"Children's Story\" which in turn samples Bob James' \"Nautilus\". \"This Is How We Do It\" peaked at number one on the Billboard Hot 100 for seven weeks from 15 April to 27 May 1995, and was also number one for seven weeks on the R&B singles chart. The single sold one million copies domestically and earned a platinum certification from the RIAA. \n\nA cover of the song by Mis-Teeq appears in the movie Ali G Indahouse and on its soundtrack album. A cover by AlunaGeorge is a bonus track on their debut studio album Body Music. \n\nThe song appears in Kinect game Dance Central 2 and Saints Row IV on one of the in game radio stations \"107.7 The Mix FM\" and is played during the ending of the game where all the characters dance to the song.\n\nThe song earned Jordan a Grammy Award nomination for Best Male R&B Vocal Performance at the 38th Annual Grammy Awards.\n\nCharts\n\nWeekly charts\n\nYear-end charts\n\nDecade-end charts\n\nThe Party (This Is How We Do It)\n\nDutch DJ Joe Stone remixed the song and it was released officially on 31 July 2015.\n\nBackground\n\nMusic video\n\nFormats and track listings\n\nCharts\n\nRelease history" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Supa Star", "Montel Jordan", "Montell Jordan" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "montel jordan", "montell jordan", "supa star" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "montell jordan", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Montell Jordan" }
Which national park, famous for aboriginal rock paintings, is near Darwin?	tc_524	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe", "TagMe", "Search" ], "filename": [ "Indigenous_Australians.txt", "Rock_art.txt", "Darwin,_Northern_Territory.txt", "Kakadu_National_Park.txt" ], "title": [ "Indigenous Australians", "Rock art", "Darwin, Northern Territory", "Kakadu National Park" ], "wiki_context": [ "Indigenous Australians are the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people of Australia, descended from groups that existed in Australia and surrounding islands prior to European colonisation. The earliest definite human remains found in Australia are those of Mungo Man, which have been dated at about 40,000 years old, although the time of arrival of the first Indigenous Australians is a matter of debate among researchers, with estimates dating back as far as 125,000 years. \n\nThere is great diversity among different Indigenous communities and societies in Australia, each with its own mixture of cultures, customs and languages. In present-day Australia these groups are further divided into local communities. At the time of initial European settlement, over 250 languages were spoken; it is currently estimated that 120 to 145 of these remain in use, but only 13 of these are not considered endangered. Aboriginal people today mostly speak English, with Aboriginal phrases and words being added to create Australian Aboriginal English (which also has a tangible influence of Indigenous languages in the phonology and grammatical structure). The population of Indigenous Australians at the time of permanent European settlement has been estimated at between 318,000 and 1,000,000 with the distribution being similar to that of the current Australian population, with the majority living in the south-east, centred along the Murray River. \n\nSince 1995, the Australian Aboriginal Flag and the Torres Strait Islander Flag have been among the official flags of Australia.\n\nIndigenous Australia\n\nTerminology\n\nThough Indigenous Australians are seen as being broadly related as part of what has been called the Australoid race, there are significant differences in social, cultural and linguistic customs between the various Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander groups.\n\nThe word aboriginal has been in the English language since at least the 16th century, to mean, \"first or earliest known, indigenous\". It comes from the Latin word aborigines, derived from ab (from) and origo (origin, beginning). The word was used in Australia to describe its indigenous peoples as early as 1789. It soon became capitalised and employed as the common name to refer to all Indigenous Australians.\n\nStrictly speaking, Aborigine is the noun and Aboriginal the adjectival form; however, the latter is often also employed as a noun. Use of either Aborigine(s) or Aboriginal(s) to refer to individuals has acquired negative connotations in some sectors of the community, and it is generally regarded as insensitive and even offensive. The more acceptable and correct expression is Aboriginal Australians or Aboriginal people. The term Indigenous Australians, which also includes Torres Strait Islander peoples, has found increasing acceptance, particularly since the 1980s.\n\nRegional groups\n\nThe broad term Aboriginal Australians includes many regional groups that often identify under names from local Indigenous languages. These include:\n\n* Murrawarri people - see Murrawarri Republic and Murawari language;\n* Koori (or Koorie) in New South Wales and Victoria (Victorian Aborigines);\n* Ngunnawal in the Australian Capital Territory and surrounding areas of New South Wales;\n* Goorie in South East Queensland and some parts of northern New South Wales; \n* Murrdi in Southwest and Central Queensland;\n* Murri in other parts of Queensland where specific collective names (such as Gorrie or Murrdi) are not used;\n* Nyungar in southern Western Australia;\n* Yamatji in central Western Australia;\n* Wangai in the Western Australian Goldfields;\n* Nunga in southern South Australia;\n* Anangu in northern South Australia, and neighbouring parts of Western Australia and Northern Territory;\n* Yapa in western central Northern Territory;\n* Yolngu in eastern Arnhem Land (NT);\n* Bininj in Western Arnhem Land (NT);\n* Tiwi on Tiwi Islands off Arnhem Land.\n* Anindilyakwa on Groote Eylandt off Arnhem Land;\n* Palawah (or Pallawah) in Tasmania.\nThese larger groups may be further subdivided; for example, Anangu (meaning a person from Australia's central desert region) recognises localised subdivisions such as Pitjantjatjara, Yankunytjatjara, Ngaanyatjarra, Luritja and Antikirinya. It is estimated that prior to the arrival of British settlers, the population of Indigenous Australians was approximately 318,000–750,000 across the continent.\n\nTorres Strait Islanders\n\nThe Torres Strait Islanders possess a heritage and cultural history distinct from Aboriginal traditions. The eastern Torres Strait Islanders in particular are related to the Papuan peoples of New Guinea, and speak a Papuan language. Accordingly, they are not generally included under the designation \"Aboriginal Australians\". This has been another factor in the promotion of the more inclusive term \"Indigenous Australians\". Six percent of Indigenous Australians identify themselves fully as Torres Strait Islanders. A further 4% of Indigenous Australians identify themselves as having both Torres Strait Islander and Aboriginal heritage. \n\nThe Torres Strait Islands comprise over 100 islands which were annexed by Queensland in 1879. Many Indigenous organisations incorporate the phrase \"Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander\" to highlight the distinctiveness and importance of Torres Strait Islanders in Australia's Indigenous population.\n\nEddie Mabo was from \"Mer\" or Murray Island in the Torres Strait, which the famous Mabo decision of 1992 involved.\n\nBlack\n\nThe term \"blacks\" has been used to refer to Indigenous Australians since European settlement. While originally related to skin colour, the term is used today to indicate Aboriginal heritage or culture in general and refers to people of any skin pigmentation. In the 1970s, many Aboriginal activists, such as Gary Foley, proudly embraced the term \"black\", and writer Kevin Gilbert's ground-breaking book from the time was entitled Living Black. The book included interviews with several members of the Aboriginal community including Robert Jabanungga reflecting on contemporary Aboriginal culture. A less formal term, used by Indigenous Australians themselves and not normally derogatory, is \"blackfellas\", along with \"whitefellas\".\n\nHistory\n\nMigration to Australia\n\nMost scholars date the arrival of humans in Australia at 40,000 to 50,000 years ago, with a possible range of up to 125,000 years ago. Genetic studies appear to support an arrival date of about 44,000 years ago.\n\nThe earliest anatomically modern human remains found in Australia (and outside of Africa) are those of Mungo Man; they have been dated at 42,000 years old. The initial comparison of the mitochondrial DNA from the skeleton known as Lake Mungo 3 (LM3) with that of ancient and modern Aborigines indicated that Mungo Man is not related to Australian Aborigines. However, these findings have been met with a general lack of acceptance in scientific communities. The sequence has been criticised as there has been no independent testing, and it has been suggested that the results may be due to posthumous modification and thermal degradation of the DNA. Although the contested results seem to indicate that Mungo Man may have been an extinct subspecies that diverged before the most recent common ancestor of contemporary humans, the administrative body for the Mungo National Park believes that present-day local Aborigines are descended from the Lake Mungo remains. Independent DNA testing is unlikely as the indigenous custodians are not expected to allow further invasive investigations. \n\nIt is generally believed that Aboriginal people are the descendants of a single migration into the continent, a people that split from the first modern human populations to leave Africa 64,000 to 75,000 years ago, although a minority propose that there were three waves of migration, most likely island hopping by boat during periods of low sea levels (see Prehistory of Australia). Aboriginal people seem to have lived a long time in the same environment as the now extinct Australian megafauna. \n\nGenetically, while some Indigenous Australians have a Melanesian and Papuan admixture, most are more closely related to Central and South Asian populations. \"Some individuals are close to the Oceanic cluster, composed of MEL and PAP individuals but most occupy a wide range on PC2 between Europeans and East Asians, generally falling in an area occupied by Central and South Asian populations.\" Research indicates a single founding Sahul group with subsequent isolation between regional populations which were relatively unaffected by later migrations from the Asian mainland. The research also suggests a divergence from the Papuan people of New Guinea and Mamanwa people of the Philippines about 32,000 years ago with a rapid population expansion about 5,000 years ago. A 2011 genetic study found evidence that the Aboriginal, Papuan and Mamanwa peoples carry some of the genes associated with the Denisovan peoples of Asia, suggesting that modern and archaic humans interbred in Asia approximately 44,000 years ago, before Australia separated from Papua New Guinea and the migration to Australia. A 2012 paper reports that there is also evidence of a substantial genetic flow from India to northern Australia estimated at slightly over four thousand years ago, a time when changes in tool technology and food processing appear in the Australian archaeological record, suggesting that these may be related. \n\nBefore European contact\n\nAboriginal people mainly lived as hunter-gatherers, hunting and foraging for food from the land. Although Aboriginal society was generally mobile, or semi-nomadic, moving according to the changing food availability found across different areas as seasons changed, the mode of life and material cultures varied greatly from region to region, and there were permanent settlements and agriculture in some areas. The greatest population density was to be found in the southern and eastern regions of the continent, the River Murray valley in particular.\n\nThere is evidence that some Aboriginal populations in northern Australia regularly traded with Makassan fishermen from Indonesia before the arrival of Europeans. \n\nAt the time of first European contact, it is generally estimated that the pre-1788 population was 314,000, while recent archaeological finds suggest that a population of 500,000 to 750,000 could have been sustained, with some ecologists estimating a population of up to a million people was possible. The population was split into 250 individual nations, many of which were in alliance with one another, and within each nation there existed several clans, from as few as 5 or 6 to as many as 30 or 40. Each nation had its own language, and a few had several. \n\nAll evidence suggests that the section of the Australian continent now occupied by Queensland was the single most densely populated area of pre-contact Australia.\n\nThe evidence based on two independent sources thus suggests that the territory of Queensland had a pre-contact Indigenous population density twice that of New South Wales, at least six times that of Victoria and more than twenty times that of Tasmania. Equally, there are signs that the population density of Indigenous Australia was comparatively higher in the north-eastern sections of New South Wales, and along the northern coast from the Gulf of Carpentaria and westward including certain sections of Northern Territory and Western Australia. (See also Horton's Map of Aboriginal Australia. )\n\nBritish colonisation\n\nBritish colonisation of Australia began with the arrival of the First Fleet in Botany Bay in 1788.\n\nOne immediate consequence was a series of epidemics of European diseases such as measles, smallpox and tuberculosis. In the 19th century, smallpox was the principal cause of Aboriginal deaths. \n\nA smallpox epidemic in 1789 is estimated to have killed up to 90% of the Darug people. The cause of the outbreak is disputed. Some scholars have attributed it to European settlers, but it is also argued that Macassan fishermen from South Sulawesi and nearby islands may have introduced smallpox to Australia prior to the arrival of Europeans. A third suggestion is that the outbreak was most likely caused by release of British in vitro supplies of virus imported with the First Fleet. One advocate of that view has proposed that the British had no choice but to deploy the virus as a form of defence as they were confronted with dire circumstances when, among other factors, they ran out of ammunition for their muskets. A fourth theory is that the epidemic was of chickenpox, not smallpox, carried by members of the First Fleet, and to which the Aborigines also had no immunity. \n\nAnother consequence of British colonisation was appropriation of land and water resources, which continued throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries as rural lands were converted for sheep and cattle grazing. \n\nIn 1834 there occurred the first recorded use of Aboriginal trackers, who proved very adept at navigating their way through the Australian landscape and finding people. \n\nDuring the 1860s, Tasmanian Aboriginal skulls were particularly sought internationally for studies into craniofacial anthropometry. The skeleton of Truganini, a Tasmanian Aboriginal who died in 1876, was exhumed within two years of her death by the Royal Society of Tasmania, and later placed on display. Campaigns continue to have Aboriginal body parts returned to Australia for burial; Truganini's body was returned in 1976 and cremated, and her ashes were scattered according to her wishes.\n\nIn 1868, a group of mostly Aboriginal cricketers toured England, becoming the first Australian cricket team to travel overseas. \n\nTwentieth and twenty-first centuries\n\nBy 1900 the recorded Indigenous population of Australia had declined to approximately 93,000. However, this was only a partial count as both mainstream and tribal Aboriginal people and Torres Strait Islanders were poorly covered, with desert Aboriginal peoples not counted at all until the 1930s. The last uncontacted tribe left the Gibson Desert in 1984. During the first half of the twentieth century, many Indigenous Australians worked as stockmen on sheep stations and cattle stations. The Indigenous population continued to decline, reaching a low of 74,000 in 1933 before numbers began to recover. By 1995 population numbers had reached pre-colonisation levels, and in 2010 there were around 563,000 Indigenous Australians.\n\nAlthough, as British subjects, all Indigenous Australians were nominally entitled to vote, generally only those who merged into mainstream society did so. Only Western Australia and Queensland specifically excluded Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people from the electoral rolls. Despite the Commonwealth Franchise Act 1902, which excluded \"Aboriginal natives of Australia, Asia, Africa and Pacific Islands except New Zealand\" from voting unless they were on the roll before 1901, South Australia insisted that all voters enfranchised within its borders would remain eligible to vote in the Commonwealth, and Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people continued to be added to their rolls, albeit haphazardly.\n\nDespite efforts to bar their enlistment, over 1,000 Indigenous Australians fought for Australia in the First World War. \n\n1934 saw the first appeal to the High Court by an Aboriginal Australian, and it succeeded. Dhakiyarr was found to have been wrongly convicted of the murder of a white policeman, for which he had been sentenced to death; the case focused national attention on Aboriginal rights issues. Dhakiyarr disappeared upon release. In 1938, the 150th anniversary of the arrival of the British First Fleet was marked as a Day of Mourning and Protest at an Aboriginal meeting in Sydney. \n\nHundreds of Indigenous Australians served in the Australian armed forces during World War Two – including with the Torres Strait Light Infantry Battalion and The Northern Territory Special Reconnaissance Unit, which were established to guard Australia's North against the threat of Japanese invasion. \n\nThe 1960s was a pivotal decade in the assertion of Aboriginal rights and a time of growing collaboration between Aboriginal activists and white Australian activists. In 1962, Commonwealth legislation specifically gave Aboriginal people the right to vote in Commonwealth elections. A group of University of Sydney students organised a bus tour of western and coastal New South Wales towns in 1965 to raise awareness of the state of Aboriginal health and living conditions. This Freedom Ride also aimed to highlight the social discrimination faced by Aboriginal people and encourage Aboriginal people themselves to resist discrimination. In 1966, Vincent Lingiari led a famous walk-off of Indigenous employees of Wave Hill Station in protest against poor pay and conditions (later the subject of the Paul Kelly song \"From Little Things Big Things Grow\"). The landmark 1967 referendum called by Prime Minister Harold Holt allowed the Commonwealth to make laws with respect to Aboriginal people, and for Aboriginal people to be included when the country does a count to determine electoral representation. The referendum passed with 90.77% voter support. \n\nIn the controversial 1971 Gove land rights case, Justice Blackburn ruled that Australia had been terra nullius before British settlement, and that no concept of native title existed in Australian law. In 1971, Neville Bonner joined the Australian Senate as a Senator for Queensland for the Liberal Party, becoming the first Indigenous Australian in the Federal Parliament. A year later, the Aboriginal Tent Embassy was established on the steps of Parliament House in Canberra. In 1976, Sir Douglas Nicholls was appointed as the 28th Governor of South Australia, the first Aboriginal person appointed to vice-regal office. \n\nIn sport Evonne Goolagong Cawley became the world number-one ranked tennis player in 1971 and won 14 Grand Slam titles during her career. In 1973 Arthur Beetson became the first Indigenous Australian to captain his country in any sport when he first led the Australian National Rugby League team, the Kangaroos. In 1982, Mark Ella became Captain of the Australian National Rugby Union Team, the Wallabies. In 1984, a group of Pintupi people who were living a traditional hunter-gatherer desert-dwelling life were tracked down in the Gibson Desert in Western Australia and brought in to a settlement. They are believed to have been the last uncontacted tribe in Australia. In 1985, the Australian government returned ownership of Uluru (formerly known as Ayers Rock) to the Pitjantjatjara Aboriginal people.\n\nIn 1992, the High Court of Australia handed down its decision in the Mabo Case, declaring the previous legal concept of terra nullius to be invalid. A Constitutional Convention which selected a Republican model for the Referendum in 1998 included just six Indigenous participants, leading Monarchist delegate Neville Bonner to end his contribution to the Convention with his Jagera Tribal Sorry Chant in sadness at the low number of Indigenous representatives. The Republican Model, as well as a proposal for a new Constitutional Preamble which would have included the \"honouring\" of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people, was put to referendum but did not succeed. \n\nIn 1999 the Australian Parliament passed a Motion of Reconciliation drafted by Prime Minister John Howard in consultation with Aboriginal Senator Aden Ridgeway naming mistreatment of Indigenous Australians as the most \"blemished chapter in our national history\". \n\nIn 2000, Aboriginal sprinter Cathy Freeman lit the Olympic flame at the opening ceremony of the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney, and went on to win the 400 metres at the Games. In 2001, the Federal Government dedicated Reconciliation Place in Canberra.\n\nIn 2004, the Australian Government abolished the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Commission amidst allegations of corruption. \n\nIn 2007, Prime Minister John Howard and Indigenous Affairs Minister Mal Brough launched the Northern Territory National Emergency Response (also known as the Northern Territory Intervention), in response to the Little Children are Sacred Report into allegations of child abuse among Indigenous communities. The government banned alcohol in prescribed communities in the Territory; quarantined a percentage of welfare payments for essential goods purchasing; dispatched additional police and medical personnel to the region; and suspended the permit system for access to indigenous communities. In addition to these measures, the army were released into communities and there were increased police powers, which are still being increased today with the 'paperless arrests' legislation. In 2010, United Nations Special Rapporteur James Anaya found the Emergency Response to be racially discriminatory, and said that aspects of it represented a limitation on \"individual autonomy\". Indigenous Affairs Minister Jenny Macklin disagreed, saying that her duty to protect the rights of children was paramount; the Opposition questioned whether Anaya had adequately consulted; and Indigenous leaders like Warren Mundine and Bess Price criticised the UN findings. The Intervention has continued.\n\nOn 13 February 2008, Prime Minister Kevin Rudd issued a public apology to members of the Stolen Generations on behalf of the Australian Government.\n\nIn the general election of 2010, Ken Wyatt of the Liberal Party became the first Indigenous Australian elected to the Australian House of Representatives.\n\nIn 2010 the federal government appointed a panel comprising Indigenous leaders, other legal experts and some members of parliament (including Ken Wyatt) to provide advice on how best to recognise Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples in the federal constitution. The panel issued a discussion paper and launched a website, under the heading \"You Me Unity\". These invited submissions and participation in consultation sessions. More than 3,500 submissions were received and more than 200 public consultations and other meetings were held, including meetings in remote communities. An interim communiqué in December 2010 indicated majority support for constitutional recognition and for removing the sections of the federal constitution that permit discrimination on the basis of race. The panel provided the final report to the federal government in January 2012. The panel made a number of recommendations for constitutional reform. The recommendations included the deletion of Section 25 of the Constitution of Australia, which permits any State to disqualify \"persons of any race\" from voting (and excluding those people when \"reckoning the number of the people\") and Section 51(xxvi), which empowers the federal parliament to make special laws for people of any particular race. The repeal of these sections would remove the word \"race\" from the Constitution of Australia entirely. It was also recommended that three new sections be included: sections 51A, 116A and 127A to ensure meaningful recognition and further protection from discrimination. The federal government is not bound by the panel's recommendations, and their adoption will depend on whether they receive the necessary political and public support for success at the proposed 2013 Referendum to recognise Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples in the Constitution. \n\nOn 23 November 2011, the Stronger Futures policy legislation was introduced to the Parliament by Jenny Macklin, the Minister for Families, Community Services and Indigenous Affairs. The policy intends to address key issues that exist within Aboriginal communities of the Northern Territory such as unemployment, school attendance and enrolment, alcohol abuse, community safety and child protection, food security and housing and land reforms. The policy has been criticised by organisations such as Amnesty International and Concerned Citizens of Australia. The Stand for Freedom campaign leads the public movement against this legislation and criticises many measures of the legislation since they maintain \"racially-discriminatory\" elements of the Northern Territory Emergency Response Act and continue control of the Australian Government over \"Aboriginal people and their lands\". However, several prominent members of the Australian Government continue to voice support for the Stronger Futures policy.\n\nIn the general election of 2016, Linda Burney of the Australian Labor Party became the second Indigenous Australian, and the first Indigenous Australian woman, elected to the Australian House of Representatives. She was immediately appointed Shadow Minister for Human Services. \n\nSociety, language, culture, and technology\n\nThere are a large number of tribal divisions and language groups in Aboriginal Australia, and, correspondingly, a wide variety of diversity exists within cultural practices. However, there are some similarities between cultures.\n\nLanguages\n\nAccording to the 2005 National Indigenous Languages Survey (NILS), at the time the Australian continent was colonised, there were around 250 different Indigenous languages, with the larger language groups each having up to 100 related dialects. Some of these languages were only ever spoken by perhaps 50 to 100 people. Indigenous languages are divided into language groups with from ten to twenty-four language families identified. It is currently estimated that up to 145 Indigenous languages remain in use, of which fewer than 20 are considered to be strong in the sense that they are still spoken by all age groups. All but 13 Indigenous languages are considered to be endangered. Several extinct Indigenous languages are being reconstructed. For example, the last fluent speaker of the Ngarrindjeri language died in the late 1960s; using recordings and written records as a guide, a Ngarrindjeri dictionary was published in 2009,University of South Australia, \"Preserving Indigenous culture through language\", 26 May 2015,[http://www.unisa.edu.au/news/2008/160508.asp] Accessed 15 January 2010. and the Ngarrindjeri language is today being spoken in complete sentences.\n\nLinguists classify many of the mainland Australian languages into one large group, the Pama–Nyungan languages. The rest are sometimes lumped under the term \"non-Pama–Nyungan\". The Pama–Nyungan languages comprise the majority, covering most of Australia, and are generally thought to be a family of related languages. In the north, stretching from the Western Kimberley to the Gulf of Carpentaria, are found a number of non-Pama–Nyungan groups of languages which have not been shown to be related to the Pama–Nyungan family nor to each other. \nWhile it has sometimes proven difficult to work out familial relationships within the Pama–Nyungan language family, many Australian linguists feel there has been substantial success. Against this, some linguists, such as R. M. W. Dixon, suggest that the Pama–Nyungan group – and indeed the entire Australian linguistic area – is rather a sprachbund, or group of languages having very long and intimate contact, rather than a genetic language family. \n\nIt has been suggested that, given their long presence in Australia, Aboriginal languages form one specific sub-grouping. The position of Tasmanian languages is unknown, and it is also unknown whether they comprised one or more than one specific language family.\n\nBelief systems\n\nReligious demography among Indigenous Australians is not conclusive because the methodology of the census is not always well suited to obtaining accurate information on Aboriginal people. In the 2006 census, 73% of the Indigenous population reported an affiliation with a Christian denomination, 24% reported no religious affiliation and 1% reported affiliation with an Australian Aboriginal traditional religion. A small but growing minority of Aborigines are followers of Islam. \n\nAboriginal people traditionally adhered to animist spiritual frameworks. Within Aboriginal belief systems, a formative epoch known as 'the Dreamtime' stretches back into the distant past when the creator ancestors known as the First Peoples travelled across the land, creating and naming as they went. Indigenous Australia's oral tradition and religious values are based upon reverence for the land and a belief in this Dreamtime.\n\nThe Dreaming is at once both the ancient time of creation and the present-day reality of Dreaming. There were a great many different groups, each with its own individual culture, belief structure, and language. These cultures overlapped to a greater or lesser extent, and evolved over time. Major ancestral spirits include the Rainbow Serpent, Baiame, Dirawong and Bunjil.\n\nTraditional healers (known as Ngangkari in the Western desert areas of Central Australia) were highly respected men and women who not only acted as healers or doctors, but were generally also custodians of important Dreamtime stories. \n\nMusic\n\nMusic has formed an integral part of the social, cultural and ceremonial observances of people through the millennia of their individual and collective histories to the present day, and has existed for 50,000 years. \n\nThe various Indigenous Australian communities developed unique musical instruments and folk styles. The didgeridoo, which is widely thought to be a stereotypical instrument of Aboriginal people, was traditionally played by people of only the eastern Kimberley region and Arnhem Land (such as the Yolngu), and then by only the men. \n\nAround 1950, the first research into Aboriginal music was undertaken by the anthropologist Adolphus Elkin, who recorded Aboriginal music in Arnhem Land. \n\nHip hop music is helping preserve indigenous languages. \n\nAt the Sydney 2000 Olympics, Christine Anu sang the song \"My Island Home\" at the Closing Ceremony. \n\nArt\n\nAustralia has a tradition of Aboriginal art which is thousands of years old, the best known forms being rock art and bark painting. Evidence of Aboriginal art in Australia can be traced back at least 30,000 years. Examples of ancient Aboriginal rock artworks can be found throughout the continent – notably in national parks such as those of the UNESCO listed sites at Uluru and Kakadu National Park in the Northern Territory, but also within protected parks in urban areas such as at Ku-ring-gai Chase National Park in Sydney. The Sydney rock engravings are approximately 5000 to 200 years old. Murujuga in Western Australia has the Friends of Australian Rock Art have advocated its preservation, and the numerous engravings there were heritage listed in 2007. \n\nIn terms of age and abundance, cave art in Australia is comparable to that of Lascaux and Altamira in Europe, and Aboriginal art is believed to be the oldest continuing tradition of art in the world. There are three major regional styles: the geometric style found in Central Australia, Tasmania, the Kimberley and Victoria known for its concentric circles, arcs and dots; the simple figurative style found in Queensland and the complex figurative style found in Arnhem Land and the Kimberley which includes X-Ray art, Gwian Gwian (Bradshaw) and Wunjina. These designs generally carry significance linked to the spirituality of the Dreamtime. Paintings were usually created in earthy colours, from paint made from ochre. Such ochres were also used to paint their bodies for ceremonial purposes.\n\nModern Aboriginal artists continue the tradition, using modern materials in their artworks. Several styles of Aboriginal art have developed in modern times, including the watercolour paintings of the Hermannsburg School, and the acrylic Papunya Tula \"dot art\" movement. William Barak (c.1824–1903) was one of the last traditionally educated of the Wurundjeri-willam, people who come from the district now incorporating the city of Melbourne. He remains notable for his artworks which recorded traditional Aboriginal ways for the education of Westerners (which remain on permanent exhibition at the Ian Potter Centre of the National Gallery of Victoria and at the Ballarat Fine Art Gallery. Margaret Preston (1875–1963) was among the early non-indigenous painters to incorporate Aboriginal influences in her works. Albert Namatjira (1902–1959) is one of the most famous Australian artists and an Arrernte man. His landscapes inspired the Hermannsburg School of art. The works of Elizabeth Durack are notable for their fusion of Western and indigenous influences. Since the 1970s, indigenous artists have employed the use of acrylic paints – with styles such as that of the Western Desert Art Movement becoming globally renowned 20th-century art movements.\n\nThe National Gallery of Australia exhibits a great many indigenous art works, including those of the Torres Strait Islands who are known for their traditional sculpture and headgear. \n\nLiterature\n\nBy 1788, Indigenous Australians had not developed a system of writing, so the first literary accounts of Aborigines come from the journals of early European explorers, which contain descriptions of first contact, both violent and friendly. Early accounts by Dutch explorers and the English buccaneer William Dampier wrote of the \"natives of New Holland\" as being \"barbarous savages\", but by the time of Captain James Cook and First Fleet marine Watkin Tench (the era of Jean-Jacques Rousseau), accounts of Aborigines were more sympathetic and romantic: \"these people may truly be said to be in the pure state of nature, and may appear to some to be the most wretched upon the earth; but in reality they are far happier than ... we Europeans\", wrote Cook in his journal on 23 August 1770.\n\nLetters written by early Aboriginal leaders like Bennelong and Sir Douglas Nicholls are retained as treasures of Australian literature, as is the historic Yirrkala bark petitions of 1963 which is the first traditional Aboriginal document recognised by the Australian Parliament. David Unaipon (1872–1967) is credited as providing the first accounts of Aboriginal mythology written by an Aboriginal: Legendary Tales of the Aborigines; he is known as the first Aboriginal author. Oodgeroo Noonuccal (1920–1995) was a famous Aboriginal poet, writer and rights activist credited with publishing the first Aboriginal book of verse: We Are Going (1964). Sally Morgan's novel My Place was considered a breakthrough memoir in terms of bringing indigenous stories to wider notice. Leading Aboriginal activists Marcia Langton (First Australians, 2008) and Noel Pearson (\"Up From the Mission\", 2009) are active contemporary contributors to Australian literature.\n\nThe voices of Indigenous Australians are being increasingly noticed and include the playwright Jack Davis and Kevin Gilbert. Writers coming to prominence in the 21st century include Alexis Wright, Kim Scott, twice winner of the Miles Franklin award, Tara June Winch, in poetry Yvette Holt and in popular fiction Anita Heiss. Australian Aboriginal poetry – ranging from sacred to everyday – is found throughout the continent. \n\nMany notable works have been written by non-indigenous Australians on Aboriginal themes. Examples include the poems of Judith Wright; The Chant of Jimmie Blacksmith by Thomas Keneally and the short story by David Malouf: \"The Only Speaker of his Tongue\". \n\nHistories covering Indigenous themes include The Native Tribes of Central Australia by Spencer and Gillen, 1899; the diaries of Donald Thompson on the subject of the Yolngu people of Arnhem Land (c.1935–1943); Geoffrey Blainey (Triumph of the Nomads, 1975); Henry Reynolds (The Other Side of the Frontier, 1981); and Marcia Langton (First Australians, 2008). Differing interpretations of Aboriginal history are also the subject of contemporary debate in Australia, notably between the essayists Robert Manne and Keith Windshuttle.\n\nAustLit's BlackWords project provides a comprehensive listing of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Writers and Storytellers. The Living Archive of Aboriginal Languages contains stories written in traditional languages of the Northern Territory.\n\nFilm\n\nAustralian cinema has a long history and the ceremonies of Indigenous Australians were among the first subjects to be filmed in Australia – notably a film of Aboriginal dancers in Central Australia, shot by the anthropologist Baldwin Spencer in 1900. \n\n1955's Jedda was the first Australian feature film to be shot in colour, the first to star Aboriginal actors in lead roles, and the first to be entered at the Cannes Film Festival. 1971's Walkabout was a British film set in Australia; it was a forerunner to many Australian films related to indigenous themes and introduced David Gulpilil to cinematic audiences. 1976's Chant of Jimmie Blacksmith, directed by Fred Schepisi, was an award-winning historical drama from a book by Thomas Keneally about the tragic story of an Aboriginal bushranger. The canon of films related to Indigenous Australians also increased over the period of the 1990s and early 21st Century, with Nick Parson's 1996 film Dead Heart featuring Ernie Dingo and Bryan Brown; Rolf de Heer's Tracker, starring Gary Sweet and David Gulpilil; and Phillip Noyce's Rabbit-Proof Fence in 2002.\n\nThe 2006 film Ten Canoes was filmed entirely in an indigenous language, and the film won a special jury prize at the Cannes Film Festival. \n\nTraditional recreation and sport\n\nThough lost to history, many traditional forms of recreation were played and while these varied from tribe to tribe, there were often similarities. Ball games were quite popular and played by tribes across Australia, as were games based on use of weapons. There is extensive documented evidence of traditional football games being played. Perhaps the most documented is a game popularly played by tribes in western Victorian regions of the Wimmera, Mallee and Millewa by the Djab wurrung, Jardwadjali and Jarijari people. Known as Marn Grook, it was a type of kick and catch football game played with a ball made of possum hide, the existence of which was corroborated in accounts from European eyewitnesses and depicted in illustration. According to some accounts, it was played as far away as the Yarra Valley by the Wurundjeri people, Gippsland by the Gunai people, and the Riverina in south-western New South Wales. Since the 1980s it has been speculated that Marn Grook influenced Australian rules football, however there is no direct evidence in its favour.\n \nA team of Aboriginal cricketers toured England in 1868, making it the first Australian sports team to travel overseas. Cricketer and Australian rules football pioneer Tom Wills coached the team in an Aboriginal language he learnt as a child, and Charles Lawrence accompanied them to England. Johnny Mullagh, the team's star player, was regarded as one of the era's finest batsmen.\n\nLionel Rose earned a world title in boxing. Evonne Goolagong became the world number-one ranked female tennis player with 14 Grand Slam titles. Arthur Beetson, Laurie Daley and Gorden Tallis captained Australia in Rugby League and the annual NSW Koori Knockout and Murri Rugby League Carnival. Mark Ella captained Australia in Rugby Union. Notable Aboriginal athletes include Cathy Freeman who earned gold medals in the Olympics, World Championships, and Commonwealth Games. In Australian football, an increasing number of Indigenous Australians are playing at the highest level, the Australian Football League. Graham Farmer is said to have revolutionised the game in the ruck and handball areas. Two Indigenous Team of the Century players, Gavin Wanganeen and Adam Goodes, have also been Brownlow Medallists. Goodes was also the Australian of the Year for 2014. Two basketball players, Nathan Jawai and Patty Mills, have played in the sport's most prominent professional league, the National Basketball Association.\n\nAboriginal Australia has since been represented by various sporting teams, including the Indigenous All-Stars, Flying Boomerangs, the Indigenous Team of the Century (Australian rules football), Indigenous All Stars (rugby league) and the Murri Rugby League Team.\n\nTechnology\n\nTechnology used by indigenous Australian societies before European contact included weapons, tools, shelters, watercraft, and the message stick. Weapons included boomerangs, spears (sometimes thrown with a woomera) with stone or fishbone tips, clubs, and (less commonly) axes. The stone age tools available included knives with ground edges, grinding devices, and eating containers. Fibre nets, baskets, and bags were used for fishing, hunting, and carrying liquids. Trade networks spanned the continent, and transportation included canoes. Shelters varied regionally, and included wiltjas in the Atherton Tablelands, paperbark and stringybark sheets and raised platforms in Arnhem Land, whalebone huts in what is now South Australia, stone shelters in what is now western Victoria, and a multi-room pole and bark structure found in Corranderrk. A bark tent or lean-to is known as a humpy, gunyah, or wurley.\n\nClothing included the possum-skin cloak in the southeast and riji (pearl shells) in the northeast.\n\nPopulation\n\nDefinition \n\nOver time Australia has used various means to determine membership of ethnic groups such as lineage, blood quantum, birth and self-determination. From 1869 until well into the 1970s, Indigenous children under 12 years of age, with 25% or less Aboriginal blood were considered \"white\" and were often removed from their families by the Australian Federal and State government agencies and church missions, under acts of their respective parliaments in order that they would have \"a reasonable chance of absorption into the white community to which they rightly belong\". Grey areas in determination of ethnicity led to people of mixed ancestry being caught in the middle of divisive policies which often led to absurd situations: In 1935, an Australian of part Indigenous descent left his home on a reserve to visit a nearby hotel where he was ejected for being Aboriginal. He returned home but was refused entry to the reserve because he was not Aboriginal. He attempted to remove his children from the reserve but was told he could not because they were Aboriginal. He then walked to the next town where he was arrested for being an Aboriginal vagrant and sent to the reserve there. During World War II he tried to enlist but was rejected because he was an Aborigine so he moved to another state where he enlisted as a non-Aborigine. After the end of the war he applied for a passport but was rejected as he was an Aborigine, he obtained an exemption under the Aborigines Protection Act but was now told he could no longer visit his relatives as he was not an Aborigine. He was later told he could not join the Returned Servicemens Club because he was an Aborigine.\n\nIn 1983 the High Court of Australia defined an Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander as \"a person of Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander descent who identifies as an Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander and is accepted as such by the community in which he or she lives\".\n\nThe ruling was a three-part definition comprising descent, self-identification and community identification. The first part – descent – was genetic descent and unambiguous, but led to cases where a lack of records to prove ancestry excluded some. Self- and community identification were more problematic as they meant that an Indigenous person separated from her or his community due to a family dispute could no longer identify as Aboriginal.\n\nAs a result, there arose court cases throughout the 1990s where excluded people demanded that their Aboriginality be recognised. In 1995, Justice Drummond ruled \"..either genuine self-identification as Aboriginal alone or Aboriginal communal recognition as such by itself may suffice, according to the circumstances.\" This contributed to an increase of 31% in the number of people identifying as Indigenous Australians in the 1996 census when compared to the 1991 census. \n\nJudge Merkel in 1998 defined Aboriginal descent as technical rather than real – thereby eliminating a genetic requirement. This decision established that anyone can classify him or herself legally as an Aboriginal, provided he or she is accepted as such by his or her community. \n\nInclusion in the National Census \n\nAs there is no formal procedure for any community to record acceptance, the primary method of determining Indigenous population is from self-identification on census forms.\n\nUntil 1967, official Australian population statistics excluded \"full-blood aboriginal natives\" in accordance with section 127 of the Australian Constitution, even though many such people were actually counted. The size of the excluded population was generally separately estimated. \"Half-caste aboriginal natives\" were shown separately up to the 1966 census, but since 1971 there has been no provision on the forms to differentiate 'full' from 'part' Indigenous or to identify non-Indigenous persons who are accepted by Indigenous communities but have no genetic descent. \n\nIn the recent 2011 Census, there was 20% rise in people who identify as Aboriginal. One explanation for this is: \"the definition being the way it is, it's quite elastic. You can find out that your great-great grandmother was Aboriginal and therefore under that definition you can identify. It's that person's right to identify so [...] that's what explains the large increase.\" \n\nDemographics\n\nState distribution and identification growth rate\n\nThe Australian Bureau of Statistics 2005 census of Australian demographics showed that the Indigenous population had grown at twice the rate of the overall population since 1996 when the Indigenous population stood at 283,000. The Australian Bureau of Statistics estimated the total resident Indigenous population to be 458,520 in June 2001 (2.4% of Australia's total), 90% of whom identified as Aboriginal, 6% Torres Strait Islander and the remaining 4% being of dual Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander parentage. Much of the increase since 1996 can be attributed to greater numbers of people identifying themselves as Aboriginal or of Aboriginal descent. Changed definitions of Aboriginality and positive discrimination via material benefits have been cited as contributing to a movement to indigenous identification. \n\nIn the 2006 Census, 407,700 respondents declared they were Aboriginal, 29,512 declared they were Torres Strait Islander, and a further 17,811 declared they were both Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders. After adjustments for undercount, the indigenous population at the end of June 2006 was estimated to be 517,200, representing about 2.5% of the population.\n\nBased on Census data at 30 June 2006, the preliminary estimate of Indigenous resident population of Australia was 517,200, broken down as follows:\n* New South Wales – 148,200\n* Queensland – 146,400\n* Western Australia – 77,900\n* Northern Territory – 66,600\n* Victoria – 30,800\n* South Australia – 26,000\n* Tasmania – 16,900\n* Australian Capital Territory – 4,000\n* and a small number in other Australian territories \n\nThe state with the largest total Indigenous population is New South Wales. Indigenous Australians constitute 2.2% of the overall population of the State. The Northern Territory has the largest Indigenous population in percentage terms for a State or Territory, with 31.6% of the population being Indigenous.\n\nIn all of the other states and territories, less than 4% of their total population identifies as Indigenous; Victoria has the lowest percentage at 0.6%.\n\nUrbanisation rate\n\nIn 2006 about 31% of the Indigenous population was living in 'major cities' (as defined by the Australian Bureau of Statistics/Australian Standard Geographical Classification) and another 45% in 'regional Australia', with the remaining 24% in remote areas. The populations in Victoria, South Australia, and New South Wales are more likely to be urbanised. \n\nIntermarriage rate\n\nThe proportion of Aboriginal adults married (de facto or de jure) to non-Aboriginal spouses increased to 74% according to the 2011 census, up from 71% in 2006, 64% in 1996, 51% in 1991 and 46% in 1986. The census figures show there were more intermixed Aboriginal couples in capital cities: 87% in 2001 compared to 60% in rural and regional Australia. It is reported that up to 88% of the offspring of mixed marriages subsequently self identify as Indigenous Australians.\n\nGroups and communities\n\nThroughout the history of the continent, there have been many different Aboriginal groups, each with its own individual language, culture, and belief structure.\nAt the time of British settlement, there were over 200 distinct languages. \n\nThere are an indeterminate number of Indigenous communities, comprising several hundred groupings. Some communities, cultures or groups may be inclusive of others and alter or overlap; significant changes have occurred in the generations after colonisation.\n\nThe word \"community\" is often used to describe groups identifying by kinship, language or belonging to a particular place or \"country\". A community may draw on separate cultural values and individuals can conceivably belong to a number of communities within Australia; identification within them may be adopted or rejected.\n\nAn individual community may identify itself by many names, each of which can have alternate English spellings. The largest Aboriginal communities – the Pitjantjatjara, the Arrernte, the Luritja and the Warlpiri – are all from Central Australia.\n\nIndigenous \"communities\" in remote Australia are typically small, isolated towns with basic facilities, on traditionally owned land. These communities have between 20 – 300 inhabitants and are often closed to outsiders for cultural reasons. The long term viability and resilience of Indigenous communities has been debated by scholars and continues to be a political issue receiving fluctuating media attention.\n\nTasmania\n\nThe Tasmanian Aboriginal population are thought to have first crossed into Tasmania approximately 40,000 years ago via a land bridge between the island and the rest of mainland Australia during the last glacial period. Estimates of the population of the Aboriginal people of Tasmania, before European arrival, are in the range of 3,000 to 15,000 people although genetic studies have suggested significantly higher figures, which are supported by Indigenous oral traditions that indicate a reduction in population from diseases introduced by British and American sealers before settlement. The original population was further reduced to around 300 between 1803 and 1833 due to disease, warfare and other actions of British settlers. Despite over 170 years of debate over who or what was responsible for this near-extinction, no consensus exists on its origins, process, or whether or not it was genocide. However, using the \"U.N. definition, sufficient evidence exists to designate the Tasmanian catastrophe genocide.\"\n\nA woman named Trugernanner (often rendered as Truganini) who died in 1876, was, and still is, widely believed to be the very last of the full-blooded Aborigines. However, in 1889 Parliament recognized Fanny Cochrane Smith (d:1905) as the last surviving full-blooded Tasmanian Aborigine. The 2006 census showed that there were nearly 17,000 Indigenous Australians in the State.\n\nContemporary issues\n\nThe Indigenous Australian population is a mostly urbanised demographic, but a substantial number (27% in 2002) live in remote settlements often located on the site of former church missions. The health and economic difficulties facing both groups are substantial. Both the remote and urban populations have adverse ratings on a number of social indicators, including health, education, unemployment, poverty and crime.Australian Bureau of Statistics. [http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/[email protected]/94713ad445ff1425ca25682000192af2/1a79e7ae231704f8ca256f720082feb9!OpenDocument Year Book Australia 2005]\n\nIn 2004, Prime Minister John Howard initiated contracts with Aboriginal communities, where substantial financial benefits are available in return for commitments such as ensuring children attend school. These contracts are known as Shared Responsibility Agreements. This saw a political shift from 'self determination' for Aboriginal communities to 'mutual obligation',Mutual obligation, shared responsibility agreements & Indigenous health strategy, Ian PS Anderson [http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid\n1626072 NIH.gov] which has been criticised as a \"paternalistic and dictatorial arrangement\".Nothing mutual about denying Aborigines a voice, Larissa Behrendt, The Age newspaper, 8 December 2004 [http://www.smh.com.au/news/Opinion/Nothing-mutual-about-denying-Aborigines-a-voice/2004/12/07/1102182295283.html SMH.com.au]\n\nIdentity\n\nWho has the right to identify as indigenous has become an issue of controversy. The prominent Aboriginal activist Noel Pearson has stated: \"The essence of indigeneity … is that people have a connection with their ancestors whose bones are in the soil. Whose dust is part of the sand. I had to come to the somewhat uncomfortable conclusion that even Andrew Bolt was becoming Indigenous because the bones of his ancestors are now becoming part of the territory.\" \n\nStolen Generations\n\nThe Stolen Generations were those children of Australian Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander descent who were forcibly removed from their families by the Australian Federal and State government agencies and church missions, under acts of their respective parliaments. The removals occurred in the period between approximately 1871 and 1969, although, in some places, children were still being taken in the 1970s. \n\nOn 13 February 2008, the federal government of Australia, led by Prime Minister Kevin Rudd, issued a formal apology to the Indigenous Australians over the Stolen Generations. \n\nPolitical representation\n\nUnder Section 41 of the Australian Constitution, Aboriginal Australians always had the legal right to vote in Australian Commonwealth elections if their State granted them that right. This meant that all Aboriginal peoples outside Queensland and Western Australia had a legal right to vote. The right of Indigenous ex-servicemen to vote was affirmed in 1949 and all Indigenous Australians gained the unqualified right to vote in Federal elections in 1962. Unlike other Australians, however, voting was not made compulsory for Indigenous people.\n\nIt was not until the repeal of Section 127 of the Australian Constitution in 1967 that Indigenous Australians were counted in the population for the purposes of distribution of electoral seats. Only four Indigenous Australians have been elected to the Australian Senate: Neville Bonner (Liberal, 1971–1983), Aden Ridgeway (Democrat, 1999–2005), Nova Peris and Jacqui Lambie (both 2014–incumbent). Following the 2010 Australian Federal Election, Ken Wyatt of the Liberal Party won the Western Australian seat of Hasluck, becoming the first Indigenous person elected to the Australian House of Representatives. His nephew, Ben Wyatt was concurrently serving as Shadow Treasurer in the Western Australian Parliament and in 2011 considered a challenge for the Labor Party leadership in that state. In March 2013, Adam Giles of the Country Liberal Party became Chief Minister of the Northern Territory – the first indigenous Australian to become head of government in a state or territory of Australia. \n\nA number of Indigenous people represent electorates at State and Territorial level and South Australia has had an Aboriginal Governor, Sir Douglas Nicholls. The first Indigenous Australian to serve as a minister in any government was Ernie Bridge, who entered the Western Australian Parliament in 1980. Carol Martin was the first Aboriginal woman elected to an Australian parliament (the Western Australian Legislative Assembly) in 2001, and the first woman minister was Marion Scrymgour, who was appointed to the Northern Territory ministry in 2002 (she became Deputy Chief Minister in 2008). Representation in the Northern Territory has been relatively high, reflecting the high proportion of Aboriginal voters. The 2012 Territory election saw large swings to the conservative Country Liberal Party achieved in remote Territory electorates and a total of five Aboriginal CLP candidates won election to the Assembly (along with one Labor candidate) in a chamber of 25 members. Among those elected for the CLP were high profile activists Bess Price and Alison Anderson. \n\nThe Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Commission (ATSIC), a representative body of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders, was set up in 1990 under the Hawke government. In 2004, the Howard government disbanded ATSIC and replaced it with an appointed network of 30 Indigenous Coordination Centres that administer Shared Responsibility Agreements and Regional Partnership Agreements with Aboriginal communities at a local level. \n\nIn October 2007, just prior to the calling of a federal election, the then Prime Minister, John Howard, revisited the idea of bringing a referendum to seek recognition of Indigenous Australians in the Constitution (his government first sought to include recognition of Aboriginal peoples in the Preamble to the Constitution in a 1999 referendum). His 2007 announcement was seen by some as a surprising adoption of the importance of the symbolic aspects of the reconciliation process, and reaction was mixed. The ALP initially supported the idea, however Kevin Rudd withdrew this support just prior to the election – earning stern rebuke from activist Noel Pearson. Critical sections of the Australian public and media meanwhile suggested that Howard's raising of the issue was a \"cynical\" attempt in the lead-up to an election to \"whitewash\" his handling of this issue during his term in office. David Ross of the Central Land Council was sceptical, saying \"it's a new skin for an old snake\", while former Chairman of the Reconciliation Council Patrick Dodson gave qualified support, saying: \"I think it's a positive contribution to the process of national reconciliation...It's obviously got to be well discussed and considered and weighed, and it's got to be about meaningful and proper negotiations that can lead to the achievement of constitutional reconciliation.\" The Gillard Government, with bi-partisan support, convened an expert panel to consider changes to the Australian Constitution that would see recognition for Indigenous Australians. The Government promised to hold a referendum on the constitutional recognition of indigenous Australians on or before the federal election due for 2013. The plan was abandoned in September 2012, with Minister Jenny Macklin citing insufficient community awareness for the decision.\n\nAustralian politicians of Indigenous ancestry\n\nOnly 32 people recognised to be of Indigenous Australian ancestry have been members of the ten Australian legislatures.\n\nThe Northern Territory has an exceptionally high Indigenous proportionabout one third of its population and a greater rate of Indigenous politicians within the Northern Territory parliament. Adam Giles, who became Chief Minister of the Northern Territory in 2013, is the first Indigenous head of government in Australia.\n\nMajor political parties in Australia have tried to increase the number of Indigenous representation within their parties. A suggestion for increasing the number of Indigenous representation has been the introduction of seat quotas like the Maori electorates in New Zealand.\n\nAge characteristics\n\nThe Indigenous population of Australia is much younger than the non-Indigenous population, with an estimated median age of 21 years (37 years for non-Indigenous), due to higher rates of birth and death. For this reason, age standardisation is often used when comparing Indigenous and non-Indigenous statistics.\n\nLife expectancy\n\nThe life expectancy of Indigenous Australians is difficult to quantify accurately. Indigenous deaths are poorly identified, and the official figures for the size of the population at risk include large adjustment factors. Two estimates of Indigenous life expectancy in 2008 differed by as much as five years. \n\nIn some regions the median age at death was identified in 1973 to be as low as 47 years and the life expectancy gap between Aboriginal people and the rest of the Australian population as a whole, to be 25 years.\n\nFrom 1996 to 2001, the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) used indirect methods for its calculations, because census results were deemed to be unreliable., and figures published in 2005 (59.4 years for males and 64.8 years for females) indicated a widely quoted gap of 17 years between indigenous and non-indigenous life expectancy, though the ABS does not now consider the 2005 figures to be reliable.\n\nUsing a new method based on tracing the deaths of people identified as Indigenous at the 2006 census, in 2009 the ABS estimated life expectancy at 67.2 years for Indigenous men (11.5 years less than for non-Indigenous) and 72.9 years for Indigenous women (9.7 years less than for non-Indigenous). Estimated life expectancy of Indigenous men ranges from 61.5 years for those living in the Northern Territory to a high of 69.9 years for those living in New South Wales, and for Indigenous women, 69.2 years for those living in the Northern Territory to a high of 75.0 years for those living in New South Wales. \n\nEducation\n\nAboriginal students generally leave school earlier—and live with a lower standard of education—than their cohorts, although the situation is improving, with significant gains between 1994 and 2002.\n\n* 39% of indigenous students stayed on to year 12 at high school, compared with 75% for the Australian population as a whole. \n* 22% of indigenous adults had a vocational or higher education qualification, compared with 48% for the Australian population as a whole.\n* 4% of Indigenous Australians held a bachelor's degree or higher, compared with 21% for the population as a whole. This proportion is increasing, but at a slower rate than for the Australian population as a whole.\n\nThe performance of indigenous students in national literacy and numeracy tests conducted in school years three, five, and seven is also inferior to that of their cohorts. The following table displays the performance of indigenous students against the general Australian student population as reported in the National Report on Schooling in Australia 2004. \n\nIn response to this problem, the Commonwealth Government formulated a National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Education Policy. A number of government initiatives have resulted, some of which are listed at the Commonwealth Government's website. \n\nThe Aboriginal Centre for the Performing Arts was established as a training centre by the State and Federal Governments in 1997.\n\nEmployment\n\nIndigenous Australians as a group generally experience high unemployment compared to the national average. This can be correlated to lower educational outcomes (ABS 2010).\n\nIn 2002, the average household income for Indigenous Australian adults (adjusted for household size and composition) was 60% of the non-Indigenous average.\n\nHealth\n\nIndigenous Australians were twice as likely to report their health as fair/poor and 1.5 times more likely to have a disability or long-term health condition (after adjusting for demographic structures).[http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/[email protected]/00000000000000000000000000000000/294322bc5648ead8ca256f7200833040!OpenDocument Australian Bureau of Statistics].\n\nHealth problems with the highest disparity (compared with the non-Indigenous population) in incidence are outlined in the table below:\n\nEach of these indicators is expected to underestimate the true prevalence of disease in the population due to reduced levels of diagnosis.\n\nIn addition, the following factors have been at least partially implicated in the inequality in life expectancy:\n* poverty\n* insufficient education\n* substance abuse \n* for remote communities poor access to health services\n* for urbanised Indigenous Australians, cultural pressures which prevent access to health services\n* cultural differences resulting in poor communication between Indigenous Australians and health workers\n\nSuccessive Federal Governments have responded to these issues by implementing programs such as the Office of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Health (OATSIH).\n\nCrime and imprisonment\n\nIn 2009 the imprisonment rate for Indigenous people was 14 times higher than that of non-Indigenous people. \nIn 2000, Indigenous Australians were more likely per capita to be both victims of and perpetrators of reported crimes in New South Wales. \nIn 2002, Indigenous Australians were twice as likely as non-Indigenous Australians of the same age group to be a victim of violent aggression, with 24% of Indigenous Australians reported as being a victim of violence in 2001.\nIn 2004, Indigenous Australians were 11 times more likely to be in prison (age-standardised figures).\nIn June 2004, 21% of prisoners in Australia were Indigenous. \nThere are frequent reports of domestic violence and community disturbances. \n\nIn 2007, the Northern Territory Government commissioned a study into sexual abuse crimes being committed on children in aboriginal communities. The study, Ampe Akelyernemane Meke Mekarle “Little Children are Sacred”, found that, children in Aboriginal communities were being widely exposed to inappropriate sexual activity such as pornography, adult films and adults having sex within their view. The report indicated that this exposure has likely produced a number of effects, particularly the “sexualisation” of childhood and the creation of normalcy around sexual activity that may be used to engage children in sexual activity. This sexualisation of children and the wider community has led to a breakdown in traditional aboriginal law. Due to the nature of the issue, quantitative data was difficult to collect however a large amount of anecdotal evidence was relied upon which lead the author to the conclusion that issues such as rape and incest are widespread particularly within regional aboriginal communities however they are drastically under reported to local government or police. \n\nSubstance abuse\n\nMany Indigenous communities suffer from a range of health, social and legal problems associated with substance abuse of both legal and illegal drugs.\n\nThe 2004–05 National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Health Survey (NATSIHS) by the ABS found that the proportion of the Indigenous adult population engaged in 'risky' and 'high-risk' alcohol consumption (15%) was comparable with that of the non-Indigenous population (14%), based on age-standardised data. The definition of \"risky\" and \"high-risk\" consumption used is four or more standard drinks per day average for males, two or more for females.\n\nThe 2007 National Drug Strategy Household Survey reported that Indigenous peoples were \"more likely than other Australians to abstain from alcohol consumption (23.4% versus 16.8%) and also more likely to consume alcohol at risky or high-risk levels for harm in the short term (27.4% versus 20.1%)\". These NDSHS comparisons are non-age-standardised; the paper notes that Indigenous figures are based on a sample of 372 people and care should be exercised when using Indigenous figures.\n\nNATSIHS 2004/5 also found that, after adjusting for age differences between the two populations, Indigenous adults were more than twice as likely as non-Indigenous adults to be current daily smokers of tobacco. \n\nTo combat the problem, a number of programs to prevent or mitigate alcohol abuse have been attempted in different regions, many initiated from within the communities themselves. These strategies include such actions as the declaration of \"Dry Zones\" within indigenous communities, prohibition and restriction on point-of-sale access, and community policing and licensing.\n\nSome communities (particularly in the Northern Territory) introduced kava as a safer alternative to alcohol, as over-indulgence in kava produces sleepiness, in contrast to the violence that can result from over-indulgence in alcohol. These and other measures met with variable success, and while a number of communities have seen decreases in associated social problems caused by excessive drinking, others continue to struggle with the issue and it remains an ongoing concern.\n\nThe ANCD study notes that in order to be effective, programs in general need also to address \"...the underlying structural determinants that have a significant impact on alcohol and drug misuse\" (Op. cit., p. 26). In 2007, Kava was banned in the Northern Territory. \n\nPetrol sniffing is also a problem among some remote Indigenous communities. Petrol vapour produces euphoria and dulling effect in those who inhale it, and due to its previously low price and widespread availability, is an increasingly popular substance of abuse.\n\nProposed solutions to the problem are a topic of heated debate among politicians and the community at large. In 2005 this problem among remote indigenous communities was considered so serious that a new, low aromatic petrol Opal was distributed across the Northern Territory to combat it. \n\nNative title and sovereignty\n\nAbout 22% of land in Northern Australia (Kimberley (Western Australia), Top End and Cape York) is now Aboriginal-owned. In the last decade, nearly 200 native title claims covering 1.3 million km2 of land — approximately 18% of the Australian continent — have been approved. \n\nIn 1992, in Mabo v Queensland (No. 2), the High Court of Australia recognised native title in Australia for the first time. The majority in the High Court rejected the doctrine of terra nullius, in favour of the concept of native title. \n\nIn 2013 an Indigenous group describing itself as the Murrawarri Republic declared independence from Australia, claiming territory straddling the border between the states of New South Wales and Queensland. Australia's Attorney General's Department indicated it did not consider the declaration to have any meaning in law.\n\nCross-cultural miscommunication\n\nAccording to Michael Walsh and Ghil'ad Zuckermann, Western conversational interaction is typically \"dyadic\", between two particular people, where eye contact is important and the speaker controls the interaction; and \"contained\" in a relatively short, defined time frame. However, traditional Aboriginal conversational interaction is \"communal\", broadcast to many people, eye contact is not important, the listener controls the interaction; and \"continuous\", spread over a longer, indefinite time frame. \n\nProminent Indigenous Australians\n\nAfter the arrival of European settlers in New South Wales, some Indigenous Australians became translators and go-betweens; the best-known was Bennelong, who eventually adopted European dress and customs and travelled to England where he was presented to King George III. Others, such as Pemulwuy, Yagan, and Windradyne, became famous for armed resistance to the European settlers.\n\nDuring the twentieth century, as social attitudes shifted and interest in Indigenous culture increased, there were more opportunities for Indigenous Australians to gain recognition. Albert Namatjira became a painter, and actors such as David Gulpilil, Ernie Dingo, and Deborah Mailman became well known. Bands such as Yothu Yindi, and singers Christine Anu, Jessica Mauboy and Geoffrey Gurrumul Yunupingu, have combined Indigenous musical styles and instruments with pop/rock, gaining appreciation amongst non-Indigenous audiences. Polymath David Unaipon is commemorated on the Australian $50 note.\n\nWhile relatively few Indigenous Australians have been elected to political office (Neville Bonner, Aden Ridgeway, Ken Wyatt, Nova Peris and Jacqui Lambie remain the only Indigenous Australians to have been elected to the Australian Federal Parliament), Aboriginal rights campaigner Sir Douglas Nicholls was appointed Governor of the State of South Australia in 1976, and many others have become famous through political activism – for instance, Charles Perkins' involvement in the Freedom Ride of 1965 and subsequent work; or Torres Strait Islander Eddie Mabo's part in the landmark native title decision that bears his name. The voices of Cape York activists Noel Pearson and Jean Little, and academics Marcia Langton and Mick Dodson, today loom large in national debates. Some Indigenous people who initially became famous in other spheres – for instance, poet Oodgeroo Noonuccal – have used their celebrity to draw attention to Indigenous issues.\n\nIn health services, Kelvin Kong became the first Indigenous surgeon in 2006 and is an advocate of Indigenous health issues.", "In archaeology, rock art is human-made markings placed on natural stone; it is largely synonymous with parietal art. A global phenomenon, rock art is found in many culturally diverse regions of the world. It has been produced in many contexts throughout human history, although the majority of rock art that has been ethnographically recorded has been produced as a part of ritual. Such artworks are often divided into three forms: petroglyphs, which are carved into the rock surface, pictographs, which are painted onto the surface, and earth figures, formed on the ground. The oldest known rock art dates from the Upper Palaeolithic period, having been found in Europe, Australia, Asia and Africa. Archaeologists studying these artworks believe that they likely had magico-religious significance.\n\nThe archaeological sub-discipline of rock art studies first developed in the late-19th century among Francophone scholars studying the Upper Palaeolithic rock art found in the cave systems of Western Europe. Rock art continues to be of importance to indigenous peoples in various parts of the world, who view them as both sacred items and significant components of their cultural patrimony. Such archaeological sites are also significant sources of cultural tourism, and have been utilised in popular culture for their aesthetic qualities. \n\nNormally found in literate cultures, a rock relief or rock-cut relief is a relief sculpture carved on solid or \"living rock\" such as a cliff, rather than a detached piece of stone. They are a category of rock art, and sometimes found in conjunction with rock-cut architecture. However, they tend to be omitted in most works on rock art, which concentrate on engravings and paintings by prehistoric peoples. A few such works exploit the natural contours of the rock and use them to define an image, but they do not amount to man-made reliefs. Rock reliefs have been made in many cultures, and were especially important in the art of the Ancient Near East. Rock reliefs are generally fairly large, as they need to be to make an impact in the open air. Most have figures that are over life-size, and in many the figures are multiples of life-size.\n\nStylistically they normally relate to other types of sculpture from the culture and period concerned, and except for Hittite and Persian examples they are generally discussed as part of that wider subject. The vertical relief is most common, but reliefs on essentially horizontal surfaces are also found. The term typically excludes relief carvings inside caves, whether natural or themselves man-made, which are especially found in India. Natural rock formations made into statues or other sculpture in the round, most famously at the Great Sphinx of Giza, are also usually excluded. Reliefs on large boulders left in their natural location, like the Hittite İmamkullu relief, are likely to be included, but smaller boulders may be called stelae or carved orthostats.\n\nTerminology\n\nThe term rock art appears in the published literature as early as the 1940s. It has also been described as \"rock carvings\", \"rock drawings\", \"rock engravings\", \"rock inscriptions\", \"rock paintings\", \"rock pictures\", \"rock records\" \"rock sculptures., \n\nBackground\n\nThe defining characteristic of rock art is that it is placed on natural rock surfaces; in this way it is distinct from artworks placed on constructed walls or free-standing sculpture. As such, rock art is a form of landscape art, and includes designs that have been placed on boulder and cliff faces, cave walls and ceilings, and on the ground surface. Rock art is a global phenomenon, being found in many different regions of the world. \n\nThere are various forms of rock art. These include pictographs, which were painted or drawn onto the panel (rock surface), petroglyphs, which were carved or engraved onto the panel, and earth figures such as earthforms, intaglios and geoglyphs. Some archaeologists also consider pits and grooves in the rock, known as cups, rings or cupules, as a form of rock art.\n\nAlthough there are exceptions, the majority of rock art whose creation was ethnographically recorded had been produced during rituals. As such, the study of rock art is a component of the archaeology of religion. \n\nRock art serves multiple purposes in the contemporary world. In several regions, it remains spiritually important to indigenous peoples, who view it as a significant component of their cultural patrimony. It also serves as an important source of cultural tourism, and hence as economic revenue in certain parts of the world. As such, images taken from cave art have appeared on memorabilia and other artefacts sold as a part of the tourist industry.\n\nTypes\n\nPictographs\n\nPictographs are paintings or drawings that have been placed onto the rock face. Such artworks have typically been made with mineral earths and other natural compounds found across much of the world. The predominantly used colours are red, black and white. Red paint is usually attained through the use of ground ochre, while black paint is typically composed of charcoal, or sometimes from minerals such as manganese. White paint is usually created from natural chalk, kaolinite clay or diatomaceous earth. Once the pigments had been obtained, they would be ground and mixed with a liquid, such as water, blood, urine, or egg yolk, and then applied to the stone as paint using a brush, fingers, or a stamp. Alternately, the pigment could have been applied on dry, such as with a stick of charcoal. In some societies, the paint itself has symbolic and religious meaning; for instance, among hunter-gatherer groups in California, paint was only allowed to be traded by the group shamans, while in other parts of North America, the word for “paint” was the same as the word for \"supernatural spirit\". \n\nOne unusual form of pictograph, found in many, although not all rock-art producing cultures, is the hand print. There are three forms of this; the first involves covering the hand in wet paint and then applying it to the rock. The second involves a design being painted onto the hand, which is then in turn added to the surface. The third involves the hand first being placed against the panel, with dry paint then being blown onto it through a tube, in a process that is akin to air-brush or spray-painting. The resulting image is a negative print of the hand, and is sometimes described as a \"stencil\" in Australian archaeology. \n\nPetroglyphs\n\nPetroglyphs are engravings or carvings into the rock panel. They are created with the use of a hard hammerstone, which is battered against the stone surface. In certain societies, the choice of hammerstone itself has religious significance. In other instances, the rock art is pecked out through indirect percussion, as a second rock is used like a chisel between the hammerstone and the panel. A third, rarer form of engraving rock art was through incision, or scratching, into the surface of the stone with a lithic flake or metal blade. The motifs produced using this technique are fine-lined and often difficult to see. \n\nEarth Figures\n\nEarth figures are large designs and motifs that are created on the stone ground surface. They can be classified through their method of manufacture. Intaglios are created by scraping away the desert pavements (pebbles covering the ground) to reveal a negative image on the bedrock below. The best known example of such intaglio rock art is the Nazca Lines of Peru. In contrast, geoglyphs are positive images, which are created by piling up rocks on the ground surface to resulting in a visible motif or design.\n\nMotifs and panels\n\nTraditionally, individual markings are called motifs and groups of motifs are known as panels. Sequences of panels are treated as archaeological sites. This method of classifying rock art however has become less popular as the structure imposed is unlikely to have had any relevance to the art's creators. Even the word 'art' carries with it many modern prejudices about the purpose of the features.\n\nRock art can be found across a wide geographical and temporal spread of cultures perhaps to mark territory, to record historical events or stories or to help enact rituals. Some art seems to depict real events whilst many other examples are apparently entirely abstract.\n\nPrehistoric rock depictions were not purely descriptive. Each motif and design had a \"deep significance\" that is not always understandable to modern scholars. \n\nInterpretation and Use\n\nTime and Place\n\nRelation to shamanism\n\nIn many instances, the creation of rock art was itself a ritual act. Some rock art has been interpreted to represent presumed cultural behaviors. Common features in rock art that are related to portraying shamans were bones and other skeletal remains on their coats. One reason for the bones would be that they were used as a type of armor for protecting the shaman on his journeys through different worlds. Devlet, the author of \"Rock Art and the Material Culture of Siberian and Central Asian Shamanism\" highlights, “Another interpretation of these skeletal costume elements explains them as representations of a shaman brought back to life after the dismemberment that occurs during the initiation process: the depicted bones thus refer to the wearer’s own skeleton” (43). The concept of death and revival is often associated with shamans and the way they are portrayed. The bones were usually on the back of the shaman's jacket or used on the breast-piece. \nAnother important aspect used to distinguish shamans in rock art depictions is that they are wearing fringed fabric. There are differences in the lengths of the fringe and where on the shaman the fringe is located. In the rock art, the fringe was usually long single strands attached to different parts of the shaman’s body. The symbolism of the fringe can be interpreted in several ways. One example is, “The fringe on a shaman’s coat is an important element, which marks his or her ornithomorphic nature (i.e. the ability to transform into a bird or to gain its abilities such as the capacity for flight) ” (Devlet 44). The concept of fringe being correlated with flying was mainly used in rock art in the Altai, Tuva, and Mongolian regions.\n\nA more mainstream characteristic is the detection of the shaman’s ritualistic drum. Even though there are different types, shapes, and images painted on the shaman’s drum, it is clearly depicted in the rock art. The range of decoration used on the drums varied from simplistic to innately elaborate. The resemblance is remarkably illustrated, “In the Altai region, images depicted on historical shamanic drums demonstrate a striking similarity with what is shown on the rock engravings” (Devlet 47).\n\nRegional variations\n\nEurope\n\nIn the Upper Palaeolithic of Europe, rock art was produced inside cave systems by the hunter-gatherer peoples who inhabited the continent. The oldest known example is the Chauvet Cave in France, although others have been located, including Lascaux in France, Alta Mira in Spain and Creswell Crags in Britain.\n\nThe late prehistoric rock art of Europe has been divided into three regions by archaeologists. In Atlantic Europe, the coastal seaboard on the west of the continent, which stretches from Iberia up through France and encompasses the British Isles, a variety of different rock arts were produced from the Neolithic through to the Late Bronze Age. A second area of the continent to contain a significant rock art tradition was that of Alpine Europe, with the majority of artworks being clustered in the southern slopes of the mountainous region, in what is now south-eastern France and northern Italy.\n\nFinnish Rock Art\nKnowth\nLoughcrew\nNewgrange\nClonfinlough Rock Art\nRock Drawings in Valcamonica (World Heritage Site)\nList of rock carvings in Norway\nRock carvings at Alta (World Heritage Site)\nCôa Valley Paleolithic Art (World Heritage Site)\nCave of Altamira and Paleolithic Cave Art of Northern Spain (World Heritage Site)\nRock art of the Iberian Mediterranean Basin (World Heritage Site)\nTanum (World Heritage Site)\n [http://www.RockArtScandinavia.se/ Tanums Hällristningsmuseum] Rock Art Research Centre and World Heritage Archive, situated in Tanum, Sweden.\n\nAfrica\n\nSites in Africa featuring rock art include:\nSaharan rock art:\nTassili n'Ajjer in Algeria - national park and World Heritage Site, known for its 10,000-year-old paintings.\nCave of Swimmers is a cave in southwest Egypt, near the border with Libya, along the western edge of the Gilf Kebir plateau in the central Libyan Desert (Eastern Sahara). It was discovered in October 1933 by the Hungarian explorer László Almásy. The site contains rock paintings of human figures who appear to be swimming, which have been estimated to have been created at least 6,000 to 7000 years ago. Cave of Beasts 10 km westwards discovered in 2002.\nJebel Uweinat, a large granite and sandstone mountain, as well as the adjacent smaller massifs of Jebel Arkenu and Jebel Kissu at the converging triple borders of Libya, Egypt and Sudan, harbors one of the richest concentrations of prehistoric rock art in the entire Sahara. The rock art here mainly consists of the Neolithic cattle pastoralist cultures, but also a number of older paintings from hunter-gatherer societies.\nTadrart Acacus in Libya - World Heritage Site\nSouth Oran in Algeria\nIn the Horn of Africa:\nDorra and Balho in Djibouti - Rock art sites with figures of what appear to be antelopes and a giraffe.\nKundudo in Ethiopia - Flat top mountain complex with rock art in a cave.\n*Laas Geel in Somalia - A number of cave paintings and petroglyphs can be found at various sites across the country. Among the most prominent examples of this is the rock art in Laas Geel, Dhambalin, Gaanlibah and Karinhegane.\nIn Southern Africa:\nCave paintings are found in all parts of Southern Africa that have rock overhangs with smooth surfaces. Among these sites are the cave sandstone of Natal, Orange Free State and North-Eastern Cape, the granite and Waterberg sandstone of the Northern Transvaal, and the Table Mountain sandstone of the Southern and Western Cape. \nUKhahlamba Drakensberg Park in South Africa - The site has paintings dated to around 3,000 years old and which are thought to have been drawn by the San people, who settled in the area some 8,000 years ago. The rock art depicts animals and humans and is thought to represent religious beliefs.\nTsodilo Hills in Botswana - A World Heritage Site with rock art\nBrandberg Mountain (Daureb) in Namibia - It is one of the most important rock art localities on the African continent. Most visitors only see the \"The White Lady\" shelter (which is neither white, nor a lady, the famous scene probably depicts a young boy in an initiation ceremony), however the upper reaches of the mountain is full of sites with prehistoric paintings, some of which rank among the finest artistic achievements of prehistory.\nMwela and Adjacent Areas Rock Art Site, Zambia\nIn the African Great Lakes:\nNyero Rockpaintings, Uganda\n\nThe Americas\n\nThe oldest reliably dated rock art in the Americas is known as the \"Horny Little Man.\" It is petroglyph depicting a stick figure with an oversized phallus and carved in Lapa do Santo, a cave in central-eastern Brazil. \n\nRock paintings or pictographs are located in many areas across Canada. There are over 400 sites attributed to the Ojibway from northern Saskatchewan to the Ottawa River. \n\nPomier Caves, Dominican Republic\nThe Naj Tunich site in Guatemala is rich in rock art.\nThe Rock Paintings of Sierra de San Francisco is the name given to prehistoric rock art found in the Sierra de San Francisco region of Baja California, Mexico, created by a people referred to as Cochimi or Guachimis. There are about 250 sites which are located in the municipality of Mulegé within the El Vizcaino Biosphere Reserve in the state of Baja California Sur in Northern Mexico. Motifs include human figures, weapons, and animal species such as rabbit, puma, lynx, deer, wild goat/sheep, whale, turtle, tuna, sardine, octopus, eagle, and pelican; there are also abstract elements of various forms. The paintings vary in age from 1100 BC to AD 1300. The paintings are noted for their high quality, extent, the variety and originality of human and animal representations, remarkable colors, and excellent state of preservation. The rock paintings of Sierra de San Francisco were nominated in 1989 and became a World Heritage Site in 1993. See also Sierra de Guadalupe cave paintings \n* Pictograph Cave (Billings, Montana)\n* Cañon Pintado, northwestern Colorado \nChaco Culture National Historical Park\nChumash rock art, Southern California\nCoso Rock Art District, Eastern California \nQuail rock art panel, Utah\nPainted Rocks, Arizona \nLower Pecos region, southwestern Texas \nOregon, Washington, Idaho \nPetroglyph National Monument, New Mexico\nUtah \n Serra da Capivara National Park, near São Raimundo Nonato, Brazil.\n* Vale do Catimbau National Park, Pernambuco, Brazil.\n* Localidad Rupestre de Chamangá, near Trinidad, Uruguay.\n* Writing-on-Stone Provincial Park/Áísínai’pi National Historic Site of Canada, near Milk River, Alberta close to the Montana border (A candidate to become a UNESCO World Heritage Site)\n\nAsia\n\n* Bhimbetka rock shelters (World Heritage Site), Madhya Pradesh, India with rock art ranging from the Mesolithic to historical times \n* Kaimur district, Bihar, India (several sites)\n* Gavali, Udupi\n* Sonda, Karnataka\n* Hire Benakal, Karnataka\nEdakkal Caves, Kerala India\n Sundargarh, Orissa locations with rock art include: Barikupa, Manikmoda, Gastimoda, Imlimoda, Lekhamoda, Rajbahal, Manikmoda, Tongo, Ushakothi, and Ushakupa \n* Pettakere cave, South Sulawesi, Indonesia - hand print paintings\n* Pha Taem in Thailand\n* Angono Petroglyphs, the Philippines\n* Bangudae Petroglyphs, in South Korea\n* Rock Paintings of Hua Mountain in China\n* 'Great King' pictographs of Malipo, Yunnan, China\n* Siypantosh Rock Paintings in Uzbekistan\n* Zarautsoy Rock Paintings in Uzbekistan\n* Jubbah Rock Petroglyphs and Inscriptions\n* Ghauta Rock Petroglyphs and inscriptions\n* Bir Hima Rock Petroglyphs and Inscriptions\n* Shuwaymas Rock Petroglyphs and Inscriptions\n\nAustralia \n\nAustralian Indigenous art is the oldest unbroken tradition of art in the world. The oldest firmly dated rock art painting in Australia is a charcoal drawing on a rock fragment found during the excavation of the Nawarla Gabarnmang rock shelter in south western Arnhem Land in the Northern Territory. Dated at 28,000 years, it is one of the oldest known pieces of rock art on Earth with a confirmed date. Nawarla Gabarnmang is considered to have one of the most extensive collections of rock art in the world and predates both Lascaux and Chauvet cave art, the earliest known art in Europe by at least 10,000 years. \n \nIn 2008, rock art depicting what is thought to be a Thylacoleo was discovered on the north-western coast of the Kimberley. As the Thylacoleo is believed to have become extinct 45000–46000 years ago (Roberts et al. 2001) (Gillespie 2004), this suggests a similar age for the associated Bradshaw rock paintings. Archaeologist Kim Akerman however believes that the megafauna may have persisted later in refugia (wetter areas of the continent) as suggested by Wells (1985: 228) and has suggested a much younger age for the paintings. Pigments from the \"Bradshaw paintings\" of the Kimberley are so old they have become part of the rock itself, making carbon dating impossible. Some experts suggest that these paintings are in the vicinity of 50,000 years old and may even predate Aboriginal settlement. \n\n* Kakadu National Park in the Northern Territory has a large collection of ochre paintings. Ochre is a not an organic material, so carbon dating of these pictures is impossible. Sometimes the approximate date, or at least an epoch, can be guessed from the content.\n* Important rock engravings can be found in the Sydney region.\n* Mount Grenfell Historic Site near Cobar, western New South Wales has important ancient rock drawings.\n* The Murujuga (Burrup Peninsula) area of Western Australia near Karratha is estimated to be home to between 500,000 and 1 million individual engravings.\n* Kimberley region of Western Australia. Amateur archaeologist Grahame Walsh, who researched Bradshaw rock paintings in the region from 1977 until his death in 2007, produced a photographic database of 1.5 million Bradshaw rock paintings. Many of the Bradshaw rock paintings maintain vivid colours because they have been colonised by bacteria and fungi, such as the black fungus, Chaetothyriales. The pigments originally applied may have initiated an ongoing, symbiotic relationship between black fungi and red bacteria. \n\nRock Art Studies\n\nThe archaeological sub-discipline devoted to the investigation of rock art is known as \"rock art studies.\" Rock art specialist David S. Whitley noted that research in this area required an \"integrated effort\" that brings together archaeological theory, method, fieldwork, analytical techniques and interpretation. \n\nHistory\n\nAlthough French archaeologists had undertaken much research into rock art, Anglophone archaeology had largely neglected the subject for decades. \n\nThe discipline of rock art studies witnessed what Whitley called a \"revolution\" during the 1980s and 1990s, as increasing numbers of archaeologists in the Anglophone world and Latin America turned their attention to the subject. In doing so, they recognised that rock art could be used to understand symbolic and religious systems, gender relations, cultural boundaries, cultural change and the origins of art and belief. One of the most significant figures in this movement was the South African archaeologist David Lewis-Williams, who published his studies of San rock art from southern Africa, in which he combined ethnographic data to reveal the original purpose of the artworks. Lewis-Williams would come to be praised for elevating rock art studies to a \"theoretically sophisticated research domain\" by Whitley. However, the study of rock art worldwide is marked by considerable differences of opinion with respect to the appropriateness of various methods and the most relevant and defensible theoretical framework.", "Darwin \nis the capital city of the Northern Territory, Australia. Situated on the Timor Sea, Darwin is the largest city in the sparsely populated Northern Territory, with a population of 136,245. It is the smallest and most northerly of the Australian capital cities, and acts as the Top End's regional centre. Darwin was originally a pioneer outpost.\n\nDarwin's proximity to South East Asia makes it an important Australian gateway to countries such as Indonesia and East Timor. The Stuart Highway begins in Darwin, ending at Port Augusta in South Australia. The city itself is built on a low bluff overlooking the harbour. Its suburbs spread out over some area, beginning at Lee Point in the north and stretching to Berrimah in the east. Past Berrimah, the Stuart Highway goes on to Darwin's satellite city, Palmerston, and its suburbs. The Darwin region, like the rest of the Top End, has a tropical climate, with a wet and a dry season. The city is noted for its consistently warm to hot climate, all throughout the year. Prone to cyclone activity during the wet season, Darwin experiences heavy monsoonal downpours and spectacular lightning shows. During the dry season, the city is met with blue skies and gentle sea breezes from the harbour.\n\nThe greater Darwin area is the ancestral home of the Larrakia people. On 9 September 1839, sailed into Darwin harbour during its surveying of the area. John Clements Wickham named the region \"Port Darwin\" in honour of their former shipmate Charles Darwin, who had sailed with them on the ship's previous voyage which had ended in October 1836. The settlement there became the town of Palmerston in 1869, and was renamed Darwin in 1911. The city has been almost entirely rebuilt four times, once due to Japanese air raids during World War II, and three times after being devastated by the 1897 cyclone, the 1937 cyclone, and Cyclone Tracy in 1974. \n\nHistory \n\nPre 20th Century\n\nThe Aboriginal people of the Larrakia language group are the traditional custodians and the first inhabitants of the greater Darwin area. They had trading routes with Southeast Asia (see Macassan contact with Australia), and imported goods from as far afield as South and Western Australia. Established songlines penetrated throughout the country, allowing stories and histories to be told and retold along the routes. The extent of shared songlines and history of multiple clan groups within this area is still contestable.\n\nThe Dutch visited Australia's northern coastline in the 1600s and landed on the Tiwi Islands only to be repelled by the Tiwi peoples. The Dutch created the first European maps of the area. This accounts for the Dutch names in the area, such as Arnhem Land and Groote Eylandt. The first British person to see Darwin harbour appears to have been Lieutenant John Lort Stokes of on 9 September 1839. The ship's captain, Commander John Clements Wickham, named the port after Charles Darwin, the British naturalist who had sailed with them both on the earlier second expedition of the Beagle.\n\nIn 1859 the colony of Queensland was excised from New South Wales and initially included the area of the Northern Territory. Four years later in 1863, the Northern Territory was annexed from Queensland by the colony of South Australia. In 1864 South Australia sent B. T. Finniss north as Government Resident to survey and found a capital for its new territory. Finniss chose a site at Escape Cliffs, near the entrance to Adelaide River, about 60km northeast of the modern city. This attempt was short-lived, however, and the settlement abandoned by 1865. On 5 February 1869, George Goyder, the Surveyor-General of South Australia, established a small settlement of 135 people at Port Darwin. Goyder named the settlement Palmerston, after the British Prime Minister Lord Palmerston. In 1870, the first poles for the Overland Telegraph were erected in Darwin, connecting Australia to the rest of the world. The discovery of gold by employees of the Australian Overland Telegraph Line digging holes for telegraph poles at Pine Creek in the 1880s spawned a gold rush which further boosted the young colony's development. \n\nIn February 1872 the brigatine Alexandra was the first private vessel to set sail from an English port directly to Darwin many of whom were people coming to recently gold finds. \n\nIn early 1875 Darwin's European population had grown to approximately 300 because of the gold rush. On 17 February 1875 the left Darwin en route for Adelaide. The approximately 88 passengers and 34 crew (surviving records vary) included government officials, circuit-court judges, Darwin residents taking their first furlough, and miners. While travelling south along the north Queensland coast, the Gothenburg encountered a cyclone-strength storm and was wrecked on a section of the Great Barrier Reef. Only 22 men survived, while between 98 and 112 people perished. Many passengers who perished were Darwin residents and news of the tragedy severely affected the small community, which reportedly took several years to recover.\n\n20th century begins\n\nDarwin became the city's official name in 1911.\n\nThe period between 1911 and 1919 was filled with political turmoil, particularly with trade union unrest, which culminated on 17 December 1918. Led by Harold Nelson, some 1000 demonstrators marched to Government House at Liberty Square in Darwin where they burnt an effigy of the Administrator of the Northern Territory John Gilruth and demanded his resignation. The incident became known as the 'Darwin Rebellion'. Their grievances were against the two main Northern Territory employers: Vestey's Meatworks and the federal government. Both Gilruth and the Vestey company left Darwin soon afterwards.\n\nAround 10,000 Australian and other Allied troops arrived in Darwin at the outset of World War II, in order to defend Australia's northern coastline. On 19 February 1942 at 0957, 188 Japanese warplanes attacked Darwin in two waves. It was the same fleet that had bombed Pearl Harbor, though a considerably larger number of bombs were dropped on Darwin than on Pearl Harbor. The attack killed at least 243 people and caused immense damage to the town and more importantly to the airfields and aircraft. These were by far the most serious attacks on Australia in time of war, in terms of fatalities and damage. They were the first of many raids on Darwin.\n\nDespite this major attack, Darwin was further developed after the war, with sealed roads constructed connecting the region to Alice Springs in the south and Mount Isa in the south-east, and Manton Dam built in the south to provide the city with water. On Australia Day (26 January) 1959, Darwin was granted city status. \n\n1970-present day\n\nOn 25 December 1974, Darwin was struck by Cyclone Tracy, which killed 71 people and destroyed over 70% of the town's buildings, including many old stone buildings such as the Palmerston Town Hall, which could not withstand the lateral forces generated by the strong winds. After the disaster, 30,000 people of a then population of 46,000 were evacuated, in what turned out to be the biggest airlift in Australia's history. The town was subsequently rebuilt with newer materials and techniques during the late 1970s by the Darwin Reconstruction Commission, led by former Brisbane Lord Mayor Clem Jones. A satellite city of Palmerston was built 20 km south of Darwin in the early 1980s.\n\nOn 17 September 2003 the Adelaide–Darwin railway was completed, with the opening of the Alice Springs-Darwin standard gauge line.\n\nGeography \n\nDarwin lies in the Northern Territory, on the Timor Sea. The city proper occupies a low bluff overlooking Darwin Harbour, flanked by Frances Bay to the east and Cullen Bay to the west. The remainder of the city is flat and low-lying, and coastal areas are home to recreational reserves, extensive beaches, and excellent fishing.\n\nDarwin is closer to the capitals of five other countries than to the capital of Australia: Darwin is 3137 km away from Canberra. Dili (East Timor) is 656 km, Port Moresby (Papua New Guinea) is 1818 km, Jakarta (Indonesia) is 2700 km, Bandar Seri Begawan (Brunei) is 2607 km, and Ngerulmud (Palau) is 2247 km from Darwin.\n\nEven Malaysia and Singapore are only slightly farther away at 3350 km, as is Manila (Philippines) at 3206 km, and Honiara (Solomon Islands) at 3198 km. Ambon, Indonesia, is only 881 km away from Darwin.\n\nAlong with its importance as a gateway to Asia, Darwin also acts as an access point for the Kakadu National Park, Arnhem Land, and northerly islands such as Groote Eylandt and the Tiwi Islands. As the largest city in the area, it provides services for these remote settlements.\n\nCity and suburbs \n\nDarwin and its suburbs spread in an approximately triangular shape, with the older south-western suburbs—and the city itself—forming one corner, the newer northern suburbs in another, and the eastern suburbs, progressing towards Palmerston, forming the third.\n\nThe older part of Darwin is separated from the newer northern suburbs by Darwin International Airport and Royal Australian Air Force Base. Palmerston is a satellite city 20 km south of Darwin that was established in the 1980s and is one of the fastest growing municipalities in Australia. The rural areas of Darwin including Howard Springs, Humpty Doo and Berry Springs are experiencing strong growth. \n\nDarwin's central business district is bounded by Daly Street in the north-west, McMinn Street in the north-east, Mitchell Street on the south-west and Bennett Street on the south-east. The CBD has been the focus of a number of major projects, including the billion dollar redevelopment of the Stokes Hill wharf waterfront area including a convention centre with seating for 1500 people and approximately 4000 m2 of exhibition space. The development will also include hotels, residential apartments and public space. The city's main industrial areas are along the Stuart Highway going towards Palmerston, centred on Winnellie. The largest shopping precinct in the area is Casuarina Square.\n\nThe most expensive residential areas stand along the coast in suburbs such as Larrakeyah and Brinkin, despite the slight risk these low-lying regions face during cyclones and higher tides. The inner northern suburbs of Millner and Coconut Grove and the eastern suburb of Karama are home to lower-income households, although low-income Territory Housing units are scattered throughout the metropolitan area. The suburb of Lyon was an addition to the Northern Suburbs. Development and constructor took place in 2009 and 2010 and became home for a number of affluent Darwin residents and local/recently posted military families above the rank of Sergeant or Flying Officer.\n\nClimate \n\nDarwin has a tropical savanna climate (Köppen Aw) with distinct wet and dry seasons and the average maximum temperature is remarkably similar all year round. The dry season runs from about May to September, during which nearly every day is sunny, and afternoon humidity averages around 30%. \n\nThe driest period of the year, seeing only approximately 5 mm of monthly rainfall on average, is between May and September. In the coolest months of June and July, the daily minimum temperature may dip as low as 14 °C, but very rarely lower, and a temperature lower than 10 °C has never been recorded in the city centre. Outer suburbs away from the coast however can occasionally record temperatures as low as 5 °C in the dry season. For an exceedingly lengthy 147 day period during the 2012 dry season, from 5 May to 29 September, Darwin recorded no precipitation whatsoever. Prolonged periods of no precipitation are common in the dry season in Northern Australia (particularly in the Northern Territory and northern regions of Western Australia) although a no-rainfall event of this extent is rare. The 3pm dewpoint average in the wet season is at around .\n\nThe highest temperature recorded in Darwin was on 17 October 1892 at the Darwin Post Office station, while the lowest was on 29 July 1942 at the Darwin Airport station, which is further from the coast and routinely records cooler temperatures than the post office station which is located in Darwin's CBD. The lowest maximum temperature on record was on 3 June 1904 while the highest minimum was on 18 January 1928. \n\nThe wet season is associated with tropical cyclones and monsoon rains. The majority of rainfall occurs between December and March (the southern hemisphere summer), when thunderstorms are common and afternoon relative humidity averages over 70 percent during the wettest months. It does not rain every day during the wet season, but most days have plentiful cloud cover; January averages under 6 hours of bright sunshine daily. Darwin's highest Bureau of Meteorology verified daily rainfall total is , which fell when Cyclone Carlos bore down on the Darwin area on 16 February 2011. February 2011 was also Darwin's wettest month ever recorded, with recorded for the month at the airport.\n\nThe hottest month is November, just before the onset of the main rain season. The heat index sometimes rises above 45 °C, while the actual temperature is usually below 35 °C, because of humidity levels that most would find uncomfortable. Because of its long dry season, Darwin has the second most daily average sunshine hours (8.4) of any Australian capital with the most sunshine from April to November; only Perth, Western Australia averages more (8.8). The sun passes directly overhead in mid October and mid February. Climatically Darwin has more in common with Manila than Sydney because it sits well inside the tropical zone.\n\nThe average temperature of the sea ranges from in July to in December. \n\nDarwin occupies one of the most lightning-prone areas in Australia. On 31 January 2002 an early-morning squall line produced over 5,000 cloud-to-ground lightning strikes within a 60 km radius of Darwin alone – about three times the amount of lightning that Perth, Western Australia, experiences on average in an entire year. \n\nDemographics \n\nIn 2006, the largest ancestry groups in Darwin were, Australian (42,221 or 36.9%), English (29,766 or 26%), Indigenous Australians (10,259 or 9.7%), Irish (9,561 or 8.3%), Scottish (7,815 or 6.8%), Chinese (3,502 or 3%), Greek (2,828 or 2.4%), and Italian (2,367 or 2%) \n\nDarwin's population is notable for the highest proportional population of Indigenous Australians of any Australian capital city. In the 2006 census 10,259 (9.7 per cent) of Darwin's population was Aboriginal. \n\nDarwin's population changed after the Second World War. Darwin, like many other Australian cities, experienced influxes from Europe, with significant numbers of Italians and Greeks during the 1960s and 1970s. Darwin also started to experience an influx from other European countries, which included the Dutch, Germans, and many others. A significant percentage of Darwin's residents are recent immigrants from South East Asia (Asian Australians were 9.3% of Darwin's population in 2001).\n\nDarwin's population comprises people from many ethnic backgrounds. The 2006 Census revealed that the most common places of birth for overseas migrants were the United Kingdom (3.4 per cent), New Zealand (2.1 per cent), the Philippines (1.4 per cent) and East Timor (0.9 per cent). 18.3 percent of the city's population was born overseas, which is less than the Australian average of 22%.\n\nDarwin has a youthful population with an average age of 33 years (compared to the national average of around 37 years) assisted to a large extent by the military presence and the fact that many people opt to retire elsewhere.\n\nThe most common languages spoken in Darwin after English are Greek, Australian Aboriginal languages, Italian, Indonesian, Vietnamese and Cantonese.\n\nReligion \n\nChristianity has the most adherents in Darwin, with 56,613 followers accounting for 49.5 per cent of the population of the city. The largest denominations of Christianity are Roman Catholicism (24,538 or 21.5 per cent), Anglicanism (14,028 or 12.3 per cent) and Greek Orthodoxy (2,964 or 2.6 per cent). Buddhists, Muslims, Hindus and Jews account for 3.2 per cent of Darwin's population. There were 26,695 or 23.3 per cent of people professing no religion.\n\nPopulation growth \n\nDarwin is one of the fastest growing capital cities in Australia, with an annual growth rate of 2.6 per cent since the 2006 census. In recent years, the Palmerston and Litchfield parts of the Darwin statistical division have recorded the highest growth in population of any Northern Territory local government area and by 2016 Litchfield could overtake Palmerston as the second largest municipality in metropolitan Darwin. It is predicted by 2021 that the combined population of both Palmerston and Litchfield would be 101,546 people. \n\nLaw and government \n\n \nThe Darwin City Council (Incorporated under the Northern Territory Local Government Act 1993) governs the City of Darwin which takes in the CBD and the suburbs. The Darwin City Council has governed the City of Darwin since 1957. The Darwin City Council consists of 13 elected members, the Lord Mayor and 12 aldermen.\n\nThe City of Darwin electorate is organised into four electoral units or wards. The names of the wards are Chan, Lyons, Richardson, and Waters. The constituents of each ward are directly responsible for electing three aldermen. Constituents of all wards are directly responsible for electing the Lord Mayor of Darwin. The mayor is Katrina Fong Lim after council elections in March 2012. \n\nThe rest of the Darwin area is divided into 2 local government areas—the Palmerston City Council and the Shire of Coomalie. These areas have elected councils which are responsible for functions delegated to them by the Northern Territory Government, such as planning and garbage collection.\n\nThe Legislative Assembly of the Northern Territory convenes in Darwin in the Northern Territory Parliament House. Government House, the official residence of the Administrator of the Northern Territory, is located on The Esplanade.\n\nAlso located on the Esplanade is the [http://www.supremecourt.nt.gov.au/ Supreme Court of the Northern Territory]. Darwin has a [http://www.nt.gov.au/justice/ntmc Magistrate's Court] also which is located on the corner of Cavenagh and Bennett Streets quite close to the Darwin City Council Chambers.\nDarwin's police force are members of the Northern Territory Police Force. Darwin's Mitchell Street, with its numerous pubs, clubs and other entertainment venues, is policed by the CitySafe Unit. The CitySafe unit was recently credited with reducing violent crime in and around Darwin City. Darwin has a long record of alcohol abuse and violent crime with 6,000 assaults in 2009, of which 350 resulted in broken jaws and noses – more than anywhere else in the world, according to the Royal Darwin Hospital.\n\nDarwin is split between nine electoral divisions in the Legislative Assembly--Port Darwin, Fannie Bay, Fong Lim, Nightcliff, Sanderson, Johnston, Casuarina, Wanguri, and Karama. Historically, Darwin was a stronghold for the Country Liberal Party. However, since the turn of the century, Labor has been much more competitive, particularly in the more diverse northern section.\n\nEconomy \n\nThe two largest economic sectors are mining and tourism. Mining and energy industry production exceeds $2.5 billion per annum. The most important mineral resources are gold, zinc and bauxite, along with manganese and many others. The energy production is mostly off shore with oil and natural gas from the Timor Sea, although there are significant uranium deposits near Darwin. Tourism employs 8% of Darwin residents, and is expected to grow as domestic and international tourists are now spending time in Darwin during the Wet and Dry seasons. Federal spending is a major contributor to the local economy as well.\n\nThe military presence that is maintained both within Darwin, and the wider Northern Territory, is a substantial source of employment.\n\nDarwin's importance as a port is expected to grow, due to the increased exploitation of petroleum in the nearby Timor Sea, and to the completion of the railway link and continued expansion in trade with Asia.\nDuring 2005, a number of major construction projects started in Darwin. One is the redevelopment of the Wharf Precinct, which includes a large convention and exhibition centre, apartment housing including Outrigger Pandanas and Evolution on Gardiner, retail and entertainment outlets including a large wave pool and safe swimming lagoon. The Chinatown project has also started with plans to construct multi-level carparks and Chinese-themed retail and dining outlets.\n\nEducation \n\nEducation is overseen territory-wide by the Department of Education and Training (DET), whose role is to continually improve education outcomes for all students, with a focus on Indigenous students. \n\nPreschool, primary and secondary \n\nDarwin is served by a number of public and private schools that cater to local and overseas students. Over 16,500 primary and secondary students are enrolled in schools in Darwin, with 10,524 students attending primary education, and 5,932 students attending secondary education. There are over 12,089 students enrolled in government schools and 2,124 students enrolled in independent schools.\n\nThere were 9,764 students attending schools in the City of Darwin area. 6,045 students attended primary schools and 3,719 students attended secondary schools. There are over 7,161 students enrolled in government schools and 1,108 students enrolled in independent schools. There are over 35 primary and pre – schools, and 12 secondary schools including both government and non-government. Most schools in the city are secular, but there are a small number of Christian, Catholic and Lutheran institutions. Students intending to complete their secondary education can work towards either the Northern Territory Certificate of Education or the International Baccalaureate (only offered at Kormilda College). Schools have been restructured into Primary, Middle and High schools since the beginning of 2007.\n\nTertiary and vocational \n\nDarwin's largest University is the Charles Darwin University, which is the central provider of tertiary education in the Northern Territory. It covers both vocational and academic courses, acting as both a university and an Institute of TAFE. There are over 5,500 students enrolled in tertiary and further education courses.\n\nRecreation and culture \n\nEvents and festivals \n\nOn 1 July, Territorians celebrate Territory Day. This is the only day of the year, apart from the Chinese New Year and New Year's Eve, when fireworks are permitted. In Darwin, the main celebrations occur at Mindil Beach, where a large firework display is commissioned by the government.\n\nWeekly markets include Mindil Beach Sunset Markets (Thursdays and Sundays during the dry season), Parap Market, Nightcliff Market and Rapid Creek market. Mindil Beach Sunset Markets are very popular with locals and tourists alike and feature food, souvenirs, clothes and local performing artists.\n\nThe Darwin Festival held annually, includes comedy, dance, theatre, music, film and visual art and the NT Indigenous Music Awards. Other festivals include the Glenti, which showcases Darwin's large Greek community, and India@Mindil, a similar festival held by the smaller Indian community. The Chinese New Year is also celebrated with great festivity, highlighting the Asian influence in Darwin.\n\nThe Seabreeze festival, which first started in 2005, is held on the second week of May in the suburb of Nightcliff. It offers the opportunity for local talent to be showcased and a popular event is Saturday family festivities along the Nightcliff foreshore which is one of Darwin's most popular fitness tracks. \n\nThe Speargrass Festival is held annually the week prior to July's first full moon and celebrates the alternative Top End lifestyle. The festival activities include music, screening of locally produced films, screen printing, basket weaving, sweat lodge, water slides, human pyramid, hot tub, frisbee golf, spear throwing, Kubb competition, bingo, communal organic cooking, morning yoga, meditation, greasy pig and healing circles. The festival occurs at the Speargrass property, 50 km northeast of Pine Creek.\n\nThe Darwin beer-can regatta, held in August, celebrates Darwin's love affair with beer and contestants' race boats made exclusively of beer cans. Also in Darwin during the month of August, are the Darwin Cup horse race, and the Rodeo and Mud Crab Tying Competition.\n\nThe World Solar Challenge race attracts teams from around the world, most of which are fielded by universities or corporations although some are fielded by high schools. The race has a 20-year history spanning nine races, with the inaugural event taking place in 1987.\n\nThe Royal Darwin Show is held annually in July at the Winnellie Showgrounds. Exhibitions include agriculture and livestock. Horse events. Entertainment and side shows are also included over the 3 days of the event.\n\nArts and entertainment \n\nThe Darwin Symphony Orchestra was first assembled in 1989, and has performed throughout the Territory. The Darwin Theatre Company is a locally produced professional theatre production company, performing locally and nationally. \n\nThe Darwin Entertainment Centre is the city's main concert venue and hosts theatre and orchestral performances. Other theatres include the Darwin Convention Centre, opened in July 2008. The Darwin Convention Centre is part of the $1.1 billion Darwin Waterfront project. \n\nDarwin's only casino opened in 1981 as the Diamond Beach Casino, it later became the MGM Grand Darwin, before it changed to Skycity Darwin after Skycity Entertainment Group purchased the hotel in 2004. \n\nThe Northern Territory Museum and Art Gallery (MAGNT) in Darwin gives an overview of the history of the area, including exhibits on Cyclone Tracy and the boats of the Pacific Islands. The MAGNT also organises the annual Telstra National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Art Award, the longest running Indigenous art award in Australia. The MAGNT also manages the Defence of Darwin Experience, a multi-media installation that tells the story of the Japanese air raids on Darwin during World War II.\n\nThe Darwin Festival and the Darwin Fringe Festival are annual events. A range of art galleries including specialised Aboriginal art galleries are a feature of Darwin.\n\nLocal and visiting musical bands can be heard at venues including the Darwin Entertainment Centre, The Vic Hotel, Happy Yess, and Brown's Mart. A yearly music festival, Bass in the Grass, is very popular with youth from the surrounding area. Artists such as Jessica Mauboy and The Groovesmiths call Darwin home.\n\nThere have been no major films set in Darwin; however, some scenes for Australia by Baz Luhrmann and Black Water were both shot in Darwin in 2007\n\nMitchell Street in the central business district is lined with nightclubs, takeaways, and restaurants. This is the city's entertainment hub. There are several smaller theatres, three cinema complexes (CBD, Casuarina, and Palmerston), and the Deckchair Cinema. This is an open-air cinema which operates through the dry season, from April to October, and screens independent and arthouse films.\n\nRecreation \n\nThe city has many kilometres of wide, unpolluted beaches, including the Casuarina Beach and well renowned Mindil Beach, home of the Mindil Beach markets. Darwin City Council has designated an area of Casuarina Beach as a free beach which offers a designated nudist beach area since 1976. \nSwimming in the sea during the months of October–May should be avoided due to the presence of deadly box jellyfish, known locally as stingers.\n\nSaltwater crocodiles are very common in all waterways surrounding Darwin and are even occasionally found swimming in Darwin Harbour and on local beaches.\n\nFishing is one of the recreations of Darwin locals. Visitors from around the world flock to Darwin aiming to catch the prized barramundi, an iconic fish for the region. The Mary River, Daly River, South and East Alligator River are just a few of the water bodies where the barramundi thrive.\n\nBlue-water fishing is also available off the coast of Darwin; Spanish mackerel, Black Jewfish, queenfish, snapper and other varieties are all found in the area and accessible in a day trip from Darwin. Lake Alexander is a man-made swimming lake which is located at East Point Reserve. It is generally considered crocodile and jellyfish safe, however a freak outbreak of non-deadly jellyfish in 2003 caused its closure for a brief period of time. \n\nThe Darwin Surf Lifesaving Club operates long boats and surf skis and provides events and lifesaving accreditations.\n\nParks and gardens \n\nDarwin has extensive parks and gardens. These include the George Brown Darwin Botanic Gardens, East Point Reserve, Casuarina Coastal Reserve, Charles Darwin National Park, Knuckey Lagoons Conservation Reserve, Leanyer Recreation Park, the Nightcliff Foreshore, Bicentennial Park and the Jingili Water Gardens.\n\nSports \n\nThe Marrara Sports Complex near the airport has stadiums for Aussie Rules (TIO Stadium), cricket, rugby union, basketball (and indoor court sports), soccer, athletics and field hockey. Every two years since 1991 (excluding 2003 due to the SARS outbreak), Darwin has played host to the Arafura Games, a major regional sporting event. In July 2003, the city hosted its first international test cricket match between Australia and Bangladesh, followed by Australia and Sri Lanka in 2004.\n\nAustralian-rules football is played all year round. Melbourne's Western Bulldogs Australian Football League side plays one home game at Marrara Oval each year. The ATSIC Aboriginal All-Stars also participate in the AFL pre-season competition. In 2003, a record crowd of 17,500 attended a pre-season game between the All-Stars and Carlton Football Club at Marrara.\n\nRugby League and Rugby Union club competitions are played in Darwin each year, organised by the NTRL and NTRU respectively. The Heineken Hottest 7s in the World tournament is hosted in Darwin each January, with Rugby Sevens club teams from countries including Australia, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Malaysia, and Singapore competing. Darwin's Hottest 7s is the richest Rugby 7s tournament in the Southern Hemisphere. \n\nDarwin hosts a round of the Supercars Championship every year bringing thousands of motorsports fans to the Hidden Valley Raceway. Also located Hidden Valley, adjacent to the road racing circuit, is Darwin's Dirt track racing venue, Northline Speedway. The speedway has hosted a number of Australian Championships over the years for different categories including Sprintcars, Speedcars, and Super Sedans.\n\nThe Darwin Cup culminating on the first Monday of August is a very popular horse race event for Darwin and draws large crowds every year to Fannie Bay Racecourse. While it is not as popular as the Melbourne Cup, it does draw a crowd and, in 2003, Sky Racing began televising most of the races. The Darwin Cup day is a public holiday for the Northern Territory (Picnic Day public holiday).\n\nMedia \n\nDarwin's major newspapers are the Northern Territory News (Monday – Saturday), The Sunday Territorian (Sunday), and the national daily, The Australian (Monday–Friday) and The Weekend Australian (Saturday), all published by News Limited. Free weekly community newspapers include the Darwin Sun, the Litchfield Sun, and Palmerston Sun; all published by a News Limited subsidiary.\n\nFive free-to-air channels service Darwin. Commercial television channels are provided by Southern Cross Darwin (Seven Network affiliate), Channel Nine Darwin (formerly branded as Channel 8) and Darwin Digital Television (Network Ten relay), which launched on 28 April 2008. The two Government owned national broadcast services in Darwin are the ABC and SBS. Subscription Television (Pay TV) service Austar is available via cable in the Darwin region.\n\nDarwin has radio stations on both AM and FM frequencies. ABC stations include ABC News Radio (102.5FM), ABC Local Radio (105.7FM), ABC Radio National (657AM), ABC Classic FM (107.3FM) and Triple J (103.3FM). SBS (100.9FM) also broadcasts its national radio network to Darwin.\n\nDarwin has two commercial radio stations Hot 100 and Mix 104.9. Other stations in Darwin include university-based station 104.1 Territory FM, dance music station KIK FM 91.5, Italian-language channel Rete Italia 1611AM, community based stations includes Radio Larrakia 94.5 and Yolngu Radio 1530AM and Rhema FM 97.7.\n\nInfrastructure \n\nHealth \n\nThe Government of the Northern Territory Department of Health and Families oversees one public hospital in the Darwin metropolitan region. The Royal Darwin Hospital, located in Tiwi, is the city's major teaching and referral hospital, and the largest in the Northern Territory. \n\nThere is one major private hospital Darwin Private Hospital located at Tiwi, adjacent to the Royal Darwin Hospital.\n\nTransport \n\nThe Territory's [http://www.nt.gov.au/transport/public/ public transport] services are managed by the Department of Lands and Planning, Public Transport Division. Darwin has a bus network serviced by a range of contracted bus operators, which provides transport to the main suburbs of Darwin.\n\nDarwin has no commuter rail system, however long distance passenger rail services do operate out of the city. The Alice Springs to Darwin rail line was completed in 2003 linking Darwin to Adelaide. The first service ran in 2004. The Ghan passenger train service from Adelaide via Alice Springs and Katherine runs two to three times per week depending on the season.\n\nDarwin International Airport, located in the suburb of Marrara, is Darwin's only airport, which shares its runways with the Royal Australian Air Force's RAAF Base Darwin.\n\nDarwin can be reached via the Stuart Highway which runs the length of the Northern Territory from Darwin through Katherine, Tennant Creek, Alice Springs and on to Adelaide. Other major roads in Darwin include, Tiger Brennan Drive, Amy Johnson Avenue, Dick Ward Drive, Bagot Road, Trower Road and McMillans Road. Bus service in the greater Darwin area is served by Darwinbus.\n\nFerries leave from Port Darwin to island locations, mainly for tourists. A ferry service to the Tiwi Islands, the Arafura Pearl operates from Cullen Bay.\n\nDarwin has a new deepwater port, East Arm Wharf, which opened in 2000. It has 754-meters of wharfline and is capable of handling Panamax-sized ships of a maximum length of 274 meters and a DWT of up to 80,000 tonnes. \n\nUtilities \n\nWater storage, supply and Power for Darwin is managed by Power and Water Corporation, which is owned by the Government of the Northern Territory. The corporation is also responsible for management of sewage and the major water catchments in the region. Water is mainly stored in the largest dam, The Darwin River Dam which holds up to 90% of Darwin's water supply. For many years, Darwin's principal water supply came from Manton Dam.\n\nDarwin, its suburbs, Palmerston and Katherine are powered by the Channel Island Power Station, The largest power plant in the Northern Territory.\n\nA new power plant, the Weddell Power Station, is near completion. The first two generators came on line in 2008–09. The third generator is due to be completed in 2011–12. When the power station is fully operational, it will add 30% capacity to Darwin's power supply. \n\nTourism \n\nTourism is one of Darwin's largest industries. Tourism is a major industry and employment sector for the Northern Territory.\nIn 2005/06, 1.38 million people visited the Northern Territory. They stayed for 9.2 million nights and spent over $1.5 billion. \nThe tourism industry directly employed 8,391 Territorians in June 2006 and when indirect employment is included, tourism typically accounts for more than 14,000 jobs across the Territory.\n\nDarwin is a hub for tours to Kakadu National Park, Litchfield National Park and Katherine Gorge.\nThe Territory is traditionally divided into the wet and dry, but there are up to six traditional seasons in Darwin.\nIt is warm and sunny from May to September. Humidity rises during the green season, from October to April bringing thunderstorms and monsoonal rains which rejuvenates the landscape. Tourism is largely seasonal with most tourists visiting during the cooler dry season which runs from April to September.\n\nAviation history \n\nDarwin has played host to many of aviation's early pioneers. On 10 December 1919 Captain Ross Smith and his crew landed in Darwin and won a £10,000 Prize from the Australian Government for completing the first flight from London to Australia in under thirty days. Smith and his Crew flew a Vickers Vimy, G-EAOU and landed on an airstrip that has now become Ross Smith Avenue.\n\nOther aviation pioneers include Amy Johnson, Amelia Earhart, Sir Charles Kingsford Smith and Bert Hinkler. The original QANTAS Empire Airways Ltd Hangar, a registered heritage site, was part of the original Darwin Civil Aerodrome in Parap and is now a museum and still bears scars from the bombing of Darwin during World War II. \n\nDarwin was home to Australian and US pilots during the war, with air strips being built in and around Darwin. Today Darwin provides a staging ground for military exercises.\n\nDarwin was a compulsory stop over/check point in the London to Melbourne Centenary Air Race in 1934. The official name of the race was the MacRobertson Air Race. Winners of the great race were Tom Campbell Black and C. W. A. Scott.\n\nThe following is an excerpt from Time magazine, 29 October 1934, Volume XXIV, Number 18.\n\nThe Australian Aviation Heritage Centre is located approximately 8 km from the City centre on the Stuart Highway and is one of only two places outside the United States where a B52 bomber (on permanent loan from the United States Air Force) is on public display. \n\nUS military presence \n\nOn 16 November 2011, Prime Minister Julia Gillard and President Barack Obama announced that the United States would station troops in Australia for the first time since World War II. The agreement between the United States and Australia would involve a contingent of 250 Marines arriving in Darwin in 2012, with the total number rising to a maximum of 2,500 troops by 2017 on six-month rotations as well as a supporting air element including F-22 Raptors, F-35 Joint Strike Fighters and KC-135 refuelers. China and Indonesia have expressed concern about the decision. Some analysts have argued that an expanded U.S. presence could pose a threat to security. \nGillard announced that the first 200 U.S. Marines had arrived in Darwin from Hawaii on late 3 April 2012. In 2013, further news of other expansion vectors was aired in USA media, with no comment or confirmation from Australian authorities. The agreement between the two governments remains hidden from public scrutiny. Marine numbers based in Darwin have increased to more than 1150 troops by 2014. \n\nDarwin hosts biennial multi-nation exercises named \"Pitch Black\"; in 2014 this involved military personnel from Australia, Singapore, Thailand, United Arab Emirates, and the United States. \n\nSister cities", "Kakadu National Park is a protected area in the Northern Territory of Australia, 171 km southeast of Darwin.\n\nThe park is located within the Alligator Rivers Region of the Northern Territory. It covers an area of 19804 km2, extending nearly 200 kilometres from north to south and over 100 kilometres from east to west. It is the size of Slovenia, about one-third the size of Tasmania, or nearly half the size of Switzerland. The Ranger Uranium Mine, one of the most productive uranium mines in the world, is surrounded by the park.\n\nHistory\n\nPrologue\n\nThe name Kakadu may come from the mispronunciation of Gaagudju, which is the name of an Aboriginal language formerly spoken in the northern part of the park. This name may derive from the Indonesian word kakatuwah, (via Dutch kaketoe and German Kakadu) subsequently Anglicised as \"cockatoo\". Kakadu is ecologically and biologically diverse. The main natural features protected within the National Park include:\n\n* four major river systems:\n the East Alligator River,\n the West Alligator River,\n the Wildman River; and\n the entire South Alligator River;\n* six major landforms\n estuaries and tidal flats,\n floodplains,\n lowlands,\n the stone country,\n the outliers; and\n the southern hills and basins;\n* a remarkable variety and concentration of wildlife;\n over 280 bird species\n roughly 60 mammal species\n over 50 freshwater species\n over 10,000 insect species\n over 1,600 plant species.\n Some 117 species of reptiles\n\nAboriginal people have occupied the Kakadu area continuously for at least 40,000 years. Kakadu National Park is renowned for the richness of its Aboriginal cultural sites. There are more than 5,000 recorded art sites illustrating Aboriginal culture over thousands of years. The archaeological sites demonstrate Aboriginal occupation for at least 20,000 and possibly up to 40,000 years.\n\nThe cultural and natural values of Kakadu National Park were recognised internationally when the park was placed on the UNESCO World Heritage List. This is an international register of properties that are recognised as having outstanding cultural or natural values of international significance. Kakadu was listed in three stages: stage 1 in 1981, stage 2 in 1987, and the entire park in 1992.\n\nApproximately half of the land in Kakadu is aboriginal land under the Aboriginal Land Rights (Northern Territory) Act 1976, and most of the remaining land is currently under claim by Aboriginal people. The areas of the park that are owned by Aboriginal people are leased by the traditional owners to the Director of National Parks to be managed as a national park. The remaining area is commonwealth land vested under the Director of National Parks. All of Kakadu is declared a national park under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999.\n\nThe Aboriginal traditional owners of the park are descendants of various clan groups from the Kakadu area and have longstanding affiliations with this country. Their lifestyle has changed in recent years, but their traditional customs and beliefs remain very important. About 500 Aboriginal people live in the park, many of them are traditional owners. All of Kakadu is jointly managed by Aboriginal traditional owners and the Australian Government's Department of the Environment and Water Resources through a division known as Parks Australia. Park Management is directed by the Kakadu Board of Management.\n\nEstablishment\n\nKakadu was established at a time when the Australian community was becoming more interested in the declaration of national parks for conservation and in recognising the land interests of Aboriginal people. A national park in the Alligator Rivers region was proposed as early as 1965, but took until 1978 for the Australian Government to make arrangements to acquire the titles over various tracts of land that now constitute Kakadu National Park.\n\nKakadu National Park was declared under the National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 1975 (NPWC Act) in three stages between 1979 and 1991. The NPWC Act was replaced by the EPBC Act in 2000. The declaration of the park continues under the EPBC Act. Each stage of the park includes Aboriginal land under the Land Rights Act that is leased to the Director of National Parks or land that is subject to a claim to traditional ownership under the Land Rights Act. Most of the land that was to become part of Stage One of Kakadu was granted to the Kakadu Aboriginal land Trust under the Land Rights Act in August 1978 and, in November 1978, the Land Trust and the Director signed a lease for the land to be managed as a national park. Stage One of the park was declared on 5 April 1979.\n\nStage Two was declared on 28 February 1984. In March 1978, a claim was lodged under the Land Rights Act for the land included in Stage Two of Kakadu. The land claim was partly successful and, in 1986, three areas in the eastern part of Stage Two were granted to the Jabiluka Aboriginal Land Trust. A lease between the Land Trust and the Director of National parks was signed in March 1991.\n\nIn 1987, a land claim was lodged for the land in the former Goodparla and Gimbat pastoral that that were to be included in Stage Three of Kakadu. The other area to be included in Stage Three – the area known as the Gimbat Resumption and the Waterfall Creek Reserve – was later added to this land claim. The progressive declaration was due to the debate over whether mining should be allowed at Guratba (Coronation Hill) which is located in the middle of the area referred to as Sickness Country.\nThe traditional owners' wishes were ultimately respected and the Australian National Government decided that there would be no mining at Guratba.\n\nIn 1996, the land in Stage Three, apart from the former Goodparla pastoral leases, was granted to the Gunlom Aboriginal Land Trust and leased to the Director of National Parks to continue being managed as part of Kakadu.\n\nThe arrival of non-Aboriginal people\n\nExplorers\n\nThe Chinese, Malays and Portuguese all claim to have been the first non-Aboriginal explorers of Australia's north coast. The first surviving written account comes from the Dutch. In 1623 Jan Carstenszoon made his way west across the Gulf of Carpentaria to what is believed to be Groote Eylandt. Abel Tasman is the next documented explorer to visit this part of the coast in 1644. He was the first person to record European contact with Aboriginal people. Almost a century later Matthew Flinders surveyed the Gulf of Carpentaria in 1802 and 1803.\n\nPhillip Parker King, an English navigator entered the Gulf of Carpentaria between 1818 and 1822. During this time he named the three Alligator Rivers after the large numbers of crocodiles, which he mistook for alligators.\n\nLudwig Leichhardt was the first land-based European explorer to visit the Kakadu region, in 1845 on his route from Moreton Bay in Queensland to Port Essington in the Northern Territory. He followed Jim Jim Creek down from the Arnhem Land escarpment, then went down the South Alligator before crossing to the East Alligator and proceeding north. A more plausible, if prosaic, explanation for the origin of the name of the park is that Leichhardt applied the colloquial German term for a cockatoo, although this is unlikely to sit well with the indigenous historians.\n\nIn 1862 John McDouall Stuart travelled along the south-western boundary of Kakadu but did not see any people.\n\nThe first non-Aboriginal people to visit and have sustained contact with Aboriginal people in northern Australia were the Macassans from Sulawesi and other parts of the Indonesian archipelago. They travelled to northern Australia every wet season, probably from the last quarter of the seventeenth century, in sailing boats called praus. Their main aim was to harvest trepang (sea cucumber), turtle shell, pearls and other prized items to trade in their homeland. Aboriginal people were involved in harvesting and processing the trepang, and in collecting and exchanging the other goods.\n\nThere is no evidence that the Macassans spent time on the coast of Kakadu but there is evidence of some contact between Macassan culture and Aboriginal people of the Kakadu area. Among the artefacts from archaeological digs in the park are glass and metal fragments that probably came from the Macassans, either directly or through trade with the Cobourg Peninsula people.\n\nThe British attempted a number of settlements on the northern Australian coast in the\nearly part of the nineteenth century: Fort Dundas on Melville Island in 1824; Fort Wellington at Raffles Bay in 1829; and Victoria Settlement (Port Essington) on the Cobourg Peninsula in 1838. They were anxious to secure the north of Australia before the French or Dutch, who had colonised islands further north. The British settlements were all subsequently abandoned for a variety of reasons, such as lack of water and fresh food, sickness and isolation.\nIt is difficult to assess the impact of these settlements on the local Aboriginal people and the type of relationship that developed between them and the British. Certainly, some Aboriginal labour was used at the settlements. Exposure to new sickness was an ever-present danger. As in other parts of Australia, disease and the disruption it caused to society devastated the local Aboriginal population.\n\nBuffalo hunters\n\nWater buffalo had a large influence on the Kakadu region as well. By the 1880s the number of buffaloes released from early settlements had increased to such an extent that commercial harvesting of hides and horns was economically viable.\n\nThe industry began on the Adelaide River, close to Darwin, and moved east to the Mary River and Alligator Rivers regions.\n\nMost of the buffalo hunting and skin curing was done in the dry season, between June and September, when buffaloes congregated around the remaining billabongs.\n\nDuring the wet season hunting ceased because the ground was too muddy to pursue buffalo and the harvested hides would rot. The buffalo-hunting industry became an important employer of Aboriginal people during the dry-season months.\n\nMissionaries\n\nMissionaries also had a large influence on the Aboriginal people of the Alligator Rivers region, many of whom lived and were schooled at missions in their youth. Two missions were set up in the region in the early part of the century. Kapalga Native Industrial Mission was established near the South Alligator River in 1899, but lasted only four years. The Oenpelli Mission began in 1925, when the Church of England Missionary Society accepted an offer from the Northern Territory Administration to take over the area, which had been operated as a dairy farm. The Oenpelli Mission operated for 50 years.\n\nThe extent to which missions have influenced Aboriginal society is the subject of debate. Some writers and anthropologists argue that missionaries, in seeking to \"civilise and institutionalise\" Aboriginal people, forced them to abandon their lifestyle, language, religion and ceremonies—indeed, the whole fabric of their lives. Others argue that, although criticism can be levelled at the methods used to achieve their goal, the missionaries did care about the welfare of Aboriginal people at a time when wider Australian society did not.\n\nPastoralists\n\nThe pastoral industry made a cautious start in the Top End. Pastoral leases in the Kakadu area were progressively abandoned from 1889, because the Victoria River and the Barkly Tablelands proved to be better pastoral regions.\n\nIn southern Kakadu much of Goodparla and Gimbat was claimed in the mid-1870s by three pastoralists, Roderick, Travers and Sergison. The leases were subsequently passed on to a series of owners, all of whom were unable for one reason or another to make a go of it. In 1987 both stations were acquired by the Commonwealth and incorporated in Kakadu National Park.\n\nA sawmill at Nourlangie Camp was begun by Chinese operators, probably before World War I, to mill stands of cypress pine in the area. After World War II a number of small-scale ventures, including dingo shooting and trapping, brumby shooting, crocodile shooting, tourism and forestry, began.\n\nNourlangie Camp was again the site of a sawmill in the 1950s, until the local stands of cypress pine were exhausted. In 1958 it was converted into a safari camp for tourists. Soon after, a similar camp was started at Patonga and at Muirella Park. Clients were flown in for recreational buffalo and crocodile hunting and fishing.\n\nCrocodile hunters often made use of the bush skills of Aboriginal people. By imitating a wallaby's tail hitting the ground, Aboriginal hunters could attract crocodiles, making it easier to shoot the animals. Using paperbark rafts, they would track the movement of a wounded crocodile and retrieve the carcass for skinning. The skins were then sold to make leather goods. Aboriginal people became less involved in commercial hunting of crocodiles once the technique of spotlight shooting at night developed. Freshwater crocodiles have been protected by law since 1964 and saltwater crocodiles since 1971.\n\nMining\n\nThe first mineral discoveries in the Top End were associated with the construction of the Overland Telegraph line between 1870 and 1872, in the Pine Creek – Adelaide River area. A series of short mining booms followed.\n\nThe construction of the North Australia Railway line gave more permanency to the mining camps, and places such as Burrundie and Pine Creek became permanent settlements. The mining camps and new settlements drew many Aboriginal people away from Kakadu. No Aboriginal people are known to have worked in the mines but their exposure to alcohol and other drugs had a huge impact.\n\nSmall-scale gold mining began at Imarlkba, near Barramundi Creek, and Mundogie Hill in the 1920s and at Moline (previously called Eureka and Northern Hercules mine), south of the park, in the 1930s. The mines employed a few local Aboriginal people.\n\nIn 1953 uranium was discovered along the headwaters of the South Alligator River valley. Thirteen small but rich uranium mines operated in the following decade, at their peak in 1957 employing over 150 workers. No Aboriginal people were employed at any of these mines.\n\nEarly in the 1970s large uranium deposits were discovered at Ranger, Jabiluka and Koongarra. Following receipt of a formal proposal to develop the Ranger site, the Commonwealth Government initiated an inquiry into land use in the Alligator Rivers region. The Ranger Uranium Environmental Inquiry (known as the Fox inquiry) recommended, among other things, that mining begin at the Ranger site, that consideration be given to the future development of the Jabiluka and Koongarra sites, and that a service town be built (Fox et al. 1976, 1977). The Ranger mine and the service town (Jabiru) have had many and considerable impacts on Aboriginal people. Aboriginal people express varying opinions about mining. Energy Resources of Australia (ERA) is the operator of the Ranger uranium mine. ERA is majority owned by Rio Tinto, which holds 68.4% of ERA shares. The rest are publicly held and traded on the Australian Stock Exchange. ERA is one of the leading employers of Indigenous people in the Northern Territory. As at July 2012, ERA's workforce of 630 full-time equivalent employees included 109 Indigenous employees, and 12 permanent Indigenous contractors, representing approximately 19%. ERA has a targeted Indigenous Employment Strategy which sets out measures and practical pathways to attract, train and retain Indigenous staff.\n\nClimate\n\nKakadu is located in the tropics, between 12° and 14° south of the Equator. The climate is monsoonal, characterised by two main seasons: the dry season and the wet season. The \"build up\" describes the transition between the dry and the wet. During the dry season (from April/May to September), dry southerly and easterly trade winds predominate. Humidity is relatively low and rain is unusual. At Jabiru, the average maximum temperature for June–July is 32 °C. During the \"build up\" (October to December) conditions can be extremely uncomfortable with high temperatures and high humidity. However, \"build up\" storms are impressive and lightning strikes are frequent. In fact, the Top End of Australia records more lightning strikes per year than any other place on earth. At Jabiru the average maximum temperature for October is 37.5 °C.\n\nThe wet season (January to March/April) is characterised by warm temperatures and, as one would expect, rain. Most of the rain is associated with monsoonal troughs formed over Southeast Asia, although occasionally tropical cyclones produce intense heavy rain over localised areas. At Jabiru, the average maximum temperature for January is 33 °C. Annual rainfall in Kakadu National Park ranges from 1,565 mm in Jabiru to 1,300 mm in the Mary River region.\n\nMost non Aboriginal people really only refer to the rain and dry seasons, but Aboriginal people Bininj/Mungguy identify as many as six seasons in the Kakadu region:\n\n* Gunumeleng – mid-October to late December, pre-monsoon storm season with hot weather and building thunderstorms in the afternoons\n* Gudjeuk – from January to March, monsoon season with thunderstorms, heavy rain, and flooding; the heat and humidity generate an explosion of plant and animal life\n* Banggerreng – April, the \"knock 'em down storm\" season where floodwater recedes but violent, windy storms knock down grasses\n* Yekke – from May to mid-June, relatively cool with low humidity, the Aboriginal people historically started burning the woodlands in patches to \"clean the country\" and encourage new growth for grazing animals\n* Wurrgeng – from mid-June to mid-August, the cold weather season with low humidity; most creeks stop flowing and the floodplains quickly dry out\n* Gurrung – from mid-August to mid-October, hot dry weather with ever shrinking billabongs.\n\nPeriods of torrential rain and long dry spells mean that Kakadu can change its appearance according to the season, so is a place deserving of more than one visit.\n\nFlora\n\nKakadu's flora is among the richest in northern Australia with more than 1700 plant species\nrecorded which is a result of the park's geological, landform and habitat diversity. Kakadu is also considered to be one of the most weed free national parks in the world.\n\nThe distinctly different geographical areas of Kakadu have their own specialised flora. The environment referred to as the \"Stone Country\" features \"resurrection grasses\" that are able to cope with extreme heat and long dry spells followed by periods of torrential rain. Monsoon forests often develop in the cool moist gorges dissecting the stone country. The southern hills and basins support several endemic plants that are only found in Kakadu such as Eucalyptus koolpinensis near Jarrangbarnmi (Koolpin Gorge). Lowland areas form a large proportion of Kakadu National Park and are mainly covered in eucalypt-dominated open woodland with the ground layer consisting of a large range of grasses including spear grass, sedges and wildflowers.\n\nThe floodplains, which are inundated for several months each year, feature sedges such as spike rush as well patches of freshwater mangroves (itchy tree), pandanus and paper bark trees (Melaleuca). Varieties of water lilies, such as the blue, yellow and white snowflake, are commonly found in these areas. Estuaries and tidal flats are populated with varieties of mangroves (39 of the 47 Northern Territory species of mangrove occur in Kakadu) that are important for stabilising the coastline. Mangroves serve as feeding and breeding grounds for many fish species including the barramundi.\n\nOn the tidal flats behind the mangroves, hardy succulents (samphire), grasses and sedges grow. Isolated pockets of monsoon forest grow along the coast and river banks. These forests contain several impressive trees, among them the banyan fig, which can be recognised by its large, spreading aerial roots, and the kapok tree, which has a spiny trunk, large, waxy red flowers and pods full of cotton-like material.\n\nFauna\n\nThe diverse environments of Kakadu National Park supports a great array of animals, a number of which have adapted to particular habitats. Some animals in the park are rare, endangered, vulnerable or endemic. Responding to the extreme weather conditions experienced in the park, many animals are active only at particular times of the day or night or at particular times of the year.\n\nBlack Wallaroo Nourlangie Rock in Kakadu NP.jpg\|Black wallaroos at Nourlangie Rock\nAntilopine Kangaroo Kakadu.jpg\|Antilopine kangaroo in grassland at Kakadu National Park\nPetrogale Brachyotis.jpg\|Short-eared rock-wallaby in Kakadu\nPlumed Whistling Ducks (Dendrocygna eytoni) -5 walking.jpg\|Plumed whistling ducks\nKakadu 3541.jpg\|Black-necked storkKakadu National Park\nKakadu Brolga and Pied Geese.jpg\|Brolga and magpie geese\nSaltwater croc kakadu.jpg\|Saltwater crocodile\nAnhinga novaehollandiae.jpg\|Australian darter\n\nMammals\n\nAbout 74 mammal species—marsupials and placental mammals—have been recorded in the park. Most of them inhabit the open forest and woodlands and are nocturnal, making it difficult to see them. Others, such as wallabies and kangaroos (macropods, 8 species), are active in the cooler parts of the day and are easier to see.\n\nAmong the larger more common species are dingoes, antilopine kangaroos, black wallaroos, agile wallabys, and short-eared rock wallabys. Smaller common mammals are northern quolls, brush-tailed phascogales, brown bandicoots, black-footed tree-rats, and black flying foxes. Dugongs are found in the coastal waters. However, recent surveys have revealed a disturbing decline of nearly all mammal species throughout Kakadu, including once common and widespread species such as northern tart bats.\n\nBirds\n\nKakadu's many habitats support more than 280 species of birds, or about one-third of Australia's bird species. Some birds range over a number of habitats, but many are found in only one environment.\n\nSome 11,246 km2 of Kakadu's savanna habitats has been identified by BirdLife International as an Important Bird Area (IBA) because it supports populations of the endangered Gouldian finch, the vulnerable red goshawk, the near threatened partridge pigeon and chestnut-backed button-quail, and the restricted-range hooded parrot and rainbow pitta. The Kakadu Savanna IBA also supports varied lorikeets, northern rosellas, silver-crowned friarbirds, white-gaped, yellow-tinted, white-lined, bar-breasted and banded honeyeaters, sandstone shrike-thrushes, white-browed robins, canary white-eyes, and masked and long-tailed finches. \n\nWaterbirds include large populations of magpie geese, wandering whistling ducks, green pygmy geese, comb-crested jacana, black-necked stork, Australian pelicans, little black cormorant, Australian darter, nankeen night herons, pied herons, black bittern, sarus crane and brolga.\n\nReptiles\n\nSome 117 species of reptiles have been recorded in Kakadu. Being cold-blooded, these animals rely on heat from an external source such as the sun to regulate their body temperature. This is not to say that reptiles are active only during the day; in fact, few snakes can withstand Kakadu's midday heat and most are active at night. Since the arrival of the cane toad in the park, many populations of reptiles have crashed. Reptiles which were once a common sight such as large goannas, eastern brown snakes, death adders and many others are now rare. The iconic frill-necked lizard has also significantly dropped in numbers.\n\nTwo species of crocodile occur in Kakadu: the freshwater crocodile (Crocodylus johnstonii) and the estuarine, or saltwater crocodile (C. porosus). Freshwater crocodiles are easily identified by their narrow snout and a single row of four large boney lumps called \"scutes\" immediately behind the head. Estuarine crocodiles do not have these scutes and their snout is broader. The maximum size for a freshwater crocodile is 3 metres, whereas a saltwater can exceed 6 metres.\n\nFrogs\n\nKakadu's 25 frog species are extremely well adapted to the region's climatic extremes. Many remain dormant during rainless times. With the onset of the wet season, when the billabongs and swamps start to fill with water, the night air is filled with the sounds of frogs such as the northern bullfrog and the marbled frog. As the water builds up, frogs and tadpoles have an abundance of food, such as algae, vegetation, insects, dragonfly nymphs, and other tadpoles. Not all of Kakadu's frogs are found in the wetlands: many live in the lowland forests.\n\nFish\n\nFifty-three species of freshwater fish have been recorded in Kakadu's waterways; eight of them have a restricted distribution. In the Magela Creek system alone, 32 species have been found. In comparison, the Murray–Darling river system, the most extensive in Australia, now supports only 27 native fish species. Although introduced fish have been found in most Australian waterways, none have been recorded in the park.\n\nInsects\n\nDespite the fact that Kakadu supports more than 10,000 species of insect, these creatures are often overlooked by visitors. Among the insect groups are grasshoppers, beetles, flies, termites, butterflies and moths, bees, wasps, ants, dragonflies and damselflies, caddis flies, non-biting midges and mayflies. The great variety of insects is a result of the varied habitats and relatively high temperatures throughout the year.\n\nPerhaps the most striking insect-created features in the park are the termite mounds. The mounds in the southern part of the park are particularly large and impressive. Leichhardt's grasshopper, in colours of orange, blue and black, is perhaps the most spectacular insect found in Kakadu. It is also found on the Arnhem Land plateau and in Gregory National Park.\n\nEnvironmental problems and threats\n\nKakadu has seen several invasive species that threaten the native habitat, particularly in recent decades. Introduced fauna including the water buffalo, wild pig and more recently, the cane toad have damaged habitat. Invasive weeds include Mimosa pigra, which covers 800 km2 of the Top End, including vast areas of Kakadu, invasive para grass (Urochloa mutica) displaces the native food of much of Kakadu's birdlife. Salvinia molesta has infested the Magela floodplain. Brumbies also inhabit areas of the National Park, including Yellow Water. One last problem is the mining in the park which can impact a lot of the wild life's future.\n\nLandforms\n\nThere are six main landforms in Kakadu National Park: the Arnhem Land plateau and escarpment complex, known as the stone country; the outliers; the lowlands; the southern hills and basins; the floodplains; and the tidal flats. Each landform has its own range of habitats. Kakadu's varied landscapes and the habitats they contain are features that contributed to its listing as a World Heritage Area.\n\nMost of Kakadu was under a shallow sea approximately 140 million years ago, with the escarpment wall formed from sea cliffs and Arnhem Land from a flat plateau above the sea. The escarpment rises 330 metres above the plateau and extends approximately 500 kilometres along the East edge of the park and on into Arnhem Land. The escarpment varies from near vertical cliffs in the Jim Jim Falls area to isolated outliers and stepped cliffs in the North.\n\nChasms and gorges form a network that dissects the rocky platforms on the plateau. The plateau top is a harsh, dry environment where water drains away quickly and top soil is scarce. Sparse pockets of open forest and woodlands have developed in these areas. Creeks have carved deep gorges in the escarptment in which tall monsoon forests grow. These areas form microclimates for plants and animals and often serve as a refuge during the dry season. Allosyncarpia ternata, a large shady tree found only in the Kakadu and Arnhem Land, is the dominant plant species.\n\nThe outliers are essentially pieces of the Arnhem Land plateau that have become separated from the plateau complex by erosion. They were islands in the ancient seas that once covered much of Kakadu. The gently undulating lowland plains stretch over much of the Top End. Travelling anywhere in Kakadu, you cannot help noticing the lowlands—they make up nearly 70% of the park. The soils are shallow and often overlie extensive sheets of laterite (ironstone) and a thick profile of strongly leached rocks.\n\nDuring the wet season water carried down from the Arnhem Land plateau often overflows from creeks and rivers onto nearby floodplains. Alluvial soils carried in the floodwaters add nutrients to the floodplains. Nutrient-rich soils along with an abundance of water and sunlight make the floodplains an area of prolific plant and animal life. During the dry season the water recedes into rivers, creeks, and isolated waterholes or billabongs. Kakadu's wetlands are listed under the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance (the Ramsar Convention) for their outstanding ecological, botanical, zoological, and hydrological features.\n\nThe southern hills and basins cover a large area in the south of the park, including the headwaters of the South Alligator River. Rocks here have been exposed from beneath the retreating Arnhem escarpment; they are of volcanic origin and are extremely old (2500 million years). This landform is characterised by rugged strike ridges separated by alluvial flats.\n\nKakadu's coast and the creeks and river systems under tidal influence (extending about 100 kilometres inland) make up this landform. The shape of the estuaries and tidal flats varies considerably from the dry season to the wet season. During the dry season tidal action deposits silt along the river beds and banks. During the wet season the river beds are eroded by the floodwaters and large quantities of fresh and saline water flow out across the tidal flats, where silt is deposited. Large silt loads are also carried out to sea, some of the silt being deposited as a nutrient rich layer on the sea floor, contributing to the muddy waters that characterise Kakadu's coastline.\n\nThe estuaries and tidal flats are home to an array of plants and animals adapted to living in the oxygen-deficient saline mud. The dominant habitats are mangrove swamps and samphire flats. Where freshwater springs occur along the coasts and river banks, isolated pockets of coastal monsoon rainforests form.\n\nAboriginal rock art sites\n\nThe art sites of Ubirr, Burrunguy (Nourlangie Rock) and Nanguluwur are internationally recognised as outstanding examples of Aboriginal rock art. These sites are found in rocky outcrops that have afforded shelter to Aboriginal inhabitants for thousands of years. The painting in these rock shelters were done for various reasons:\n\n* Hunting – animals were often painted to increase their abundance and to ensure a successful hunt by placing people in touch with the spirit of the animal\n* Religious significance – at some sites paintings depict aspects of particular ceremonies\n* Stories and learning – stories associated with the Creation Ancestors, who gave shape to the world were painted\n* Sorcery and magic – paintings could be used to manipulate events and influence people's lives; fun-for play and practice.\n\nUbirr is a group of rock outcrops in the northeast of the park, on the edge of the Nadab floodplain. There several large rock overhangs that would have provided excellent shelter to Aboriginal people over thousands of years. Ubirr's proximity to the East Alligator River and Nadab floodplains means that food would have been abundant and this is reflected in much of the rock art here. Animals depicted in the main gallery include barramundi, catfish, mullet, goanna, snake-necked turtle, pig-nosed turtle, rock-haunting ringtail possum, and wallaby and thylacine (Tasmanian tiger).\n\nThere are also images of the Rainbow Serpent said to have created much of the landscape as well as mischievous Mimi spirits and the story of the Namarrgarn Sisters. Many stories connected to Aboriginal rock are highly complex and linked to other stories. Often the true meanings have been lost, but they all have a purpose which is usually to serve as a lesson or a warning to the young or to those passing through the area.\n\nBurrunguy, formally called Nourlangie Rock, is located in an outlying formation of the Arnhem Land Escarpment. There are a number of shelters in amongst this large outcrop linked by paths and stairways. The shelters contain several impressive paintings that deal with creation ancestors. Some of the stories connected to these artworks are known only to certain Aboriginal people and remain secret.\n\nAnbangbang Billabong lies in the shadow of Nourlangie Rock and is inhabited by a wide range of wildlife which would have sustained traditional Aboriginal people well.\n\nNanguluwur is a small art site, near Nourlangie, which displays several rock art styles. These include hand stencils, dynamic figures in large head-dresses carrying spears and boomerangs, representations of Namandi spirits and mythical figures, including Alkajko, a female spirit with four arms and horn-like protuberances. There is also an interesting example of \"contact art\" depicting a two-masted sailing ship with anchor chain and a dinghy trailing behind.\n\nHuman impacts\n\nHuman impacts during the 19th and 20th century have been significant. Introduction of domestic Asian water buffalo from Southeast Asia has resulted in damage to the fragile floodplains and wetlands. Since then, buffalo have largely been eradicated from the area so the land is now rehabilitating itself. Crocodile hunting which has been banned since 1972 made a huge impact on crocodile populations. In the 30 or so years that they have been protected, however the crocodile population has recovered so successfully that some consider there to be an over population.\n\nMining has an obvious impact on the landscape, but only one operational uranium mine (Ranger) remains. Mine operators are required to completely rehabilitate the area once the operation is wound down. Some small scale logging occurred in the early part of the 20th century, but little evidence of this remains. Tourism represents a significant human impact to Kakadu National Park with hundreds of thousands of visitors arriving annually. Infrastructure such as roads, tracks, interpretive signage and shelter, accommodation, telecommunications and other services must be provided to support this activity.\n\nFire management\n\nFire is part of the landscape of Kakadu National Park, as the park contains large areas of woodland and grassy plains that are subject to long periods of dry hot weather. The flora of the region has adapted to frequent fires. Fires in northern Australia are less threatening than in southern Australia as many of the trees are largely fire resistant while other plants simply regenerate very quickly.\n\nControlled burning is practised by the national park in consultation with traditional owners who have used fire as a land management tool for thousands of years. Fire is an important hunting tool for Aboriginal people using it to flush out prey. The other benefit is that once the fire has gone through an area the tender shoots of the fast regenerating grasses attract wallabies into a clearly defined area. Birds of prey such as whistling kites also rely on fire to flush out small animals and are usually found in large numbers circling a fire front. Other species such as white-throated grasswrens have declined because of too many fires. Aboriginal people understand that fire is necessary to \"clean up\" the landscape and believe that many small fires are preferable to one large fire.\n\nTourism\n\nKakadu National Park is a major tourist attraction in Australia's north. Visitation in 2005 was 202,000. Kakadu's dramatic landscape, Aboriginal cultural significance and diverse and abundant wildlife are what visitors are drawn to. There are many beautiful waterfalls and gorges within the park that are popular with visitors, such as Maguk, Gunlom Falls, Twin Falls and Jim Jim Falls.\n\nKakadu National Park has some of the best examples of Aboriginal rock art in Australia. The sites of Nourlangie and Ubirr are among the most visited locations in the park. It is possible to view some of Kakadu's diverse wildlife at places like Yellow Water Billabong, Cooinda on board a wildlife cruise or at Mamukala Wetlands or Anbangbang Billabong. The Kakadu region is one of the world's best for bird watching as approximately 30 percent of Australia's bird species can be seen here.\n\nLarge saltwater crocodiles are also commonplace and visitors are likely to see them at Yellow Water and East Alligator River so it was no coincidence that the \"Crocodile\" Dundee films were shot here. Visitors are urged to exercise caution around crocodiles as they have been responsible for a number of fatal attacks. Recreational fishing is a popular activity inside Kakadu National Park. The main target species is barramundi and the most popular locations are Yellow Water, the South Alligator and the East Alligator River. Hunting is not allowed in Kakadu National Park.\n\nThere are several accommodation options in the park, mostly found in the town of Jabiru, as well as a range of services to cater to visitor's needs. Visitors can experience Kakadu National Park with a recognised tour operator or they can drive themselves. Many of the park's sites are accessible by standard two wheel drive vehicles, but areas like Twin and Jim Jim Falls and Gunlom require four wheel drive vehicles. Visitors can experience Kakadu National Park via the Nature's Way tourism drive which is a loop from Darwin to Jabiru then onto Katherine and back to Darwin covering approximately 900 km.\n\nPark management\n\nThe Kakadu National Park is proclaimed under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (the EPBC Act) and is managed through a joint management arrangement between the Aboriginal traditional owners and the Director of National Parks. The Director manages Commonwealth national parks through Parks Australia, which is a part of the Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities. Title to Aboriginal land in the park is held by Aboriginal land trusts. The land trusts have leased their land to the Director of National Parks for the purpose of a national park for the enjoyment and benefit of all Australians and international visitors. Traditional owners have also expected that having their land managed as a national park would assist them in looking after their land in the face of growing and competing pressures. They saw a national park as establishing a way to manage the land that could protect their interests and be sympathetic to their aspirations. Parks Australia and the Aboriginal traditional owners of Kakadu are committed to the principle of joint management of the park and arrangements to help this happen are highlighted in Kakadu's Plan of Management.\n\nThe EPBC Act provides for boards of management to be established for parks on Aboriginal land. The Kakadu Board of Management, which has an Aboriginal majority (ten out of fifteen members), representing the Aboriginal traditional owners of land in the park, was established in 1989. The Board determines policy for managing the park and is responsible, along with the Director, for preparing plans of management for the park. The Plan of Management is the main policy document for the park and strives to balance strategic or long-term goals and tactical or day to day goals.\nDay-to-day management of Kakadu is carried out by people employed by Parks Australia, which is a branch of the Australian Government's Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities. Approximately one-third of the staff in Kakadu are Aboriginal people.\n\nPark use fee\n\nKakadu National Park re-introduced a park use fee from April 2010, to help manage the natural and cultural values of the park environment and improve visitor services.\n\nLike many World Heritage sites around the world, including Yellowstone National Park, Serengeti National Park, Stonehenge, Pompeii and Herculaneum and the Pyramids of Egypt – the park use fee helps to maintain world-best management practices and facilities for the more than 200,000 visitors who experience Kakadu each year.\n\nThe $25 fee 1 Nov - 31 Mar and $40 fee 1 Apr - 31 Oct (which is inclusive of GST) applies to all interstate and international visitors aged 16 years and over. All Northern Territory residents and children under 16 are exempt.\n\nTickets and more information will be available on the Kakadu National Park tourism website. \n\nGeneral facilities\n\nKakadu National Park is linked to Darwin by the Arnhem Highway and to Pine Creek and Katherine by the Kakadu Highway. Both roads are sealed all weather roads although may be cut off periodically during periods of heavy rain.\n\nThe town of Jabiru has several accommodation options, a service station, police, a medical clinic and a shopping centre with a range of outlets. The town was built for the Uranium mine that was established prior to the founding of Kakadu National Park and provides infrastructure for the mine's workforce as well as the national park activities and tourism. Jabiru has a small airport from which scenic flights operate daily. There are no scheduled air services between Jabiru and Darwin however.\n\nOther small tourism centres such as Cooinda and South Alligator provide limited facilities. Cooinda, 50 km south of Jabiru on the Kakadu Highway is the site of Gagudju Lodge Cooinda, Yellow Water Cruises and the Warradjan Cultural Centre. Fuel and limited provisions are available at Cooinda and there is also a small airstrip for scenic flights. South Alligator approximately 40 km west of Jabiru on the Arnhem Highway includes a hotel and service station. The Border Store near Ubirr Art Site and Cahills Crossing, 50 km north of Jabiru, is a general store.\n\nCamp sites\n\nThere are a wide variety of designated camping sites throughout the park. Jabiru, Cooinda and South Alligator all have commercial camping areas and are in close proximity to most of the important natural attractions in these areas. Some of the park's campsites charge a nominal fee as these have shower and toilet facilities, others are free, however they have limited or no facilities. A list of the sites can be obtained from the Kakadu National Park's Glenn Murcutt-designed Bowali Visitor Centre or from their website." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Kakadu National Park (Stage 2)", "Kakadu National Park", "Kakadu National Park (Stage 1)", "Kakadu national park" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "kakadu national park", "kakadu national park stage 2", "kakadu national park stage 1" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "kakadu national park", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Kakadu National Park" }
In TV's All In The Family what was Mike and Gloria's son called?	tc_526	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "All_in_the_Family.txt", "Michael_Stivic.txt", "Gloria_(TV_series).txt" ], "title": [ "All in the Family", "Michael Stivic", "Gloria (TV series)" ], "wiki_context": [ "All in the Family is an American sitcom that was originally broadcast on the CBS television network for nine seasons, from January 12, 1971, to April 8, 1979. In September 1979, a new show, Archie Bunker's Place, picked up where All in the Family had ended. That sitcom lasted another four years, ending its run in 1983.\n\nProduced by Norman Lear and Bud Yorkin and starring Carroll O'Connor, Jean Stapleton, Rob Reiner, and Sally Struthers, All in the Family revolves around the life of a working-class bigot and his family. The show broke ground in its depiction of issues previously considered unsuitable for U.S. network television comedy, such as racism, homosexuality, women's liberation, rape, religion, miscarriage, abortion, breast cancer, the Vietnam War, menopause, and impotence. Through depicting these controversial issues, the series became arguably one of television's most influential comedic programs, as it injected the sitcom format with more realistic and topical conflicts.[http://www.tvland.com/shows/all-in-the-family All in the Family TV Show - Videos, Actors, Photos and Episodes from the Classic Television Show] \n\nThe show is often regarded in the United States as one of the greatest television series of all time. The show ranked number-one in the yearly Nielsen ratings from 1971 to 1976. It became the first television series to reach the milestone of having topped the Nielsen ratings for five consecutive years. The episode \"Sammy's Visit\" was ranked #13 on TV Guide's 100 Greatest Episodes of All Time. TV Guide's 50 Greatest TV Shows of All Time ranked All in the Family as #4. Bravo also named the show's protagonist, Archie Bunker, TV's greatest character of all time. In 2013, the Writers Guild of America ranked All in the Family the fourth best written TV series ever and TV Guide ranked it as the fourth greatest show of all time. \n\nPremise\n\nAll in the Family revolves around Archie Bunker (Carroll O'Connor), a working-class World War II veteran living in Queens, New York. He is a short-tempered, outspoken bigot, seemingly prejudiced against everyone who is not a U.S.-born, heterosexual White Anglo-Saxon Protestant male, and dismissive of anyone not in agreement with his view of the world. His ignorance and stubbornness seem to cause his malapropism-filled arguments to self-destruct. He often responds to uncomfortable truths by blowing a raspberry. He longs for better times when people sharing his viewpoint were in charge, as evidenced by the nostalgic theme song \"Those Were the Days,\" the show's original title. Despite his bigotry, he is portrayed as loveable and decent, as well as a man who is simply struggling to adapt to the changes in the world, rather than someone motivated by hateful racism or prejudice.\n\nBy contrast, Archie's wife, Edith (Jean Stapleton), is a sweet and understanding, if somewhat naïve, woman who usually defers to her husband. On the rare occasions when Edith takes a stand she proves to be one of the wisest characters, as evidenced in the episodes \"The Battle of the Month\" and \"The Games Bunkers Play\". Archie often tells her to \"stifle\" herself and calls her a \"dingbat\". Despite their different personalities they love each other deeply.\n\nThey have one child, Gloria (Sally Struthers) who, for the most part, is kind and good natured, like her mother, but who also on occasion displays traces of her father's stubbornness; she becomes more of an outspoken feminist as the series progresses. Gloria is married to college student Michael Stivic (Rob Reiner). Michael is referred to as \"Meathead\" by Archie and \"Mike\" by nearly everyone else. Mike is a bit of a hippie, openly an atheist and his morality is influenced and shaped by the counterculture of the 1960s. He and Archie represent the real-life clash between the Greatest Generation and the Baby Boomers. They constantly clash over religious, political, social, and personal issues. For much of the series, the Stivics live in the Bunkers' home to save money, providing even more opportunity for the two men to irritate each other. When Mike finally finishes graduate school and the Stivics move out, it turns out to be to the house next door. The house was offered to them by George Jefferson, the Bunkers' former neighbor, who knows it will irritate Archie. In addition to calling him \"Meathead\", Archie also frequently cites Mike's Polish ancestry, referring to him as a \"dumb Polack.\"\n\nThe show is set in the Astoria section of Queens, one of New York City's five boroughs, with the vast majority of scenes taking place in the Bunkers' home at 704 Hauser Street (and later, frequently, the Stivics' home). Occasional scenes take place in other locations, most often (especially during later seasons) Kelsey's Bar, a neighborhood tavern where Archie spends a good deal of time and which he eventually buys. The house seen in the opening is at 89-70 Cooper Avenue near the junction of the Glendale, Middle Village, and Rego Park sections of Queens. According to the US Postal Service, the official address is: 8970 COOPER AVE, REGO PARK NY 11374-5324. \n\nCast\n\nMain characters\n\n* Carroll O'Connor as Archie Bunker. Frequently called a \"lovable bigot\", Archie was an assertively prejudiced blue-collar worker. Former child actor Mickey Rooney was Lear's first choice to play Archie, but Rooney declined the offer because of the strong potential for controversy and, in Rooney's opinion, a poor chance for success. Scott Brady, formerly of the western series Shotgun Slade, also declined the role of Archie Bunker, but appeared four times on the series in 1976 in the role of Joe Foley. O'Connor missed 7 episodes of the series run.\n* Jean Stapleton as Edith Bunker, née Baines. It was Stapleton who developed Edith's recognizable voice. Stapleton remained with the show through the original series run but decided to leave before the first season of Archie Bunker's Place had wrapped up. At that point Edith was written out as having suffered a stroke and died off-camera, leaving Archie to deal with the death of his beloved \"dingbat\". Stapleton appeared in all but four episodes of All in the Family and had a recurring role during the first season of Archie Bunker's Place. In the series' first episode, Edith is portrayed as being less of a dingbat and even sarcastically refers to her husband as \"Mr. Religion, here...\" after they come home from church, something her character wouldn't be expected to say later.\n* Sally Struthers as Gloria Stivic, née Bunker. The Bunkers' college-age daughter was married to Michael Stivic. Gloria frequently attempted to mediate Archie's and Michael's arguments. The roles of the Bunkers' daughter and son-in-law (then named \"Dickie\") initially went to Candice Azzara and Chip Oliver. However, after seeing the show's pilot, ABC, the original production company, requested a second pilot expressing dissatisfaction with both actors. Lear later recast the roles of \"Gloria\" and \"Dickie\" with Struthers and Reiner. Penny Marshall (Reiner's wife, whom he married in April 1971, shortly after the program began) was also considered for the role of Gloria. During the earlier seasons of the show, Struthers was known to be discontented with how static her part was, frequently coming off as irritating and having only a few token lines. As the series continued Gloria's character became more developed, satisfying Struthers. Struthers appeared in 157 of the 202 episodes during the first eight seasons—from January 12, 1971 to March 19, 1978. She later reprised the role in the spin-off series Gloria, which lasted for a single season in 1982-83.\n* Rob Reiner as Michael Stivic. Gloria's Polish-American hippie husband was part of the counterculture of the 1960s. He constantly sparred with Archie (in the original pilot, he was Irish-American). Michael was, in many ways, as stubborn as Archie, even though his moral views were generally presented as being more ethical and his logic somewhat sounder. Though this was true, he was generally portrayed in a more negative light than Archie; Archie was portrayed in a more sympathetic sense, while Michael was portrayed as loudmouthed and at times, demanding. He consistently tried to prove himself correct (as evidenced in the episode \"The Games Bunkers Play\") and seemed desperate to convince people that his way was the right way to go all the time, even more than Archie, who gave up giving advice about his way when there was no point. This would occasionally, if not often, end him up in conflict with his friends and wife. For his bullheadedness, Stivic was sometimes criticized for being an elitist. He also struggled with assumptions of male superiority. He spoke of believing in female equality, but often tried to control Gloria's decisions and desires in terms of traditional gender roles. While Archie was a representative of supposed bigotry and demonstrated the lion's share of the hypocrisy, Michael, on many occasions, showed his own. As discussed in All in the Family retrospectives, Richard Dreyfuss sought the part but Norman Lear was convinced to cast Reiner. Reiner appeared in 174 of the 202 episodes of the series during the first eight seasons—from January 12, 1971 to March 19, 1978. Reiner is also credited with writing three of the series' episodes. \n* Danielle Brisebois as Edith's 9-year-old grandniece, Stephanie Mills, who is a regular throughout the 9th season. The Bunkers take her in after the child's father, Floyd Mills, abandons her on their doorstep in 1978 (he later extorts money from them to let them keep her). She remained with the show through its transition to Archie Bunker's Place, and appeared in all four seasons of the latter show.\n\nSupporting characters\n\n* Sherman Hemsley as George Jefferson, Isabel Sanford as his wife Louise, and Mike Evans as their son Lionel, Archie's black neighbors. George is Archie's combative black counterpart, while Louise is a smarter, more assertive version of Edith. Lionel first appeared in the series' premiere episode \"Meet the Bunkers\", with Louise appearing later in the first season. Although previously mentioned many times, George was not seen until 1973. Hemsley, who was Norman Lear's first choice to play George, was performing in the Broadway musical Purlie and did not want to break his commitment to that show. However, Lear kept the role waiting for him until he had finished with the musical. Plots frequently find Archie and George at odds with one another, while Edith and Louise attempt to join forces to bring about a resolution. They later moved to an apartment in Manhattan which resulted in their own show The Jeffersons.\n* Mel Stewart, as George's brother Henry Jefferson. The two appeared together only once, in the 1973 episode in which the Bunkers host Henry's going-away party, marking Stewart's final episode and Hemsley's first. Even when the Jeffersons were spun off into their own show in 1975, Stewart's character was rarely referred to again and was never seen. In the closing credits of \"The First and Last Supper\" episode, Mel Stewart is incorrectly credited as playing George Jefferson. Stewart was actually playing George's brother, Henry Jefferson, who was pretending to be George for most of the episode.\n* Bea Arthur as Edith's cousin Maude. Maude was white-collared and ultra-liberal, the perfect foil to Archie and one of his main antagonists. She appeared in only two episodes, \"Cousin Maude's Visit\", where she took care of the Bunker household when all four were sick, and \"Maude\" from the show's second season. She then went on to her own spin-off series, Maude, in fall 1972.\n* Betty Garrett and Vincent Gardenia as the liberal and Roman Catholic next-door neighbors Irene and Frank Lorenzo. Both first appeared as a married couple as Irene was trying to use the Bunker's phone. However, during an argument earlier in the episode, Archie and Mike had broken the phone wire. Irene being a 'handyman' of sorts with her own tools, which she carried in her purse, fixed it. Irene fixed many things at the Bunker house during her time on the show. She also had a sister who was a nun and appeared in one episode. It is revealed in the episode Edith's Christmas Story that Irene has had a mastectomy. Archie got her a job as a forklift operator at the plant where Archie worked. Irene was a strongwilled woman of Irish heritage, and Frank was a jovial Italian househusband who loved cooking and singing. He also was a salesman, but it never was said what he sold. Gardenia, who also appeared as Jim Bowman in Episode 8 of Season 1 (as the man who sold his house to the Jeffersons) and as Curtis Rempley in Episode 7 of Season 3 (as a swinger opposite Rue McClanahan), became a semi-regular along with Garrett in 1973. Gardenia only stayed for one season as Frank Lorenzo, but Garrett remained until her character was phased out in late 1975.\n* Allan Melvin as Archie's neighbor and best friend Barney Hefner. The character first appeared in 1972 as a fairly minor character. Barney's role expanded toward the end of the series, after the departures of Reiner and Struthers. He also appeared as a regular in all four seasons of Archie Bunker's Place.\n\nRecurring characters\n\n* James Cromwell as Jerome \"Stretch\" Cunningham (1973–1976) \"The Funniest Man in The World\", Archie's friend and co-worker from the loading dock (Archie claims that he is known as the \"Bob Hope\" of the loading platform). What Archie did not know was that Stretch was Jewish, evident only after Stretch died and Archie went to the funeral. Archie's eulogy for his friend is often referred to as a rare occasion when he was capable of showing the humanity he tried so earnestly to hide. In the episode titled \"Archie in the Cellar,\" Billy Sands is referred to as Stretch Cunningham, the voice on the tape recorder telling jokes. Sands also appeared as other characters on the show during its run, usually in Kelsey's Bar as a patron.\n* Liz Torres as Theresa Betancourt (1976–1977), a Puerto Rican nursing student who initially meets Archie when he is admitted to the hospital for surgery; she later rents Mike's and Gloria's former room at the Bunker house. She called Archie \"Papi.\" Torres had just completed the first season of the CBS sitcom Phyllis in the spring of 1976 before being dropped from the cast. (She had replaced the late actress Barbara Colby in the role of Julie Erskine). Torres joined All in the Family in the fall of 1976, but her character was not popular with viewers, and the role was phased out before the end of the season.\n* Billy Halop as Mr. Munson (1971–74), the cab driver who lets Archie use his cab to make extra money.\n* Bob Hastings as Kelcy or Tommy Kelsey, who owns the bar Archie frequents and later buys. Kelcy was also played by Frank Maxwell in the episode \"Archie Gets The Business.\" The name of the establishment is Kelcy's Bar (as seen in the bar window in various episodes). However, due to a continuity error, the end credits of episodes involving the bar owner spell the name \"Kelcy\" for the first two seasons and \"Kelsey\" thereafter, although the end credits show \"Kelcy\" in the \"Archie Gets the Business\" episode.\n* Jason Wingreen as Harry Snowden, a bartender at Kelcy's Bar who continues to work there after Archie purchases it and eventually becomes his business partner. Harry had initially tried to buy the bar from Kelcy, but Archie was able to come up with the money first, by taking a mortgage out on his house, which the Bunkers own outright.\n* Gloria LeRoy as Mildred \"Boom-Boom\" Turner, a buxom, middle-aged secretary at the plant where Archie works. Her first appearance was when Archie is lost on his way to a convention and Mike and Gloria suspect he and she could be having an affair. Archie gave her that moniker as she was walking by the loading dock. He said when she walked, \"Boom-Boom\". She is not initially fond of Archie due to his and Stretch's leering and sexist behavior, but later becomes friendly with him, occasionally working as a barmaid at Archie's Place. Gloria LeRoy also appeared in a third season episode as \"Bobbi Jo,\" the wife of Archie's old war buddy \"Duke\".\n* Barnard Hughes as Father Majeskie, a local Catholic priest who was suspected by Archie one time of trying to convert Edith. He appeared in multiple episodes. The first time was when Edith accidentally hit Majeskie's car in the shopping parking lot with a can of cling peaches in heavy syrup.\n* Eugene Roche appeared as practical jokester friend and fellow lodge member \"Pinky Peterson\", one of Archie Bunker's buddies, in three episodes; first in the episode \"Beverly Rides Again\", then the memorable Christmas Day episode called \"The Draft Dodger\" (Episode 146, 1976), and finally the episode \"Archie's Other WIfe\".\n* Sorrell Booke as Lyle Sanders, personnel manager at Archie Bunker's workplace, Prendergast Tool and Die Company. (He had previously appeared on the series as Lyle Bennett, the manager of a local television station, in the episode \"Archie and the Editorial\" in Season 3.)\n* Lori Shannon as Beverly La Salle, a transvestite entertainer, who appeared in three episodes: \"Archie the Hero\", \"Beverly Rides Again\", and \"Edith's Crisis of Faith\", where he and Mike are attacked, and he is killed while defending him. \n* Estelle Parsons as Blanche Hefner (1977–1979), Barney's second wife. Blanche and Archie are not fond of one another, though Edith likes her very much. The character is mentioned throughout much of the series after Barney's first wife, Mabel, had died, though she only appeared in a handful of episodes during the last couple of seasons. Estelle Parsons also appeared in the season 7 episode \"Archie's Secret Passion\" as Dolores Fencel.\n* Bill Quinn as Mr. Edgar Van Ranseleer (a.k.a. \"Mr. Van R\"), a blind patron and regular at the bar. He was almost never referred to by his first name. In a running joke, Archie usually waves his hand in front of Mr. Van R's face when he speaks to him. His role was later expanded on Archie Bunker's Place, where he appeared in all four seasons.\n* Burt Mustin as Justin Quigley, a feisty octogenarian. Mr. Quigley first appeared in the episode: \"Edith Finds an Old Man\" (Season 4 Ep 3 Sept 23, 1973) where he runs away from the Sunshine Home where Edith volunteers. He temporarily moves in with the Bunkers and soon finds a geriatric sweetheart, Josephine \"Jo\" Nelson, played by Ruth McDevitt. He appeared in four other episodes including: \"Archie's Weighty Problem\". \n* Nedra Volz as Aunt Iola. Edith's aunt who was mentioned several times in the 8th season and stayed with the Bunkers for two weeks. Edith wanted her to move in, but Archie would not allow it, though when he thought Iola didn't have any place to go, he told her privately that she could always stay with them.\n* Francine Beers and Jane Connell as Sybil Gooley, who worked at Ferguson's Market. Frequently mentioned, usually by Edith, Sybil predicted that Gloria and Mike were having a baby boy by performing a ring on a string \"swing test\" over Gloria's abdomen. Sybil also appeared in the episode \"Edith's 50th Birthday\" and spilled the beans on her surprise party because she had not been invited. She and Archie did not get along, and he referred to her as a \"Big Mouth\".\n* Rae Allen and Elizabeth Wilson as Cousin Amelia. Archie detested both Amelia and her husband, Russ, who were both wealthy. Once she sent Edith a mink and Archie wanted to send it back, until he found out how much it was worth. In another episode, both Amelia and her husband gave the Bunkers Hawaiian shirts. Amelia was played by two different actresses throughout the first few seasons of the show.\n* Richard Dysart as Russ DeKuyper, Amelia's husband, a plumber who continued the business started by Amelia's father and uncles and walked into a successful plumbing concern, and who constantly flaunts his monetary wealth in front of Archie and looks askance at the way Archie lives. Russ was later played by George S. Irving in season 5.\n* Clyde Kusatsu as Reverend Chong. Reverend Chong appeared in several episodes. He refused to baptize little Joey in Season 6, and then remarried both Archie and Edith and Mike and Gloria in Season 8, and gave counsel to Stephanie in Season 9 as it was learned she was Jewish.\n* Ruth McDevitt as Josephine \"Jo\" Nelson. She played Justin Quigley's girlfriend, the older man Edith found walking around the supermarket. She appeared in three episodes from the 4th-6th seasons. Gloria and Mike adopted them as their godgrandparents. Out of most of the characters, Archie took a liking to Justin and Jo. She died following the end of the 6th season.\n* William Benedict as Jimmy McNabb. The Bunker's neighbor who was starting a petition to keep minorities out of their neighborhood. He appeared in two episodes during the first and second season, and was referred to many times during the first few seasons.\n* Jack Grimes as Mr. Whitehead. A member of Archie's lodge, and local funeral director. The death of Archie's cousin Oscar in a season 2 episode of All in the Family brings the very short, white-haired and silver-tongued Whitehead with his catalog of caskets.\n\nHistory and production\n\nThe show came about when Norman Lear read an article in Variety magazine on Till Death Us Do Part and its success in the United Kingdom. He immediately knew it portrayed a relationship just like the one between him and his father. \n\nLear bought the rights to the show and incorporated his own family experiences with his father into the show. Lear's father would tell Lear's mother to \"stifle herself\" and she would tell Lear's father \"you are the laziest white man I ever saw\" (two \"Archieisms\" that found their way onto the show).\n\nThe original pilot was titled Justice for All and was developed for ABC. Tom Bosley, Jack Warden, and Jackie Gleason were all considered for the role of Archie Bunker. In fact, CBS wanted to buy the rights to the original show and retool it specifically for Gleason, who was under contract to them, but producer Norman Lear beat out CBS for the rights and offered the show to ABC.\n\nIn the pilot, Carroll O'Connor and Jean Stapleton played Archie and Edith Justice. Kelly Jean Peters played Gloria and Tim McIntire played her husband, Richard. It was taped in October 1968 in New York City. After screening the first pilot, ABC gave the producers more money to shoot a second pilot, titled Those Were the Days, which was taped in February 1969 in Hollywood. Candice Azzara played Gloria and Chip Oliver played Richard. D'Urville Martin played Lionel Jefferson in both pilots.\n\nAfter stations' and viewers' complaints caused ABC to cancel Turn-On after only one episode in February 1969, the network became uneasy about airing a show with a \"foul-mouthed, bigoted lead\" character, and rejected the series at about the time Richard Dreyfuss sought the role of Michael. Rival network CBS was eager to update its image and was looking to replace much of its then popular \"rural\" programming (Mayberry R.F.D., The Beverly Hillbillies, Petticoat Junction, and Green Acres) with more \"urban\", contemporary series and was interested in Lear's project. CBS bought the rights from ABC and retitled the show All in the Family. The pilot episode CBS developed had the final cast and was the series' first episode.\n\nLear initially wanted to shoot in black and white as Till Death Us Do Part had been. While CBS insisted on color, Lear had the set furnished in rather neutral tones, keeping everything relatively devoid of color. As costume designer Rita Riggs described in her 2001 Archive of American Television interview, Lear's idea was to create the feeling of sepia tones, in an attempt to make viewers feel as if they were looking at an old family album.\n\nAll in the Family was the first major American series to be videotaped in front of a live studio audience. In the 1960s, most sitcoms had been filmed in the single-camera format without audiences, with a laugh track simulating an audience response. Lear employed the multi-camera format of shooting in front of an audience, but used tape, whereas previous multi-camera shows like Mary Tyler Moore had used film. Thanks to the success of All in the Family, videotaping sitcoms in front of an audience became a common format for the genre during the 1970s, the 1980s and the 1990s. The use of videotape also gave All in the Family the look and feel of early live television, including the original live broadcasts of The Honeymooners, to which All in the Family is sometimes compared.\n\nFor the show's final season, the practice of being taped before a live audience changed to playing the already taped and edited show to an audience and recording their laughter to add to the original sound track. Thus, the voice-over during the end credits was changed from Rob Reiner's \"All in the Family was recorded on tape before a live audience\" to Carroll O'Connor's \"All in the Family was played to a studio audience for live responses\". (Typically, the audience would be gathered for a taping of One Day at a Time, and get to see All In the Family as a bonus.) Throughout its run, Norman Lear took pride in the fact that canned laughter was never used (mentioning this on many occasions); the laughter heard in the episodes was genuine.\n\nTheme song\n\nThe series' opening theme song \"Those Were The Days\", written by Lee Adams (lyrics) and Charles Strouse (music), was presented in a unique way for a 1970s series: Carroll O'Connor and Jean Stapleton seated at a console or spinet piano (played by Stapleton) and singing the tune on-camera at the start of every episode, concluding with live-audience applause. (The song dates back to the first Justice For All pilot, although on that occasion O'Connor and Stapleton performed the song off-camera and at a faster tempo than the series version.) Several different performances were recorded over the run of the series, including one version that includes additional lyrics. The song is a simple, pentatonic melody (that can be played exclusively with black keys on a piano) in which Archie and Edith wax nostalgic for the simpler days of yesteryear. A longer version of the song was released as a single on Atlantic Records, reaching No. 30 on the Billboard Adult Contemporary chart early in 1972; the additional lyrics in this longer version lend the song a greater sense of sadness, and make poignant reference to social changes taking place in the 1960s and early 1970s.\n\nA few perceptible drifts can be observed when listening to each version chronologically: In the original version Jean Stapleton was wearing glasses and after the first time the lyric \"Those Were The Days\" was sung over the tonic (root chord of the song's key) the piano strikes a Dominant 7th chord in transition to the next part which is absent from subsequent versions. Jean Stapleton's screeching high note on the line \"And you knew who you WEEERRE then\" became louder, longer, and more comical, although it was only in the original version that audience laughter was heard in response to her rendition of the note; Carroll O'Connor's pronunciation of \"welfare state\" gained more of Archie's trademark enunciation and the closing lyrics (especially \"Gee, our old LaSalle ran great.\") were sung with increasingly deliberate articulation, as viewers had initially complained that they could not understand the words. Also in the original version the camera angle was shot slightly from the right side of the talent as opposed to the straight on angle of the next version.\n\nIn addition to O'Connor and Stapleton singing, footage is also shown beginning with aerial shots of Manhattan, and continuing to Queens, progressively zooming in, culminating with a still shot of a lower middle-class semi-detached home, presumably representing the Bunkers' house in Astoria. The house shown in the opening credits, however, is actually located at 89–70 Cooper Avenue in the Glendale section of Queens, New York. There is a notable difference, however, between the Cooper Avenue house and the All in the Family set: there is no porch on the Cooper Avenue house, while the Bunkers' home featured a front porch. The footage for the opening had been shot back in 1968 for the series' first pilot, thus the establishing shot of the Manhattan skyline was completely devoid of the World Trade Center towers, which had not yet been built. When the series aired two years later, the Trade Center towers, although under construction, had still not yet risen high enough to become a prominent feature on the Manhattan skyline (this did not happen until the end of 1971). Despite this change in the Manhattan skyline, the original 1968 footage continued to be used for the series opening until the series transitioned into Archie Bunker's Place in 1979. At that point a new opening with current shots of the Manhattan skyline were used with the Trade Center towers being seen in the closing credits. This opening format – showing actual footage of the cities and neighborhoods in which the show was set – became the standard for most of Norman Lear's sitcoms including Maude, Good Times, and The Jeffersons.\n\nAt the end of the opening the camera then returns to a few final seconds of O'Connor and Stapleton, as they finish the song. In one version of the opening Archie hugs Edith at the conclusion, while another version sees Edith smiling blissfully at Archie, while Archie puts a cigar in his mouth and returns a rather cynical look to Edith. Additionally, in the first three versions of the opening Archie is seen wearing his classic trademark white shirt. In the last version of the opening for the series' ninth season, Archie is seen wearing a grey sweater-jacket over his white shirt.\n\nThe opening for the animated series Family Guy begins with Peter and Lois Griffin singing at the piano, a tribute to the All in the Family opening. As with \"Those Were the Days\", the lyrics to the Family Guy theme song also seem to imply that things have changed for the worse since the old days (\"But where are those good old fashioned values/On which we used to rely?\"). The All in the Family opening is also parodied in The Simpsons ninth-season episode \"Lisa's Sax\", as Homer and Marge Simpson sit at a piano and perform \"Those Were the Days\" with altered lyrics pertaining to the episode's plot.\n\nIn interviews, Norman Lear stated that the idea for the piano song introduction was a cost-cutting measure. After completion of the pilot episode, the budget would not allow an elaborate scene to serve as the sequence played during the show's opening credits. Lear decided to have a simple scene of Archie and Edith singing at the piano.\n\nThe closing theme (an instrumental) was \"Remembering You\" played by Roger Kellaway with lyrics co-written by Carroll O'Connor. It was played over footage of the same row of houses in Queens as in the opening (but moving in the opposite direction down the street), and eventually moving back to aerial shots of Manhattan, suggesting the visit to the Bunkers' home has concluded. O'Connor recorded a vocal version of \"Remembering You\" for a record album, but though he performed it several times on TV appearances, the lyrics (about the end of a romance) were never heard in the actual series.\n\nExcept for some brief instances in the first season, there was no background or transitional music.\n\nSetting and location\n\nLear and his writers set the series in the Queens neighborhood of Astoria. The exact location of the Bunkers' house at 704 Hauser Street is completely fictitious (no Hauser Street exists in Queens), however, and factually incorrect with the way addresses are given in Queens (all address numbers are hyphenated, containing the location of the nearest numbered street). Nevertheless, many episodes reveal that the Bunkers live near the major thoroughfare Northern Boulevard, which was the location of Kelsey's Bar and later Archie Bunker's Place.\n\nThe façade of the house shown at the show opening is an actual home located at 89-70 Cooper Avenue, Glendale, Queens, New York, across from St. John Cemetery ().\n\nMany real Queens institutions are mentioned throughout the series. Carroll O’Connor, a real-life Queens native from Forest Hills, said in an interview with the Archive of American Television that he suggested to the writers many of the locations to give the series authenticity. For example, it is revealed that Archie attended Flushing High School, a real high school located in Flushing, Queens (although in the \"Man Of The Year\" episode of Archie Bunker's Place, it is revealed that Archie attended Bryant High School in Long Island City, graduating in 1940). As another example, the 1976 episode \"The Baby Contest\" deals with Archie entering baby Joey in a cutest baby contest sponsored by the Long Island Daily Press, a then-operating local newspaper in Queens and Long Island.\n\nAdditionally, the writers of All in the Family continued throughout the series to have the Bunkers, as well as other characters, use telephone exchange names when giving a telephone number (most other series at the time, such as The Mary Tyler Moore Show, were using the standard fake 555 telephone number) at a time when AT&T was earnestly trying to discontinue them. At different times throughout the series, the telephone exchanges Ravenswood and Bayside were used for the Bunkers' telephone number. Both exchanges were and still are applicable names for phone numbers in the neighborhoods of Astoria and Bayside. This may have had to do with the fact that at the time many major cities in the United States, such as New York, were resisting the dropping of telephone exchange names in favor of all-number calling, and were still printing their telephone books with exchange names. Actual residents of the Bunkers' age continued using exchange names into the early 1980s. This fact is referred to in the 1979 episode \"The Appendectomy,\" when Edith, while dialing a telephone number, uses the Parkview exchange name only to correct herself by saying that she keeps forgetting that it's all-number dialing now. However, she comes to the conclusion that the number is exactly the same either way.\n\nEpisodes\n\n\"Sammy's Visit,\" first broadcast in February 1972, is a particularly notable episode, whose famous episode-ending scene produced the longest sustained audience laughter in the history of the show. Guest star Sammy Davis, Jr. plays himself in the episode. Davis leaves a briefcase behind in Archie's taxi (Archie is moonlighting as a cab driver) and goes to the Bunker home to pick it up. After hearing Archie's racist remarks, Davis asks for a photograph with him. At the moment the picture is taken, Davis suddenly kisses a stunned Archie on the cheek. The ensuing laughter went on for so long that it had to be severely edited for network broadcast, as Carroll O'Connor still had one line (\"Well, what the hell — he said it was in his contract!\") to deliver after the kiss. (The line is usually cut in syndication.)\n\nBroadcast history\n\nTuesday at 9:30-10:00 PM on CBS: January 12—April 6, 1971\nSaturday at 8:00-8:30 PM on CBS: September 18, 1971—March 8, 1975\nMonday at 9:00-9:30 PM on CBS: September 8, 1975—March 8, 1976\nWednesday at 9:00-9:30 PM on CBS: September 22—October 27, 1976\nSaturday at 9:00-9:30 PM on CBS: November 6, 1976—March 12, 1977\nSunday at 9:00-9:30 PM on CBS: October 9, 1977—October 1, 1978\nSunday at 8:00-8:30 PM on CBS: October 8, 1978—April 8, 1979\n\nSyndication\n\nDuring the show's sixth season, starting on December 1, 1975, CBS began showing reruns on weekdays, replacing long-running soap opera The Edge of Night, which had been purchased by ABC. This lasted until September 1979, at which point the reruns entered off-network syndication. Originally it was syndicated by Viacom. The show was picked up in most television markets as such. In 1991, the show began to be syndicated by Columbia/Embassy and has been by their heirs ever since.\n\nSince the late 1980s, All in the Family has been rerun on various cable and satellite networks including TBS (though they had the rights locally in Atlanta as well), TV Land and Nick at Nite. Since January 3, 2011, the show has been airing on Antenna TV.\n\nThe cast settled their residual rights for a cash payout early in the production run. \n\nRatings\n\nAll in the Family is one of three television shows (The Cosby Show and American Idol being the others) that have been No. 1 in the Nielsen ratings for five consecutive TV seasons. The show remained in the top-ten for seven of its nine seasons.\n\nThe series finale was seen by 40.2 million viewers. \n\nSpin-offs, TV specials and influence\n\nAccording to The Complete Directory to Prime Time Network and Cable TV Shows 1946–Present, All in the Family has the most spin-offs for a prime-time television series, spawning five other shows, three of which were highly successful and two of which are spin-offs from spin-offs. \n\nThe first spin-off was Maude on September 12, 1972. Maude Findlay, played by Bea Arthur, was Edith's cousin; she had first appeared on All in the Family in the episode \"Cousin Maude's Visit\", which aired on December 11, 1971, in order to help take care of the Bunkers when they all were sick with a nasty flu virus. Maude disliked Archie intensely, mainly because she thought Edith could have married better, but also because Archie was a conservative while Maude was very liberal in her politics, especially when Archie denounced Maude's support of Franklin Delano Roosevelt. Maude was featured in another All in the Family episode in which Archie and Edith visited Maude's home in Westchester County to attend the wedding of Maude's daughter Carol. It aired as the finale of the second season on March 11, 1972, titled \"Maude.\" The episode was essentially designed to set up the premise for the spin-off series that would air later in the year. In the episode, Bill Macy played Maude's husband, Walter; it was a role he reprised for the weekly series that fall. Marcia Rodd, the actress who played Carol in the episode, was replaced by Adrienne Barbeau in Maude. The show lasted for six seasons and 141 episodes, airing its final episode on April 22, 1978.\n*Good Times is considered by some to be a spin off of Maude, focusing on Maude's former maid Florida Evans. However, the character was retroactively changed. According to producer Allan Manings \"It wasn't really a spin-off.\" The show contains no mention of Maude, and the Evans' now live in Chicago. It ran for six seasons from February 8, 1974 to August 1, 1979.\nThe second and longest-lasting spin-off of All in the Family was The Jeffersons. Debuting on CBS on January 18, 1975 The Jeffersons lasted 11 seasons and 253 episodes compared to All in the Family's 9 seasons and 208 episodes. The main characters of The Jeffersons were the Bunkers' former next-door neighbors George Jefferson (Sherman Hemsley) and his wife, Louise \"Weezie\" Jefferson (Isabel Sanford). George Jefferson was the owner of a chain of seven successful dry-cleaning stores; as The Jeffersons begins, they have just moved from the Bunkers' neighborhood to a luxury high-rise apartment building in Manhattan's Upper East Side. George was considered to be the \"black Archie Bunker,\" and just as racist as Archie.\n*Checking In was spun off from The Jeffersons, focusing on the Jeffersons' maid Florence Johnston working as executive housekeeper at the St. Fredereick Hotel in Manhattan. It only lasted four weeks from April 9 to April 30, 1981 and Florence returned to her old job as the Jeffersons' maid.\nGloria was the third spin-off of All in the Family, focusing on Archie's divorced daughter Gloria starting a new life as an assistant trainee to a couple of veterinarians in Foxridge, New York. It premiered September 26, 1982 and ran for one season.\n\nOther spin-offs of All in the Family include:\nArchie Bunker's Place was technically a spin-off, but was more of a continuation of the series.\n704 Hauser features the Bunkers' house with a new family, the key twist being that the Archie Bunker analog in this series is black. Joey Stivic, Gloria and Mike's son, now in his twenties, makes a brief appearance in the first episode.\n\nAt the height of the show's popularity, Henry Fonda hosted a special one-hour retrospective of All in the Family and its impact on American television. Included were clips from the show's most memorable episodes up to that time. It was titled The Best of \"All in the Family\", and aired on December 21, 1974.\n\nA 90-minute retrospective, All in the Family 20th Anniversary Special, was produced to commemorate the show's 20th anniversary and aired on CBS February 16, 1991. It was hosted by Norman Lear, and featured a compilation of clips from the show's best moments, and interviews with the four main cast members.\n\nThe special was so well received by the viewing audience (ratings: 14.7 household rating from 8-9:30pm while Empty Nest garnered a 17.3) that CBS decided to air reruns of All in the Family during their summer schedule that year. During its summer run, the 20-year-old program was popular. \n\nSo successful were these primetime reruns that they garnered higher ratings than the new series scheduled next to it, the Norman Lear-produced sitcom Sunday Dinner. The latter was Lear's return to TV series producing after a seven-year absence (after the failed A.k.a. Pablo for ABC in 1984). It was cancelled after the six-week tryout run.\n\nThe creators of the long-running ongoing adult animated series American Dad! have likened the early seasons of their series to All in the Family. In its early going, American Dad was almost a farcical animated version of All in the Family, utilizing elements of bigotry, conservatism, patriotism, etc. In both series, conservatism is expressed ludicrously by a paternal main character (Stan Smith likened to Archie) while liberalism is expressed by a daughter character and her husband (Hayley Smith and Jeff Fischer likened to Gloria and Mike). \n\nDVD releases\n\nSony Pictures Home Entertainment (formerly Columbia Tri-Star Home Entertainment) released the first six seasons of All in the Family on DVD in Region 1 between 2002 and 2007. No further seasons were released, because the sales figures did not match Sony's expectations.\n\nOn June 23, 2010, Shout! Factory announced that they had acquired the rights to the series, and have since released the remaining three seasons. \n\nOn October 30, 2012, Shout! Factory released All in the Family - The Complete Series on DVD in Region 1. The 28-disc box set features all 208 episodes of the series as well as bonus features. \n\nCultural impact\n\nAs one of US television's most acclaimed and groundbreaking programs, All in the Family has been referenced or parodied in countless other forms of media. References on other sitcoms include That '70s Show, The Brady Bunch, and The Simpsons. The animated series Family Guy pays homage to All in the Family in the opening sequence which features Peter and Lois Griffin playing the piano and singing a lament on the loss of traditional values and also paid tribute to the ending credits of the show at the end of the episode Stewie Loves Lois.\n\nPopular T-shirts, buttons, and bumper stickers showing O'Connor's image and farcically promoting \"Archie Bunker for President\" appeared around the time of the 1972 presidential election. In 1998, All in the Family was honored on a 33-cent stamp by the USPS. \n\nArchie and Edith Bunker's chairs are on display in the Smithsonian National Museum of American History. Originally purchased by the show's set designer for a few dollars at a local Goodwill thrift store, the originals were given to the Smithsonian (for an exhibit on American television history) in 1978. It cost producers thousands of dollars to create replicas to replace the originals.\n\nAlso, then-US President Richard Nixon can be heard discussing the show (specifically the 1971 episodes \"Writing the President\" and \"Judging Books by Covers\") on one of the infamous Watergate tapes. \n\nRapper Redman has made references to Archie Bunker in a few of his songs, specifically his smoking of large cigars. \n\nAwards and nominations\n\nAll in the Family is the first of four sitcoms in which all the lead actors (O'Connor, Stapleton, Struthers, and Reiner) won Primetime Emmy Awards. The other three are The Golden Girls, The Simpsons and Will & Grace.\n\nPrimetime Emmy Awards and Nominations\n\n;1971\nOutstanding New Series (Won)\nOutstanding Series - Comedy (Won)\nOutstanding Continued Performance by an Actor in a Leading Role in a Comedy Series: Carroll O'Connor (Nominated)\nOutstanding Continued Performance by an Actress in a Leading Role in a Comedy Series: Jean Stapleton (Won)\nOutstanding Directorial Achievement in Comedy: John Rich for \"Gloria's Pregnant\" (Nominated)\nOutstanding Writing Achievement in Comedy:\n Norman Lear for \"Meet the Bunkers\" (Nominated)\n Stanley Ralph Ross for \"Oh, My Aching Back\" (Nominated)\n;1972\nOutstanding Series - Comedy (Won)\nOutstanding Single Program - Drama or Comedy for \"Sammy's Visit\" (Nominated)\nOutstanding Achievement in Live or Tape Sound Mixing: Norman Dewes for \"The Elevator Story\" (Won)\nOutstanding Continued Performance by an Actor in a Leading Role in a Comedy Series: Carroll O'Connor (Won)\nOutstanding Continued Performance by an Actress in a Leading Role in a Comedy Series: Jean Stapleton (Won)\nOutstanding Performance by an Actor in a Supporting Role in a Comedy Series: Rob Reiner (Nominated)\nOutstanding Performance by an Actress in a Supporting Role in a Comedy Series: Sally Struthers (Won)\nOutstanding Directorial Achievement in Comedy: John Rich for \"Sammy's Visit\" (Won)\nOutstanding Writing Achievement in Comedy:\n* Burt Styler for \"Edith's Problem\" (Won)\nAlan J. Levitt and Philip Mishkin for \"Mike's Problem\" (Nominated)\nNorman Lear and Burt Styler for \"The Saga of Cousin Oscar\" (Nominated)\n;1973\nOutstanding Comedy Series (Won)\nOutstanding Continued Performance by an Actor in a Leading Role in a Comedy Series: Carroll O'Connor (Nominated)\nOutstanding Continued Performance by an Actress in a Leading Role in a Comedy Series: Jean Stapleton (Nominated)\nOutstanding Performance by an Actor in a Supporting Role in a Comedy Series: Rob Reiner (Nominated)\nOutstanding Performance by an Actress in a Supporting Role in a Comedy Series: Sally Struthers (Nominated)\nOutstanding Directorial Achievement in Comedy: Bob LaHendro and John Rich for \"The Bunkers and the Swingers\" (Nominated)\nOutstanding Writing Achievement in Comedy: Lee Kalcheim & Michael Ross & Bernie West for \"The Bunkers and the Swingers\" (Won)\n;1974\nOutstanding Comedy Series (Nominated)\nBest Lead Actor in a Comedy Series: Carroll O'Connor (Nominated)\nBest Lead Actress in a Comedy Series: Jean Stapleton (Nominated)\nBest Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series: Rob Reiner (Won)\nBest Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series: Sally Struthers (Nominated)\n;1975\nOutstanding Comedy Series (Nominated)\nOutstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series: Carroll O'Connor (Nominated)\nOutstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series: Jean Stapleton (Nominated)\nOutstanding Continuing Performance by a Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series: Rob Reiner (Nominated)\n;1976\nOutstanding Comedy Series (Nominated)\n;1977\nOutstanding Comedy Series (Nominated)\nOutstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series: Carroll O'Connor (Won)\nOutstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series: Jean Stapleton (Nominated)\nOutstanding Directing for a Comedy Series: Paul Bogart for \"The Draft Dodger\" (Nominated)\nOutstanding Art Direction or Scenic Design for a Comedy Series: Don Roberts for \"The Unemployment Story\" (Nominated)\n;1978\nOutstanding Comedy Series (Won)\nOutstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series: Carroll O'Connor (Won)\nOutstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series: Jean Stapleton (Won)\nOutstanding Continuing Performance by a Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series: Rob Reiner (Won)\nOutstanding Continuing Performance by a Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series: Sally Struthers (Nominated)\nOutstanding Directing for a Comedy Series: Paul Bogart for \"Edith's 50th Birthday\" (Won)\nOutstanding Writing for a Comedy Series:\nBob Schiller and Bob Weiskopf for \"Edith's 50th Birthday\" (Nominated)\nLarry Rhine & Erik Tarloff & Mel Tolkin for \"Edith's Crisis of Faith\" (Nominated)\nHarve Brosten & Barry Harman & Bob Schiller & Bob Weiskopf for \"Cousin Liz\" (Won)\n;1979\nOutstanding Comedy Series (Nominated)\nOutstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series: Carroll O'Connor (Won)\nOutstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series: Jean Stapleton (Nominated)\nOutstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy, Comedy-Variety, or Music Series: Sally Struthers (Won)\nOutstanding Directing for a Comedy, Comedy-Variety, or Music Series: Paul Bogart for \"California, Here We Are\" (Nominated)\nOutstanding Writing for a Comedy, Comedy-Variety, or Music Series: Milt Josefsberg & Bob Schiller & Phil Sharp & Bob Weiskopf for \"California, Here We Are\" (Nominated)\nOutstanding Video Tape Editing for a Series: Harvey W. Berger and Hal Collins for \"The 200th Episode Celebration of 'All in the Family'\" (Nominated)\n\nGolden Globe Awards and Nominations\n\n;1972\nBest TV Show - Musical/Comedy (Won)\nBest TV Actor - Musical/Comedy: Carroll O'Connor (Won)\nBest TV Actress - Musical/Comedy: Jean Stapleton (Nominated)\nBest Supporting Actor - Television: Rob Reiner (Nominated)\nBest Supporting Actress - Television: Sally Struthers (Nominated)\n;1973\nBest TV Show - Musical/Comedy (Won)\nBest TV Actor - Musical/Comedy: Carroll O'Connor (Nominated)\nBest TV Actress - Musical/Comedy: Jean Stapleton (Won)\nBest Supporting Actor - Television: Rob Reiner (Nominated)\nBest Supporting Actress - Television: Sally Struthers (Nominated)\n;1974\nBest TV Show - Musical/Comedy (Won)\nBest TV Actor - Musical/Comedy: Carroll O'Connor (Nominated)\nBest TV Actress - Musical/Comedy: Jean Stapleton (Won)\nBest Supporting Actor - Television: Rob Reiner (Nominated)\nBest Supporting Actress - Television: Sally Struthers (Nominated)\n;1975\nBest TV Show - Musical/Comedy (Nominated)\nBest TV Actor - Musical/Comedy: Carroll O'Connor (Nominated)\nBest TV Actress - Musical/Comedy: Jean Stapleton (Nominated)\nBest Supporting Actress - Television: Betty Garrett (Won)\n;1976\nBest TV Actor - Musical/Comedy: Carroll O'Connor (Nominated)\nBest Supporting Actor - Television: Rob Reiner (Nominated)\n;1977\nBest Supporting Actor - Television: Rob Reiner (Nominated)\nBest Supporting Actress - Television: Sally Struthers (Nominated)\n;1978\nBest TV Series - Musical/Comedy (Won)\nBest TV Actor - Musical/Comedy: Carroll O'Connor (Nominated)\nBest TV Actress - Musical/Comedy: Jean Stapleton (Nominated)\n;1979\nBest TV Series - Musical/Comedy (Nominated)\nBest TV Actress - Musical/Comedy: Jean Stapleton (Nominated)\n;1980\n*Best TV Actress - Musical/Comedy: Jean Stapleton (Nominated)\n\nTCA Heritage Award\n\nIn 2013, the Television Critics Association honored All in the Family with its Heritage Award for its cultural and social impact on society.", "Michael Casimir \"Mike\" Stivic is a fictional character on the long-running American television sitcom of the 1970s, All in the Family. He was the live-in son-in-law of the series' lead character, Archie Bunker, who frequently called him \"Meathead\". Michael was the husband of Archie's daughter Gloria (played by Sally Struthers). Rob Reiner played the role of Michael Stivic throughout the series.\n\nCharacter overview \n\nThe character of Michael Stivic is an Americanized version of the British original: Til Death Us Do Parts Mike Rawlins, the Trotskyist \"Randy Scouse Git\" who arouses the passionate ire of his arch-conservative father-in-law Alf Garnett. For the American version of this character, the Trotskyist angle was drastically softened: Michael Stivic is a social liberal and a leftist, but not an adherent of any form of communism and is presented as possibly a Democrat who is sympathetic to the Students for a Democratic Society movement (SDS), which is hinted by his occasional use of SDS ally and Yippie leader Abbie Hoffman's guerrilla theatre antics.\n\nMichael Stivic is a Polish-American from Chicago. He was orphaned at a young age, with his parents having been killed in a car crash. He was raised by his uncle Casimir Stivic, an ex-Marine lieutenant turned florist, who calls him \"Mickey\" with great affection. He also has an uncle Alex.\n\nWhen All in the Family begins, Michael is married to Gloria and shares a bedroom with her in the home of her parents, whom he addresses as \"Ma\" and \"Archie\" (or \"Arch\"), while focusing his efforts on earning a college degree in sociology. His first meeting with Archie (seen in a flashback) shows him as a bearded hippie with a tie-dyed shirt. His wardrobe throughout most of the series is much more subdued: most often he wears a denim shirt, jeans, and boots. He shaves his beard for his wedding with Gloria, but keeps his mustache afterwards (on rare occasions later in the series, however, he would go for a clean shaven look) and wears his hair well below the collar. (As Reiner was losing his hair very rapidly early on in the series, he began wearing a toupee when playing his character.) The exact year of the Stivics' marriage is somewhat ambiguous. In season 2, episode 5, \"Flashback: Mike Meets Archie\" (mentioned above), which first aired October 16, 1971, Mike and Gloria celebrate their first wedding anniversary. A 1972 episode centers on Mike and Gloria's second wedding anniversary: meaning they would have been married in 1970 while the 1978 episode The Stivics Go West it is revealed that Mike and Gloria are coming upon the ninth anniversary meaning they would have been married in 1969.\n\nExacerbating the conflicts between college student Michael and his conservative father-in-law Archie Bunker, is the fact that in the early years of the television series, these two characters live under the same roof. This proximity means that the tensions between these seemingly diametrically opposed people result in endless arguments over the simplest of topics, even the proper order in which to put on socks and shoes. Along with other issues, such as Michael's frequent decision to sit in Archie's coveted chair and huge appetite for food purchased by Archie's working-class income, their huge ideological differences greatly contributed to the conflict between the two characters. Michael is a determined agnostic-though he would at times identify himself as an atheist in order to rile up Archie, who assumed he was in complete disbelief of God-, in contrast to his mother-in-law's quiet Christian church attendance and his non-practicing but nonetheless staunchly Christian father-in-law. He also is a dedicated humanitarian who wishes to help change the world: originally, Michael wanted to become a social worker, but his career aspirations shifted towards teaching as the series progressed. When the neighboring Jefferson family moves out of the neighborhood, the family patriarch George allows Michael to rent his old house so Michael and Gloria can have a home of their own: George, however, is still the house's legal owner. Although being next door still results in frequent visits, the tension between Michael and Archie eases as they now live under different roofs.\n\nMichael is presented as a representative of the counterculture of the 1960s (reflecting current events during the period in which the show was broadcast). There is no suggestion, however of the drug use or \"free love\" of that subculture and Michael is a dedicated academic. It is revealed in the season eight episode Gloria and Mike Meet that in 1969, Michael's dedication to humanitarianism was galvanized in order to weaken support for newly elected President Richard Nixon and that he was probably a member of the SDS's newly formed Worker Student Alliance that sought to encourage university students to find ways to fix problems within the working class.\n\nThough supportive of human rights, Michael would at times display male chauvinism as well: examples showed when he did not want his appendix removed by a female doctor and was a sore loser when playing a board game called Group Therapy with his family and neighbors. Though he differed with Archie over the potential successes women and racial minorities could achieve, Michael also believed that neither could socially evolve without good education from people like him: such an example showed when he falsely characterized a blue-collar handyman's African American assistant as a minstrel show stereotype who dressed like his boss in the season 3 episode Everybody Tells the Truth. (Archie's version is just as stereotyped—the assistant is a member of the Black Power movement and his boss is a mafia thug) He was also determined to ensure that Gloria shared his beliefs.\n\nAlthough taken by surprise, Michael is excited to learn that Gloria is pregnant in 1971, though the pregnancy ends in a miscarriage. Gloria becomes pregnant again in 1975 and their baby Joseph \"Joey\" Stivic is born in December of that year.\n\nDuring early episodes, Michael's best friend is Lionel Jefferson. In the first season, Lionel surprises Michael by announcing that he and his family are moving into the house next door to the Bunkers However, the characters rarely see or refer to each other after the Jeffersons leave All in the Family to join the spin-off The Jeffersons: George Jefferson, however, would later make a guest appearance at his old residence when the Stivics start preparing for their move to California and meet with him to give notice that they will no longer be staying in his house. Another of Michael's close friends, Al Bender (played by Billy Crystal), marries Gloria's best friend Trudy Tannen in a 1976 episode.\n\nMike accepts a faculty position at UCSB and he and Gloria move to Santa Barbara, California at the end of the 1977-78 season (at which time Reiner and Struthers ceased to be regulars on the show). They appear in a Christmas episode during the 1978-79 season, in which Archie and Edith (and Edith's niece Stephanie) visit Michael and Gloria, exposing the fact that the couple have secretly separated due to troubles in their marriage, including an infidelity Gloria had with one of his college faculty colleagues. Though they seemingly resolve their differences during this episode, a Thanksgiving visit by Mike and Gloria to the Bunkers' house during the 1979-80 season of Archie Bunker's Place shows that the Stivics' marriage is still troubled, exacerbated by the fact that Michael has lost his job after he and Gloria participated in a nude protest of a proposed nuclear power plant and got arrested. This is the last appearance of the character.\n\nMichael Stivic does not appear in the 1982 spin-off series Gloria, which starred Sally Struthers. Initially, Reiner had been asked to participate in the series, resurrecting his Michael Stivic character, but he declined. It is explained (on the show) that Michael had left his wife and young son Joey (then played by Christian Jacobs) to live in a California commune with one of his students (Which suggests he had found a new teaching job)-whom Gloria described as \"the homecoming queen, a girl named Muffy\"- and was in the process of going through a bitter divorce.\n\n\"Meathead\"\n\nArchie routinely refers to Michael by the derogatory nickname \"Meathead\", from the first time they meet, as seen in flashback in the second season episode \"Mike Meets Archie\". In Archie's own words, it means \"dead from the neck up\". Rob Reiner has said that \"I could win the Nobel Prize and they'd write 'Meathead wins the Nobel Prize'.\" \n\nA later episode of All in the Family reveals that Archie Bunker himself was referred to as \"Meathead\" in his youth.", "Gloria is an American sitcom that lasted one season on CBS, from September 1982 to April 1983. It starred Sally Struthers, reprising her role as Gloria Stivic, the daughter of Archie Bunker on the 1970s sitcom All in the Family. Gloria was a spin-off of Archie Bunker's Place, which was a continuation of All in the Family.\n\nSynopsis\n\nThe set-up of the show was that Gloria had been left at loose ends after her husband, Michael Stivic (who did not appear in the new series), left her for one of his students and moved away to a commune. Gloria, to be closer to her father, decided to move with her young son, Joey (played by Christian Jacobs), and pick up the pieces of her life as an assistant to two veterinarians in Fox Ridge, New York. The veterinarians were played by Burgess Meredith and Jo De Winter; the character played by Meredith was also, conveniently, Gloria's landlord.\n\nThough Gloria ranked 18th in the Nielsen ratings for the 1982–83 season and scored an 18.7 rating tying it with Trapper John, M.D., CBS chose not to renew it for a second season, making it one of the few spin-offs of the successful All in the Family not to have a successful run.\n\nUnaired pilot\n\nCBS rejected Glorias original pilot which featured a brief cameo by Carroll O'Connor as Archie Bunker dropping off Gloria and Joey at Dr. Adams' clinic and residence. It was repackaged as an episode of Archie Bunker's Place. This pilot was written by veteran All in the Family and Archie Bunker's Place writers Pat Shea and Harriett Weiss and Archie Bunker's Place producer and close Carroll O'Connor associate Joe Gannon who co-created, wrote and produced the pilot. They were replaced by former WKRP in Cincinnati writers Steve Marshall and Dan Guntzelman (who would later find success writing and producing the long-running ABC sitcom Growing Pains).\n\nThe shows production was moved from CBS Television City to Universal Studios. According to a December 1982 feature interview with Sally Struthers in TV Guide this did not sit well with Carroll O'Connor who, with the rest of the Archie Bunker's Place production staff, was effectively shut out of the production of Gloria. (Even Norman Lear, who created All in the Family and had some hand in all of its other spin-offs, had no credited involvement in Gloria.) After this, O'Connor chose to be uninvolved in the retooled pilot and series. The characters of Dr. Jim Waynewrite and Ben the handyman were dropped when Marshall and Guntzelman's second pilot was made which went to series. In the second pilot, Joey adopted a black dog which he named Archie after his grandfather, which O'Connor was said to be less than thrilled about according to the same 1982 TV Guide article. In the original pilot, actress Jo de Winter's character, Maggie Lawrence, was an assistant to Dr. Adams. In the second pilot and the series, Maggie Lawrence is a veterinarian and Dr. Adams' partner in the clinic.\n\nEpisodes" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Joey (disambiguation)", "Joey (song)", "Joey (film)", "Joey" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "joey disambiguation", "joey film", "joey", "joey song" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "joey", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Joey" }
Who sang with Crosby, Stills and Young?	tc_527	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Stephen_Stills.txt", "Neil_Young.txt" ], "title": [ "Stephen Stills", "Neil Young" ], "wiki_context": [ "Stephen Arthur Stills (born January 3, 1945) is an American musician and multi-instrumentalist best known for his work with Buffalo Springfield and Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young.\n\nBeginning his professional career with Buffalo Springfield, he composed their only hit \"For What It's Worth,\" which became one of the most recognizable songs of the decade. Other notable songs he contributed to the band were \"Sit Down, I Think I Love You,\" \"Bluebird\" and \"Rock & Roll Woman.\" According to Richie Furay, he was \"the heart and soul of Buffalo Springfield.\" \n\nAfter Buffalo Springfield broke up, Stills began working with David Crosby and Graham Nash on their debut album. Stills, in addition to writing much of the album, played bass, guitar, and keyboards on most of the album. The album sold over four million copies and at that point, had outsold anything from the three members' prior bands: The Byrds, Buffalo Springfield, and The Hollies. The album won the trio a Grammy Award for Best New Artist. Glenn Frey stated, \"CSN hung the moon. They were like the Beatles for about two years.\"\n\nNeil Young, formerly of Buffalo Springfield, joined CSN months later for their second concert at Woodstock and subsequent album Déjà Vu. The album found Stills again as a leader of the group. Living up to his nickname \"Captain Many Hands\" he played bass, guitar and keyboard on the title track, and electric guitar and piano on Helpless. Young appeared on half of the album, which became a huge success and sold over eight million copies. In its wake all four members of CSNY released solo albums that reached the top 20, while Young in particular found major success as a solo artist from this point forward.\n\nStills' first solo album Stephen Stills went gold and is the only album to feature both Jimi Hendrix and Eric Clapton. Its hit single, \"Love The One You're With\" became his biggest solo hit peaking at No. 14 in the Billboard Hot 100. A string of solo albums, and a band with Chris Hillman called Manassas followed in 1972. In the summer of 1974 Young reunited with CSN after a four-year hiatus for a concert tour which was recorded and released in 2014 as CSNY 1974. It was one of the first ever stadium tours, and the largest tour the band has done to date. CSN reunited in 1977 for their album CSN which became the trio's best selling record. CSN(Y) continued to have platinum albums through the 1980s. Stills' solo career and bands have combined sales of over 35 million albums to date.\n\nStills was ranked #28 in Rolling Stone Magazine's 2003 list of \"The 100 Greatest Guitarists of All Time\" and #47 in the 2011 list. Stills became the first person to be inducted twice on the same night into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame for his work with CSN and Buffalo Springfield. According to Neil Young, \"Stephen is a genius.\" \n\nEarly years\n\n Stills was raised in a Jewish military family. Moving around as a child, he developed an interest in blues and folk music. He was also influenced by Latin music after spending his youth in Gainesville and Tampa, Florida, Covington, Louisiana, Costa Rica, Panama Canal Zone and El Salvador, where he graduated from high school. He also attended Admiral Farragut Academy in St. Petersburg, Florida and Saint Leo College Preparatory School in Saint Leo, Florida. Stills is also an avid sailor.\n\nStills dropped out of University of Florida to pursue a music career in the early 1960s. He played in a series of bands including The Continentals, which featured future Eagles guitarist Don Felder. Stills could also be heard singing solo at Gerde's Folk City, a well-known coffee house in Greenwich Village. Stills eventually ended up in a nine-member vocal harmony group, the house act at the famous Cafe Au Go Go in NYC, called the Au Go Go Singers, which included future Buffalo Springfield bandmate Richie Furay. This group did some touring in the Catskills and in the South, released one album in 1964, then broke up in 1965. Afterwards, Stills, along with four other former members of the Au Go Go Singers formed The Company, a folk-rock group. The Company embarked on a six-week tour of Canada where Stills met a young guitarist named Neil Young. On the VH1 CSNY Legends special, Stills said that Young was doing what he always wanted to do, \"play folk music in a rock band.\" The Company broke up in New York within four months; Stills did session work and went to various auditions. In 1966 he convinced a reluctant Richie Furay, then living in Massachusetts, to move with him to California.\n\nRumors were that Stills made an unsuccessful attempt to become one of The Monkees. He was reportedly turned down, not due to any lack of ability, but because of a conflict with his existing music publishing contract. So instead, he recommended his friend, multi-instrumentalist Peter Tork. \n\nIn a later interview, Stills clarified by saying, \"I never tried out for them! I have said this a million times! I went in there to sell my songs. Do you think in my wildest dreams I wanted to be a damn fake Beatle on television? (laughs) I was already writing songs, and I figured — I was young and dumb — that the only way I could get to them was a (casting) cattle call. I got in there and said, 'I’ve got all these songs.' And they said, 'That’s already been fixed.' I said, 'What, you’ve got some Tin Pan Alley (character) writing all the songs?' and they said, 'Yeah.' I said, 'I don’t want this job, but I know a guy you might like,' and that turned out to be Peter Tork.\" \n\nBuffalo Springfield and Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young\n\nStills, Furay, and Young reunited in Los Angeles and formed the core of Buffalo Springfield. Legend has it that Stills and Furay recognized Young's converted hearse on the streets of LA and flagged him down, a meeting described in a recent solo track \"Round the Bend.\" The band would release three albums: Buffalo Springfield, Buffalo Springfield Again, and Last Time Around, and enjoy only one hit single, the Stills-penned \"For What It's Worth\" before disbanding. A Stills song off the Springfield debut, \"Sit Down, I Think I Love You,\" was a minor hit for The Mojo Men in 1967.\n\nDuring the disintegration of Buffalo Springfield, Stills played on the Super Session album with Al Kooper, and joined up with David Crosby, who had recently been ejected from The Byrds in the autumn of 1967. At a party in Laurel Canyon, Crosby was introduced to Graham Nash by mutual friend Cass Elliott, (formerly of the Mamas and the Papas), and Nash found himself soon joining in singing with Crosby and Stills. Renditions of the latter's \"You Don't Have to Cry,\" led to the formation of Crosby, Stills & Nash. Several of Stills' songs, including \"Suite: Judy Blue Eyes\" and \"You Don't Have To Cry\" on the debut album were inspired by his on-again-off-again relationship with singer Judy Collins. In a 1971 interview in Rolling Stone the interviewer noted \"so many of your songs seem to be about Judy Collins.\" Stills replied, \"Well, there are three things men can do with women: love them, suffer for them, or turn them into literature. I've had my share of success and failure at all three.\" \n\nThe cover photo pictured on the debut was taken on the back porch of a house in West Hollywood, which was torn down the next day. Wanting to be able to tour and needing additional musicians, the band invited Neil Young to join them for their subsequent tour and second album to make the group the quartet Crosby Stills Nash & Young. CSN with and without Young still record and tour to this day.\n\nHaving played at the Monterey Pop Festival with Buffalo Springfield, and both Woodstock and Altamont with CSNY, Stills performed at all three of the iconic U.S. rock festivals of the 1960s.\n\nSolo years\n\nIn the wake of CSNY's success, all four members recorded high-profile solo albums. In 1970, Stills released his eponymous solo debut album which featured guests Eric Clapton, Jimi Hendrix, Cass Elliot, Booker T. Jones and Ringo Starr (credited only as \"Richie\") as well as David Crosby, Graham Nash, Rita Coolidge and CSNY drummers Dallas Taylor and Johnny Barbata. It provided Stills with the hit single \"Love The One You're With.\" Stills followed this with Stephen Stills 2, which featured \"Change Partners.\" Even though the song was written before CSN formed, Nash saw it as a metaphor for the many relationships in CSNY. In 1971, Stills played guitar for the Bill Withers album, Just as I Am, including the Grammy-winning song, \"Ain't No Sunshine\". \n\nIn late 1971, Stills teamed up with ex-Byrd Chris Hillman to form the band Manassas. Their self-titled double album was a mixture of rock, country, blues, bluegrass and Latin music divided into different sections. All of Stills' albums after the Springfield had gone either gold or platinum; the Manassas follow-up album the next year Down the Road was his first LP that did not. After the CSNY reunion tour in 1974, he signed to Columbia Records for three albums: Stills in 1975; Illegal Stills in 1976; and Thoroughfare Gap in 1978.\n\nIn 1976, Stills attempted a reunion with Neil Young. At one point, Long May You Run was slated to be a CSNY record, but when Crosby and Nash left to fulfill recording and touring obligations, they returned to find the other pair had wiped their vocals from the recordings, as Stills and Young decided to go on without their erstwhile partners as The Stills-Young Band. However, Young would leave midway through the resulting tour due to an apparent throat infection. Stills was contractually bound to finish the tour, which he did, but upon returning home, his wife - French singer-songwriter Véronique Sanson - announced she wanted a divorce and wished to move back to France. Stills reunited with Crosby and Nash shortly afterwards, thanks to the efforts of Nash's future wife Susan, who got Nash to forgive Stills for wiping the Crosby and Nash vocals from Long May You Run. This led to the permanent reunion of Crosby, Stills, and Nash in 1977, which has persisted to the present. Since, Neil Young has joined the trio for two albums, in 1988 and 1999, and tours in 2000, 2002, and 2006, along with various benefit performances. Also in 1976, Stills played percussion on the Bee Gees' song \"You Should Be Dancing\".\n\nIn 1979 he traveled to Havana, Cuba, to participate in the Havana Jam festival that took place between March 2–4, alongside Weather Report, the Trio of Doom, Fania All-Stars, Billy Swan, Bonnie Bramlett, Mike Finnigan, Kris Kristofferson, Rita Coolidge and Billy Joel, plus an array of Cuban artists such as Irakere, with whom he toured the US after the Havana concerts. His performance is captured on Ernesto Juan Castellanos's documentary Havana Jam '79.\n\nIn 1984, Right by You would be the final Stills album to make the Billboard 200 album chart, with Stills Alone issued in 1991. In 1997, Stills became the first person to be inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame twice in the same night for his work with CSN and the Buffalo Springfield. Fender Guitars crafted a custom guitar and presented it to Stills to commemorate the occasion, a Telecaster-style guitar bearing an inscription on the neck plate.\n\n2005 saw Stills release Man Alive!, his first solo offering in 14 years. Man Alive! was released on the small English independent folk rock label Talking Elephant, and was not widely reviewed. The record did not chart on either side of the Atlantic, and was received lukewarmly by the few critics who did review it. \n\nThroughout 2006 and 2007, Stills toured regularly as a solo artist with \"The Quartet\", which consisted of drummer Joe Vitale, either Mike Finnigan or session player Todd Caldwell on keyboards, and either Kevin McCormick or Kenny Pasarelli on bass. On May 28, 2007, Stills sang the National Anthem for Game 1 of the 2007 Stanley Cup Finals between the Anaheim Ducks and Ottawa Senators in Anaheim, California.\n\nOn December 17, 2007, Graham Nash revealed on Larry King Live that Stills had been diagnosed with early stage prostate cancer and that his operation would take place on January 3, 2008, which is Stills' birthday. Stills said later in January 2008 that he had come through the operation with \"flying colors.\" \n\nStills toured Europe as a solo artist for the first time during October 2008. In 2011, Stills contributed a song, \"Low Barefoot Tolerance,\" to the soundtrack of a documentary produced by J. Ralph, Wretches & Jabberers.\n\nOn August 27, 2013, Stephen Stills released the album, Can't Get Enough with Kenny Wayne Shepherd and Barry Goldberg as the blues band The Rides. The band toured to support this release in 2013.\n\nOn August 12, 2014, Watsky released the album \"All You Can Do\", featuring a song with Stills, \"Cannonball\".\n\nPersonal life\n\nDuring a Manassas tour in France, Stills met and married his first wife singer-songwriter Véronique Sanson. Stills has since divorced and remarried twice. In 1988, he married Thai model Pamela Anne Jordan, with whom he had a daughter, Eleanor. His third wife is Kristen Hathaway (Kristen Stills) whom he married in 1996. He was involved with musician Judy Collins from 1967–69 and wrote the song Suite: Judy Blue Eyes for her.\n\nStills' son, Justin Stills, was critically injured at age 26 snowboarding on Mt Charleston just outside Las Vegas in 1997. An episode of Discovery Health's documentary series Trauma: Life in the ER featured his treatment and recovery. Justin was born in 1972 to Harriet Tunis. Another son, Henry, has been diagnosed with Asperger syndrome, and is profiled in the 2007 documentary Autism: The Musical. His daughter Eleanor is a photographer and graduate of Art Center College of Design in Pasadena. Since Eleanor's graduation, she has been responsible for all recent Crosby, Stills & Nash photography. Stills has a twenty-year-old daughter, Alex, who attends Emerson College in Boston, Massachusetts. Son Chris and daughter Jennifer are both recording artists. His youngest son, Oliver Ragland, was born in 2004 and named in honor of Neil Young, whose maternal family name is Ragland. \n\nLike all four members of CSNY, Stills has long been involved in liberal causes and politics. In 2000, he served as a member of the Democratic credentials committee from Florida during the Democratic National Convention, and was a delegate in previous years. \n\nThe comic book series Scott Pilgrim features a character by the name of Stephen Stills, referred to as \"The Talent\" by the band he shares with the title character. The character also plays an acoustic guitar and sings, and is often portrayed wearing the kind of western shirts that Stills has as standard wardrobe. The series also has a reference to Stills' collaborator Neil Young in the character of Young Neil.\n\nStyle, musicianship, and sound\n\nStills is a guitarist whose music draws from a myriad of genres which include rock and roll, blues, gospel, country and folk music. In addition, Latin music has played a key role in both his approach to percussion and guitar.\n\nStills experimented with the guitar itself, including soaking strings in barbecue sauce \nor flipping pickups to mimic Hendrix playing a right-handed guitar left-handed. He is also known for using alternate guitar tunings, particularly when performing acoustically. Often a long acoustic solo section of the show would showcase agile fingerstyle playing in standard and altered tunings. His primary alternate tuning is usually EEEEBE, or \"Palmer modal tuning\", which can be heard in \"Suite: Judy Blue Eyes,\" \"Carry On,\" and \"4 + 20.\" \n\nFor the CSN debut album in 1969, Graham Nash commented that \"Stephen had a vision, and David and I let him run with it.\" Stills played every instrumental part on Crosby, Stills and Nash with exception of some guitar by Crosby and Nash, and drums by Dallas Taylor.\n\nDiscography\n\n:See also discographies for Crosby Stills Nash & Young, Buffalo Springfield and Manassas.\n\nSolo\n\nStudio albums\n\nLive albums\n\nCompilations\n\nSingles\n\nWith Bloomfield/Kooper\n\nWith Manassas\n\nWith the Stills-Young Band\n\nWith The Rides", "Neil Percival Young, (born November 12, 1945) is a Canadian singer-songwriter and musician, producer, director and screenwriter. He began performing in a group covering Shadows instrumentals in Canada in 1960, before moving to California in 1966, where he co-founded the band Buffalo Springfield together with Stephen Stills and Richie Furay, and later joined Crosby, Stills & Nash in 1969. He released his first album in 1968 and has since forged a successful and acclaimed solo career, spanning over 45 years and 35 studio albums, with a continuous and uncompromizing exploration of musical styles. The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame website describes Young as \"one of rock and roll's greatest songwriters and performers\". He was inducted into the Hall of Fame twice, first as a solo artist in 1995, and second as a member of Buffalo Springfield in 1997. \n\nYoung's music is characterized by his distinctive guitar work, deeply personal lyrics and characteristic alto or high tenor singing voice. Although he accompanies himself on several different instruments, including piano and harmonica, his idiosyncratic electric and acoustic guitar playing are the defining characteristics of a varyingly ragged and melodic sound.\n\nWhile Young has experimented with differing music styles throughout a varied career, including electronic music, most of his best known work is either acoustic folk-rock and country rock or electric, amplified hard rock (most often in collaboration with the band Crazy Horse). Musical styles such as alternative rock and grunge also adopted elements from Young. His influence has caused some to dub him the \"Godfather of Grunge\".\n\nYoung has directed (or co-directed) a number of films using the pseudonym Bernard Shakey, including Journey Through the Past (1973), Rust Never Sleeps (1979), Human Highway (1982), Greendale (2003), and CSNY/Déjà Vu (2008). He has also contributed to the soundtracks of films including Philadelphia (1993) and Dead Man (1995).\n\nYoung is an environmentalist and outspoken advocate for the welfare of small farmers, having co-founded in 1985 the benefit concert Farm Aid. He is currently working on a documentary about electric car technology, tentatively titled LincVolt. The project involves his 1959 Lincoln Continental converted to hybrid technology as an environmentalist statement. In 1986, Young helped found The Bridge School, an educational organization for children with severe verbal and physical disabilities, and its annual supporting Bridge School Benefit concerts, together with his ex-wife Pegi Young ( Morton). Young has three children: sons Zeke (born during his relationship with actress Carrie Snodgress) and Ben, who were diagnosed with cerebral palsy, and daughter Amber Jean who, like Young, has epilepsy. Young lived on Broken Arrow Ranch, about a thousand acres near La Honda, California until his 2014 divorce from Pegi, when he gave her the ranch and moved to Los Angeles with his current partner, Daryl Hannah. Although he has lived in California since the 1970s and sings as frequently about U.S. themes and subjects as he does about his native country, he has retained his Canadian citizenship. On July 14, 2006, Young was awarded the Order of Manitoba, and on December 30, 2009, was made an Officer of the Order of Canada.\n\nLife and career\n\nEarly years (1945–66)\n\nNeil Percival Young was born on November 12, 1945 in Toronto, Ontario. His father, Scott Alexander Young (1918–2005), was a journalist and sportswriter who would later rise to prominence in Canada for his work. His mother, Edna Blow Ragland \"Rassy\" Young (1918–1990) was a member of the Daughters of the American Revolution. Although Canadian, his mother had American and French ancestry. They married in 1940 in Winnipeg, Manitoba, and their first son, Robert 'Bob' Young, was born in 1942.\n\nShortly after Neil's birth in 1945, the Young family moved to the rural town of Omemee, Ontario, which Neil would later fondly describe as a \"sleepy little place.\" Young suffered from a bout of polio in 1951, in what was the last major outbreak of the disease in Ontario. Singer-songwriter Joni Mitchell, then aged nine, also contracted the virus in this epidemic. \n\nAfter his recovery, the Young family vacationed to Florida in the United States. During that period, Young briefly attended Chisolm Elementary School in New Smyrna Beach, Florida. In 1952, and upon returning to Canada soon decided to move away from Omemee and into the city of Winnipeg for a year, before relocating to Toronto and Pickering. It was during this period that Young began to take an interest in popular music that he heard on the radio, and also began to raise chickens to sell their eggs.\n\nWhen Young was twelve, his father, who had been having a number of extra-marital affairs, left his mother, and she asked for and received a divorce some years later, in 1960. Due to the break-up of the family, Neil went to live with his mother, who moved back to Winnipeg, while his brother Bob stayed with his father in Toronto. It was then that his musical drive really kicked in.\n\nDuring the mid-fifties, at around the age of ten or eleven, Young was drawn to a variety of musical genres including rock and roll, rockabilly, doo-wop, R&B, country, and western pop. He would listen to pop music broadcast on the CHUM radio station via his transistor radio. Young has stated in interviews that he grew up idolizing Elvis Presley and strove to be just like him. He later referred to him in a number of his lyrics. Other early musical influences included Link Wray, Chuck Berry, Hank Marvin, Little Richard, Fats Domino, The Chantels, The Monotones, Ronnie Self, The Fleetwoods, Jerry Lee Lewis, Johnny Cash, Roy Orbison, and Gogi Grant. Young first began to play music himself on a plastic ukulele, before, as he would later relate, going on to \"a better ukulele to a banjo ukulele to a baritone ukulele – everything but a guitar.\"\n\nYoung and his mother settled into the working class area of Fort Rouge, Winnipeg, where the shy, dry-humoured youth enrolled at Earl Grey Junior High School. It was there that he formed his first band, The Jades, and met Ken Koblun, later to join him in The Squires. While attending Kelvin High School in Winnipeg, he played in several instrumental rock bands. Young's first stable band was called The Squires, with Ken Koblun, Jeff Wuckert and Bill Edmondson on drums, who had a local hit called \"The Sultan\". Young dropped out of high school and also played in Fort William (now part of the city of Thunder Bay, Ontario), where they recorded a series of demos produced by a local producer named Ray Dee, whom Young called \"the original Briggs\". While there, Young first encountered Stephen Stills. In the 2006 film Heart of Gold, Young relates how he used to spend time as a teenager at Falcon Lake, Manitoba, where he would endlessly plug coins into the jukebox to hear Ian Tyson's \"Four Strong Winds\". The Squires played in as many dance halls and clubs in Winnipeg and Ontario as they could.\n\nAfter leaving the Squires, Young worked folk clubs in Winnipeg, where he first met Joni Mitchell. Mitchell recalls Young as having been highly influenced by Bob Dylan at the time. Here he wrote some of his earliest and most enduring folk songs such as \"Sugar Mountain\", about lost youth. Mitchell wrote \"The Circle Game\" in response. The Winnipeg band The Guess Who (with Randy Bachman as lead guitarist) had a Canadian Top 40 hit with Young's \"Flying on the Ground is Wrong\", which was Young's first major success as a songwriter.\n\nIn 1965 Young toured Canada as a solo artist. In 1966, while in Toronto, he joined the Rick James-fronted Mynah Birds. The band managed to secure a record deal with the Motown label, but as their first album was being recorded, James was arrested for being AWOL from the Reserve. After the Mynah Birds disbanded, Young and the bass player Bruce Palmer relocated to Los Angeles. Young admitted in a 2009 interview that he was in the United States illegally until he received a green card in 1970. \n\nBuffalo Springfield (1966–68)\n\nOnce they reached Los Angeles, Young and Palmer met up with Stephen Stills, Richie Furay, and Dewey Martin to form Buffalo Springfield. A mixture of folk, country, psychedelia, and rock, lent a hard edge by the twin lead guitars of Stills and Young, made Buffalo Springfield a critical success, and their first record Buffalo Springfield (1966) sold well after Stills' topical song \"For What It's Worth\" became a hit, aided by Young's melodic harmonics played on electric guitar. According to Rolling Stone, the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and other sources, Buffalo Springfield helped create the genres of folk rock and country rock.\n\nDistrust of their management, as well as the arrest and deportation of Palmer, exacerbated the already strained relations among the group members and led to Buffalo Springfield's demise. A second album, Buffalo Springfield Again, was released in late 1967, but two of Young's three contributions were solo tracks recorded apart from the rest of the group.\n\nIn many ways, these three songs on Buffalo Springfield Again, \"Mr. Soul\", \"Expecting to Fly\", and \"Broken Arrow\", are harbingers of much of Young's later work in that, although they all share deeply personal, almost idiosyncratic lyrics, they also present three very different musical approaches to the arrangement of what is essentially an original folk song. \"Mr. Soul\" is the only Young song of the three that all five members of the group performed together. In contrast, \"Broken Arrow\" was confessional folk-rock of a kind that would characterize much of the music that emerged from the singer-songwriter movement. Young's experimental production intersperses each verse with snippets of sound from other sources, including opening the song with a soundbite of Dewey Martin singing \"Mr. Soul\" and closing it with the thumping of a heartbeat. \"Expecting to Fly\" was a lushly produced ballad similar to the baroque pop of the mid-1960s, featuring a string arrangement that Young's co-producer for the track, Jack Nitzsche, would dub \"symphonic pop\".\n\nIn May 1968, the band split up for good, but to fulfill a contractual obligation, a final album, Last Time Around, was released, primarily from recordings made earlier that year. Young contributed the songs \"On the Way Home\" and \"I Am a Child\", singing lead on the latter. In 1997, the band was inducted into the Rock & Roll Hall of Fame; Young did not appear at the ceremony. The three surviving members, Furay, Stills and Young, appeared together as Buffalo Springfield at Young's annual Bridge School Benefit on October 23–24, 2010, and at Bonnaroo in the summer of 2011.\n\nGoing solo, Crazy Horse (1968–69)\n\nMain articles: Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young and Crazy Horse\nAfter the break-up of Buffalo Springfield, Young signed a solo deal with Reprise Records, home of his colleague and friend Joni Mitchell, with whom he shared a manager, Elliot Roberts, who manages Young to this day. Young and Roberts immediately began work on Young's first solo record, Neil Young (January 22, 1969), which received mixed reviews. In a 1970 interview, Young deprecated the album as being \"overdubbed rather than played\", and the quest for music that expresses the spontaneity of the moment has long been a feature of his career. Nevertheless, the album contains some songs that remain a staple of his live shows, most notably \"The Loner\".\n\nFor his next album, Young recruited three musicians from a band called The Rockets: Danny Whitten on guitar, Billy Talbot on bass guitar, and Ralph Molina on drums. These three took the name Crazy Horse (after the historical figure of the same name), and Everybody Knows This Is Nowhere (May 1969), is credited to \"Neil Young with Crazy Horse\". Recorded in just two weeks, the album opens with one of Young's most familiar songs, \"Cinnamon Girl\", and is dominated by two more, \"Cowgirl in the Sand\" and \"Down by the River\", that feature improvisations with Young's distinctive electric guitar solos billowing out over the hypnotic Crazy Horse backing. Young reportedly wrote all three songs on the same day, while nursing a high fever of 103 °F in bed. \n\nCrosby, Stills, Nash, and Young (1969–70)\n\nShortly after the release of Everybody Knows This Is Nowhere, Young reunited with Stephen Stills by joining Crosby, Stills & Nash, who had already released one album Crosby, Stills & Nash as a trio in May 1969. Young was originally offered a position as a sideman, but agreed to join only if he received full membership, and the group – winners of the 1969 \"Best New Artist\" Grammy Award – was renamed Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young. The quartet debuted in Chicago on August 16, 1969, and later performed at the famous Woodstock Festival, during which Young skipped the majority of the acoustic set and refused to be filmed during the electric set, even telling the cameramen: \"One of you fuckin' guys comes near me and I'm gonna fuckin' hit you with my guitar\". During the making of their first album, Déjà Vu (March 11, 1970), the musicians frequently argued, particularly Young and Stills, who both fought for control. Stills continued throughout their lifelong relationship to criticize Young, saying that he \"wanted to play folk music in a rock band.\" Despite the tension, Young's tenure with CSN&Y coincided with the band's most creative and successful period, and greatly contributed to his subsequent success as a solo artist.\n\nYoung wrote \"Ohio\" following the Kent State massacre on May 4, 1970. The song was quickly recorded by CSN&Y and immediately released as a single, even though CSN&Y's \"Teach Your Children\" was still climbing the singles charts.\n\nAfter the Gold Rush, acoustic tour and Harvest (1970–72)\n\nLater in the year, Young released his third solo album, After the Gold Rush (August 31, 1970), which featured, among others, a young Nils Lofgren, Stephen Stills, and CSNY bassist Greg Reeves. Young also recorded some tracks with Crazy Horse, but dismissed them early in the sessions. The eventual recording was less amplified than Everybody Knows This is Nowhere, with a wider range of sounds. Young's newfound fame with CSNY made the album his commercial breakthrough as a solo artist, and it contains some of his best known work, including \"Tell Me Why\" and \"Don't Let It Bring You Down\", the country-influenced singles \"Only Love Can Break Your Heart\" and \"When You Dance I Can Really Love\", and the title track, \"After the Gold Rush\", played on piano, with dream-like lyrics that ran a gamut of subjects from drugs and interpersonal relationships to environmental concerns. Young's bitter condemnation of racism in the heavy blues rock song \"Southern Man\" (along with a later song entitled \"Alabama\") was also controversial with southerners in an era of desegregation, prompting Lynyrd Skynyrd to decry Young by name in the lyrics to their hit \"Sweet Home Alabama\". However, Young said he was a fan of Skynyrd's music, and the band's front man Ronnie Van Zant was later photographed wearing a Tonight's the Night T-shirt on the cover of an album.\n\nIn the autumn of 1970, Young began a solo acoustic tour of North America, during which he played a variety of his Buffalo Springfield and CSNY songs on guitar and piano, along with material from his solo albums and a number of new songs. Some songs premiered by Young on the tour, like \"Journey through the Past\", would never find a home on a studio album, while other songs, like \"See the Sky About to Rain\", would only be released in coming years. With CSNY splitting up and Crazy Horse having signed their own record deal, Young's tour, now entitled \"Journey Through the Past\", continued into early 1971, and its focus shifted more to newer songs he had been writing; he famously remarked that having written so many, he could not think of anything to do but play them. Many gigs were sold out, including concerts at Carnegie Hall and a pair of acclaimed hometown shows at Toronto's Massey Hall, which were taped for a planned live album. The shows became legendary among Young fans, and the recordings were officially released nearly 40 years later as an official bootleg in Young's Archive series.\n\nNear the end of his tour, Young performed one of the new acoustic songs on the Johnny Cash TV show. \"The Needle and the Damage Done\", a somber lament on the pain caused by heroin addiction, had been inspired in part by Crazy Horse member Danny Whitten, who eventually died while battling his drug problems. While in Nashville for the Cash taping, Young accepted the invitation of Quadrafonic Sound Studios owner Elliot Mazer to record tracks there with a group of country-music session musicians who were pulled together at the last minute. Making a connection with them, he christened them The Stray Gators, and began playing with them. Befitting the immediacy of the project, Linda Ronstadt and James Taylor were brought in from the Cash taping to do background vocals. Against the advice of his producer David Briggs, he scrapped plans for the imminent release of the live acoustic recording in favour of a studio album consisting of the Nashville sessions, electric-guitar oriented sessions recorded later in his barn, and two recordings made with the London Symphony Orchestra. The result was Young's fourth album, Harvest (February 14, 1972), which would prove to be a massive hit. The only remnant left of the original live concept was the album's live acoustic performance of the harrowing \"Needle\".\n\nYoung's more settled personal life was reflected in the rest of the Harvest album's mellow, pastoral tone. After his success with CSNY, Young had been able to purchase a ranch in rural Northern California (where he has lived since), writing the song \"Old Man\" in honour of the land's longtime caretaker, Louis Avila. The song \"A Man Needs a Maid\" was inspired by his relationship with actress Carrie Snodgress. \"Heart of Gold\" was released as the first single from Harvest, the only No. 1 hit in his long career. \"Old Man\" was also immensely popular.\n\nThe album's recording had been almost accidental. Its mainstream success caught Young off guard, and his first instinct was to back away from stardom. In the Decade (1977) compilation, Young chose to include his greatest hits from the period, but his handwritten liner notes famously described \"Heart of Gold\" as the song that \"put me in the middle of the road. Traveling there soon became a bore, so I headed for the ditch. A rougher ride but I saw more interesting people there.\"\n\nThe \"Ditch\" Trilogy and personal struggles (1972–74)\n\nAlthough a new tour had been planned to follow up on the success of Harvest (1972), it became apparent during rehearsals that Danny Whitten could not function due to drug abuse. On November 18, 1972, shortly after he was fired from the tour preparations, Whitten was found dead. Young described the incident to Rolling Stones Cameron Crowe in 1975: \"[We] were rehearsing with him and he just couldn't cut it. He couldn't remember anything. He was too out of it. Too far gone. I had to tell him to go back to L.A. 'It's not happening, man. You're not together enough.' He just said, 'I've got nowhere else to go, man. How am I gonna tell my friends?' And he split. That night the coroner called me from L.A. and told me he'd OD'd. That blew my mind. I loved Danny. I felt responsible. And from there, I had to go right out on this huge tour of huge arenas. I was very nervous and ... insecure.\"\n\nOn the tour, Young struggled with his voice and the performance of drummer Kenny Buttrey, a noted Nashville session musician who was unaccustomed to performing in the hard rock milieu; Buttrey was eventually replaced by former CSNY drummer Johnny Barbata, while David Crosby and Graham Nash contributed rhythm guitar and backing vocals to the final dates of the tour. The album assembled in the aftermath of this incident, Time Fades Away (October 15, 1973), has often been described by Young as \"[his] least favorite record\", and it is one of only two of Young's early recordings that has yet to be officially re-released on CD (the other being the soundtrack album Journey Through the Past). Nevertheless, Young and his band tried several new musical approaches in this period. Time Fades Away, for instance, was recorded live, although it was an album of new material, an approach Young would repeat with more success later on. Time was the first of three consecutive commercial failures which would later become known collectively to fans as the \"Ditch Trilogy\", as contrasted with the more middle-of-the-road pop of Harvest (1972). These subsequent albums were seen as more challenging expressions of Young's inner conflicts on achieving success, expressing both the specific struggles of his friends and himself, and the decaying idealism of his generation in America at the time.\n\nIn the second half of 1973, Young formed The Santa Monica Flyers, with Crazy Horse's rhythm section augmented by Nils Lofgren on guitar and piano and Harvest/Time Fades Away veteran Ben Keith on pedal steel guitar. Deeply affected by the drug-induced deaths of Whitten and roadie Bruce Berry, Young recorded an album specifically inspired by the incidents, Tonight's the Night (June 20, 1975). The album's dark tone and rawness led Reprise to delay and Young had to pressure them for two years before they would release it. While his record company delayed the release, Young recorded another album, On the Beach (July 16, 1974), which presented a more melodic, acoustic sound at times, including a recording of the older song \"See the Sky About to Rain\", but dealt with similarly dark themes such as the collapse of 1960s folk ideals, the downside of success and the underbelly of the Californian lifestyle. Like Time Fades Away, it sold poorly but eventually became a critical favourite, presenting some of Young's most original work. A review of the 2003 re-release on CD of On the Beach described the music as \"mesmerizing, harrowing, lucid, and bleary\".\n\nAfter completing On the Beach, Young reunited with Harvest producer Elliot Mazer to record another acoustic album, Homegrown. Most of the songs were written after Young's break-up with Carrie Snodgress, and thus the tone of the album was somewhat dark. Though Homegrown was reportedly entirely complete, Young decided, not for the first or last time in his career, to drop it and release something else instead, in this case, Tonight's the Night, at the suggestion of Band bassist Rick Danko. Young further explained his move by saying: \"It was a little too personal ... it scared me\". Most of the songs from Homegrown were later incorporated into other Young albums, but the original album never surfaced. Tonight's the Night, when finally released in 1975, sold poorly, as had the previous albums of the \"ditch\" trilogy, and received mixed reviews at the time, but is now regarded as a landmark album. In Young's own opinion, it was the closest he ever came to art.\n\nReunions, retrospectives and Rust Never Sleeps (1974–79)\n\nYoung reunited with Crosby, Stills, and Nash after a four-year hiatus in the summer of 1974 for a concert tour which was recorded and released in 2014 as CSNY 1974. It was one of the first ever stadium tours, and the largest tour in which Young has participated to date.\n\nIn 1975, Young reformed Crazy Horse with Frank Sampedro on guitar as his backup band for his eighth album, Zuma (November 10, 1975). Many of the songs dealt with the theme of failed relationships; \"Cortez the Killer\", a retelling of the Spanish conquest of Mexico from the viewpoint of the Aztecs, may also be heard as an allegory of love lost. Zumas closing track, \"Through My Sails\", was the only released fragment from aborted sessions with Crosby, Stills and Nash for another group album.\n\nIn 1976, Young reunited with Stephen Stills for the album Long May You Run (September 20, 1976), credited to The Stills-Young Band; the follow-up tour was ended midway through by Young, who sent Stills a telegram that read: \"Funny how some things that start spontaneously end that way. Eat a peach, Neil.\"\n\nIn 1976, Young performed with Bob Dylan, Joni Mitchell, and numerous other rock musicians in the high profile all-star concert The Last Waltz, the final performance by The Band. The release of Martin Scorsese's movie of the concert was delayed while Scorsese unwillingly re-edited it to obscure the lump of cocaine that was clearly visible hanging from Young's nose during his performance of \"Helpless\". American Stars 'N Bars (June 13, 1977) contained two songs originally recorded for the Homegrown album, \"Homegrown\" and \"Star of Bethlehem\", as well as newer material, including the future concert staple \"Like a Hurricane\". Performers on the record included Linda Ronstadt, Emmylou Harris and Young protégé Nicolette Larson along with Crazy Horse. In 1977, Young also released the compilation Decade, a personally selected set of songs spanning every aspect of his work, including a handful of previously unreleased songs. The record included less commercial album tracks alongside radio hits.\n\nComes a Time (October 2, 1978), Young's first entirely new solo recording since the mid-1970s, also featured Larson and Crazy Horse. The album became Young's most commercially accessible album in quite some time and marked a return to his folk roots, including a cover of Ian Tyson's \"Four Strong Winds\", a song Young associated with his childhood in Canada. Another of the album's songs, \"Lotta Love\", was also recorded by Larson, with her version reaching number 8 on the Billboard Hot 100 in February 1979. In 1978, much of the filming was done for Young's film Human Highway, which took its name from a song featured on Comes a Time. Over four years, Young would spend $3,000,000 of his own money on production. This also marked the beginning of his brief collaboration with the post-punk band Devo, whose members appeared in the film.\n\nYoung set out in 1978 on the lengthy \"Rust Never Sleeps\" tour, in which he played a wealth of new material. Each concert was divided into a solo acoustic set and an electric set with Crazy Horse. The electric sets, featuring an aggressive style of playing, were later seen as a response to punk rock. Two new songs, the acoustic \"My My, Hey Hey (Out of the Blue)\" and electric \"Hey Hey, My My (Into the Black)\" were the centerpiece of the new material. Their lyrics have been among Young's most widely quoted. Young also compared the rise of Johnny Rotten with that of the recently deceased \"King\" Elvis Presley, who himself had once been disparaged as a dangerous influence only to later become an icon. Rotten returned the favour by playing one of Young's records on a London radio show, an early sign of Young's eventual embrace by a number of punk-influenced alternative musicians. \n\nYoung's two accompanying albums Rust Never Sleeps (July 2, 1979; new material, culled from live recordings, but featuring studio overdubs) and Live Rust (November 19, 1979) (a mixture of old and new, and a genuine concert recording) captured the two sides of the concerts, with solo acoustic songs on side A, and fierce, uptempo, electric songs on side B. A movie version of the concerts, also called Rust Never Sleeps (1979), was directed by Young under the pseudonym \"Bernard Shakey\". Young worked with rock artist Jim Evans to create the poster art for the film, using the Star Wars Jawas as a theme. Young's work since Harvest (1972) had alternated between being rejected by mass audiences and being seen as backward-looking by critics, sometimes both at once, and now he was suddenly viewed as relevant by a new generation, who began to discover his earlier work. Readers and critics of Rolling Stone voted him Artist of the Year for 1979 (along with The Who), selected Rust Never Sleeps as Album of the Year, and voted him Male Vocalist of the Year as well. The Village Voice named Rust Never Sleeps as the year's winner in the Pazz & Jop Poll, a survey of nationwide critics, and honoured Young as the Artist of the Decade. The Warner Music Vision release on VHS of Rust Never Sleeps in 1987 had a running time of 116 minutes, and although fully manufactured in Germany, was initially imported from there by the markets throughout Europe.\n\nExperimental years (1980–88)\n\nAt the start of the decade, distracted by domestic medical concerns relating to his second disabled son, Ben, Young had little time to spend on writing and recording. After providing the incidental music to a 1980 biographical film of Hunter S. Thompson entitled Where the Buffalo Roam, Young released Hawks & Doves (November 3, 1980)', a short record pieced together from sessions going back to 1974.\n\n1981's Re-ac-tor, an electric album recorded with Crazy Horse, also included material from the 1970s. Young did not tour in support of either album; in total, he played only one show, a set at the 1980 Bread and Roses Festival in Berkeley, between the end of his 1978 tour with Crazy Horse and the start of his tour with the Trans Band in mid-1982.\n\nThe 1982 album Trans, which incorporated vocoders, synthesizers, and electronic beats, was Young's first for the new label Geffen Records (distributed at the time by Warner Bros. Records, whose parent Warner Music Group owns most of Young's solo and band catalogue) and represented a distinct stylistic departure. Young later revealed that an inspiration for the album was the theme of technology and communication with his son Ben, who has severe cerebral palsy and cannot speak. An extensive tour preceded the release of the album, and was documented by the video Neil Young in Berlin, which saw release in 1986. MTV played the video for \"Sample and Hold\" in light rotation. The entire song contained \"robot vocals\" by Neil and Nils Lofgren.\n\nYoung's next album, 1983's Everybody's Rockin', included several rockabilly covers and clocked in at less than twenty-five minutes in length. Young was backed by the Shocking Pinks for the supporting US tour. Trans (1982) had already drawn the ire of label head David Geffen for its lack of commercial appeal, and with Everybody's Rockin following only seven months later, Geffen Records sued Young for making music \"unrepresentative\" of himself. The album was also notable as the first for which Young made commercial music videos – Tim Pope directed the videos for \"Wonderin'\" and \"Cry, Cry, Cry\". Also premiered in 1983, though little seen, was the eclectic full-length comedy film Human Highway, co-directed and co-written by Young, and starring Young, Dean Stockwell, Russ Tamblyn, Dennis Hopper and members of Devo.\n\nThe first year without a Neil Young album since the start of Young's musical career with Buffalo Springfield in 1966 was in 1984. Young's lack of productivity was largely due to the ongoing legal battle with Geffen, although he was also frustrated that the label had rejected his 1982 country album Old Ways. It was also the year when Young's third child, this with his second with wife Pegi, was born: his daughter Amber Jean, a child who was later diagnosed with inherited epilepsy.\n\nYoung spent most of 1984 and all of 1985 touring for Old Ways (August 12, 1985) with his country band, the International Harvesters. The album was finally released in an altered form midway through 1985. Young also appeared at that year's Live Aid concert in Philadelphia, collaborating with Crosby, Stills and Nash for the quartet's first performance for a paying audience in over ten years.\n\nYoung's last two albums for Geffen were more conventional in genre, although they incorporated production techniques like synthesizers and echoing drums that were previously uncommon in Young's music. Young recorded 1986's Landing on Water without Crazy Horse, but reunited with the band for the subsequent year-long tour and final Geffen album, Life, which emerged in 1987. Young's album sales dwindled steadily throughout the eighties; today Life remains his all-time-least successful studio album, with an estimated four hundred thousand sales worldwide. \n\nSwitching back to his old label Reprise Records, Young continued to tour relentlessly, assembling a new blues band called The Bluenotes in mid-1987 (a legal dispute with musician Harold Melvin forced the eventual rechristening of the band as Ten Men Working midway through the tour). The addition of a brass section provided a new jazzier sound, and the title track of 1988's This Note's For You became Young's first hit single of the decade. Accompanied by a video that parodied corporate rock, the pretensions of advertising, and Michael Jackson, the song was initially unofficially banned by MTV for mentioning the brand names of some of their sponsors. Young wrote an open letter, \"What does the M in MTV stand for: music or money?\" Despite this, the video was eventually named best video of the year by the network in 1989. By comparison, the major music cable network of Young's home nation, Muchmusic, ran the video immediately.\n\nYoung reunited with Crosby, Stills and Nash to record the 1988 album American Dream and play two benefit concerts late in the year, but the group did not embark upon a full tour. The album was only the second-ever studio record for the quartet.\n\nReturn to prominence (1989–99)\n\nYoung's 1989 single \"Rockin' in the Free World\", which hit No. 2 on the US mainstream-rock charts, and accompanying album, Freedom, rocketed him back into the popular consciousness after a decade of sometimes-difficult genre experiments. The album's lyrics were often overtly political; \"Rockin' in the Free World\" deals with homelessness, terrorism, and environmental degradation, implicitly criticizing the government policies of President George H.W. Bush. \n\nThe use of heavy feedback and distortion on several Freedom tracks was reminiscent of the Rust Never Sleeps (1979) album, and foreshadowed the imminent rise of grunge. The rising stars of the genre, including Nirvana's Kurt Cobain and Pearl Jam's Eddie Vedder, frequently cited Young as a major influence, contributing to his popular revival. A tribute album called The Bridge: A Tribute to Neil Young was released in 1989, featuring covers by alternative and grunge acts including Sonic Youth, Nick Cave, Soul Asylum, Dinosaur Jr, and the Pixies.\n\nYoung's 1990 album Ragged Glory, recorded with Crazy Horse in a barn on his Northern California ranch, continued this distortion-heavy esthetic. Young toured for the album with Orange County, California country-punk band Social Distortion and alternative rock pioneers Sonic Youth as support, much to the consternation of many of his old fans. Weld, a two-disc live album documenting the tour, was released in 1991. Sonic Youth's influence was most evident on Arc, a 35-minute collage of feedback and distortion spliced together at the suggestion of Sonic Youth's Thurston Moore and originally packaged with some versions of Weld.\n\n1992's Harvest Moon marked an abrupt return to the country and folk-rock stylings of Harvest (1972) and reunited him with some of the musicians from that album, including singers Linda Ronstadt and James Taylor. The title track was a minor hit and the record was well received by critics, winning the Juno Award for Album of the Year in 1994. Young also contributed to Randy Bachman's nostalgic 1992 tune \"Prairie Town\", and garnered a 1993 Academy Award nomination for his song \"Philadelphia\", from the soundtrack of the Jonathan Demme movie of the same name. An MTV Unplugged performance and album emerged in 1993. Later that year, Young collaborated with Booker T. and the M.G.s for a summer tour of Europe and North America, with Blues Traveler, Soundgarden, and Pearl Jam also on the bill. Some European shows ended with a rendition of \"Rockin' in the Free World\" played with Pearl Jam, foreshadowing their eventual full-scale collaboration two years later.\n\nIn 1994 Young again collaborated with Crazy Horse for Sleeps with Angels, a record whose dark, sombre mood was influenced by Kurt Cobain's death earlier that year: the title track in particular dealt with Cobain's life and death, without mentioning him by name. Cobain had quoted Young's lyric \"It's better to burn out than fade away\" (a line from \"My My, Hey Hey\") in his suicide note. Young had reportedly made repeated attempts to contact Cobain prior to his death. Young and Pearl Jam performed \"Act of Love\" at an abortion rights benefit along with Crazy Horse, and were present at a Rock and Roll Hall of Fame dinner, sparking interest in a collaboration between the two. Still enamored with the grunge scene, Young reconnected with Pearl Jam in 1995 for the live-in-the-studio album Mirror Ball and a tour of Europe with the band and producer Brendan O'Brien backing Young. 1995 also marked Young's induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, where he was inducted by Eddie Vedder.\n\n\"Young has consistently demonstrated the unbridled passion of an artist who understands that self-renewal is the only way to avoid burning out. For this reason, he has remained one of the most significant artists of the rock and roll era.\" – Rock and Roll Hall of Fame website. \n\nYoung's next collaborative partner was filmmaker Jim Jarmusch, who asked Young to compose a soundtrack to his 1995 black and white western film Dead Man. Young's instrumental soundtrack was improvised while he watched the film alone in a studio. The death of longtime mentor, friend, and producer David Briggs in late 1995 prompted Young to reconnect with Crazy Horse the following year for the album and tour Broken Arrow. A Jarmusch-directed concert film and live album of the tour, Year of the Horse, emerged in 1997. From 1996–97 Young and Crazy Horse toured extensively throughout Europe and North America, including a stint as part of the H.O.R.D.E. Festival's sixth annual tour.\n\nIn 1998, Young renewed his collaboration with the rock band Phish, sharing the stage at the annual Farm Aid concert and then at Young's Bridge School Benefit, where he joined headliners Phish for renditions of \"Helpless\" and \"I Shall Be Released\". Phish declined Young's later invitation to be his backing band on his 1999 North American tour.\n\nThe decade ended with the release in late 1999 of Looking Forward, another reunion with Crosby, Stills and Nash. The subsequent tour of the United States and Canada with the reformed super quartet earned US$42.1 million, making it the eighth largest grossing tour of 2000.\n\nContinued activism and brush with death (2000s)\n\nNeil Young continued to release new material at a rapid pace through the first decade of the new millennium. The studio album Silver & Gold and live album Road Rock Vol. 1 were released in 2000 and were both accompanied by live concert films. His 2001 single \"Let's Roll\" was a tribute to the victims of the September 11 attacks, and the effective action taken by the passengers and crew on Flight 93 in particular. At the \"America: A Tribute to Heroes\" benefit concert for the victims of the attacks, Young performed John Lennon's \"Imagine\" and accompanied Eddie Vedder and Mike McCready on \"Long Road\", a Pearl Jam song that was written with Young during the Mirrorball sessions. \"Let's Roll\" was included on 2002's Are You Passionate?, an album mostly composed of mellow love songs dedicated to Young's wife, Pegi, backed by Booker T. & the M.G.s.\n\nIn 2003, Young released Greendale, a concept album recorded with Crazy Horse members Billy Talbot and Ralph Molina. The songs loosely revolved around the murder of a police officer in a small town in California and its effects on the town's inhabitants. Under the pseudonym \"Bernard Shakey\", Young directed an accompanying film of the same name, featuring actors lip-synching to the music from the album. He toured extensively with the Greendale material throughout 2003 and 2004, first with a solo, acoustic version in Europe, then with a full-cast stage show in North America, Japan, and Australia. Young began using biodiesel on the 2004 Greendale tour, powering his trucks and tour buses with the fuel. \"Our Greendale tour is now ozone friendly,\" he said. \"I plan to continue to use this government approved and regulated fuel exclusively from now on to prove that it is possible to deliver the goods anywhere in North America without using foreign oil, while being environmentally responsible.\" Young spent the latter portion of 2004 giving a series of intimate acoustic concerts in various cities with his wife, who is a trained vocalist and guitar player.\n\nIn March 2005, while working on the Prairie Wind album in Nashville, Young was diagnosed with a brain aneurysm. He was treated successfully with a minimally invasive neuroradiological procedure, performed in a New York hospital on March 29, but two days afterwards he passed out on a New York street from bleeding from the femoral artery, which radiologists had used to access the aneurysm. The complication forced Young to cancel his scheduled appearance at the Juno Awards telecast in Winnipeg, but within months he was back on stage, appearing at the close of the Live 8 concert in Barrie, Ontario, on July 2. During the performance, he debuted a new song, a soft hymn called \"When God Made Me\". Young's brush with death influenced Prairie Winds themes of retrospection and mortality. The album's live premiere in Nashville was immortalized by filmmaker Jonathan Demme in the 2006 film Neil Young: Heart of Gold.\n\nYoung's renewed activism manifested itself in the 2006 album Living With War, which like the much earlier song \"Ohio\", was recorded and released in less than a month as a direct result of current events. In early 2006, three years after the US invasion of Iraq, the sectarian war and casualties there were escalating. While doing errands on a visit to his daughter, Young had seen a newspaper photo of wounded US veterans on a transport plane to Germany, and noticing that the same paper devoted little actual coverage to the story, he was unable to get the image out of his head, realizing the suffering caused to families by the war had not truly registered to him and most Americans who were not directly affected by it. Young cried, and immediately got his guitar out and began to write multiple songs at once. Within a few days he had completed work and assembled a band. He later said he had restrained himself for a long time from writing any protest songs, waiting for someone younger, with a different perspective, but no one seemed to be saying anything.\n\nMost of the album's songs rebuked the Bush administration's policy of war by examining its human costs to soldiers, their loved ones, and civilians, but Young also included a few songs on other themes, and an outright protest titled, \"Let's Impeach the President\", in which he stated that Bush had lied to lead the country into war. Young's lyrics in another song named Illinois Senator Barack Obama, who had not declared any intention to run for president at the time and was widely unexpected to be able to win either the Democratic Party nomination or a general election, as potentially a replacement for Bush. That summer, Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young reunited for the supporting \"Freedom of Speech Tour '06\", in which they played Young's new protest songs alongside the group's older material, meeting with both enthusiasm and anger from different fans, some of whom were supportive of Bush politically. CSNY Déjà Vu, a concert film of the tour directed by Young himself, was released in 2008, along with an accompanying live album.\n\nWhile Young had never been a stranger to eco-friendly lyrics, themes of environmentalist spirituality and activism became increasingly prominent in his work throughout the 1990s and 2000s, especially on Greendale (2003) and Living with War (2006). The trend continued on 2007's Chrome Dreams II, with lyrics exploring Young's personal eco-spirituality. Also in 2007, Young accepted an invitation to participate in Goin' Home: A Tribute to Fats Domino, contributing his version of \"Walking to New Orleans\".\n\nYoung remains on the board of directors of Farm Aid, an organization he co-founded with Willie Nelson and John Mellencamp in 1985. According to its website, it is the longest running concert benefit series in the USA, and it has raised $43 million since its first benefit concert in 1985. Each year, Young co-hosts and performs with well-known guest performers who include Dave Matthews and producers who include Evelyn Shriver and Mark Rothbaum, at the Farm Aid annual benefit concerts to raise funds and provide grants to family farms and prevent foreclosures, provide a crisis hotline, and create and promote home grown farm food in the United States. \n\nIn 2008, Young revealed his latest project, the production of a hybrid-engine 1959 Lincoln called Lincvolt. A new album loosely based on the Lincvolt project, Fork in the Road, was released on April 7, 2009. The album, partly composed of love songs to the car, also commented on the economic crisis, with one narrator attacking the Wall Street bailouts enacted in late 2008. Unfortunately, the car caught fire in November 2010, in a California warehouse, and along the way it burned an estimated US$850,000 worth of Young's rock and roll memorabilia collection. Initial reports suggest the fire might have been triggered by an error in the vehicle's plug-in charging system. Young blamed the fire on human error and said he and his team were committed to rebuilding the car. \"The wall charging system was not completely tested and had never been left unattended. A mistake was made. It was not the fault of the car\", he said.\n\nA Jonathan Demme concert film from a 2007 concert at the Tower Theater in Upper Darby, Pennsylvania, called the Neil Young Trunk Show premiered on March 21, 2009, at the South by Southwest (SXSW) Film Conference and Festival in Austin, Texas. It was featured at the Cannes Film Festival on May 17, 2009 and was released in the US on March 19, 2010 to critical acclaim. \nYoung's most recent album appearance was on the album Potato Hole, released on April 21, 2009 by Memphis organ player Booker T. Jones, of Booker T. & the MGs fame. Young plays guitar on nine of the album's ten instrumental tracks, alongside Drive-By Truckers, who already had three guitar players, giving some songs on the album a total of five guitar tracks. Jones contributed guitars on a couple of tracks.\n\nYoung continues to tour extensively. In 2009, he headlined the New Orleans Jazz and Heritage Festival, and Glastonbury Festival in Pilton, England, at Hard Rock Calling in London (where he was joined onstage by Paul McCartney for a rendition of \"A Day in the Life\") and, after years of unsuccessful booking attempts, the Isle of Wight Festival in addition to performances at the Big Day Out festival in New Zealand and Australia and the Primavera Sound Festival in Barcelona.\n\nYoung has been a vocal opponent of the proposed Keystone XL oil pipeline, which would run from Alberta to Texas. When discussing the environmental impact on the oilsands of Fort McMurray, Alberta, Young asserted that the area now resembles the Japanese city of Hiroshima in the aftermath of the atomic bomb attack of World War II. Young has referred to issues surrounding the proposed use of oil pipelines as “scabs on our lives”. In an effort to become more involved, Young has worked directly with the Athabasca Chipewyan First Nation to draw attention to this issue, performing benefit concerts and speaking publicly on the subject. In 2014, he played four shows in Canada dedicated to the Honor the Treaties movement, raising money for the Athabasca Chipewyan legal defence fund. In 2015, he and Willie Nelson held a festival in Neligh, Nebraska, called Harvest the Hope, raising awareness of the impact of tar sands and oil pipelines on Native Americans and family farmers. Both received honours from leaders of the Rosebud, Oglala Lakota, Ponca and Omaha nations, and were invested with sacred buffalo robes. \n\nYoung participated in the Blue Dot Tour, which was organized and fronted by environmental activist David Suzuki, and toured all 10 Canadian provinces alongside other Canadian artists including the Barenaked Ladies, Feist, and Robert Bateman. The intent of Young’s participation in this tour was to raise awareness of the environmental damage caused by the exploitation of tar sands. Young has argued that the amount of CO2 released as a byproduct of tarsand oil extraction is equivalent to the amount released by the total number of cars in Canada each day. Young has faced criticism by representatives from within the Canadian petroleum industry, who have argued that his statements are irresponsible. Young’s opposition to the construction of oil pipelines has influenced his music as well. His song, “Who’s Going to Stand Up?” was written to protest this issue, and features the lyric “Ban fossil fuel and draw the line / Before we build one more pipeline”.\n\nIn addition to directly criticizing members of the oil industry, Young has also focused blame on the actions of the Canadian Government for ignoring the conclusions regarding the environmental impacts of climate change. He referred to Canadian Prime Minister Stephen Harper as “an embarrassment to many Canadians ...[and] a very poor imitation of the George Bush administration in the United States”. Young has also been critical of Barack Obama’s government for failing to uphold the promises made regarding environmental policies during his election campaign.\n\nIn criticism of Coffee chain Starbucks and their possible involvement with Monsanto and use of GM food, he recorded \"A Rock Star Bucks A Coffee Shop\" in protest. The song was included on his concept album called The Monsanto Years. \n\nMore recent years (2010s)\n\nOn January 22, 2010, Young performed \"Long May You Run\" on the final episode of The Tonight Show with Conan O'Brien. On the same night, he and Dave Matthews performed the Hank Williams song \"Alone and Forsaken\", for the Hope for Haiti Now: A Global Benefit for Earthquake Relief charity telethon, in response to the 2010 Haiti earthquake. Young also performed \"Long May You Run\" at the closing ceremony of the 2010 Olympic winter games in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. In May 2010, it was revealed Young had begun working on a new studio album produced by Daniel Lanois. This was announced by David Crosby, who said that the album \"will be a very heartfelt record. I expect it will be a very special record.\" On May 18, 2010, Young embarked upon a North American solo tour to promote his then upcoming album, Le Noise, playing a mix of older songs and new material. Although billed as a solo acoustic tour, Young also played some songs on electric guitars, including Old Black. Young continued his Twisted Road tour with a short East Coast venture during spring 2011. Young also contributed vocals to the Elton John–Leon Russell album The Union, singing the second stanza on the track \"Gone to Shiloh\" and providing backing vocals.\n\nIn September 2011, Jonathan Demme's third documentary film on the singer songwriter, Neil Young Journeys, premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival. Like Demme's earlier work with Young, most of the film consists of a simply filmed live performance, in this case, Young's homecoming show in May 2011 at Toronto's Massey Hall, four decades after he first played at the iconic venue. Playing old songs, as well as new ones from Le Noise, Young performs solo on both electric and acoustic instruments. His performance is a counterpoint to Demme's footage of Young's return to Omemee, Ontario, the small town near Toronto where he grew up, which has now become physically unrecognizable, though he vividly recalls events from his childhood there.\n\nAs of 2008, Young lives near La Honda, California, on his Broken Arrow Ranch, named after one of his early Buffalo Springfield songs. The original 140 acre parcel was purchased in 1970 for US$350,000 cash and has grown to thousands of acres. \n\nOn January 22, 2012, the Master Class at the Slamdance Festival featured Coffee with Neil Young & Jonathan Demme for their new film Neil Young Journeys. A report from the event by Bob & Kim C. revealed that Neil Young has been recording with Crazy Horse. One album is complete and they are working on another. \n\nNeil Young and Crazy Horse performed a full-on grunge version of the Beatles' \"I Saw Her Standing There\" for Paul McCartney's MusiCares Person of the Year dinner on February 10, 2012, in Hollywood. \n\nNeil Young with Crazy Horse released the album Americana on June 5, 2012. It was Young's first collaboration with Crazy Horse since the Greendale album and tour in 2003 and 2004. The record is a tribute to unofficial national anthems that jumps from an uncensored version of \"This Land Is Your Land\" to \"Clementine\" and includes a version of \"God Save the Queen\", which Young grew up singing every day in school in Canada. Americana is Neil Young's first album composed entirely of cover songs. On June 5, 2012, American Songwriter also reported that Neil Young & Crazy Horse would be launching their first tour in eight years in support of the album. \n\nNeil Young with Crazy Horse launched a new tour on August 3, 2012, in anticipation of their second album of 2012, Psychedelic Pill, which was released in late October.\n\nOn August 25, 2012, Young was mistakenly reported dead by NBCNews.com, the day when astronaut Neil Armstrong died. \n\nOn September 25, 2012, Young's autobiography Waging Heavy Peace: A Hippie Dream was released to critical and commercial acclaim. Reviewing the book for the New York Times, Janet Maslin reported that Young chose to write his memoirs in 2012 for two reasons. For one, he needed to take a break from stage performances for health reasons but continue to generate income. For another, he feared the onset of dementia, considering his father's medical history and his own present condition. Maslin gives the book a higher than average grade, describing it as frank but quirky and without pathos as it delves into his relationships and his experience in parenting a child with disabilities as well as his artistic and commercial activities and associations. \n\nIn November 2013, Young performed at the annual fundraiser for the Silverlake Conservatory of Music. Following the Red Hot Chili Peppers, he played an acoustic set to a crowd who had paid a minimum of $2,000 a seat to attend the benefit in the famous Paramour Mansion overlooking downtown Los Angeles. \n\nDue to be released in October 2014, Pono is a high-resolution digital music-download service, and music player being developed by Young, designed to compete against the MP3 and other formats. Pono promises to present songs \"as they first sound during studio recording\". \n\nThe album A Letter Home was released on April 19, 2014, and his second memoir, entitled Special Deluxe, is tentatively scheduled for a late 2014 release. He appeared with Jack White on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon on May 12, 2014. \n\nThe 2014 debut solo album by Chrissie Hynde, entitled Stockholm, featured Young on guitar on the track \"Down the Wrong Way\". \n\nYoung released his thirty-fifth studio album, Storytone on November 4, 2014. The first song released from the album, \"Who's Gonna Stand Up?\", was released in three different versions on September 25, 2014. \n\nStorytone was followed in 2015 by his concept album The Monsanto Years. In April 2015, it was announced that Young would begin a North America tour titled the Rebel Content Tour, to support the new album, due to begin on July 5, 2015 at the Summerfest in Milwaukee, Wisconsin and to end on July 24, 2015 at the Wayhome Festival in Oro-Medonte, Ontario. Lukas Nelson & Promise of the Real would be special guests for the tour. After a unique show on September 19, 2015 in Chicago, Illinois, the tour started over on October 1, 2015 in Missoula, Montana and ended on October 25, 2015 in Mountain View, California.\n\nIn April 2016, it was reported that Young is slated to perform in October at Desert Trip in Indio, California, a two-weekend festival patterned after the Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival that will feature many of the singer's contemporaries, including The Rolling Stones, The Who, Roger Waters, Paul McCartney and Bob Dylan. \n\nArchives project\n\nAs far back as 1988, Young spoke in interviews of his efforts to compile his unreleased material and to remaster his existing catalogue. The collection was eventually titled the Neil Young Archives Series. The first instalment, titled The Archives Vol. 1 1963–1972, was originally planned for a 2007 release but was delayed, and released on June 2, 2009.\n\nThree performances from the Performance Series of the archives were released individually before The Archives Vol. 1. Live at the Fillmore East, a selection of songs from a 1970 gig with Crazy Horse, was released in 2006. Live at Massey Hall 1971, a solo acoustic set from Toronto's Massey Hall, saw release in 2007. Sugar Mountain - Live at Canterbury House 1968, an early solo performance and, chronologically, the first disc in the performance series, emerged late in 2008.\n\nIn an interview in 2008, Young discussed Toast, an album originally recorded with Crazy Horse in San Francisco in 2000 but never released. The album will be part of the Special Edition Series of the Archives. No release date currently exists for Toast. The album A Treasure, with live tracks from a 1984–85 tour with the International Harvesters, during a time when he was being sued by Geffen Records, was released in June 2011.\n\nOn July 14, 2009, Young's first four solo albums were reissued as remastered HDCD discs and digital downloads as discs 1–4 of the Original Release Series of the Archives.\n\nPersonal life\n\nYoung married his first wife, restaurant owner Susan Acevedo, in December 1968. They were together until October 1970, when she filed for divorce.\n\nFrom late 1970 to 1975, Young was in a long-term relationship with actress Carrie Snodgress. The song \"A Man Needs a Maid\" from Harvest is inspired by him seeing her in the film Diary of a Mad Housewife. They met soon afterward and she moved in with him on his new ranch in northern California. They have a son, Zeke, who was born September 8, 1972. \n\nYoung met future wife Pegi Young in 1974 when she was working as a waitress at a diner near his ranch, a story he tells in the 1992 song \"Unknown Legend\". They married in 1978 and have two children together, Ben and Amber. Ben has cerebral palsy. On July 29, 2014, Young filed for divorce after 36 years of marriage. The couple were musical collaborators and co-founded the Bridge School in 1986.\n\nSince July 2014, Young has been dating actress Daryl Hannah. \n\nInstruments\n\nGuitars\n\nIn 2003, Rolling Stone listed Young as eighty-third in its ranking of \"The 100 Greatest Guitarists of All Time\" (although in a more recent version of the list, he has been moved up to seventeenth place), describing him as a \"restless experimenter...who transform[s] the most obvious music into something revelatory.\" Young is a collector of second-hand guitars, but in recording and performing, he uses frequently just a few instruments, as is explained by his longtime guitar technician Larry Cragg in the film Neil Young: Heart of Gold. They include:\n* 1953 Gibson Les Paul Goldtop. Nicknamed \"Old Black\", this is Young's primary electric guitar and is featured on Rust Never Sleeps (1979) and other albums. Old Black got its name from an amateur paintjob applied to the originally gold body of the instrument, some time before Young acquired the guitar in the late 1960s. In 1972, a mini humbucker pick-up from a Gibson Firebird was installed in the lead/treble position. This pick-up, severely microphonic, is considered a crucial component of Young's sound. A Bigsby vibrato tailpiece was installed as early as 1969, and can be heard during the opening of \"Cowgirl in the Sand\" from Everybody Knows This Is Nowhere.\n* Martin D-45. His primary steel-string acoustic guitar, which was used to originally play \"Old Man\" and many other songs. It was one of four instruments bought by Stephen Stills for himself and his band-mates in CSNY to celebrate their first full concert at the Greek Theater in 1969.\n* Martin D-28. Nicknamed \"Hank\" after its previous owner, Hank Williams. Hank Williams, Jr., had traded it for some shotguns; it went through a succession of other owners until it was located by Young's longtime friend Grant Boatwright. The guitar was purchased by Young from Tut Taylor. Young has toured with it for over 30 years. A story about the guitar and the song it inspired, \"This Old Guitar\", can be seen about 50 minutes into the film Neil Young: Heart of Gold. It is Young's primary guitar for Prairie Wind(2005).\n\n* Vintage Martin D-18: Young used an old D-18 throughout his early days performing in coffee houses in Canada and on some early Buffalo Springfield work, before he received the D-45 from Stills. It can also be seen on unreleased footage from the Woodstock documentary, particularly on an exceptional acoustic duet of the Buffalo Springfield track \"Mr. Soul\" with Stills. The guitar has often been used to carry \"dropped standard tuning\" (DGCFAD) which Young often uses in concert. This allowed him to perform songs such as \"Ambulance Blues\" and \"Don't Let It Bring You Down\" live without having to retune all 6 strings onstage.\nOther notable (or odd) instruments played by Young include:\n* Taylor 855 12-string, used in the first half of Rust Never Sleeps (1979).\n* 1927 Gibson Mastertone, a six-string banjo guitar, a banjo body tuned like a guitar, used on many recordings and played by James Taylor on \"Old Man\".\n* Gretsch 6120 (Chet Atkins model). Before Young bought Old Black, this was his primary electric guitar during his Buffalo Springfield days.\n* Gretsch White Falcon. Young purchased a late 1950s model near the end of the Buffalo Springfield era; in 1969 he bought a stereo version of the same vintage guitar from Stephen Stills, and this instrument is featured prominently during Young's early 1970s period, and can be heard on tracks like \"Ohio\", \"Southern Man\", \"Alabama\", \"Words (Between the Lines of Age)\", and \"L.A.\". It was Young's primary electric guitar during the Harvest (1972) era, since Young's deteriorating back condition (eventually fixed with surgery) made playing the much heavier Les Paul difficult. This particular White Falcon is the stereo 6137, in which the signal from the three bass strings is separated from the signal from the three treble strings. Young typically plays this guitar in this stereo mode, sending the separate signals to two different amps, a Fender Deluxe and either a Fender Tremolux or a low-powered Tweed Fender Twin. The separation of the signals is most prominently heard on the Harvest (1972) song \"Words\".\n* Gibson Flying V, on the Time Fades Away tour.\n* Fender Broadcaster, on the Tonight's the Night (1975) album and tour.\n* Guild M-20, seen in the film Journeys.\n\nReed organ\n\nYoung owns an Estey reed organ, serial number 167272, dating from 1885, which he frequently plays in concert and which was recently restored. The instrument and its restoration are documented in The Reed Society Quarterly (30.1: 6ff); a photograph of the instrument is on the cover.\n\nAmplification\n\nYoung uses various vintage Fender Tweed Deluxe amplifiers. His preferred amplifier for electric guitar is the Fender Deluxe, specifically a Tweed-era model from 1959. He purchased his first vintage Deluxe in 1967 for US$50 from Saul Bettman's Music in Los Angeles and has since acquired nearly 450 different examples, all from the same era, but he maintains that it is the original model that sounds superior and is crucial to his trademark sound. \n\nThe Tweed Deluxe is almost always used in conjunction with a late-1950s Magnatone 280 (similar to the amplifier used by Lonnie Mack and Buddy Holly). The Magnatone and the Deluxe are paired together in a most unusual manner: the external speaker jack from the Deluxe sends the amped signal through a volume potentiometer and directly into the input of the Magnatone. The Magnatone is notable for its true pitch-bending vibrato capabilities, which can be heard as an electric piano amplifier on \"See the Sky About to Rain\". A notable and unique accessory to Young's Deluxe is the Whizzer, a device created specifically for Young by Rick Davis, which physically changes the amplifier's settings to pre-set combinations. This device is connected to footswitches operable by Young onstage in the manner of an effects pedal. Tom Wheeler's book Soul of Tone highlights the device on page 182/183. \n\nAwards and recognition\n\n* 2011 Juno Awards Artist of the Year, Adult Alternative Album of the Year, and Allan Waters Humanitarian Award\n* 2011 Grammy Awards Best Rock Song \"Angry World\" written by Neil Young.\n* 2010 Grammy Awards Best Art Direction on a Boxed/Special Limited Edition Package The Archives Vol. 1 1963–1972 – Neil Young, Gary Burden, Jenice Heo\n* Canadian Music Hall of Fame, 1982\n* Rock and Roll Hall of Fame He has been inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame twice: first in 1995 for his solo work and in 1997 as a member of Buffalo Springfield.\n* In 2006, Artist of the Year by the American Music Association. \n\nAs one of the original founders of Farm Aid (1985–), he remains an active member of the board of directors. For one weekend each October, in Mountain View, California, he and his ex-wife host the Bridge School Concerts, which have been drawing international talent and sell-out crowds for nearly two decades with some of the biggest names in rock having performed at the event including Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers, Bruce Springsteen, David Bowie, The Who, Red Hot Chili Peppers, Trent Reznor of Nine Inch Nails, Tom Waits, Thom Yorke of Radiohead, R.E.M., Foo Fighters, Metallica, Pearl Jam, Sonic Youth, The Smashing Pumpkins, Paul McCartney and Dave Matthews. The concerts are a benefit for the Bridge School, which develops and uses advanced technologies to aid in the instruction of children with disabilities. Young's involvement stems at least partially from the fact that both of his sons have cerebral palsy and his daughter, like Young himself, has epilepsy.\n\nYoung was nominated for an Oscar in 1994 for his song \"Philadelphia\" from the film Philadelphia. Bruce Springsteen won the award for his song \"Streets of Philadelphia\" from the same film. In his acceptance speech, Springsteen said that \"the award really deserved to be shared by the other nominee's song.\" That same night, Tom Hanks, when accepting the Oscar for Best Actor, gave credit for his inspiration to Young's song.\n\nHe was part owner of Lionel, LLC, a company that makes toy trains and model railroad accessories. In 2008 Lionel emerged from bankruptcy and his shares of the company were wiped out. He was instrumental in the design of the Lionel Legacy control system for model trains, and remains on the board of directors of Lionel. He has been named as co-inventor on seven US patents related to model trains. \n\nYoung has twice received honorary doctorates. He received an honorary doctorate of music from Lakehead University in Thunder Bay, Ontario, in 1992, and an honorary doctorate of humane letters from San Francisco State University in 2006. The latter honour was shared with his wife Pegi for their creation of the Bridge School. In 2006, Young was given Manitoba's highest civilian honour when he was appointed to the Order of Manitoba. In 2009, he was appointed to Canada's second highest civilian order, the Order of Canada.\n\nRolling Stone magazine in 2000, ranked Young thirty-fourth in its list of the 100 greatest artists of all time, and in 2003, included five of his albums in its list of 500 greatest albums of all time. In 2000, Young was inducted into Canada's Walk of Fame. \nIn 2006, when Paste magazine compiled a \"Greatest Living Songwriters\" list, Young was ranked second behind Bob Dylan. (While Young and Dylan have occasionally played together in concert, they have never collaborated on a song together or played on each other's records.) He ranked thirty-ninth on VH1's 100 Greatest Artist of Hard Rock that same year. The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame explained that while Young has \"avoided sticking to one style for very long, the unifying factors throughout Young's peripatetic musical journey have been his unmistakable voice, his raw and expressive guitar playing, and his consummate songwriting skill.\"\n\nYoung's political outspokenness and social awareness influenced artists such as Blind Melon, Phish, Pearl Jam, and Nirvana. Young is referred to as \"the Godfather of Grunge\" because of the influence he had on Kurt Cobain and Eddie Vedder and the entire grunge movement. Vedder inducted Young into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1995, citing him as a huge influence. Young is cited as being a significant influence on the experimental rock group Sonic Youth, and Thom Yorke of Radiohead. Yorke recounted of first hearing Young after sending a demo tape into a magazine when he was 16, who favourably compared his singing voice to Young's. Unaware of Young at that time, he bought After the Gold Rush (1970), and \"immediately fell in love\" with his work, calling it \"extraordinary\". Dave Matthews lists Young as one of his favourite songwriters and most important inspirations and covers his songs on occasion. The British indie band The Bluetones named their number one debut album after the song \"Expecting to Fly\" (written by Young when still with Buffalo Springfield) and have covered the song while touring. Young also inspired the singer-songwriter Noel Gallagher of Oasis, who covered \"Hey Hey, My My (Into the Black)\" on the live album Familiar to Millions (2000).\n\nThe Australian rock group Powderfinger named themselves after Young's song \"Powderfinger\" from Rust Never Sleeps (1979). The members of the Constantines have occasionally played Neil Young tribute shows under the name Horsey Craze. While in Winnipeg on November 2, 2008, during the Canadian leg of his tour, Bob Dylan visited Young's former home in River Heights, where Young spent his teenage years. Dylan was interested in seeing the room where some of Young's first songs were composed.\n\nJason Bond, an East Carolina University biologist, discovered a new species of trapdoor spider in 2007 and named it Myrmekiaphila neilyoungi after Young, his favourite singer. \n\nIn 2001, Young was awarded the Spirit of Liberty award by the civil liberties group People for the American Way. Young was honoured as the MusiCares Person of the Year on January 29, 2010, two nights prior to the 52nd Annual Grammy Awards. He was also nominated for two Grammy Awards: Best Solo Rock Vocal Performance for \"Fork in the Road\" and Best Boxed or Special Limited Edition Package for Neil Young Archives Vol. 1 (1963–1972). Young won the latter Grammy Award. In 2010, he was ranked No. 26 in Gibson.com's Top 50 Guitarists of All Time. \n\nJuno Awards\n\nDiscography\n\nSee also the discographies for Crazy Horse and Buffalo Springfield and Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young\n\nNeil Young (1969)\nEverybody Knows This Is Nowhere (1969)\nAfter the Gold Rush (1970)\nHarvest (1972)\nTime Fades Away (1973)\nOn the Beach (1974)\nTonight's the Night (1975)\nZuma (1975)\nLong May You Run (1976)\nAmerican Stars 'n Bars (1977)\nComes a Time (1978)\nRust Never Sleeps (1979)\nHawks & Doves (1980)\nRe-ac-tor (1981)\nTrans (1982)\nEverybody's Rockin' (1983)\nOld Ways (1985)\nLanding on Water (1986)\nLife (1987)\nThis Note's for You (1988)\nEldorado (1989)\nFreedom (1989)\nRagged Glory (1990)\nHarvest Moon (1992)\nSleeps with Angels (1994)\nMirror Ball (1995)\nBroken Arrow (1996)\nSilver & Gold (2000)\nAre You Passionate? (2002)\nGreendale (2003)\nPrairie Wind (2005)\nLiving with War (2006)\nLiving with War: \"In the Beginning\" (2006)\nChrome Dreams II (2007)\nFork in the Road (2009)\nLe Noise (2010)\nAmericana (2012)\nPsychedelic Pill (2012)\nA Letter Home (2014)\nStorytone (2014)\nThe Monsanto Years (2015)\nEarth (2016)\n\nPono\n\nYoung has long held that the digital audio formats in which most people download music are deeply flawed, and do not provide the rich, warm sound of analog recordings. He is acutely aware of the difference and compares it with taking a shower in tiny ice cubes vs. ordinary water. \nYoung and his company PonoMusic developed Pono, a music download-service and dedicated music player focusing on \"high-quality\" uncompressed digital audio. The service and the selling of the player launched in October 2014." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Graham William Nash", "Graham Nash" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "graham william nash", "graham nash" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "graham nash", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Graham Nash" }
In which John Logie Baird invent television?	tc_528	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Television.txt" ], "title": [ "Television" ], "wiki_context": [ "Television or TV is a telecommunication medium used for transmitting sound with moving images in monochrome (black-and-white), or in color, and in two or three dimensions. It can refer to a television set, a television program, or the medium of television transmission. Television is a mass medium, for entertainment, education, news, and advertising.\n\nTelevision became available in crude experimental forms in the late 1920s. After World War II, an improved form became popular in the United States and Britain, and television sets became commonplace in homes, businesses, and institutions. During the 1950s, television was the primary medium for influencing public opinion. In the mid-1960s, color broadcasting was introduced in the US and most other developed countries. The availability of storage media such as VHS tape (1976), DVDs (1997), and high-definition Blu-ray Discs (2006) enabled viewers to watch prerecorded material such as movies. At the end of the first decade of the 2000s, digital television transmissions greatly increased in popularity. Another development was the move from standard-definition television (SDTV) (576i, with 576 interlaced lines of resolution and 480i) to high-definition television (HDTV), which provides a resolution that is substantially higher. HDTV may be transmitted in various formats: 1080p, 1080i and 720p. Since 2010, with the invention of smart television, Internet television has increased the availability of television programs and movies via the Internet through services such as Netflix, iPlayer, Hulu, Roku and Chromecast.\n\nIn 2013, 79% of the world's households owned a television set. The replacement of early bulky, high-voltage cathode ray tube (CRT) screen displays with compact, energy-efficient, flat-panel alternative technologies such as plasma displays, LCDs (both fluorescent-backlit and LED), and OLED displays was a hardware revolution that began with computer monitors in the late 1990s. Most TV sets sold in the 2000s were flat-panel, mainly LEDs. Major manufacturers announced the discontinuation of CRT, DLP, plasma, and even fluorescent-backlit LCDs by the mid-2010s. LEDs are expected to be replaced gradually by OLEDs in the near future. Also, major manufacturers have announced that they will increasingly produce smart TV sets in the mid-2010s. Smart TVs with integrated Internet and Web 2.0 functions became the dominant form of television by the late 2010s. \n\nTelevision signals were initially distributed only as terrestrial television using high-powered radio-frequency transmitters to broadcast the signal to individual television receivers. Alternatively television signals are distributed by coaxial cable or optical fiber, satellite systems and via the Internet. Until the early 2000s, these were transmitted as analog signals but countries started switching to digital, this transition is expected to be completed worldwide by late 2010s. A standard television set is composed of multiple internal electronic circuits, including a tuner for receiving and decoding broadcast signals. A visual display device which lacks a tuner is correctly called a video monitor rather than a television.\n\nEtymology\n\nThe word television comes . The first documented usage of the term dates back to 1900, when a Russian scientist Constantin Perskyi used it in a paper that he presented in French at the 1st International Congress of Electricity, which ran from 18 to 25 August 1900 during the International World Fair in Paris. The anglicised version of the term is first attested in 1907, when it was still \"...a theoretical system to transmit moving images over telegraph or telephone wires\". It was \"...formed in English or borrowed from French télévision.\" In the 19th century and early 20th century, other \"...proposals for the name of a then-hypothetical technology for sending pictures over distance were telephote (1880) and televista (1904).\" The abbreviation \"TV\" is from 1948. The use of the term to mean \"a television set\" dates from 1941. The use of the term to mean \"television as a medium\" dates from 1927. The slang term \"telly\" is more common in the UK. The slang term \"the tube\" refers to the bulky cathode ray tube used on most TVs until the advent of flat-screen TVs.\n\nHistory\n\nMechanical television\n\nFacsimile transmission systems for still photographs pioneered methods of mechanical scanning of images in the early 19th century. Alexander Bain introduced the facsimile machine between 1843 and 1846. Frederick Bakewell demonstrated a working laboratory version in 1851. Willoughby Smith discovered the photoconductivity of the element selenium in 1873.\n\nAs a 23-year-old German university student, Paul Julius Gottlieb Nipkow proposed and patented the Nipkow disk in 1884. This was a spinning disk with a spiral pattern of holes in it, so each hole scanned a line of the image. Although he never built a working model of the system, variations of Nipkow's spinning-disk \"image rasterizer\" became exceedingly common. Constantin Perskyi had coined the word television in a paper read to the International Electricity Congress at the International World Fair in Paris on 25 August 1900. Perskyi's paper reviewed the existing electromechanical technologies, mentioning the work of Nipkow and others. However, it was not until 1907 that developments in amplification tube technology by Lee de Forest and Arthur Korn, among others, made the design practical. \n\nThe first demonstration of the instantaneous transmission of images was by Georges Rignoux and A. Fournier in Paris in 1909. A matrix of 64 selenium cells, individually wired to a mechanical commutator, served as an electronic retina. In the receiver, a type of Kerr cell modulated the light and a series of variously angled mirrors attached to the edge of a rotating disc scanned the modulated beam onto the display screen. A separate circuit regulated synchronization. The 8x8 pixel resolution in this proof-of-concept demonstration was just sufficient to clearly transmit individual letters of the alphabet. An updated image was transmitted \"several times\" each second. \n\nIn 1911, Boris Rosing and his student Vladimir Zworykin created a system that used a mechanical mirror-drum scanner to transmit, in Zworykin's words, \"very crude images\" over wires to the \"Braun tube\" (cathode ray tube or \"CRT\") in the receiver. Moving images were not possible because, in the scanner: \"the sensitivity was not enough and the selenium cell was very laggy\". \n\nBy the 1920s, when amplification made television practical, Scottish inventor John Logie Baird employed the Nipkow disk in his prototype video systems. On 25 March 1925, Baird gave the first public demonstration of televised silhouette images in motion, at Selfridge's Department Store in London. Since human faces had inadequate contrast to show up on his primitive system, he televised a ventriloquist's dummy named \"Stooky Bill\", whose painted face had higher contrast, talking and moving. By 26 January 1926, he demonstrated the transmission of the image of a face in motion by radio. This is widely regarded as the first television demonstration. The subject was Baird's business partner Oliver Hutchinson. Baird's system used the Nipkow disk for both scanning the image and displaying it. A bright light shining through a spinning Nipkow disk set with lenses projected a bright spot of light which swept across the subject. A Selenium photoelectric tube detected the light reflected from the subject and converted it into a proportional electrical signal. This was transmitted by AM radio waves to a receiver unit, where the video signal was applied to a neon light behind a second Nipkow disk rotating synchronized with the first. The brightness of the neon lamp was varied in proportion to the brightness of each spot on the image. As each hole in the disk passed by, one scan line of the image was reproduced. Baird's disk had 30 holes, producing an image with only 30 scan lines, just enough to recognize a human face. In 1927, Baird transmitted a signal over 438 mi of telephone line between London and Glasgow.\n\nIn 1928, Baird's company (Baird Television Development Company/Cinema Television) broadcast the first transatlantic television signal, between London and New York, and the first shore-to-ship transmission. In 1929, he became involved in the first experimental mechanical television service in Germany. In November of the same year, Baird and Bernard Natan of Pathé established France's first television company, Télévision-Baird-Natan. In 1931, he made the first outdoor remote broadcast, of the Epsom Derby. In 1932, he demonstrated ultra-short wave television. Baird's mechanical system reached a peak of 240-lines of resolution on BBC television broadcasts in 1936, though the mechanical system did not scan the televised scene directly. Instead a 17.5mm film was shot, rapidly developed and then scanned while the film was still wet.\n\nAn American inventor, Charles Francis Jenkins, also pioneered the television. He published an article on \"Motion Pictures by Wireless\" in 1913, but it was not until December 1923 that he transmitted moving silhouette images for witnesses; and it was on 13 June 1925, that he publicly demonstrated synchronized transmission of silhouette pictures. In 1925 Jenkins used the Nipkow disk and transmitted the silhouette image of a toy windmill in motion, over a distance of five miles, from a naval radio station in Maryland to his laboratory in Washington, D.C., using a lensed disk scanner with a 48-line resolution. He was granted U.S. Patent No. 1,544,156 (Transmitting Pictures over Wireless) on 30 June 1925 (filed 13 March 1922).\n\nHerbert E. Ives and Frank Gray of Bell Telephone Laboratories gave a dramatic demonstration of mechanical television on 7 April 1927. Their reflected-light television system included both small and large viewing screens. The small receiver had a 2-inch-wide by 2.5-inch-high screen. The large receiver had a screen 24 inches wide by 30 inches high. Both sets were capable of reproducing reasonably accurate, monochromatic, moving images. Along with the pictures, the sets received synchronized sound. The system transmitted images over two paths: first, a copper wire link from Washington to New York City, then a radio link from Whippany, New Jersey. Comparing the two transmission methods, viewers noted no difference in quality. Subjects of the telecast included Secretary of Commerce Herbert Hoover. A flying-spot scanner beam illuminated these subjects. The scanner that produced the beam had a 50-aperture disk. The disc revolved at a rate of 18 frames per second, capturing one frame about every 56 milliseconds. (Today's systems typically transmit 30 or 60 frames per second, or one frame every 33.3 or 16.7 milliseconds respectively.) Television historian Albert Abramson underscored the significance of the Bell Labs demonstration: \"It was in fact the best demonstration of a mechanical television system ever made to this time. It would be several years before any other system could even begin to compare with it in picture quality.\" \n\nIn 1928, WRGB then W2XB was started as the world's first television station. It broadcast from the General Electric facility in Schenectady, NY. It was popularly known as \"WGY Television\". Meanwhile, in the Soviet Union, Léon Theremin had been developing a mirror drum-based television, starting with 16 lines resolution in 1925, then 32 lines and eventually 64 using interlacing in 1926. As part of his thesis, on 7 May 1926, he electrically transmitted, and then projected, near-simultaneous moving images on a five-foot square screen. By 1927 he achieved an image of 100 lines, a resolution that was not surpassed until May 1932 by RCA, with 120 lines. On 25 December 1926, Kenjiro Takayanagi demonstrated a television system with a 40-line resolution that employed a Nipkow disk scanner and CRT display at Hamamatsu Industrial High School in Japan. This prototype is still on display at the Takayanagi Memorial Museum in Shizuoka University, Hamamatsu Campus. His research in creating a production model was halted by the United States after Japan lost World War II. \n\nBecause only a limited number of holes could be made in the disks, and disks beyond a certain diameter became impractical, image resolution on mechanical television broadcasts was relatively low, ranging from about 30 lines up to 120 or so. Nevertheless, the image quality of 30-line transmissions steadily improved with technical advances, and by 1933 the UK broadcasts using the Baird system were remarkably clear. A few systems ranging into the 200-line region also went on the air. Two of these were the 180-line system that Compagnie des Compteurs (CDC) installed in Paris in 1935, and the 180-line system that Peck Television Corp. started in 1935 at station VE9AK in Montreal. \n\nThe advancement of all-electronic television (including image dissectors and other camera tubes and cathode ray tubes for the reproducer) marked the beginning of the end for mechanical systems as the dominant form of television. Mechanical television, despite its inferior image quality and generally smaller picture, would remain the primary television technology until the 1930s. The last mechanical television broadcasts ended in 1939 at stations run by a handful of public universities in the United States.\n\nElectronic television\n\nIn 1897, English physicist J. J. Thomson was able, in his three famous experiments, to deflect cathode rays, a fundamental function of the modern cathode ray tube (CRT). The earliest version of the CRT was invented by the German physicist Ferdinand Braun in 1897 and is also known as the \"Braun\" tube. It was a cold-cathode diode, a modification of the Crookes tube, with a phosphor-coated screen. In 1907, Russian scientist Boris Rosing used a CRT in the receiving end of an experimental video signal to form a picture. He managed to display simple geometric shapes onto the screen, which marked the first time that CRT technology was used for what is now known as television. \nIn 1908 Alan Archibald Campbell-Swinton, fellow of the Royal Society (UK), published a letter in the scientific journal Nature in which he described how \"distant electric vision\" could be achieved by using a cathode ray tube, or Braun tube, as both a transmitting and receiving device, He expanded on his vision in a speech given in London in 1911 and reported in The Times and the Journal of the Röntgen Society. In a letter to Nature published in October 1926, Campbell-Swinton also announced the results of some \"not very successful experiments\" he had conducted with G. M. Minchin and J. C. M. Stanton. They had attempted to generate an electrical signal by projecting an image onto a selenium-coated metal plate that was simultaneously scanned by a cathode ray beam. These experiments were conducted before March 1914, when Minchin died, but they were later repeated by two different teams in 1937, by H. Miller and J. W. Strange from EMI, and by H. Iams and A. Rose from RCA. Both teams succeeded in transmitting \"very faint\" images with the original Campbell-Swinton's selenium-coated plate. Although others had experimented with using a cathode ray tube as a receiver, the concept of using one as a transmitter was novel. The first cathode ray tube to use a hot cathode was developed by John B. Johnson (who gave his name to the term Johnson noise) and Harry Weiner Weinhart of Western Electric, and became a commercial product in 1922.\n\nIn 1926, Hungarian engineer Kálmán Tihanyi designed a television system utilizing fully electronic scanning and display elements and employing the principle of \"charge storage\" within the scanning (or \"camera\") tube. United States Patent Office, Patent No. 2,133,123, 11 Oct 1938.United States Patent Office, Patent No. 2,158,259, 16 May 1939 The problem of low sensitivity to light resulting in low electrical output from transmitting or \"camera\" tubes would be solved with the introduction of charge-storage technology by Kálmán Tihanyi beginning in 1924. His solution was a camera tube that accumulated and stored electrical charges (\"photoelectrons\") within the tube throughout each scanning cycle. The device was first described in a patent application he filed in Hungary in March 1926 for a television system he dubbed \"Radioskop\". After further refinements included in a 1928 patent application, Tihanyi's patent was declared void in Great Britain in 1930, so he applied for patents in the United States. Although his breakthrough would be incorporated into the design of RCA's \"iconoscope\" in 1931, the U.S. patent for Tihanyi's transmitting tube would not be granted until May 1939. The patent for his receiving tube had been granted the previous October. Both patents had been purchased by RCA prior to their approval. Charge storage remains a basic principle in the design of imaging devices for television to the present day.\n\nOn 25 December 1926, at Hamamatsu Industrial High School in Japan, Japanese inventor Kenjiro Takayanagi demonstrated a TV system with a 40-line resolution that employed a CRT display. This was the first working example of a fully electronic television receiver. Takayanagi did not apply for a patent. \n\nOn 7 September 1927, American inventor Philo Farnsworth's image dissector camera tube transmitted its first image, a simple straight line, at his laboratory at 202 Green Street in San Francisco. By 3 September 1928, Farnsworth had developed the system sufficiently to hold a demonstration for the press. This is widely regarded as the first electronic television demonstration. In 1929, the system was improved further by the elimination of a motor generator, so that his television system now had no mechanical parts. That year, Farnsworth transmitted the first live human images with his system, including a three and a half-inch image of his wife Elma (\"Pem\") with her eyes closed (possibly due to the bright lighting required). \n\nMeanwhile, Vladimir Zworykin was also experimenting with the cathode ray tube to create and show images. While working for Westinghouse Electric in 1923, he began to develop an electronic camera tube. But in a 1925 demonstration, the image was dim, had low contrast, and poor definition, and was stationary. Zworykin's imaging tube never got beyond the laboratory stage. But RCA, which acquired the Westinghouse patent, asserted that the patent for Farnsworth's 1927 image dissector was written so broadly that it would exclude any other electronic imaging device. Thus RCA, on the basis of Zworykin's 1923 patent application, filed a patent interference suit against Farnsworth. The U.S. Patent Office examiner disagreed in a 1935 decision, finding priority of invention for Farnsworth against Zworykin. Farnsworth claimed that Zworykin's 1923 system would be unable to produce an electrical image of the type to challenge his patent. Zworykin received a patent in 1928 for a color transmission version of his 1923 patent application,[http://www.google.com/patents/about?id\nmZ9KAAAAEBAJ Zworykin, Vladimir K., Television System]. Patent No. 1691324, U.S. Patent Office. Filed 1925-07-13, issued 1928-11-13. Retrieved 2009-07-28 he also divided his original application in 1931. Zworykin was unable or unwilling to introduce evidence of a working model of his tube that was based on his 1923 patent application. In September 1939, after losing an appeal in the courts, and determined to go forward with the commercial manufacturing of television equipment, RCA agreed to pay Farnsworth US$1 million over a ten-year period, in addition to license payments, to use his patents. \n\nIn 1933, RCA introduced an improved camera tube that relied on Tihanyi's charge storage principle. Dubbed the \"Iconoscope\" by Zworykin, the new tube had a light sensitivity of about 75,000 lux, and thus was claimed to be much more sensitive than Farnsworth's image dissector. However, Farnsworth had overcome his power problems with his Image Dissector through the invention of a completely unique \"multipactor\" device that he began work on in 1930, and demonstrated in 1931. This small tube could amplify a signal reportedly to the 60th power or better and showed great promise in all fields of electronics. Unfortunately, a problem with the multipactor was that it wore out at an unsatisfactory rate. \n\nAt the Berlin Radio Show in August 1931, Manfred von Ardenne gave a public demonstration of a television system using a CRT for both transmission and reception. However, Ardenne had not developed a camera tube, using the CRT instead as a flying-spot scanner to scan slides and film. Philo Farnsworth gave the world's first public demonstration of an all-electronic television system, using a live camera, at the Franklin Institute of Philadelphia on 25 August 1934, and for ten days afterwards. \n\nMexican inventor Guillermo González Camarena also played an important role in early TV. His experiments with TV (known as telectroescopía at first) began in 1931 and led to a patent for the \"trichromatic field sequential system\" color television in 1940. \n\nIn Britain the EMI engineering team led by Isaac Shoenberg applied in 1932 for a patent for a new device they dubbed \"the Emitron\", which formed the heart of the cameras they designed for the BBC. On 2 November 1936, a 405-line broadcasting service employing the Emitron began at studios in Alexandra Palace, and transmitted from a specially built mast atop one of the Victorian building's towers. It alternated for a short time with Baird's mechanical system in adjoining studios, but was more reliable and visibly superior. This was the world's first regular \"high-definition\" television service. \n\nThe original American iconoscope was noisy, had a high ratio of interference to signal, and ultimately gave disappointing results, especially when compared to the high definition mechanical scanning systems then becoming available. The EMI team, under the supervision of Isaac Shoenberg, analyzed how the iconoscope (or Emitron) produces an electronic signal and concluded that its real efficiency was only about 5% of the theoretical maximum. They solved this problem by developing, and patenting in 1934, two new camera tubes dubbed super-Emitron and CPS Emitron. The super-Emitron was between ten and fifteen times more sensitive than the original Emitron and iconoscope tubes and, in some cases, this ratio was considerably greater. It was used for outside broadcasting by the BBC, for the first time, on Armistice Day 1937, when the general public could watch on a television set as the King laid a wreath at the Cenotaph. This was the first time that anyone had broadcast a live street scene from cameras installed on the roof of neighboring buildings, because neither Farnsworth nor RCA would do the same until the 1939 New York World's Fair.\n\nOn the other hand, in 1934, Zworykin shared some patent rights with the German licensee company Telefunken. The \"image iconoscope\" (\"Superikonoskop\" in Germany) was produced as a result of the collaboration. This tube is essentially identical to the super-Emitron. The production and commercialization of the super-Emitron and image iconoscope in Europe were not affected by the patent war between Zworykin and Farnsworth, because Dieckmann and Hell had priority in Germany for the invention of the image dissector, having submitted a patent application for their Lichtelektrische Bildzerlegerröhre für Fernseher (Photoelectric Image Dissector Tube for Television) in Germany in 1925, two years before Farnsworth did the same in the United States. The image iconoscope (Superikonoskop) became the industrial standard for public broadcasting in Europe from 1936 until 1960, when it was replaced by the vidicon and plumbicon tubes. Indeed, it was the representative of the European tradition in electronic tubes competing against the American tradition represented by the image orthicon. The German company Heimann produced the Superikonoskop for the 1936 Berlin Olympic Games, later Heimann also produced and commercialized it from 1940 to 1955; finally the Dutch company Philips produced and commercialized the image iconoscope and multicon from 1952 to 1958. \n\nAmerican television broadcasting, at the time, consisted of a variety of markets in a wide range of sizes, each competing for programming and dominance with separate technology, until deals were made and standards agreed upon in 1941. RCA, for example, used only Iconoscopes in the New York area, but Farnsworth Image Dissectors in Philadelphia and San Francisco. In September 1939, RCA agreed to pay the Farnsworth Television and Radio Corporation royalties over the next ten years for access to Farnsworth's patents. With this historic agreement in place, RCA integrated much of what was best about the Farnsworth Technology into their systems. In 1941, the United States implemented 525-line television. \n\nThe world's first 625-line television standard was designed in the Soviet Union in 1944 and became a national standard in 1946. The first broadcast in 625-line standard occurred in Moscow in 1948. The concept of 625 lines per frame was subsequently implemented in the European CCIR standard. \n\nIn 1936, Kálmán Tihanyi described the principle of plasma display, the first flat panel display system. \n\nColor television\n\nThe basic idea of using three monochrome images to produce a color image had been experimented with almost as soon as black-and-white televisions had first been built. Although he gave no practical details, among the earliest published proposals for television was one by Maurice Le Blanc, in 1880, for a color system, including the first mentions in television literature of line and frame scanning. Polish inventor Jan Szczepanik patented a color television system in 1897, using a selenium photoelectric cell at the transmitter and an electromagnet controlling an oscillating mirror and a moving prism at the receiver. But his system contained no means of analyzing the spectrum of colors at the transmitting end, and could not have worked as he described it. Another inventor, Hovannes Adamian, also experimented with color television as early as 1907. The first color television project is claimed by him, and was patented in Germany on 31 March 1908, patent № 197183, then in Britain, on 1 April 1908, patent № 7219, in France (patent № 390326) and in Russia in 1910 (patent № 17912). \n\nScottish inventor John Logie Baird demonstrated the world's first color transmission on 3 July 1928, using scanning discs at the transmitting and receiving ends with three spirals of apertures, each spiral with filters of a different primary color; and three light sources at the receiving end, with a commutator to alternate their illumination. Baird also made the world's first color broadcast on 4 February 1938, sending a mechanically scanned 120-line image from Baird's Crystal Palace studios to a projection screen at London's Dominion Theatre. \n\nMechanically scanned color television was also demonstrated by Bell Laboratories in June 1929 using three complete systems of photoelectric cells, amplifiers, glow-tubes, and color filters, with a series of mirrors to superimpose the red, green, and blue images into one full color image.\n\nThe first practical hybrid system was again pioneered by John Logie Baird. In 1940 he publicly demonstrated a color television combining a traditional black-and-white display with a rotating colored disk. This device was very \"deep\", but was later improved with a mirror folding the light path into an entirely practical device resembling a large conventional console. However, Baird was not happy with the design, and, as early as 1944, had commented to a British government committee that a fully electronic device would be better.\n\nIn 1939, Hungarian engineer Peter Carl Goldmark introduced an electro-mechanical system while at CBS, which contained an Iconoscope sensor. The CBS field-sequential color system was partly mechanical, with a disc made of red, blue, and green filters spinning inside the television camera at 1,200 rpm, and a similar disc spinning in synchronization in front of the cathode ray tube inside the receiver set. The system was first demonstrated to the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) on 29 August 1940, and shown to the press on 4 September. \n\nCBS began experimental color field tests using film as early as 28 August 1940, and live cameras by 12 November. NBC (owned by RCA) made its first field test of color television on 20 February 1941. CBS began daily color field tests on 1 June 1941. These color systems were not compatible with existing black-and-white television sets, and, as no color television sets were available to the public at this time, viewing of the color field tests was restricted to RCA and CBS engineers and the invited press. The War Production Board halted the manufacture of television and radio equipment for civilian use from 22 April 1942 to 20 August 1945, limiting any opportunity to introduce color television to the general public. \n\nAs early as 1940, Baird had started work on a fully electronic system he called Telechrome. Early Telechrome devices used two electron guns aimed at either side of a phosphor plate. The phosphor was patterned so the electrons from the guns only fell on one side of the patterning or the other. Using cyan and magenta phosphors, a reasonable limited-color image could be obtained. He also demonstrated the same system using monochrome signals to produce a 3D image (called \"stereoscopic\" at the time). A demonstration on 16 August 1944 was the first example of a practical color television system. Work on the Telechrome continued and plans were made to introduce a three-gun version for full color. However, Baird's untimely death in 1946 ended development of the Telechrome system. \n\nSimilar concepts were common through the 1940s and 50s, differing primarily in the way they re-combined the colors generated by the three guns. The Geer tube was similar to Baird's concept, but used small pyramids with the phosphors deposited on their outside faces, instead of Baird's 3D patterning on a flat surface. The Penetron used three layers of phosphor on top of each other and increased the power of the beam to reach the upper layers when drawing those colors. The Chromatron used a set of focusing wires to select the colored phosphors arranged in vertical stripes on the tube.\n\nOne of the great technical challenges of introducing color broadcast television was the desire to conserve bandwidth, potentially three times that of the existing black-and-white standards, and not use an excessive amount of radio spectrum. In the United States, after considerable research, the National Television Systems CommitteeNational Television System Committee (1951–1953), [Report and Reports of Panel No. 11, 11-A, 12–19, with Some supplementary references cited in the Reports, and the Petition for adoption of transmission standards for color television before the Federal Communications Commission, n.p., 1953], 17 v. illus., diagrams., tables. 28 cm. LC Control No.:54021386 [http://catalog.loc.gov/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?DB\nlocal&PAGE=First Library of Congress Online Catalog] approved an all-electronic Compatible color system developed by RCA, which encoded the color information separately from the brightness information and greatly reduced the resolution of the color information in order to conserve bandwidth. The brightness image remained compatible with existing black-and-white television sets at slightly reduced resolution, while color televisions could decode the extra information in the signal and produce a limited-resolution color display. The higher resolution black-and-white and lower resolution color images combine in the brain to produce a seemingly high-resolution color image. The NTSC standard represented a major technical achievement.\n\nAlthough all-electronic color was introduced in the U.S. in 1953, high prices, and the scarcity of color programming, greatly slowed its acceptance in the marketplace. The first national color broadcast (the 1954 Tournament of Roses Parade) occurred on 1 January 1954, but during the following ten years most network broadcasts, and nearly all local programming, continued to be in black-and-white. It was not until the mid-1960s that color sets started selling in large numbers, due in part to the color transition of 1965 in which it was announced that over half of all network prime-time programming would be broadcast in color that fall. The first all-color prime-time season came just one year later. In 1972, the last holdout among daytime network programs converted to color, resulting in the first completely all-color network season.\n\nEarly color sets were either floor-standing console models or tabletop versions nearly as bulky and heavy; so in practice they remained firmly anchored in one place. The introduction of GE's relatively compact and lightweight Porta-Color set in the spring of 1966 made watching color television a more flexible and convenient proposition. In 1972, sales of color sets finally surpassed sales of black-and-white sets.\n\nColor broadcasting in Europe was not standardized on the PAL format until the 1960s, and broadcasts did not start until 1967. By this point many of the technical problems in the early sets had been worked out, and the spread of color sets in Europe was fairly rapid.\n\nBy the mid-1970s, the only stations broadcasting in black-and-white were a few high-numbered UHF stations in small markets, and a handful of low-power repeater stations in even smaller markets such as vacation spots. By 1979, even the last of these had converted to color and, by the early 1980s, B&W sets had been pushed into niche markets, notably low-power uses, small portable sets, or for use as video monitor screens in lower-cost consumer equipment. By late 1980's even these areas switched to color sets.\n\nDigital television\n\nDigital television (DTV) is the transmission of audio and video by digitally processed and multiplexed signals, in contrast to the totally analog and channel separated signals used by analog television. Digital TV can support more than one program in the same channel bandwidth. It is an innovative service that represents the first significant evolution in television technology since color television in the 1950s. Digital TV's roots have been tied very closely to the availability of inexpensive, high performance computers. It was not until the 1990s that digital TV became feasible. \n\nIn the mid-1980s, as Japanese consumer electronics firms forged ahead with the development of HDTV technology, the MUSE analog format proposed by NHK, a Japanese company, was seen as a pacesetter that threatened to eclipse U.S. electronics companies' technologies. Until June 1990, the Japanese MUSE standard, based on an analog system, was the front-runner among the more than 23 different technical concepts under consideration. Then, an American company, General Instrument, demonstrated the feasibility of a digital television signal. This breakthrough was of such significance that the FCC was persuaded to delay its decision on an ATV standard until a digitally based standard could be developed.\n\nIn March 1990, when it became clear that a digital standard was feasible, the FCC made a number of critical decisions. First, the Commission declared that the new ATV standard must be more than an enhanced analog signal, but be able to provide a genuine HDTV signal with at least twice the resolution of existing television images.(7) Then, to ensure that viewers who did not wish to buy a new digital television set could continue to receive conventional television broadcasts, it dictated that the new ATV standard must be capable of being \"simulcast\" on different channels.(8)The new ATV standard also allowed the new DTV signal to be based on entirely new design principles. Although incompatible with the existing NTSC standard, the new DTV standard would be able to incorporate many improvements.\n\nThe final standards adopted by the FCC did not require a single standard for scanning formats, aspect ratios, or lines of resolution. This compromise resulted from a dispute between the consumer electronics industry (joined by some broadcasters) and the computer industry (joined by the film industry and some public interest groups) over which of the two scanning processes—interlaced or progressive—would be best suited for the newer digital HDTV compatible display devices. Interlaced scanning, which had been specifically designed for older analogue CRT display technologies, scans even-numbered lines first, then odd-numbered ones. In fact, interlaced scanning can be looked at as the first video compression model as it was partly designed in the 1940s to double the image resolution to exceed the limitations of the television broadcast bandwidth. Another reason for its adoption was to limit the flickering on early CRT screens whose phosphor coated screens could only retain the image from the electron scanning gun for a relatively short duration.[http://www.isfforum.com/FAQs/view/All-About-HDTV/What-s-the-Difference-between-Interlaced-and-Progressive-Video/33.html What's the Difference between \"Interlaced\" and \"Progressive\" Video? – ISF Forum] However interlaced scanning does not work as efficiently on newer display devices such as Liquid-crystal (LCD), for example, which are better suited to a more frequent progressive refresh rate.\n\nProgressive scanning, the format that the computer industry had long adopted for computer display monitors, scans every line in sequence, from top to bottom. Progressive scanning in effect doubles the amount of data generated for every full screen displayed in comparison to interlaced scanning by painting the screen in one pass in 1/60 second, instead of two passes in 1/30 second. The computer industry argued that progressive scanning is superior because it does not \"flicker\" on the new standard of display devices in the manner of interlaced scanning. It also argued that progressive scanning enables easier connections with the Internet, and is more cheaply converted to interlaced formats than vice versa. The film industry also supported progressive scanning because it offered a more efficient means of converting filmed programming into digital formats. For their part, the consumer electronics industry and broadcasters argued that interlaced scanning was the only technology that could transmit the highest quality pictures then (and currently) feasible, i.e., 1,080 lines per picture and 1,920 pixels per line. Broadcasters also favored interlaced scanning because their vast archive of interlaced programming is not readily compatible with a progressive format. William F. Schreiber, who was director of the Advanced Television Research Program at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology from 1983 until his retirement in 1990, thought that the continued advocacy of interlaced equipment originated from consumer electronics companies that were trying to get back the substantial investments they made in the interlaced technology. \n\nDigital television transition started in late 2000s. All governments across the world set the deadline for analog shutdown by 2010s. Initially the adoption rate was low, as the first digital tuner-equipped TVs were costly. But soon, as the price of digital-capable TVs dropped, more and more households were converting to digital televisions. The transition is expected to be completed worldwide by mid to late 2010s.\n\nSmart television\n\nThe advent of digital television allowed innovations like smart TVs. A smart television, sometimes referred to as connected TV or hybrid TV, is a television set or set-top box with integrated Internet and Web 2.0 features, and is an example of technological convergence between computers, television sets and set-top boxes. Besides the traditional functions of television sets and set-top boxes provided through traditional broadcasting media, these devices can also provide Internet TV, online interactive media, over-the-top content, as well as on-demand streaming media, and home networking access. These TVs come pre-loaded with an operating system. \n\nSmart TV should not to be confused with Internet TV, Internet Protocol television (IPTV) or with Web TV. Internet television refers to the receiving of television content over the internet instead of by traditional systems – terrestrial, cable and satellite (although internet itself is received by these methods). IPTV is one of the emerging Internet television technology standards for use by television broadcasters. Web television (WebTV) is a term used for programs created by a wide variety of companies and individuals for broadcast on Internet TV. A first patent was filed in 1994 (and extended the following year) for an \"intelligent\" television system, linked with data processing systems, by means of a digital or analog network. Apart from being linked to data networks, one key point is its ability to automatically download necessary software routines, according to a user's demand, and process their needs.\n\nMajor TV manufacturers have announced production of smart TVs only, for middle-end and high-end TVs in 2015. Smart TVs are expected to become dominant form of television by late 2010s.\n\n3D television\n\n3D television conveys depth perception to the viewer by employing techniques such as stereoscopic display, multi-view display, 2D-plus-depth, or any other form of 3D display. Most modern 3D television sets use an active shutter 3D system or a polarized 3D system, and some are autostereoscopic without the need of glasses. Stereoscopic 3D television was demonstrated for the first time on 10 August 1928, by John Logie Baird in his company's premises at 133 Long Acre, London. Baird pioneered a variety of 3D television systems using electromechanical and cathode-ray tube techniques. The first 3D TV was produced in 1935.\n\nThe advent of digital television in the 2000s greatly improved 3D TVs. Although 3D TV sets are quite popular for watching 3D home media such as on Blu-ray discs, 3D programming has largely failed to make inroads with the public. Many 3D television channels which started in the early 2010s were shut down by the mid-2010s.According to DisplaySearch 3D televisions shipments totaled 41.45 million units in 2012, compared with 24.14 in 2011 and 2.26 in 2010. As of late 2013 the number of 3D TV viewers started to decline. \n\nBroadcast systems\n\nTerrestrial television\n\nProgramming is broadcast by television stations, sometimes called \"channels\", as stations are licensed by their governments to broadcast only over assigned channels in the television band. At first, terrestrial broadcasting was the only way television could be widely distributed, and because bandwidth was limited, i.e., there were only a small number of channels available, government regulation was the norm.\n\nIn the U.S., the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) allowed stations to broadcast advertisements beginning in July 1941, but required public service programming commitments as a requirement for a license. By contrast, the United Kingdom chose a different route, imposing a television license fee on owners of television reception equipment to fund the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), which had public service as part of its Royal Charter.\n\nWRGB claims to be the world's oldest television station, tracing its roots to an experimental station founded on 13 January 1928, broadcasting from the General Electric factory in Schenectady, NY, under the call letters W2XB. It was popularly known as \"WGY Television\" after its sister radio station. Later in 1928, General Electric started a second facility, this one in New York City, which had the call letters W2XBS and which today is known as WNBC. The two stations were experimental in nature and had no regular programming, as receivers were operated by engineers within the company. The image of a Felix the Cat doll rotating on a turntable was broadcast for 2 hours every day for several years as new technology was being tested by the engineers.\n\nOn 2 November 1936, the BBC began transmitting the world's first public regular high-definition service from the Victorian Alexandra Palace in north London. It therefore claims to be the birthplace of TV broadcasting as we know it today.\n\nWith the widespread adoption of cable across the United States in the 1970s and 80s, terrestrial television broadcasts have been in decline; in 2013 it was estimated that about 7% of US households used an antenna. A slight increase in use began around 2010 due to switchover to digital terrestrial television broadcasts, which offered pristine image quality over very large areas, and offered an alternate to cable television (CATV) for cord cutters.\n\nAll other countries around the world are also in the process of either shutting down analog terrestrial television or switching over to digital terrestrial television.\n\nCable television\n\n \n\nCable television is a system of broadcasting television programming to paying subscribers via radio frequency (RF) signals transmitted through coaxial cables or light pulses through fiber-optic cables. This contrasts with traditional terrestrial television, in which the television signal is transmitted over the air by radio waves and received by a television antenna attached to the television. FM radio programming, high-speed Internet, telephone service, and similar non-television services may also be provided through these cables.\n\nThe abbreviation CATV is often used for cable television. It originally stood for Community Access Television or Community Antenna Television, from cable television's origins in 1948: in areas where over-the-air reception was limited by distance from transmitters or mountainous terrain, large \"community antennas\" were constructed, and cable was run from them to individual homes. The origins of cable broadcasting are even older as radio programming was distributed by cable in some European cities as far back as 1924.\n\nEarlier cable television was analog, but since the 2000s all cable operators have switched to, or are in the process of switching to, digital cable television.\n\nSatellite television\n\nSatellite television is a system of supplying television programming using broadcast signals relayed from communication satellites. The signals are received via an outdoor parabolic reflector antenna usually referred to as a satellite dish and a low-noise block downconverter (LNB). A satellite receiver then decodes the desired television program for viewing on a television set. Receivers can be external set-top boxes, or a built-in television tuner. Satellite television provides a wide range of channels and services, especially to geographic areas without terrestrial television or cable television.\n\nThe most common method of reception is direct-broadcast satellite television (DBSTV), also known as \"direct to home\" (DTH). In DBSTV systems, signals are relayed from a direct broadcast satellite on the Ku wavelength and are completely digital. Satellite TV systems formerly used systems known as television receive-only. These systems received analog signals transmitted in the C-band spectrum from FSS type satellites, and required the use of large dishes. Consequently, these systems were nicknamed \"big dish\" systems, and were more expensive and less popular.\n\nThe direct-broadcast satellite television signals were earlier analog signals and later digital signals, both of which require a compatible receiver. Digital signals may include high-definition television (HDTV). Some transmissions and channels are free-to-air or free-to-view, while many other channels are pay television requiring a subscription. \nIn 1945, British science fiction writer Arthur C. Clarke proposed a world-wide communications system which would function by means of three satellites equally spaced apart in earth orbit. This was published in the October 1945 issue of the Wireless World magazine and won him the Franklin Institute's Stuart Ballantine Medal in 1963. \n\nThe first satellite television signals from Europe to North America were relayed via the Telstar satellite over the Atlantic ocean on 23 July 1962. The signals were received and broadcast in North American and European countries and watched by over 100 million. Launched in 1962, the Relay 1 satellite was the first satellite to transmit television signals from the US to Japan. The first geosynchronous communication satellite, Syncom 2, was launched on 26 July 1963. \n\nThe world's first commercial communications satellite, called Intelsat I and nicknamed \"Early Bird\", was launched into geosynchronous orbit on 6 April 1965. The first national network of television satellites, called Orbita, was created by the Soviet Union in October 1967, and was based on the principle of using the highly elliptical Molniya satellite for rebroadcasting and delivering of television signals to ground downlink stations. The first commercial North American satellite to carry television transmissions was Canada's geostationary Anik 1, which was launched on 9 November 1972. ATS-6, the world's first experimental educational and Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS), was launched on 30 May 1974. It transmitted at 860 MHz using wideband FM modulation and had two sound channels. The transmissions were focused on the Indian subcontinent but experimenters were able to receive the signal in Western Europe using home constructed equipment that drew on UHF television design techniques already in use. \n\nThe first in a series of Soviet geostationary satellites to carry Direct-To-Home television, Ekran 1, was launched on 26 October 1976. It used a 714 MHz UHF downlink frequency so that the transmissions could be received with existing UHF television technology rather than microwave technology. \n\nInternet television\n\nInternet television (Internet TV) (or online television) is the digital distribution of television content via the Internet as opposed to traditional systems like terrestrial, cable, and satellite, although the Internet itself is received by terrestrial, cable, or satellite methods. Internet television is a general term that covers the delivery of television shows, and other video content, over the Internet by video streaming technology, typically by major traditional television broadcasters.\n\nInternet television should not to be confused with Smart TV, IPTV or with Web TV. Smart television refers to the TV set which has an inbuilt operating system. Internet Protocol television (IPTV) is one of the emerging Internet television technology standards for use by television broadcasters. Web television is a term used for programs created by a wide variety of companies and individuals for broadcast on Internet TV.\n\nTelevision sets\n\nA television set, also called a television receiver, television, TV set, TV, or telly, is a device that combines a tuner, display, and speakers for the purpose of viewing television. Introduced in late 1920's in mechanical form, television sets became a popular consumer product after World War II in electronic form, using cathode ray tubes. The addition of color to broadcast television after 1953 further increased the popularity of television sets and an outdoor antenna became a common feature of suburban homes. The ubiquitous television set became the display device for the recorded media in the 1970s, such as VHS and later DVDs and Blu-ray Discs. Major TV manufacturers announced the discontinuation of CRT, DLP, plasma and even fluorescent-backlit LCDs by mid 2010s. Televisions since 2010s mostly use LEDs.\n[http://www.displaysearch.com/cps/rde/xchg/displaysearch/hs.xsl/140415_lcd_tv_growth_improving_as_plasma_and_crt_tv_disappear.asp LCD TV Growth Improving, As Plasma and CRT TV Disappear, According to NPD DisplaySearch \| DisplaySearch]\n LEDs are expected to be gradually replaced by OLEDs in near future.\n\nDisplay technologies\n\nDisk\n\nEarliest systems employed a spinning disk to create and reproduce images. These usually had a low resolution and screen size and never became popular with the public.\n\nCRT\n\nThe cathode ray tube (CRT) is a vacuum tube containing one or more electron guns (a source of electrons or electron emitter) and a fluorescent screen used to view images.\nIt has a means to accelerate and deflect the electron beam(s) onto the screen to create the images. The images may represent electrical waveforms (oscilloscope), pictures (television, computer monitor), radar targets or others. The CRT uses an evacuated glass envelope which is large, deep (i.e. long from front screen face to rear end), fairly heavy, and relatively fragile. As a matter of safety, the face is typically made of thick lead glass so as to be highly shatter-resistant and to block most X-ray emissions, particularly if the CRT is used in a consumer product.\n\nIn television sets and computer monitors, the entire front area of the tube is scanned repetitively and systematically in a fixed pattern called a raster. An image is produced by controlling the intensity of each of the three electron beams, one for each additive primary color (red, green, and blue) with a video signal as a reference. In all modern CRT monitors and televisions, the beams are bent by magnetic deflection, a varying magnetic field generated by coils and driven by electronic circuits around the neck of the tube, although electrostatic deflection is commonly used in oscilloscopes, a type of diagnostic instrument.\n\nDLP\n\nDigital Light Processing (DLP) is a type of video projector technology that uses a digital micromirror device. Some DLPs have a TV tuner, which makes them a type of TV display. It was originally developed in 1987 by Dr. Larry Hornbeck of Texas Instruments. While the DLP imaging device was invented by Texas Instruments, the first DLP based projector was introduced by Digital Projection Ltd in 1997. Digital Projection and Texas Instruments were both awarded Emmy Awards in 1998 for invention of the DLP projector technology. DLP is used in a variety of display applications from traditional static displays to interactive displays and also non-traditional embedded applications including medical, security, and industrial uses. DLP technology is used in DLP front projectors (standalone projection units for classrooms and business primarily), but also in private homes; in these cases, a the image is projected onto a projection screen. DLP is also used in DLP rear projection television sets and digital signs. It is also used in about 85% of digital cinema projection. \n\nPlasma\n\nA plasma display panel (PDP) is a type of flat panel display common to large TV displays 30 in or larger. They are called \"plasma\" displays because the technology utilizes small cells containing electrically charged ionized gases, or what are in essence chambers more commonly known as fluorescent lamps.\n\nLCD\n\nLiquid-crystal-display televisions (LCD TV) are television sets that use LCD display technology to produce images. LCD televisions are much thinner and lighter than cathode ray tube (CRTs) of similar display size, and are available in much larger sizes (e.g., 90 inch diagonal). When manufacturing costs fell, this combination of features made LCDs practical for television receivers.\n\nLCD's come in two types: those using cold cathode fluorescent lamps, simply called LCDs and those using LED as backlight called as LEDs.\n\nIn 2007, LCD televisions surpassed sales of CRT-based televisions worldwide for the first time, and their sales figures relative to other technologies accelerated. LCD TVs have quickly displaced the only major competitors in the large-screen market, the plasma display panel and rear-projection television. In mid 2010s LCDs especially LEDs became, by far, the most widely produced and sold television display type.\n\nLCDs also have disadvantages. Other technologies address these weaknesses, including OLEDs, FED and SED, but none of these have entered widespread production.\n\nOLED\n\nAn OLED (organic light-emitting diode) is a light-emitting diode (LED) in which the emissive electroluminescent layer is a film of organic compound which emits light in response to an electric current. This layer of organic semiconductor is situated between two electrodes. Generally, at least one of these electrodes is transparent. OLEDs are used to create digital displays in devices such as television screens. It is also used for computer monitors, portable systems such as mobile phones, handheld games consoles and PDAs.\n\nThere are two main families of OLED: those based on small molecules and those employing polymers. Adding mobile ions to an OLED creates a light-emitting electrochemical cell or LEC, which has a slightly different mode of operation. OLED displays can use either passive-matrix (PMOLED) or active-matrix (AMOLED) addressing schemes. Active-matrix OLEDs require a thin-film transistor backplane to switch each individual pixel on or off, but allow for higher resolution and larger display sizes.\n\nAn OLED display works without a backlight. Thus, it can display deep black levels and can be thinner and lighter than a liquid crystal display (LCD). In low ambient light conditions such as a dark room an OLED screen can achieve a higher contrast ratio than an LCD, whether the LCD uses cold cathode fluorescent lamps or LED backlight.\n\nOLEDs are expected to replace other forms of display in near future.\n\nDisplay resolution\n\nLD\n\nLow-definition television or LDTV refers to television systems that have a lower screen resolution than standard-definition television systems such 240p (320240). It is used in handheld television. The most common source of LDTV programming is the Internet, where mass distribution of higher-resolution video files could overwhelm computer servers and take too long to download. Many mobile phones and portable devices such as Apple’s iPod Nano, or Sony’s PlayStation Portable use LDTV video, as higher-resolution files would be excessive to the needs of their small screens (320×240 and 480×272 pixels respectively). The current generation of iPod Nanos have LDTV screens, as do the first three generations of iPod Touch and iPhone (480×320). For the first years of its existence, YouTube offered only one, low-definition resolution of 320x240p at 30fps or less. A standard, consumer grade VHS videotape can be considered SDTV due to its resolution (approximately 360 × 480i/576i).\n\nSD\n\nStandard-definition television or SDTV refers to two different resolutions: 576i, with 576 interlaced lines of resolution, derived from the European-developed PAL and SECAM systems; and 480i based on the American National Television System Committee NTSC system. SDTV is a television system that uses a resolution that is not considered to be either high-definition television (720p, 1080i, 1080p, 1440p, 4K UHDTV, and 8K UHD) or enhanced-definition television (EDTV 480p). In North America, digital SDTV is broadcast in the same 4:3 aspect ratio as NTSC signals with widescreen content being center cut. However, in other parts of the world that used the PAL or SECAM color systems, standard-definition television is now usually shown with a 16:9 aspect ratio, with the transition occurring between the mid-1990s and mid-2000s. Older programs with a 4:3 aspect ratio are shown in the US as 4:3 with non-ATSC countries preferring to reduce the horizontal resolution by anamorphically scaling a pillarboxed image.\n\nHD\n\nHigh-definition television (HDTV) provides a resolution that is substantially higher than that of standard-definition television.\n\nHDTV may be transmitted in various formats:\n 1080p: 1920×1080p: 2,073,600 pixels (~2.07 megapixels) per frame\n* 1080i: 1920×1080i: 1,036,800 pixels (~1.04 MP) per field or 2,073,600 pixels (~2.07 MP) per frame\n** A non-standard CEA resolution exists in some countries such as 1440×1080i: 777,600 pixels (~0.78 MP) per field or 1,555,200 pixels (~1.56 MP) per frame\n* 720p: 1280×720p: 921,600 pixels (~0.92 MP) per frame\n\nUHD\n\nUltra-high-definition television (also known as Super Hi-Vision, Ultra HD television, UltraHD, UHDTV, or UHD) includes 4K UHD (2160p) and 8K UHD (4320p), which are two digital video formats proposed by NHK Science & Technology Research Laboratories and defined and approved by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU).\n\nThe Consumer Electronics Association announced on 17 October 2012, that \"Ultra High Definition\", or \"Ultra HD\", would be used for displays that have an aspect ratio of at least 16:9 and at least one digital input capable of carrying and presenting native video at a minimum resolution of 3840×2160 pixels. \n\nSales\n\nNorth American consumers purchase a new television set on average every seven years, and the average household owns 2.8 televisions. , 48 million are sold each year at an average price of $460 and size of 38 in. \n\n* Note: Vendor shipments are branded shipments and exclude OEM sales for all vendors\n\nContent\n\nProgramming\n\nGetting TV programming shown to the public can happen in many different ways. After production, the next step is to market and deliver the product to whichever markets are open to using it. This typically happens on two levels:\n\n# Original run or First run: a producer creates a program of one or multiple episodes and shows it on a station or network which has either paid for the production itself or to which a license has been granted by the television producers to do the same.\n# Broadcast syndication: this is the terminology rather broadly used to describe secondary programming usages (beyond original run). It includes secondary runs in the country of first issue, but also international usage which may not be managed by the originating producer. In many cases, other companies, TV stations, or individuals are engaged to do the syndication work, in other words, to sell the product into the markets they are allowed to sell into by contract from the copyright holders, in most cases the producers.\n\nFirst-run programming is increasing on subscription services outside the US, but few domestically produced programs are syndicated on domestic free-to-air (FTA) elsewhere. This practice is increasing, however, generally on digital-only FTA channels or with subscriber-only, first-run material appearing on FTA. Unlike the US, repeat FTA screenings of an FTA network program usually only occur on that network. Also, affiliates rarely buy or produce non-network programming that is not centered on local programming.\n\nGenres\n\nTelevision genres include a broad range of programming types that entertain, inform, and educate viewers. The most expensive entertainment genres to produce are usually dramas and dramatic miniseries. However, other genres, such as historical Western genres, may also have high production costs.\n\nPopular culture entertainment genres include action-oriented shows such as police, crime, detective dramas, horror, or thriller shows. As well, there are also other variants of the drama genre, such as medical dramas and daytime soap operas. Science fiction shows can fall into either the drama or action category, depending on whether they emphasize philosophical questions or high adventure. Comedy is a popular genre which includes situation comedy (sitcom) and animated shows for the adult demographic such as South Park.\n\nThe least expensive forms of entertainment programming genres are game shows, talk shows, variety shows, and reality television. Game shows feature contestants answering questions and solving puzzles to win prizes. Talk shows contain interviews with film, television, and music celebrities and public figures. Variety shows feature a range of musical performers and other entertainers, such as comedians and magicians, introduced by a host or Master of Ceremonies. There is some crossover between some talk shows and variety shows because leading talk shows often feature performances by bands, singers, comedians, and other performers in between the interview segments.\nReality TV shows \"regular\" people (i.e., not actors) facing unusual challenges or experiences ranging from arrest by police officers (COPS) to weight loss (The Biggest Loser). A variant version of reality shows depicts celebrities doing mundane activities such as going about their everyday life (The Osbournes, Snoop Dogg's Father Hood) or doing manual labor (The Simple Life).\n\nFictional television programs, that some television scholars and broadcasting advocacy groups argue are \"quality television\", include series such as Twin Peaks and The Sopranos. Kristin Thompson argues that some of these television series exhibit traits also found in art films, such as psychological realism, narrative complexity, and ambiguous plotlines. Nonfiction television programs that some television scholars and broadcasting advocacy groups argue are \"quality television\", include a range of serious, noncommercial, programming aimed at a niche audience, such as documentaries and public affairs shows.\n\nFunding\n\nAround the globe, broadcast TV is financed by government, advertising, licensing (a form of tax), subscription, or any combination of these. To protect revenues, subscription TV channels are usually encrypted to ensure that only subscribers receive the decryption codes to see the signal. Unencrypted channels are known as free to air or FTA.\n\nIn 2009, the global TV market represented 1,217.2 million TV households with at least one TV and total revenues of 268.9 billion EUR (declining 1.2% compared to 2008). North America had the biggest TV revenue market share with 39% followed by Europe (31%), Asia-Pacific (21%), Latin America (8%), and Africa and the Middle East (2%). \n\nGlobally, the different TV revenue sources divide into 45%–50% TV advertising revenues, 40%–45% subscription fees and 10% public funding. \n\nAdvertising\n\nTV's broad reach makes it a powerful and attractive medium for advertisers. Many TV networks and stations sell blocks of broadcast time to advertisers (\"sponsors\") to fund their programming. Television advertisements (variously called a television commercial, commercial or ad in American English, and known in British English as an advert) is a span of television programming produced and paid for by an organization, which conveys a message, typically to market a product or service. Advertising revenue provides a significant portion of the funding for most privately owned television networks. The vast majority of television advertisements today consist of brief advertising spots, ranging in length from a few seconds to several minutes (as well as program-length infomercials). Advertisements of this sort have been used to promote a wide variety of goods, services and ideas since the beginning of television.\n\nThe effects of television advertising upon the viewing public (and the effects of mass media in general) have been the subject of philosophical discourse by such luminaries as Marshall McLuhan. The viewership of television programming, as measured by companies such as Nielsen Media Research, is often used as a metric for television advertisement placement, and consequently, for the rates charged to advertisers to air within a given network, television program, or time of day (called a \"daypart\").\n\nIn many countries, including the United States, television campaign advertisements are considered indispensable for a political campaign. In other countries, such as France, political advertising on television is heavily restricted, while some countries, such as Norway, completely ban political advertisements.\n\nThe first official, paid television advertisement was broadcast in the United States on July 1, 1941 over New York station WNBT (now WNBC) before a baseball game between the Brooklyn Dodgers and Philadelphia Phillies. The announcement for Bulova watches, for which the company paid anywhere from $4.00 to $9.00 (reports vary), displayed a WNBT test pattern modified to look like a clock with the hands showing the time. The Bulova logo, with the phrase \"Bulova Watch Time\", was shown in the lower right-hand quadrant of the test pattern while the second hand swept around the dial for one minute. The first TV ad broadcast in the UK was on ITV on 22 September 1955, advertising Gibbs SR toothpaste. The first TV ad broadcast in Asia was on Nippon Television in Tokyo on August 28, 1953, advertising Seikosha (now Seiko), which also displayed a clock with the current time. \n\nUnited States\n\nSince inception in the US in 1941, television commercials have become one of the most effective, persuasive, and popular methods of selling products of many sorts, especially consumer goods. During the 1940s and into the 1950s, programs were hosted by single advertisers. This, in turn, gave great creative license to the advertisers over the content of the show. Perhaps due to the quiz show scandals in the 1950s, networks shifted to the magazine concept, introducing advertising breaks with multiple advertisers.\n\nUS advertising rates are determined primarily by Nielsen ratings. The time of the day and popularity of the channel determine how much a TV commercial can cost. For example, it can cost approximately $750,000 for a 30-second block of commercial time during the highly popular American Idol, while the same amount of time for the Super Bowl can cost several million dollars. Conversely, lesser-viewed time slots, such as early mornings and weekday afternoons, are often sold in bulk to producers of infomercials at far lower rates.\n\nIn recent years, the paid program or infomercial has become common, usually in lengths of 30 minutes or one hour. Some drug companies and other businesses have even created \"news\" items for broadcast, known in the industry as video news releases, paying program directors to use them. \n\nSome TV programs also deliberately place products into their shows as advertisements, a practice started in feature films and known as product placement. For example, a character could be drinking a certain kind of soda, going to a particular chain restaurant, or driving a certain make of car. (This is sometimes very subtle, with shows having vehicles provided by manufacturers for low cost in exchange as a product placement). Sometimes, a specific brand or trade mark, or music from a certain artist or group, is used. (This excludes guest appearances by artists who perform on the show.)\n\nUnited Kingdom\n\nThe TV regulator oversees TV advertising in the United Kingdom. Its restrictions have applied since the early days of commercially funded TV. Despite this, an early TV mogul, Roy Thomson, likened the broadcasting licence as being a \"licence to print money\". Restrictions mean that the big three national commercial TV channels: ITV, Channel 4, and Channel 5 can show an average of only seven minutes of advertising per hour (eight minutes in the peak period). Other broadcasters must average no more than nine minutes (twelve in the peak). This means that many imported TV shows from the US have unnatural pauses where the UK company does not utilize the narrative breaks intended for more frequent US advertising. Advertisements must not be inserted in the course of certain specific proscribed types of programs which last less than half an hour in scheduled duration; this list includes any news or current affairs programs, documentaries, and programs for children; additionally, advertisements may not be carried in a program designed and broadcast for reception in schools or in any religious broadcasting service or other devotional program or during a formal Royal ceremony or occasion. There also must be clear demarcations in time between the programs and the advertisements.\n\nThe BBC, being strictly non-commercial, is not allowed to show advertisements on television in the UK, although it has many advertising-funded channels abroad. The majority of its budget comes from television license fees (see below) and broadcast syndication, the sale of content to other broadcasters.\n\nIreland\n\nThe Broadcasting Commission of Ireland (BCI) () oversees advertising on television and radio within Ireland for both private and state-owned broadcasters. There are some restrictions based on advertising, especially in relation to the advertising of alcohol. Such advertisements are prohibited until after 7 pm. Broadcasters in Ireland adhere to broadcasting legislation implemented by the Broadcasting Commission of Ireland and the European Union. Sponsorship of current affairs programming is prohibited at all times.\n\nAs of 1 October 2009, the responsibilities held by the BCI are gradually being transferred to the Broadcasting Authority of Ireland.\n\nSubscription\n\nSome TV channels are partly funded from subscriptions; therefore, the signals are encrypted during broadcast to ensure that only the paying subscribers have access to the decryption codes to watch pay television or specialty channels. Most subscription services are also funded by advertising.\n\nTaxation or license\n\nTelevision services in some countries may be funded by a television licence or a form of taxation, which means that advertising plays a lesser role or no role at all. For example, some channels may carry no advertising at all and some very little, including:\n* Australia (ABC)\n* Belgium (RTBF)\n* Denmark (DR)\n* Japan (NHK)\n* Norway (NRK)\n* Sweden (SVT)\n* United Kingdom (BBC)\n* United States (PBS)\n\nThe BBC carries no television advertising on its UK channels and is funded by an annual television licence paid by premises receiving live TV broadcasts. Currently, it is estimated that approximately 26.8 million UK private domestic households own televisions, with approximately 25 million TV licences in all premises in force as of 2010. This television license fee is set by the government, but the BBC is not answerable to or controlled by the government.\n\nThe two main BBC TV channels are watched by almost 90% of the population each week and overall have 27% share of total viewing, despite the fact that 85% of homes are multichannel, with 42% of these having access to 200 free to air channels via satellite and another 43% having access to 30 or more channels via Freeview. The licence that funds the seven advertising-free BBC TV channels currently costs £139.50 a year (about US$215) regardless of the number of TV sets owned. When the same sporting event has been presented on both BBC and commercial channels, the BBC always attracts the lion's share of the audience, indicating that viewers prefer to watch TV uninterrupted by advertising.\n\nOther than internal promotional material, the Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC) carries no advertising; it is banned under the [http://www.comlaw.gov.au/ComLaw/Legislation/ActCompilation1.nsf/all/search/8B104AA963F8AB9FCA25718D002260DC ABC Act 1983]. The ABC receives its funding from the Australian government every three years. In the 2014/15 federal budget, the ABC received A$1.11 billion. The funds provide for the ABC's television, radio, online, and international outputs. The ABC also receives funds from its many ABC shops across Australia. Although funded by the Australian government, the editorial independence of the ABC is ensured through law.\n\nIn France, government-funded channels carry advertisements, yet those who own television sets have to pay an annual tax (\"la redevance audiovisuelle\"). \n\nIn Japan, NHK is paid for by license fees (known in Japanese as ). The broadcast law that governs NHK's funding stipulates that any television equipped to receive NHK is required to pay. The fee is standardized, with discounts for office workers and students who commute, as well a general discount for residents of Okinawa prefecture.\n\nSocial aspects\n\nTelevision has played a pivotal role in the socialization of the 20th and 21st centuries. There are many aspects of television that can be addressed, including negative issues such as media violence. Current research is discovering that individuals suffering from social isolation can employ television to create what is termed a parasocial or faux relationship with characters from their favorite television shows and movies as a way of deflecting feelings of loneliness and social deprivation. \n\nSeveral studies have found that educational television has many advantages. The [http://wayback.archive.org/web/20060202123356/http://www.media-awareness.ca/english/corporate/about_us/index.cfm Media Awareness Network], explains in its article \"The Good Things about Television\" that television can be a very powerful and effective learning tool for children if used wisely.\n\nEnvironmental aspects\n\nWith high lead content in CRTs and the rapid diffusion of new flat-panel display technologies, some of which (LCDs) use lamps which contain mercury, there is growing concern about electronic waste from discarded televisions. Related occupational health concerns exist, as well, for disassemblers removing copper wiring and other materials from CRTs. Further environmental concerns related to television design and use relate to the devices' increasing electrical energy requirements." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "1920's", "1920s (decade)", "1920s", "1920-1929", "1920–1929", "Twenties", "The Twenties", "Nineteen twenties", "'20s", "1920s literature", "Social issues of the 1920s", "Nineteen-twenties" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "1920–1929", "1920 1929", "1920s decade", "nineteen twenties", "1920 s", "1920s", "1920s literature", "twenties", "social issues of 1920s", "20s" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "1920s", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "1920s" }
Who sang the title song for the Bond film License To Kill?	tc_531	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "Search" ], "filename": [ "Licence_to_Kill.txt", "Licence_to_Kill_(soundtrack).txt" ], "title": [ "Licence to Kill", "Licence to Kill (soundtrack)" ], "wiki_context": [ "Licence to Kill, released in 1989, is the sixteenth entry in the James Bond film series by Eon Productions, and the first one not to use the title of an Ian Fleming story. It is the fifth and final consecutive Bond film to be directed by John Glen. It also marks Timothy Dalton's second and final performance in the role of James Bond. The story has elements of two Ian Fleming short stories and a novel, interwoven with aspects from Japanese Rōnin tales. The film sees Bond being suspended from MI6 as he pursues drugs lord Franz Sanchez, who has ordered an attack against his CIA friend Felix Leiter and a rape and murder on Felix's wife during their honeymoon. Originally titled Licence Revoked in line with the plot, the name was changed during post-production because too many people did not know what revoked meant.\n\nBudgetary reasons caused Licence to Kill to be the first Bond film shot completely outside the United Kingdom, with locations in both Florida and Mexico. The film earned over $156 million worldwide, and enjoyed a generally positive critical reception, with ample praise for the stunts, but attracted some criticism of Dalton's dark and violent interpretation of Bond and the fact that the film was significantly darker and more violent than its predecessors.\n\nAfter the release of Licence to Kill, legal wrangling over control of the series and the James Bond character resulted in a six-year-long delay in production of the next Bond film which resulted in Dalton deciding not to return. It is also the final Bond film for actors Robert Brown (as M) and Caroline Bliss (as Moneypenny), screenwriter Richard Maibaum, title designer Maurice Binder, editor John Grover, cinematographer Alec Mills, director and former Bond film editor John Glen, and producer Albert R. Broccoli, although he would later act as a consulting producer for GoldenEye before his death.\n\nPlot\n\nDEA agents collect MI6 agent James Bond and Felix Leiter, on their way to Leiter's wedding in Key West, to have them assist in capturing drugs lord Franz Sanchez. Bond and Leiter capture Sanchez by attaching a hook and cord to Sanchez's plane and pulling it out of the air with a Coast Guard helicopter. Afterwards, Bond and Leiter parachute down to the church in time for the ceremony.\n\nSanchez bribes DEA agent Ed Killifer and escapes. Meanwhile, Sanchez's henchman Dario and his crew ambush Leiter and his wife Della and take Leiter to an aquarium owned by one of Sanchez's accomplices, Milton Krest. Sanchez has Leiter lowered into a tank holding a great white. When Bond learns Sanchez has escaped, he returns to Leiter's house to find Leiter has been maimed and that Della has been murdered—and by implication raped. Bond, with Leiter's friend Sharkey, start their own investigation. They discover a marine research centre run by Krest, where Sanchez has hidden cocaine and a submarine for smuggling.\n\nAfter Bond kills Killifer, M meets Bond in Key West's Hemingway House and orders him to an assignment in Istanbul, Turkey. Bond resigns after turning down the assignment, but M suspends Bond instead and revokes his licence to kill. Bond becomes a rogue agent, although he later receives unauthorised assistance from Q.\n\nBond boards Krest's ship the Wavekrest and foils Sanchez's latest drug shipment, stealing five million dollars in the process. He discovers that Sharkey had been killed by Sanchez's henchmen. Bond rescues Pam Bouvier, an ex-CIA agent and pilot, from Dario at a Bimini bar, and journeys with her to the Republic of Isthmus. He finds his way into Sanchez's employment by posing as an assassin for hire. Two Hong Kong Narcotics Bureau officers foil Bond's attempt to assassinate Sanchez and take him to an abandoned warehouse. They are joined by Fallon, an MI6 agent who was sent by M to apprehend Bond. Sanchez's men rescue him and kill the officers, believing them to be the assassins. Later, with the aid of Bouvier, Q, and Sanchez's girlfriend Lupe Lamora, Bond frames Krest by planting the $5 million in the Wavekrest. Sanchez kills Krest and admits Bond into his inner circle.\n\nSanchez takes Bond to his base, which is disguised as headquarters of a religious cult. Bond learns that Sanchez's scientists can dissolve cocaine in petrol and then sell it disguised as fuel to Asian drug dealers. The televangelist Professor Joe Butcher serves as middleman, working under Sanchez's business manager Truman-Lodge. During Sanchez's presentation to potential Asian customers, Dario discovers Bond and betrays him to Sanchez. Bond starts a fire in the laboratory, but is captured again and placed on the conveyor belt that drops the brick-cocaine into a giant shredder. Bouvier arrives and shoots Dario, allowing Bond to pull Dario into the shredder, killing him.\n\nSanchez flees as fire consumes his base, taking with him four tankers full of the cocaine and petrol mixture. Bond pursues them by plane, with Bouvier at the controls. Bond destroys three of the tankers and kills several of Sanchez's men. Sanchez attacks Bond with a machete aboard the final remaining tanker, which crashes down a hill side. A petrol-soaked Sanchez attempts to kill Bond with his machete. Bond then reveals his cigarette lighter – the Leiters' gift for being the best man at their wedding – and sets Sanchez on fire. Sanchez stumbles into the wrecked tanker, blowing it up and killing himself. Bouvier arrives and rescues Bond.\n\nLater, a party is held at Sanchez's former residence. Bond receives a call from Leiter telling him that M is offering him his job back. He then rejects Lupe's advances and romances Bouvier instead.\n\nCast\n\n* Timothy Dalton as James Bond, an MI6 agent who resigns to take his revenge on drug lord Franz Sanchez\n* Carey Lowell as Pam Bouvier, an ex-Army pilot and CIA informant\n* Robert Davi as Franz Sanchez, the most powerful drug lord in Latin America, mentioned as having been wanted by the DEA for years.\n* Talisa Soto as Lupe Lamora, Sanchez's girlfriend who has romantic feelings for Bond\n* Anthony Zerbe as Milton Krest, Sanchez's henchman who operates Wavekrest Marine Research, and whom Bond sets up to turn Sanchez against him\n* Frank McRae as Sharkey, a friend of Felix Leiter who owns a boat charter business\n* Everett McGill as Ed Killifer, a corrupt DEA official who frees Sanchez from custody\n* Wayne Newton as Professor Joe Butcher, Sanchez's middleman and TV evangelist for Olimpatec Meditation Institute\n* Benicio del Toro as Dario, Sanchez's personal henchman\n* Anthony Starke as Truman-Lodge, Sanchez's financial advisor\n* Pedro Armendáriz, Jr. as President Hector Lopez, the president of Isthmus\n* Desmond Llewelyn as Q, Bond's ally who supplies Bond with various gadgets and helps him on the field\n* David Hedison as Felix Leiter, a former CIA agent now with DEA and a close friend of James Bond\n* Priscilla Barnes as Della Churchill, Felix Leiter's bride\n* Robert Brown as M, the head of MI6 and Bond's superior who revokes Bond's double-0 licence\n* Caroline Bliss as Miss Moneypenny, M's personal secretary\n* Don Stroud as Colonel Heller, Sanchez's head of security\n* Grand L. Bush as Hawkins, a DEA Agent who opposes Bond's vendetta\n* Cary-Hiroyuki Tagawa as Kwang, a Hong Kong Police Narcotics agent sent to infiltrate Sanchez's heart of operations\n* Christopher Neame as Fallon, an MI6 agent sent by M to arrest Bond, dead or alive\n* Diana Lee Hsu as Loti, a female Hong Kong Narcotics agent working with Kwang\n\nProduction\n\nShortly after The Living Daylights was released, producer Albert R. Broccoli and writers Michael G. Wilson and Richard Maibaum started discussing its successor. The film would retain a realistic style, as well as showing the \"darker edge\" of the Bond character. For the primary location, the producers wanted a place where the series had not yet visited. While China was visited after an invitation by its government, the idea fell through partly because the 1987 film The Last Emperor had removed some of the novelty from filming in China. By this stage the writers had already talked about a chase sequence along the Great Wall, as well as a fight scene amongst the Terracotta Army. Wilson also wrote two plot outlines about a drug lord in the Golden Triangle before the plans fell through. The writers eventually decided on a setting in a tropical country while Broccoli negotiated to film in Mexico, at the Estudios Churubusco in Mexico City. In 1985, the Films Act was passed, removing the Eady Levy, resulting in foreign artists being taxed more heavily. The associated rising costs to Eon Productions meant no part of Licence to Kill was filmed in the UK, the first Bond film not to do so. Pinewood Studios, used in every previous Bond film, housed only the post-production and sound re-recording.\n\nWriting and themes\n\nThe initial outline of what would become Licence to Kill was drawn up by Wilson and Maibaum. Before the pair could develop the script, the Writers Guild of America (WGA) went on strike and Maibaum was unable to continue writing, leaving Wilson to work on the script on his own. Although both the main plot and title of Licence to Kill owe nothing to any of the Fleming novels, there are elements from the books that are used in the storyline, including a number of aspects of the short story \"The Hildebrand Rarity\", such as the character Milton Krest. The novel Live and Let Die provided the material surrounding Felix Leiter's mauling by a shark, whilst the film version of the book provided the close similarity between the main villain, Kananga, and Licence to Kills main villain Sanchez. The screenplay was not ready by the time casting had begun, with Carey Lowell being auditioned with lines from A View to a Kill.\n\nThe script—initially called Licence Revoked—was written with Dalton's characterisation of Bond in mind, and the obsession with which Bond pursues Sanchez on behalf of Leiter and his dead wife is seen as being because \"of his own brutally cut-short marriage.\" Dalton's darker portrayal of Bond led to the violence being increased and more graphic. Wilson compared the script to Akira Kurosawa's Yojimbo, where a samurai \"without any attacking of the villain or its cohorts, only sowing the seeds of distrust, he manages to have the villain bring himself down\". Wilson freely admitted that the idea of the destruction-from-within aspect of the plot came more from the cinema versions of the Japanese Rōnin tales by Kurosawa or Sergio Leone than from Fleming's use of that plot device from The Man with the Golden Gun. For the location Wilson created the Republic of Isthmus, a banana republic based on Panama, with the pock-marked Sanchez bearing similarities to General Manuel Noriega. The parallels between the two figures were based on Noriega's political use of drug trafficking and money laundering to provide revenues for Panama. Robert Davi suggested the line \"loyalty is more important than money\", which he felt was fitting to the character of Franz Sanchez, whose actions were noticed by Davi to be concerned with betrayal and retaliation.\n\nThe United Artists press kits referred to the film's background as being \"Torn straight from the headlines of today's newspapers\" and the backdrop of Panama was connected to \"the Medellín Cartel in Colombia and corruption of government officials in Mexico thrown in for good measure.\" This use of the cocaine-smuggling backdrop put Licence to Kill alongside other cinema blockbusters, such as the 1987 films Lethal Weapon, Beverly Hills Cop II and RoboCop, and Bond was seen to be \"poaching on their turf\" with the drug-related revenge story.\n\nCasting\n\nAfter Carey Lowell was chosen to play Pam Bouvier, she watched many of the films in the series for inspiration. Lowell had described becoming a Bond girl as \"huge shoes to fill\", as she did not see herself as a \"glamour girl\", even coming to audition in jeans and a leather jacket. While Lowell wore a wig for the scenes set in the United States, a scene where Bouvier is given money and told by Bond to go and buy some new clothes (and, going off and doing so, also has her hair cut) was added so that Lowell's own short hair style could be used. \n\nRobert Davi was cast following a suggestion by Broccoli's daughter Tina, and screenwriter Richard Maibaum, who had seen Davi in the television film Terrorist on Trial: The United States vs. Salim Ajami. To portray Sanchez, Davi researched on the Colombian drug cartels and how to do a Colombian accent, and since he was method acting, he would stay in character off-set. After Davi read Casino Royale for preparation, he decided to turn Sanchez into a \"mirror image\" of James Bond, based on Ian Fleming's descriptions of Le Chiffre. The actor also learned scuba diving for the scene where Sanchez is rescued from the sunken armoured car.\n\nDavi later helped out on the casting of Sanchez's mistress Lupe Lamora, by playing Bond in the audition, with Talisa Soto being picked from twelve candidates because Davi expressed he \"would kill for her\". David Hedison returned to play Felix Leiter, sixteen years after being the agent in Live and Let Die. Hedison did not expect to return to the role, saying \"I was sure that [Live and Let Die] would be my first – and last\" and Glen was reluctant to cast the 61-year-old actor, since the role even had a scene parachuting. Hedison was the only actor to play Leiter twice, until Jeffrey Wright appeared in both Casino Royale and Quantum of Solace. \n\nUp-and-coming actor Benicio del Toro was chosen to play Sanchez's henchman, Dario for being \"laid back while menacing in a quirky sort of way\", according to Glen. Wayne Newton got the role of Professor Joe Butcher after sending a letter to the producers expressing interest in a cameo because he always wanted to be in a Bond film. The President of Isthmus was played by Pedro Armendáriz, Jr., the son of Pedro Armendáriz, who played Ali Kerim Bey in From Russia with Love. \n\nFilming\n\nPrincipal photography ran from 18 July to 18 November 1988. Shooting began in Mexico, which mostly doubled for the fictional Republic of Isthmus: locations in Mexico City included the Biblioteca del Banco de Mexico for the exterior of El Presidente Hotel and the Casino Español for the interior of Casino de Isthmus whilst the Teatro de la Ciudad was used for its exterior. Villa Arabesque in Acapulco was used for Sanchez's lavish villa, and the La Rumorosa Mountain Pass in Tecate was used as the filming site for the tanker chase during the climax of the film. Sanchez's Olympiatec Meditation Institute was shot at the Otomi Ceremonial Center in Temoaya. Other underwater sequences were shot at the Isla Mujeres near Cancún.\n\nIn August 1988, production moved to the Florida Keys, notably Key West. Seven Mile Bridge towards Pigeon Key was used for the sequence in which the armoured truck transporting Sanchez, following his arrest, is driven off the edge. Other locations there included Ernest Hemingway House, Key West International Airport, Mallory Square, St. Mary's Star of the Sea Church for Leiter's wedding and Stephano's House 707 South Street for his house and patio. The US Coast Guard Pier was used to film Isthmus City harbour. As production moved back to Mexico, Broccoli became ill, leading to Michael G. Wilson becoming co-producer, a position he subsequently retained.\n\nThe scene where Sanchez's plane is hijacked was filmed on location in Florida, with stuntman Jake Lombard jumping from a helicopter to a plane and Dalton himself being filmed atop the aircraft. The plane towed by the helicopter was a life-sized model created by special effects supervisor John Richardson. After filming wide shots of David Hedison and Dalton parachuting, closer shots were made near the church location. During one of the takes, a malfunction of the harness equipment caused Hedison to fall on the pavement. The injury made him limp for the remainder of filming. The aquatic battle between Bond and the henchmen required two separate units, a surface one led by Arthur Wooster which used Dalton himself, and an underwater one which involved experienced divers. The barefoot waterskiing was done by world champion Dave Reinhart, with some close-ups using Dalton on a special rig. Milton Krest's death used a prostethic head which was created by John Richardson's team based on a mould of Anthony Zerbe's face. The result was so gruesome that it was shortened and toned down to avoid censorship problems.\n\nFor the climactic tanker chase, the producers used an entire section of a highway near Mexicali, which had been closed for safety reasons. Sixteen eighteen-wheeler tankers were used, some with modifications made by manufacturer Kenworth at the request of driving stunts arranger Rémy Julienne. Most were given improvements to their engines to run faster, while one model had an extra steering wheel on the back of the cabin so a hidden stuntman could drive while Carey Lowell was in the front and another received extra suspension on its back so it could lift its front wheels. Although a rig was constructed to help a rig tilt onto its side, it was not necessary as Julienne was able to pull off the stunt without the aid of camera trickery. \n\nMusic\n\nInitially Vic Flick, who had played lead guitar on Monty Norman's original 007 theme, and Eric Clapton were asked to write and perform the theme song to Licence to Kill and they produced a theme to match Dalton's gritty performance, but the producers turned it down and instead Gladys Knight's song and performance was chosen. The song (one of the longest to ever be used in a Bond film) was based on the \"horn line\" from Goldfinger, seen as an homage to the film of the same name, which required royalty payments to the original writers. The song gave Knight her first British top-ten hit since 1977. The end credits feature the Top 10 R&B hit \"If You Asked Me To\", sung by Patti LaBelle. \n\nJohn Barry was not available at the time due to throat surgery, so the soundtrack's score was composed and conducted by Michael Kamen, who was known for scoring many action films at the time, such as Lethal Weapon and Die Hard. Glen said he picked Kamen, feeling he could give \"the closest thing to John Barry.\"\n\nRelease and reception\n\nFilm ratings organisations had objections to the excessive and realistic violence, with both the Motion Picture Association of America and the British Board of Film Classification requesting content adaptations, with the BBFC in particular demanding the cut of 36 seconds of film. The 2006 Ultimate Edition DVD of Licence to Kill marked the first release of the film without cuts. \n\nLicence to Kill premiered at the Odeon Leicester Square in London on , raising £200,000 (£ in pounds) for The Prince's Trust on the night. The film grossed a total of £7.5 million (£ million in pounds) in the United Kingdom, making it the seventh most successful film of the year, despite the 15 certificate which cut down audience numbers. Worldwide numbers were also positive, with $156 million, making it the twelfth biggest box-office draw of the year. The US cinema returns were $34.6 million, making Licence to Kill the least financially successful James Bond film in the US, when accounting for inflation. A factor suggested for the poor takings were fierce competition at the cinema, with Licence to Kill released alongside Lethal Weapon 2; Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade (starring former Bond, Sean Connery) and Batman.\n\nThere were also issues with the promotion of the film: promotional material in the form of teaser posters created by Bob Peak, based on the Licence Revoked title and commissioned by Albert Broccoli, had been produced, but MGM decided against using them after American test screenings showed 'Licence Revoked' to be a common American phrase for the withdrawal of a driving licence. The delayed, corrected advertising by Steven Chorney, in the traditional style, limited the film's pre-release screenings. MGM also discarded a campaign created by advertising executive Don Smolen – who had worked in the publicity campaign for eight Bond films before – emphasising the rougher content of the movie. \n\nContemporary reviews\n\nDerek Malcolm in The Guardian was broadly approving of Licence to Kill, liking the \"harder edge of the earlier Bonds\" that the film emulated, but wishing that \"it was written and directed with a bit more flair.\" Malcolm praised the way the film attempted \"to tell a story rather than use one for the decorative purposes of endless spectacular tropes.\" Writing in The Guardians sister paper, The Observer, Philip French noted that \"despite the playful sparkle in his eyes, Timothy Dalton's Bond is ... serious here.\" Overall French called Licence to Kill \"an entertaining, untaxing film\". Ian Christie in the Daily Express excoriated the film, saying that the plot was \"absurd but fundamentally dull\", a further problem being that as \"there isn't a coherent storyline to link [the stunts], they eventually become tiresome.\"\n\nHilary Mantel in The Spectator dismissed the film. \"It is a very noisy film. There is a weary and repetitive note to the frenzy. The sex is low key and off-screen but there is a smirking perverse undertow which makes the film more disagreeable than a slasher movie.\" \n\nDavid Robinson, writing in The Times observed that Licence to Kill \"will probably neither disappoint nor surprise the great, faithful audience\", but bemoaned the fact that \"over the years the plots have become less ambitious\". Robinson thought that Dalton's Bond \"has more class\" than the previous Bonds and was \"a warmer personality\". Iain Johnstone of The Sunday Times pointed out that \"any vestiges of the gentleman spy ... by Ian Fleming\" have now gone, and in its place is a Bond that is \"remarkably close both in deed and action to the eponymous hero of the Batman film\" that was released at the same time as Licence to Kill.\n\nAdam Mars-Jones of The Independent gave the film a mixed review, pointing out that it took out some of the more dated ideas from the Fleming novels, such as imperialism; he wrote that the writers were \"trying in effect to reproduce the recipe while leaving out ingredients that would now seem distasteful\". Overall Mars-Jones thought that \"James Bond is more like a low-tar cigarette than anything else – less stimulating than the throat-curdling gaspers of yesteryear, but still naggingly implicated in unhealthiness, a feeble bad habit without the kick of a vice.\"\n\nFor the Canadian newspaper The Globe and Mail, Rick Groen wrote that in Licence to Kill \"they've excised Bond from the Bond flicks; they've turned James into Jimmy, strong and silent and (roll over, Britannia) downright American\", resulting in a Bond film that is \"essentially Bond-less\". Summing up, Groen thought \"Actually, that dialogue ... ain't bad. The silence looks good on Timothy Dalton\".\n\nGary Arnold of The Washington Times wrote that a number of factors \"fail to prevent the finished product from jamming and misfiring with disillusioning frequency\". Arnold opined that \"demanding that he [Dalton] play Bond's wrathfulness in a transparently seething and hotheaded manner\" means that Dalton \"seems to waste away on this second outing as Bond.\" Overall Arnold sees that there is a \"failure to recognize that Bond productions are simply too extravagant to permit an uncompromised return to first principles.\" The critic for The New York Times, Caryn James, thought Dalton was \"the first James Bond with angst, a moody spy for the fin de siecle\", and that Licence to Kill \"retains its familiar, effective mix of despicably powerful villains, suspiciously tantalizing women and ever-wilder special effects\", but was impressed that \"Dalton's glowering presence adds a darker tone\". James concluded that \"for all its clever updatings, stylish action and witty escapism, Licence to Kill ... is still a little too much by the book.\"\n\nRoger Ebert for the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film 3½ stars out of 4, saying \"the stunts all look convincing, and the effect of the closing sequence is exhilarating ... Licence to Kill is one of the best of the recent Bonds.\" Jack Kroll, writing in Newsweek described Licence to Kill as \"a pure, rousingly entertaining action movie\". Kroll was mixed in his appraisal of Dalton, calling him \"a fine actor who hasn't yet stamped Bond with his own personality\", observing \"Director John Glen is the Busby Berkeley of action flicks, and his chorus line is the legendary team of Bond stunt-persons who are at their death-defying best here\". For Time magazine, Richard Corliss bemoaned that although the truck stunts were good, it was \"a pity nobody – not writers Michael G. Wilson, and Richard Maibaum nor director John Glen – thought to give the humans anything very clever to do.\" Corliss found Dalton \"misused\" in the film, adding that \"for every plausible reason, he looks as bored in his second Bond film as Sean Connery did in his sixth.\"\n\nReflective reviews\n\nOpinion on Licence to Kill has not changed with the passing of time and the reviews are still mixed: though film review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes lists the film with a positive 77% \"fresh\" rating from 52 reviews. Tom Hibbert of Empire gives the film only two of a possible five stars, observing that \"Dalton ... is really quite hopeless\". Hibbert concluded that \"he may look the part, but Timothy Dalton fails the boots, the scuba gear, or the automobiles left him by Moore and Connery.\" In 2006, IGN ranked Licence to Kill fifteenth out of the then 21 Bond films, claiming it is \"too grim and had strayed too far from the Bond formula.\" That same year, Benjamin Svetkey and Joshua Rich of Entertainment Weekly ranked the film as second worst in the series, questioning Wayne Newton's cameo, and considering that \"not even Benicio Del Toro in an early role as a henchman is enough to pep up the action.\" The magazine also listed Pam Bouvier seventh on their list of worst Bond girls, saying Carey Lowell \"fumbled this attempt at giving 007 a modern, independent counterpart by turning her into a nagging pest.\" \n\nNorman Wilner of MSN considered Licence to Kill the second worst Bond film, above only A View to a Kill, but defended Dalton, saying he \"got a raw deal. The actor who could have been the definitive 007 ... had the bad luck to inherit the role just as the series was at its weakest, struggling to cope with its general creative decline and the end of the Cold War\". In October 2008 Time Out re-issued a review of Licence to Kill and also thought that Dalton was unfortunate, saying \"one has to feel for Dalton, who was never given a fair shake by either of the films in which he appeared\". On a more positive note, Chuck O'Leary of Fantastica Daily remarked that it was a rare entry in the Bond series where the danger seems real. \n\nSome critics, such as James Berardinelli, saw a fundamental weakness in the film: the \"overemphasis on story may be a mistake, because there are times when Licence to Kills narrative bogs down.\" Berardinelli gave the film three out of a possible four stars, adding \"Licence to Kill may be taut and gripping, but it's not traditional Bond, and that, as much as any other reason, may explain the public's rejection of this reasonably well-constructed picture.\" Raymond Benson, the author of nine Bond novels, said of the film: \"It boggles my mind that Licence to Kill is so controversial. There's really more of a true Ian Fleming story in that script than in most of the post-60s Bond movies.\" John Glen has said Licence to Kill \"is among my best Bond films, if not the best\".\n\nAppearances in other media\n\nThe Licence to Kill screenplay was written into a novel by the then-novelist of the Bond series John Gardner. It was the first of those novels since Moonraker in 1979. \n\nLicence to Kill was also adapted as a forty-four page, colour graphic novel, by writer and artist Mike Grell (also author of original-story Bond comic books), published by Eclipse Comics and ACME Press in hardcover and trade editions in 1989. The adaptation closely follows the film story, although the ending is briefer, and James Bond is not drawn to resemble Timothy Dalton after Dalton refused to allow his likeness to be licensed. Domark also published a video game adaptation, 007: Licence to Kill, to various personal computers.\n\nAwards and nominations\n\n* 1990 Edgar Allan Poe Award - Best Motion Picture - nomination for Michael G. Wilson and Richard Maibaum \n* 1989 MPSE Golden Reel - Outstanding Sound Mixing - nomination for Graham Hartstone", "The soundtrack to Licence to Kill, the 16th James Bond film of the same name, was released by MCA Records in 1989.\n\nBecause the usual James Bond composer John Barry (who had scored almost every film from From Russia with Love onwards) was not available at the time as he was undergoing throat surgery, the soundtrack's more upbeat and suspenseful score was composed and conducted by Michael Kamen.\n\nInitially Eric Clapton and Vic Flick were asked to write and perform the theme song to Licence to Kill. The theme was said to have been a new version based on the James Bond Theme. The guitar riff heard in the original recording of the theme was played by Flick. \n\nThe prospect, however, fell apart and Gladys Knight's song and performance was chosen, later becoming a Top 10 hit in the United Kingdom. The song was composed by Narada Michael Walden, Jeffrey Cohen and Walter Afanasieff, based on the \"horn line\" from Goldfinger, which required royalty payments to the original writers. At five-minutes twelve seconds it is the longest Bond theme. The music video of \"Licence to Kill\" was directed by Daniel Kleinman, who later took over the reins of title designer from Maurice Binder for the 1995 Bond film, GoldenEye.\n\nAll the instrumental tracks are amalgams of various sequences and musical cues from the film rather than straight score excerpts. The end credits of the film feature the song \"If You Asked Me To\" sung by Patti LaBelle. Though the song was a top ten R&B charter and a minor pop hit for LaBelle, in 1992, the song was covered by and became a much bigger hit for singer Céline Dion. The track \"Wedding Party\", used during the wedding of Felix Leiter to Della Churchill, makes reference to the track \"Jump Up\" from the first Bond film, Dr. No.\n\nTrack listing\n\n# \"Licence to Kill\" – Gladys Knight\n# \"Wedding Party\" – Ivory\n# \"Dirty Love\" – Tim Feehan\n# \"Pam\"\n# \"If You Asked Me To\" – Patti LaBelle\n# \"James & Felix on Their Way to Church\"contains the James Bond Theme, originally composed for the Dr. No soundtrack\n# \"His Funny Valentine\"\n# \"Sanchez Is in the Bahamas/Shark Fishing\"\n# \"Ninja\"\n# \"Licence Revoked\"" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Gladys Knight", "Gladys Maria Knight", "Empress of soul", "Gladys Knight & Ron Winans' Chicken & Waffles", "Empress of Soul" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "empress of soul", "gladys knight ron winans chicken waffles", "gladys knight", "gladys maria knight" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "gladys knight", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Gladys Knight" }
Black or White came from which Michael Jackson album?	tc_534	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Black_or_White.txt", "Michael_Jackson.txt" ], "title": [ "Black or White", "Michael Jackson" ], "wiki_context": [ "\"Black or White\" is a single by American singer-songwriter Michael Jackson. The song was released by Epic Records on November 11, 1991 as the first single from Jackson's eighth studio album, Dangerous. It was written, composed and produced by Michael Jackson and Bill Bottrell.\n\nBackground and composition\n\n\"Black or White\" was written, composed and produced by Michael Jackson and Bill Bottrell, and was picked as the first single from the album Dangerous. An alternate version was first heard by Sony executives on a plane trip to Neverland, as the third track of the promotional CD acetate. It began to be promoted on radio stations the first week of November 1991 in New York and Los Angeles. \"Black or White\" was officially released one week later, on November 5, 1991. The song has elements of dance, rap and hard rock music such as Bill Bottrell's guitars and Jackson's vocal style. This song is played in the key of E major, with Jackson's vocal spanning from E3 to B4, and its tempo is measured at 115 BPM. \n\nThe song's main riff is often incorrectly attributed to Guns N' Roses guitarist Slash. His guitar playing is actually heard in the skit that precedes the album version of the song. \n\nReception\n\nTo prepare the audience for the special occasion of the televised premiere of the \"Black or White\" video, Epic records released the song (without the accompanying images) to radio stations just two days in advance. In a period of twenty-four hours, \"Black or White\", described by the record company as \"a rock 'n' roll dance song about racial harmony\", had been added to the playlists of 96 percent of 237 of the United States of America's top forty radio stations the first day of release. \n\n\"Black or White\" entered the Billboard Hot 100 at number 35. A week later it shot up to number three and in its third week, December 7, 1991, it ascended to number one, making it the fastest chart topper since The Beatles' \"Get Back\" also won the Hot 100 in just three weeks in 1969. It closed the year at number one, and remained at the top of the singles chart into 1992 for a total of seven weeks, making Michael Jackson the first artist to have number one popular hits in the 1970s, 1980s and 1990s. In the UK, the single became the first single by an American to go into the singles chart at number one since 1960, when \"It's Now or Never\" by Elvis Presley did in the same manner. Around the world, \"Black or White\" hit number one in 20 countries, including the US, the UK, Canada, Mexico, Cuba, Turkey, Zimbabwe, Australia, New Zealand, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Norway, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and the Eurochart Hot 100, number two in Germany and Austria and number three in the Netherlands. The single was certified platinum in the US, selling over one million copies and became the second best selling single of the year.\n\nReviews of the song were generally favorable. David Browne praised: \"He still knows how to fashion a hook that will take up permanent residence in your brain (away from its video, Black or White is spare and effortless)\" Rolling Stones Allan Light in his Dangerous review, compares the song unfavourably to \"Beat It\": \"Neither this slow-burn solo nor the Stones-derived riff on 'Black or White' offers the catharsis of Eddie Van Halen's blazing break on 'Beat It'\". Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic highlighted the song. The prestigious Pazz & Jop critics' poll ranked \"Black or White\" at number 19. \n\nRemixes\n\nThe Clivillés & Cole remixes for \"Black or White\", released as a promotional single in 1992, also charted on many European countries. In the UK, it reached number 14, and in Ireland, number 11. The promotional single also surprisingly peaked at number 18 in Australia. Despite the favourable European response to this remix, it was never included on a Michael Jackson album or compilation, except on the third disc of the French & UK versions of Jackson's greatest hits album King of Pop.\n\nMusic video\n\nSynopsis\n\nThe music video for \"Black or White\" was first broadcast on MTV, BET, VH1, and Fox (giving them their highest Nielsen ratings ever) on November 14, 1991. Along with Jackson, it featured Macaulay Culkin, Tess Harper, and George Wendt. The video was directed by John Landis, who previously directed Thriller. It was choreographed by Vincent Paterson. It premiered simultaneously in 27 countries, with an audience of 500 million viewers, the most ever for a music video.\n\nThe first few minutes of the video feature an extended version of the song's intro. During this interlude (sometimes compared to Marty Callner's 1984 \"We're Not Gonna Take It\" video for Twisted Sister ) an 11-year-old kid (Macaulay Culkin) is dancing to rock music in his bedroom at night, causing four baseball team bobbleheads (from left to right, the Giants, the Pirates, the Dodgers, and the Rangers). This attracts the attention of his grouchy father (George Wendt), who furiously orders him to stop playing the music and go to bed. After his father storms out and slams the door behind him (causing a Michael Jackson poster on the door to fall off and its glass frame to smash), the boy retaliates by setting up large speaker cabinets (with levels of \"LOUD\", \"LOUDER\", and \"ARE YOU NUTS!?!\", respectively; with the dial turned up all the way to \"ARE YOU NUTS!?!\") behind his father's reclining chair, donning leather gloves and sunglasses, strapping on a Wolfgang guitar and playing a power chord, and telling the father to \"Eat this!\". The sound then shatters and destroys the house windows and sends his father (seated in the chair) halfway around the world, where the actual song begins. The kid's mother (Tess Harper), comments that his father will be very upset when he gets back. The album version of the song does not feature Culkin's nor Wendt's voice; they are replaced by voice actors performing a similar intro. The boy's father crashes in Africa, and Jackson sings \"Black or White\", surrounded by various cultures scene-by-scene.\n\nThe video shows scenes in which African hunters begin dancing by using moves from West African dance, with Jackson following their moves and them mirroring his; as do, in sequence, traditional Thai dancers, Plains Native Americans (located at the Vasquez Rocks formation in California), an Odissi dancer from India and a group of Russians (wearing Ukrainian clothing and dancing Hopak). Jackson walks through visual collages of fire (defiantly declaring \"I ain't scared of no sheets; I ain't scared of nobody\"), referring to KKK torch ceremonies before a mock rap scene shared with Culkin and other children. The group collectively states, \"I'm not gonna spend my life being a color.\" The final verse is performed by Jackson on a large sculpted torch, which the camera pans out to reveal as the Statue of Liberty. Jackson is seen singing on Lady Liberty's torch surrounded by other famous world edifices including The Giza Sphinx, Hagia Sophia, Pamukkale, The Parthenon, Taj Mahal, St. Basil's Cathedral, Pyramids of Giza, Golden Gate Bridge, Big Ben and the Eiffel Tower.\n\nAt the end of the song, several different people, of differing races and nationalities, including actor Glen Chin, model Tyra Banks, actress Khrystyne Haje, and actor Jeffrey Anderson-Gunter dance as they morph into one another (shown as \"talking heads\"). This technique, previously executed without digital assistance in the Godley & Creme video for \"Cry\", known as morphing, had been previously used only in films such as Willow and Terminator 2. The morphing visual effects were created by Pacific Data Images.\n\nThe music video of the song appears on the video albums: Dangerous: The Short Films (long version), Video Greatest Hits – HIStory (long version, without graffiti on VHS version but with graffiti on DVD version), Number Ones (short version), and Michael Jackson's Vision (long version with graffiti).\n\nControversy and censorship\n\nControversy was generated concerning the last four minutes of the original music video. Jackson walks out of the studio as a black panther and then morphs into himself. Then he walks outside to perform some of his most physically complicated dance techniques, in a similar way to \"Billie Jean\". The scene is also very similar to that of a commercial Jackson appeared in for L.A. Gear in 1989. This part contained sexually suggestive scenes when Jackson starts to grab his crotch, and then zips his pants up. In the original version, Jackson is seen smashing windows, destroying a car and causing an inn (called the \"Royal Arms\") to explode. Jackson later apologized saying that the violent and suggestive behavior was an interpretation of the animal instinct of a black panther, and MTV and other music video networks removed the last four minutes from subsequent broadcasts. To make the vandalism and violence more understandable to viewers, an altered version was produced, adding racist graffiti to the windows Jackson breaks. The version included in the box set Michael Jackson's Vision is the aired, televised version without the graffiti, and does not include the \"prejudice is ignorance\" title card.\n\nTo date, the uncut version has generally been seen in the United States on MTV2 only between the hours of 01:00 and 04:00, as part of their special uncensored airing of the \"Most Controversial Music Videos\" of all time. The extended version is also available on Jackson's DVDs. The original version (without graffiti) is available on the DVD releases of Video Greatest Hits – HIStory with the VHS and Laserdisc release containing the aired version, and online at MTVMusic.com. It was still shown in its entirety for some years in Europe. Indeed, UK channel MTV Classic aired the full video at 14:00 on April 11, 2010, including the brief cameo by Bart Simpson and Homer Simpson before the \"prejudice is ignorance\" image. MTV Classic have continued to air the full video post-watershed and recently aired in September 2012.\n\nThe uncut version was shown in Australia at 11:45 pm AEST on Saturday June 2, 2012 as the first song on the weekly late night, guest-programmed music video show Rage, on ABC1.\n\nThe first version made available in the iTunes Store contains neither the panther scene nor The Simpsons cameo, and is cut after the morphing sequence. Since then, a new version has been released with the graffiti and The Simpsons cameo called \"Black or White (Michael Jackson's Vision).\"\n\nStarting in 1992, Nocturne Video Productions began playing the \"Panther Segment\" of the video as an interlude during Michael's Dangerous world tour. The clip is 20 seconds shorter than the original, omitting all the violence and the sexually suggestive scenes. The scene of the pants re-zipping was retained. In predominantly Islamic countries during the HIStory Tour, the scene was replaced with the Carmina Burana \"Brace Yourself\" montage originally used as the intro in the previous Dangerous Tour. On March 28, 2009, the Australian Broadcasting Corporation's music video program Rage aired the uncensored, original graffiti version in its entirety in a 720p digital broadcast. Even though the short, censored version continues to air periodically to this day, some television channels still broadcast the complete racist graffiti version.\n\nTrack listings\n\nMaxi CD\n# \"Black or White\" (single version) – 3:22\n# \"Black or White\" (instrumental) – 3:22\n# \"Smooth Criminal\" – 4:13\n\n7\" single and 3\" CD\n# \"Black or White\" (single version) – 3:22\n# \"Black or White\" (instrumental) – 3:22\n\n12\" single\n# \"Black or White\" (The Clivilles & Cole House/Club Mix) – 7:36\n# \"Black or White\" (The Clivilles & Cole House/Dub Mix) – 6:34\n# \"Black or White\" (House with Guitar Radio Mix) – 3:53\n# \"Black or White\" (single version) – 3:22\n# \"Black or White\" (Instrumental) – 3:22\n# \"Black or White\" (Tribal Beats) – 3:38\n\nThe Clivillés & Cole Remixes\n# \"Black or White\" (The Clivillés & Cole House / Club Mix) – 7:36\n# \"Black or White\" (The Clivillés & Cole House / Dub Mix) – 6:34\n# \"Black or White\" (The Underground Club Mix) – 7:29\n# \"Black or White\" (House With Guitar Radio Mix) – 3:53\n# \"Black or White\" (Tribal Beats) – 3:38\n\nUK PAL VHS promo\n# \"Black or White\" (Extended Version) (Music Video) - 6:23\n\nVisionary CD side\n# \"Black or White\" (single version) – 3:22\n# \"Black or White\" (Clivillés & Cole House Guitar Radio Mix) – 3:53\n\nVisionary DVD side\n# \"Black or White\" (Music Video) – 11:00\n\nCovers and cultural impact\n\n\"Black or White\" has been covered by some artists since its release.\n\nIn 1992, \"Weird Al\" Yankovic recorded a parody of \"Black or White\" titled \"Snack All Night\", which however never released commercially. Yankovic performed his version during a concert. \nIn 2009, singer Adam Lambert performed the song on the 8th season of American Idol during the Michael Jackson episode, which was re-aired on June 29, in a tribute to the death of Jackson on June 25.\nIn the early 1990s, the children's show Sesame Street also spoofed the song with a song called \"Wet or Dry\". Little Chrissy responds to the question of what makes him happy: he likes having fun \"no matter if he's wet or dry\", and demonstrates by playing his piano on both a stage and underwater (surrounded by fish). \"Wet\" and \"dry\" are further demonstrated with several kids, Mr. Handford, and Maria getting buckets of water dumped on them. Both the song and video spoof \"Black or White\".\nIn 2013, as the new rules in the COP for rhythmic gymnastics allowed music with words. The Georgian gymnast Salome Phajava used a shortened version for her ribbon routine.\nIn 2013, the song was featured on a heavy metal tribute album as a tribute to Jackson's memory and legacy. The cover song featured Lajon Witherspoon of Sevendust on vocals and Bruce Kulick, formerly of KISS, on guitar.\n\nThe music video, particularly the \"Panther Segment\", have been referenced or parodied by television shows and artists.\nThe video, including the \"Panther Segment\" was parodied by the sketch comedy TV show In Living Color, in which Tommy Davidson appeared as Jackson, but instead of a panther, Davidson morphs from a tiny black kitten. At the end of the video, Jackson is arrested, and as he is being led off by the police, he muses, \"I guess I really am black.\" \nThe \"Panther Segment\" was also parodied by the popular American sketch comedy television series MADtv.\nIn 1991, English rock band Genesis parodied the \"Black or White\" video in the ending of their video for \"I Can't Dance\", in which member Phil Collins imitates Michael Jackson's \"panther\" fit in front of a stark white background. \nThe \"face morphing\" portion of the video was satirized in a music video spoof \"Garfield Rap\" on a 1993 episode of Garfield and Friends. \nIn 2011, Brooklyn hip hop group Das Racist released a music video for their song, titled \"Michael Jackson\", parodying the \"Black or White\" video. The song is features on the group's album Relax. \nIn 2012, the television show Glee covered the song in the episode \"Michael\", it features primary voices from Kevin McHale, Lea Michele, Chris Colfer and Naya Rivera, and backing vocals from the rest of the cast. Jenna Ushkowitz and Darren Criss are not featured in the song or the performance. This cover debuted and peaked at number 64 on the Billboard Hot 100, number 42 at Billboard Digital Songs, and number 69 at Billboard Canadian Hot 100 chart at the week of February 18, 2012.\n\nCharts and certifications\n\nPeak positions\n\nEnd-of-year charts\n\nEnd of decade charts\n\nCertification\n\nPersonnel\n\n* Written and composed by Michael Jackson\n* Rap lyrics by Bill Bottrell\n* Produced by Michael Jackson and Bill Bottrell\n* Recorded and mixed by Bill Bottrell\n* Bryan Loren: Drums\n* Brad Buxer and Bill Bottrell: Percussion\n* Bryan Loren (moog) and Terry Jackson (bass guitar): Bass\n* Brad Buxer, John Barnes and Jasun Martz: Keyboards\n* Bill Bottrell: Guitar\n* Tim Pierce: Heavy metal guitar\n* Michael Boddicker, Kevin Gilbert: Speed sequencer\n* Morphing Sound Effect: Scott Frankfurt\n* Rap performance by L.T.B. (pseudonym for Bill Bottrell) \n* \"Intro\":\n Composed by Bill Bottrell\n Directed by Michael Jackson\n Engineering and sound design: Matt Forger\n Special guitar performance by Slash\n Son played by Andres Mckenzie\n Father played by L.T.B.", "Michael Joseph Jackson (August 29, 1958 – June 25, 2009) was an American singer, songwriter, record producer, dancer, and actor. Called the King of Pop, his contributions to music, dance and fashion along with his publicized personal life made him a global figure in popular culture for over four decades.\n\nThe eighth child of the Jackson family, Michael made his professional debut in 1964 with his elder brothers Jackie, Tito, Jermaine, and Marlon as a member of the Jackson 5, and began his solo career in 1971. In the early 1980s, Jackson became a dominant figure in popular music. His music videos, including those of \"Beat It\", \"Billie Jean\", and \"Thriller\" from his 1982 album Thriller, are credited with breaking racial barriers and transforming the medium into an art form and promotional tool. The popularity of these videos helped bring the television channel MTV to fame. Jackson's 1987 album Bad spawned the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 number-one singles \"I Just Can't Stop Loving You\", \"Bad\", \"The Way You Make Me Feel\", \"Man in the Mirror\", and \"Dirty Diana\", becoming the first album to have five number-one singles on the Billboard Hot 100. He continued to innovate with videos such as \"Black or White\" and \"Scream\" throughout the 1990s, and forged a reputation as a touring solo artist. Through stage and video performances, Jackson popularized a number of complicated dance techniques, such as the robot and the moonwalk, to which he gave the name. His distinctive sound and style has influenced numerous artists of various music genres.\n\nThriller is the best-selling album of all time, with estimated sales of 65 million copies worldwide. Jackson's other albums, including Off the Wall (1979), Bad (1987), Dangerous (1991), and HIStory (1995), also rank among the world's best-selling albums. He is recognized as the Most Successful Entertainer of All Time by Guinness World Records. Jackson is one of the few artists to have been inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame twice, and was also inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame and the Dance Hall of Fame as the only dancer from pop and rock music. His other achievements include multiple Guinness World Records, 13 Grammy Awards, the Grammy Legend Award, the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award, 26 American Music Awards—more than any other artist—including the \"Artist of the Century\" and \"Artist of the 1980s\", 13 number-one singles in the United States during his solo career,—more than any other male artist in the Hot 100 era—and estimated sales of over 400 million records worldwide. Jackson has won hundreds of awards, making him the most awarded recording artist in the history of popular music. He became the first artist in history to have a top ten single in the Billboard Hot 100 in five different decades when \"Love Never Felt So Good\" reached number nine on May 21, 2014. Jackson traveled the world attending events honoring his humanitarianism, and, in 2000, the Guinness World Records recognized him for supporting 39 charities, more than any other entertainer. \n\nAspects of Jackson's personal life, including his changing appearance, personal relationships, and behavior, generated controversy. In 1993, he was accused of child sexual abuse, but the civil case was settled out of court for an undisclosed amount and no formal charges were brought. In 2005, he was tried and acquitted of further child sexual abuse allegations and several other charges after the jury found him not guilty on all counts. While preparing for his comeback concert series, This Is It, Jackson died of acute propofol and benzodiazepine intoxication on June 25, 2009, after suffering from cardiac arrest. The Los Angeles County Coroner ruled his death a homicide, and his personal physician, Conrad Murray, was convicted of involuntary manslaughter. Jackson's death triggered a global outpouring of grief, and a live broadcast of his public memorial service was viewed around the world. Forbes ranks Jackson as the top-earning dead celebrity, a title held for a sixth consecutive year, with $115 million in earnings. \n\nLife and career\n\n1958–75: Early life and the Jackson 5\n\nMichael Joseph Jackson was born on August 29, 1958. He was the eighth of ten children in a working class African-American family living in a two-bedroom house on Jackson Street in Gary, Indiana, an industrial city and a part of the Chicago metropolitan area. His mother, Katherine Esther Scruse, was a devout Jehovah's Witness. She played clarinet and piano and once aspired to be a country-and-western performer, but worked part-time at Sears to support the family. Michael's father, Joseph Walter \"Joe\" Jackson, a former boxer, was a steelworker at U.S. Steel. Joe also performed on guitar with a local rhythm and blues band, the Falcons, to supplement the family's household income. Michael grew up with three sisters (Rebbie, La Toya, and Janet) and five brothers (Jackie, Tito, Jermaine, Marlon, and Randy). A sixth brother, Marlon's twin Brandon, died shortly after birth. \n\nJackson had a troubled relationship with his father, Joe. In 2003, Joe acknowledged that he regularly whipped him as a boy. Joe was also said to have verbally abused his son, often saying that he had a \"fat nose\". Jackson stated that he was physically and emotionally abused during incessant rehearsals, though he credited his father's strict discipline with playing a large role in his success. In an interview with Martin Bashir for the 2003 documentary Living with Michael Jackson, Jackson recalled that Joe often sat in a chair with a belt in his hand as he and his siblings rehearsed, and that \"if you didn't do it the right way, he would tear you up, really get you.\" \n\nJackson's parents have disputed the longstanding allegations of abuse, with Katherine stating that while whipping is considered abuse today, it was a common way to discipline children at the time. Jackie, Tito, Jermaine and Marlon have also said that their father was not abusive and that the whippings, which were harder on Michael because he was younger, kept them disciplined and out of trouble. Speaking openly about his childhood in an interview with Oprah Winfrey broadcast in February 1993, Jackson acknowledged that his youth had been lonely and isolating. His deep dissatisfaction with his appearance, his nightmares and chronic sleep problems, his tendency to remain hyper-compliant, especially with his father, and to remain childlike throughout his adult life are consistent with the effects of the maltreatment he endured as a young child. \n\nIn 1964, Michael and Marlon joined the Jackson Brothers—a band formed by their father and which included brothers Jackie, Tito, and Jermaine—as backup musicians playing congas and tambourine. In 1965, Jackson began sharing lead vocals with his older brother Jermaine, and the group's name was changed to the Jackson 5. The following year, the group won a major local talent show with Jackson performing the dance to Robert Parker's 1965 hit \"Barefootin'\". From 1966 to 1968 the band toured the Midwest, frequently performing at a string of black clubs known as the \"chitlin' circuit\" as the opening act for artists such as Sam & Dave, the O'Jays, Gladys Knight, and Etta James. The Jackson 5 also performed at clubs and cocktail lounges, where striptease shows and other adult acts were featured, and at local auditoriums and high school dances. In August 1967, while touring the East coast, the group won a weekly amateur night concert at the Apollo Theater in Harlem. \n\nThe Jackson 5 recorded several songs, including \"Big Boy\" (1968), their first single, for Steeltown Records, a Gary, Indiana, record label, before signing with Motown in 1969. They left Gary in 1969 and relocated to the Los Angeles area, where they continued to record music for Motown. Rolling Stone later described the young Michael as \"a prodigy\" with \"overwhelming musical gifts\" who \"quickly emerged as the main draw and lead singer.\" The group set a chart record when its first four singles—\"I Want You Back\" (1969), \"ABC\" (1970), \"The Love You Save\" (1970), and \"I'll Be There\" (1970)—peaked at number one on the Billboard Hot 100. In May 1971, the Jackson family moved into a large home on two-acre estate in Encino, California. During this period, Michael evolved from child performer into a teen idol. As Jackson began to emerge as a solo performer in the early 1970s, he maintained ties to the Jackson 5 and Motown. Between 1972, when his solo career began, and 1975, Michael released four solo studio albums with Motown: Got to Be There (1972), Ben (1972), Music & Me (1973), and Forever, Michael (1975). \"Got to Be There\" and \"Ben\", the title tracks from his first two solo albums, both became successful singles, as did a cover of Bobby Day's \"Rockin' Robin\". \n\nThe Jackson 5 were later described as \"a cutting-edge example of black crossover artists.\" Although the group's sales began to decline in 1973, and the band members chafed under Motown's refusal to allow them creative input, they achieved several top 40 hits, including the top five single \"Dancing Machine\" (1974), before leaving Motown in 1975. \n\n1975–81: Move to Epic and Off the Wall\n\nIn June 1975, the Jackson 5 signed with Epic Records, a subsidiary of CBS Records, and renamed themselves the Jacksons. Younger brother Randy formally joined the band around this time, while Jermaine chose to stay with Motown and pursue a solo career. The Jacksons continued to tour internationally, and released six more albums between 1976 and 1984. Michael, the group's lead songwriter during this time, wrote hits such as \"Shake Your Body (Down to the Ground)\" (1979), \"This Place Hotel\" (1980), and \"Can You Feel It\" (1980).\n\nHis work in film began in 1978, when he starred as the Scarecrow in The Wiz, a musical directed by Sidney Lumet that also starred Diana Ross, Nipsey Russell, and Ted Ross. The film was a box-office failure. While working on the film Jackson met producer Quincy Jones, though this was not the first time they had met (they originally met when Michael was 12, at Sammy Davis Jr.'s house). Jones was arranging the film's musical score and agreed to produce Jackson's next solo album, Off the Wall. In 1979, Jackson broke his nose during a complex dance routine. His subsequent rhinoplasty was not a complete success; he complained of breathing difficulties that would affect his career. He was referred to Dr. Steven Hoefflin, who performed Jackson's second rhinoplasty and subsequent operations. \n\nOff the Wall (1979), which Jones and Jackson co-produced, established Jackson as a solo performer. The album helped Jackson transition from the bubblegum pop of his youth to the more complex sounds he would create as an adult. Songwriters for the album included Jackson, Rod Temperton, Stevie Wonder, and Paul McCartney. Off the Wall was the first solo album to generate four top 10 hits in the United States: \"Off the Wall\", \"She's Out of My Life\", and the chart-topping singles \"Don't Stop 'Til You Get Enough\" and \"Rock with You\". The album reached number three on the Billboard 200 and eventually sold over 20 million copies worldwide. In 1980, Jackson won three awards at the American Music Awards for his solo efforts: Favorite Soul/R&B Album, Favorite Soul/R&B Male Artist, and Favorite Soul/R&B Single for \"Don't Stop 'Til You Get Enough\". He also won Billboard Year-End awards for Top Black Artist and Top Black Album, and a Grammy Award for Best Male R&B Vocal Performance for 1979 with \"Don't Stop 'Til You Get Enough\". In 1981 Jackson was the American Music Awards winner for Favorite Soul/R&B Album and Favorite Soul/R&B Male Artist. Despite its commercial success, Jackson felt Off the Wall should have made a bigger impact, and was determined to exceed expectations with his next release. In 1980, he secured the highest royalty rate in the music industry: 37 percent of wholesale album profit. \n\nJackson recorded with Queen singer Freddie Mercury from 1981 to 1983, including a demo of \"State of Shock\", \"Victory\" and \"There Must Be More to Life Than This\". The recordings were intended for an album of duets but, according to Queen's then-manager Jim Beach, the relationship between the singers soured when Jackson insisted on bringing a llama into the recording studio. The collaborations were not officially released until 2014. Jackson went on to record the single \"State of Shock\" with Mick Jagger for the Jacksons' album Victory (1984). Mercury included the solo version of \"There Must Be More To Life Than This\" on his Mr. Bad Guy album (1985). \n\n1982–83: Thriller and Motown 25: Yesterday, Today, Forever\n\nIn 1982, Jackson combined his interests in songwriting and film when he contributed the song \"Someone in the Dark\" to the storybook for the film E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial. The song, with Quincy Jones as its producer, won a Grammy for Best Recording for Children for 1983. \n\nMore success came with the release of his sixth album, Thriller, in late 1982. The album earned Jackson seven more Grammys and eight American Music Awards, including the Award of Merit, the youngest artist to win it. It was the best-selling album worldwide in 1983, and became the best-selling album of all time in the United States and the best-selling album of all time worldwide, selling an estimated copies. It topped the Billboard 200 chart for 37 weeks and was in the top 10 of the 200 for 80 consecutive weeks. It was the first album to have seven Billboard Hot 100 top 10 singles, including \"Billie Jean\", \"Beat It\", and \"Wanna Be Startin' Somethin'\". In December 2015, Thriller was certified for 30 million shipments by the RIAA, making it the only album to achieve that feat in the United States. Thriller won Jackson and Quincy Jones the Grammy award for Producer of the Year (Non-Classical) for 1983. It also won Album of the Year, with Jackson as the album's artist and Jones as its co-producer, and a Best Pop Vocal Performance, Male, award for Jackson. \"Beat It\" won Record of the Year, with Jackson as artist and Jones as co-producer, and a Best Rock Vocal Performance, Male, award for Jackson. \"Billie Jean\" won Jackson two Grammy awards, Best R&B Song, with Jackson as its songwriter, and Best R&B Vocal Performance, Male, as its artist. Thriller also won another Grammy for Best Engineered Recording – Non Classical in 1984, awarding Bruce Swedien for his work on the album. The AMA Awards for 1984 provided Jackson with an Award of Merit and AMAs for Favorite Male Artist, Soul/R&B, and Favorite Male Artist, Pop/Rock. \"Beat It\" won Jackson AMAs for Favorite Video, Soul/R&B, Favorite Video, Pop/Rock, and Favorite Single, Pop/Rock. Thriller won him AMAs for Favorite Album, Soul/R&B, and Favorite Album, Pop/Rock. \n\nIn addition to the album, Jackson released \"Thriller\", a 14-minute music video directed by John Landis, in 1983. It \"defined music videos and broke racial barriers\" on the Music Television Channel (MTV), a fledgling entertainment television channel at the time. In December 2009, the Library of Congress selected the \"Thriller\" music video for inclusion in the National Film Registry. It was one of 25 films named that year as \"works of enduring importance to American culture\" that would be \"preserved for all time.\" As of 2009, the zombie-themed \"Thriller\" is the only music video to have been inducted into the registry. \n\nJackson's attorney John Branca noted that Jackson had the highest royalty rate in the music industry at that point: approximately $2 for every album sold. He was also making record-breaking profits from sales of his recordings. The videocassette of the documentary The Making of Michael Jackson's Thriller sold over 350,000 copies in a few months. The era saw the arrival of novelties such as dolls modeled after Michael Jackson, which appeared in stores in May 1984 at a price of $12. Biographer J. Randy Taraborrelli writes that \"Thriller stopped selling like a leisure item—like a magazine, a toy, tickets to a hit movie—and started selling like a household staple.\" In 1985, The Making of Michael Jackson's Thriller won a Grammy for Best Music Video, Longform. Time described Jackson's influence at that point as \"star of records, radio, rock video. A one-man rescue team for the music business. A songwriter who sets the beat for a decade. A dancer with the fanciest feet on the street. A singer who cuts across all boundaries of taste and style and color too\". The New York Times wrote that \"in the world of pop music, there is Michael Jackson and there is everybody else\". \n\nOn March 25, 1983, Jackson reunited with his brothers for a live performance taped at the Pasadena Civic Auditorium for Motown 25: Yesterday, Today, Forever, an NBC television special. The show aired on May 16, 1983, to an estimated audience of viewers, and featured the Jacksons and other Motown stars. The show is best remembered for Jackson's solo performance of \"Billie Jean\", which earned Jackson his first Emmy nomination. Wearing a distinctive black-sequined jacket and a golf glove decorated with rhinestones, he debuted his signature dance move, the moonwalk, which former Soul Train dancer and Shalamar member Jeffrey Daniel had taught him three years earlier. Jackson originally turned down the invitation to perform at the show, believing he had been doing too much television at the time; however, at the request of Berry Gordy, Jackson agreed to perform in exchange for time to do a solo performance. According to Rolling Stone reporter Mikal Gilmore, \"There are times when you know you are hearing or seeing something extraordinary...that came that night.\" Jackson's performance drew comparisons to Elvis Presley's and the Beatles' appearances on The Ed Sullivan Show. Anna Kisselgoff of The New York Times later wrote: \"The moonwalk that he made famous is an apt metaphor for his dance style. How does he do it? As a technician, he is a great illusionist, a genuine mime. His ability to keep one leg straight as he glides while the other bends and seems to walk requires perfect timing.\" Berry Gordy said of the performance, \"from the first beat of Billie Jean, I was mesmerized, and when he did his iconic moonwalk, I was shocked, it was magic, Michael Jackson went into orbit, and never came down.\" \n\n1984–85: Pepsi, \"We Are the World\", and business career\n\nIn November 1983 Jackson and his brothers partnered with PepsiCo in a $5 million promotional deal that broke advertising industry records for a celebrity endorsement. The first Pepsi Cola campaign, which ran in the United States from 1983 to 1984 and launched its \"New Generation\" theme, included tour sponsorship, public relations events, and in-store displays. Jackson, who was actively involved in creating the iconic advertisement, suggested using his song, \"Billie Jean\", as its jingle with a revised chorus. According to a Billboard report in 2009, Brian J. Murphy, executive VP of branded management at TBA Global, said: \"You couldn't separate the tour from the endorsement from the licensing of the music, and then the integration of the music into the Pepsi fabric.\"\n\nOn January 27, 1984, Michael and other members of the Jacksons filmed a Pepsi commercial overseen by executive Phil Dusenberry, a BBDO ad agency executive, and Alan Pottasch, Pepsi's Worldwide Creative Director, at the Shrine Auditorium in Los Angeles. During a simulated concert before a full house of fans, pyrotechnics accidentally set Jackson's hair on fire, causing second-degree burns to his scalp. Jackson underwent treatment to hide the scars and had his third rhinoplasty shortly thereafter. Pepsi settled out of court, and Jackson donated his $1.5 million settlement to the Brotman Medical Center in Culver City, California. Its Michael Jackson Burn Center is named in his honor. Dusenberry later recounted the episode in his memoir, Then We Set His Hair on Fire: Insights and Accidents from a Hall of Fame Career in Advertising. Jackson signed a second agreement with Pepsi in the late 1980s for a reported $10 million. The second campaign had a global reach of more than 20 countries and would provide financial support for Jackson's Bad album and 1987–88 world tour. Although Jackson had endorsements and advertising deals with other companies, such as LA Gear, Suzuki, and Sony, none were as significant as his deals with Pepsi, which later signed other music stars such as Britney Spears and Beyoncé to promote its products. \n\nJackson's humanitarian work was recognized on May 14, 1984, when he was invited to the White House to receive an award from President Ronald Reagan for his support of charities that helped people overcome alcohol and drug abuse, and in recognition of his support for the Ad Council's and the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration's Drunk Driving Prevention campaign. Jackson donated the use of \"Beat It\" for the campaign's public service announcements. \n\nUnlike later albums, Thriller did not have an official tour, but the Victory Tour of 1984 headlined the Jacksons and showcased much of Jackson's new solo material to more than two million Americans. It was the last tour he would do with his brothers. Following controversy over the concert's ticket sales, Jackson held a press conference and announced that he would donate his share of the proceeds, an estimated , to charity. His charitable work and humanitarian awards continued with the release of \"We Are the World\" (1985), which he co-wrote with Lionel Richie. The song was recorded on January 28, 1985 and was released worldwide in March 1985 to aid the poor in the United States and Africa. The song earned $63 million for famine relief, and became one of the best-selling singles of all time, with 20 million copies sold. \"We Are the World\" won four Grammys for 1985, including Song of the Year going to Jackson and Richie as its co-songwriters. Although the American Music Award directors removed the charity song from the competition because they felt it would be inappropriate, the AMA show in 1986 concluded with a tribute to the song in honor of its first anniversary. The project's creators received two special AMA honors: one for the creation of the song and another for the USA for Africa idea. Jackson, Quincy Jones, and entertainment promoter Ken Kragan received special awards for their roles in the song's creation. \n\nJackson's financial interests in the music publishing business grew after Jackson collaborated with Paul McCartney in the early 1980s. He subsequently learned that McCartney was making approximately $40 million a year from other people's songs. By 1983, Jackson had begun investing in publishing rights to songs that others had written, but he was careful with his acquisitions, only bidding on a few of the dozens that were offered to him. Jackson's early acquisitions of music catalogs and song copyrights such as the Sly Stone collection included \"Everyday People\" (1968), Len Barry's \"1-2-3\" (1965), and Dion DiMucci's \"The Wanderer\" (1961) and \"Runaround Sue\" (1961); however, Jackson's most significant purchase came in 1985, when he acquired the publishing rights to ATV Music Publishing after months of negotiation. ATV had acquired the publishing rights to nearly 4000 songs, including the Northern Songs catalog that contained the majority of the Lennon–McCartney compositions recorded by the Beatles. \n\nIn 1984 Robert Holmes à Court, the wealthy Australian investor who owned ATV Music Publishing, announced he was putting the ATV catalog up for sale. In 1981, McCartney was offered the ATV music catalog for £20 million ($40 million). According to McCartney, he contacted Yoko Ono about making a joint purchase by splitting the cost at £10 million each, but Ono thought they could buy it for £5 million each. When they were unable to make a joint purchase, McCartney, who did not want to be the sole owner of the Beatles' songs, did not pursue an offer on his own. According to a negotiator for Holmes à Court in the 1984 sale, McCartney was given first right of refusal and declined to purchase. \n\nJackson was informed of the sale by his attorney, John Branca, in September 1984. An attorney for McCartney also assured Branca that McCartney was not interested in bidding. McCartney reportedly felt it was too expensive, but several other companies and investors were interested in bidding. Jackson submitted a bid of $46 million on November 20, 1984. His agents thought they had a deal several times, but encountered new bidders or new areas of debate. In May 1985, Jackson's team left talks after having spent more than $1 million and four months of due diligence work on the negotiations. In June 1985, Jackson and Branca learned that Charles Koppelman's and Marty Bandier's The Entertainment Company had made a tentative agreement with Holmes à Court to buy ATV Music for $50 million; however, in early August, Holmes à Court's team contacted Jackson and talks resumed. Jackson raised his bid to $47.5 million, which was accepted because he could close the deal more quickly, having already completed due diligence of ATV Music. Jackson also agreed to visit Holmes à Court in Australia, where he would appear on the Channel Seven Perth Telethon. Jackson's purchase of ATV Music was finalized on August 10, 1985.\n\n1986–90: Changing appearance, tabloids, Bad, films, autobiography, and Neverland\n\nJackson's skin had been a medium-brown color during his youth, but starting in the mid-1980s gradually grew paler. The change gained widespread media coverage, including rumors that he might have been bleaching his skin. According to J. Randy Taraborrelli's biography, in 1984, Jackson was diagnosed with vitiligo, which Taraborrelli noted may be a consequence of skin bleaching. He claimed Jackson was diagnosed with lupus. The vitiligo partially lightened his skin, and the lupus was in remission. Both illnesses made his skin sensitive to sunlight. The treatments Jackson used for his condition further lightened his skin tone, and with the application of pancake makeup to even out blotches he could appear pale. Jackson was also diagnosed with vitiligo in his autopsy, though not lupus. \n\nJackson claimed he had only two rhinoplasties and no other facial surgery, although at one point mentioned having a dimple created in his chin. He lost weight in the early 1980s because of a change in diet and a desire for \"a dancer's body\". Witnesses reported that he was often dizzy, and speculated he was suffering from anorexia nervosa. Periods of weight loss would become a recurring problem later in life. During the course of his treatment, Jackson made two close friends: his dermatologist, Dr. Arnold Klein, and Klein's nurse Debbie Rowe. Rowe eventually became Jackson's second wife and the mother of his two eldest children. He also relied heavily on Klein for medical and business advice. \n\nJackson became the subject of increasingly sensational reports. In 1986, the tabloids ran a story claiming that Jackson slept in a hyperbaric oxygen chamber to slow the aging process; he was pictured lying in a glass box. Although the claim was untrue, according to tabloid reports that are widely cited, Jackson had disseminated the fabricated story himself. When Jackson bought a chimpanzee named Bubbles from a laboratory, he was reported to be increasingly detached from reality. It was reported that Jackson had offered to buy the bones of Joseph Merrick (the \"Elephant Man\") and, although untrue, Jackson did not deny the story. Although he initially saw these stories as opportunities for publicity, he stopped leaking untruths to the press as they became more sensational. Consequently, the media began fabricating stories. These reports became embedded in the public consciousness, inspiring the nickname \"Wacko Jacko\", which Jackson came to despise. Responding to the gossip, Jackson remarked to Taraborrelli:\nWhy not just tell people I'm an alien from Mars? Tell them I eat live chickens and do a voodoo dance at midnight. They'll believe anything you say, because you're a reporter. But if I, Michael Jackson, were to say, \"I'm an alien from Mars and I eat live chickens and do a voodoo dance at midnight,\" people would say, \"Oh, man, that Michael Jackson is nuts. He's cracked up. You can't believe a single word that comes out of his mouth.\" \n\nJackson collaborated with filmmakers George Lucas and Francis Ford Coppola on the 17-minute 3D film Captain EO, which debuted in September 1986 at both the original Disneyland and at Epcot in Florida, and in March 1987 at Tokyo Disneyland. The $30 million movie was a popular attraction at all three parks. A Captain EO attraction was later featured at Euro Disneyland after that park opened in 1992. All four parks' Captain EO installations stayed open well into the 1990s: the Paris installation was the last to close, in 1998. The attraction would later return to Disneyland in 2010 after Jackson's death. In 1987, Jackson disassociated himself from the Jehovah's Witnesses, in response to their disapproval of the Thriller video. \n\nWith the industry expecting another major hit, Jackson's first album in five years, Bad (1987), was highly anticipated. The album produced seven successful singles in the U.S., five of which (\"I Just Can't Stop Loving You\", \"Bad\", \"The Way You Make Me Feel\", \"Man in the Mirror\", and \"Dirty Diana\") reached number one on the Billboard Hot 100. This was a record for most number one Hot 100 singles from any one album, including Thriller. As of 2012, the album had sold between 30 and 45 million copies worldwide. Bruce Swedien and Humberto Gatica won one Grammy in 1988 for Best Engineered Recording – Non Classical and Michael Jackson won one Grammy for Best Music Video, Short Form for \"Leave Me Alone\" in 1989. In the same year, Jackson won an Award of Achievement at the American Music Awards because Bad is the first album ever to generate five number one singles in the U.S., the first album to top in 25 countries, and the best-selling album worldwide in 1987 and 1988. In 1988, \"Bad\" won an American Music Award for Favorite Soul/R&B Single. \n\nThe Bad World Tour began on September 12 that year, finishing on January 14, 1989. In Japan alone, the tour had 14 sellouts and drew 570,000 people, nearly tripling the previous record of 200,000 in a single tour. Jackson broke a Guinness World Record when 504,000 people attended seven sold-out shows at Wembley Stadium. He performed a total of 123 concerts to an audience of 4.4 million people. \n\nIn 1988, Jackson released his only autobiography, Moonwalk, which took four years to complete and sold 200,000 copies. He wrote about his childhood, the Jackson 5, and the abuse he had suffered. He also wrote about his changing facial appearance, attributing it to puberty, weight loss, a strict vegetarian diet, a change in hair style, and stage lighting. Moonwalk reached the top position on The New York Times best sellers' list. Jackson released a film, Moonwalker, which featured live footage and short films starring Jackson and Joe Pesci. Due to financial issues, the film was only released theatrically in Germany; in other markets it was released direct-to-video. It debuted at the top of the Billboard Top Music Video Cassette chart, staying there for 22 weeks. It was eventually knocked off the top spot by Michael Jackson: The Legend Continues. \n\nIn March 1988, Jackson purchased land near Santa Ynez, California, to build Neverland Ranch at a cost of $17 million. He installed several carnival rides on the 2700 acre property, including a Ferris wheel, carousel, menagerie, as well as a movie theater and a zoo. A security staff of 40 patrolled the grounds. In 2003, it was valued at approximately $100 million. In 1989, Jackson's annual earnings from album sales, endorsements, and concerts were estimated at $125 million for that year alone. Shortly afterwards, he became the first Westerner to appear in a television ad in the Soviet Union.\n\nJackson's success resulted in him being dubbed the \"King of Pop\". The nickname was popularized by Elizabeth Taylor when she presented him with the Soul Train Heritage Award in 1989, proclaiming him \"the true king of pop, rock and soul.\" President George H. W. Bush designated him the White House's \"Artist of the Decade\". From 1985 to 1990, he donated $455,000 to the United Negro College Fund, and all profits from his single \"Man in the Mirror\" went to charity. Jackson's live rendition of \"You Were There\" at Sammy Davis Jr.'s 60th birthday celebration won Jackson a second Emmy nomination.\n\n1991–93: Dangerous, Heal the World Foundation, and Super Bowl XXVII\n\nIn March 1991, Jackson renewed his contract with Sony for $65 million, a record-breaking deal at the time, displacing Neil Diamond's renewal contract with Columbia Records. In 1991, he released his eighth album, Dangerous, co-produced with Teddy Riley. Dangerous was certified seven times platinum in the U.S., and by 2008 had sold approximately 30 million copies worldwide. In the United States, the album's first single \"Black or White\" was its biggest hit, reaching number one on the Billboard Hot 100 and remaining there for seven weeks, with similar chart performances worldwide. The album's second single, \"Remember the Time\", spent eight weeks in the top five in the United States, peaking at number three on the Billboard Hot 100 singles chart. At the end of 1992, Dangerous was awarded the best-selling album of the year worldwide and \"Black or White\" was awarded best-selling single of the year worldwide at the Billboard Music Awards. Jackson also won an award as best-selling artist of the 1980s. In 1993, he performed the song at the Soul Train Music Awards in a chair, saying he had suffered an injury in rehearsals. In the UK and other parts of Europe, \"Heal the World\" was the album's most successful song; it sold 450,000 copies in the UK and spent five weeks at number two in 1992.\n\nJackson founded the Heal the World Foundation in 1992. The charity organization brought underprivileged children to Jackson's ranch to enjoy theme park rides that Jackson had built on the property. The foundation also sent millions of dollars around the globe to help children threatened by war, poverty, and disease. In the same year, Jackson published his second book, Dancing the Dream, a collection of poetry, revealing a more intimate side of his nature. While it was a commercial success, it received mostly negative reviews. In 2009, the book was republished by Doubleday and was more positively received by some critics in the wake of Jackson's death. The Dangerous World Tour grossed . The tour began on June 27, 1992, and finished on November 11, 1993. Jackson performed to 3.5 million people in 70 concerts. He sold the broadcast rights to his Dangerous world tour to HBO for $20 million, a record-breaking deal that still stands. \n\nFollowing the illness and death of AIDS spokesperson Ryan White, Jackson helped draw public attention to HIV/AIDS, something that was controversial at the time. He publicly pleaded with the Clinton Administration at Bill Clinton's Inaugural Gala to give more money to HIV/AIDS charities and research. In a high-profile visit to Africa, Jackson visited several countries, among them Gabon and Egypt. His first stop to Gabon was greeted with an enthusiastic reception of more than 100,000 people, some of them carrying signs that read, \"Welcome Home Michael.\" In his trip to Ivory Coast, Jackson was crowned \"King Sani\" by a tribal chief. He thanked the dignitaries in French and English, signed official documents formalizing his kingship, and sat on a golden throne while presiding over ceremonial dances.\n\nIn January 1993, Jackson performed at the Super Bowl XXVII halftime show in Pasadena, California. Because of a dwindling interest during halftime in the preceding years, the NFL decided to seek big-name talent that would keep ratings high, with Jackson selected for his universal appeal. It was the first Super Bowl whose half-time performance drew greater audience figures than the game itself. The performance began with Jackson catapulting onto the stage as fireworks went off behind him. As he landed on the canvas, he maintained a \"clenched fist, standing statue stance,\" dressed in a gold and black military outfit and sunglasses; he remained completely motionless for a minute and a half while the crowd cheered. He then slowly removed his sunglasses, threw them away, and performed four songs: \"Jam\", \"Billie Jean\", \"Black or White\", and \"Heal the World\". Jackson's Dangerous album rose 90 places up the album chart soon after. \n\nJackson gave a 90-minute interview to Oprah Winfrey on February 10, 1993, his second television interview since 1979. He grimaced when speaking of his childhood abuse at the hands of his father; he believed he had missed out on much of his childhood years, admitting that he often cried from loneliness. He denied tabloid rumors that he had bought the bones of the Elephant Man, slept in a hyperbaric oxygen chamber, or bleached his skin, stating for the first time that he had vitiligo. Dangerous re-entered the album chart in the top 10, more than a year after its original release.\n\nIn February 1993, Jackson was given the \"Living Legend Award\" at the 35th Annual Grammy Awards in Los Angeles. \"Black or White\" was Grammy-nominated for best vocal performance. \"Jam\" gained two nominations: Best R&B Vocal Performance and Best R&B Song. The Dangerous album won a Grammy for Best Engineered – Non Classical, awarding the work of Bruce Swedien and Teddy Riley. In the same year, Michael Jackson won three American Music Awards for Favorite Pop/Rock Album (Dangerous), Favorite Soul/R&B Single (\"Remember the Time\"), and was the first to win the International Artist Award of Excellence, for his global performances and humanitarian concerns. \n\nJackson agreed to produce the soundtrack for Sega's 1994 video game Sonic the Hedgehog 3 with collaborators Brad Buxer, Bobby Brooks, Darryl Ross, Geoff Grace, Doug Grigsby, and Cirocco Jones. Jackson left the project before completion and was never officially credited, allegedly due to his dissatisfaction with the Sega Genesis console's audio chip. \n\n1993–94: First child sexual abuse allegations and first marriage\n\nIn the summer of 1993, Jackson was accused of child sexual abuse by a 13-year-old boy named Jordan Chandler and his father, Evan Chandler, a dentist. The Chandler family demanded payment from Jackson, and the singer initially refused. Jordan Chandler eventually told the police that Jackson had sexually abused him. Evan Chandler was recorded discussing his intention to pursue charges, saying, \"If I go through with this, I win big-time. There's no way I lose. I will get everything I want and they will be destroyed forever..... Michael's career will be over.\" Jordan's mother was, however, adamant at the time that there had been no wrongdoing on Jackson's part. Jackson later used the recording to argue that he was the victim of a jealous father whose only goal was to extort money from the singer. In January 1994, after investigation on allegations of extortion against the singer by Chandler, deputy Los Angeles County district attorney Michael J. Montagna stated that Chandler would not be charged, due to lack of cooperation from Jackson's party and its willingness to negotiate with Chandler for several weeks, among other reasons. \n\nIn August 1993, Jackson's home was raided by the police who, according to court documents, found books and photographs in his bedroom featuring young boys with little or no clothing. Since the books were legal to purchase and own, the jury decided not to indict Jackson. In December 1993, Jackson was strip-searched. Jordan Chandler had reportedly given police a description of Jackson's intimate parts, and the strip search revealed that Jordan had correctly claimed Jackson had patchy-colored buttocks, short pubic hair, and pink and brown marked testicles. Reportedly, Jordan had also previously drawn accurate pictures of a dark spot on Jackson's penis only visible when his penis was lifted. Despite differing initial internal reports from prosecutors and investigators and later, with reports of jurors feeling otherwise that the photos did not match the description, the DA stated his belief in a sworn affidavit that the description was accurate, along with the sheriff's photographer stating the description was accurate. A 2004 motion filed by Jackson's defense asserted that Jackson was never criminally indicted by any grand jury and that his settlement admitted no wrongdoing and contained no evidence of criminal misconduct. \n\nThe investigation was inconclusive and no charges were filed. Jackson described the search in an emotional public statement, and proclaimed his innocence. On January 1, 1994, Jackson settled with the Chandlers out of court for $22 million. A Santa Barbara County grand jury and a Los Angeles County grand jury disbanded on May 2, 1994, without indicting Jackson, and the Chandlers stopped co-operating with the criminal investigation around July 6, 1994. The out-of-court settlement's documentation stated Jackson admitted no wrongdoing and no liability; the Chandlers and their family lawyer Larry Feldman signed it without contest. \n\nFeldman also stated \"nobody bought anybody's silence\". A decade after the fact, during the second round of child abuse allegations, Jackson's lawyers would file a memo stating that the 1994 settlement was done without his consent. A later disclosure by the FBI of investigation documents compiled over nearly 20 years led Jackson's attorney to suggest that no evidence of molestation or sexual impropriety from Jackson toward minors existed. According to reports the Department of Children and Family Services (Los Angeles County) had investigated Jackson beginning in 1993 with the Chandler allegation and again in 2003. Reports show the LAPD and DCFS did not find credible evidence of abuse or sexual misconduct. \n\nIn May 1994, Jackson married Lisa Marie Presley, the daughter of Elvis and Priscilla Presley. They had met in 1975, when a seven-year-old Presley attended one of Jackson's family engagements at the MGM Grand Hotel and Casino, and reconnected through a mutual friend. According to a friend of Presley's, \"their adult friendship began in November 1992 in L.A.\" They stayed in contact every day over the telephone. As the child molestation accusations became public, Jackson became dependent on Presley for emotional support; she was concerned about his faltering health and addiction to drugs. Presley explained, \"I believed he didn't do anything wrong and that he was wrongly accused and yes I started falling for him. I wanted to save him. I felt that I could do it.\" She eventually persuaded him to settle the civil case out of court and go into rehabilitation to recover.\n\nJackson proposed to Presley over the telephone towards the fall of 1993, saying, \"If I asked you to marry me, would you do it?\" They married in the Dominican Republic in secrecy, denying it for nearly two months afterwards. The marriage was, in her words, \"a married couple's life ... that was sexually active.\" The tabloid media speculated that the wedding was a ploy to prop up Jackson's public image. The marriage ended less than two years later with an amicable divorce settlement. In a 2010 interview with Oprah, Presley admitted that they had spent four more years after the divorce \"getting back together and breaking up\" until she decided to stop. \n\n1995–99: HIStory, second marriage, and fatherhood\n\nIn 1995, Jackson merged his ATV Music catalog with Sony's music publishing division, creating Sony/ATV Music Publishing. He retained ownership of half the company, earning $95 million up front as well as the rights to more songs. In June, he released the double album HIStory: Past, Present and Future, Book I. The first disc, HIStory Begins, is a 15-track greatest hits album (later reissued as Greatest Hits: HIStory, Volume I in 2001); the second disc, HIStory Continues, contains 13 original songs and 2 cover versions. The album debuted at number one on the charts and has been certified for seven million shipments in the US. It is the best-selling multiple-disc album of all-time, with 20 million copies (40 million units) sold worldwide. HIStory received a Grammy nomination for Album of the Year. \n\nThe first single released from the album was \"Scream/Childhood\". \"Scream\", a duet with Jackson's youngest sister Janet, protests the media, particularly for its treatment of him during the 1993 child abuse allegations. The single had the highest debut on the Billboard Hot 100 at number five, and received a Grammy nomination for \"Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals\". \"You Are Not Alone\" was the second single released from HIStory; it holds the Guinness World Record for the first song ever to debut at number one on the Billboard Hot 100 chart. It was seen as a major artistic and commercial success, receiving a Grammy nomination for \"Best Pop Vocal Performance\".\n\nIn late 1995, Jackson was rushed to a hospital after collapsing during rehearsals for a televised performance, caused by a stress-related panic attack. \"Earth Song\" was the third single released from HIStory, and topped the UK Singles Chart for six weeks over Christmas 1995; it sold a million copies, making it Jackson's most successful single in the UK. The track \"They Don't Care About Us\" became controversial when the Anti-Defamation League and other groups criticized its allegedly antisemitic lyrics. Jackson quickly released a revised version of the song without the offending lyrics. In 1996, Jackson won a Grammy for Best Music Video, Short Form for \"Scream\" and an American Music Award for Favorite Pop/Rock Male Artist. \n\nHIStory was promoted with the successful HIStory World Tour, beginning on September 7, 1996, and ending on October 15, 1997. Jackson performed 82 concerts in five continents, 35 countries and 58 cities to over 4.5 million fans, and grossed a total of , becoming Jackson's most successful tour in terms of audience figures. During the tour, Jackson married his longtime friend Deborah Jeanne Rowe, a dermatology nurse, in an impromptu ceremony in Sydney, Australia. Rowe was approximately six months pregnant with the couple's first child at the time. Originally, Rowe and Jackson had no plans to marry, but Jackson's mother Katherine persuaded them to do so. Michael Joseph Jackson Jr (commonly known as Prince) was born on February 13, 1997; his sister Paris-Michael Katherine Jackson was born a year later on April 3, 1998. The couple divorced in 1999, and Jackson received full custody of the children. The divorce was relatively amicable, but a subsequent custody suit was not settled until 2006. \n\nIn 1997, Jackson released Blood on the Dance Floor: HIStory in the Mix, which contained remixes of hit singles from HIStory and five new songs. Worldwide sales stand at copies, making it the best-selling remix album of all time. It reached number one in the UK, as did the title track. In the US, the album was certified platinum, but only reached number 24. Forbes placed Jackson's annual income at $35 million in 1996 and $20 million in 1997.\n\nThroughout June 1999, Jackson was involved in a number of charitable events. He joined Luciano Pavarotti for a benefit concert in Modena, Italy. The show was in support of the nonprofit organization War Child, and raised a million dollars for the refugees of Kosovo, FR Yugoslavia, and additional funds for the children of Guatemala. Later that month, Jackson organized a series of \"Michael Jackson & Friends\" benefit concerts in Germany and Korea. Other artists involved included Slash, The Scorpions, Boyz II Men, Luther Vandross, Mariah Carey, A. R. Rahman, Prabhu Deva Sundaram, Shobana, Andrea Bocelli, and Luciano Pavarotti. The proceeds went to the Nelson Mandela Children's Fund, the Red Cross and UNESCO. From August 1999 through 2000, he lived in New York City at 4 East 74th Street. \n\n2000–03: Label dispute and Invincible\n\nAt the turn of the century, Jackson won an American Music Award as Artist of the 1980s. Throughout 2000 and 2001, he worked with collaborators including Teddy Riley and Rodney Jerkins to produce his tenth solo album, Invincible, released in October 2001. The album cost to record, not including promotional expenditures. Invincible was Jackson's first full-length album in six years, and was the last album of original material he released in his lifetime. The release was preceded by a dispute between Jackson and his record label, Sony Music Entertainment. Jackson had expected the licenses to the masters of his albums to revert to him sometime in the early 2000s. Once he had the licenses, he would be able to promote the material however he pleased and keep all the profits; however, clauses in the contract set the revert date years into the future. Jackson discovered that the attorney who had represented him in the deal had also been representing Sony. Jackson was also concerned about the fact that for years, Sony had been pressuring him to sell his share in its music catalog venture. Jackson feared that Sony might have a conflict of interest, since if Jackson's career failed, he would have to sell his share of the catalog at a low price. Jackson sought an early exit from his contract.\n\nIn September 2001, two 30th Anniversary concerts were held at Madison Square Garden to mark Jackson's 30th year as a solo artist. Jackson appeared onstage alongside his brothers for the first time since 1984. The show also featured performances by Mýa, Usher, Whitney Houston, NSYNC, Destiny's Child, Monica, Luther Vandross, and Slash, among other artists. The second of the two shows took place the night before the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks. After 9/11, Jackson helped organize the United We Stand: What More Can I Give benefit concert at RFK Stadium in Washington, D.C. The concert took place on October 21, 2001, and included performances from dozens of major artists, including Jackson, who performed his song \"What More Can I Give\" as the finale. Due to contractual issues related to the earlier 30th Anniversary concerts, later edited into a two-hour TV special titled Michael Jackson: 30th Anniversary Celebration broadcast in November 2001, Jackson's solo performances were omitted from the televised benefit concert, although he could still be seen singing background vocals.\n\nInvincible was released in October 2001 to much anticipation. It debuted at number one in 13 countries and went on to sell approximately 13 million copies worldwide. It received double-platinum certification in the U.S. However, sales for Invincible were lower than Jackson's previous releases, due in part to the record label dispute and the lack of promotion or tour, and its release at a bad time for the music industry in general. Invincible spawned three singles, \"You Rock My World\", \"Cry\", and \"Butterflies\", the latter without a music video. Jackson alleged in July 2002 that the-then Sony Music chairman Tommy Mottola was a \"devil\" and a \"racist\" who did not support his African-American artists, using them merely for his own personal gain. He charged that Mottola had called his colleague Irv Gotti a \"fat nigger\". Sony refused to renew Jackson's contract, and claimed that a promotional campaign had failed because Jackson refused to tour in the United States.\n\nIn 2002, Michael Jackson won his 22nd American Music Award for Artist of the Century. In the same year, his third child, Prince Michael Jackson II (nicknamed \"Blanket\") was born. The mother's identity was not announced, but Jackson said the child was the result of artificial insemination from a surrogate mother and his own sperm. On November 20 of that year, Jackson brought his infant son onto the balcony of his room at the Hotel Adlon in Berlin as fans stood below, holding him in his right arm, with a cloth loosely draped over the baby's face. The baby was briefly extended over a railing, four stories above ground level, prompting widespread criticism in the media. Jackson later apologized for the incident, calling it \"a terrible mistake\". In November 2003, Sony released Number Ones, a compilation of Jackson's hits on CD and DVD. In the U.S., the album was certified triple platinum by the RIAA; in the UK it was certified six times platinum for shipments of at least 1.2 million units. \n\n2003–05: Second child sexual abuse allegations and acquittal\n\nBeginning in May 2002, Jackson allowed a documentary film crew, led by British TV personality Martin Bashir, to follow him around nearly everywhere he went. Bashir's film crew was with Jackson during the \"baby-dangling incident\" in Berlin. The program was broadcast in March 2003 as Living with Michael Jackson. In a particularly controversial scene, Jackson was seen holding hands and discussing sleeping arrangements with a young boy. \n\nAs soon as the documentary aired, the Santa Barbara county attorney's office began a criminal investigation. After an initial probe from the LAPD and DCFS was conducted in February 2003, they had initially concluded that molestation allegations were \"unfounded\" at the time. After the young boy involved in the documentary and his mother had told investigators that Jackson had behaved improperly with the boy, Jackson was arrested in November 2003, and was charged with seven counts of child molestation and two counts of administering an intoxicating agent in relation to the 13-year-old boy shown in the film. Jackson denied the allegations, saying the sleepovers were not sexual in nature. The People v. Jackson trial began on January 31, 2005, in Santa Maria, California, and lasted five months, until the end of May. On June 13, 2005, Jackson was acquitted on all counts. After the trial, in a highly publicized relocation he moved to the Persian Gulf island of Bahrain, as a guest of Sheikh Abdullah. Bahrain was also where the family intended to send Jackson if he was convicted (though Jackson did not know about the plan), according to a statement by Jermaine Jackson printed in The Times of London in September 2011. \n\n2006–09: Closure of Neverland, final years, and This Is It\n\nIn March 2006, the main house at the Neverland Ranch was closed as a cost-cutting measure. There were numerous reports around that time that Jackson had been having financial problems. He had been delinquent on his repayments of a $270 million loan secured against his music-publishing holdings, even though those holdings were reportedly making him as much as a year. Bank of America sold the debt to Fortress Investments. Sony reportedly proposed a restructuring deal which would give them a future option to buy half of Jackson's stake in their jointly-owned publishing company, leaving Jackson with a 25% stake. Jackson agreed to a Sony-backed refinancing deal in April 2006, although the details were not made public. Jackson did not have a recording contract at the time. In early 2006, it was announced that Jackson had signed a contract with a Bahrain-based startup called Two Seas Records. However, nothing came of the deal, and the Two Seas CEO Guy Holmes later stated that the deal had never been finalized. \n\nThroughout 2006, Sony repackaged 20 singles from the 1980s and 1990s as the Michael Jackson: Visionary series, which subsequently became a box set. Most of those singles returned to the charts as a result. In September 2006, Jackson and his ex-wife Debbie Rowe confirmed reports that they had settled their long-running child custody suit. The terms were never made public. Jackson continued to be the custodial parent of the couple's two children. In October 2006, Fox News entertainment reporter Roger Friedman said that Jackson had been recording at a studio in rural Westmeath, Ireland. It was not known at the time what Jackson had working on, or who had paid for the sessions, since his publicist had recently issued a statement claiming that he had left Two Seas. \n\nIn November 2006, Jackson invited an Access Hollywood camera crew into the studio in Westmeath, and MSNBC reported that he was working on a new album, produced by will.i.am. Jackson performed at the World Music Awards in London on November 15, 2006, and accepted a Diamond Award for selling over records. He returned to the United States after Christmas 2006 to attend James Brown's funeral in Augusta, Georgia, where he gave one of the eulogies, saying that \"James Brown is my greatest inspiration.\" In the spring of 2007, Jackson and Sony teamed up to buy another music publishing company, Famous Music LLC, formerly owned by Viacom. This deal gave him the rights to songs by Eminem and Beck, among others. In March 2007, Jackson gave a brief interview to the Associated Press in Tokyo, where he said: \"I've been in the entertainment industry since I was 6 years old, and as Charles Dickens would say, 'It's been the best of times, the worst of times.' But I would not change my career ... While some have made deliberate attempts to hurt me, I take it in stride because I have a loving family, a strong faith and wonderful friends and fans who have, and continue, to support me.\" In March 2007, Jackson visited a U.S. Army post in Japan, Camp Zama, to greet over 3,000 U.S. troops and their families. The hosts presented Jackson with a Certificate of Appreciation. \n\nIn September 2007, Jackson was reportedly still working on his next album, but the work was never completed. In 2008, Jackson and Sony released Thriller 25 to mark the 25th anniversary of the original Thriller. This album featured the previously unreleased song \"For All Time\", an outtake from the original sessions, as well as remixes, where Jackson collaborated with younger artists who had been inspired by his work. Two of the remixes were released as singles with modest success: \"The Girl Is Mine 2008\" (with will.i.am) and \"Wanna Be Startin' Somethin' 2008\" (with Akon). The first single was based on an early demo version, without Paul McCartney. The album was a commercial success. In anticipation of Jackson's 50th birthday, Sony BMG released a series of greatest hits albums, King of Pop. Slightly different versions were released in various countries, based on polls of local fans. King of Pop reached the top 10 in most countries where it was issued, and also sold well as an import in other countries (such as the United States). \n\nIn late 2008, Fortress Investments threatened to foreclose on Neverland Ranch, which Jackson used as collateral for loans running into many tens of millions of dollars. However, Fortress opted to sell Jackson's debts to Colony Capital LLC. In November, Jackson transferred Neverland Ranch's title to Sycamore Valley Ranch Company LLC, a joint venture between Jackson and Colony Capital LLC. The deal cleared Jackson's debt and reportedly earned him an additional . At the time of his death, Jackson still owned a stake of unknown size in Neverland/Sycamore Valley. In September 2008, Jackson entered negotiations with Julien's Auction House to display and auction a large collection of memorabilia amounting to approximately 1,390 lots. The auction was scheduled to take place between April 22 and 25. An exhibition of the lots opened as scheduled on April 14, but the actual auction was eventually cancelled at Jackson's request. \n\nIn March 2009, Jackson held a press conference at London's O2 Arena to announce a series of comeback concerts titled This Is It. The shows would be Jackson's first major series of concerts since the HIStory World Tour finished in 1997. Jackson suggested possible retirement after the shows, saying it would be his \"final curtain call\". The initial plan was for 10 concerts in London, followed by shows in Paris, New York City and Mumbai. Randy Phillips, president and chief executive of AEG Live, stated that the first 10 dates alone would earn the singer approximately £50 million. The London residency was increased to 50 dates after record-breaking ticket sales: over one million were sold in less than two hours. The concerts would have commenced on July 13, 2009, and finished on March 6, 2010. Jackson rehearsed in Los Angeles in the weeks leading up to the tour under the direction of choreographer Kenny Ortega. Most of these rehearsals took place at the Staples Center, owned by AEG. Less than three weeks before the first show was due to begin in London, with all concerts sold out, Jackson died after suffering cardiac arrest. Some time before his death, it was reported that he was starting a clothing line with Christian Audigier. \n\nJackson's first posthumous song released entirely by his estate was \"This Is It\", which he had co-written in the 1980s with Paul Anka. It was not on the setlists for the concerts, and the recording was based on an old demo tape. The surviving brothers reunited in the studio for the first time since 1989 to record backing vocals. On October 28, 2009, a documentary film about the rehearsals, Michael Jackson's This Is It, was released. Despite a limited two-week engagement, it became the highest-grossing documentary or concert film of all time, with earnings of more than worldwide. Jackson's estate received 90% of the profits. The film was accompanied by a compilation album of the same name. Two versions of \"This Is It\" appear on the album, which also featured original masters of Jackson's hits in the order in which they appear in the film, along with a bonus disc with previously unreleased versions of more Jackson hits and a spoken-word poem, \"Planet Earth\". At the 2009 American Music Awards, Jackson won four posthumous awards, two for him and two for his album Number Ones, bringing his total American Music Awards to 26. \n\nDeath and memorial\n\nOn June 25, 2009, Jackson fell unconscious while lying in bed at his rented mansion at 100 North Carolwood Drive in the Holmby Hills district of Los Angeles. Attempts at resuscitating him by Conrad Murray, his personal physician, were unsuccessful. Los Angeles Fire Department paramedics received a 911 call at 12:22 pm (PDT, 19:22 UTC), arriving three minutes later. Jackson was reportedly not breathing and CPR was performed. Resuscitation efforts continued en route to Ronald Reagan UCLA Medical Center, and for more than an hour after arriving there at 1:13 pm (20:13 UTC). He was pronounced dead at 2:26 pm Pacific time (21:26 UTC). \n\nJackson's death triggered a global outpouring of grief. The news spread quickly online, causing websites to slow down and crash from user overload. Both TMZ and the Los Angeles Times suffered outages. Google initially believed that the millions of search requests meant their search engine was under DDoS attack, and blocked searches related to Michael Jackson for 30 minutes. Twitter reported a crash, as did Wikipedia at PDT (22:15 UTC). The Wikimedia Foundation reported nearly a million visitors to Jackson's biography within one hour, probably the most visitors in a one-hour period to any article in Wikipedia's history. AOL Instant Messenger collapsed for 40 minutes. AOL called it a \"seminal moment in internet history ... We've never seen anything like it in terms of scope or depth.\" Around 15% of Twitter posts (5,000 tweets per minute) reportedly mentioned Jackson after the news broke, compared to the 5% recalled as having mentioned the Iranian elections or the flu pandemic that had made headlines earlier in the year. Overall, web traffic ranged from 11% to at least 20% higher than normal. MTV and BET aired marathons of Jackson's music videos. Jackson specials aired on television stations around the world. The British soap opera EastEnders added a last-minute scene to the June 26 episode in which one character tells another about the news. MTV briefly returned to its original music video format to celebrate his work, airing hours of Jackson's music videos, accompanied by live news specials featuring reactions from MTV personalities and other celebrities. The temporary shift in MTV's programming culminated the following week in the channel's live coverage of Jackson's memorial service.\n\nJackson's memorial was held on July 7, 2009 at the Staples Center in Los Angeles, preceded by a private family service at Forest Lawn Memorial Park's Hall of Liberty. Due to high demand, tickets to the memorial were distributed via lottery, and over 1.6 million fans applied for tickets during the two-day application period. 8,750 names were drawn at random, with each recipient receiving two tickets each. Jackson's casket was present during the memorial but no information was released about the final disposition of the body. The memorial service was one of the most watched events in streaming history, with an estimated U.S. audience of 31.1 million, an amount comparable to the estimated that watched the 2004 burial of former president Ronald Reagan, and the estimated Americans who watched the 1997 funeral for Princess Diana. \n\nMariah Carey, Stevie Wonder, Lionel Richie, John Mayer, Jennifer Hudson, Usher, Jermaine Jackson, and Shaheen Jafargholi performed at the event. Berry Gordy and Smokey Robinson gave eulogies, while Queen Latifah read \"We Had Him\", a poem written for the occasion by Maya Angelou. The Reverend Al Sharpton received a standing ovation with cheers when he told Jackson's children: \"Wasn't nothing strange about your daddy. It was strange what your daddy had to deal with. But he dealt with it anyway.\" Jackson's 11-year-old daughter Paris Katherine, speaking publicly for the first time, wept as she told the crowd: \"Ever since I was born, Daddy has been the best father you could ever imagine ... I just wanted to say I love him ... so much.\" Reverend Lucious Smith provided a closing prayer. \n\nAt the time of death, Jackson had been administered propofol, lorazepam, and midazolam, and the Los Angeles coroner decided to treat the death as a homicide. Law enforcement officials conducted a manslaughter investigation of his personal physician Conrad Murray, and charged him with involuntary manslaughter in Los Angeles on February 8, 2010. Jackson's body was entombed on September 3, 2009, at Forest Lawn Memorial Park in Glendale, California. \n\nOn June 25, 2010, the first anniversary of Jackson's death, fans traveled to Los Angeles to pay tribute. They visited Jackson's star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, his family's home, and Forest Lawn Memorial Park. Many of the fans were carrying sunflowers and other tribute items to leave at the sites. Members of the Jackson family and close friends arrived to pay their respects. Katherine returned to Gary, Indiana to unveil a granite monument constructed in the front yard of the family home. The memorial continued with a candlelight vigil and a special performance of \"We Are the World\". On June 26, there was a protest march in front of the Los Angeles Police Department's Robbery-Homicide Division at the old Parker Center building and a petition with thousands of signatures demanding justice. The Jackson Family Foundation, in conjunction with Voiceplate, presented \"Forever Michael\", an event bringing together Jackson family members, celebrities, fans, supporters and the community to celebrate and honor his legacy. A portion of the proceeds were presented to some of Jackson's favorite charities. Katherine also introduced her new book \"Never Can Say Goodbye\". \n\nAftermath\n\nIn the 12 months after his death, Jackson sold more than 8.2 million albums in the United States and 35 million albums worldwide, making him the best-selling albums artist of 2009. He became the first artist to sell one million downloads in a week in music download history, with a record-breaking 2.6 million downloads of his songs. Three of his albums sold more than any new album, the first time a catalog album has ever scanned more sales than any new album. Jackson also became the first artist in history to have four of the top 20 best-selling albums in a single year in the United States. Following this surge in sales, Sony announced that they had extended their distribution rights for Jackson's material, which had been due to expire in 2015. On March 16, 2010, Sony Music Entertainment, spearheaded by its Columbia/Epic Label Group division, signed a new deal with the Jackson estate to extend their distribution rights to his back catalogue until at least 2017, and release ten new albums of previously unreleased material and new collections of released work. \n\nOn November 4, 2010, Sony announced the first postumous album, Michael, released on December 14, with the promotional single, \"Breaking News\", released to radio on November 8. Sony Music reportedly paid the Jackson estate for the deal, plus royalties, making it the most expensive music contract pertaining to a single artist in history. Video game developer Ubisoft announced a dancing-and-singing game featuring Michael Jackson for the 2010 holiday season, Michael Jackson: The Experience; it is among the first games to use Kinect and PlayStation Move, the motion-detecting camera systems for Microsoft's Xbox 360 and Sony's PlayStation 3 respectively. \n\nOn November 3, 2010, the theatrical performing company Cirque du Soleil announced that it would launch Michael Jackson: The Immortal World Tour in October 2011 in Montreal, while a permanent show will reside in Las Vegas. The 90-minute $57-million production will combine Jackson's music and choreography with the Cirque's artistry, dance and aerial displays involving 65 artists. The tour was written and directed by Jamie King and centers on Jackson's \"inspirational Giving Tree – the wellspring of creativity where his love of music and dance, fairy tale and magic, and the fragile beauty of nature are unlocked.\" On October 3, 2011, the accompanying compilation soundtrack album Immortal was announced to have over 40 Jackson's original recordings re-produced by Kevin Antunes. A second, larger and more theatrical Cirque show, Michael Jackson: One, designed for residency at the Mandalay Bay resort in Las Vegas, was announced on February 21, 2013. This show, also produced, written and directed by King, began its run on May 23, 2013 in a newly renovated theater to critical and commercial success. \n\nIn April 2011, billionaire businessman Mohamed Al-Fayed, chairman of Fulham Football Club and Jackson's longtime friend, unveiled a statue of Michael Jackson outside the club's stadium, Craven Cottage. Fulham fans were bemused by the statue and failed to understand the relevance of Jackson to the club. Al Fayed defended the statue and told the fans to \"go to hell\" if they did not appreciate it. The statue was removed in September 2013 and moved to the National Football Museum in Manchester in May 2014. \n\nIn 2012, in an attempt to end public family feuding, Jackson's brother Jermaine Jackson retracted his signature on a public letter criticizing executors of Michael Jackson's estate and his mother's advisers concerning the legitimacy of his brother's will. T.J. Jackson, son of Tito Jackson, was given co-guardianship of Michael Jackson's children after false reports surfaced of Katherine Jackson going missing. \n\nOn May 16, 2013, choreographer Wade Robson alleged on The Today Show that Jackson \"performed sexual acts on me and forced me to perform sexual acts on him\" for 7 years, beginning when Robson was 7 years old. Robson had previously testified in defence of Jackson at the singer's 2005 child molestation trial. The attorney for Jackson's estate described Robson's claim as \"outrageous and pathetic\". The date for the hearing which will determine whether Robson can sue Jackson's estate was scheduled for June 2, 2014. In February 2014, the Internal Revenue Service reported that Jackson's estate owed $702 million, including $505 million in taxes and $197 million in penalties after they claimed the estate undervalued Jackson's fortune. \n\nOn March 31, 2014, Epic Records announced Xscape, an album of eight songs of unreleased material culled from past recording sessions. It was released on May 13, 2014. On May 12, 2014, another young man, Jimmy Safechuck, sued Jackson's estate, claiming Jackson sexually abused him \"from the age of 10 to about 14 or 15\" in the 1980s. During the 2014 Billboard Music Awards on May 18, a \"Pepper's ghost\" likeness of Jackson appeared, dancing to \"Slave to the Rhythm\", one of the tracks from Xscape. Later that year, Queen released three duets that Freddie Mercury had recorded with Jackson in the 1980s.\n\nJackson's earnings have exponentially increased following his sudden death in comparison to his final years alive. According to Forbes, he has been the top-earning dead celebrity each year since his death, with triple-digit millions per annum ($115 million in 2015). In December 2015, Jackson's album Thriller became the first album in the United States to surpass 30 million shipments, certifying it 30× platinum by the RIAA. Two months later, Billboard reported that the album was certified again at 32× platinum, surpassing 32 million shipments after Soundscan added streams and audio downloads to album certifications. \n\nArtistry\n\nInfluences\n\nJackson was influenced by musicians including Little Richard, James Brown, Jackie Wilson, Diana Ross, Fred Astaire, Sammy Davis Jr., Gene Kelly, David Ruffin, the Isley Brothers, and the Bee Gees. According to choreographer David Winters, who met and befriended Jackson while choreographing the 1971 Diana Ross TV special Diana!, Jackson watched the musical West Side Story almost every week, and it was his favorite film; he paid tribute to it in \"Beat It\" and the \"Bad\" video. While Little Richard had a substantial influence on Jackson, James Brown was Jackson's greatest inspiration. In reference to Brown, Jackson declared: \"Ever since I was a small child, no more than like six years old, my mother would wake me no matter what time it was, if I was sleeping, no matter what I was doing, to watch the television to see the master at work. And when I saw him move, I was mesmerized. I had never seen a performer perform like James Brown, and right then and there I knew that was exactly what I wanted to do for the rest of my life because of James Brown.\" \n\nThe young Jackson owed his vocal technique in large part to Diana Ross. Not only a mother figure to him, she was often observed in rehearsal as an accomplished performer. He later said: \"I got to know her well. She taught me so much. I used to just sit in the corner and watch the way she moved. She was art in motion. I studied the way she moved, the way she sang – just the way she was.\" He told her: \"I want to be just like you, Diana.\" She said: \"You just be yourself.\" Jackson owed part of his enduring style—especially his use of the oooh interjection—to Ross. From a young age, Jackson often punctuated his verses with a sudden exclamation of oooh. Diana Ross had used this effect on many of the songs recorded with the Supremes. \n\nMusical themes and genres\n\nJackson explored a variety of music genres, including pop, soul, rhythm and blues, funk, rock, disco, post-disco, dance-pop and new jack swing. Unlike many artists, Jackson did not write his songs on paper and instead dictated into a sound recorder. When composing music, he preferred to beatbox and imitate instruments vocally rather than use instruments. \n\n According to Steve Huey of AllMusic, Thriller refined the strengths of Off the Wall; the dance and rock tracks were more aggressive, while the pop tunes and ballads were softer and more soulful. Notable tracks included the ballads \"The Lady in My Life\", \"Human Nature\" and \"The Girl Is Mine\"; the funk pieces \"Billie Jean\" and \"Wanna Be Startin' Somethin'\"; and the disco set \"Baby Be Mine\" and \"P.Y.T. (Pretty Young Thing)\". With Thriller, Christopher Connelly of Rolling Stone commented that Jackson developed his long association with the subliminal theme of paranoia and darker imagery. AllMusic's Stephen Thomas Erlewine noted this is evident on the songs \"Billie Jean\" and \"Wanna Be Startin' Somethin'\". In \"Billie Jean\", Jackson sings about an obsessive fan who alleges he has fathered a child of hers. In \"Wanna Be Startin' Somethin'\" he argues against gossip and the media. \"Beat It\" decried gang violence in an homage to West Side Story, and was Jackson's first successful rock cross-over piece, according to Huey. He also observed that the title track \"Thriller\" began Jackson's interest with the theme of the supernatural, a topic he revisited in subsequent years. In 1985, Jackson co-wrote the charity anthem \"We Are the World\"; humanitarian themes later became a recurring theme in his lyrics and public persona.\n\nIn Bad, Jackson's concept of the predatory lover can be seen on the rock song \"Dirty Diana\". The lead single \"I Just Can't Stop Loving You\" is a traditional love ballad, while \"Man in the Mirror\" is an anthemic ballad of confession and resolution. \"Smooth Criminal\" was an evocation of bloody assault, rape and likely murder. AllMusic's Stephen Thomas Erlewine states that Dangerous presents Jackson as a very paradoxical individual. He comments the album is more diverse than his previous Bad, as it appeals to an urban audience while also attracting the middle class with anthems like \"Heal the World\". The first half of the record is dedicated to new jack swing, including songs like \"Jam\" and \"Remember the Time\". The album is Jackson's first where social ills become a primary theme; \"Why You Wanna Trip on Me\", for example, protests against world hunger, AIDS, homelessness and drugs. Dangerous contains sexually charged efforts such as the multifaceted love song, \"In the Closet\". The title track continues the theme of the predatory lover and compulsive desire. The second half includes introspective, pop-gospel anthems such as \"Will You Be There\", \"Heal the World\" and \"Keep the Faith\"; these songs show Jackson opening up about various personal struggles and worries. In the ballad \"Gone Too Soon\", Jackson gives tribute to his friend Ryan White and the plight of those with AIDS. \n\nHIStory creates an atmosphere of paranoia. Its content focuses on the hardships and public struggles Jackson went through just prior to its production. In the new jack swing-funk-rock efforts \"Scream\" and \"Tabloid Junkie\", along with the R&B ballad \"You Are Not Alone\", Jackson retaliates against the injustice and isolation he feels, and directs much of his anger at the media. In the introspective ballad \"Stranger in Moscow\", Jackson laments over his \"fall from grace\", while songs like \"Earth Song\", \"Childhood\", \"Little Susie\" and \"Smile\" are all operatic pop pieces. In the track \"D.S.\", Jackson launched a verbal attack against Tom Sneddon. He describes Sneddon as an antisocial, white supremacist who wanted to \"get my ass, dead or alive\". Of the song, Sneddon said, \"I have not—shall we say—done him the honor of listening to it, but I've been told that it ends with the sound of a gunshot\". Invincible found Jackson working heavily with producer Rodney Jerkins. It is a record made up of urban soul like \"Cry\" and \"The Lost Children\", ballads such as \"Speechless\", \"Break of Dawn\", and \"Butterflies\" and mixes hip hop, pop, and R&B in \"2000 Watts\", \"Heartbreaker\" and \"Invincible\". \n\nVocal style\n\nJackson sang from childhood, and over time his voice and vocal style changed noticeably. Between 1971 and 1975, Jackson's voice descended from boy soprano to high tenor. His vocal range as an adult was F2-E6. Jackson first used a technique called the \"vocal hiccup\" in 1973, starting with the song \"It's Too Late to Change the Time\" from the Jackson 5's G.I.T.: Get It Together album. Jackson did not use the hiccup technique—somewhat like a gulping for air or gasping—fully until the recording of Off the Wall: it can be seen in full force in the \"Shake Your Body (Down to the Ground)\" promotional video. With the arrival of Off the Wall in the late 1970s, Jackson's abilities as a vocalist were well regarded. At the time, Rolling Stone compared his vocals to the \"breathless, dreamy stutter\" of Stevie Wonder. Their analysis was also that \"Jackson's feathery-timbred tenor is extraordinarily beautiful. It slides smoothly into a startling falsetto that's used very daringly\". 1982 saw the release of Thriller, and Rolling Stone was of the opinion that Jackson was then singing in a \"fully adult voice\" that was \"tinged by sadness\".\n\nA distinctive deliberate mispronunciation of \"come on\", used frequently by Jackson, occasionally spelled \"c'mon\", \"cha'mone\", or \"shamone\", is also a staple in impressions and caricatures of him. The turn of the 1990s saw the release of the introspective album Dangerous. The New York Times noted that on some tracks, \"he gulps for breath, his voice quivers with anxiety or drops to a desperate whisper, hissing through clenched teeth\" and he had a \"wretched tone\". When singing of brotherhood or self-esteem the musician would return to \"smooth\" vocals. When commenting on Invincible, Rolling Stone were of the opinion that—at the age of 43—Jackson still performed \"exquisitely voiced rhythm tracks and vibrating vocal harmonies\". Nelson George wrote: \"The grace, the aggression, the growling, the natural boyishness, the falsetto, the smoothness—that combination of elements mark him as a major vocalist\". Cultural critic Joseph Vogel notes that Jackson had a \"distinctive styles is his ability to convey emotion without the use of language: there are his trademark gulps, grunts, gasps, cries, exclamations; he also frequently scats or twists and contorts words until they are barely discernible.\" Neil McCormick notes that Jackson's unorthodox singing style \"was original and utterly distinctive, from his almost ethereal falsetto to his soft, sweet mid-tones; his fluid, seamless control of often very fast moving series of notes; his percussive yet still melodic outbursts, ululations and interjections (from those spooky \"tee-hee-hees\" to grunts and wails). Unusually for someone coming from a black American soul tradition, he did not often sing straight, unadorned ballads, though when he did (from 'Ben' to 'She's Out of My Life') the effect was of a powerful simplicity and truth.\" \n\nConcerned about a transparent rendition of this identity, the sound engineer Bruce Swedien opted for some technical approaches and studio strategies aiming at keeping as truly as possible the singer's intimate and natural expressions: mikes, analogic recordings, special techniques elaborated to design vocal prisms, creation of natural acoustic spaces, conversion of stereophonic fields in tri-dimensional sound spaces playing with early reflections, plywood, Monstercable or Tubetraps. \n\nMusic videos and choreography\n\nJackson has been called the King of Music Videos. Steve Huey of AllMusic observed how Jackson transformed the music video into an art form and a promotional tool through complex story lines, dance routines, special effects and famous cameo appearances, simultaneously breaking down racial barriers. Before Thriller, Jackson struggled to receive coverage on MTV, allegedly because he was African American. Pressure from CBS Records persuaded MTV to start showing \"Billie Jean\" and later \"Beat It\", leading to a lengthy partnership with Jackson, also helping other black music artists gain recognition. MTV employees deny any racism in their coverage, or pressure to change their stance. MTV maintains that they played rock music, regardless of race. The popularity of his videos on MTV helped to put the relatively young channel \"on the map\"; MTV's focus shifted in favor of pop and R&B. His performance on Motown 25: Yesterday, Today, Forever changed the scope of live stage show; \"That Jackson lip-synced 'Billie Jean' is, in itself, not extraordinary, but the fact that it did not change the impact of the performance is extraordinary; whether the performance was live or lip-synced made no difference to the audience\" thus creating an era in which artists re-create the spectacle of music video imagery on stage. Short films like Thriller largely remained unique to Jackson, while the group dance sequence in \"Beat It\" has frequently been imitated. The choreography in Thriller has become a part of global pop culture, replicated everywhere from Indian films to prisons in the Philippines. The Thriller short film marked an increase in scale for music videos, and has been named the most successful music video ever by the Guinness World Records.\n\nIn the 19-minute music video for \"Bad\"—directed by Martin Scorsese—Jackson began using sexual imagery and choreography not previously seen in his work. He occasionally grabbed or touched his chest, torso and crotch. When asked by Oprah in the 1993 interview about why he grabbed his crotch, he replied, \"I think it happens subliminally\" and he described it as something that was not planned, but rather, as something that was compelled by the music. \"Bad\" garnered a mixed reception from both fans and critics; Time magazine described it as \"infamous\". The video also featured Wesley Snipes; in the future Jackson's videos would often feature famous cameo roles. For the \"Smooth Criminal\" video, Jackson experimented with an anti-gravity lean where the performer leans forward at a 45 degree angle, beyond the performer's center of gravity. To accomplish this move live, Jackson and designers developed a special shoe that locks the performer's feet to the stage, allowing them to lean forward. They were granted for the device. Although the music video for \"Leave Me Alone\" was not officially released in the US, in 1989 it was nominated for three Billboard Music Video Awards; the same year it won a Golden Lion Award for the quality of the special effects used in its production. In 1990, \"Leave Me Alone\" won a Grammy for Best Music Video, Short Form.\n\nHe received the MTV Video Vanguard Award in 1988 and the MTV Video Vanguard Artist of the Decade Award in 1990 to celebrate his accomplishments in the art form in the 1980s; in 1991 the first award was renamed in his honor. \"Black or White\" was accompanied by a controversial music video, which, on November 14, 1991, simultaneously premiered in 27 countries with an estimated audience of 500 million people, the largest viewing ever for a music video at that time. It featured scenes construed as having a sexual nature as well as depictions of violence. The offending scenes in the final half of the 14-minute version were edited out to prevent the video from being banned, and Jackson apologized. Along with Jackson, it featured Macaulay Culkin, Peggy Lipton, and George Wendt. It helped usher in morphing as an important technology in music videos. \n\n\"Remember the Time\" was an elaborate production, and became one of his longest videos at over nine minutes. Set in ancient Egypt, it featured groundbreaking visual effects and appearances by Eddie Murphy, Iman, and Magic Johnson, along with a distinct complex dance routine. The video for \"In the Closet\" was Jackson's most sexually provocative piece. It featured supermodel Naomi Campbell in a courtship dance with Jackson. The video was banned in South Africa because of its imagery.\n\nThe music video for \"Scream\", directed by Mark Romanek and production designer Tom Foden, is one of Jackson's most critically acclaimed. In 1995, it gained eleven MTV Video Music Award Nominations—more than any other music video—and won \"Best Dance Video\", \"Best Choreography\", and \"Best Art Direction\". The song and its accompanying video are a response to the backlash Jackson received from the media after being accused of child molestation in 1993. A year later, it won a Grammy for Best Music Video, Short Form; shortly afterwards Guinness World Records listed it as the most expensive music video ever made, at a cost of $7 million. \n\n\"Earth Song\" was accompanied by an expensive and well-received music video, which gained a Grammy nomination for Best Music Video, Short Form in 1997. The video had an environmental theme, showing images of animal cruelty, deforestation, pollution and war. Using special effects, time is reversed so that life returns, wars end, and the forests re-grow. Released in 1997 and premiering at the 1996 Cannes Film Festival, Michael Jackson's Ghosts was a short film written by Jackson and Stephen King and directed by Stan Winston. The video for Ghosts is over 38 minutes long and holds the Guinness World Record as the world's longest music video. \n\nLegacy and influence\n\nThe media has commonly referred to Jackson as the \"King of Pop\" because, throughout his career, he transformed the art of music videos and paved the way for modern pop music. For much of Jackson's career, he had an unparalleled worldwide influence over the younger generation through his musical and humanitarian contributions. His music and videos, such as Thriller, fostered racial diversity in MTV's roster and steered its focus from rock to pop music and R&B, shaping the channel into a form that proved enduring. Jackson's work continues to influence numerous artists of various music genres.\n\nAllMusic's Steve Huey describes Jackson as \"an unstoppable juggernaut, possessed of all the skills to dominate the charts seemingly at will: an instantly identifiable voice, eye-popping dance moves, stunning musical versatility and loads of sheer star power\". BET described Jackson \"as quite simply the greatest entertainer of all time\" and someone who \"revolutionized the music video and brought dances like the moonwalk to the world. Jackson's sound, style, movement and legacy continues to inspire artists of all genres.\" \n\nIn 1984, TIME magazine's pop critic Jay Cocks wrote that \"Jackson is the biggest thing since the Beatles. He is the hottest single phenomenon since Elvis Presley. He just may be the most popular black singer ever.\" In 1990, Vanity Fair cited Jackson as the most popular artist in the history of show business. In 2003, Daily Telegraph writer Tom Utley described Jackson as \"extremely important\" and a \"genius\". In 2007, Jackson said: \"Music has been my outlet, my gift to all of the lovers in this world. Through it, my music, I know I will live forever.\" \n\nAt Jackson's memorial service on July 7, 2009, Motown founder Berry Gordy proclaimed Jackson \"the greatest entertainer that ever lived\". In a June 28, 2009 Baltimore Sun article titled \"7 Ways Michael Jackson Changed The World\", Jill Rosen wrote that Jackson's legacy was \"as enduring as it is multi-faceted\", influencing fields including sound, dance, fashion, music videos and celebrity. On December 19, 2014, the British Council of Cultural Relations named Jackson's life one of the 80 most important cultural moments of the 20th century. \n\nIn July 2009, the Lunar Republic Society, which promotes the exploration, settlement and development of the Moon, named a Moon crater after Jackson. In the same year, for Jackson's 51st birthday, Google dedicated their Google Doodle to him. In 2010, two university librarians found that Jackson's influence extended to academia, with references to Jackson in reports concerning music, popular culture, chemistry and an array of other topics. \n\nHonors and awards\n\nMichael Jackson was inducted onto the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 1980 as member of the Jacksons and in 1984 as solo artist. Throughout his career he received numerous honors and awards, including the World Music Awards' Best-Selling Pop Male Artist of the Millennium, the American Music Award's Artist of the Century Award and the Bambi Pop Artist of the Millennium Award. He was a double-inductee of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, once as a member of The Jackson 5 in 1997 and later as a solo artist in 2001. Jackson was also inducted in several other halls of fame, including Vocal Group Hall of Fame (as a Jackson 5 member) in 1999 and the Songwriters Hall of Fame in 2002. In 2010, Jackson was inducted into the Dance Hall of Fame as the first (and currently only) dancer from the world of pop and rock 'n' roll. In 2014, Jackson was inducted into the second class of inductees to the Rhythm and Blues Music Hall of Fame; his father Joe Jackson accepted on his behalf. \n\nHis awards include many Guinness World Records (eight in 2006 alone), including for the Most Successful Entertainer of All Time, 13 Grammy Awards (as well as the Grammy Legend Award and the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award), 26 American Music Awards (including the \"Artist of the Century\" and \"Artist of the 1980s\"), —more than any artist—13 number-one singles in the US in his solo career—more than any other male artist in the Hot 100 era —and estimated sales of over 400 million records worldwide, which makes him one of the best-selling artists of all time. On December 29, 2009, the American Film Institute recognized Jackson's death as a \"moment of significance\" saying, \"Michael Jackson's sudden death in June at age 50 was notable for the worldwide outpouring of grief and the unprecedented global eulogy of his posthumous concert rehearsal movie This Is It.\" Michael Jackson also received an Honorary Doctor of Humane Letters Degree from the United Negro College Fund and also an Honorary Doctorate of Humane Letters from Fisk University. \n\nEarnings and wealth\n\nIt is estimated that Michael Jackson earned about $750 million in his lifetime. Sales of his recordings through Sony's music unit earned him an estimated $300 million in royalties. He may have also earned an additional $400 million from concerts, music publishing (including his share of the Beatles catalog) endorsements, merchandising and music videos. Estimating how much of these earnings Jackson was able to personally pocket is difficult because one has to account for taxes, recording costs and production costs. \n\nThere have also been several detailed estimates of Jackson's net worth which range from negative $285 million to positive $350 million for the years 2002, 2003 and 2007.\n\nU.S. federal estate tax problems\n\nOn July 26, 2013, the executors of the Estate of Michael Jackson filed a petition in the United States Tax Court as a result of a dispute with the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) over U.S. federal estate taxes imposed on the value of Jackson's Estate at the time of his death. The executors of the Estate claim that the Estate was worth about $7 million. The IRS asserts that the Estate was worth over $1.1 billion, and that over $700 million in federal estate taxes (including penalties) are due. The parties have been ordered to submit a status report to the Court on settlement negotiations by November 2, 2015. \n\nDiscography\n\nGot to Be There (1972)\nBen (1972)\nMusic & Me (1973)\nForever, Michael (1975)\nOff the Wall (1979)\nThriller (1982)\nBad (1987)\nDangerous (1991)\nHIStory: Past, Present and Future, Book I (1995)\nInvincible (2001)\n\nFilmography\n\nThe Wiz (1978)\nCaptain EO (1986)\nMoonwalker (1988)\nMichael Jackson's Ghosts (1997)\nMen in Black II (2002)\nMiss Cast Away and the Island Girls (2004)\nMichael Jackson's This Is It (2009)\nBad 25 (2012)\nMichael Jackson: The Last Photo Shoot (2014)\nMichael Jackson's Journey from Motown to Off the Wall (2016)\n\nTours\n\nBad (1987–89)\nDangerous World Tour (1992–93)\nHIStory World Tour (1996–97)\nMJ & Friends (1999)\n*This Is It (2009–10; cancelled)" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Dangerous (song)", "Dangerous", "Dangerous (album)", "Inherently dangerous", "Dangerous (disambiguation)" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "dangerous disambiguation", "dangerous album", "dangerous song", "dangerous", "inherently dangerous" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "dangerous", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Dangerous" }
On a computer keyboard, which letter is between G ad J?	tc_535	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Computer_keyboard.txt" ], "title": [ "Computer keyboard" ], "wiki_context": [ "In computing, a computer keyboard is a typewriter-style device which uses an arrangement of buttons or keys to act as a mechanical lever or electronic switch. Following the decline of punch cards and paper tape, interaction via teleprinter-style keyboards became the main input device for computers.\n\nA keyboard typically has characters engraved or printed on the keys and each press of a key typically corresponds to a single written symbol. However, to produce some symbols requires pressing and holding several keys simultaneously or in sequence. While most keyboard keys produce letters, numbers or signs (characters), other keys or simultaneous key presses can produce actions or execute computer commands.\n\nDespite the development of alternative input devices, such as the mouse, touchscreen, pen devices, character recognition and voice recognition, the keyboard remains the most commonly used device for direct (human) input of alphanumeric data into computers.\n\nIn normal usage, the keyboard is used as a text entry interface to type text and numbers into a word processor, text editor or other programs. In a modern computer, the interpretation of key presses is generally left to the software. A computer keyboard distinguishes each physical key from every other and reports all key presses to the controlling software. Keyboards are also used for computer gaming, either with regular keyboards or by using keyboards with special gaming features, which can expedite frequently used keystroke combinations. A keyboard is also used to give commands to the operating system of a computer, such as Windows' Control-Alt-Delete combination, which brings up a task window or shuts down the machine.\nA command-line interface is a type of user interface operated entirely through a keyboard, or another device doing the job of one.\n\nHistory \n\nWhile typewriters are the definitive ancestor of all key-based text entry devices, the computer keyboard as a device for electromechanical data entry and communication derives largely from the utility of two devices: teleprinters (or teletypes) and keypunches. It was through such devices that modern computer keyboards inherited their layouts.\n\nAs early as the 1870s, teleprinter-like devices were used to simultaneously type and transmit stock market text data from the keyboard across telegraph lines to stock ticker machines to be immediately copied and displayed onto ticker tape. The teleprinter, in its more contemporary form, was developed from 1907 to 1910 by American mechanical engineer Charles Krum and his son Howard, with early contributions by electrical engineer Frank Pearne. Earlier models were developed separately by individuals such as Royal Earl House and Frederick G. Creed.\n\nEarlier, Herman Hollerith developed the first keypunch devices, which soon evolved to include keys for text and number entry akin to normal typewriters by the 1930s. \n\nThe keyboard on the teleprinter played a strong role in point-to-point and point-to-multipoint communication for most of the 20th century, while the keyboard on the keypunch device played a strong role in data entry and storage for just as long. The development of the earliest computers incorporated electric typewriter keyboards: the development of the ENIAC computer incorporated a keypunch device as both the input and paper-based output device, while the BINAC computer also made use of an electromechanically controlled typewriter for both data entry onto magnetic tape (instead of paper) and data output.\n\nFrom the 1940s until the late 1960s, typewriters were the main means of data entry and output for computing, becoming integrated into what were known as computer terminals. Because of the limitations of terminals based upon printed text in comparison to the growth in data storage, processing and transmission, a general move toward video-based computer terminals was effected by the 1970s, starting with the Datapoint 3300 in 1967.\n\nThe keyboard remained the primary, most integrated computer peripheral well into the era of personal computing until the introduction of the mouse as a consumer device in 1984. By this time, text-only user interfaces with sparse graphics gave way to comparatively graphics-rich icons on screen. However, keyboards remain central to human-computer interaction to the present, even as mobile personal computing devices such as smartphones and tablets adapt the keyboard as an optional virtual, touchscreen-based means of data entry.\n\nKeyboard types \n\nOne factor determining the size of a keyboard is the presence of duplicate keys, such as a separate numeric keyboard, for convenience.\n\nFurther the keyboard size depends on the extent to which a system is used where a single action is produced by a combination of subsequent or simultaneous keystrokes (with modifier keys, see below), or multiple pressing of a single key. A keyboard with few keys is called a keypad. See also text entry interface.\n\nAnother factor determining the size of a keyboard is the size and spacing of the keys. Reduction is limited by the practical consideration that the keys must be large enough to be easily pressed by fingers. Alternatively a tool is used for pressing small keys.\n\nStandard \n\nStandard alphanumeric keyboards have keys that are on three-quarter inch centers (0.750 inches, 19.05 mm), and have a key travel of at least 0.150 inches (3.81 mm). Desktop computer keyboards, such as the 101-key US traditional keyboards or the 104-key Windows keyboards, include alphabetic characters, punctuation symbols, numbers and a variety of function keys. The internationally common 102/104 key keyboards have a smaller left shift key and an additional key with some more symbols between that and the letter to its right (usually Z or Y). Also the enter key is usually shaped differently. Computer keyboards are similar to electric-typewriter keyboards but contain additional keys, such as the command or Windows keys. There is no standard computer keyboard, although many manufacture imitate the keyboard of PCs. There are actually three different PC keyboard: the original PC keyboard with 84 keys, the AT keyboard also with 84 keys and the enhanced keyboard with 101 keys. The three differ some what in the placement of function keys, the control keys, the return key, and the shift key.\n\nLaptop-size \n\nKeyboards on laptops and notebook computers usually have a shorter travel distance for the keystroke, shorter over travel distance, and a reduced set of keys. They may not have a numerical keypad, and the function keys may be placed in locations that differ from their placement on a standard, full-sized keyboard. The switch mechanism for a laptop keyboard is more likely to be a scissor switch than a rubber dome; this is opposite the trend for full-size keyboards.\n\nFlexible keyboards \n\nFlexible keyboards are a junction between normal type and laptop type keyboards, normal from the full arrangement of keys, and laptop from the sort key distance, additionally the flexibility it allows the user to fold/roll the keyboard for better storage / transfer, however for typing, the keyboard must be resting on a hard surface. The vast majority of flexible keyboards in market are made from silicone, this material makes it water and dust proof, a very pleasant feature especially in hospitals where keyboards are subjected to frequent washing. For connection with the computer, the keyboards having USB cable and the support of operating systems reach far back as the Windows 2000.\n\nHandheld \n\nHandheld ergonomic keyboards are designed to be held like a game controller, and can be used as such, instead of laid out flat on top of a table surface. Typically handheld keyboards hold all the alphanumeric keys and symbols that a standard keyboard would have, yet only be accessed by pressing two sets of keys at once; one acting as a function key similar to a 'Shift' key that would allow for capital letters on a standard keyboard. Handheld keyboards allow the user the ability to move around a room or to lean back on a chair while also being able to type in front or away from the computer. Some variations of handheld ergonomic keyboards also include a trackball mouse that allow mouse movement and typing included in one handheld device.\n\nThumb-sized \n\nSmaller external keyboards have been introduced for devices without a built-in keyboard, such as PDAs, and smartphones. Small keyboards are also useful where there is a limited workspace.\n\nA chorded keyboard allows users to press several keys simultaneously. For example, the GKOS keyboard has been designed for small wireless devices. Other two-handed alternatives more akin to a game controller, such as the AlphaGrip, are also used to input data and text.\n\nA thumb keyboard (thumb board) is used in some personal digital assistants such as the Palm Treo and BlackBerry and some Ultra-Mobile PCs such as the OQO.\n\nNumeric keyboards contain only numbers, mathematical symbols for addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, a decimal point, and several function keys. They are often used to facilitate data entry with smaller keyboards that do not have a numeric keypad, commonly those of laptop computers. These keys are collectively known as a numeric pad, numeric keys, or a numeric keypad, and it can consist of the following types of keys: Arithmetic operators, numbers, arrow keys, Navigation keys, Num Lock and Enter key.\n\nMultifunctional \n\nMultifunctional keyboards provide additional function beyond the standard keyboard. Many are programmable, configurable computer keyboards and some control multiple PCs, workstations (incl. SUN) and other information sources (incl. Thomson Reuters FXT/Eikon, Bloomberg, EBS, etc.) usually in multi-screen work environments. Users have additional key functions as well as the standard functions and can typically use a single keyboard and mouse to access multiple sources. \n\nMultifunctional keyboards may feature customised keypads, fully programmable function or soft keys for macros/pre-sets, biometric or smart card readers, trackballs, etc. New generation multifunctional keyboards feature a touchscreen display to stream video, control audio visual media and alarms, execute application inputs, configure individual desktop environments, etc. Multifunctional keyboards may also permit users to share access to PCs and other information sources. Multiple interfaces (serial, USB, audio, Ethernet, etc.) are used to integrate external devices. Some multifunctional keyboards are also used to directly and intuitively control video walls.\n\nCommon environments for multifunctional keyboards are complex, high-performance workplaces for financial traders and control room operators (emergency services, security, air traffic management; industry, utilities management, etc.).\n\nNon-standard layout and special-use types \n\nChorded \n\nWhile other keyboards generally associate one action with each key, chorded keyboards associate actions with combinations of key presses. Since there are many combinations available, chorded keyboards can effectively produce more actions on a board with fewer keys. Court reporters' stenotype machines use chorded keyboards to enable them to enter text much faster by typing a syllable with each stroke instead of one letter at a time. The fastest typists (as of 2007) use a stenograph, a kind of chorded keyboard used by most court reporters and closed-caption reporters. Some chorded keyboards are also made for use in situations where fewer keys are preferable, such as on devices that can be used with only one hand, and on small mobile devices that don't have room for larger keyboards. Chorded keyboards are less desirable in many cases because it usually takes practice and memorization of the combinations to become proficient.\n\nSoftware \n\nSoftware keyboards or on-screen keyboards often take the form of computer programs that display an image of a keyboard on the screen. Another input device such as a mouse or a touchscreen can be used to operate each virtual key to enter text. Software keyboards have become very popular in touchscreen enabled cell phones, due to the additional cost and space requirements of other types of hardware keyboards. Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X, and some varieties of Linux include on-screen keyboards that can be controlled with the mouse. In software keyboards, the mouse has to be maneuvered onto the on-screen letters given by the software. On the click of a letter, the software writes the respective letter on the respective spot.\n\nProjection (as by laser) \n\nProjection keyboards project an image of keys, usually with a laser, onto a flat surface. The device then uses a camera or infrared sensor to \"watch\" where the user's fingers move, and will count a key as being pressed when it \"sees\" the user's finger touch the projected image. Projection keyboards can simulate a full size keyboard from a very small projector. Because the \"keys\" are simply projected images, they cannot be felt when pressed. Users of projected keyboards often experience increased discomfort in their fingertips because of the lack of \"give\" when typing. A flat, non-reflective surface is also required for the keys to be projected. Most projection keyboards are made for use with PDAs and smartphones due to their small form factor.\n\nOptical keyboard technology \n\nAlso known as photo-optical keyboard, light responsive keyboard, photo-electric keyboard and optical key actuation detection technology.\n\nAn optical keyboard technology utilizes light emitting devices and photo sensors to optically detect actuated keys. Most commonly the emitters and sensors are located in the perimeter, mounted on a small PCB. The light is directed from side to side of the keyboard interior and it can only be blocked by the actuated keys. Most optical keyboards require at least 2 beams (most commonly vertical beam and horizontal beam) to determine the actuated key. Some optical keyboards use a special key structure that blocks the light in a certain pattern, allowing only one beam per row of keys (most commonly horizontal beam).\n\nLayout \n\nAlphabetic \n\nThere are a number of different arrangements of alphabetic, numeric, and punctuation symbols on keys. These different keyboard layouts arise mainly because different people need easy access to different symbols, either because they are inputting text in different languages, or because they need a specialized layout for mathematics, accounting, computer programming, or other purposes. The United States keyboard layout is used as default in the currently most popular operating systems: Windows, Mac OS X and Linux. The common QWERTY-based layout was designed early in the era of mechanical typewriters, so its ergonomics were compromised to allow for the mechanical limitations of the typewriter.\n\nAs the letter-keys were attached to levers that needed to move freely, inventor Christopher Sholes developed the QWERTY layout to reduce the likelihood of jamming. With the advent of computers, lever jams are no longer an issue, but nevertheless, QWERTY layouts were adopted for electronic keyboards because they were widely used. Alternative layouts such as the Dvorak Simplified Keyboard are not in widespread use.\n\nThe QWERTZ layout is widely used in Germany and much of Central Europe. The main difference between it and QWERTY is that Y and Z are swapped, and most special characters such as brackets are replaced by diacritical characters.\n\nAnother situation takes place with \"national\" layouts. Keyboards designed for typing in Spanish have some characters shifted, to release the space for Ñ ñ; similarly, those for Portuguese, French and other European languages may have a special key for the character Ç ç. The AZERTY layout is used in France, Belgium and some neighbouring countries. It differs from the QWERTY layout in that the A and Q are swapped, the Z and W are swapped, and the M is moved from the right of N to the right of L (where colon/semicolon is on a US keyboard). The digits 0 to 9 are on the same keys, but to be typed the shift key must be pressed. The unshifted positions are used for accented characters.\n\nKeyboards in many parts of Asia may have special keys to switch between the Latin character set and a completely different typing system. Japanese layout keyboards can be switched between various Japanese input methods and the Latin alphabet by signaling the operating system's input interpreter of the change, and some operating systems (namely the Windows family) interpret the character \"\\\" as \"¥\" for display purposes without changing the bytecode which has led some keyboard makers to mark \"\\\" as \"¥\" or both. In the Arab world, keyboards can often be switched between Arabic and Latin characters.\n\nIn bilingual regions of Canada and in the French-speaking province of Québec, keyboards can often be switched between an English and a French-language keyboard; while both keyboards share the same QWERTY alphabetic layout, the French-language keyboard enables the user to type accented vowels such as \"é\" or \"à\" with a single keystroke. Using keyboards for other languages leads to a conflict: the image on the key does not correspond to the character. In such cases, each new language may require an additional label on the keys, because the standard keyboard layouts do not share even similar characters of different languages (see the example in the figure above).\n\nKey types \n\nAlphanumeric \n\nAlphabetical, numeric, and punctuation keys are used in the same fashion as a typewriter keyboard to enter their respective symbol into a word processing program, text editor, data spreadsheet, or other program. Many of these keys will produce different symbols when modifier keys or shift keys are pressed. The alphabetic characters become uppercase when the shift key or Caps Lock key is depressed. The numeric characters become symbols or punctuation marks when the shift key is depressed. The alphabetical, numeric, and punctuation keys can also have other functions when they are pressed at the same time as some modifier keys.\nThe Space bar is a horizontal bar in the lowermost row, which is significantly wider than other keys. Like the alphanumeric characters, it is also descended from the mechanical typewriter. Its main purpose is to enter the space between words during typing. It is large enough so that a thumb from either hand can use it easily. Depending on the operating system, when the space bar is used with a modifier key such as the control key, it may have functions such as resizing or closing the current window, half-spacing, or backspacing. In computer games and other applications the key has myriad uses in addition to its normal purpose in typing, such as jumping and adding marks to check boxes. In certain programs for playback of digital video, the space bar is used for pausing and resuming the playback.\n\nModifier keys \n\nModifier keys are special keys that modify the normal action of another key, when the two are pressed in combination. For example, + in Microsoft Windows will close the program in an active window. In contrast, pressing just will probably do nothing, unless assigned a specific function in a particular program. By themselves, modifier keys usually do nothing.\nThe most widely used modifier keys include the Control key, Shift key and the Alt key. The AltGr key is used to access additional symbols for keys that have three symbols printed on them. On the Macintosh and Apple keyboards, the modifier keys are the Option key and Command key, respectively. On MIT computer keyboards, the Meta key is used as a modifier and for Windows keyboards, there is a Windows key. Compact keyboard layouts often use a Fn key. \"Dead keys\" allow placement of a diacritic mark, such as an accent, on the following letter (e.g., the Compose key).\nThe Enter/Return key typically causes a command line, window form or dialog box to operate its default function, which is typically to finish an \"entry\" and begin the desired process. In word processing applications, pressing the enter key ends a paragraph and starts a new one.\n\nCursor keys \n\nNavigation keys or cursor keys include a variety of keys which move the cursor to different positions on the screen. Arrow keys are programmed to move the cursor in a specified direction; page scroll keys, such as the Page Up and Page Down keys, scroll the page up and down. The Home key is used to return the cursor to the beginning of the line where the cursor is located; the End key puts the cursor at the end of the line. The Tab key advances the cursor to the next tab stop.\nThe Insert key is mainly used to switch between overtype mode, in which the cursor overwrites any text that is present on and after its current location, and insert mode, where the cursor inserts a character at its current position, forcing all characters past it one position further. The Delete key discards the character ahead of the cursor's position, moving all following characters one position \"back\" towards the freed place. On many notebook computer keyboards the key labeled Delete (sometimes Delete and Backspace are printed on the same key) serves the same purpose as a Backspace key. The Backspace key deletes the preceding character.\nLock keys lock part of a keyboard, depending on the settings selected. The lock keys are scattered around the keyboard. Most styles of keyboards have three LEDs indicating which locks are enabled, in the upper right corner above the numeric pad. The lock keys include Scroll lock, Num lock (which allows the use of the numeric keypad), and Caps lock.\n\nSystem commands \n\nThe SysRq and Print screen commands often share the same key. SysRq was used in earlier computers as a \"panic\" button to recover from crashes (and it is still used in this sense to some extent by the Linux kernel; see Magic SysRq key). The Print screen command used to capture the entire screen and send it to the printer, but in the present it usually puts a screenshot in the clipboard. The Break key/Pause key no longer has a well-defined purpose. Its origins go back to teleprinter users, who wanted a key that would temporarily interrupt the communications line. The Break key can be used by software in several different ways, such as to switch between multiple login sessions, to terminate a program, or to interrupt a modem connection.\nIn programming, especially old DOS-style BASIC, Pascal and C, Break is used (in conjunction with Ctrl) to stop program execution. In addition to this, Linux and variants, as well as many DOS programs, treat this combination the same as Ctrl+C. On modern keyboards, the break key is usually labeled Pause/Break. In most Windows environments, the key combination Windows key+Pause brings up the system properties.\nThe Escape key (often abbreviated Esc) is used to initiate an escape sequence. As most computer users no longer are concerned with the details of controlling their computer's peripherals, the task for which the escape sequences were originally designed, the escape key was appropriated by application programmers, most often to \"escape\" or back out of a mistaken command. This use continues today in Microsoft Windows's use of escape as a shortcut in dialog boxes for No, Quit, Exit, Cancel, or Abort.\nA common application today of the Esc key is as a shortcut key for the Stop button in many web browsers. On machines running Microsoft Windows, prior to the implementation of the Windows key on keyboards, the typical practice for invoking the \"start\" button was to hold down the control key and press escape. This process still works in Windows 2000, XP, Vista, 7, 8, and 10.\nThe Enter key is located: One in the alphanumeric keys and the other one is in the numeric keys. When one worked something on their computer and wanted to do something with their work, pressing the enter key would do the command they ordered. Another function is to create a space for next paragraph. When one typed and finished typing a paragraph and they wanted to have a second paragraph, they could press enter and it would do spacing.\nShift key: when one presses shift and a letter, it will capitalize the letter pressed with the shift key. Another use is to type more symbols than appear to be available, for instance the apostrophe key is accompanied with a quotation mark on the top. If one wants to type the quotation mark but pressed that key alone, the symbol that would appear would be the apostrophe. The quotation mark will only appear if both the required key and the Shift key are pressed.\nThe Menu key or Application key is a key found on Windows-oriented computer keyboards. It is used to launch a context menu with the keyboard rather than with the usual right mouse button. The key's symbol is usually a small icon depicting a cursor hovering above a menu. On some Samsung keyboards the cursor in the icon is not present, showing the menu only. This key was created at the same time as the Windows key. This key is normally used when the right mouse button is not present on the mouse. Some Windows public terminals do not have a Menu key on their keyboard to prevent users from right-clicking (however, in many Windows applications, a similar functionality can be invoked with the Shift+F10 keyboard shortcut).\nMiscellaneous \n\nMany, but not all,computer keyboards have a numeric keypad to the right of the alphabetic keyboard which contains numbers, basic mathematical symbols (e.g., addition, subtraction, etc.), and a few function keys. On Japanese/Korean keyboards, there may be Language input keys for changing the language to use. Some keyboards have power management keys (e.g., power key, sleep key and wake key); Internet keys to access a web browser or E-mail; and/or multimedia keys, such as volume controls or keys that can be programmed by the user to launch a specified software or command like launching a game or minimize all windows.\n\nNumeric keys \n\nWhen we calculate, we use these numeric keys to type numbers. Symbols concerned with calculations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division symbols are located in this group of keys. The enter key in this keys indicate the equal sign.\n\nMultiple layouts \n\nIt is possible to install multiple keyboard layouts within an operating system and switch between them, either through features implemented within the OS, or through an external application. Microsoft Windows, Linux, and Mac provide support to add keyboard layouts and choose from them.\n\nLayout changing software \n\nThe character code produced by any key press is determined by the keyboard driver software. A key press generates a scancode which is interpreted as an alphanumeric character or control function. Depending on operating systems, various application programs are available to create, add and switch among keyboard layouts. Many programs are available, some of which are language specific.\n\nThe arrangement of symbols of specific language can be customized. An existing keyboard layout can be edited, and a new layout can be created using this type of software.\n\nFor example, for Mac, The Microsoft Keyboard Layout Creator and open-source Avro Keyboard for Windows provide the ability to customize the keyboard layout as desired.\n\nIllumination \n\nKeyboards and keypads may be illuminated from inside, especially on equipment for mobile use. Illumination facilitates the use of the keyboard or keypad in dark environments. Some gaming keyboards have lighted keys, to make it easier for gamers to find command keys while playing in a dark room. Some keyboards may have small LED lights in a few important function keys, to remind users that the function is activated (see photo).\n\nTechnology \n\nKey switches \n\nIn the first electronic keyboards in the early 1970s, the key switches were individual switches inserted into holes in metal frames. These keyboards cost from USD $80 to $120 and were used in mainframe data terminals. The most popular switch types were reed switches (contacts enclosed in a vacuum in a glass capsule, affected by a magnet mounted on the switch plunger).\n\nIn the mid-1970s, lower-cost direct-contact key switches were introduced, but their life in switch cycles was much shorter (rated ten million cycles) because they were open to the environment. This became more acceptable, however, for use in computer terminals at the time, which began to see increasingly shorter model lifespans as they advanced.\n\nIn 1978, Key Tronic Corporation introduced keyboards with capacitive-based switches, one of the first keyboard technologies to not use self-contained switches. There was simply a sponge pad with a conductive-coated Mylar plastic sheet on the switch plunger, and two half-moon trace patterns on the printed circuit board below. As the key was depressed, the capacitance between the plunger pad and the patterns on the PCB below changed, which was detected by integrated circuits (IC). These keyboards were claimed to have the same reliability as the other \"solid-state switch\" keyboards such as inductive and Hall-Effect, but competitive with direct-contact keyboards. Prices of $60 for keyboards were achieved and Key Tronic rapidly became the largest independent keyboard manufacturer.\n\nMeanwhile, IBM made their own keyboards, using their own patented technology: Keys on older IBM keyboards were made with a \"buckling spring\" mechanism, in which a coil spring under the key buckles under pressure from the user's finger, triggering a hammer that presses two plastic sheets (membranes) with conductive traces together, completing a circuit. This produces a clicking sound, and gives physical feedback for the typist indicating that the key has been depressed. \n\nThe first electronic keyboards had a typewriter key travel distance of 0.187 inches (4.75 mm), keytops were a half-inch (12.7 mm) high, and keyboards were about two inches (5 cm) thick. Over time, less key travel was accepted in the market, finally landing on 0.110 inches (2.79 mm). Coincident with this, Key Tronic was the first company to introduce a keyboard which was only about one inch thick. And now keyboards measure only about a half-inch thick.\n\nKeytops are an important element of keyboards. In the beginning, keyboard keytops had a \"dish shape\" on top, like typewriters before them. Keyboard key legends must be extremely durable over tens of millions of depressions, since they are subjected to extreme mechanical wear from fingers and fingernails, and subject to hand oils and creams, so engraving and filling key legends with paint, as was done previously for individual switches, was never acceptable. So, for the first electronic keyboards, the key legends were produced by two-shot (or double-shot, or two-color) molding, where either the key shell or the inside of the key with the key legend was molded first, and then the other color molded second. But, to save cost, other methods were explored, such as sublimation printing and laser engraving, both methods which could be used to print a whole keyboard at the same time.\n\nInitially, sublimation printing, where a special ink is printed onto the keycap surface and the application of heat causes the ink molecules to penetrate and commingle with the plastic modules, had a problem because finger oils caused the molecules to disperse, but then a necessarily very hard clear coating was applied to prevent this. Coincident with sublimation printing, which was first used in high volume by IBM on their keyboards, was the introduction by IBM of single-curved-dish keycaps to facilitate quality printing of key legends by having a consistently curved surface instead of a dish. But one problem with sublimation or laser printing was that the processes took too long and only dark legends could be printed on light-colored keys. On another note, IBM was unique in using separate shells, or \"keycaps\", on keytop bases. This might have made their manufacturing of different keyboard layouts more flexible, but the reason for doing this was that the plastic material that needed to be used for sublimation printing was different from standard ABS keytop plastic material.\n\nThree final mechanical technologies brought keyboards to where they are today, driving the cost well under $10:\n# \"Monoblock\" keyboard designs were developed where individual switch housings were eliminated and a one-piece \"monoblock\" housing used instead. This was possible because of molding techniques that could provide very tight tolerances for the switch-plunger holes and guides across the width of the keyboard so that the key plunger-to-housing clearances were not too tight or too loose, either of which could cause the keys to bind.\n# The use of contact-switch membrane sheets under the monoblock. This technology came from flat-panel switch membranes, where the switch contacts are printed inside of a top and bottom layer, with a spacer layer in between, so that when pressure is applied to the area above, a direct electrical contact is made. The membrane layers can be printed by very-high volume, low-cost \"reel-to-reel\" printing machines, with each keyboard membrane cut and punched out afterwards.\n\nPlastic materials played a very important part in the development and progress of electronic keyboards. Until \"monoblocks\" came along, GE's \"self-lubricating\" Delrin was the only plastic material for keyboard switch plungers that could withstand the beating over tens of millions of cycles of lifetime use. Greasing or oiling switch plungers was undesirable because it would attract dirt over time which would eventually affect the feel and even bind the key switches (although keyboard manufacturers would sometimes sneak this into their keyboards, especially if they could not control the tolerances of the key plungers and housings well enough to have a smooth key depression feel or prevent binding). But Delrin was only available in black and white, and was not suitable for keytops (too soft), so keytops use ABS plastic. However, as plastic molding advanced in maintaining tight tolerances, and as key travel length reduced from 0.187-inch to 0.110-inch (4.75 mm to 2.79 mm), single-part keytop/plungers could be made of ABS, with the keyboard monolocks also made of ABS.\n\nControl processor \n\nComputer keyboards include control circuitry to convert key presses into key codes (usually scancodes) that the computer's electronics can understand. The key switches are connected via the printed circuit board in an electrical X-Y matrix where a voltage is provided sequentially to the Y lines and, when a key is depressed, detected sequentially by scanning the X lines.\n\nThe first computer keyboards were for mainframe computer data terminals and used discrete electronic parts. The first keyboard microprocessor was introduced in 1972 by General Instruments, but keyboards have been using the single-chip 8048 microcontroller variant since it became available in 1978. The keyboard switch matrix is wired to its inputs, it converts the keystrokes to key codes, and, for a detached keyboard, sends the codes down a serial cable (the keyboard cord) to the main processor on the computer motherboard. This serial keyboard cable communication is only bi-directional to the extent that the computer's electronics controls the illumination of the caps lock, num lock and scroll lock lights.\n\nOne test for whether the computer has crashed is pressing the caps lock key. The keyboard sends the key code to the keyboard driver running in the main computer; if the main computer is operating, it commands the light to turn on. All the other indicator lights work in a similar way. The keyboard driver also tracks the Shift, alt and control state of the keyboard.\n\nSome lower-quality keyboards have multiple or false key entries due to inadequate electrical designs. These are caused by inadequate keyswitch \"debouncing\" or inadequate keyswitch matrix layout that don't allow multiple keys to be depressed at the same time, both circumstances which are explained below:\n\nWhen pressing a keyboard key, the key contacts may \"bounce\" against each other for several milliseconds before they settle into firm contact. When released, they bounce some more until they revert to the uncontacted state. If the computer were watching for each pulse, it would see many keystrokes for what the user thought was just one. To resolve this problem, the processor in a keyboard (or computer) \"debounces\" the keystrokes, by aggregating them across time to produce one \"confirmed\" keystroke.\n\nSome low-quality keyboards also suffer problems with rollover (that is, when multiple keys pressed at the same time, or when keys are pressed so fast that multiple keys are down within the same milliseconds). Early \"solid-state\" keyswitch keyboards did not have this problem because the keyswitches are electrically isolated from each other, and early \"direct-contact\" keyswitch keyboards avoided this problem by having isolation diodes for every keyswitch. These early keyboards had \"n-key\" rollover, which means any number of keys can be depressed and the keyboard will still recognize the next key depressed. But when three keys are pressed (electrically closed) at the same time in a \"direct contact\" keyswitch matrix that doesn't have isolation diodes, the keyboard electronics can see a fourth \"phantom\" key which is the intersection of the X and Y lines of the three keys. Some types of keyboard circuitry will register a maximum number of keys at one time. \"Three-key\" rollover, also called \"phantom key blocking\" or \"phantom key lockout\", will only register three keys and ignore all others until one of the three keys is lifted. This is undesirable, especially for fast typing (hitting new keys before the fingers can release previous keys), and games (designed for multiple key presses).\n\nAs direct-contact membrane keyboards became popular, the available rollover of keys was optimized by analyzing the most common key sequences and placing these keys so that they do not potentially produce phantom keys in the electrical key matrix (for example, simply placing three or four keys that might be depressed simultaneously on the same X or same Y line, so that a phantom key intersection/short cannot happen), so that blocking a third key usually isn't a problem. But lower-quality keyboard designs and unknowledgeable engineers may not know these tricks, and it can still be a problem in games due to wildly different or configurable layouts in different games.\n\nConnection types \n\nThere are several ways of connecting a keyboard to a system unit (more precisely, to its keyboard controller) using cables, including the standard AT connector commonly found on motherboards, which was eventually replaced by the PS/2 and the USB connection. Prior to the iMac line of systems, Apple used the proprietary Apple Desktop Bus for its keyboard connector.\n\nWireless keyboards have become popular for their increased user freedom. A wireless keyboard often includes a required combination transmitter and receiver unit that attaches to the computer's keyboard port. The wireless aspect is achieved either by radio frequency (RF) or by infrared (IR) signals sent and received from both the keyboard and the unit attached to the computer. A wireless keyboard may use an industry standard RF, called Bluetooth. With Bluetooth, the transceiver may be built into the computer. However, a wireless keyboard needs batteries to work and may pose a security problem due to the risk of data \"eavesdropping\" by hackers. Wireless solar keyboards charge their batteries from small solar panels using sunlight or standard artificial lighting. An early example of a consumer wireless keyboard is that of the Olivetti Envision.\n\nAlternative text-entering methods \n\nOptical character recognition (OCR) is preferable to rekeying for converting existing text that is already written down but not in machine-readable format (for example, a Linotype-composed book from the 1940s). In other words, to convert the text from an image to editable text (that is, a string of character codes), a person could re-type it, or a computer could look at the image and deduce what each character is. OCR technology has already reached an impressive state (for example, Google Book Search) and promises more for the future.\n\nSpeech recognition converts speech into machine-readable text (that is, a string of character codes). This technology has also reached an advanced state and is implemented in various software products. For certain uses (e.g., transcription of medical or legal dictation; journalism; writing essays or novels) speech recognition is starting to replace the keyboard. However, the lack of privacy when issuing voice commands and dictation makes this kind of input unsuitable for many environments.\n\nPointing devices can be used to enter text or characters in contexts where using a physical keyboard would be inappropriate or impossible. These accessories typically present characters on a display, in a layout that provides fast access to the more frequently used characters or character combinations. Popular examples of this kind of input are Graffiti, Dasher and on-screen virtual keyboards.\n\nOther issues \n\nKeystroke logging \n\nUnencrypted wireless bluetooth keyboards are known to be vulnerable to signal theft by placing a covert listening devices in the same room as the keyboard to sniff and record bluetooth packets for the purpose of logging keys typed by the user. Microsoft wireless keyboards 2011 and earlier are documented to have this\nvulnerability. \n\nKeystroke logging (often called keylogging) is a method of capturing and recording user keystrokes. While it is used legally to measure employee productivity on certain clerical tasks, or by law enforcement agencies to find out about illegal activities, it is also used by hackers for various illegal or malicious acts. Hackers use keyloggers as a means to obtain passwords or encryption keys and thus bypass other security measures.\n\nKeystroke logging can be achieved by both hardware and software means. Hardware key loggers are attached to the keyboard cable or installed inside standard keyboards. Software keyloggers work on the target computer's operating system and gain unauthorized access to the hardware, hook into the keyboard with functions provided by the OS, or use remote access software to transmit recorded data out of the target computer to a remote location. Some hackers also use wireless keylogger sniffers to collect packets of data being transferred from a wireless keyboard and its receiver, and then they crack the encryption key being used to secure wireless communications between the two devices.\n\nAnti-spyware applications are able to detect many keyloggers and cleanse them. Responsible vendors of monitoring software support detection by anti-spyware programs, thus preventing abuse of the software. Enabling a firewall does not stop keyloggers per se, but can possibly prevent transmission of the logged material over the net if properly configured. Network monitors (also known as reverse-firewalls) can be used to alert the user whenever an application attempts to make a network connection. This gives the user the chance to prevent the keylogger from \"phoning home\" with his or her typed information. Automatic form-filling programs can prevent keylogging entirely by not using the keyboard at all. Most keyloggers can be fooled by alternating between typing the login credentials and typing characters somewhere else in the focus window. \n\nKeyboards are also known to emit electromagnetic signatures that can be detected using special spying equipment to reconstruct the keys pressed on the keyboard. Neal O'Farrell, executive director of the Identity Theft Council, revealed to InformationWeek that \"More than 25 years ago, a couple of former spooks showed me how they could capture a user's ATM PIN, from a van parked across the street, simply by capturing and decoding the electromagnetic signals generated by every keystroke,\" O'Farrell said. \"They could even capture keystrokes from computers in nearby offices, but the technology wasn't sophisticated enough to focus in on any specific computer.\" \n\nPhysical injury \n\nThe use of any keyboard may cause serious injury (that is, carpal tunnel syndrome or other repetitive strain injury) to hands, wrists, arms, neck or back. The risks of injuries can be reduced by taking frequent short breaks to get up and walk around a couple of times every hour. As well, users should vary tasks throughout the day, to avoid overuse of the hands and wrists. When inputting at the keyboard, a person should keep the shoulders relaxed with the elbows at the side, with the keyboard and mouse positioned so that reaching is not necessary. The chair height and keyboard tray should be adjusted so that the wrists are straight, and the wrists should not be rested on sharp table edges. Wrist or palm rests should not be used while typing.\n\nSome adaptive technology ranging from special keyboards, mouse replacements and pen tablet interfaces to speech recognition software can reduce the risk of injury. Pause software reminds the user to pause frequently. Switching to a much more ergonomic mouse, such as a vertical mouse or joystick mouse may provide relief. Switching from using a mouse to using a stylus pen with graphic tablet or a trackpad can lessen the repetitive strain on the arms and hands.\n\nPathogen transmission \n\nSome keyboards were found to contain five times more potentially harmful germs than a toilet seat. \nThis can be a concern when using shared keyboards; the keyboards can serve as vectors for pathogens that cause the cold, flu, and other communicable diseases easily spread by indirect contact." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "⒣", "🄷", "H", "̲h̲", "ⓗ", "ℌ", "Haitch", "H (letter)", "🄗", "Ｈ", "🅗", "🅷", "Aitch", "Ⓗ" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "ℌ", "🄷", "🄗", "̲h̲", "haitch", "ｈ", "h letter", "🅷", "aitch", "h", "⒣", "ⓗ", "🅗" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "h", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "H" }
In which town or city was General Motors founded?	tc_536	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "General_Motors.txt" ], "title": [ "General Motors" ], "wiki_context": [ "General Motors Company, commonly known as GM, is an American multinational corporation headquartered in Detroit, Michigan, that designs, manufactures, markets, and distributes vehicles and vehicle parts, and sells financial services. The current company, General Motors Company LLC (\"new GM\"), was formed in 2009 as a part of its 2009 bankruptcy restructuring, after the bankruptcy of General Motors Corporation (\"old GM\"). The new company purchased the majority of the assets of \"old GM\", including the name \"General Motors\".\n\nBusiness units\n\nGeneral Motors produces vehicles in 37 countries under twelve brands: Chevrolet, Buick, GMC, Cadillac, Holden, HSV, Opel, Vauxhall, Wuling, Baojun, Jie Fang, and Ravon. General Motors holds a 20% stake in IMM, and a 77% stake in GM Korea. It also has a number of joint-ventures, including Shanghai GM, SAIC-GM-Wuling and FAW-GM in China, GM-AvtoVAZ in Russia, Ghandhara Industries in Pakistan, GM Uzbekistan, General Motors India, General Motors Egypt, and Isuzu Truck South Africa. General Motors employs 212,000 people and does business in more than 140 countries. General Motors is divided into five business segments: GM North America (GMNA), Opel Group, GM International Operations (GMIO), GM South America (GMSA), and GM Financial.\n\nGeneral Motors led global vehicle sales for 77 consecutive years from 1931 through 2007, longer than any other automaker, and is currently among the world's largest automakers by vehicle unit sales. \n\nGeneral Motors acts in most countries outside the U.S. via wholly owned subsidiaries, but operates in China through 10 joint ventures. GM's OnStar subsidiary provides vehicle safety, security and information services.\n\nIn 2009, General Motors shed several brands, closing Saturn, Pontiac, and Hummer, and emerged from a government-backed Chapter 11 reorganization. In 2010, the reorganized GM made an initial public offering that was one of the world's top five largest IPOs to date, and returned to profitability later that year. \n\nIn March 2016, General Motors bought Cruise Automation, a San Francisco self-driving vehicle start-up, to develop self-driving cars that could be used in ride-sharing fleets. \n\nHistory \n\nThe company was formed on September 16, 1908, in Flint, Michigan, as a holding company for McLaughlin Car Company of Canada Limited and Buick, then controlled by William C. Durant. At the beginning of the 20th century, there were fewer than 8,000 automobiles in America, and Durant had become a leading manufacturer of horse-drawn vehicles in Flint before making his foray into the automotive industry. GM's co-founder was Charles Stewart Mott, whose carriage company was merged into Buick prior to GM's creation. Over the years, Mott became the largest single stockholder in GM, and spent his life with his Mott Foundation, which has benefited the city of Flint, his adopted home. GM acquired Oldsmobile later that year. In 1909, Durant brought in Cadillac, Elmore, Oakland, and several others. Also in 1909, GM acquired the Reliance Motor Truck Company of Owosso, Michigan, and the Rapid Motor Vehicle Company of Pontiac, Michigan, the predecessors of GMC Truck. Durant, along with R. S. McLaughlin, lost control of GM in 1910 to a bankers' trust, because of the large amount of debt taken on in its acquisitions, coupled with a collapse in new vehicle sales. \n\nThe next year, Durant started the Chevrolet Motor Car Company in the U.S., and in Canada in 1915, and through this, he secretly purchased a controlling interest in GM. Durant took back control of the company after one of the most dramatic proxy wars in American business history. Durant then reorganized General Motors Company into General Motors Corporation in 1916, merging Chevrolet with GM and merging General Motors of Canada Limited as an ally in 1918. Shortly thereafter, he again lost control, this time for good, after the new vehicle market collapsed. Alfred P. Sloan was picked to take charge of the corporation, and led it to its post-war global dominance when the seven manufacturing facilities operated by Chevrolet before GM acquired the company began to contribute to GM operations. These facilities were added to the individual factories that were exclusive to Cadillac, Buick, Oldsmobile, Oakland, and other companies acquired by GM. This unprecedented growth of GM would last into the early 1980s, when it employed 349,000 workers and operated 150 assembly plants.\n\nChapter 11 bankruptcy\n\nOn July 10, 2009, General Motors emerged from government backed Chapter 11 reorganization after an initial filing on June 8, 2009. Through the Troubled Asset Relief Program the US Treasury invested $49.5 billion in General Motors and recovered $39 billion when it sold its shares on December 9, 2013 resulting in a loss of $10.3 billion. The Treasury invested an additional $17.2 billion into GM's former financing company, GMAC (now Ally). The shares in Ally were sold on December 18, 2014 for $19.6 billion netting $2.4 billion. A study by the Center for Automotive Research found that the GM bailout saved 1.2 million jobs and preserved $34.9 billion in tax revenue. \n\nAlso in 2009 as part General Motors Chapter 11 Bankruptcy, the company shed several brands, closing Saturn, Pontiac, and Hummer, while selling Saab Automobile to Dutch automaker Spyker, and emerged from a government-backed Chapter 11 reorganization. In 2010, the reorganized GM made an initial public offering that was one of the world's top five largest IPOs to date and returned to profitability later that year. \n\nCorporate governance\n\nBased on global sales, General Motors is routinely among the world's largest automakers. Headquartered at the Renaissance Center in Detroit, GM employs approximately 202,000 people around the world. In 2009, General Motors sold 6.5 million cars and trucks globally; in 2010, it sold 8.4 million.\n\n, Mary Barra is the chief executive officer (CEO) and chairman of the board and Daniel Ammann is the president. The head of design, Edward T. Welburn, was the first African American to lead a global automotive design organization, and the highest ranking African American in the US motor industry. \n\nAs part of the company's advertising, Ed Whitacre announced the company's 60-day money-back guarantee and repayment of $6.7 billion loan from government ahead of schedule. On December 12, 2013, GM announced that Mary Barra, 51, executive vice president, Global Product Development, Purchasing and Supply Chain, was elected by the board of directors to become the next CEO of the company succeeding Dan Akerson on January 15, 2014. Barra also joined the GM board. From June 2009 to March 2011, the company had three chief executive officers and three chief financial officers. \n\nFinancial results\n\nThe company has reported annual profits since 2010. It can carry forward previous losses to reduce tax liability on future earnings. It earned $4.7 billion in 2010. The Wall Street Journal estimated the tax break, including credits for costs related to pensions and other expenses can be worth as much as $45 billion over the next 20 years. \n\nIn 2010, General Motors ranked second on the list with 8.5 million units produced globally. In 2011, GM returned to the first place with 9.025 million units sold worldwide, corresponding to 11.9% market share of the global motor vehicle industry. The top two markets in 2011 were China, with 2,547,203 units, and the United States, with 2,503,820 vehicles sold. The Chevrolet brand was the main contributor to GM performance, with 4.76 million vehicles sold around the world in 2011, a global sales record.\n\nIn May 2013 during a commencement speech, CEO Dan Akerson suggested that GM was on the cusp of rejoining the S&P 500 index. GM was removed from the index as it approached bankruptcy in 2009. \n\nOn April 24, 2014, CNNMoney reported that GM profits fell to $108 million for the first three months of 2014. GM now estimates the cost of their 2014 recall due to faulty ignition switches, which have been linked to at least 13 deaths, at $1.3 billion. Shares of GM were down 16% for the year before the new announcement of GM's lower profits. \n\nOn January 4, 2016, Fortune reported that GM led a $1bn equity financing in the transportation network company (TNC) Lyft.com. This was GM's first investment in the ride-sharing ecosystem and its reported participation ($500,000,000) in the round is considered to be indicative of its efforts towards the future of driving, which it believes will be \"connected, seamless and autonomous\". \n\nWorld presence\n\nNorth America\n\nGeneral Motors Canada is reported to be in the Superior Court of Ontario, Canada, as a privately owned Canadian company with the corporation as indirect parent. The employees are not all Canadian, as salary personnel are from the U.S. and work for the corporation.\nGM products focus primarily on its four core divisions – Chevrolet, Cadillac, Buick, and GMC. The GM restructuring has resulted in a lower break even point for annual sales and renewed profits. \n\nIn the mid-2005, GM announced that its corporate chrome power emblem \"Mark of Excellence\" would begin appearing on all recently introduced and all-new 2006 model vehicles produced and sold in North America. However, in 2009 the \"New GM\" reversed this, saying that emphasis on its four core divisions would downplay the GM logo. \n\nGM typically reports as among the largest auto makers in the United States. In May 2012, GM recorded an 18.4% market share in the U.S. \n\nSouth America\n\nIn 2008 the third largest individual country by sales was Brazil with some 550 thousand GM vehicles sold. In that year the other South American countries Argentina, Colombia, and Venezuela sold another 300 thousand GM vehicles, suggesting that the total GM sales in South America (including sales in other South American countries such as Chile, Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia, etc.) in that year were at a similar level to sales in China.\n\nEurope\n\nOpel is the main GM brand name in Europe except in the United Kingdom, where Opel's British subsidiary, Vauxhall, still uses its own \"Vauxhall\" brand name. The Chevrolet brand was reintroduced in Europe in 2005, selling mostly South-Korean made small cars. In 2012, PSA Peugeot Citroen and General Motors formed an alliance, which involved General Motors acquiring seven percent of PSA Group.\n\nOn December 13, 2013, GM announced it had divested itself from the seven percent, generating \"gross proceeds of €0.25 billion.\" Also in December 2013, GM announced it would drop the Chevrolet brand in Europe by Q4 2015, to focus on Opel/Vauxhall. Chevrolets will continue to be sold in Russia and the Commonwealth of Independent States. GM lost approximately $18B over the past 12 years in Europe. \n\nAsia\n\nThe company manufactures most of its China market vehicles locally. Shanghai GM, a joint venture with the Chinese company SAIC Motor, was created on March 25, 1997. The Shanghai GM plant was officially opened on December 15, 1998, when the first Chinese-built Buick came off the assembly line. The SAIC-GM-Wuling Automobile joint-venture is also successfully selling microvans under the Wuling brand (34 percent owned by GM). Much of General Motors' recent growth has been in the People's Republic of China, where its sales rose 66.9 percent in 2009, selling 1,830,000 vehicles and accounting for 13.4 percent of the market. \n\nBuick is strong in China, being led by the Buick Excelle subcompact. The last emperor of China owned a Buick. The Cadillac brand was introduced in China in 2004, starting with exports to China. GM pushed the marketing of the Chevrolet brand in China in 2005 as well, transferring Buick Sail to that brand.\n\nIn August 2009 the joint venture of FAW GM Light Duty Commercial Vehicle Co Ltd was formed that mainly produces Jiefang light-duty trucks. \n\nGeneral Motors vehicle sales in China rose 28.8 percent to a record 2,351,610 units in 2010. GM\nset up an auto research center as part of a USD250 million corporate campus in Shanghai to develop 'gasoline-hybrid cars, electric vehicles and alternative fuels, engines and new technologies'. The company plans to double its sales from 2010 to about 5 million units in China by 2015. \n\nSAIC-GM-Wuling established the low-cost Baojun brand to better compete with domestic rivals, Chery, Geely and BYD for first-time buyers of cars priced around USD10,000. It is estimated that such market in China is about 5 million vehicles a year, larger than the auto market in France and Britain combined. However, some are worried that 'local brands like Baojun could eventually become threats to their parent brands if they compete more against established models over time'. Shanghai-GM-Wuling sold 1.23 million vehicles in 2010, mainly commercial vans and trucks, of which about 700,000 units were a van called Sunshine. \n\nGM maintains a dealership presence in Japan, called GM Chevrolet Shop, previously known as GM Auto World Shop. Current GM Japan dealerships were either former Saturn dealerships or Isuzu dealership locations. GM products are also currently sold by the company Yanase Co., Ltd. since 1915.\n\nIn August 2011, GM announced plans to reactivate its plant that previously produced rebadged Chevrolet Blazer as Opel as well as Brazilian Blazer, and also build a new plant in Bekasi, West Java, Indonesia, which would produce 40,000 passenger cars per year for the Southeast Asian market. It is the third plant in Southeast Asia, after the Rayong plant, Thailand, and the Hanoi plant, Vietnam. \n\nIn October 2011, the South Korea Free Trade Agreement opened up the South Korean auto market to American made cars. GM owns (per December 31, 2011) 77.0% of its joint venture in South Korea, GM Korea.\n\nOn March 11, 2013, GM opened a new 190,300 square-foot manufacturing plant in Bekasi, Indonesia. In February 2015, GM announced they will close the Bekasi plant by the end of June and stop production of the Sonic in Thailand by mid-year. \n\nAfrica\n\nGM has a long history in Egypt which began in the 1920s with the assembly of cars and light pickup trucks for the local market. In the mid of the 1950s, GM withdrew from the Egyptian market. Some year later, the Ghabbour Brothers began to assemble Cadillac, Chevrolet and Buick models up to the 1990s.\n\nSince 1983 GM and Al-Monsour Automotive Company have owned General Motors Egypt, which is currently the only manufacturer of traditional GM branded vehicles in Egypt.\n\nFollowing the passage of the Comprehensive Anti-Apartheid Act in 1986, GM was forced to divest from South Africa, and GMSA became the independent Delta Motor Corporation. GM purchased a 49% stake in Delta in 1997 following the end of apartheid, and acquired the remaining 51% in 2004, reverting the company to its original name. The company began operating in South Africa in 1913 through its wholly owned subsidiary, General Motors South Africa. By 2014 it was targeting the production of 50,000 cars a year but was being hampered by national labour unrest, strikes and protests. \n\nAnother manufacturing base of the GM for the African markets is the Industries Mécaniques Maghrébines headquartered in Kairouan, Tunisia, which assembles Isuzu and Mazda models for the Maghreb region.\nGeneral Motors East Africa (GMEA) located in Nairobi, Kenya assembles a wide range of Isuzu trucks and buses including the popular Isuzu N-Series versatile light commercial vehicle, TF Series pick-ups and Isuzu bus chassis. Formed in 1975, GMEA's facility is the largest assembler of commercial vehicles in the region exporting to East and Central African countries including Uganda, Tanzania, Malawi, Rwanda and Burundi. In addition to assembly, GMEA also markets the Chevrolet products Spark and Optra.\n\nIn the 1920s Miller Brothers Nigeria was founded as an importer of commercial vehicles of the Bedford brand into the country. In 1949, the company opened its own assembly plant and operated under the name Niger/Nigeria Motors. In 1965 the plant and its distribution network was split into different companies and renamed as Federated Motors Industries. In 1991 the company was taken in by a joint venture between General Motors and UACN of Nigeria.\n\nOceania\n\nIn Australia and New Zealand GM has been represented by the Holden brand since 1948, GM having acquired the company in 1931. In 2012, GM Opel cars began to be imported into Australia as a niche marque under their own brand name. However, as of August 2013, GM has made the decision to remove the Opel brand from Australia noting poor adoption and sales. In the 1980s and 1990s, General Motors New Zealand sold Opel-badged cars, which were later rebadged as Holdens in 1994.\n\nOn December 10, 2013, GM announced that Holden would cease engine and vehicle manufacturing operations in Australia by the end of 2017.\nBeyond 2017 Holden's Australian presence will consist of: a national sales company, a parts distribution centre and, a global design studio.\n\nMotorsports\n\nGM has participated over the years in the World Touring Car Championship (WTCC), 24 Hours of Le Mans, NASCAR, SCCA, Supercars Championship, and many other world venues.\n\nGM's engines were highly successful in the Indy Racing League (IRL) throughout the 1990s, winning many races in the small V-8 class. GM has also done much work in the development of electronics for GM auto racing. An unmodified Aurora V-8 in the Aerotech, captured 47 world records, including the record for speed endurance in the Motorsports Hall of Fame of America. Recently, the Cadillac V-Series has entered motorsports racing.\n\nGM has also used many cars in the American racing series NASCAR. Currently the Chevrolet SS is the only entry in the series, but in the past the Pontiac Grand Prix, Buick Regal, Oldsmobile Cutlass, Chevrolet Lumina, Chevrolet Malibu and the Chevrolet Monte Carlo were also used. GM has won a total of 40 NASCAR Sprint Cup Series manufacturer's championships, including 34 with Chevrolet, the most of any make in NASCAR history, 3 with Oldsmobile, 2 with Buick, and 1 with Pontiac. GM leads all other automobile manufacturers in races won in NASCAR's premier series at 1,011. Chevrolet leads individual makes with 677 wins.\n\nIn Australia, there is the V8 Supercar Championship which is battled out by the two main rivals of (GM) Holden and Ford. The current Holden Racing Team cars are based on the Holden Commodore and run a 5.0-litre V8-cylinder engine producing 635 bhp. These cars have a top speed of 298 km/h and run 0–100 km/h in 3.8 seconds. The Holden Racing Team is Australia's most successful team in Australian touring car history. In 2006 and 2007, the Drivers championship was won by the very closely linked (now defunct) HSV Dealer Team.\n\nResearch and development\n\nResearch and development (R&D) at General Motors began organically as the continuation of such R&D as the various divisions (e.g., Cadillac, Buick, Olds, Oakland) were already doing for themselves before the merger. Its character was entirely empirical; it was whatever key people in each company had been competent enough to organize and pursue.\nR. S. McLaughlin's Carriage Company in 1876 was designing and inventing Carriage Gear. The McLaughlin Companies became General Motors of Canada Limited.\nCharles F. Kettering's Dayton Engineering Laboratories Company (Delco), at Dayton, Ohio, was still an independent firm at this time. Its work was well known to GM central management through its relationship as a supplier and consultancy to Cadillac and Buick.\n\nIn 1916, Durant organized the United Motors Corporation as an amalgamation of parts suppliers, supplying GM and other OEMs but independent of GM. Alfred P. Sloan, head of the newly acquired Hyatt Roller Bearing Corporation, became United Motors' CEO. United Motors acquired Delco, and Kettering began his association with Sloan. United Motors also acquired at this time the original Remy corporation (called the Remy Electric Company), a competitor of Delco. In 1918 General Motors bought United Motors. Various entities grew out of the original Delco and Remy, including the Dayton Metal Products Corporation, the General Motors Research Corporation, the Delco Division and Remy Electric Division of GM, Delco Remy (now Remy International, Inc.), ACDelco, Delco Electronics, and others. Today's main successor corporation is Delphi Automotive, which nowadays is an independent parent corporation.\n\nThe General Motors Research Corporation, at Dayton under Kettering, became a true automotive research center. During the next few decades it led the development of:\n* many electrical-appliance features for cars and trucks\n* In 1911, Charles F. Kettering, with Henry M. Leland, of Dayton Engineering Laboratories Company (DELCO) invented and filed U.S. Patent 1,150,523 for the first electric starter in America.\n* In 1914 Cadillac produced the first mass-produced production V-8 in the world. \n* In 1921, General Motors patented the use of Tetraethyllead as an antiknock agent leading to the development of higher compression engines resulting in more power and efficiency. \n* In 1937, Jominy & Boegehold of GM invented the Jominy end-quench test for hardenability of carbon steel, a breakthrough in heat treating still in use today as ASTM A255. \n* In 1939, GM introduced the world's first automatic transmission the Hydra-matic for the 1940 Oldsmobile and would be adopted by the auto industry later. \n* In 1962, GM introduced the first turbo charged engine in the world for a car in the Oldsmobile Cutlass Turbo-Jetfire. \n* In 1972, GM produced the first rear wheel Anti-lock brake system in the world for two of their cars: the Toronado and Eldorado. \n* In 1984, Robert Lee of GM invented the Fe14Nd2B permanent magnet, fabricated by rapid solidification.\n* dichlorodifluoromethane refrigerant for HVAC and refrigeration applications (Freon, R-12; recognized today as a bad idea environmentally [being a chlorofluorocarbon (CFC)], but a technological wonder of its day)\n* commercially practical two-stroke diesel engines\n* better transmissions for track-laying vehicles\n* many other advancements\n\nAlthough GM R&D (as it is known in colloquial shorthand) began as an organization largely built around one man (Kettering), it eventually evolved into a more modern organization whose path is shaped by individuals but not dominated entirely by any of them. World War II was a turning point wherein military affairs, after mingling with the technologies of applied science for some 80 years, first started to become fundamentally reinvented by them. Civilian life, too, changed in this direction. By the 1950s, corporations such as GM and many others were facing a new era of R&D, different from earlier ones. Less about genius inventors and individual inventions, and more about organizational progress and integrated systems, it raised new questions about where the capital for R&D would come from in an era of limitless demand for R&D (although not necessarily for production). Alfred Sloan, longtime CEO of GM (1920s to 1960s), discussed in his memoir (also considered a seminal management treatise) the relationships between government, academia, and private industry in the areas of basic science and applied science, in light of this new era. The views he laid out reflected (and influenced) wide consensus on these relationships that persists largely to today.\n\nToday, GM R&D, headquartered in Warren, Michigan, is a network of six laboratories, six science offices, and collaborative relationships in over twelve countries including working relationships with universities, government groups, suppliers, and other partners from across the globe.\n\nOn September 7, 2014, at the Intelligent Transport Systems World Congress in Detroit GM disclosed it would be introducing auto-pilot features into certain 2017 models of its cars, which would go on sale in 2016. The \"super cruise\" or vehicle-to-vehicle V2V technology is likely to be first introduced to the Cadillac range, enabling drivers to switch in and out of semi-automated mode. \n\nSmall car sales\n\nFrom the 1920s onward, General Motors always maintained an internal dialog about what its economy-car and small-car policies should be. The economy and size considerations often naturally overlapped, although a strong distinction was always drawn in the 20th century between policies for the U.S. market and policies for other markets. Economy (in some form) always had good demand anywhere, but its definition in the U.S. was long considered different from that in other markets. In this view, \"economy\" in the U.S. did not mean \"small\" in the sense of what qualified as \"small\" outside the U.S. The policy discussion often focused on topics like the higher demand for truly small cars in non-U.S. markets than in the U.S., and whether it made more sense to import a car into a certain country or to build it domestically within that country, either as some variant of knockdown or with truly extensive domestic sourcing. GM's acquisitions of Vauxhall Motors Ltd (UK, 1925) and Adam Opel AG (Germany, 1929), rather than starting new domestic companies to compete against them, were based on analyses that convinced GM managers that acquiring an existing domestic manufacturer was a better business decision.\n\nAlthough GM since the 1920s has always offered economy models in the U.S. market (relative to that market's definition in any given decade), and had done research and development in the 1940s and 1950s in preparation for any potential rise of strong demand for truly small cars in the U.S. market, it has also been criticized over the decades for not doing enough to promote fuel efficiency in the U.S. market in the 1970s through 1990s. GM's response has been that it has always responded to market demands, and that most Americans, despite anything they said to the contrary, did not actually demand (at purchasing-decision time) small size or fuel efficiency in their vehicles to any great or lasting extent. Although some U.S. consumers flocked temporarily to the ideal of fuel economy whenever fuel supply crises arose (such as 1973 and 1979), they flocked equally enthusiastically to SUVs when cheap fuel of the 1980s and 1990s temporarily shielded them from any downside to these choices.\n\nSince the return of high fuel prices in the 2000s and 2010s, GM's interest in truly small-car programs for the U.S. market has been renewed. As part of General Motors Company development, GM revived one of its idled U.S. factories for the production of a small car in Orion, Michigan, with the creation of 1,200 American jobs. This will be the first time ever that a large manufacturer produces a supermini vehicle in the United States. This retooled plant will be capable of building 160,000 cars annually, including both small and compact vehicles. Production started in late 2011 with the Chevrolet Sonic. \n\nEnvironmental initiatives\n\nGeneral Motors has published principles regarding the environment and maintains an extensive website to inform the public. In 2008, General Motors committed to engineering half of its manufacturing plants to be landfill-free. In order to achieve its landfill-free status, production waste is recycled or reused in the manufacturing process.\n\nThe world's largest rooftop solar power installation was installed at General Motors Spanish Zaragoza Manufacturing Plant in fall 2008. The Zaragoza solar installation has about 2000000 sqft of roof at the plant and contains about 85,000 solar panels. The installation was created, owned and operated by Veolia Environment and Clairvoyant Energy, who lease the rooftop area from General Motors. In 2011, General Motors also invested $7.5 million in solar-panel provider Sunlogics, which will install solar panels on GM facilities. \n\nGM has long worked on alternative-technology vehicles, and has led the industry with ethanol-burning flexible-fuel vehicles that can run on either E85 (ethanol) or gasoline. The company was the first to use turbochargers and was an early proponent of V6 engines in the 1960s, but quickly lost interest as muscle car popularity increased. They demonstrated gas turbine vehicles powered by kerosene, an area of interest throughout the industry, but abandoned the alternative engine configuration in view of the 1973 oil crisis. In the 1970s and 1980s, GM pushed the benefits of diesel engines and cylinder deactivation technologies with disastrous results due to poor durability in the Oldsmobile diesels and drivability issues in the Cadillac V8-6-4 variable-cylinder engines. In 1987, GM, in conjunction with AeroVironment, built the Sunraycer, which won the inaugural World Solar Challenge and was a showcase of advanced technology. Much of the technology from Sunraycer found its way into the Impact prototype electric vehicle (also built by Aerovironment) and was the predecessor to the General Motors EV1.\n\nGM supported a compromise version of the Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) standard increase from 27 to, the first such increase in over 20 years. GM announced they will introduce more Volt-based plug-in hybrids.\n\nHybrid electric vehicles\n\nIn May 2004, GM delivered the world's first full-sized hybrid pickups, the 1/2-ton Silverado/Sierra. These mild hybrids did not use electrical energy for propulsion, like GM's later designs. In 2005, the Opel Astra diesel Hybrid concept vehicle was introduced. The 2006 Saturn Vue Green Line was the first hybrid passenger vehicle from GM and is also a mild design. GM has hinted at new hybrid technologies to be employed that will be optimized for higher speeds in freeway driving.\n\nGM currently offers the 2-mode hybrid system used by the Chevrolet Tahoe/GMC Yukon/Cadillac Escalade, and GM 1/2 half-ton pickups and will later be used on other vehicles. \n\nWithin the framework of its vehicle electrification strategy, GM introduced the Chevrolet Volt in 2010, an electric vehicle with back-up generators powered by gasoline. The production Chevrolet Volt was available in late 2010 as a 2011 model with limited availability. GM delivered the first Volt during December 2010.\n\nThe GM Magic Bus is a hybrid-powered bus. \n\nAll-electric vehicles\n\nGeneral Motors was the first company (in the modern era) to release an all-electric automobile. In 1990, GM debuted the \"Impact\" concept car at the Los Angeles Auto Show. It was the first car with zero-emissions marketed in the US in over three decades. The Impact was eventually produced as the EV1 for the 1996 model year. It was available through dealers located in only a few regions (e.g., California, Arizona, Georgia). Vehicles were leased, rather than sold, to individuals. In 1999 GM decided to cease production of the vehicles. When the individual leases had expired, they declined to renew the leases or allow the lessors to purchase them. All of the EV1s were eventually returned to General Motors and, with the exception of a few which were donated to museums, all were destroyed. The documentary film Who Killed the Electric Car? covered the EV1 story.\n\nThe EV1's cancellation had disappointed supporters of electric vehicles. In 2010, GM debuted the Chevrolet Volt, an electric vehicle with back-up generators powered by gasoline. General Motors has announced that it is building a prototype two-seat electric vehicle with Segway. An early prototype of the Personal Urban Mobility and Accessibility vehicle—dubbed Project P.U.M.A. – was presented in New York at the 2009 New York International Auto Show. \nIn October 2011, General Motors announced the production of the Chevrolet Spark EV, an all-electric version of the third generation Chevrolet Spark, with availability limited to select U.S. and global markets. In October 2012, GM Korea announced it will start making and selling the Spark EV domestically in 2013. The production version was unveiled at the 2012 Los Angeles Auto Show. Within the framework of GM's vehicle electrification strategy, the Spark EV is the first all-electric passenger car marketed by General Motors in the U.S. since the EV1 was discontinued in 1999. The Spark EV was released in the U.S. in selected markets in California and Oregon in June 2013. Retail sales began in South Korea in October 2013. GM also plans to sell the Spark EV in limited quantities in Canada and select European markets. \n\nIn late 2016 General Motors will be launching the 2017 model year Chevrolet Bolt as a production car. With a targeted price of before a $7500 tax credit, the Bolt is the first all-electric car to have a range of over 200 mi while remaining within the budget of most Americans. The vehicle will be launched in all 50 US states and analysts expect it to sell around 30,000 units per year, though GM itself has not confirmed these estimates. The battery pack and most drivetrain components will be built by LG and assembled in GM's Lake Orion plant. \n\nBattery packs for electric vehicles\n\nGM builds battery packs in southern Michigan. GM also established an automotive battery laboratory in Michigan. GM will be responsible for battery management systems and power electronics, thermal management, as well as the pack assembly. An existing GM facility at Brownstown Township was chosen to be upgraded as battery pack plant. LG Chem's U.S. subsidiary, Compact Power of Troy, Michigan, has been building the prototype packs for the development vehicles and will continue to provide integration support and act as a liaison for the program.\n\nHydrogen initiative\n\nThe 1966 GM Electrovan is credited with being the first hydrogen fuel cell car ever produced. Though fuel cells have been around since the early 1800s, General Motors was the first to use a fuel cell to power the wheels of a vehicle. The economic feasibility of the technically challenging hydrogen car, and the low-cost production of hydrogen to fuel it, has also been discussed by other automobile manufacturers such as Ford and Chrysler. In June 2007, Larry Burns, vice president of research and development, said he's not yet willing to say exactly when hydrogen vehicles will be mass-produced, but he said it should happen before 2020, the year many experts have predicted. He said \"I sure would be disappointed if we weren't there\" before 2020. \n\nOn July 2, 2013, GM and Honda announced a partnership to develop fuel cell systems and hydrogen storage technologies for the 2020 time frame. GM and Honda are leaders in fuel cell technology, ranking No. 1 and No. 2, respectively, in total fuel cell patents filed between 2002 and 2012, with more than 1,200 between them according to the Clean Energy Patent Growth Index.\n\nFlexible-fuel vehicles\n\nGM produces several flexible-fuel vehicles that can operate on E85 ethanol fuel or gasoline, or any blend of both. Since 2006 GM started featuring a bright yellow gas cap to remind drivers of the E85 capabilities, and also using badging with the text \"Flexfuel/E85 Ethanol\" to clearly mark the car as an E85 FFV. \n\nGM is the leader in E85 flex fuel vehicles, with over 6 million FlexFuel vehicles on the road in the U.S. In 2010, GM pledged to have more than half of their annual vehicle production be E85 or biodiesel capable by 2012. As of 2012, GM offers 20 ethanol-enabled FlexFuel cars and trucks in the US, and offers more FlexFuel vehicles models than any other automaker. \n\nPhilanthropy\n\nSince 1994, General Motors has donated over $23 million in cash and vehicles to the Nature Conservancy, and funding from GM supports many conservation projects. \n\nIn 1996, GMC partnered with the fashion industry as a part of the GM/CFDA Concept: Cure, a collaboration between General Motors and the Fashion industry bringing awareness to and raising funds for breast cancer. The program involved 5 designers, each lending their artistic talents to customize 5 different vehicles. Nicole Miller, Richard Tyler, Anna Sui, Todd Oldham and Mark Eisen were tasked with transforming a Cadillac STS, Buick Riviera, GMC Yukon, Oldsmobile Bravada and Chevrolet Camaro Z28, respectively. The cars were then auctioned with the proceeds presented to the Nina Hyde Center at the Greater Los Angeles Auto Show in 1997. \n\nFurthermore, since 1996, the GM Foundation has been the exclusive source of funding for Safe Kids USA's \"Safe Kids Buckle Up\" program, a national initiative to ensure child automobile safety through education and inspection. \n\nThrough 2002, the PACE Awards program, led by GM, EDS, and SUN Microsystems, has given over $1.2 billion of in-kind contributions which includes computers to over 18 universities to support engineering education. In 2009, the GM led group has helped the Pace Awards program worldwide.[http://www.pacepartners.org/partners.php Pace Partners]. Retrieved September 9, 2012.\n\nIn 2004, GM gave $51,200,000 in cash contributions and $17,200,000 in-kind donations to charitable causes.[http://www.businessweek.com/investing/philanthropy/2005/companies/GM.htm Corporate Giving – Details:General Motors].Business Week 2005. Retrieved July 9, 2009.\n\nThe General Motors Foundation (GM Foundation) receives philanthropic bequests from General Motors. It is a 501(c)(3) foundation incorporated in 1976.\n\nBrand reorganization\n\nAs it emerged from bankruptcy and company reorganization in 2010, GM reorganized the content and structure of its brand portfolio (its brand architecture). Some nameplates like Pontiac, Saturn, Hummer, and service brands like Goodwrench were discontinued. Others, like Saab, were sold. The practice of putting the \"GM Mark of Excellence\" on every car, no matter what the brand, was discontinued in August 2009. The company has moved from a corporate-endorsed hybrid brand architecture structure, where GM underpinned every brand to a multiple brand corporate invisible brand architecture structure. The company's familiar square blue \"badge\" has been removed from the Web site and advertising, in favor of a new, subtle all-text logo treatment on its U.S. site; the Canadian site still retains the blue \"badge\". In 2011, GM discontinued the Daewoo brand in South Korea and replaced it with the Chevrolet brand. \n\nGM describes their brand politics as having \"two brands\" which \"will drive our global growth. They are Chevrolet, which embodies the qualities of value, reliability, performance and expressive design; and Cadillac, which creates luxury vehicles that are provocative and powerful. At the same time, the Holden, Buick, GMC, Baojun, Opel and Vauxhall brands are being carefully cultivated to satisfy as many customers as possible in select regions.\"\n\nDiscontinued brands\n\n(Note on dates: the dates below are the years each brand existed, which are not always the same as the dates they were part of GM.)\n\nFormer subsidiaries\n\n* Frigidaire (1919–1979), sold to Ohio-based White Consolidated Industries\n* Euclid Trucks (1953–1968), sold to White Consolidated Industries\n* Terex (1968–1980) (1983–1986), sold to IBH Holdings of Germany, bought back after IBH failed; sold to Northwest Engineering Co.\n* General Motors Diesel Division (1938–1987) sold to Motor Coach Industries\n* Lotus (1986–1993), sold to Luxembourg-based A.C.B.N. Holdings S.A.\n* American Axle (–1994) - former axle division sold off\n* Allison Engine Company (1929–1995) sold to Rolls-Royce North America\n* Hughes Aircraft (1985–1999) - 1997 Hughes Defense sold to Raytheon, 1999 Hughes Satellite sold to Boeing\n* Delphi Interior & Lighting (–1998) lighting plants sold to Palladium Equity Partners and renamed Guide Corporation\n* Delphi Interior & Lighting (–1998) seating plants sold to Lear Corporation \n* Delphi Chassis — commercial truck and motor-home chassis (–1998) sold to United City Body (Union City Body) of Indiana \n* Delphi Energy (filter factory) (–1998) - sold to Dana \n* Allison Transmission (1929–2007) sold to The Carlyle Group and Onex Corporation\n* New United Motor Manufacturing Inc. (NUMMI) (1984-2009) joint venture with Toyota, factory sold to Tesla Motors\n* Saab (1990–2010), sold to Dutch sports car manufacturer Spyker Cars N.V., sold to National Electric Vehicle Sweden AB on August 31, 2012.\n\nCurrent affiliates\n\n* GM Korea (2011–present), GM currently owns 96% of the company. The company mainly designs and produces Chevrolet and Holden branded vehicles.\n\nFormer affiliates\n\n* Fiat (2000–2005), GM owned 20 percent at one time with put option. The two companies continue to work together on sharing automotive platforms.\n* Fuji Heavy Industries, manufacturer of Subaru (1999–2006), GM owned 20 percent at one time \n* Isuzu (1971–2006), GM owned 49 percent at one time. The two companies continue to work together on various projects.\n* PSA Peugeot Citroen (2012–2013), GM owned 7 percent of the company at one time. Following heavy losses from PSA Peugeot Citroen along with restructuring at Opel, GM sold its entire stake in 2013 with PSA Peugeot Citroen intending to partner with Dongfeng Motor. The two companies will continue to work together on sharing automotive platforms.\n* Suzuki (1981–2008), GM owned over 20 percent at one time. General Motors continues to sell some Suzuki models under the Chevrolet brand.\n\nSpin-offs\n\n* GM Defense 1950–2003 was once part of General Motors Diesel Division and as General Dynamics Land Systems division of General Dynamics\n* Electro Motive Division of General Motors was also once part of General Motors Diesel Division and now known as Electro-Motive Diesel\n* Detroit Diesel sold to Penske Corporation; broken up and portion sold to the former DaimlerChrysler AG (now Daimler AG); now part of Daimler AG\n* Diesel Division of General Motors of Canada Limited spun off and later acquired by General Motors Canada as Diesel Division of General Motors of Canada Limited\n* EDS – Electronic Data Systems\n* Delco Remy (1918–1994) – spun off\n* Magnaquench (–1994) – spun off\n* Hughes Electronics sold to News Corporation in 2003\n* 1999 GM spun off its parts making operations as Delphi\n\nControversies\n\nRalph Nader and the Corvair\n\nUnsafe at Any Speed by Ralph Nader, published in 1965, is a pioneering book accusing car manufacturers of being slow to introduce safety features, and reluctant to spend money on improving safety. The subject for which the book is probably most widely known, the rear-engined GM Chevrolet Corvair, is covered in the first chapter. It relates to the first (1960–1964) models that had a swing-axle suspension design which was prone to \"tuck under\" in certain circumstances. In substitution for the cost-cutting lack of a front stabilizer bar (anti-roll bar), Corvairs required tire pressures which were outside of the tire manufacturer's recommended tolerances. The Corvair relied on an unusually high front to rear pressure differential (15psi front, 26psi rear, when cold; 18 psi and 30psi hot), and if one inflated the tires equally, as was standard practice for all other cars at the time, the result was a dangerous oversteer. \n\nIn early March 1966, several media outlets, including The New Republic and The New York Times, reported that GM had tried to discredit Ralph Nader, hiring private detectives to tap his phones and investigate his past, and hiring prostitutes to trap him in compromising situations. Nader sued the company for invasion of privacy and settled the case for $425,000. Nader's lawsuit against GM was ultimately decided by the New York Court of Appeals, whose opinion in the case expanded tort law to cover \"overzealous surveillance\". Nader used the proceeds from the lawsuit to start the pro-consumer Center for Study of Responsive Law.\n\nA 1972 safety commission report conducted by Texas A&M University concluded that the 1960–1963 Corvair possessed no greater potential for loss of control than its contemporary competitors in extreme situations. The U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT) issued a press release in 1972 describing the findings of NHTSA testing from the previous year. NHTSA had conducted a series of comparative tests in 1971 studying the handling of the 1963 Corvair and four contemporary cars—a Ford Falcon, Plymouth Valiant, Volkswagen Beetle, and Renault Dauphine—along with a second-generation Corvair (with its completely redesigned, independent rear suspension). The 143-page report reviewed NHTSA's extreme-condition handling tests, national crash-involvement data for the cars in the test as well as General Motors' internal documentation regarding the Corvair's handling. NHTSA went on to contract an independent advisory panel of engineers to review the tests. This review panel concluded that \"the 1960–63 Corvair compares favorably with contemporary vehicles used in the tests [...] the handling and stability performance of the 1960–63 Corvair does not result in an abnormal potential for loss of control or rollover, and it is at least as good as the performance of some contemporary vehicles both foreign and domestic.\" \n\nFormer GM executive John DeLorean asserted in his book On a Clear Day You Can See General Motors that Nader's criticisms were valid. \n\nJournalist David E. Davis, in a 2009 article in Automobile Magazine, noted that despite Nader's claim that swing-axle rear suspension were dangerous, Porsche, Mercedes-Benz, and Volkswagen all used similar swing-axle concepts during that era. \n\nDefective ignition system investigation\n\nIn May 2014 the NHTSA fined the company $35 million for failing to recall cars with faulty ignition switches for a decade, despite knowing there was a problem with the switches. Thirteen deaths were attributed to the faulty switches during the time the company failed to recall the cars. The $35 million fine was the maximum the regulator could impose. Congress is considering increasing the maximum fines the regulator can impose from $35 million to $300 million. General Motors has announced that they are also facing 79 customer lawsuits asking for as much as $10 billion for economic losses attributed to the recall. As well as the Cobalts, the switches of concern had been installed in many other cars, such as the Pontiac G5, the Saturn Ion, the Chevrolet HHR, the Saturn Sky, and Pontiac Solstice. Eventually the recall involved about 2.6 million GM cars worldwide." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Flint michigan", "Flint, mi", "Flint Michigan", "Flint, Michigan", "Flint, MI", "Downtown Flint", "Downtown Flint, Michigan", "Flint, Mich.", "Flint mi" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "flint michigan", "downtown flint", "flint mi", "downtown flint michigan", "flint mich" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "flint michigan", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Flint, Michigan" }
In which country was the Russian Revolutionary Leon Trotsky murdered?	tc_545	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Russians.txt", "Leon_Trotsky.txt" ], "title": [ "Russians", "Leon Trotsky" ], "wiki_context": [ "Russians (, russkiye) are an East Slavic ethnic group native to Eastern Europe. The majority of Russians inhabit the nation state of Russia, while notable minorities exist in Ukraine, Kazakhstan, and other former Soviet states. A large Russian diaspora exists all over the world, with notable numbers in the United States, Germany, Israel, and Canada. Russians are the most numerous ethnic group in Europe.\n\nThe Russians share many cultural traits with their fellow Eastern Slavic counterparts, specifically Belarusians and Ukrainians as well as with certain Southern Slavs such as Bulgarians, Macedonians, and Serbians. They are predominantly Orthodox Christians by religion. The Russian language is official in Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyztan, and Tajikistan, and also spoken as a secondary language in many former Soviet states.\n\nEthnonym\n\nThere are two Russian words which are commonly translated into English as \"Russians\". One is \"русские\" (russkiye), which most often means \"ethnic Russians\". Another is \"россияне\" (rossiyane), which means \"citizens of Russia\". The former word refers to ethnic Russians, regardless of what country they live in and irrespective of whether or not they hold Russian citizenship. Under certain circumstances this term may or may not extend to denote members of other Russian-speaking ethnic groups from Russia, or from the former Soviet Union. The latter word refers to all people holding citizenship of Russia, regardless of their ethnicity, and does not include ethnic Russians living outside of Russia. Translations into other languages often do not distinguish these two groups. \n\nThe name of the Russians derives from the Rus' people (supposedly Varangians). According to the most prevalent theory, the name Rus, like the Finnish name for Sweden (Ruotsi), is derived from an Old Norse term for \"the men who row\" (rods-) as rowing was the main method of navigating the rivers of Eastern Europe, and that it could be linked to the Swedish coastal area of Roslagen (Rus-law) or Roden, as it was known in earlier times. The name Rus would then have the same origin as the Finnish and Estonian names for Sweden: Ruotsi and Rootsi. According to other theories the name Rus is derived from Proto-Slavic roud-s-ь ( from rъd-/roud-/rуd- root), connected with red color (of hair) or from Indo-Iranian (ruxs/roxs — «light-colored», «bright»).Седов В.В. Древнерусская народность. Русы\n\nHistory\n\n \nOrigin\n\n \nThe modern Russians formed from two groups of East Slavic tribes: Northern and Southern. The tribes involved included the Krivichs, Ilmen Slavs, Radimichs, Vyatiches and Severians. Genetic studies show that modern Russians do not differ significantly from Belarusians and Ukrainians. Some ethnographers, like Zelenin, affirm that Russians are more similar to Belarusians and to Ukrainians than southern Russians are to northern Russians. Russians in northern European Russia share moderate genetic similarities with Uralic peoples, who lived in modern north-central European Russia and were partly assimilated by the Slavs as the Slavs migrated northeastwards. Such Uralic peoples included the Merya and the Muromians. \n\nOutside archaeological remains, little is known about the predecessors to Russians in general prior to 859 AD when the Primary Chronicle starts its records. It is thought that by 600 AD, the Slavs had split linguistically into southern, western, and eastern branches. The eastern branch settled between the Southern Bug and the Dnieper Rivers in present-day Ukraine; from the 1st century AD through almost the turn of the millennium, they spread peacefully northward to the Baltic region, forming the Dregovich, Radimich and Vyatich Slavic tribes on the Baltic substratum, and therefore experiencing changed language features such as vowel reduction. Later, both Belarusians and South Russians formed on this ethnic linguistic ground. \n\nFrom the 6th century onwards, another group of Slavs moved from Pomerania to the northeast of the Baltic Sea, where they encountered the Varangians of the Rus' Khaganate and established the important regional center of Novgorod. The same Slavic ethnic population also settled the present-day Tver Oblast and the region of Beloozero. With the Uralic substratum, they formed the tribes of the Krivichs and of the Ilmen Slavs.\n\nKievan Rus'\n\n \n\nFile:East Slavic tribes peoples 8th 9th century.jpg\|East Slavic tribes and peoples, 8th-9th century\nFile:Kyivan Rus' 1220-1240.png\|Principalities of Kievan Rus', 1220-1240. These principalities included Vladimir-Suzdal, Smolensk, Chernigov or Ryazan, annexed by the Duchy of Moscow in 1521\nFile:Pomor man.jpg\|Russia's Arctic coastline from the White Sea to the Bering Strait had been explored and settled by Pomors, Russian settlers from Novgorod\nFile:Gagarin Greben.jpg\|Terek Cossacks of the north Caucasus guarded the southern frontier\n\nPopulation\n\nIn 2010, the world's Russian population was 129 million people of which 86% were in Russia, 11.5% in the CIS and Baltic countries, with a further 2.5% living in other countries. \n\nRussia\n\nRoughly 111 million ethnic Russians live in Russia, 80% of whom live in the European part of Russia, and 20% in the Asian part of the country.\n\nFormer Soviet states\n\n \n\nDiaspora\n\nEthnic Russians historically migrated throughout the area of former Russian Empire and Soviet Union, sometimes encouraged to re-settle in borderlands by the Tsarist and later Soviet government. On some occasions ethnic Russian communities, such as Lipovans who settled in the Danube delta or Doukhobors in Canada, emigrated as religious dissidents fleeing the central authority.\n\nAfter the Russian Revolution and Russian Civil War starting in 1917, many Russians were forced to leave their homeland fleeing the Bolshevik regime, and millions became refugees. Many white émigrés were participants in the White movement, although the term is broadly applied to anyone who may have left the country due to the change in regime.\n\nToday the largest ethnic Russian diasporas outside of Russia live in former Soviet states such as Ukraine (about 8 million), Kazakhstan (about 3.8 million), Belarus (about 785,000), Latvia (about 520,000) with the most Russian settlement out of the Baltic States which includes Lithuania and Estonia, Uzbekistan (about 650,000) and Kyrgyzstan (about 419,000).\n\nOver a million Russian Jews emigrated to Israel during and after the Refusenik movements; some brought ethnic Russian relatives along with them. Over a million Russian-speaking immigrants live in Israel, around two-thirds of them Jewish. There are also small Russian communities in the Balkans, including Lipovans in the Danube delta, Central European nations such as Germany and Poland, as well Russians settled in China, Japan, South Korea, Mexico, Brazil and Argentina and Australia. These communities may identify themselves either as Russians or citizens of these countries, or both, to varying degrees.\n\nPeople who had arrived in Latvia and Estonia during the Soviet era, including their descendants born in these countries, mostly Russians, became stateless after the dissolution of the Soviet Union and were provided only with an option to acquire naturalised citizenship. The language issue is still contentious, particularly in Latvia, where ethnic Russians have protested against plans to liquidate education in minority languages, including Russian. Since 1992, Estonia has naturalized some 137,000 residents of undefined citizenship, mainly ethnic Russians. 136,000, or 10 percent of the total population, remain without citizenship. Both the European Union and the Council of Europe, as well as the Russian government, expressed their concern during the 1990s about minority rights in several countries, most notably Latvia and Estonia. In Moldova, the Transnistria region (where 30.4% of population is Russian) broke away from government control amid fears the country would soon reunite with Romania. In June 2006, Russian President Vladimir Putin announced the plan to introduce a national policy aiming at encouraging ethnic Russians to immigrate to Russia. \n\nSignificant numbers of Russians emigrated to Canada, Australia and the United States. Brighton Beach, Brooklyn and South Beach, Staten Island in New York City is an example of a large community of recent Russian and Jewish Russian immigrants. Other examples are Sunny Isles Beach, a northern suburb of Miami, and in West Hollywood of the Los Angeles area.\n\nAt the same time, many ethnic Russians from former Soviet territories have emigrated to Russia itself since the 1990s. Many of them became refugees from a number of states of Central Asia and Caucasus (as well as from the separatist Chechen Republic), forced to flee during political unrest and hostilities towards Russians.\n\nAfter the Russian Revolution in 1917, many Russians who were identified with the White army moved to China — most of them settling in Harbin and Shanghai. By the 1930s, Harbin had 100,000 Russians. Many of these Russians had to move back to the Soviet Union after World War II. Today, a large group of people in northern China can still speak Russian as a second language.\n\nRussians (eluosizu) are one of the 56 ethnic groups officially recognized by the People's Republic of China (as the Russ); there are approximately 15,600 Russian Chinese living mostly in northern Xinjiang, and also in Inner Mongolia and Heilongjiang.\n\nCulture\n\n \n\nRussian culture originated from that of the East Slavs, who were largely polytheists, and had a specific way of life in the wooded areas of Eastern and Northern Europe. The Scandinavian Vikings, or Varangians, also took part in forming the Russian identity and state in the early Kievan Rus' period of the late 1st millennium AD. The Rus' accepted Christianity from the Byzantine Empire in 988, and this largely defined Russian culture for the next millennium, namely as a synthesis of Slavic and Byzantine cultures. After the fall of Constantinople in 1453, Russia remained the largest Orthodox nation in the world and claimed succession to the Byzantine legacy in the form of the Third Rome idea. At different points of its history, the country was strongly influenced by European culture, and since the reforms of Peter the Great Russian culture largely developed in the context of Western culture. For most of the 20th century, Marxist ideology shaped the culture of the Soviet Union, where Russia, i.e. the Russian SFSR, was the largest and leading part.\n\nRussian culture is varied and unique in many respects. It has a rich history and a long tradition in all of the arts, especially in fields of literature and philosophy, classical music and ballet, architecture and painting, cinema and animation, all of which had considerable influence on world culture.\n\nRussian literature is known for such notable writers as Aleksandr Pushkin, Leo Tolstoy, Fyodor Dostoevsky, Anton Chekhov, Vladimir Mayakovsky, Boris Pasternak, Anna Akhmatova, Joseph Brodsky, Maxim Gorky, Vladimir Nabokov, Mikhail Sholokhov, Mikhail Bulgakov, Andrei Platonov, Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, and Varlam Shalamov. Russians also gave the classical music world some very famous composers, including Piotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky and his contemporaries, the Mighty Handful, including Modest Mussorgsky and Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov. In the 20th-century Russian music was credited with such influential composers as Dmitri Shostakovich, Sergei Prokofiev, Sergei Rachmaninoff, Igor Stravinski, Georgy Sviridov, and Alfred Schnittke.\n\nLanguage\n\n \n\nRussian ( (help·info), transliteration: ',) is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia and the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages. Russian belongs to the family of Indo-European languages and is one of three (or, according to some authorities, four) living members of the East Slavic languages, the others being Belarusian, Ukrainian and Rusyn.\n\nExamples of Old East Slavonic are attested from the 10th century onwards, and while Russian preserves much of East Slavonic grammar and a Common Slavonic word base, modern Russian exhibits a large stock of borrowed international vocabulary for politics, science, and technology.\n\nRussian has palatal secondary articulation of consonants, the so-called soft and hard sounds. This distinction is found in most consonant phonemes and is one of the most distinguishing features of the language. Another important aspect is the reduction of unstressed vowels, not unlike a similar process in English. Stress in Russian is often described as \"unpredictable\": it can fall on almost any syllable, and this is one of the difficult aspects for foreign language learners.\n\nDue to the status of the Soviet Union as a super power, Russian gained a great political importance in the second half of the 20th century. It is one of the official languages of the United Nations. All astronauts working in the International Space Station are required to master Russian.\n\nAccording to data published in the journal «Language Monthly» (№ 3, 1997), approximately 300 million people around the world at the time mastered the Russian language (making it the 5th most popular language in the world by total number of speakers), while 160 million considered Russian their native language (making it the 7th in the world by number of native speakers). The total number of Russian speakers in the world in the 1999 assessment was about 167 million, with about 110 million people speaking Russian as a second language.\n\nPrior to 1991, Russian was the language of international communication of the USSR and the most common foreign language taught in schools in the countries of the Eastern Bloc in Central Europe. It continues to be used in the countries that were formerly parts of the Soviet Union, both as the mother tongue of a significant percentage of the population, and as a language of international communication. While for various reasons residents of these countries might be unwilling to openly identify with Russian language, a major sociological study on the Russian language in the post-Soviet states conducted by Gallup, Inc., revealed that 92% of the survey respondents in Belarus, 83% in Ukraine, 68% in Kazakhstan and 38% in Kyrgyzstan chose Russian-language forms to complete the questionnaire for the survey (most notably, over forms in corresponding national languages).\n\nIn the U.S. state of New York in 2009, an amendment to the electoral law was adopted, according to which in all cities in the state having over a million people, all documents related to the election process should be translated into Russian (thus gaining equal status with Spanish, Korean, Filipino, Creole languages and three varieties of Chinese).\n\nIn places of compact residence of immigrants from the countries of the former USSR (Israel, Germany, Canada, the United States, Australia, etc.) Russian-language periodicals, radio and television channels are available, as well as Russian-language schools.\n\nReligion\n\n \nAs of a 2012 sociological survey on religious adherence, 58,800,000 people or 41% of the total population of Russia adhere to the Russian Orthodox Church. But other sources gave higher estimates between 63% to over 80% of ethnic Russians identify themselves as Orthodox. It has played a vital role in the development of Russian national identity. In other countries Russian faithful usually belong to the local Orthodox congregations which either have a direct connection (like the Ukrainian Orthodox Church, autonomous from the Moscow Patriarchate) or historical origin (like the Orthodox Church in America or a Russian Orthodox Church Outside of Russia) with the Russian Orthodox Church.\n\nNon-religious Russians may associate themselves with the Orthodox faith for cultural reasons. Some Russian people are Old Believers: a relatively small schismatic group of the Russian Orthodoxy that rejected the liturgical reforms introduced in the 17th century. Other schisms from Orthodoxy include Doukhobors which in the 18th century rejected secular government, the Russian Orthodox priests, icons, all church ritual, the Bible as the supreme source of divine revelation and the divinity of Jesus, and later emigrated into Canada. An even earlier sect were Molokans which formed in 1550 and rejected Czar's divine right to rule, icons, the Trinity as outlined by the Nicene Creed, Orthodox fasts, military service, and practices including water baptism.\n\nOther world religions have negligible representation among ethnic Russians. The largest of these groups are Islam with over 100,000 followers from national minorities, and Baptists with over 85,000 Russian adherents. Others are mostly Pentecostals, Evangelicals, Seventh-day Adventists, Lutherans and Jehovah's Witnesses.\n\nSince the fall of the Soviet Union various new religious movements have sprung up and gathered a following among ethnic Russians. The most prominent of these are Rodnovery, the revival of the Slavic native religion also common to other Slavic nations, Another movement, very small in comparison to other new religions, is Vissarionism, a syncretic group with an Orthodox Christian background.\n\nNotable achievements\n\nRussians have greatly contributed to the fields of sports, science and technology, politics, business, and the arts.\n\nIn science and technology, notable Russian scientists include Mikhail Kalashnikov (inventor and designer of the AK-47 assault rifle and PK machine gun), Dmitri Mendeleev, Nikolay Bogolyubov, Konstantin Tsiolkovsky (a founding father of rocketry and astronautics), Andrei Kolmogorov, Ivan Pavlov, Nikolai Semyonov, Dmitri Ivanenko, Alexander Lodygin, Alexander Popov (one of inventors of radio), Nikolai Zhukovsky, Alexander Prokhorov and Nikolay Basov (co-inventors of laser), Vladimir Zworykin, Lev Pontryagin, Sergei Sobolev, Pavel Yablochkov, Aleksandr Butlerov, Andrei Sakharov, Dmitry Ivanovsky, Sergey Korolyov and Mstislav Keldysh (creators of the Soviet space program), Aleksandr Lyapunov, Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky, Andrei Tupolev, Yuri Denisyuk (the first practicable method of holography), Mikhail Lomonosov, Vladimir Vernadsky, Pyotr Kapitsa, Igor Sikorsky, Ludvig Faddeev, Konstantin Novoselov, Fyodor Shcherbatskoy, Nikolai Trubetzkoy etc.\n\nThe first man in space, Yuri Gagarin, was a Russian, and the first artificial satellite to be put into outer space, Sputnik 1, was launched by the Soviet Union and was developed mainly by Russian aerospace engineer Sergey Korolyov.\n\nRussian Literature representatives like Leo Tolstoy, Fyodor Dostoevsky, Ivan Turgenev, Anton Chekhov, Alexander Pushkin, and many more, reached a high status in world literature. Prominent Russian novelists such as Tolstoy in particular, were important figures and have remained internationally renowned. Some scholars have described one or the other as the greatest novelist ever.\"Russian literature.\" Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 16 July 2007 .\n\nRussian composers who reached a high status in the world of music include Igor Stravinsky, Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, Dmitri Shostakovich, Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov, Sergei Prokofiev, and Sergei Rachmaninoff.\n\nRussian people played a crucial role in the victory over Nazi Germany in World War II. Russia's casualties in this war were the highest of all nations, and numbered more than 20 million dead (Russians composed 80% of the 26.6 million people lost by the USSR), which is about half of all World War II casualties and the vast majority of Allied casualties. According to the British historian Richard Overy, the Eastern Front included more combat than all the other European fronts combined. The Wehrmacht suffered 80% to 93% of all of its total World War II combat casualties on the Eastern Front.", "Leon Trotsky (; ;; born Lev Davidovich Bronstein; – 21 August 1940) was a Marxist revolutionary and theorist, Soviet politician, and the founding leader of the Red Army.\n\nTrotsky initially supported the Menshevik Internationalists faction of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party. He joined the Bolsheviks immediately prior to the 1917 October Revolution, and eventually became a leader within the Communist Party. He was, alongside Lenin, Zinoviev, Kamenev, Stalin, Sokolnikov and Bubnov, one of the seven members of the first Politburo, founded in 1917 in order to manage the Bolshevik Revolution. During the early days of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR) and the Soviet Union, he served first as People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs and later as the founder and commander of the Red Army with the title of People's Commissar of Military and Naval Affairs. He was a major figure in the Bolshevik victory in the Russian Civil War (1918–1923).\n\nAfter leading a failed struggle of the Left Opposition against the policies and rise of Joseph Stalin in the 1920s and against the increasing role of bureaucracy in the Soviet Union, Trotsky was removed from power (October 1927), expelled from the Communist Party (November 1927), and finally exiled from the Soviet Union (February 1929). As the head of the Fourth International, Trotsky continued in exile to oppose the Stalinist bureaucracy in the Soviet Union. On Stalin's orders, he was assassinated in Mexico in August 1940 by Ramón Mercader, a Spanish-born Soviet agent. \n\nTrotsky's ideas formed the basis of Trotskyism, a major school of Marxist thought that opposes the theories of Stalinism. He was one of the few Soviet political figures who were not rehabilitated by the government under Nikita Khrushchev in the 1950s. In the late 1980s, his books were released for publication in the Soviet Union.\n\nBefore the 1917 Revolution\n\nChildhood and family (1879–1895)\n\nLeon Trotsky was born Lev Davidovich Bronstein on 7 November 1879, in Yanovka or Yanivka, in the Kherson governorate of the Russian Empire (now Bereslavka, in the Ukraine), a small village 15 mi from the nearest post office. He was the fifth of eight children of well-to-do farmers, David Leontyevich Bronstein (1847–1922) and his wife Anna Lvovna (née Zhivotovskaya) (1850–1910). The family was of Jewish origin but reportedly not religious. The language they spoke at home was Surzhyk, a mixture of Russian and Ukrainian. Trotsky's younger sister, Olga, who also grew up to be a Bolshevik and a Soviet politician, married the prominent Bolshevik Lev Kamenev.\n\nMuch attention has been given by anti-Communists, anti-Semites, and anti-Trotskyists, to Trotsky's original surname, stressing the political and historical significance of the name Bronstein. Some authors, notably Robert Service, have also claimed that Trotsky's childhood first name was the Yiddish \"Leiba\". The American Trotskyist David North remarked that this was an apparent attempt to emphasize Trotsky's Jewish origins, that contrary to Service's claims there is no documentary evidence to support it, and that it is highly improbable, since the family did not speak Yiddish.David North, In Defence of Leon Trotsky (2010) ISBN 978-1-893638-05-1, pp.144-146. Both North and Walter Laqueur in their books say that Trotsky's childhood name was Lyova, a standard Russian diminutive of the name \"Lev\".Walter Laqueur, Stalin: The Glasnost Revelations, pp. 59-60\n\nWhen Trotsky was nine, his father sent him to Odessa to be educated. He was enrolled in a German school, which became Russified during his years in Odessa, as a result of the Imperial government's policy of Russification. As Isaac Deutscher notes in his biography of Trotsky, Odessa was then a bustling cosmopolitan port city, very unlike the typical Russian city of the time. This environment contributed to the development of the young man's international outlook. Although Trotsky stated in his autobiography My Life that he was never perfectly fluent in any language but Russian and Ukrainian, Raymond Molinier wrote that Trotsky spoke French fluently. \n\nRevolutionary activity and imprisonment (1896–1900)\n\nTrotsky became involved in revolutionary activities in 1896 after moving to the harbor town of Nikolayev (now Mykolaiv) on the Ukrainian coast with the Black Sea. At first a narodnik (revolutionary populist), he was introduced to Marxism later that year, which he originally opposed. Instead of pursuing a mathematics degree, Trotsky helped organize the South Russian Workers' Union in Nikolayev in early 1897. Using the name 'Lvov', he wrote and printed leaflets and proclamations, distributed revolutionary pamphlets, and popularized socialist ideas among industrial workers and revolutionary students.\n\nIn January 1898, more than 200 members of the union, including Trotsky, were arrested. He spent the next two years in prison awaiting trial, first in Nikolayev, then Kherson, then Odessa, and finally in Moscow. In the Moscow prison he came into contact with other revolutionaries. There he first heard about Lenin and read Lenin's book, The Development of Capitalism in Russia, and gradually became a Marxist. Two months into his imprisonment, on 1 – 3 March 1898, the first Congress of the newly formed Russian Social Democratic Labor Party (RSDLP) was held. From then on Trotsky identified as a member of the party.\n\nFirst marriage and Siberian exile (1900–1902)\n\nWhile in the prison in Moscow, in the summer of 1900, Trotsky met and married Aleksandra Sokolovskaya (1872–1938), a fellow Marxist. The wedding ceremony was performed by a Jewish chaplain. \n\nIn 1900 he was sentenced to four years in exile. Because of the marriage, Trotsky and his new wife were allowed to be exiled to the same location in Siberia. Accordingly, the couple was exiled to Ust-Kut and the Verkholensk in the Baikal Lake region of Siberia. They had two daughters, Zinaida (1901 – 5 January 1933) and Nina (1902 – 9 June 1928), both born in Siberia.\n\nIn Siberia, Trotsky studied philosophy. There he became aware of the differences within the party, which had been decimated by arrests in 1898 and 1899. Some social democrats known as \"economists\" argued that the party should focus on helping industrial workers improve their lot in life and were not so worried about changing the government or thought that these societal reforms would grow out of the worker's struggle for higher pay and better working conditions. Others argued that overthrowing the monarchy was more important and that a well-organized and disciplined revolutionary party was essential. The latter was led by the London-based newspaper Iskra, or in English, The Spark, which was founded in 1900. Trotsky quickly sided with the Iskra position and began writing for Iskra. \n\nIn the summer of 1902, at the urging of his wife, Trotsky escaped from Siberia hidden in a load of hay on a wagon. Aleksandra later escaped from Siberia with their daughters.\n\nLeon and Alexandra soon separated and divorced, but maintained a friendly relationship. Their children were later raised by Trotsky's parents. Both daughters married and Zinaida had children, but the daughters died before their parents. Nina Nevelson died from tuberculosis (TB), cared for in her last months by her older sister. Zinaida Volkova died after following her father into exile in Berlin with her son by her second marriage, leaving her daughter in Russia. Suffering also from tuberculosis, then a fatal disease, and depression, Volkova committed suicide. Alexandra disappeared in 1935 during the Great Purges, and was murdered by Stalinist forces three years later.\n\nFirst emigration and second marriage (1902–1903)\n\nUntil this point in his life Trotsky had used his real name—Lev or Leon Bronstein. It was at this time that he changed his name to \"Trotsky\"—the name he would use for the rest of his life. It is said he adopted the name of a jailer of the Odessa prison in which he had earlier been held, which became his primary revolutionary pseudonym. After his escape from Siberia, he moved to London to join Georgi Plekhanov, Vladimir Lenin, Julius Martov and other editors of Iskra. Under the pen name Pero (\"feather\" or \"pen\" in Russian), Trotsky soon became one of the paper's leading authors.\n\nUnknown to Trotsky, the six editors of Iskra were evenly split between the \"old guard\" led by Plekhanov and the \"new guard\" led by Lenin and Martov. Not only were Plekhanov's supporters older (in their 40s and 50s), but they had spent the previous 20 years together in exile in Europe. Members of the new guard were in their early 30s and had only recently come from Russia. Lenin, who was trying to establish a permanent majority against Plekhanov within Iskra, expected Trotsky, then 23, to side with the new guard and wrote in March 1903: \n\nBecause of Plekhanov's opposition, Trotsky did not become a full member of the board. But, from then on he participated in its meetings in an advisory capacity, which earned him Plekhanov's enmity.\n\nIn late 1902, Trotsky met Natalia Ivanovna Sedova, who soon became his companion and, from 1903 until his death, his wife. They had two children together, Lev Sedov (1906 – 16 February 1938) and Sergei Sedov (21 March 1908 – 29 October 1937), both of whom would predecease their parents. Regarding his sons' surnames, Trotsky later explained that after the 1917 revolution:\n\nTrotsky never used the name \"Sedov\" either privately or publicly. Natalia Sedova sometimes signed her name \"Sedova-Trotskaya\".\n\nSplit with Lenin (1903–1904)\n\nIn the meantime, after a period of secret police repression and internal confusion that followed the first party Congress in 1898, Iskra succeeded in convening the party's 2nd congress in London in August 1903. Trotsky and other Iskra editors attended. The first congress went as planned, with Iskra supporters handily defeating the few \"economist\" delegates. Then the congress discussed the position of the Jewish Bund, which had co-founded the RSDLP in 1898 but wanted to remain autonomous within the party. \n\nShortly thereafter, the pro-Iskra delegates split into two factions. Lenin and his supporters, the Bolsheviks, argued for a smaller but highly organized party while Martov and his supporters, the Mensheviks, argued for a larger and less disciplined party. In a surprise development, Trotsky and most of the Iskra editors supported Martov and the Mensheviks, while Plekhanov supported Lenin and the Bolsheviks. During 1903 and 1904, many members changed sides in the factions. Plekhanov soon parted ways with the Bolsheviks. Trotsky left the Mensheviks in September 1904 over their insistence on an alliance with Russian liberals and their opposition to a reconciliation with Lenin and the Bolsheviks.\n\nFrom 1904 until 1917, he described himself as a \"non-factional social democrat\". Trotsky spent much of his time between 1904 and 1917 trying to reconcile different groups within the party, which resulted in many clashes with Lenin and other prominent party members. Trotsky later maintained that he had been wrong in opposing Lenin on the issue of the party. During these years Trotsky began developing his theory of permanent revolution, which led to a close working relationship with Alexander Parvus in 1904–1907. \n\nLenin later denounced Trotsky as a \"Judas\", a \"scoundrel\" and a \"swine\". \n\n1905 revolution and trial (1905–1906)\n\nThe unrest and agitation against the Russian government came to a head in Saint Petersburg on 3 January 1905 (Julian Calendar), when a strike broke out at the Putilov Works in Saint Petersburg. This single strike grew into a general strike and by 7 January 1905 there were 140,000 strikers in Saint Petersburg. On Sunday, 9 January 1905, Father Georgi Gapon led a peaceful procession of citizens through the streets to the Winter Palace to beseech the tsar for food and relief from the oppressive government. The peaceful demonstration was fired upon by the Palace Guard resulting in the death of 1,000 demonstrators. Thus, Sunday 9 January 1905 became known as Bloody Sunday.\n\nFollowing the events of Bloody Sunday, Trotsky secretly returned to Russia in February 1905, by way of Kiev. At first he wrote leaflets for an underground printing press in Kiev, but soon moved to the capital, Saint Petersburg, where he worked with both Bolsheviks, such as Central Committee member Leonid Krasin, and the local Menshevik committee, which he pushed in a more radical direction. The latter, however, were betrayed by a secret police agent in May, and Trotsky had to flee to rural Finland. There he worked on fleshing out his theory of permanent revolution. \n\nOn 19 September 1905, the typesetters at the Sytin Print Works in Moscow went out on strike for shorter hours and higher pay. By the evening of 24 September, the workers at 50 other printing shops in Moscow were also on strike. On 2 October 1905, the typesetters in printing shops in Saint Petersburg, decided to strike in support of the Moscow strikers. On 7 October 1905, the railway workers of the Moscow–Kazan Railway went out on strike. The confusion engendered by these strikes made it possible for Trotsky to return from Finland to Saint Petersburg on 15 October 1905. On the same day that he returned to Saint Petersburg, Trotsky appeared before the Saint Petersburg Soviet Council of Workers Deputies which was meeting at the Technological Institute in Saint Petersburg. Not only were the elected Deputies present at this meeting, but also attending were some 200,000 people—about 50% of all workers in Saint Petersburg. After returning to the capital, Trotsky and Parvus took over the newspaper Russian Gazette and increased its circulation to 500,000. Trotsky also co-founded, together with Parvus and Julius Martov and other Mensheviks, Nachalo (\"The Beginning\"), which also proved to be a very successful newspaper in the revolutionary atmosphere of Saint Petersburg in 1905. \n\nJust before Trotsky's return, the Mensheviks had independently come up with the same idea that Trotsky had: an elected non-party revolutionary organization representing the capital's workers, the first Soviet (\"Council\") of Workers. By the time of Trotsky's arrival, the Saint Petersburg Soviet was already functioning headed by Khrustalyev-Nosar (Georgy Nosar, alias Pyotr Khrustalyov). Khrustalyev-Nosar had been a compromise figure when elected as the head of the Saint Petersburg Soviet. Khrustalev-Nosar was a lawyer that stood above the political factions contained in the Soviet. However, since his election, he proved to be very popular with the workers in spite of the Bolsheviks' original opposition to him. Khrustalev-Nosar became famous in his position as spokesman for the Saint Petersburg Soviet. Indeed, to the outside world, Khrustalev-Nosar was the embodiment of the Saint Petersburg Soviet. Trotsky joined the Soviet under the name \"Yanovsky\" (after the village he was born in, Yanovka) and was elected vice-Chairman. He did much of the actual work at the Soviet and, after Khrustalev-Nosar's arrest on 26 November 1905, was elected its chairman. On 2 December, the Soviet issued a proclamation which included the following statement about the Tsarist government and its foreign debts: \n\nThe following day, the Soviet was surrounded by troops loyal to the government and the deputies were arrested. Trotsky and other Soviet leaders were tried in 1906 on charges of supporting an armed rebellion. At the trial on 4 October 1906, Trotsky delivered one of the best speeches of his life. It was this speech that solidified his reputation as an effective public speaker. He was convicted and sentenced to internal exile to Siberia.\n\nSecond emigration (1907–1914)\n\nWhile en route to exile in Obdorsk, Siberia, in January 1907, Trotsky escaped at Berezov and once again made his way to London, where he attended the 5th Congress of the RSDLP. In October, he moved to Vienna where he often took part in the activities of the Austrian Social Democratic Party and, occasionally, of the German Social Democratic Party, for seven years.\n\nIn Vienna, Trotsky became close to Adolph Joffe, his friend for the next 20 years, who introduced him to psychoanalysis. In October 1908 he was asked to join the editorial staff of Pravda (\"Truth\"), a bi-weekly, Russian-language social democratic paper for Russian workers, which he co-edited with Joffe, Matvey Skobelev and Victor Kopp. It was smuggled into Russia. The paper appeared very irregularly, only five issues appeared in the first year of publication. However, the paper avoided factional politics and proved popular with Russian industrial workers. Both the Bolsheviks and the Mensheviks split multiple times after the failure of the 1905–1907 revolution. Money was very scarce for publication of Pravda. Trotsky approached the Russian Central Committee to seek financial backing for the newspaper throughout 1909. The Central Committee was controlled by a majority of Bolsheviks, at this time, in 1910. Thus, Lenin agreed to the financing of Pravda, but required a Bolshevik be appointed as co-editor of the paper. When various Bolshevik and Menshevik factions tried to re-unite at the January 1910 RSDLP Central Committee meeting in Paris over Lenin's objections, Trotsky's Pravda was made a party-financed 'central organ'. Lev Kamenev, Trotsky's brother-in-law, was added to the editorial board from the Bolsheviks, but the unification attempts failed in August 1910 when Kamenev resigned from the board amid mutual recriminations. Trotsky continued publishing Pravda for another two years until it finally folded in April 1912.\n\nThe Bolsheviks started a new workers-oriented newspaper in Saint Petersburg on 22 April 1912, and also called it Pravda. Trotsky was so upset by what he saw as a usurpation of his newspaper's name that in April 1913 he wrote a letter to Nikolay Chkheidze, a Menshevik leader, bitterly denouncing Lenin and the Bolsheviks. Though he quickly got over the disagreement, the letter was intercepted by the police, and a copy was put into their archives. Shortly after Lenin's death in 1924, the letter was pulled out of the archives and made public by Trotsky's opponents within the Communist Party to portray him as Lenin's enemy.\n\nThis was a period of heightened tension within the RSDLP, leading to numerous frictions between Trotsky, the Bolsheviks and the Mensheviks. The most serious disagreement that Trotsky and the Mensheviks had with Lenin at the time was over the issue of \"expropriations\", i.e., armed robbery of banks and other companies by Bolshevik groups to procure money for the Party. These actions had been banned by the 5th Congress, but were continued by the Bolsheviks.\n\nIn January 1912, the majority of the Bolshevik faction, led by Lenin and a few Mensheviks, held a conference in Prague and expelled their opponents from the party. In response, Trotsky organized a \"unification\" conference of social democratic factions in Vienna in August 1912 (a.k.a. \"The August Bloc\") and tried to re-unite the party. The attempt was generally unsuccessful.\n\nIn Vienna, Trotsky continuously published articles in radical Russian and Ukrainian newspapers, such as Kievskaya Mysl, under a variety of pseudonyms, often using \"Antid Oto\". In September 1912, Kievskaya Mysl sent him to the Balkans as its war correspondent, where he covered the two Balkan Wars for the next year and became a close friend of Christian Rakovsky. The latter was later a leading Soviet politician and Trotsky's ally in the Soviet Communist Party. On 3 August 1914, at the outbreak of World War I, in which Austria-Hungary fought against the Russian empire, Trotsky was forced to flee Vienna for neutral Switzerland to avoid arrest as a Russian émigré. \n\nWorld War I (1914–1917)\n\nThe outbreak of World War I caused a sudden realignment within the RSDLP and other European social democratic parties over the issues of war, revolution, pacifism and internationalism. Within the RSDLP, Lenin, Trotsky and Martov advocated various internationalist anti-war positions, while Plekhanov and other social democrats (both Bolsheviks and Mensheviks) supported the Russian government to some extent. In Switzerland, Trotsky briefly worked within the Swiss Socialist Party, prompting it to adopt an internationalist resolution. He wrote a book opposing the war, The War and the International, and the pro-war position taken by the European social democratic parties, primarily the German party. As a war correspondent for the Kievskaya Mysl, Trotsky moved to France on 19 November 1914. In January 1915 in Paris, he began editing (at first with Martov, who soon resigned as the paper moved to the left) Nashe Slovo (\"Our Word\"), an internationalist socialist newspaper. He adopted the slogan of \"peace without indemnities or annexations, peace without conquerors or conquered.\" Lenin advocated Russia's defeat in the war and demanded a complete break with the Second International.\n\nTrotsky attended the Zimmerwald Conference of anti-war socialists in September 1915 and advocated a middle course between those who, like Martov, would stay within the Second International at any cost and those who, like Lenin, would break with the Second International and form a Third International. The conference adopted the middle line proposed by Trotsky. At first opposed, in the end Lenin voted for Trotsky's resolution to avoid a split among anti-war socialists. \n\nOn 31 March Trotsky was deported from France to Spain for his anti-war activities. Spanish authorities did not want him and deported him to the United States on 25 December 1916. He arrived in New York City on 13 January 1917. He stayed for nearly three months at 1522 Vyse Avenue in The Bronx. In New York he wrote articles for the local Russian language socialist newspaper, Novy Mir, and the Yiddish-language daily, Der Forverts (The Jewish Daily Forward), in translation. He also made speeches to Russian émigrés. He was officially earning some $15 a week.\n\nTrotsky was living in New York City when the February Revolution of 1917 overthrew Tsar Nicholas II. He left New York on 27 March, but his ship, the SS Kristianiafjord, was intercepted by British naval officials in Canada at Halifax, Nova Scotia. He was detained for a month at Amherst Internment Camp in Nova Scotia. After initial hesitation, the Russian foreign minister Pavel Milyukov demanded the release of Trotsky as a Russian citizen, and the British government freed him on 29 April.\n\nHe reached Russia on 4 May. After his return, Trotsky substantively agreed with the Bolshevik position, but did not join them right away. Russian social democrats were split into at least six groups, and the Bolsheviks were waiting for the next party Congress to determine which factions to merge with. Trotsky temporarily joined the Mezhraiontsy, a regional social democratic organization in Saint Petersburg, and became one of its leaders. At the First Congress of Soviets in June, he was elected a member of the first All-Russian Central Executive Committee (\"VTsIK\") from the Mezhraiontsy faction. \n\nAfter an unsuccessful pro-Bolshevik uprising in Petrograd, Trotsky was arrested on 7 August 1917. He was released 40 days later in the aftermath of the failed counter-revolutionary uprising by Lavr Kornilov. After the Bolsheviks gained a majority in the Petrograd Soviet, Trotsky was elected chairman on 8 October. He sided with Lenin against Grigory Zinoviev and Lev Kamenev when the Bolshevik Central Committee discussed staging an armed uprising, and he led the efforts to overthrow the Provisional Government headed by Aleksandr Kerensky.\n\nThe following summary of Trotsky's role in 1917 was written by Stalin in Pravda, 10 November 1918. Although this passage was quoted in Stalin's book The October Revolution (1934), it was expunged from Stalin's Works (1949).\n\nAfter the success of the uprising on 7–8 November, Trotsky led the efforts to repel a counter-attack by Cossacks under General Pyotr Krasnov and other troops still loyal to the overthrown Provisional Government at Gatchina. Allied with Lenin, he defeated attempts by other Bolshevik Central Committee members (Zinoviev, Kamenev, Rykov, etc.) to share power with other socialist parties. By the end of 1917, Trotsky was unquestionably the second man in the Bolshevik Party after Lenin. He overshadowed the ambitious Zinoviev, who had been Lenin's top lieutenant over the previous decade, but whose star appeared to be fading. This reversal of position contributed to continuing competition and enmity between the two men, which lasted until 1926 and did much to destroy them both. \n\nRussian Revolution and Aftermath\n\nCommissar for Foreign Affairs and Brest-Litovsk (1917–1918)\n\nAfter the Bolsheviks came to power, Trotsky became the People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs and published the secret treaties previously signed by the Triple Entente that detailed plans for post-war reallocation of colonies and redrawing state borders.\n\nTrotsky led the Soviet delegation during the peace negotiations in Brest-Litovsk from 22 December 1917 to 10 February 1918. At that time the Soviet government was split on the issue. Left Communists, led by Nikolai Bukharin, continued to believe that there could be no peace between a Soviet republic and a capitalist country and that only a revolutionary war leading to a pan-European Soviet republic would bring a durable peace. They cited the successes of the newly formed (15 January 1918) voluntary Red Army against Polish forces of Gen. Józef Dowbor-Muśnicki in Belarus, White forces in the Don region, and newly independent Ukrainian forces as proof that the Red Army could repel German forces, especially if propaganda and asymmetrical warfare were used. They did not mind holding talks with the Germans as a means of exposing German imperial ambitions (territorial gains, reparations, etc.) in the hope of accelerating the hoped−for Soviet revolution in the West, but they were dead set against signing any peace treaty. In case of a German ultimatum, they advocated proclaiming a revolutionary war against Germany in order to inspire Russian and European workers to fight for socialism. This opinion was shared by Left Socialist Revolutionaries, who were then the Bolsheviks' junior partners in a coalition government.\n\nLenin, who had earlier hoped for a speedy Soviet revolution in Germany and other parts of Europe, quickly decided that the imperial government of Germany was still firmly in control and that, without a strong Russian military, an armed conflict with Germany would lead to a collapse of the Soviet government in Russia. He agreed with the Left Communists that ultimately a pan-European Soviet revolution would solve all problems, but until then the Bolsheviks had to stay in power. Lenin did not mind prolonging the negotiating process for maximum propaganda effect, but, from January 1918 on, advocated signing a separate peace treaty if faced with a German ultimatum. Trotsky's position was between these two Bolshevik factions. Like Lenin, he admitted that the old Russian military, inherited from the monarchy and the Provisional Government and in advanced stages of decomposition, was unable to fight: \n\nBut he agreed with the Left Communists that a separate peace treaty with an imperialist power would be a terrible morale and material blow to the Soviet government, negate all its military and political successes of 1917 and 1918, resurrect the notion that the Bolsheviks secretly allied with the German government, and cause an upsurge of internal resistance. He argued that any German ultimatum should be refused, and that this might well lead to an uprising in Germany, or at least inspire German soldiers to disobey their officers since any German offensive would be a naked grab for territories. He wrote in 1925: \n\nThroughout January and February 1918, Lenin's position was supported by 7 members of the Bolshevik Central Committee and Bukharin's by 4. Trotsky had 4 votes (his own, Felix Dzerzhinsky's, Nikolai Krestinsky's and Adolph Joffe's) and, since he held the balance of power, he was able to pursue his policy in Brest-Litovsk. When he could no longer delay the negotiations, he withdrew from the talks on 10 February 1918, refusing to sign on Germany's harsh terms. After a brief hiatus, the Central Powers notified the Soviet government that they would no longer observe the truce after 17 February. At this point Lenin again argued that the Soviet government had done all it could to explain its position to Western workers and that it was time to accept the terms. Trotsky refused to support Lenin since he was waiting to see whether German workers would rebel and whether German soldiers would refuse to follow orders. \n\nGermany resumed military operations on 18 February. Within a day, it became clear that the German army was capable of conducting offensive operations and that Red Army detachments, which were relatively small, poorly organized and poorly led, were no match for it. In the evening of 18 February 1918, Trotsky and his supporters in the committee abstained and Lenin's proposal was accepted 7–4. The Soviet government sent a radiogram to the German side accepting the final Brest-Litovsk peace terms.\n\nGermany did not respond for three days, and continued its offensive encountering little resistance. The response arrived on 21 February, but the proposed terms were so harsh that even Lenin briefly thought that the Soviet government had no choice but to fight. But in the end, the committee again voted 7–4 on 23 February 1918; the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was signed on 3 March and ratified on 15 March 1918. Since Trotsky was so closely associated with the policy previously followed by the Soviet delegation at Brest-Litovsk, he resigned from his position as Commissar for Foreign Affairs in order to remove a potential obstacle to the new policy.\n\nHead of the Red Army (spring 1918)\n\nThe failure of the recently formed Red Army to resist the German offensive in February 1918 revealed its weaknesses: insufficient numbers, lack of knowledgeable officers, and near absence of coordination and subordination. Celebrated and feared Baltic Fleet sailors, one of the bastions of the new regime led by Pavel Dybenko, fled from the German army at Narva. The notion that the Soviet state could have an effective voluntary or militia type military was seriously undermined.\n\nTrotsky was one of the first Bolshevik leaders to recognize the problem and he pushed for the formation of a military council of former Russian generals that would function as an advisory body. Lenin and the Bolshevik Central Committee agreed on 4 March to create the Supreme Military Council, headed by former chief of the imperial General Staff Mikhail Bonch-Bruevich.\n\nThe entire Bolshevik leadership of the Red Army, including People's Commissar (defense minister) Nikolai Podvoisky and commander-in-chief Nikolai Krylenko, protested vigorously and eventually resigned. They believed that the Red Army should consist only of dedicated revolutionaries, rely on propaganda and force, and have elected officers. They viewed former imperial officers and generals as potential traitors who should be kept out of the new military, much less put in charge of it. Their views continued to be popular with many Bolsheviks throughout most of the Russian Civil War and their supporters, including Podvoisky, who became one of Trotsky's deputies, were a constant thorn in Trotsky's side. The discontent with Trotsky's policies of strict discipline, conscription and reliance on carefully supervised non-Communist military experts eventually led to the Military Opposition (Russian: Военная оппозиция), which was active within the Communist Party in late 1918–1919. \n\nOn 13 March 1918, Trotsky's resignation as Commissar for Foreign Affairs was officially accepted and he was appointed People's Commissar of Army and Navy Affairs – in place of Podvoisky – and chairman of the Supreme Military Council. The post of commander-in-chief was abolished, and Trotsky gained full control of the Red Army, responsible only to the Communist Party leadership, whose Left Socialist Revolutionary allies had left the government over Brest-Litovsk. With the help of his deputy Ephraim Sklyansky, Trotsky spent the rest of the Civil War transforming the Red Army from a ragtag network of small and fiercely independent detachments into a large and disciplined military machine, through forced conscription, party-controlled blocking squads, compulsory obedience and officers chosen by the leadership instead of the rank and file. He defended these positions throughout his life.\n\nCivil War (1918–1920)\n\n1918\n\nThe military situation soon tested Trotsky's managerial and organization-building skills. In May–June 1918, the Czechoslovak Legions en route from European Russia to Vladivostok rose against the Soviet government. This left the Bolsheviks with the loss of most of the country's territory, an increasingly well-organized resistance by Russian anti-Communist forces (usually referred to as the White Army after their best-known component) and widespread defection by the military experts whom Trotsky relied on.\n\nTrotsky and the government responded with a full-fledged mobilization, which increased the size of the Red Army from fewer than 300,000 in May 1918 to one million in October, and an introduction of political commissars into the army. The latter had the task of ensuring the loyalty of military experts (mostly former officers in the imperial army) and co-signing their orders. Trotsky regarded the organization of the Red Army as built on the ideas of the October Revolution. As he later wrote in his autobiography: \n\nIn response to Fanya Kaplan's failed assassination of Lenin on 30 August 1918, and to the successful assassination of the Petrograd Cheka chief Moisei Uritsky on 17 August 1918, the Bolsheviks instructed Felix Dzerzhinsky to commence a Red Terror, announced in the 1 September 1918 issue of the Krasnaya Gazeta (Red Gazette). Regarding the Red Terror Trotsky wrote:\n\nIn dealing with deserters, Trotsky often appealed to them politically, arousing them with the ideas of the Revolution.\n\nGiven the lack of manpower and the 16 opposing foreign armies, Trotsky also insisted on the use of former Tsarist officers as military specialists within the Red Army, in combination with Bolshevik political commissars to ensure the revolutionary nature of the Red Army. Lenin commented on this:\n\nIn September 1918 the Bolshevik government, facing continuous military difficulties, declared what amounted to martial law and reorganized the Red Army. The Supreme Military Council was abolished and the position of commander-in-chief was restored, filled by the commander of the Latvian Riflemen, Ioakim Vatsetis (a.k.a. Jukums Vācietis), who had formerly led the Eastern Front against the Czechoslovak Legions. Vatsetis took charge of day-to-day operations of the army while Trotsky became chairman of the newly formed Revolutionary Military Council of the Republic and retained overall control of the military. Trotsky and Vatsetis had clashed earlier in 1918, while Vatsetis and Trotsky's adviser Mikhail Bonch-Bruevich were also on unfriendly terms. Nevertheless, Trotsky eventually established a working relationship with the often prickly Vatsetis.\n\nThe reorganization caused yet another conflict between Trotsky and Stalin in late September. Trotsky appointed former imperial general Pavel Pavlovich Sytin to command the Southern Front, but in early October 1918 Stalin refused to accept him and so he was recalled from the front. Lenin and Yakov Sverdlov tried to make Trotsky and Stalin reconcile, but their meeting proved unsuccessful.\n\n1919\n\nThroughout late 1918 and early 1919, there were a number of attacks on Trotsky's leadership of the Red Army, including veiled accusations in newspaper articles inspired by Stalin and a direct attack by the Military Opposition at the VIIIth Party Congress in March 1919. On the surface, he weathered them successfully and was elected one of only five full members of the first Politburo after the Congress. But he later wrote:\n\nIn mid-1919 the dissatisfied had an opportunity to mount a serious challenge to Trotsky's leadership: the Red Army grew from 800,000 to 3,000,000, and fought simultaneously on sixteen fronts. The Red Army had defeated the White Army's spring offensive in the east and was about to cross the Ural Mountains and enter Siberia in pursuit of Admiral Alexander Kolchak's forces. But in the south, General Anton Denikin's White Russian forces advanced, and the situation deteriorated rapidly. On 6 June commander-in-chief Vatsetis ordered the Eastern Front to stop the offensive so that he could use its forces in the south. But the leadership of the Eastern Front, including its commander Sergey Kamenev (a former colonel of the Imperial army), and Eastern Front Revolutionary Military Council members Ivar Smilga, Mikhail Lashevich and Sergey Gusev vigorously protested and wanted to keep the emphasis on the Eastern Front. They insisted that it was vital to capture Siberia before the onset of winter and that once Kolchak's forces were broken, many more divisions would be freed up for the Southern Front. Trotsky, who had earlier had conflicts with the leadership of the Eastern Front, including a temporary removal of Kamenev in May 1919, supported Vatsetis.\n\nAt the 3–4 July Central Committee meeting, after a heated exchange the majority supported Kamenev and Smilga against Vatsetis and Trotsky. Trotsky's plan was rejected and he was much criticized for various alleged shortcomings in his leadership style, much of it of a personal nature. Stalin used this opportunity to pressure Lenin to dismiss Trotsky from his post. But when Trotsky offered his resignation on 5 July, the Politburo and the Orgburo of the Central Committee unanimously rejected it.\n\nHowever, some significant changes to the leadership of the Red Army were made. Trotsky was temporarily sent to the Southern Front, while the work in Moscow was informally coordinated by Smilga. Most members of the Revolutionary Military Council who were not involved in its day-to-day operations were relieved of their duties on 8 July, and new members, including Smilga, were added. The same day, while Trotsky was in the south, Vatsetis was suddenly arrested by the Cheka on suspicion of involvement in an anti-Soviet plot, and replaced by Sergey Kamenev. After a few weeks in the south, Trotsky returned to Moscow and resumed control of the Red Army. A year later, Smilga and Tukhachevsky were defeated during the Battle of Warsaw, but Trotsky refused this opportunity to pay Smilga back, which earned him Smilga's friendship and later support during the intra-Party battles of the 1920s. \n\nBy October 1919, the government was in the worst crisis of the Civil War: Denikin's troops approached Tula and Moscow from the south, and General Nikolay Yudenich's troops approached Petrograd from the west. Lenin decided that since it was more important to defend Moscow, Petrograd would have to be abandoned. Trotsky argued that Petrograd needed to be defended, at least in part to prevent Estonia and Finland from intervening. In a rare reversal, Trotsky was supported by Stalin and Zinoviev and prevailed against Lenin in the Central Committee. He immediately went to Petrograd, whose leadership headed by Zinoviev he found demoralized, and organized its defense, sometimes personally stopping fleeing soldiers. By 22 October the Red Army was on the offensive and in early November, Yudenich's troops were driven back to Estonia, where they were disarmed and interned. Trotsky was awarded the Order of the Red Banner for his actions in Petrograd.\n\n1920\n\nWith the defeat of Denikin and Yudenich in late 1919, the Soviet government's emphasis shifted to the economy. Trotsky spent the winter of 1919–1920 in the Urals region trying to restart its economy. Based on his experiences, he proposed abandoning the policies of War Communism, which included confiscating grain from peasants, and partially restoring the grain market. Still committed to War Communism, Lenin rejected his proposal. He put Trotsky in charge of the country's railroads (while retaining overall control of the Red Army), which he directed should be militarized in the spirit of War Communism. It was not until early 1921, due to economic collapse and social uprisings, that Lenin and the rest of the Bolshevik leadership abandoned War Communism in favor of the New Economic Policy.\n\nIn early 1920, Soviet–Polish tensions eventually led to the Polish–Soviet War. In the run-up and during the war, Trotsky argued that the Red Army was exhausted and the Soviet government should sign a peace treaty with Poland as soon as possible. He did not believe that the Red Army would find much support in Poland proper. Lenin later wrote that he and other Bolshevik leaders believed the Red Army's successes in the Russian Civil War and against the Poles meant \"The defensive period of the war with worldwide imperialism was over, and we could, and had the obligation to, exploit the military situation to launch an offensive war.\" \n\nThe Red Army offensive was turned back during the Battle of Warsaw in August 1920, in part because of Stalin's failure to obey Trotsky's orders in the run-up to the decisive engagements. Back in Moscow, Trotsky again argued for a peace treaty and this time prevailed.\n\nTrade union debate (1920–1921)\n\nIn late 1920, after the Bolsheviks won the Civil War and before the Eighth and Ninth Congress of Soviets, the Communist Party had a heated and increasingly acrimonious debate over the role of trade unions in the Soviet state. The discussion split the party into many \"platforms\" (factions), including Lenin's, Trotsky's and Bukharin's; Bukharin eventually merged his with Trotsky's. Smaller, more radical factions like the Workers' Opposition (headed by Alexander Shlyapnikov) and the Group of Democratic Centralism were particularly active.\n\nTrotsky's position formed while he led a special commission on the Soviet transportation system, Tsektran. He was appointed there to rebuild the rail system ruined by the Civil War. Being the Commissar of War and a revolutionary military leader, he saw a need to create a militarized \"production atmosphere\" by incorporating trade unions directly into the State apparatus. His unyielding stance was that in a worker's state the workers should have nothing to fear from the state, and the State should fully control the unions. In the Ninth Party Congress he argued for \"such a regime under which each worker feels himself to be a soldier of labor who cannot freely dispose of himself; if he is ordered transferred, he must execute that order; if he does not do so, he will be a deserter who should be punished. Who will execute this? The trade union. It will create a new regime. That is the militarization of the working class.\" Lenin sharply criticised Trotsky and accused him of \"bureaucratically nagging the trade unions\" and of staging \"factional attacks\". His view did not focus on State control as much as the concern that a new relationship was needed between the State and the rank-and-file workers. He said, \"Introduction of genuine labor discipline is conceived only if the whole mass of participants in productions take a conscious part in the fulfillment of these tasks. This cannot be achieved by bureaucratic methods and orders from above.\" This was a debate that Lenin thought the party could not afford. His frustration with Trotsky was used by Stalin and Zinoviev with their support for Lenin's position, to improve their standing within the Bolshevik leadership at Trotsky's expense.\n\nDisagreements threatened to get out of hand and many Bolsheviks, including Lenin, feared that the party would splinter. The Central Committee was split almost evenly between Lenin's and Trotsky's supporters, with all three Secretaries of the Central Committee (Krestinsky, Yevgeny Preobrazhensky and Leonid Serebryakov) supporting Trotsky.\n\nAt a meeting of his faction at the Tenth Party Congress in March 1921, Lenin's faction won a decisive victory and a number of Trotsky's supporters (including all three secretaries of the Central Committee) lost their leadership positions. Krestinsky was replaced as a member of the Politburo by Zinoviev, who had supported Lenin. Krestinsky's place in the secretariat was taken by Vyacheslav Molotov. The congress also adopted a secret resolution on \"Party unity\", which banned factions within the Party except during pre-Congress discussions. The resolution was later published and used by Stalin against Trotsky and other opponents. At the end of the Tenth Congress, after peace negotiations had failed, Trotsky gave the order for the suppression of the Kronstadt rebellion, the last major revolt against Bolshevik rule. \n\nYears later, anarchist Emma Goldman and others criticized Trotsky's actions as Commissar for War for his role in the suppression of the rebellion, and argued that he ordered unjustified incarcerations and executions of political opponents such as anarchists, although Trotsky did not participate in the actual suppression. Some Trotskyists, most notably Abbie Bakan, have argued that the claim that the Kronstadt rebels were \"counterrevolutionary\" has been supported by evidence of White Army and French government support for the Kronstadt sailors' March rebellion. Other historians, most notably Paul Avrich, claimed the evidence did not point towards this conclusion, and saw the Kronstadt Rebellion as spontaneous. \n\nTrotsky's contribution to the Russian Revolution\n\nVladimir Cherniaev, a leading Russian historian, sums up Trotsky's main contributions to the Russian Revolution:\nTrotsky bears a great deal of responsibility both for the victory of the Red Army in the civil war, and for the establishment of a one-party authoritarian state with its apparatus for ruthlessly suppressing dissent.... He was an ideologist and practitioner of the Red Terror. He despised 'bourgeois democracy'; he believed that spinelessness and soft-heartedness would destroy the revolution, and that the suppression of the propertied classes and political opponents would clear the historical arena for socialism. He was the initiator of concentration camps, compulsory 'labour camps,' and the militarization of labour, and the state takeover of trade unions. Trotsky was implicated in many practices which would become standard in the Stalin era, including summary executions. \n\nHistorian Geoffrey Swain argues that:\nThe Bolsheviks triumphed in the Civil War because of Trotsky's ability to work with military specialists, because of the style of work he introduced where widescale consultation was followed through by swift and determined action. \n\nLenin said in 1921 that Trotsky was \"in love with organization,\" but in working politics, \"he has not got a clue.\" Swain explains the paradox by arguing that Trotsky was not good at teamwork; he was a loner who had mostly worked as a journalist, not as a professional revolutionary like the others. \n\nLenin's illness (1922–1923)\n\nIn late 1921 Lenin's health deteriorated, he was absent from Moscow for even longer periods, and eventually had three strokes between 26 May 1922 and 10 March 1923, which caused paralysis, loss of speech and finally death on 21 January 1924. With Lenin increasingly sidelined throughout 1922, Stalin (elevated to the newly created position of the Central Committee general secretary earlier in the year), Zinoviev and Lev Kamenev formed a troika (triumvirate) to ensure that Trotsky, publicly the number-two-man in the country and Lenin's heir presumptive, would not succeed Lenin.\n\nThe rest of the recently expanded Politburo (Rykov, Mikhail Tomsky, Bukharin) was at first uncommitted, but eventually joined the troika. Stalin's power of patronage in his capacity as general secretary clearly played a role, but Trotsky and his supporters later concluded that a more fundamental reason was the process of slow bureaucratization of the Soviet regime once the extreme conditions of the Civil War were over: much of the Bolshevik elite wanted 'normalcy' while Trotsky was personally and politically personified as representing a turbulent revolutionary period that they would much rather leave behind.\n\nAlthough the exact sequence of events is unclear, evidence suggests that at first the troika nominated Trotsky to head second rate government departments (e.g., Gokhran, the State Depository for Valuables ) and then, when Trotsky predictably refused, tried using it as an excuse to oust him. At this time there was speculation about Trotsky's health and whether he had epilepsy.\n\nWhen, in mid-July 1922, Kamenev wrote a letter to the recovering Lenin to the effect that \"(the Central Committee) is throwing or is ready to throw a good cannon overboard\", Lenin was shocked and responded: \n\nFrom then until his final stroke, Lenin spent much of his time trying to devise a way to prevent a split within the Communist Party leadership, which was reflected in Lenin's Testament. As part of this effort, on 11 September 1922 Lenin proposed that Trotsky become his deputy at the Council of People's Commissars (Sovnarkom). The Politburo approved the proposal, but Trotsky \"categorically refused\". \n\nIn late 1922, Lenin's relationship with Stalin deteriorated over Stalin's heavy-handed and chauvinistic handling of the issue of merging Soviet republics into one federal state, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). At that point, according to Trotsky's autobiography, \nLenin offered Trotsky an alliance against Soviet bureaucracy in general and Stalin in particular. The alliance proved effective on the issue of foreign trade, but it was complicated by Lenin's progressing illness. In January 1923 the relationship between Lenin and Stalin completely broke down when Stalin rudely insulted Lenin's wife, Nadezhda Krupskaya. At that point Lenin amended his Testament suggesting that Stalin should be replaced as the party's general secretary, although the thrust of his argument was somewhat weakened by the fact that he also mildly criticized other Bolshevik leaders, including Trotsky. In March 1923, days before his third stroke, Lenin prepared a frontal assault on Stalin's \"Great-Russian nationalistic campaign\" against the Georgian Communist Party (the so-called Georgian Affair) and asked Trotsky to deliver the blow at the XIIth Party Congress. With Lenin no longer active, Trotsky did not raise the issue at the Congress. \n\nAt the XIIth Party Congress in April 1923, just after Lenin's final stroke, the key Central Committee reports on organizational and nationalities questions were delivered by Stalin and not by Trotsky, while Zinoviev delivered the political report of the Central Committee, traditionally Lenin's prerogative. Stalin's power of appointment had allowed him to gradually replace local party secretaries with loyal functionaries and thus control most regional delegations at the congress, which enabled him to pack the Central Committee with his supporters, mostly at the expense of Zinoviev and Kamenev's backers. \n\nAt the congress, Trotsky made a speech about intra-party democracy, among other things, but avoided a direct confrontation with the troika. The delegates, most of whom were unaware of the divisions within the Politburo, gave Trotsky a standing ovation, which couldn't help but upset the troika. The troika was further infuriated by Karl Radek's article Leon Trotsky – Organizer of Victory published in Pravda on 14 March 1923.\n\nThe resolutions adopted by the XIIth Congress called, in general terms, for greater democracy within the Party, but were vague and remained unimplemented. In an important test of strength in mid-1923, the troika was able to neutralize Trotsky's friend and supporter Christian Rakovsky by removing him from his post as head of the Ukrainian government (USSR Radnarkom) and sending him to London as Soviet ambassador. When regional Party secretaries in Ukraine protested against Rakovsky's reassignment, they too were reassigned to various posts all over the Soviet Union. \n\nLeft opposition (1923–1924)\n\nStarting in mid-1923, the Soviet economy ran into significant difficulties, which led to numerous strikes countrywide. Two secret groups within the Communist Party, “Workers' Truth” and “Workers' Group”, were uncovered and suppressed by the Soviet secret police. On 8 October 1923 Trotsky sent a letter to the Central Committee and the Central Control Commission, attributing these difficulties to lack of intra-Party democracy. Trotsky wrote:\n\nOther senior communists who had similar concerns sent The Declaration of 46 to the Central Committee on 15 October in which they wrote:\n\nAlthough the text of these letters remained secret at the time, they had a significant effect on the Party leadership and prompted a partial retreat by the troika and its supporters on the issue of intra-Party democracy, notably in Zinoviev's Pravda article published on 7 November. Throughout November, the troika tried to come up with a compromise to placate, or at least temporarily neutralize, Trotsky and his supporters. (Their task was made easier by the fact that Trotsky was sick in November and December.) The first draft of the resolution was rejected by Trotsky, which led to the formation of a special group consisting of Stalin, Trotsky and Kamenev, which was charged with drafting a mutually acceptable compromise. On 5 December, the Politburo and the Central Control Commission unanimously adopted the group's final draft as its resolution. On 8 December Trotsky published an open letter, in which he expounded on the recently adopted resolution's ideas. The troika used his letter as an excuse to launch a campaign against Trotsky, accusing him of factionalism, setting \"the youth against the fundamental generation of old revolutionary Bolsheviks\" and other sins. Trotsky defended his position in a series of seven letters which were collected as The New Course in January 1924. The illusion of a \"monolithic Bolshevik leadership\" was thus shattered and a lively intra-Party discussion ensued, both in local Party organizations and in the pages of Pravda. The discussion lasted most of December and January until the XIIIth Party Conference of 16–18 January 1924. Those who opposed the Central Committee's position in the debate were thereafter referred to as members of the Left Opposition.\n\nSince the troika controlled the Party apparatus through Stalin's Secretariat and Pravda through its editor Bukharin, it was able to direct the discussion and the process of delegate selection. Although Trotsky's position prevailed within the Red Army and Moscow universities and received about half the votes in the Moscow Party organization, it was defeated elsewhere, and the Conference was packed with pro-troika delegates. In the end, only three delegates voted for Trotsky's position and the Conference denounced \"Trotskyism\" as a \"petty bourgeois deviation\". After the Conference, a number of Trotsky's supporters, especially in the Red Army's Political Directorate, were removed from leading positions or reassigned. Nonetheless, Trotsky kept all of his posts and the troika was careful to emphasize that the debate was limited to Trotsky's \"mistakes\" and that removing Trotsky from the leadership was out of the question. In reality, Trotsky had already been cut off from the decision making process.\n\nImmediately after the Conference, Trotsky left for a Caucasian resort to recover from his prolonged illness. On his way, he learned about Lenin's death on 21 January 1924. He was about to return when a follow up telegram from Stalin arrived, giving an incorrect date of the scheduled funeral, which would have made it impossible for Trotsky to return in time. Many commentators speculated after the fact that Trotsky's absence from Moscow in the days following Lenin's death contributed to his eventual loss to Stalin, although Trotsky generally discounted the significance of his absence.\n\nAfter Lenin's death (1924)\n\nThere was little overt political disagreement within the Soviet leadership throughout most of 1924. On the surface, Trotsky remained the most prominent and popular Bolshevik leader, although his \"mistakes\" were often alluded to by troika partisans. Behind the scenes, he was completely cut off from the decision making process. Politburo meetings were pure formalities since all key decisions were made ahead of time by the troika and its supporters. Trotsky's control over the military was undermined by reassigning his deputy, Ephraim Sklyansky, and appointing Mikhail Frunze, who was being groomed to take Trotsky's place.\n\nAt the thirteenth Party Congress in May, Trotsky delivered a conciliatory speech: \n\nThe attempt at reconciliation, however, did not stop troika supporters from taking potshots at him.\n\nIn the meantime, the Left Opposition, which had coagulated somewhat unexpectedly in late 1923 and lacked a definite platform aside from general dissatisfaction with the intra-Party \"regime\", began to crystallize. It lost some less dedicated members to the harassment by the troika, but it also began formulating a program. Economically, the Left Opposition and its theoretician Yevgeni Preobrazhensky came out against further development of capitalist elements in the Soviet economy and in favor of faster industrialization. That put them at odds with Bukharin and Rykov, the \"Right\" group within the Party, who supported the troika at the time. On the question of world revolution, Trotsky and Karl Radek saw a period of stability in Europe while Stalin and Zinoviev confidently predicted an \"acceleration\" of revolution in Western Europe in 1924. On the theoretical plane, Trotsky remained committed to the Bolshevik idea that the Soviet Union could not create a true socialist society in the absence of the world revolution, while Stalin gradually came up with a policy of building 'Socialism in One Country'. These ideological divisions provided much of the intellectual basis for the political divide between Trotsky and the Left Opposition on the one hand and Stalin and his allies on the other.\n\nAt the thirteenth Congress Kamenev and Zinoviev helped Stalin defuse Lenin's Testament, which belatedly came to the surface. But just after the congress, the troika, always an alliance of convenience, showed signs of weakness. Stalin began making poorly veiled accusations about Zinoviev and Kamenev. Yet in October 1924, Trotsky published Lessons of October, an extensive summary of the events of the 1917 revolution. In it, he described Zinoviev's and Kamenev's opposition to the Bolshevik seizure of power in 1917, something that the two would have preferred left unmentioned. This started a new round of intra-party struggle, which became known as the Literary Discussion, with Zinoviev and Kamenev again allied with Stalin against Trotsky. Their criticism of Trotsky was concentrated in three areas:\n\n* Trotsky's disagreements and conflicts with Lenin and the Bolsheviks prior to 1917.\n* Trotsky's alleged distortion of the events of 1917 in order to emphasize his role and diminish the roles played by other Bolsheviks.\n* Trotsky's harsh treatment of his subordinates and other alleged mistakes during the Russian Civil War.\n\nTrotsky was again sick and unable to respond while his opponents mobilized all of their resources to denounce him. They succeeded in damaging his military reputation so much that he was forced to resign as People's Commissar of Army and Fleet Affairs and Chairman of the Revolutionary Military Council on 6 January 1925. Zinoviev demanded Trotsky's expulsion from the Communist Party, but Stalin refused to go along and played the role of a moderate. Trotsky kept his Politburo seat, but was effectively put on probation.\n\nA year in the wilderness (1925)\n\n1925 was a difficult year for Trotsky. After the bruising Literary Discussion and losing his Red Army posts, he was effectively unemployed throughout the winter and spring. In May 1925, he was given three posts: chairman of the Concessions Committee, head of the electro-technical board, and chairman of the scientific-technical board of industry. Trotsky wrote in My Life that he \"was taking a rest from politics\" and \"naturally plunged into the new line of work up to my ears\" but some contemporary accounts paint a picture of a remote and distracted man. Later in the year, Trotsky resigned his two technical positions (maintaining Stalin-instigated interference and sabotage) and concentrated on his work in the Concessions Committee.\n\nIn one of the few political developments that affected Trotsky in 1925, the circumstances surrounding the controversy around Lenin's Testament were described by American Marxist Max Eastman in his book Since Lenin Died (1925). The Soviet leadership denounced Eastman's account and used party discipline to force Trotsky to write an article denying Eastman's version of the events.\n\nIn the meantime, the troika finally broke up. Bukharin and Rykov sided with Stalin while Krupskaya and Soviet Commissar of Finance Grigory Sokolnikov aligned with Zinoviev and Kamenev. The struggle became open at the September 1925 meeting of the Central Committee and came to a head at the XIVth Party Congress in December 1925. With only the Leningrad Party organization behind them, Zinoviev and Kamenev, dubbed The New Opposition, were thoroughly defeated while Trotsky refused to get involved in the fight and didn't speak at the Congress.\n\nUnited Opposition (1926–1927)\n\nDuring a lull in the intra-party fighting in the spring of 1926, Zinoviev, Kamenev and their supporters in the \"New Opposition\" gravitated closer to Trotsky's supporters and the two groups soon formed an alliance, which also incorporated some smaller opposition groups within the Communist Party. The alliance became known as the \"United Opposition\".\n\nThe United Opposition was repeatedly threatened with sanctions by the Stalinist leadership of the Communist Party and Trotsky had to agree to tactical retreats, mostly to preserve his alliance with Zinoviev and Kamenev. The opposition remained united against Stalin throughout 1926 and 1927, especially on the issue of the Chinese Revolution. The methods used by the Stalinists against the Opposition became more and more extreme. At the XVth Party Conference in October 1926 Trotsky could barely speak because of interruptions and catcalls, and at the end of the Conference he lost his Politburo seat. In 1927 Stalin started using the GPU (Soviet secret police) to infiltrate and discredit the opposition. Rank and file oppositionists were increasingly harassed, sometimes expelled from the Party and even arrested.\n\nSoviet policy toward the Chinese Revolution became the ideological line of demarcation between Stalin and the United Opposition. The Chinese Revolution began on 10 October 1911, resulting in the abdication of the Chinese Emperor 12 February 1912. Sun Yat-sen established the Republic of China. In reality, however, the Republic controlled very little of the country. Much of China was divided between various regional warlords. The Republican government established a new \"nationalist people's army and a national people's party—the Kuomintang. In 1920, the Kuomintang opened relations with Soviet Russia. With Soviet help, the Republic of China built up the nationalist people's army. With the development of the nationalist army, a Northern Expedition was planned to smash the power of the warlords of the northern part of the country. This Northern Expedition became a point of contention over foreign policy by Stalin and Trotsky. Stalin tried to persuade the small Chinese Communist Party to merge with the Kuomintang (KMT) Nationalists to bring about a bourgeois revolution before attempting to bring about a Soviet-style working class revolution. Stalin, like Lenin, believed that the KMT bourgeoisie, together with all patriotic national liberation forces in the country, would defeat the western imperialists in China.\n\nTrotsky wanted the Communist party to complete an orthodox proletarian revolution and opposed the KMT. Stalin funded the KMT during the expedition. Stalin countered Trotskyist criticism by making a secret speech in which he said that Chiang's right wing Kuomintang were the only ones capable of defeating the imperialists, that Chiang Kai-shek had funding from the rich merchants, and that his forces were to be utilized until squeezed for all usefulness like a lemon before being discarded. However, Chiang quickly reversed the tables in the Shanghai massacre of 1927 by massacring the Communist party in Shanghai midway through the Northern Expedition. \n\nDefeat and exile (1927–1928)\n\nIn October 1927, Trotsky and Zinoviev were expelled from the Central Committee. When the United Opposition tried to organize independent demonstrations commemorating the 10th anniversary of the Bolshevik seizure of power in November 1927, the demonstrators were dispersed by force and Trotsky and Zinoviev were expelled from the Communist Party on 12 November. Their leading supporters, from Kamenev down, were expelled in December 1927 by the XVth Party Congress, which paved the way for mass expulsions of rank and file oppositionists as well as internal exile of opposition leaders in early 1928.\n\nWhen the XVth Party Congress made Opposition views incompatible with membership in the Communist Party, Zinoviev, Kamenev and their supporters capitulated and renounced their alliance with the Left Opposition. Trotsky and most of his followers, on the other hand, refused to surrender and stayed the course. Trotsky was exiled to Alma Ata in Kazakhstan on 31 January 1928. He was expelled from the Soviet Union to Turkey in February 1929, accompanied by his wife Natalia Sedova and his son Lev Sedov.\n\nAfter Trotsky's expulsion from the country, exiled Trotskyists began to waver. Between 1929 and 1934, most of the leading members of the Opposition surrendered to Stalin, \"admitted their mistakes\" and were reinstated in the Communist Party. Christian Rakovsky, who had inspired Trotsky between 1929 and 1934 from his Siberian exile, was the last prominent Trotskyist to capitulate. Almost all of them were executed in the Great Purges of 1937–1938.\n\nExile (1929–1940)\n\nTrotsky was deported from the Soviet Union in February 1929. His first station in exile was at Büyükada off the coast of Constantinople, Turkey, where he stayed for the next four years. He was at risk from the many former White Army officers in the city, who had opposed the Bolshevik Revolution, but Trotsky's European supporters volunteered to serve as bodyguards and assured his safety.\n\nIn 1933 Trotsky was offered asylum in France by Prime Minister Édouard Daladier. He stayed first at Royan, then at Barbizon. He was not allowed in Paris, though he did visit the city in secret during December 1933, to meet with various political allies. The philosopher and activist Simone Weil arranged for Trotsky and his bodyguards to stay for a few days at her parents' house. In 1935 he was told he was no longer welcome in France. After weighing alternatives, he moved to Norway. Having obtained permission from then Justice Minister Trygve Lie to enter the country, Trotsky became a guest of Konrad Knudsen near Oslo. On 2 September 1936 he was transferred[http://www.dagsavisen.no/fremtiden/en-sensasjonell-rettssak/ En sensasjonell rettssak] to a farm in Hurum where he was under house arrest, allegedly because of Soviet influence on the government. Before Christmas 1936 he and his wife were deported to Mexico, on a freighter under guard by Jonas Lie. The Mexican president Lázaro Cárdenas welcomed Trotsky and arranged for a special train to bring him to Mexico City from the port of Tampico.\n\nTrotsky lived in the Coyoacán area of Mexico City at the home (The Blue House) of the painter Diego Rivera and Rivera's wife and fellow painter, Frida Kahlo, with whom Trotsky had an affair. His final move was a few blocks away to a residence on Avenida Viena in May 1939, following a break with Rivera.\n\nHe wrote prolifically in exile, penning several key works, including his History of the Russian Revolution (1930) and The Revolution Betrayed (1936), a critique of the Soviet Union under Stalinism. Trotsky argued that the Soviet state had become a “degenerated workers' state” controlled by an undemocratic bureaucracy, which would eventually either be overthrown via a political revolution establishing a workers' democracy, or degenerate into a capitalist class.\n\nWhile in Mexico, Trotsky also worked closely with James P. Cannon, Joseph Hansen, and Farrell Dobbs of the Socialist Workers Party of the United States, and other supporters.\n\nCannon, a long-time leading member of the American communist movement, had supported Trotsky in the struggle against Stalinism since he first read Trotsky's criticisms of the Soviet Union in 1928. Trotsky's critique of the Stalinist regime, though banned, was distributed to leaders of the Comintern. Among his other supporters was Chen Duxiu, founder of the Chinese Communist Party. \n\nMoscow show trials\n\nIn August 1936, the first Moscow show trial of the so-called \"Trotskyite-Zinovievite Terrorist Center\" was staged in front of an international audience. During the trial, Zinoviev, Kamenev and 14 other accused, most of them prominent Old Bolsheviks, confessed to having plotted with Trotsky to kill Stalin and other members of the Soviet leadership. The court found everybody guilty and sentenced the defendants to death, Trotsky in absentia. The second show trial, of Karl Radek, Grigory Sokolnikov, Yuri Pyatakov and 14 others, took place in January 1937, during which more alleged conspiracies and crimes were linked to Trotsky. In April 1937, an independent \"Commission of Inquiry\" into the charges made against Trotsky and others at the \"Moscow Trials\" was held in Coyoacán, with John Dewey as chairman. The findings were published in the book Not Guilty. \n\nFourth International\n\nFor fear of splitting the Communist movement, Trotsky initially opposed the idea of establishing parallel Communist parties or a parallel international Communist organization that would compete with the Third International. In mid-1933, he changed his mind after the Nazi takeover in Germany and the Comintern's response to it. He said, that:\n\nIn 1938, Trotsky and his supporters founded the Fourth International, which was intended to be a revolutionary and internationalist alternative to the Stalinist Comintern.\n\nDies Committee\n\nTowards the end of 1939 Trotsky agreed to go to the United States to appear as a witness before the Dies Committee of the House of Representatives, a forerunner of the House Committee on Un-American Activities. Representative Martin Dies, chairman of the committee, demanded the suppression of the American Communist Party. Trotsky intended to use the forum to expose the NKVD's activities against him and his followers.\n\nHe made it clear that he also intended to argue against the suppression of the American Communist Party, and to use the committee as a platform for a call to transform World War II into a world revolution. Many of his supporters argued against his appearance. When the committee learned the nature of the testimony Trotsky intended to present, it refused to hear him, and he was denied a visa to enter the United States. On hearing about it, the CPSU immediately accused Trotsky of being in the pay of the oil magnates and the Federal Bureau of Investigation. \n\nFinal months\n\nAfter quarreling with Diego Rivera, Trotsky moved to his final residence on Avenida Viena. He was ill, suffering from high blood pressure, and feared that he would suffer a cerebral haemorrhage. He even prepared himself for the possibility of ending his life through suicide.[http://www.newyouth.com/content/view/169/68/ \"Trotsky's Testament\"] (27 February 1940) Retrieved 12 June 2011\n\nOn 27 February 1940, Trotsky wrote a document known as \"Trotsky's Testament\", in which he expressed his final thoughts and feelings for posterity. After forcefully denying Stalin's accusations that he had betrayed the working class, he thanked his friends, and above all his wife and dear companion, Natalia Sedova, for their loyal support:\n\nAssassination\n\nAfter an ineffectual attempt to have Trotsky murdered, in March 1939, Stalin assigned the overall organisation of implementing the task to the NKVD officer Pavel Sudoplatov who in turn co-opted Nahum Eitingon. According to Sudoplatov's Special Tasks, the NKVD proceeded to set up three NKVD agent networks to carry out the murder, one of which relied on Ramón Mercader. According to Sudoplatov, all of the three networks were designed to operate entirely autonomously from the NKVD's hitherto established spy networks in the U.S. and Mexico. \n\nOn 24 May 1940, Trotsky survived a raid on his villa by armed assassins led by the NKVD agent Iosif Grigulevich and Mexican painter David Alfaro Siqueiros. Trotsky's young grandson, Vsievolod Platonovich \"Esteban\" Volkov (born 1926), was shot in the foot and a young assistant and bodyguard of Trotsky, Robert Sheldon Harte, was abducted and later murdered, but other guards defeated the attack. \n\nOn 20 August 1940, in his study, Trotsky was attacked by Ramón Mercader who used a mountaineers' ice-axe as a weapon. The blow to his head was bungled and failed to kill Trotsky instantly, as Mercader had intended. Witnesses stated that Trotsky spat on Mercader and began struggling fiercely with him. Hearing the commotion, Trotsky's bodyguards burst into the room and nearly killed Mercader, but Trotsky stopped them, laboriously stating that the assassin should be made to answer questions. Trotsky was taken to a hospital, operated on, and survived for more than a day, dying at the age of 60 on 21 August 1940 as a result of loss of blood and shock. Mercader later testified at his trial: According to James P. Cannon, the secretary of the Socialist Workers Party (USA), Trotsky's last words were \"I will not survive this attack. Stalin has finally accomplished the task he attempted unsuccessfully before.\" \n\nLegacy\n\nTrotsky's house in Coyoacán was preserved in much the same condition as it was on the day of the assassination and is now a museum run by a board which includes his grandson Esteban Volkov. The current director of the museum is Carlos Ramirez Sandoval. Trotsky's grave is located on its grounds. A new foundation (International Friends of the Leon Trotsky Museum) has been organized to raise funds to further improve the Museum.\n\nTrotsky was never formally rehabilitated during the rule of the Soviet government, despite the Glasnost-era rehabilitation of most other Old Bolsheviks killed during the Great Purges. His son, Sergei Sedov, killed in 1937, was rehabilitated in 1988, as was Nikolai Bukharin. Above all, beginning in 1989, Trotsky's books, forbidden until 1987, were finally published in the Soviet Union.\n\nTrotsky was finally rehabilitated on 16 June 2001 by the decision of the General Prosecutor's Office (Certificates of Rehabilitation № 13/2182-90, № 13-2200-99 in Archives Research Center \"Memorial\"). \n\nTrotsky's grandson, Esteban Volkov, who lives in Mexico, is an active promoter of his grandfather. Trotsky's great-granddaughter, Mexican-born Nora Volkow (Volkov's daughter), is currently head of the U.S. National Institute on Drug Abuse.\n\nContributions to theory\n\nTrotsky considered himself a \"Bolshevik-Leninist\", arguing for the establishment of a vanguard party. He considered himself an advocate of orthodox Marxism. His politics differed in many respects from those of Stalin or Mao Zedong, most importantly in his rejection of the theory of Socialism in One Country and his declaring the need for an international \"permanent revolution\". Numerous Fourth Internationalist groups around the world continue to describe themselves as Trotskyist and see themselves as standing in this tradition, although they have different interpretations of the conclusions to be drawn from this. Supporters of the Fourth International echo Trotsky's opposition to Stalinist totalitarianism, advocating political revolution, arguing that socialism cannot sustain itself without democracy.\n\nPermanent Revolution\n\nPermanent Revolution is the theory that the bourgeois democratic tasks in countries with delayed bourgeois democratic development can only be accomplished through the establishment of a workers' state, and that the creation of a workers' state would inevitably involve inroads against capitalist property. Thus, the accomplishment of bourgeois democratic tasks passes over into proletarian tasks. Although most closely associated with Leon Trotsky, the call for Permanent Revolution is first found in the writings of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels in March 1850, in the aftermath of the 1848 Revolution, in their [http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1847/communist-league/1850-ad1.htm Address] of the Central Committee to the Communist League:\n\nTrotsky's conception of Permanent Revolution is based on his understanding, drawing on the work of the founder of Russian Marxism Georgy Plekhanov, that in 'backward' countries the tasks of the Bourgeois Democratic Revolution could not be achieved by the bourgeoisie itself. This conception was first developed by Trotsky in collaboration with Alexander Parvus in late 1904–1905. The relevant articles were later collected in Trotsky's books 1905 and in Permanent Revolution, which also contains his essay \"Results and Prospects\".\n\nAccording to Trotskyists, the October Revolution (which Trotsky directed) was the first example of a successful Permanent Revolution. The proletarian, socialist October Revolution took place precisely because the bourgeoisie, which took power in February, had not been able to solve any of the tasks of the bourgeois-democratic revolution. It had not given the land to the peasants (which the Bolsheviks did on 25 October), nor given freedom to the oppressed minority nations, nor emancipated Russia from foreign domination by ending the war which, at that point, was fought mainly to please the English and French creditors. Trotskyists today argue that the state of the Third World shows that capitalism offers no way forward for underdeveloped countries, thus again proving the central tenet of the theory. In contrast, Stalinist policy in the former colonial countries has been characterized by the so-called Two-stage theory, which argues that the working class must fight for \"progressive capitalism\" along with the \"progressive national bourgeoisie\" before any attempts at socialism can be made. \n\nThe United Front\n\nTrotsky was a central figure in the Comintern during its first four congresses. During this time he helped to generalise the strategy and tactics of the Bolsheviks to newly formed Communist parties across Europe and further afield. From 1921 onwards the united front, a method of uniting revolutionaries and reformists in common struggle while winning some of the workers to revolution, was the central tactic put forward by the Comintern after the defeat of the German revolution.\n\nAfter he was exiled and politically marginalised by Stalinism, Trotsky continued to argue for a united front against fascism in Germany and Spain. His articles on the united front represent an important part of his political legacy." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Mexican Republic", "MEXICO", "Estados Unidos de México", "Sierra de la Estrella", "Mexico (country)", "Mexicó", "The United Mexican States", "Estados Unidos de Mexico", "Central Mexico", "ISO 3166-1:MX", "Mexiko", "Méjico", "Mexique", "Mexican United States", "Mexican'", "The United State of Mexico", "Mountains of Mexico", "Old Mexico", "United states of mexico", "EUM", "Messico", "Mejico", "The United States of Mexicans", "Untied Mexican States", "México", "Etymology of Mexico", "Meixcan", "Estados Unidos Mexicanos", "Mexic", "Mexxico", "Mexican Union", "The United States of Mexico", "United State of Mexico", "Mexico", "Republic of Mexico", "Mexican Federal Republic", "United Mexican States", "Mexican coast", "Mehico", "United States of Mexicans", "United States of Mexico" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "mexican coast", "united mexican states", "mexican united states", "mexxico", "mexic", "estados unidos de mexico", "mexique", "mountains of mexico", "mehico", "republic of mexico", "mexican republic", "sierra de la estrella", "mexican", "united states of mexico", "central mexico", "eum", "estados unidos mexicanos", "old mexico", "etymology of mexico", "iso 3166 1 mx", "untied mexican states", "messico", "mexico country", "mexiko", "mexican union", "meixcan", "estados unidos de méxico", "united states of mexicans", "mexican federal republic", "mejico", "united state of mexico", "méxico", "mexico", "mexicó", "méjico" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "mexico", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Mexico" }
Which duo had a 60s No 1 with A World Without Love?	tc_546	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "Search" ], "filename": [ "A_World_Without_Love.txt", "Peter_and_Gordon.txt" ], "title": [ "A World Without Love", "Peter and Gordon" ], "wiki_context": [ "\"A World Without Love\" is a song recorded by the English duo Peter and Gordon and released as their first single in February 1964. It was included on the duo's debut album in the UK, and in the US on an album of the same name. The song was written by Paul McCartney and attributed to Lennon–McCartney. The B-side was \"If I Were You\", written by Peter and Gordon. \n\nIn the United Kingdom, the song reached No. 1 on both the Record Retailer chart and the New Musical Express chart. In the United States, \"A World Without Love\" topped both the Billboard Hot 100 and the Cash Box Top 100. The song also reached No. 1 on the Irish Singles Chart, No. 1 on New Zealand's \"Lever Hit Parade\", No. 2 in Australia, and No. 8 on Norway's VG-lista.\n\nBackground\n\nMcCartney wrote the song when he was 16. When he moved into the London home of his then-girlfriend Jane Asher in 1963, sharing a room with her brother Peter Asher, he offered the song to Asher and Gordon Waller after the pair obtained a recording contract as Peter and Gordon. McCartney described John Lennon's reaction to the song: \"The funny first line always used to please John. 'Please lock me away –' 'Yes, okay.' End of song.\" Lennon said of the song that \"I think that was resurrected from the past. ... I think he had that whole song before the Beatles. ... That has the line 'Please lock me away' that we always used to crack up at.\" \n\nMcCartney did not think the song was good enough for The Beatles. As such, the song was never released by the Beatles, and the only known recording of the song by any member of the Beatles is the original demo of the song performed by McCartney, which is now in the possession of Peter Asher. As of January 2013, Paul McCartney's demo has been leaked on YouTube. It is 30 seconds in length, but offers a rare glimpse into the song's origins. The clip was played at Asher's most recent string of concerts.\n\nIt is one of two songs written by Lennon–McCartney to reach number one in the US by an artist other than the Beatles. The other is \"Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds\" covered by Elton John. \"Bad to Me\" written by Lennon in 1963 was given to Billy Kramer and reached number 1 in the UK, but it failed to do so in the US. Before giving the song to Peter and Gordon, McCartney offered it to Billy J. Kramer, who rejected it. The song was one of the seven #1s written by Lennon-McCartney that charted in the US in 1964, an all-time songwriting record for most songs to top the US charts in a calendar year. (see List of Billboard Hot 100 chart achievements and milestones)\n\n\"A World Without Love\" is one of The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame's 500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll.\n\nBobby Rydell version\n\nA cover version by Bobby Rydell released May 1964 was a strong regional hit in many markets, and reached No. 80 on the Billboard Hot 100. In Rydell's native Philadelphia his version reached No. 1 in a tandem ranking with the Peter and Gordon version, while in the Pittsburgh market Rydell's version reached No. 4 to the exclusion of the Peter and Gordon original. In Chicago, Rydell's version reached No. 10 on the WLS \"Silver Dollar Survey\", in a tandem ranking with the Peter and Gordon version, while reaching No. 13 independently. Rydell's version also reached No. 5 in Singapore and No. 9 in Hong Kong. \n\nOther versions\n\nIn 1964, The Supremes released a version of the song on the album A Bit of Liverpool. Their version was a hit in some countries in Southeast Asia, reaching No. 7 in Malaysia. \n\nDel Shannon also performed a cover of this song on his 1964 album Handy Man.\n\nTerry Black released a version of the song on his 1965 debut album, Only 16. \n\nNotes", "Peter and Gordon were a British pop duo, comprising Peter Asher (b. 1944) and Gordon Waller (1945–2009), who achieved international fame in 1964 with their first single, the million-selling transatlantic No.1 smash \"A World Without Love.\" The duo had several subsequent hits in the so-called British Invasion-era.\n\nHistory\n\nPeter Asher and his sister Jane were child actors in the 1950s. They played siblings in a 1955 episode of the television series The Adventures of Robin Hood. Jane Asher dated The Beatles' Paul McCartney between 1963 and 1968, and Peter and Gordon recorded several songs written by McCartney but credited to Lennon–McCartney. Those hits included \"A World Without Love\" (US & UK No.1), \"Nobody I Know\" (US No.12; UK No.10), \"I Don't Want To See You Again\" (US No.16, but not a hit in the UK), and \"Woman\". With \"Woman\", McCartney used the pseudonym Bernard Webb to see whether he could have a hit song without his name attached. First pressings of the US Capitol single listed the composer as \"A. Smith\". The song reached No.14 in the US and No.28 on the British charts in 1966. Peter and Gordon also recorded the John Lennon-penned Lennon–McCartney song, \"If I Fell\", which was previously recorded by The Beatles and released on their 1964 album, A Hard Day's Night.\n\nOther hits for the duo included \"I Go to Pieces\" (US No.7, but not a hit in the UK), written by Del Shannon and given to Peter and Gordon after the two acts toured together, and remakes of Buddy Holly's \"True Love Ways\" (US No.14 and UK No.2 in 1965), and The Teddy Bears' \"To Know Him Is To Love Him\", retitled \"To Know You Is To Love You\" (US No.24 and UK No.5 in 1965). Peter and Gordon had their last hit in Britain in late-1966 with \"Lady Godiva\", which reached No.16 there (and No.6 in the US), whilst their success lasted into 1967 in the US, with \"Knight in Rusty Armour\" and \"Sunday for Tea\" both registering in the upper reaches of the Billboard Hot 100 that year.\n\nPeter Asher subsequently became head of A&R for Apple Records. He continued his career as a recording executive in California, where he managed and produced Linda Ronstadt and James Taylor throughout the 1970s and 1980s. Asher also produced recordings for Cher, 10,000 Maniacs, and Diana Ross. His daughter, Victoria Asher, is a member of the alternative group Cobra Starship.\n\nIn August 2005, Peter and Gordon reunited onstage for the first time in more than 30 years, as part of two tribute concerts for Mike Smith of The Dave Clark Five in New York City. This was followed by full concerts at The Fest for Beatles Fans (formerly Beatlefest) conventions that began the following year. Paul McCartney heard about the reunion shows and sent a message to congratulate them on reuniting. In the spring of 2007 and 2008, Peter and Gordon were featured performers in the Flower Power concert series at Disney's EPCOT in Florida. Also in 2007, they performed as part of Love-In: A Musical Celebration (www.loveinthemusical.com), a tribute to the music of the 1960s, which was filmed at the Birch North Park Theatre in San Diego, California, and released on DVD in March 2009. On 21 August 2008, they performed a free concert on the pier in Santa Monica, California.\n\nThe pair played numerous times at the 50 Winters Later celebration, in February 2009, to commemorate the 50th anniversary of the death of Buddy Holly, Ritchie Valens and the Big Bopper. This was held in Clear Lake, Iowa, at the Surf Ballroom. \n\nThey subsequently performed in Chicago, New Jersey and at the Festival for Beatles Fans convention in Las Vegas, 1 and 2 July 2009, where, according to a report by journalist Peter Palmiere for Beatlefan magazine, the pair were the performing highlight of the convention. Peter and Gordon told Palmiere at the Las Vegas Festival for Beatles Fans that they were to perform at the 2006 Adopt-A-Minefield show with Paul McCartney but the show was subsequently cancelled by McCartney, due to his impending divorce from Heather Mills.\n\nGordon Waller died of a heart attack on 17 July 2009 at the age of 64.\n\nMillion sellers\n\n\"World Without Love\", \"Nobody I Know\", \"True Love Ways\", and \"Lady Godiva\" each sold over one million copies, and were awarded gold discs. \n\nDiscography\n\nSingles\n\nAlbums\n\n* A World Without Love (1964)\n* I Don't Want to See You Again (1964)\n* I Go to Pieces (1965)\n* True Love Ways (1965)\n* Sing and Play Hits of Nashville (1966)\n* Woman (1966)\n* Best of (1966)\n* Lady Godiva (1967)\n* Knight in Rusty Armour (1967)\n* In London for Tea (1967)\n* Hot, Cold & Custard (1967)\n\nAlbums (Capitol-EMI, Canada)\n\n* A World Without Love (S)T 2115\n* I Don't Want To Be Around You Again (S)T 2230\n* I Go To Pieces (S)T 2334\n* True Love Ways (S)T 2368\n* Sing and Play the Hits of Nashville (S)T 2430\n* Woman (S)T 2477\n* The Best of Peter And Gordon (S)T 2549\n* Lady Godiva (S)T 2664\n* Knight in Rusty Armour (S)T 2729\n* In London For Tea (S)T-2747 (1967)" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Peter and Gordon", "Peter & Gordon" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "peter and gordon", "peter gordon" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "peter gordon", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Peter & Gordon" }
In which US state was Tennessee Williams born?	tc_547	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "U.S._state.txt", "Tennessee_Williams.txt" ], "title": [ "U.S. state", "Tennessee Williams" ], "wiki_context": [ "A state of the United States of America is one of the 50 constituent political entities that shares its sovereignty with the United States federal government. Due to the shared sovereignty between each state and the federal government, Americans are citizens of both the federal republic and of the state in which they reside. State citizenship and residency are flexible, and no government approval is required to move between states, except for persons covered by certain types of court orders (e.g., paroled convicts and children of divorced spouses who are sharing custody).\n\nStates range in population from just under 600,000 (Wyoming) to over 38 million (California), and in area from (Rhode Island) to (Alaska). Four states use the term commonwealth rather than state in their full official names.\n\nStates are divided into counties or county-equivalents, which may be assigned some local governmental authority but are not sovereign. County or county-equivalent structure varies widely by state. State governments are allocated power by the people (of each respective state) through their individual constitutions. All are grounded in republican principles, and each provides for a government, consisting of three branches: executive, legislative, and judicial. \n\nStates possess a number of powers and rights under the United States Constitution; among them ratifying constitutional amendments. Historically, the tasks of local law enforcement, public education, public health, regulating intrastate commerce, and local transportation and infrastructure have generally been considered primarily state responsibilities, although all of these now have significant federal funding and regulation as well. Over time, the U.S. Constitution has been amended, and the interpretation and application of its provisions have changed. The general tendency has been toward centralization and incorporation, with the federal government playing a much larger role than it once did. There is a continuing debate over states' rights, which concerns the extent and nature of the states' powers and sovereignty in relation to the federal government and the rights of individuals.\n\nStates and their residents are represented in the federal Congress, a bicameral legislature consisting of the Senate and the House of Representatives. Each state is represented by two Senators, and at least one Representative, while additional representatives are distributed among the states in proportion to the most recent constitutionally mandated decennial census. Each state is also entitled to select a number of electors to vote in the Electoral College, the body that elects the President of the United States, equal to the total of Representatives and Senators from that state. \n\nThe Constitution grants to Congress the authority to admit new states into the Union. Since the establishment of the United States in 1776, the number of states has expanded from the original 13 to 50. Alaska and Hawaii are the most recent states admitted, both in 1959.\n\nThe Constitution is silent on the question of whether states have the power to secede (withdraw from) from the Union. Shortly after the Civil War, the U.S. Supreme Court, in Texas v. White, held that a state cannot unilaterally do so. \n\nStates of the United States\n\nThe 50 U.S. states (in alphabetical order), along with state flag and date each joined the union:\n\nGovernments\n\nAs each state is itself a sovereign entity, it reserves the right to organize its individual government in any way (within the broad parameters set by the U.S. Constitution) deemed appropriate by its people. As a result, while the governments of the various states share many similar features, they often vary greatly with regard to form and substance. No two state governments are identical.\n\nConstitutions\n\nThe government of each state is structured in accordance with its individual constitution. Many of these documents are more detailed and more elaborate than their federal counterpart. The Constitution of Alabama, for example, contains 310,296 words — more than 40 times as many as the U.S. Constitution. In practice, each state has adopted a three-branch system of government, modeled after the federal government, and consisting of three branches (although the three-branch structure is not required): executive, legislative, and judicial. \n\nExecutive\n\nIn each state, the chief executive is called the governor, who serves as both head of state and head of government. The governor may approve or veto bills passed by the state legislature, as well as push for the passage of bills supported by the party of the Governor. In 43 states, governors have line item veto power. \n\nMost states have a \"plural executive\" in which two or more members of the executive branch are elected directly by the people. Such additional elected officials serve as members of the executive branch, but are not beholden to the governor and the governor cannot dismiss them. For example, the attorney general is elected, rather than appointed, in 43 of the 50 U.S. states.\n\nLegislative\n\nThe legislatures of 49 of the 50 states are made up of two chambers: a lower house (termed the House of Representatives, State Assembly, General Assembly or House of Delegates) and a smaller upper house, always termed the Senate. The exception is the unicameral Nebraska Legislature, which is composed of only a single chamber.\n\nMost states have part-time legislatures, while six of the most populated states have full-time legislatures. However, several states with high population have short legislative sessions, including Texas and Florida. \n\nIn Baker v. Carr (1962) and Reynolds v. Sims (1964), the U.S. Supreme Court held that all states are required to elect their legislatures in such a way as to afford each citizen the same degree of representation (the one person, one vote standard). In practice, most states choose to elect legislators from single-member districts, each of which has approximately the same population. Some states, such as Maryland and Vermont, divide the state into single- and multi-member districts, in which case multi-member districts must have proportionately larger populations, e.g., a district electing two representatives must have approximately twice the population of a district electing just one. If the governor vetoes legislation, all legislatures may override it, usually, but not always, requiring a two-thirds majority.\n\nIn 2013, there were a total of 7,383 legislators in the 50 state legislative bodies. They earned from $0 annually (New Mexico) to $90,526 (California). There were various per diem and mileage compensation. \n\nJudicial\n\nStates can also organize their judicial systems differently from the federal judiciary, as long as they protect the federal constitutional right of their citizens to procedural due process. Most have a trial level court, generally called a District Court or Superior Court, a first-level appellate court, generally called a Court of Appeal (or Appeals), and a Supreme Court. However, Oklahoma and Texas have separate highest courts for criminal appeals. In New York State the trial court is called the Supreme Court; appeals are then taken to the Supreme Court's Appellate Division, and from there to the Court of Appeals.\n\nMost states base their legal system on English common law (with substantial indigenous changes and incorporation of certain civil law innovations), with the notable exception of Louisiana, a former French colony, which draws large parts of its legal system from French civil law.\n\nOnly a few states choose to have the judges on the state's courts serve for life terms. In most of the states the judges, including the justices of the highest court in the state, are either elected or appointed for terms of a limited number of years, and are usually eligible for re-election or reappointment.\n\nRelationships\n\nAmong states\n\nEach state admitted to the Union by Congress since 1789 has entered it on an equal footing with the original States in all respects. With the growth of states' rights advocacy during the antebellum period, the Supreme Court asserted, in Lessee of Pollard v. Hagan (1845), that the Constitution mandated admission of new states on the basis of equality.\n\nUnder Article Four of the United States Constitution, which outlines the relationship between the states, each state is required to give full faith and credit to the acts of each other's legislatures and courts, which is generally held to include the recognition of legal contracts and criminal judgments, and before 1865, slavery status. Regardless of the Full Faith and Credit Clause, some legal arrangements, such as professional licensure and marriages, may be state-specific, and until recently states have not been found by the courts to be required to honor such arrangements from other states. \n\nSuch legal acts are nevertheless often recognized state-to-state according to the common practice of comity. States are prohibited from discriminating against citizens of other states with respect to their basic rights, under the Privileges and Immunities Clause. Under the Extradition Clause, a state must extradite people located there who have fled charges of \"treason, felony, or other crimes\" in another state if the other state so demands. The principle of hot pursuit of a presumed felon and arrest by the law officers of one state in another state are often permitted by a state. \n\nWith the consent of Congress, states may enter into interstate compacts, agreements between two or more states. Compacts are frequently used to manage a shared resource, such as transportation infrastructure or water rights. \n\nWith the federal government\n\nEvery state is guaranteed a form of government that is grounded in republican principles, such as the consent of the governed. This guarantee has long been at the fore-front of the debate about the rights of citizens vis-à-vis the government. States are also guaranteed protection from invasion, and, upon the application of the state legislature (or executive, if the legislature cannot be convened), from domestic violence. This provision was discussed during the 1967 Detroit riot, but was not invoked.\n\nSince the early 20th century, the Supreme Court has interpreted the Commerce Clause of the Constitution of the United States to allow greatly expanded scope of federal power over time, at the expense of powers formerly considered purely states' matters. The Cambridge Economic History of the United States says, \"On the whole, especially after the mid-1880s, the Court construed the Commerce Clause in favor of increased federal power.\" In Wickard v. Filburn , the court expanded federal power to regulate the economy by holding that federal authority under the commerce clause extends to activities which may appear to be local in nature but in reality effect the entire national economy and are therefore of national concern. \n\nFor example, Congress can regulate railway traffic across state lines, but it may also regulate rail traffic solely within a state, based on the reality that intrastate traffic still affects interstate commerce. In recent years, the Court has tried to place limits on the Commerce Clause in such cases as United States v. Lopez and United States v. Morrison.\n\nAnother example of congressional power is its spending power—the ability of Congress to impose taxes and distribute the resulting revenue back to the states (subject to conditions set by Congress). An example of this is the system of federal aid for highways, which include the Interstate Highway System. The system is mandated and largely funded by the federal government, and also serves the interests of the states. By threatening to withhold federal highway funds, Congress has been able to pressure state legislatures to pass a variety of laws. An example is the nationwide legal drinking age of 21, enacted by each state, brought about by the National Minimum Drinking Age Act. Although some objected that this infringes on states' rights, the Supreme Court upheld the practice as a permissible use of the Constitution's Spending Clause in South Dakota v. Dole .\n\nAdmission into the Union\n\nArticle IV, Section 3, Clause 1 of the U.S. Constitution grants to Congress the authority to admit new states into the Union. Since the establishment of the United States in 1776, the number of states has expanded from the original 13 to 50. Each new state has been admitted on an equal footing with the existing states. It also forbids the creation of new states from parts of existing states without the consent of both the affected states and Congress. This caveat was designed to give Eastern states that still had Western land claims (there were 4 in 1787), to have a veto over whether their western counties could become states, and has served this same function since, whenever a proposal to partition an existing state or states in order that a region within might either join another state or to create a new state has come before Congress.\n\nMost of the states admitted to the Union after the original 13 have been created from organized territories established and governed by Congress in accord with its plenary power under Article IV, Section 3, Clause 2. The outline for this process was established by the Northwest Ordinance (1787), which predates the ratification of the Constitution. In some cases, an entire territory has become a state; in others some part of a territory has.\n\nWhen the people of a territory make their desire for statehood known to the federal government, Congress may pass an enabling act authorizing the people of that territory to organize a constitutional convention to write a state constitution as a step towards admission to the Union. Each act details the mechanism by which the territory will be admitted as a state following ratification of their constitution and election of state officers. Although the use of an enabling act is a traditional historic practice, a number of territories have drafted constitutions for submission to Congress absent an enabling act and were subsequently admitted. Upon acceptance of that constitution, and upon meeting any additional Congressional stipulations, Congress has always admitted that territory as a state.\n\nIn addition to the original 13, six subsequent states were never an organized territory of the federal government, or part of one, before being admitted to the Union. Three were set off from an already existing state, two entered the Union after having been sovereign states, and one was established from unorganized territory:\nCalifornia, 1850, from land ceded to the United States by Mexico in 1848 under the terms of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. \nKentucky, 1792, from Virginia (District of Kentucky: Fayette, Jefferson, and Lincoln counties)Michael P. Riccards, \"Lincoln and the Political Question: The Creation of the State of West Virginia\" Presidential Studies Quarterly, Vol. 27, 1997 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a\no&d=5000522904 online edition]\nMaine, 1820, from Massachusetts (District of Maine)\nTexas, 1845, previously the Republic of Texas \nVermont, 1791, previously the Vermont Republic (also known as the New Hampshire Grants and claimed by New York) \nWest Virginia, 1863, from Virginia (Trans-Allegheny region counties) during the Civil War \n\nCongress is under no obligation to admit states, even in those areas whose population expresses a desire for statehood. Such has been the case numerous times during the nation's history. In one instance, Mormon pioneers in Salt Lake City sought to establish the state of Deseret in 1849. It existed for slightly over two years and was never approved by the United States Congress. In another, leaders of the Five Civilized Tribes (Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, and Seminole) in Indian Territory proposed to establish the state of Sequoyah in 1905, as a means to retain control of their lands. The proposed constitution ultimately failed in the U.S. Congress. Instead, the Indian Territory, along with Oklahoma Territory were both incorporated into the new state of Oklahoma in 1907. The first instance occurred while the nation still operated under the Articles of Confederation. The State of Franklin existed for several years, not long after the end of the American Revolution, but was never recognized by the Confederation Congress, which ultimately recognized North Carolina's claim of sovereignty over the area. The territory comprising Franklin later became part of the Southwest Territory, and ultimately the state of Tennessee.\n\nAdditionally, the entry of several states into the Union was delayed due to distinctive complicating factors. Among them, Michigan Territory, which petitioned Congress for statehood in 1835, was not admitted to the Union until 1837, due to a boundary dispute the adjoining state of Ohio. The Republic of Texas requested annexation to the United States in 1837, but fears about potential conflict with Mexico delayed the admission of Texas for nine years. Also, statehood for Kansas Territory was held up for several years (1854–61) due to a series of internal violent conflicts involving anti-slavery and pro-slavery factions.\n\nPossible new states\n\nPuerto Rico\n\nPuerto Rico referred to itself as the \"Commonwealth of Puerto Rico\" in the English version of its constitution, and as \"Estado Libre Asociado\" (literally, Associated Free State) in the Spanish version.\n\nAs with any non-state territory of the United States, its residents do not have voting representation in the federal government. Puerto Rico has limited representation in the U.S. Congress in the form of a Resident Commissioner, a delegate with limited voting rights in the Committee of the Whole House on the State of the Union, and no voting rights otherwise. \n\nA non-binding referendum on statehood, independence, or a new option for an associated territory (different from the current status) was held on November 6, 2012. Sixty one percent (61%) of voters chose the statehood option, while one third of the ballots were submitted blank. \n\nOn December 11, 2012, the Legislative Assembly of Puerto Rico enacted a concurrent resolution requesting the President and the Congress of the United States to respond to the referendum of the people of Puerto Rico, held on November 6, 2012, to end its current form of territorial status and to begin the process to admit Puerto Rico as a State. \n\nWashington, D.C.\n\nThe intention of the Founding Fathers was that the United States capital should be at a neutral site, not giving favor to any existing state; as a result, the District of Columbia was created in 1800 to serve as the seat of government. The inhabitants of the District do not have full representation in Congress or a sovereign elected government (they were allotted presidential electors by the 23rd amendment, and have a non-voting delegate in Congress).\n\nSome residents of the District support statehood of some form for that jurisdiction—either statehood for the whole district or for the inhabited part, with the remainder remaining under federal jurisdiction.\n\nOthers\n\nVarious proposals to divide California, usually involving splitting the south half from the north or the urban coastline from the rest of the state, have been advanced since the 1850s. Similarly, numerous proposals to divide New York, all of which involve to some degree the separation of New York City from the rest of the state, have been promoted over the past several decades. The partitioning of either state is, at the present, highly unlikely.\n\nOther even less likely possible new states are Guam and the Virgin Islands, both of which are unincorporated organized territories of the United States. Also, either the Northern Mariana Islands or American Samoa, an unorganized, unincorporated territory, could seek statehood.\n\nSecession from the Union\n\nThe Constitution is silent on the issue of the secession of a state from the union. However, its predecessor document, the Articles of Confederation, stated that the United States \"shall be perpetual.\" The question of whether or not individual states held the right to unilateral secession remained a difficult and divisive one until the American Civil War. In 1860 and 1861, eleven southern states seceded, but following their defeat in the American Civil War were brought back into the Union during the Reconstruction Era. The federal government never recognized the secession of any of the rebellious states. \n\nFollowing the Civil War, the United States Supreme Court, in Texas v. White, held that states did not have the right to secede and that any act of secession was legally void. Drawing on the Preamble to the Constitution, which states that the Constitution was intended to \"form a more perfect union\" and speaks of the people of the United States in effect as a single body politic, as well as the language of the Articles of Confederation, the Supreme Court maintained that states did not have a right to secede. However, the court's reference in the same decision to the possibility of such changes occurring \"through revolution, or through consent of the States,\" essentially means that this decision holds that no state has a right to unilaterally decide to leave the Union.\n\nCommonwealths\n\nFour states—Kentucky, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and Virginia —adopted Constitutions early in their post-colonial existence identifying themselves as commonwealths, rather than states. These commonwealths are states, but legally, each is a commonwealth because the term is contained in its constitution. As a result, \"commonwealth\" is used in all public and other state writings, actions or activities within their bounds.\n\nThe term, which refers to a state in which the supreme power is vested in the people, was first used in Virginia during the Interregnum, the 1649–60 period between the reigns of Charles I and Charles II during which parliament's Oliver Cromwell as Lord Protector established a republican government known as the Commonwealth of England. Virginia became a royal colony again in 1660, and the word was dropped from the full title. When Virginia adopted its first constitution on June 29, 1776, it was reintroduced. Pennsylvania followed suit when it drew up a constitution later that year, as did Massachusetts, in 1780, and Kentucky, in 1792.\n\nThe U.S. territories of the Northern Marianas and Puerto Rico are also referred to as commonwealths. This designation does have a legal status different from that of the 50 states. Both of these commonwealths are unincorporated territories of the United States.\n\nOrigins of states' names\n\nThe 50 states have taken their names from a wide variety of languages. Twenty-four state names originate from Native American languages. Of these, eight are from Algonquian languages, seven are from Siouan languages, three are from Iroquoian languages, one is from Uto-Aztecan languages and five others are from other indigenous languages. Hawaii's name is derived from the Polynesian Hawaiian language.\n\nOf the remaining names, 22 are from European languages: Seven from Latin (mainly Latinized forms of English names), the rest are from English, Spanish and French. Eleven states are named after individual people, including seven named for royalty and one named after an American president. The origins of six state names are unknown or disputed. Several of the states that derive their names from (corrupted) names used for Native peoples, have retained the plural ending of \"s\".\n\nGeography\n\nBorders\n\nThe borders of the 13 original states were largely determined by colonial charters. Their western boundaries were subsequently modified as the states ceded their western land claims to the Federal government during the 1780s and 1790s. Many state borders beyond those of the original 13 were set by Congress as it created territories, divided them, and over time, created states within them. Territorial and new state lines often followed various geographic features (such as rivers or mountain range peaks), and were influenced by settlement or transportation patterns. At various times, national borders with territories formerly controlled by other countries (British North America, New France, New Spain including Spanish Florida, and Russian America) became institutionalized as the borders of U.S. states. In the West, relatively arbitrary straight lines following latitude and longitude often prevail, due to the sparseness of settlement west of the Mississippi River.\n\nOnce established, most state borders have, with few exceptions, been generally stable. Only two states, Missouri (Platte Purchase) and Nevada, grew appreciably after statehood. Several of the original states ceded land, over a several year period, to the Federal government, which in turn became the Northwest Territory, Southwest Territory, and Mississippi Territory. In 1791 Maryland and Virginia ceded land to create the District of Columbia (Virginia's portion was returned in 1847). In 1850, Texas ceded a large swath of land to the federal government. Additionally, Massachusetts and Virginia (on two occasions), have lost land, in each instance to form a new state.\n\nThere have been numerous other minor adjustments to state boundaries over the years due to improved surveys, resolution of ambiguous or disputed boundary definitions, or minor mutually agreed boundary adjustments for administrative convenience or other purposes. Occasionally the United States Congress or the United States Supreme Court have settled state border disputes. One notable example is the case New Jersey v. New York, in which New Jersey won roughly 90% of Ellis Island from New York in 1998. \n\nRegional grouping\n\nStates may be grouped in regions; there are endless variations and possible groupings. Many are defined in law or regulations by the federal government. For example, the United States Census Bureau defines four statistical regions, with nine divisions. The Census Bureau region definition is \"widely used … for data collection and analysis,\"\"The National Energy Modeling System: An Overview 2003\" (Report #:DOE/EIA-0581, October 2009). United States Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration. and is the most commonly used classification system. Other multi-state regions are unofficial, and defined by geography or cultural affinity rather than by state lines.", "Thomas Lanier \"Tennessee\" Williams III (March 26, 1911 – February 25, 1983) was an American playwright and author of many stage classics. Along with Eugene O'Neill and Arthur Miller he is considered among the three foremost playwrights in 20th-century American drama. \n\nAfter years of obscurity, he became suddenly famous with The Glass Menagerie (1944), closely reflecting his own unhappy family background. This heralded a string of successes, including A Streetcar Named Desire (1947), Cat on a Hot Tin Roof (1955), and Sweet Bird of Youth (1959). His later work attempted a new style that did not appeal to audiences, and alcohol and drug dependence further inhibited his creative output. His drama A Streetcar Named Desire is often numbered on the short list of the finest American plays of the 20th century alongside Long Day's Journey into Night and Death of a Salesman.\n\nMuch of Williams' most acclaimed work was adapted for the cinema. He also wrote short stories, poetry, essays and a volume of memoirs. In 1979, four years before his death, Williams was inducted into the American Theater Hall of Fame.\n\nChildhood\n\nThomas Lanier Williams III was born in Columbus, Mississippi, of English, Welsh, and Huguenot ancestry, the second child of Edwina Dakin (1884-1980) and Cornelius Coffin (C. C.) Williams (1879-1957).Hale, Allean; Roudané, Matthew Charles (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Tennessee Williams, Cambridge Univ. Press (1997) His father was an alcoholic traveling shoe salesman who spent much of his time away from home. His mother, Edwina, was the daughter of Rose O. Dakin, a music teacher, and the Reverend Walter Dakin, an Episcopal priest who was assigned to a parish in Clarksdale, Mississippi, shortly after Williams' birth. Williams' early childhood was spent in the parsonage there. Williams had two siblings, sister Rose Isabel Williams (1909–1996) and brother Walter Dakin Williams (1919 –2008). \n\nAs a small child Williams suffered from a case of diphtheria which nearly ended his life, leaving him weak and virtually confined to his house during a period of recuperation that lasted a year. At least in part as a result of his illness, he was less robust as a child than his father wished. Cornelius Williams, a descendant of hearty east-Tennessee pioneer stock (hence Williams' professional name), had a violent temper and was a man prone to use his fists. He regarded his son's effeminacy with disdain, and his mother Edwina, locked in an unhappy marriage, focused her overbearing attention almost entirely on her frail young son. Many critics and historians note that Williams found inspiration for much of his writing in his own dysfunctional family.\n\nWhen Williams was eight years old, his father was promoted to a job at the home office of the International Shoe Company in St. Louis, Missouri. His mother's continual search for what she considered to be an appropriate address, as well as his father's heavy drinking and loudly turbulent behavior, caused them to move numerous times around the city. He attended Soldan High School, a setting he referred to in his play The Glass Menagerie. Later he studied at University City High School. At age 16, Williams won third prize (five dollars) for an essay published in Smart Set entitled, \"Can a Good Wife Be a Good Sport?\" A year later, his short story \"The Vengeance of Nitocris\" was published in the August 1928 issue of the magazine Weird Tales. That same year he first visited Europe with his grandfather.\n\nEducation\n\nFrom 1929 to 1931, he attended the University of Missouri, in Columbia, where he enrolled in journalism classes. Williams found his classes boring, however, and was distracted by his unrequited love for a girl. He was soon entering his poetry, essays, stories, and plays in writing contests, hoping to earn extra income. His first submitted play was Beauty Is the Word (1930), followed by Hot Milk at Three in the Morning (1932). As recognition for Beauty, a play about rebellion against religious upbringing, he became the first freshman to receive honorable mention in a writing competition.\n\nAt University of Missouri, Williams joined the Alpha Tau Omega fraternity, but he did not fit in well with his fraternity brothers. According to Hale, the \"brothers found him shy and socially backward, a loner who spent most of his time at the typewriter.\" After he failed a military training course in his junior year, his father pulled him out of school and put him to work at the International Shoe Company factory. Although Williams, then 21, hated the monotony, the job \"forced him out of the pretentious gentility\" of his upbringing, which had, according to Hale, \"tinged him with [his mother's] snobbery and detachment from reality.\" His dislike of his new nine-to-five routine drove him to write even more than before, and he set himself a goal of writing one story a week, working on Saturday and Sunday, often late into the night. His mother recalled his intensity:\n\"Tom would go to his room with black coffee and cigarettes and I would hear the typewriter clicking away at night in the silent house. Some mornings when I walked in to wake him for work, I would find him sprawled fully dressed across the bed, too tired to remove his clothes.\"Williams, Tennessee; Thornton, Margaret Bradham. Notebooks, Yale Univ. Press (2006)\n\nOverworked, unhappy and lacking any further success with his writing, by his twenty-fourth birthday he had suffered a nervous breakdown and left his job. Memories of this period, and a particular factory co-worker, became part of the character Stanley Kowalski in A Streetcar Named Desire. By the mid-1930s his father's increasing alcoholism and abusive temper (he had part of his ear bitten off in a poker game fight) finally led Edwina to separate from him, although they never divorced.\n\nIn 1936 Williams enrolled at Washington University in St. Louis where he wrote the play Me, Vashya (1937). By 1938 he had moved on to University of Iowa, where he completed his undergraduate degree and graduated with a Bachelor of Arts in English. He later studied at the Dramatic Workshop of The New School in New York City. Speaking of his early days as a playwright and referring to an early collaborative play called Cairo, Shanghai, Bombay!, produced while he was a part of an amateur summer theater group in Memphis, Tennessee, Williams wrote, \"The laughter ... enchanted me. Then and there the theatre and I found each other for better and for worse. I know it's the only thing that saved my life.\" Around 1939, he adopted \"Tennessee Williams\" as his professional name.\n\nLiterary influences\n\nWilliams' writings include mention of some of the poets and writers he most admired in his early years: Hart Crane, Arthur Rimbaud, Anton Chekhov (from the age of ten), William Shakespeare, D. H. Lawrence, August Strindberg, William Faulkner, Thomas Wolfe, and Emily Dickinson. In later years the list grew to include William Inge, James Joyce, and Ernest Hemingway; of Hemingway, he said \"[his] great quality, aside from his prose style, is this fearless expression of brute nature.\"\n\nCareer\n\nIn the late 1930s, as the young playwright struggled to have his work accepted, Williams supported himself with a string of menial jobs that included a notably disastrous stint as caretaker on a chicken ranch outside Los Angeles. In 1939, with the help of his agent, Audrey Wood, he was awarded a $1,000 grant from the Rockefeller Foundation in recognition of his play Battle of Angels which was produced in Boston in 1940, but poorly received.\n\nUsing some of the Rockefeller funds, Williams moved to New Orleans in 1939 to write for the Works Progress Administration (WPA), a federally funded program begun by President Franklin D. Roosevelt created to put people back to work and which helped many artists, musicians and writers survive during the Great Depression. He lived for a time in New Orleans' French Quarter; first at 722 Toulouse Street, the setting of his 1977 play Vieux Carré. (The building is now part of The Historic New Orleans Collection.) The Rockefeller grant brought him to the attention of the Hollywood film industry and Williams received a six-month contract from the Metro Goldwyn Mayer film studio, earning $250 weekly.\n\nDuring the winter of 1944–45, his \"memory play\" The Glass Menagerie, developed from his 1943 short story Portrait of a Girl in Glass, was successfully produced in Chicago garnering good reviews. It moved to New York where it became an instant and enormous hit during its long Broadway run. The play tells the story of a young man, Tom, his disabled sister, Laura, and their controlling mother Amanda, who tries to make a match between Laura and a gentleman caller. Williams' use of his own familial relationships as inspiration for the play is impossible to miss. Elia Kazan (who directed many of Williams' greatest successes) said of Williams: \"Everything in his life is in his plays, and everything in his plays is in his life.\" The Glass Menagerie won the New York Drama Critics' Circle Award for best play of the season.\n\nThe huge success of his next play, A Streetcar Named Desire, in 1947 secured his reputation as a great playwright. Although widely celebrated and increasingly wealthy, Williams was still restless and insecure and in the grip of a fear that he would not be able to replicate his success. During the late 1940s and 1950s Williams began to travel widely with his partner Frank Merlo, often spending summers in Europe. To stimulate his writing he moved often, to various cities including New York, New Orleans, Key West, Rome, Barcelona, and London. Williams wrote, \"Only some radical change can divert the downward course of my spirit, some startling new place or people to arrest the drift, the drag.\"\n\nBetween 1948 and 1959 seven of his plays were performed on Broadway: Summer and Smoke (1948), The Rose Tattoo (1951), Camino Real (1953), Cat on a Hot Tin Roof (1955), Orpheus Descending (1957), Garden District (1958), and Sweet Bird of Youth (1959). By 1959 he had earned two Pulitzer Prizes, three New York Drama Critics' Circle Awards, three Donaldson Awards, and a Tony Award.\n\nWilliams' work reached wide audiences in the early 1950s when The Glass Menagerie and A Streetcar Named Desire were made into motion pictures. Later plays also adapted for the screen included Cat on a Hot Tin Roof, The Rose Tattoo, Orpheus Descending, The Night of the Iguana, Sweet Bird of Youth, and Summer and Smoke.\n\nAfter the extraordinary successes of the 1940s and 1950s, the 1960s and 1970s brought personal turmoil and theatrical failures. Although he continued to write every day, the quality of his work suffered from his increasing alcohol and drug consumption as well as occasional poor choices of collaborators. In 1963, his partner Frank Merlo died. Consumed by depression over the loss, and in and out of treatment facilities under the control of his mother and younger brother Dakin, Williams spiraled downward. Kingdom of Earth (1967), In the Bar of a Tokyo Hotel (1969), Small Craft Warnings (1973), The Two Character Play (also called Out Cry, 1973), The Red Devil Battery Sign (1976), Vieux Carré (1978), Clothes for a Summer Hotel (1980) and others were all box office failures, and the relentlessly negative press notices wore down his spirit. His last play, A House Not Meant To Stand was produced in Chicago in 1982 and, despite largely positive reviews, ran for only 40 performances.\n\nCritics and audiences alike failed to appreciate Williams' new style and the approach to theater he developed during the 1970s. Williams said, “I’ve been working very hard since 1969 to make an artistic comeback...there is no release short of death” (Spoto 335), and “I want to warn you, Elliot, the critics are out to get me. You’ll see how vicious they are. They make comparisons with my earlier work, but I’m writing differently now” (Spoto 331). Leverich explains that Williams to the end was concerned with \"the depths and origin of human feelings and motivations, the difference being that he had gone into a deeper, more obscure realm, which, of course, put the poet in him to the fore, and not the playwright who would bring much concern for audience and critical reaction” (xxiii).\n\nIn 1974, Williams received the St. Louis Literary Award from the Saint Louis University Library Associates. In 1979, four years before his death, he was inducted into the American Theater Hall of Fame. \n\nPersonal life\n\nThroughout his life Williams remained close to his sister Rose who was diagnosed with schizophrenia as a young woman. In 1943, as her behavior became increasingly disturbing, she was subjected to a lobotomy with disastrous results and was subsequently institutionalized for the rest of her life. As soon as he was financially able to, Williams had her moved to a private institution just north of New York City where he often visited her. He gave her a percentage interest in several of his most successful plays, the royalties from which were applied toward her care. The devastating effects of Rose's illness may have contributed to Williams' alcoholism and his dependence on various combinations of amphetamines and barbiturates. \n\nAfter some early attempts at relationships with women, by the late 1930s Williams had finally accepted his homosexuality. In New York he joined a gay social circle which included fellow writer and close friend Donald Windham (1920–2010) and his then partner Fred Melton. In the summer of 1940 Williams initiated an affair with Kip Kiernan (1918–1944), a young Canadian dancer he met in Provincetown, Massachusetts. When Kiernan left him to marry a woman he was distraught, and Kiernan's death four years later at 26 delivered another heavy blow.\n\nOn a 1945 visit to Taos, New Mexico, Williams met Pancho Rodríguez y González, a hotel clerk of Mexican heritage. Rodríguez was, by all accounts, a loving and loyal companion. However, he was also prone to jealous rages and excessive drinking, and so the relationship was a tempestuous one. Nevertheless, in February 1946 Rodríguez left New Mexico to join Williams in his New Orleans apartment. They lived and traveled together until late 1947 when Williams ended the affair. Rodríguez and Williams remained friends, however, and were in contact as late as the 1970s.\n\nWilliams spent the spring and summer of 1948 in Rome in the company of a teenaged Italian boy, called \"Rafaello\" in Williams' Memoirs, to whom he provided financial assistance for several years afterwards, a situation which planted the seed of Williams' first novel, The Roman Spring of Mrs. Stone. When he returned to New York that spring, he met and fell in love with Frank Merlo (1922–1963), an occasional actor of Sicilian heritage who had served in the U.S. Navy in World War II.\n\nThis one enduring romantic relationship of Williams' life lasted 14 years until infidelities and drug abuse on both sides ended it. Merlo, who became Williams' personal secretary, taking on most of the details of their domestic life, provided a period of happiness and stability as well as a balance to the playwright's frequent bouts with depression and the fear that, like his sister Rose, he would fall into insanity. Their years together, in an apartment in Manhattan and a modest house in Key West, Florida, were Williams' happiest and most productive. Shortly after their breakup, Merlo was diagnosed with inoperable lung cancer and Williams returned to take care of him until his death on September 20, 1963.\n\nAs he had feared, in the years following Merlo's death Williams was plunged into a period of nearly catatonic depression and increasing drug use resulting in several hospitalizations and commitments to mental health facilities. He submitted to injections by Dr. Max Jacobson – known popularly as Dr. Feelgood – who used increasing amounts of amphetamines to overcome his depression and combined these with prescriptions for the sedative Seconal to relieve his insomnia. During this time, influenced by his brother Dakin, a Roman Catholic convert, Williams joined the Catholic church. He was never truly able to recoup his earlier success, or to entirely overcome his dependence on prescription drugs.\n\nDeath\n\nOn February 25, 1983, Williams was found dead in his suite at the Elysée Hotel in New York at age 71. The medical examiner's report indicated that he choked to death on the cap from a bottle of eye drops he frequently used. An amended coroner's report indicates that his use of drugs and alcohol may have contributed to his death by suppressing his gag reflex. Prescription drugs, including barbiturates, were found in the room. The cause of death the coroner reported as \"Seconal intolerance.\" He had used Seconal with alcohol as his drugs of choice for most of his life.\n\nWilliams had long told his friends he wanted to be buried at sea at approximately the same place as Hart Crane, a poet he considered to be one of his most significant influences. Contrary to his expressed wishes, but at his brother Dakin Williams' insistence, Williams was interred in Calvary Cemetery in St. Louis, Missouri. \n\nWilliams left his literary rights to The University of the South in Sewanee, Tennessee, an Episcopal school, in honor of his grandfather, Walter Dakin, an alumnus of the university. The funds support a creative writing program. When his sister Rose died in 1996 after many years in a mental institution, she bequeathed $7 million from her part of the Williams estate to The University of the South as well.\n\nPosthumous recognition\n\nFrom February 1 to July 21, 2011, to commemorate the 100th anniversary of his birth, the Harry Ransom Center at the University of Texas at Austin, the home of Williams' archive, exhibited 250 of his personal items. The exhibit, entitled \"Becoming Tennessee Williams,\" included a collection of Williams manuscripts, correspondence, photographs and artwork.[http://www.hrc.utexas.edu/exhibitions/2011/williams/ \"Becoming Tennessee Williams\"] Exhibit at the University of Texas of Austin, Feb. 1 to July 31, 2011 The Ransom Center holds the earliest and largest collections of Williams' papers including all of his earliest manuscripts, the papers of his mother Edwina Williams, and those of his long-time agent Audrey Wood. \n\nIn late 2009, Williams was inducted into the Poets' Corner at the Cathedral Church of Saint John the Divine. Performers who took part in his induction included Vanessa Redgrave, John Guare, Eli Wallach, Sylvia Miles, Gregory Mosher, and Ben Griessmeyer. \n\nThe Tennessee Williams Theatre in Key West, Florida, is named for him. \n\nThe Tennessee Williams Key West Exhibit on Truman Avenue houses rare Williams memorabilia, photographs and pictures including his famous typewriter.\n\nAt the time of his death, Williams had been working on a final play, In Masks Outrageous and Austere, which attempted to reconcile certain forces and facts of his own life, a theme which ran throughout his work, as Elia Kazan had said. As of September 2007, author Gore Vidal was in the process of completing the play, and Peter Bogdanovich was slated to direct its Broadway debut. The play finally received its world premiere in New York City in April 2012, directed by David Schweizer and starring Shirley Knight as Babe. \n\nThe rectory of St. Paul's Episcopal Church in Columbus, Mississippi, where Williams's grandfather Dakin was rector at the time of Williams's birth, was moved to another location in 1993 for preservation, and was newly renovated in 2010 for use by the City of Columbus as the Tennessee Williams Welcome Center. \n\nWilliams's literary legacy is represented by the literary agency headed by Georges Borchardt.\n\nWilliams was honored by the U.S. Postal Service on a stamp in 1994 as part of its literary arts series.\n\nWilliams is honored with a star on the St. Louis Walk of Fame \n\nSince 1986, the Tennessee Williams New Orleans Literary Festival has been held annually in New Orleans, LA, in commemoration of the playwright. The festival takes place at the end of March to coincide with Williams' birthday. \n\nBibliography\n\nCharacters in his plays are often seen as representations of his family members. Laura Wingfield in The Glass Menagerie was understood to be modeled on Rose. Some biographers believed that the character of Blanche DuBois in A Streetcar Named Desire is also based on her.\n\nAmanda Wingfield in The Glass Menagerie was generally seen to represent Williams' mother, Edwina. Characters such as Tom Wingfield in The Glass Menagerie and Sebastian in Suddenly, Last Summer were understood to represent Williams himself. In addition, he used a lobotomy operation as a motif in Suddenly, Last Summer.\n\nThe Pulitzer Prize for Drama was awarded to A Streetcar Named Desire in 1948 and to Cat on a Hot Tin Roof in 1955. These two plays were later filmed, with great success, by noted directors Elia Kazan (Streetcar) with whom Williams developed a very close artistic relationship, and Richard Brooks (Cat). Both plays included references to elements of Williams' life such as homosexuality, mental instability, and alcoholism. Although The Flowering Peach by Clifford Odets was the preferred choice of the Pulitzer Prize jury in 1955 and Cat on a Hot Tin Roof was at first considered the weakest of the five shortlisted nominees, Joseph Pulitzer Jr., chairman of the Board, had seen Cat on a Hot Tin Roof and thought it worthy of the drama prize. The Board went along with him after considerable discussion. \n\nWilliams wrote The Parade, or Approaching the End of a Summer when he was 29 and worked on it sporadically throughout his life. A semi-autobiographical depiction of his 1940 romance with Kip Kiernan in Provincetown, Massachusetts, it was produced for the first time on October 1, 2006 in Provincetown by the Shakespeare on the Cape production company, as part of the First Annual Provincetown Tennessee Williams Festival.\n\nHis last play went through many drafts as he was trying to reconcile what would be the end of his life. There are many versions of it, but it is referred to as In Masks Outrageous and Austere.\n\nPlays\n\nApprentice plays\n* Candles to the Sun (1936)\n* Fugitive Kind (1937)\n* Spring Storm (1937)\n* Me Vaysha (1937)\n* Not About Nightingales (1938)\n* Battle of Angels (1940)\n* I Rise in Flame, Cried the Phoenix (1941)\n* You Touched Me (1945)\n* Stairs to the Roof (1947)\n\nMajor plays\n* The Glass Menagerie (1944)\n* A Streetcar Named Desire (1947)\n* Summer and Smoke (1948)\n* The Rose Tattoo (1951)\n* Camino Real (1953)\n* Cat on a Hot Tin Roof (1955)\n* Orpheus Descending (1957)\n* Suddenly, Last Summer (1958)\n* Sweet Bird of Youth (1959)\n* Period of Adjustment (1960)\n* The Night of the Iguana (1961)\n* The Eccentricities of a Nightingale (1962, rewriting of Summer and Smoke)\n* The Milk Train Doesn't Stop Here Anymore (1963)\n* The Mutilated (1965)\n* The Seven Descents of Myrtle (1968, aka Kingdom of Earth)\n* In the Bar of a Tokyo Hotel (1969)\n* Will Mr. Merriweather Return from Memphis? (1969)\n* Small Craft Warnings (1972)\n* The Two-Character Play (1973)\n* Out Cry (1973, rewriting of The Two-Character Play)\n* The Red Devil Battery Sign (1975)\n* This Is (An Entertainment) (1976)\n* Vieux Carré (1977)\n* A Lovely Sunday for Creve Coeur (1979)\n* Clothes for a Summer Hotel (1980)\n* The Notebook of Trigorin (1980)\n* Something Cloudy, Something Clear (1981)\n* A House Not Meant to Stand (1982)\n* In Masks Outrageous and Austere (1983)\n\nNovels\n\n* The Roman Spring of Mrs. Stone (1950, adapted into a film in 1961, and again in 2003)\n* Moise and the World of Reason (1975)\n\nScreenplays and teleplays\n\n* The Glass Menagerie (1950)\n* A Streetcar Named Desire (1951)\n* The Rose Tattoo (1955)\n* Baby Doll (1956)\n* Suddenly, Last Summer (1959)\n* The Fugitive Kind (1959)\n* Ten Blocks on the Camino Real (1966)\n* Boom! (1968)\n* The Loss of a Teardrop Diamond (2009; screenplay from 1957)\n\nShort stories\n\n* The Vengeance of Nitocris (1928)\n* The Field of Blue Children (1939)\n* The Resemblance Between a Violin Case and a Coffin (1951)\n* Hard Candy: A Book of Stories (1954)\n* Three Players of a Summer Game and Other Stories (1960)\n* The Knightly Quest: a Novella and Four Short Stories (1966)\n* One Arm and Other Stories (1967)\n \"One Arm\"\n \"The Malediction\"\n \"The Poet\"\n \"Chronicle of a Demise\"\n \"Desire and the Black Masseur\"\n \"Portrait of a Girl in Glass\"\n \"The Important Thing\"\n \"The Angel in the Alcove\"\n \"The Field of Blue Children\"\n \"The Night of the Iguana\"\n** \"The Yellow Bird\"\n* Eight Mortal Ladies Possessed: a Book of Stories (1974)\n* Tent Worms (1980)\n* It Happened the day the Sun Rose, and Other Stories (1981)\n\nOne-act plays\n\nWilliams wrote over 70 one-act plays during his lifetime. The one-acts explored many of the same themes that dominated his longer works. Williams' major collections are published by New Directions in New York City.\n* American Blues (1948)\n* Mister Paradise and Other One-Act Plays (2005)\n* Dragon Country: a book of one-act plays (1970)\n* The Traveling Companion and Other Plays (2008)\n* The Magic Tower and Other One-Act Plays (2011)\n At Liberty(1939)\n The Magic Tower (1936)\n Me, Vashya (1937)\n Curtains for the Gentleman (1936)\n In Our Profession (1938)\n Every Twenty Minutes (1938)\n Honor the Living (1937)\n The Case of the Crushed Petunias (1941)\n Moony's Kid Don't Cry (1936)\n The Dark Room (1939)\n The Pretty Trap (1944)\n Interior: Panic (1946)\n Kingdom of Earth (1967)\n I Never Get Dressed Till After Dark on Sundays (1973)\n** Some Problems for the Moose Lodge (1980)\n* 27 Wagons Full of Cotton and Other Plays (1946 and 1953)\n «Something wild...» (introduction) (1953)\n 27 Wagons Full of Cotton (1946 and 1953)\n The Purification (1946 and 1953)\n The Lady of Larkspur Lotion (1946 and 1953)\n The Last of My Solid Gold Watches (1946 and 1953)\n Portrait of a Madonna (1946 and 1953)\n Auto-da-Fé (1946 and 1953)\n Lord Byron's Love Letter (1946 and 1953)\n The Strangest Kind of Romance (1946 and 1953)\n The Long Goodbye (1946 and 1953)\n At Liberty (1946)\n Moony's Kid Don't Cry (1946)\n Hello from Bertha (1946 and 1953)\n This Property Is Condemned (1946 and 1953)\n Talk to Me Like the Rain and Let Me Listen... (1953)\n Something Unspoken (1953)\n* The Theatre of Tennessee Williams, Volume VI\n* The Theatre of Tennessee Williams, Volume VII\n\nPoetry\n\n* In the Winter of Cities (1956)\n* Androgyne, Mon Amour (1977)\n\nSelected works\n\n* Gussow, Mel and Holditch, Kenneth, eds. Tennessee Williams, Plays 1937–1955 (Library of America, 2000) ISBN 978-1-883011-86-4.\n Spring Storm\n Not About Nightingales\n Battle of Angels\n I Rise in Flame, Cried the Phoenix\n From 27 Wagons Full of Cotton (1946)\n* 27 Wagons Full of Cotton\n* The Lady of Larkspur Lotion\n* The Last of My Solid Gold Watches\n* Portrait of a Madonna\n* Auto-da-Fé\n* Lord Byron's Love Letter\n* This Property Is Condemned\n The Glass Menagerie\n A Streetcar Named Desire\n Summer and Smoke\n The Rose Tattoo\n Camino Real\n From 27 Wagons Full of Cotton (1953)\n* \"Something Wild\"\n* Talk to Me Like the Rain and Let Me Listen\n* Something Unspoken\n Cat on a Hot Tin Roof\n* Gussow, Mel and Holditch, Kenneth, eds. Tennessee Williams, Plays 1957–1980 (Library of America, 2000) ISBN 978-1-883011-87-1.\n Orpheus Descending\n Suddenly, Last Summer\n Sweet Bird of Youth\n Period of Adjustment\n The Night of the Iguana\n The Eccentricities of a Nightingale\n The Milk Train Doesn't Stop Here Anymore\n The Mutilated\n Kingdom of Earth (The Seven Descents of Myrtle)\n Small Craft Warnings\n Out Cry\n Vieux Carré\n** A Lovely Sunday for Creve Coeur\n\nRelated works\n\nAvailable through electronic source by Amazon.com, John Uecker directed Willams's play and created and edited In Masks Outrageous and Austere.\n\nUnpublished works\n\n*Crazy Night" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "The Hospitality State", "Mississippi", "State symbols of Mississippi", "U.S. state of Mississippi", "Misisippi", "Twentieth State", "Mississippi, United States", "Magnolia State", "Mississippi (U.S. state)", "Missisipi", "Mississipi", "Mississippi (State)", "Misisipi", "US-MS", "State of Mississippi", "Economy of Mississippi", "Demographics of Mississippi", "Missisippi", "Culture of Mississippi", "Religion in Mississippi", "Symbols of the State of Mississippi", "Geography of Mississippi", "Misssissippi", "Mississippi (state)", "Transportation in Mississippi", "Misissipi", "Transport in Mississippi", "20th State", "The Magnolia State", "Sports in Mississippi", "Misissippi", "Climate of Mississippi" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "mississippi state", "misisippi", "misisipi", "climate of mississippi", "state of mississippi", "demographics of mississippi", "mississippi u s state", "misissippi", "state symbols of mississippi", "hospitality state", "20th state", "us ms", "misissipi", "mississipi", "missisippi", "geography of mississippi", "magnolia state", "mississippi united states", "transport in mississippi", "twentieth state", "u s state of mississippi", "economy of mississippi", "mississippi", "missisipi", "misssissippi", "culture of mississippi", "religion in mississippi", "transportation in mississippi", "symbols of state of mississippi", "sports in mississippi" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "mississippi", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Mississippi" }
Who was Israeli Prime Minister from 1969 to 1974?	tc_550	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "Search" ], "filename": [ "Prime_Minister_of_Israel.txt", "Golda_Meir.txt" ], "title": [ "Prime Minister of Israel", "Golda Meir" ], "wiki_context": [ "The Prime Minister of Israel (, Rosh HaMemshala, lit. Head of the Government, Hebrew acronym: ) is the head of the Israeli government and the most powerful figure in Israeli politics. Although the President of Israel is the country's head of state, his powers are largely ceremonial; the prime minister holds most of the real power. The official residence of the prime minister, Beit Rosh Hamemshala is in Jerusalem. The current prime minister is Benjamin Netanyahu of Likud, the ninth person to hold the position (excluding caretakers).\n\nFollowing an election, the president nominates a member of the Knesset to become prime minister after asking party leaders whom they support for the position. The nominee then presents a government platform and must receive a vote of confidence in order to become prime minister. In practice, the prime minister is usually the leader of the largest party in the governing coalition.\n\nBetween 1996 and 2001, the prime minister was directly elected, separately from the Knesset. \n\nHistory\n\nThe office of prime minister came into existence on 14 May 1948, the date of the Declaration of the Establishment of the State of Israel, when the provisional government was created. David Ben-Gurion, leader of Mapai and head of the Jewish Agency became Israel's first prime minister. The position became permanent on 8 March 1949, when the first government was formed. Ben-Gurion retained his role until late 1953, when he resigned in order to settle in the Kibbutz of Sde Boker. He was replaced by Moshe Sharett. However, Ben-Gurion returned in a little under two years to reclaim his position. He resigned for a second time in 1963, breaking away from Mapai to form Rafi. Levi Eshkol took over as head of Mapai and prime minister. He became the first prime minister to head the country under the banner of two parties when Mapai formed the Alignment with Ahdut HaAvoda in 1965. In 1968 he also became the only party leader to command an absolute majority in the Knesset, after Mapam and Rafi merged into the Alignment, giving it 63 seats in the 120-seat Knesset.\n\nOn 26 February 1969, Eshkol became the first prime minister to die in office, and was temporarily replaced by Yigal Allon. However, Allon's stint lasted less than a month, as the party persuaded Golda Meir to return to political life and become prime minister in March 1969. Meir was Israel's first woman prime minister, and the third in the world (after Sirimavo Bandaranaike and Indira Gandhi).\n\nMeir resigned in 1974 after the Agranat Commission published its findings on the Yom Kippur War, even though it had absolved her of blame. Yitzhak Rabin took over, though he also resigned towards the end of the eighth Knesset's term following a series of scandals. Those included the suicide of Housing Minister Avraham Ofer after police began investigating allegations that he had used party funds illegally, and the affair involving Asher Yadlin (the governor-designate of the Bank of Israel), who was sentenced to five years in prison for having accepted bribes. Rabin's wife, Leah, was also found to have had an overseas bank account, which was illegal in Israel at the time.\n\nMenachem Begin became the first right-wing prime minister when his Likud won the 1977 elections, and retained the post in the 1981 elections. He resigned in 1983 for health reasons, passing the reins of power to Yitzhak Shamir.\n\nAfter the 1984 elections had proved inconclusive with neither the Alignment nor Likud able to form a government, a national unity government was formed with a rotating prime ministership – Shimon Peres took the first two years, and was replaced by Shamir midway through the Knesset term.\n\nAlthough the 1988 elections produced another national unity government, Shamir was able to take the role alone. Peres made an abortive bid to form a left-wing government in 1990, but failed, leaving Shamir in power until 1992.\n\nRabin became prime minister for the second time when he led Labour to victory in the 1992 elections. After his assassination on 4 November 1995, Peres took over as prime minister.\n\nDirect election\n\nDuring the thirteenth Knesset (1992–1996) it was decided to hold a separate ballot for prime minister modeled after American presidential elections. This system was instituted in part because the Israeli electoral system makes it all but impossible for one party to win a majority. While only two parties—Mapai/Labour and Likud—had ever led governments, the large number of parties or factions in a typical Knesset usually prevents one party from winning the 61 seats needed for a majority.\n\nIn 1996, when the first such election took place, the outcome was a surprise win for Benjamin Netanyahu after election polls predicted that Peres was the winner. However, in the Knesset election held at the same time, Labour won more votes than any other party (27%). Thus Netanyahu, despite his theoretical position of power, needed the support of the religious parties to form a viable government.\n\nUltimately Netanyahu failed to hold the government together, and early elections for both prime minister and the Knesset were called in 1999. Although five candidates announced their intention to run, the three representing minor parties (Benny Begin of Herut – The National Movement, Azmi Bishara of Balad and Yitzhak Mordechai of the Centre Party) dropped out before election day, and Ehud Barak beat Netanyahu in the election. However, the new system again appeared to have failed, as although Barak's One Israel party (an alliance of Labour, Gesher and Meimad) won more votes than any other party in the Knesset election, they garnered only 26 seats, the lowest ever by a winning party, meaning that a coalition with six smaller parties was once again necessary.\n\nIn early 2001, Barak resigned following the outbreak of the al-Aqsa Intifada. However, the government was not brought down, and only elections for prime minister were necessary. In the election itself, Ariel Sharon comfortably beat Barak, taking 62.4% of the vote. However, because Likud only had 21 seats in the Knesset, Sharon had to form a national unity government. Following Sharon's victory, it was decided to do away with separate elections for prime minister and return to the previous system.\n\n2003 onwards\n\nThe 2003 elections were carried out in the same manner as prior to 1996. Likud won 38 seats, the highest by a party for over a decade, and as party leader Sharon was duly appointed PM. However, towards the end of his term and largely as a result of the deep divisions within Likud over Israel's unilateral disengagement plan, Sharon broke away from his party to form Kadima, managing to maintain his position as prime minister and also becoming the first prime minister not to be a member of either Labour or Likud (or their predecessors). However, he suffered a stroke in January 2006, in the midst of election season, leading Ehud Olmert to become acting prime minister in the weeks leading to the elections. He was voted by the cabinet to be interim prime minister just after the 2006 elections, when Sharon had reached 100 days of incapacitation. He thus became Israel's third interim prime minister, only days before forming his own new government as the official Prime Minister of Israel.\n\nIn 2008, amid accusations of corruption and challenges from his own party, Olmert announced that he would resign. However his successor Tzipi Livni was unable to form a coalition government. In the election in the following year, while Kadima won the most seats, it was the Likud leader Benjamin Netanyahu who was given the task of forming a government. He was able to do so, thus beginning his second term as Prime Minister of Israel.\n\nIn the 2013 election, the Likud Yisrael Beiteinu alliance emerged as the largest faction. After forming a coalition, Netanyahu secured his third prime ministership.\n\nOrder of succession\n\nIf the prime minister dies in office, the cabinet chooses an interim prime minister, to run the government until a new government is placed in power. Yigal Allon served as interim prime minister following Levi Eshkol's death, as did Shimon Peres following the assassination of Yitzhak Rabin.\n\nAccording to Israeli law, if a prime minister is temporarily incapacitated rather than dies (as was the case following Ariel Sharon's stroke in early 2006), power is transferred to the acting prime minister, until the prime minister recovers (Ehud Olmert took over from Sharon), for up to 100 days. If the prime minister is declared permanently incapacitated, or that period expires, the President of Israel oversees the process of assembling a new governing coalition, and in the meantime the acting prime minister or other incumbent minister is appointed by the cabinet to serve as interim prime minister.\n\nIn the case of Sharon, elections were already due to occur within 100 days of the beginning of his coma thus the post-election coalition building process pre-empted the emergency provisions for the selection of a new prime minister. Nevertheless, Olmert was appointed interim prime minister on 16 April 2006, after the elections, just days before he had formed a government on 4 May 2006, to become the official prime minister.\n\nActing, vice and deputy prime minister\n\nAside from the position of acting prime minister, there are also vice prime ministers and deputy prime ministers.\n\nInterim government\n\nPrime minister's residence\n\nDuring his term of office, the prime minister lives in Jerusalem. Since 1974, the official residence of the prime minister is Beit Aghion, at the corner of Balfour and Smolenskin streets in Rehavia. \n\nList of prime ministers\n\nTerm of office in years\n\nList of Prime Ministers of Israel by longevity", "Golda Meir (born Golda Mabovitch, Голда Мабович; Golda Meyerson/Myerson between 1917-1956; May 3, 1898 – December 8, 1978) was an Israeli teacher, kibbutznik, stateswoman and politician and the fourth Prime Minister of Israel.\n\nMeir was elected Prime Minister of Israel on March 17, 1969, after serving as Minister of Labour and Foreign Minister. The world's fourth and Israel's first and only woman to hold such an office, she has been described as the \"Iron Lady\" of Israeli politics, though her tenure ended before that term was applied to British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher. Former Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion used to call Meir \"the best man in the government\"; she was often portrayed as the \"strong-willed, straight-talking, grey-bunned grandmother of the Jewish people\".[http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q\ncache:OW6DVIg_o1UJ:www.haaretz.co.il/hasen/spages/998369.htmlr&cd1&hl\nen&ctclnk&gl\nau Mother of a nation, but not much of a mother] Haaretz, July 7, 2008\n\nMeir resigned as prime minister in 1974, the year following the Yom Kippur War. She died in 1978 of lymphoma. \n\nEarly life\n\nGolda Mabovitch () was born on May 3, 1898, in Kiev, Russian Empire, present-day Ukraine, to Blume Neiditch (died 1951) and Moshe Mabovitch (died 1944), a carpenter. Meir wrote in her autobiography that her earliest memories were of her father boarding up the front door in response to rumours of an imminent pogrom. She had two sisters, Sheyna (1889-1972) and Tzipke (1902-1981), as well as five other siblings who died in childhood. She was especially close to Sheyna.\n\nMoshe Mabovitch left to find work in New York City in 1903. In his absence, the rest of the family moved to Pinsk to join her mother's family. In 1905, Moshe moved to Milwaukee, Wisconsin, in search of higher-paying work and found employment in the workshops of the local railroad yard. The following year, he had saved up enough money to bring his family to the United States.\n\nBlume ran a grocery store on Milwaukee's north side, where by age eight Golda had been put in charge of watching the store when her mother went to the market for supplies. Golda attended the Fourth Street Grade School (now Golda Meir School) from 1906 to 1912. A leader early on, she organised a fund raiser to pay for her classmates' textbooks. After forming the American Young Sisters Society, she rented a hall and scheduled a public meeting for the event. She went on to graduate as valedictorian of her class.\n\nAt 14, she studied at North Division High School and worked part-time. Her mother wanted her to leave school and marry, but she demurred. She bought a train ticket to Denver, Colorado, and went to live with her married sister, Sheyna Korngold. The Korngolds held intellectual evenings at their home, where Meir was exposed to debates on Zionism, literature, women's suffrage, trade unionism, and more. In her autobiography, she wrote: \"To the extent that my own future convictions were shaped and given form [...] those talk-filled nights in Denver played a considerable role.\" In Denver, she also met Morris Meyerson (also 'Myerson'; December 17, 1893 – May 25, 1951), a sign painter, whom she later married on December 24, 1917.[https://www.msudenver.edu/golda/goldameir/chronologyofgoldameir/ Golda Meir: An Outline Of A Life] Metropolitan State College of Denver, mscd.edu; accessed November 22, 2015.\n\nReturn to Milwaukee, Zionist activism, and teaching\n\nIn 1913 she returned to North Division High, graduating in 1915. While there, she became an active member of Young Poale Zion, which later became Habonim, the Labor Zionist youth movement. She spoke at public meetings, embraced Socialist Zionism and hosted visitors from Palestine.\n\nShe attended the teachers college Milwaukee State Normal School (now University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee), in 1916, and probably part of 1917. After graduating from Milwaukee Normal, she taught in Milwaukee public schools.\n\nIn 1917 she took a position at a Yiddish-speaking Folks Schule in Milwaukee. While at the Folks Schule, she came more closely into contact with the ideals of Labor Zionism. In 1913 she had begun dating Morris Meyerson (Myerson). She was a committed Labor Zionist and he was a dedicated socialist. Together, they left their jobs to join a kibbutz in Palestine in 1921.\n\nWhen Golda and Morris married in 1917, settling in Palestine was her precondition for the marriage. Golda had intended to make aliyah straight away but her plans were disrupted due to all transatlantic passenger services being canceled due to the outbreak of World War I. Instead she threw her energies into Poale Zion activities. A short time after their wedding, she embarked on a fund raising campaign for Poale Zion that took her across the United States. The couple moved to Palestine in 1921 together with her sister Sheyna.\n\nImmigration to Israel \n\nIn the British Mandate of Palestine, Meir and Meyerson joined a kibbutz. Their first application to kibbutz Merhavia in the Jezreel Valley was rejected, but later on they were accepted. Her duties included picking almonds, planting trees, working in the chicken coops, and running the kitchen. Recognizing her leadership abilities, the kibbutz chose her as its representative to the Histadrut, the General Federation of Labour.\n\nIn 1924, Meir and her husband left the kibbutz and resided briefly in Tel Aviv before settling in Jerusalem. There they had two children, their son Menachem (1924-2014) and their daughter Sarah (1926-2010).\n\nIn 1928, Meir was elected secretary of Moetzet HaPoalot (Working Women's Council), which required her to spend two years (1932–34) as an emissary in the United States. The children went with her, but Morris stayed in Jerusalem. Morris and Golda grew apart, but never divorced. Morris died in 1951.\n\nHistadrut activities\n\nIn 1934, when Meir returned from the United States, she joined the Executive Committee of the Histadrut and she moved up the ranks to become the head of its Political Department. This appointment was important training for her future role in Israeli leadership.\"Golda Meir\", Encyclopaedia Judaica, Keter, 1972, Jerusalem, vol. 11, pp. 1242–45\n\nIn July 1938, Meir was the Jewish observer from Palestine at the Évian Conference, called by President Franklin D. Roosevelt of the United States to discuss the question of Jewish refugees' fleeing Nazi persecution. Delegates from the 32 invited countries repeatedly expressed their sorrow for the plight of the European Jews, but they made excuses as to why their countries could not help by admitting the refugees.\n\nThe only exception was by the Dominican Republic, which pledged to accept 100,000 refugees on generous terms. Meir was disappointed at the outcome and she remarked to the press, \"There is only one thing I hope to see before I die and that is that my people should not need expressions of sympathy anymore.\"\n\nPrestate political role\n\nIn June 1946, the British Government cracked down on the Zionist movement in Palestine, arresting many leaders of the Yishuv (see Black Sabbath). Meir took over as acting head of the Political Department of the Jewish Agency during the incarceration of Moshe Sharett. Thus she became the principal negotiator between the Jews in Palestine and the British Mandatory authorities. After his release, Sharett went to the United States to attend talks on the UN Partition Plan, leaving Meir to head the Political Department until the establishment of the state in 1948.\n\nIn January 1948, the treasurer of the Jewish Agency was convinced that Israel would not be able to raise more than seven to eight million dollars from the American Jewish community. Meir traveled to the United States, and she raised $50,000,000, which was used to purchase arms in Europe for the young country. Ben-Gurion wrote that Meir's role as the \"Jewish woman who got the money which made the state possible\" would go down one day in the history books.\n\nOn May 10, 1948, four days before the official establishment of Israel, Meir traveled to Amman, Jordan, disguised as an Arab woman for a secret meeting with King Abdullah I of Transjordan at which she urged him not to join the other Arab countries in attacking the Jews. Abdullah asked her not to hurry to proclaim a state. Meir replied: \"We've been waiting for 2,000 years. Is that hurrying?\" \n\nAs the head of the Jewish Agency Political Department, Meir called the mass exodus of Arabs before the War of Independence in 1948 \"dreadful\", and she likened it to what had befallen the Jews in Nazi-occupied Europe. \n\nDiplomatic and ministerial career\n\nMeir was one of 24 signatories (including two women) of the Israeli Declaration of Independence on May 14, 1948. She later recalled, \"After I signed, I cried. When I studied American history as a schoolgirl and I read about those who signed the U.S. Declaration of Independence, I couldn't imagine these were real people doing something real. And there I was sitting down and signing a declaration of establishment.\" Israel was attacked the next day by the joint armies of neighboring countries in what became the 1948 Arab–Israeli War. During the war, Israel stopped the combined Arab assault, and then it launched a series of military offensives to defeat the invading Arab armies and to end the war.\n\nMinister Plenipotentiary to Moscow\n\nCarrying the first Israeli-issued passport, Meir was appointed Israel's minister plenipotentiary to the Soviet Union, with her term beginning on September 2, 1948, and ending in March 1949.Yossi Goldstein, \"Doomed to Fail: Golda Meir's Mission to Moscow (Part 1)\", The Israel Journal of Foreign Affairs Vol. 5 No. 3 (September 2011), p. 131 At the time, good relations with the Soviet Union were important for Israel's ability to secure arms from Eastern European countries for the struggle that accompanied its independence, while Joseph Stalin and Soviet Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov sought to cultivate a strong relationship with Israel as a means of furthering the Soviet position in the Middle East. Soviet–Israeli relations were complicated by Soviet policies against religious institutions and nationalist movements, made manifest in moves to shut down Jewish religious institutions as well as the ban on Hebrew language study and the prohibition of the promotion of emigration to Israel. \n\nDuring her brief stint in the USSR, Meir attended Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur services at the Moscow Choral Synagogue, where she was mobbed by thousands of Russian Jews chanting her name. The Israeli 10,000 shekel banknote issued in November 1984 bore a portrait of Meir on one side and the image of the crowd that turned out to cheer her in Moscow on the other. \n\nLabor minister\n\nIn 1949 Meir was elected to the Knesset as a member of Mapai and served continuously until 1974. From 1949 to 1956, she served as Minister of Labour. While serving in this position, Meir carried out welfare state policies, orchestrated the integration of immigrants into Israel’s workforce, and introduced major housing and road construction projects. From 1949 to 1956, 200,000 apartments and 30,000 houses were built, large industrial and agricultural developments were initiated, and new hospitals, schools, and roads were built. Meir also helped in the development of the National Insurance Act of 1954, which introduced Israel’s system of social security, together with the country’s maternity benefits programme and other welfare measures. \n\nIn 1955, on Ben-Gurion's instructions, she stood for the position of mayor of Tel Aviv. She lost by the two votes of the religious bloc who withheld their support on the grounds that she was a woman. (Mayors then were elected by the city council, rather than directly as now, see Municipal elections in Israel.)\n\nForeign minister\n\nIn 1956, she became Foreign Minister under Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion. Her predecessor, Moshe Sharett, had asked all members of the foreign service to Hebraicize their last names. Upon her appointment as foreign minister, she shortened \"Meyerson/Myerson\" to \"Meir\", which means \"illuminate\". As foreign minister, Meir promoted ties with the newly established states in Africa in an effort to gain allies in the international community. But she also believed that Israel had experience in nation-building that could be a model for the Africans. In her autobiography, she wrote: \"Like them, we had shaken off foreign rule; like them, we had to learn for ourselves how to reclaim the land, how to increase the yields of our crops, how to irrigate, how to raise poultry, how to live together, and how to defend ourselves.\" Israel could be a role model because it \"had been forced to find solutions to the kinds of problems that large, wealthy, powerful states had never encountered\". \n\nMeir's first months as Foreign Minister coincided with the Suez Crisis, which is also known as the Second Arab-Israeli War, the Tripartite aggression (in Arab countries), Sinai Campaign and Operation Kadesh (by the Israeli government) and others. It involved an invasion of Egypt in late 1956 by Israel, followed by Britain and France. The aims were to regain Western control of the Suez Canal, remove Egyptian president Nasser, and provide a more secure western border and freedom of navigation through the Straits of Tiran for Israel. Meir was involved in planning and coordination with the French government and military prior to the start of military action. During United Nations debates about the crisis, Meir took charge of the Israeli delegation. After the fighting had started, the United States, the Soviet Union, and the United Nations forced the three invaders to withdraw. As a result of the conflict, the United Nations created the UNEF military peacekeeping force to police the Egyptian–Israeli border.\n\nOn October 29, 1957, she was slightly injured in the foot when a Mills bomb was thrown into the debating chamber of the Knesset. David Ben-Gurion and Moshe Carmel were more seriously injured. The attack was carried out by 25-year-old Moshe Dwek. Born in Aleppo, his motives were attributed to a dispute with the Jewish Agency, though he was also described as being \"mentally unbalanced\". \n\nIn 1958, Meir was recorded as having praised the work of Pope Pius XII on behalf of the Jewish people shortly after the pontiff's death. Pope Pius's legacy as a wartime pope remains controversial as of 2012. \n\nThe same year, during the wave of Jewish migration from Poland to Israel, Meir sought to prevent disabled and sick Polish Jews from immigrating to Israel. In a letter sent to Israel's ambassador in Warsaw, Katriel Katz, she wrote: \"A proposal was raised in the coordination committee to inform the Polish government that we want to institute selection in aliyah, because we cannot continue accepting sick and handicapped people. Please give your opinion as to whether this can be explained to the Poles without hurting immigration.\" \n\nIn the early 1960s, Meir was diagnosed with lymphoma. In January 1966, she retired from the Foreign Ministry, citing exhaustion and ill health, but soon returned to public life as secretary-general of Mapai, supporting Prime Minister Levi Eshkol in party conflicts.\n\nPremiership\n\nAfter Levi Eshkol's sudden death on February 26, 1969, the party elected Meir as his successor. Meir came out of retirement to take office on March 17, 1969, serving as prime minister until 1974. Meir maintained the national unity government formed in 1967, after the Six-Day War, in which Mapai merged with two other parties (Rafi and Ahdut HaAvoda) to form the Israeli Labor party.\n\nSix months after taking office, Meir led the reconfigured Alignment, comprising Labor and Mapam, into the 1969 general election. The Alignment managed what is still the best showing for a single party or faction in Israeli history, winning 56 seats—the only time a party or faction has even approached winning an outright majority in an election. The national unity government was retained.\n\nIn 1969 and the early 1970s, Meir met with many world leaders to promote her vision of peace in the Middle East, including Richard Nixon (1969), Nicolae Ceaușescu (1972) and Pope Paul VI (1973). In 1973, she hosted the chancellor of West Germany, Willy Brandt, in Israel.\n\nIn August 1970, Meir accepted a U.S. peace initiative that called for an end to the War of Attrition and an Israeli pledge to withdraw to \"secure and recognized boundaries\" in the framework of a comprehensive peace settlement. The Gahal party quit the national unity government in protest, but Meir continued to lead the remaining coalition. \n\nOn 28 February 1973, during a visit in Washington, D.C., Golda agreed with Henry Kissinger's peace proposal based on \"security versus sovereignty\": Israel would accept Egyptian sovereignty over all Sinai, while Egypt would accept Israeli presence in some of Sinai strategic positions.\n\nMunich Olympics\n\nIn the wake of the Munich massacre at the 1972 Summer Olympics, Meir appealed to the world to \"save our citizens and condemn the unspeakable criminal acts committed\". Outraged at the perceived lack of global action, she ordered the Mossad to hunt down and assassinate suspected leaders and operatives of Black September and PFLP. The 1986 TV film Sword of Gideon, based on the book Vengeance by George Jonas, and Steven Spielberg's movie Munich (2005) were based on these events.\n\nDispute with Austria\n\nDuring the 1970s about 200,000 Russian-Jewish emigrants were allowed to leave the Soviet Union for Israel by way of Austria. When seven of these emigrants were taken hostage at the Austria-Czechoslovakian border by Palestinian militants in September 1973, the Chancellor of Austria, Bruno Kreisky, closed the Jewish Agency's transit facility in Schönau, Austria. A few days later in Vienna, Meir tried to convince Kreisky to reopen the facility by appealing to his own Jewish origin, and described his position as \"succumbing to terrorist blackmail\". Kreisky did not change his position, so Meir returned to Israel, infuriated. A few months later, Austria opened a new transition camp. \n\nYom Kippur War\n\nIn the days leading up to the Yom Kippur War, Israeli intelligence could not conclusively determine that an attack was imminent. However, on October 5, 1973, Meir received official news that Syrian forces were massing on the Golan Heights. The prime minister was alarmed by the reports, and felt that the situation reminded her of what happened before the Six Day War. Her advisers, however, assured her not to worry, saying that they would have adequate notice before a war broke out. This made sense at the time, since after the Six Day War, most Israelis felt it unlikely that the Arabs would attack. Consequently, although a resolution was passed granting her power to demand a full-scale call-up of the military (instead of the typical cabinet decision), Meir did not mobilize Israel's forces early. Soon, though, war became very clear. Six hours before the outbreak of hostilities, Meir met with Minister of Defense Moshe Dayan and general David Elazar. While Dayan continued to argue that war was unlikely and thus was in favor of calling up the air force and only two divisions, Elazar advocated full scale army mobilization and the launch of a full-scale preemptive strike on Syrian forces. \n\nMeir approved full scale mobilizing but sided with Dayan against a preemptive strike, citing Israel's need for foreign aid. She believed that Israel could not depend on European countries to supply Israel with military equipment, and the only country that might come to Israel's assistance was the United States. Fearing that the United States would be wary of intervening if Israel were perceived as initiating the hostilities, Meir decided early on October 6 against a preemptive strike. She made it a priority to inform Washington of her decision. U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger later confirmed Meir's assessment by stating that if Israel had launched a preemptive strike, Israel would not have received \"so much as a nail\". \n\nResignation\n\nFollowing the Yom Kippur War, Meir's government was plagued by infighting and questions over Israel's lack of preparation for the war. The Agranat Commission appointed to investigate the war cleared her of \"direct responsibility\", and related to her actions on Yom Kippur morning;\n\nHer party won the elections in December 1973, but she resigned on April 11, 1974, bowing to what she felt was the \"will of the people\" and what she felt was a sufficient premiership as well as the pending pressures of forming a coalition; \"Five years are sufficient...It is beyond my strength to continue carrying this burden.\" Yitzhak Rabin succeeded her on June 3, 1974.\n\nIn 1975 she published her autobiography, My Life. \n\nDeath\n\nOn December 8, 1978, Meir died of lymphatic cancer in Jerusalem at the age of 80. Four days later, on December 12, Meir was buried on Mount Herzl in Jerusalem. \n\nAwards\n\nIn 1975, Meir was awarded the Israel Prize for her special contribution to society and the State of Israel.\nIn 1974, Meir was awarded the honor of World Mother by American Mothers. \nIn 1974 Meir was awarded the James Madison Award for Distinguished Public Service by Princeton University's American Whig–Cliosophic Society. \n\nLegacy\n\nPortrayals in film and theater\n\nMeir's story has been the subject of many fictionalized portrayals. In 1977, Anne Bancroft played Meir in William Gibson's Broadway play Golda. The Australian actress Judy Davis played a young Meir in the television film A Woman Called Golda (1982), opposite Leonard Nimoy. Ingrid Bergman played the older Meir in the same film. In 2003, American Jewish actress Tovah Feldshuh portrayed her on Broadway in Golda's Balcony, Gibson's second play about Meir's life. The one-woman show was controversial in its implication that Meir considered using nuclear weapons during the Yom Kippur War.\n\nValerie Harper portrayed her in the touring company production and in the film version of Golda's Balcony. Actress Colleen Dewhurst portrayed her in the 1986 TV movie Sword of Gideon. In 2005 actress Lynn Cohen portrayed Meir in Steven Spielberg's film Munich.\n\nTovah Feldshuh assumed the role of Meir once again in the 2006 English-speaking French movie O Jerusalem. She was played by the Polish actress Beata Fudalej in the 2009 film The Hope by Márta Mészáros. \n\nCommemoration\n\nGolda Meir School, Milwaukee, Wisconsin \nGolda Meir School, in Barra da Tijuca, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil\nGolda Meir Library, University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee, Wisconsin\nGolda Meir Boulevard, Jerusalem, Israel (and various other streets, neighborhoods and schools in Israel)\nGolda Meir Center for the Performing Arts, Tel Aviv\nGolda Meir Square, New York City \nGolda Meir Center for Political Leadership at Metropolitan State University of Denver \nGolda Meir House, Denver, Colorado \nGolda Meir House, Newton, Massachusetts\n\nImage:Golda Meir Square in New York City IMG 1604.JPG\|Golda Meir Square is designated in New York City south of Times Square\nFile:Golda Meir @ Banknote 1992 Obverse.jpg\|Israeli 10 New Sheqalim Banknote commemorating Golda Meir (1985–1992).\n\nCultural references\n\nIn Israel, the term \"Golda's shoes\" (na'alei Golda) has become a reference to the sturdy orthopedic shoes that Golda favored. These shoes were also supplied to women soldiers in the Israeli army from its foundation to 1987. \n\nPublished works\n\n This Is Our Strength (1962) – Golda Meir's collected papers\n* My Father's House (1972)\n* My Life (1975). Putnam, ISBN 0-399-11669-9." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Golda Meir", "Golda Meyerson", "גּוֹלְדָּה מֵאִיר", "Golda Mabovitz", "Goldie Mabovitch", "Golda Myerson (Meir)", "Голда Мабович", "Golda Mabovitch" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "goldie mabovitch", "golda myerson meir", "golda meir", "golda meyerson", "голда мабович", "golda mabovitch", "גּוֹלְדָּה מֵאִיר", "golda mabovitz" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "golda meir", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Golda Meir" }
Bob Gaudio and Nick Massi sang with which group?	tc_553	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe", "Search", "Search", "Search" ], "filename": [ "Bob_Gaudio.txt", "Nick_Massi.txt", "Jersey_Boys.txt", "Frankie_Valli.txt", "The_Four_Seasons_(band).txt" ], "title": [ "Bob Gaudio", "Nick Massi", "Jersey Boys", "Frankie Valli", "The Four Seasons (band)" ], "wiki_context": [ "Robert John \"Bob\" Gaudio (born November 17, 1942) is an American singer, songwriter, musician, and record producer, and the keyboardist/backing vocalist for the Four Seasons.\n\nBiography\n\nEarly career\n\nBorn in the Bronx, New York, he was raised in Bergenfield, New Jersey, where he attended Bergenfield High School. Rotella, Mark. [http://www.nytimes.com/2005/10/02/nyregion/nyregionspecial2/02njBOYS.html \"Straight Out of Newark\"], The New York Times, October 2, 2005. Accessed October 9, 2007. \"Originally from the Bronx, Mr. Gaudio had, at age 15, written the hit \"Who Wears Short Shorts,\" which he made up while driving with friends along the main drag in Bergenfield.\" His mother worked for the publishing house Prentice Hall and his father in a paper factory. He showed an interest in music and studied piano with Sal Mosca. \n\nGaudio grew up in more comfortable middle class surroundings than the other members of the Four Seasons, which caused some tension and differences early on. He was a cerebral person, interested in reading and learning. He stayed out of trouble and kept a mild manner about him, which proved useful during negotiations throughout his career.\n\nHe rose to musical fame at the age of 15 as a member of the Royal Teens when he co-wrote the hit \"Short Shorts\". In 1958, while he and the group were promoting the single, they met Frankie Valli and his group the Four Lovers as they prepared to perform on a local television program. Shortly afterwards, he left the Royal Teens as he was getting tired of touring; the group dissolved shortly afterwards.\n\nOne year after he ceased touring, Gaudio joined the Four Lovers. While commercial success was elusive, the group was kept busy with steady session work (with Bob Crewe as the producer) and a string of performances at night clubs and lounges.\n\nThe Four Seasons\n\nIn 1960, after a failed audition at a Union Township, Union County, New Jersey, bowling establishment, songwriter/keyboardist Gaudio shook hands with lead singer Valli and formed the Four Seasons Partnership, and Gaudio, Valli, Tommy DeVito and Nick Massi became the Four Seasons.\n\nGaudio wrote the Seasons' first #1 hit, \"Sherry\", 15 minutes before a group rehearsal in 1962. With producer Bob Crewe often assisting with lyrics, Gaudio wrote a string of subsequent hits for the Seasons, including \"Big Girls Don't Cry\", \"Walk Like a Man\", \"Dawn (Go Away)\", \"Ronnie\", \"Rag Doll\", \"Save It for Me\", \"Big Man in Town\", \"Bye Bye Baby\", \"Girl Come Running\", \"Beggin'\", and \"Can't Take My Eyes Off You\" (the first big success under Valli's name as a solo performer). Crewe/Gaudio compositions also became major hits for other artists, including the Tremeloes (\"Silence Is Golden\", originally the B-side of the Four Seasons' \"Rag Doll\") and the Walker Brothers (\"The Sun Ain't Gonna Shine Anymore\", originally recorded by the Four Seasons as a Valli solo single).\n\n\"Rag Doll\" is regarded by some as the greatest achievement of the Four Seasons. Gaudio was on the way to a recording session and his car was stopped at a long traffic light in Hell's Kitchen. Often kids would wash the car windows during the long waits and ask for some change. In Gaudio's case, a scruffy little girl washed his window. When Gaudio went to give her change, all he had was a $10 bill. After a moment's hesitation, he gave her the bill because he had to give her something. The astonished look on her face stayed with him and inspired the subsequent song.\n\nAfter the Beatles' Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band album was released in June 1967, Gaudio saw the pop music market changing, and sought to position the Four Seasons into the trend of socially conscious music. One evening he went to the Bitter End in Greenwich Village and saw Jake Holmes performing. Gaudio was taken with Holmes' song, \"Genuine Imitation Life\", and decided to base a Four Seasons album upon it. With Holmes as his new lyricist, The Genuine Imitation Life Gazette album was released in January 1969. The album was a commercial failure and symbolized the end of the Four Seasons' first period of success. The appreciation of The Genuine Imitation Life Gazette has grown over the years, and it was re-released on CD (minus the newspaper cover) in the 1990s by Rhino in the U.S. and Ace in the UK. Gaudio and Holmes also wrote and produced Frank Sinatra's 1969 album Watertown.\n\nIn 1975 Gaudio wrote \"Who Loves You\" and \"December 1963 (Oh, What A Night)\" with his future wife Judy Parker. The songs became big hits for a reconstituted Four Seasons group (only Valli was left of the original lineup; Gaudio stopped touring with them in 1971 to concentrate on writing and producing).\n\nGaudio, Tommy DeVito, Frankie Valli and Nick Massi - the original members of The Four Seasons - were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1990 and the Vocal Group Hall of Fame in 1999. \n\nOther activity\n\nIn addition to his work for the Seasons and Sinatra, he wrote and/or produced for Michael Jackson, Barry Manilow, Diana Ross, Eric Carmen, Nancy Sinatra, Peabo Bryson, and Roberta Flack. In particular, he produced six complete albums for Neil Diamond, and the movie soundtrack albums for Diamond's The Jazz Singer and Little Shop of Horrors. Gaudio also produced the hit \"You Don't Bring Me Flowers\" for Barbra Streisand and Neil Diamond, a duet that reached the top of Billboard charts in 1978, for which he received a Grammy Award nomination.\n\nIn the 1990s Gaudio moved to Nashville and produced recordings for Canadian country artist George Fox, among others. He lured Neil Diamond to Nashville to record the album Tennessee Moon. In recent years Gaudio has focused on musical theater, writing the music for the 2001 London West End production of Peggy Sue Got Married.\n\nGaudio was instrumental in mounting Jersey Boys, a musical play based on the lives of the Four Seasons, which ran at the La Jolla Playhouse through January 2, 2005 and then opened on Broadway on Nov. 6, 2005 to mostly positive reviews. In 2006, the play won four Tony Awards, including Best Musical. In 2007, it won a Grammy in the Best Musical Show Album category.\n\nGaudio is a member of the Songwriters Hall of Fame.\n\nOn February 3, 2009, Gaudio received his high school diploma, 50 years after dropping out of Bergenfield High School.\n\nOn May 12, 2012, Gaudio received the Ellis Island Medal of Honor for his commitment to many humanitarian causes. \n\nOn June 20, 2014, Warner Bros. released the film version of Jersey Boys, directed by Clint Eastwood in which Gaudio was portrayed by Erich Bergen. In Jersey Boys, credit is given to a then-teenaged Joe Pesci for introducing Gaudio to Tommy DeVito. \n\nOn July 1, 2014, Rhino Entertainment released Audio With a G, the first compilation of the music composed by Bob Gaudio as performed by the Four Seasons, Frank Sinatra, Diana Ross, The Temptations, Cher, Roberta Flack, Nina Simone, Jerry Butler, Chuck Jackson and others.", "Nicholas \"Nick Massi\" Macioci (September 19, 1927 – December 24, 2000) was an American bass singer and bass guitarist for the Four Seasons.\n\nBiography\n\nBorn in Newark, New Jersey, Massi had been playing with several bands before he joined The Four Lovers in 1958, including some groups that featured future Four Lovers and Four Seasons members Frankie Valli and Tommy DeVito. After the group evolved into the Four Seasons, they performed such hits as \"Sherry,\" \"Dawn (Go Away),\" and \"Rag Doll.\" He was responsible for most of the group's vocal arrangements. Massi left the Four Seasons in 1965, and was replaced temporarily by Charles Calello who, in turn, was replaced by Joe Long.\n\nMassi, Tommy DeVito, Frankie Valli and Bob Gaudio - the original members of The Four Seasons - were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1990 and the Vocal Group Hall of Fame in 1999. \n\nMassi died of cancer on Christmas Eve in 2000, at his home in West Orange, New Jersey at the age of 73.", "Jersey Boys is a 2005 jukebox musical with music by Bob Gaudio, lyrics by Bob Crewe, and book by Marshall Brickman and Rick Elice. It is presented in a documentary-style format that dramatizes the formation, success and eventual break-up of the 1960s rock 'n roll group The Four Seasons. The musical is structured as four \"seasons\", each narrated by a different member of the band who gives his own perspective on its history and music. Songs include \"Big Girls Don't Cry\", \"Sherry\", \"December 1963 (Oh, What A Night)\", \"My Eyes Adored You\", \"Stay\", \"Can't Take My Eyes Off You\", \"Working My Way Back to You\" and \"Rag Doll\", among others. The title refers to the fact that the members of The Four Seasons are from New Jersey.\n\nThe musical opened on Broadway in 2005 and has since had two North American National Tours and productions in London's West End, Las Vegas, Chicago, Toronto, Melbourne and other Australian cities, Singapore, South Africa, The Netherlands and elsewhere. Jersey Boys won four 2006 Tony Awards including Best Musical, and the 2009 Laurence Olivier Award for Best New Musical.\n\nDevelopment\n\nIn the early 2000s, Bob Gaudio, an original Four Seasons member, sought to make a musical from the discography of the band. He hired book writers Rick Elice and Marshall Brickman, and director Des McAnuff (at the suggestion of Michael David of Dodger Theatricals). Brickman suggested creating a show about the band's history, instead of repurposing their songs for an independent story the way ABBA did with Mamma Mia!. Brickman was drawn to the project because: \"It's a classic American story. It's rags to riches, and back to rags.\" \n\nLittle was known to the public about the group's history prior to the premiere of the musical, because the magazines of the era didn't write about them much. In their research, Brickman and Elice were surprised to find that the members had prison records, which might have prevented their music from being played if it had been publicized when they were active. According to Gaudio, \"Back then, things were a little clean-cut, don't forget, so the idea of our story getting out was horrifying to us.\" Other bands of the time projected street-tough images, but The Four Seasons cleaned themselves up in order to be palatable for mainstream listeners.\n\nBrickman and Elice also used material from interviews with surviving Four Seasons members Gaudio, Frankie Valli and Tommy DeVito. Brickman noted that each member had his own perspective on what happened during their tenure as a group. Of the three, they approached DeVito last, who told them, \"Don't listen to those guys. I'll tell you what really happened.\" Elice said that getting DeVito's version was a \"eureka moment\" and the contradiction in their stories ended up being incorporated in the musical for a Rashomon effect. The writers were also contacted by family members of the late mob boss Gyp DeCarlo to ensure that he would be portrayed respectfully. \n\nAlthough Gaudio was part of the initial development team, he wasn't involved in the creative process during tryouts, and only met the cast once the show had premiered. Gaudio, Valli and DeVito had decided to step back from the show's creative process because they lacked objectivity, and they left it to Brickman, Elice and McAnuff to take the story to the stage. However, Gaudio and Valli still had final say on whether to end the show if they didn't like it.\n\nProductions\n\nJersey Boys premiered at the La Jolla Playhouse at University of California, San Diego, in an out-of-town tryout on October 5, 2004 and ran through January 16, 2005 Christian Hoff, David Norona, Daniel Reichard and J. Robert Spencer played The Four Seasons. At the end of the tryout, Norona, who originated the role of Frankie Valli, was replaced by John Lloyd Young, who had originally auditioned for the role of Tommy DeVito. \n\nThe musical began previews on Broadway on October 4, 2005 and officially opened on November 6, 2005 at the August Wilson Theatre. The cast starred John Lloyd Young as Frankie Valli, Christian Hoff as Tommy DeVito, Daniel Reichard as Bob Gaudio, and J. Robert Spencer as Nick Massi. The musical is directed by Des McAnuff, the then-artistic director at La Jolla Playhouse, with choreography by Sergio Trujillo. The Broadway production had 38 previews and is still running. It reached its 4093rd performance on September 22, 2015, making it the 12th longest-running show on Broadway. Notable cast replacements include Andy Karl and Richard H. Blake as Tommy DeVito, Sebastian Arcelus as Bob Gaudio, and Ryan Molloy, who originated the role in the West End production, as Frankie Valli.\n\nThe first national US tour of the musical began on December 10, 2006, at the Curran Theatre in San Francisco and went on to play in 38 cities. Jersey Boys played at the Forrest Theatre in Philadelphia where it broke the box office record 8 times before moving on to a return engagement in Boston. \n\nIn May 2007, while the first national tour continued (with Steve Gouveia from the original Broadway cast as Nick Massi), a second company debuted at the Curran and ended as an open-ended run at Chicago's Bank of America Theatre, beginning on October 5, 2007. The Chicago cast appeared on stage in the 2007 Emmy Awards in a tribute to HBO's The Sopranos. A special holiday return engagement played at the Curran Theatre from November 20 – December 30, 2007, starring Rick Faugno as Frankie Valli, Andrew Rannells as Bob Gaudio, Bryan McElroy as Tommy DeVito and Jeff Leibow as Nick Massi. The majority of this cast became the original Las Vegas cast, which debuted at The Palazzo Hotel on Sunday, May 3, 2008, in the newly built Jersey Boys Theatre. The show temporarily closed on January 1, 2012 and reopened on March 6, 2012 at Paris Las Vegas. \n\nThe musical made its West End debut at London's Prince Edward Theatre in February 2008. The creative team were the same that brought the production to Broadway. Principal cast were Ryan Molloy as Frankie Valli, Stephen Ashfield as Bob Gaudio, Glenn Carter as Tommy DeVito, Philip Bulcock as Nick Massi, Stuart Milligan as DeCarlo and Tom Lorcan as Donnie/Knuckles. The production won the Laurence Olivier Award for Best New Musical. Molloy performed the lead role for six years, making him the longest-running star in a West End musical. The production moved to the Piccadilly Theatre on March 15, 2014, the same day that John Lloyd Young assumed the role of Frankie Valli. \n\nThe Australian production opened at the Princess Theatre in Melbourne on July 4, 2009. Principal cast members were Bobby Fox as Frankie Valli, Stephen Mahy as Bob Gaudio, Scott Johnson as Tommy DeVito and Glaston Toft as Nick Massi. The Melbourne production closed on July 25, 2010 and the Sydney production opened in September 2010 with the same principal cast. The Sydney production closed on 18 December 2011 and the show opened in Auckland in April 2012, running through June 17, 2012. \n\nDue to the success of the national tour's long stop at Toronto Centre for the Arts in Toronto, Ontario in Autumn 2008, a Toronto production opened on December 12, 2008 with a new, mostly Canadian cast that included Jeremy Kushnier and Jenny Lee Stern from the first national tour. This production closed on August 22, 2010, on the show's second anniversary. \n\nAn international tour with an all South African cast ran in Singapore at the Marina Bay Sands resort from November 23, 2012 to January 27, 2013. The production then performed in Johannesburg, South Africa at the Teatro at Montecasino on April 3, 2013 and at Artscape Cape Town on June 19, 2013. This company also performed at the Zorlu Center PSM, the Performing Arts Center in Istanbul, Turkey from November 13–24, 2013 and in South Korea from January 17 to March 23, 2014. The same production performed an edited family-friendly version without profanity at Istana Budaya, Malaysia from April 15 to 27, 2014. This cast includes Grant Almiral as Frankie Valli, Daniel Buys as Tommy DeVito, Kenneth Meyer as Bob Gaudio and Emmanuel Castis as Nick Massi.\n\nA Dutch production, produced by Stage Entertainment, opened at the Beatrix Theatre in Utrecht on September 22, 2013. This production features the songs performed in English and the dialogue performed in Dutch, making it the first time the show has been performed in a language other than English. The cast includes Tim Driesen as Frankie Valli, René van Kooten as Tommy DeVito, Dieter Spileers as Bob Gaudio and Robbert van den Bergh as Nick Massi.\n\nA national UK tour was launched in autumn 2014, opening at Palace Theatre, Manchester, where it ran from September 4 to October 4. This production has the same creative team as the Broadway and West End productions. The cast includes Tim Driesen reprising his role from the Dutch production as Frankie Valli, with Stephen Webb as Tommy DeVito, Sam Ferriday as Bob Gaudio and Lewis Griffiths as Nick Massi. The production's tour stops include the Edinburgh Playhouse (Edinburgh), Regent Theatre (Stoke), Hull New Theatre (Hull), Mayflower Theatre (Southampton), Sunderland Empire Theatre (Sunderland) and New Alexandra Theatre (Birmingham) \n\nIn late 2014, a production tour of the United States performed in a number of US cities, including Denver (10–14 December).\n\nA Japanese production, Directed by Shuntaro Fujita, opened at the Theatre Crea in Tokyo on July 1, 2016. The cast includes Akinori Nakagawa as Frankie Valli. \n\nA tour in nineteen cities of the United States is scheduled from March 2016 through March 2017. \n\nSynopsis\n\nAct I\n\n;Spring\n\"Ces soirées-là\", a modern pop-rap song that was released in 2000, is performed. Tommy DeVito arrives, introduces himself and explains how the song is a cover of The Four Seasons' \"December, 1963 (Oh, What a Night)\". He offers to tell the story of the band, explaining how he started out with the group \"The Variety Trio\" with his brother Nick DeVito and friend Nick Massi, eventually discovering teenager Frankie Castelluccio and taking him under his wing, teaching him everything he knows (\"The Early Years: A Scrapbook\"). During these early years Nick Massi helped train Frankie to sing, Tommy went in and out of prison, Frankie changed his last name to Valli, Tommy and Frankie developed a good relationship with mob boss Gyp DeCarlo, and Frankie fell in love with and married Mary Delgado. Musically, the band was still struggling and kept changing their name and sound but without any dramatic success. One day friend and fellow Jersey boy Joe Pesci comes up to Tommy and says that he knows a singer-songwriter who'd make the perfect fourth for their band: Bob Gaudio.\n\n;Summer\nBob Gaudio takes over the narration, telling the audience that no matter what Tommy says, he wasn't plucked from obscurity by him, since he already had a hit single with \"Short Shorts\". Bob goes with Joe Pesci to see the band perform, and is immediately impressed by Frankie's voice. Bob performs a song he'd just written: \"Cry for Me\" on piano, which Frankie, Nick Massi and then Tommy joining in with vocals, bass and guitar respectively. They negotiate an agreement, though Tommy is at first skeptical that Bobby (then still a teenager) will be good for the band. The band eventually gets a contract with producer Bob Crewe but only to sing back-up (\"Backup Sessions\"). Crewe insists that the band has an \"identity crisis\" and needs to make a firm decision on a name and a sound. The band name themselves after The Four Seasons bowling alley, and Bobby writes them three songs that finally propel them to stardom: \"Sherry\", \"Big Girls Don't Cry\" and \"Walk Like a Man\". In the wake of their success, Bob also chalks up a personal first by losing his virginity (\"December, 1963 (Oh, What a Night)\"). The band's success means that they tour a lot more, along the way discovering the girl band The Angels (\"My Boyfriend's Back\"). Unfortunately, the constant touring strains Frankie's marriage to Mary, and they eventually divorce (\"My Eyes Adored You\"). The band continues to enjoy chart successes (\"Dawn (Go Away)\") until after a concert the band is approached by a loan shark out to claim money owed by Tommy (\"Walk Like a Man (reprise)\").\n\nAct II\n\n; Fall\nNick Massi, taking over as Narrator, explains that Bob was so focused on the band's musical success and future that he couldn't see that the band had been in trouble for some time. Tommy's been racking up debts, and a forgotten bill during a previous tour lands the band in jail over the weekend, which strains things between Tommy and Bob (\"Big Man in Town\"). Nick observes that Tommy became jealous of Frankie's success and closeness with Bobby, and attempted to seduce Frankie's new girlfriend Lorraine. The two never confronted each other about it, but the old friendship was not what it used to be. When the loan shark approaches the band for the $150,000 owed by Tommy, Frankie goes to Gyp DeCarlo for help despite Tommy's insistence that he doesn't need it (\"Beggin'\"). The band, Gyp, and the loan shark come to agreement: Tommy is to be \"sequestered\" in Las Vegas where the mob can keep an eye on him, and the band will willingly cover the debt, along with an additional half a million in unpaid taxes that Tommy kept hidden from the group. At this time, Nick declares that he's tired of everything and wants out (\"Stay/Let's Hang On!\").\n\n; Winter\nFrankie takes over narration, explaining that though he owes Tommy a great deal, he's aware that their relationship wasn't ideal, and he never understood why Nick decided to leave. Frankie and Bob find replacements to keep the band a quartet (\"Opus 17 (Don't You Worry 'Bout Me)\") until Bobby announces that he's never been comfortable in the spotlight and that Frankie should be a single, i.e. Frankie Valli and the Four Seasons. In his personal life, Frankie's relationship with his daughter Francine is strained and he breaks up with girlfriend Lorraine (\"Bye, Bye, Baby (Baby, Goodbye)\"). Frankie continues to have success thanks to Bobby's songs, and hits jackpot with \"C'mon Marianne\" and the almost-never-released \"Can't Take My Eyes Off You\" which Bobby fights to get airplay for. Along with the success of \"Working My Way Back to You\", Frankie and Bobby finally finish paying off Tommy's debts, and Frankie's life is good until his daughter Francine dies from a drug overdose (\"Fallen Angel\")\n\n; Finale\nBob Crewe describes The Four Seasons' 1990 induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, which reunited the original four members on stage one last time (\"Rag Doll\"). Each member takes a moment to address the audience in turn, explaining his pride at having been with the band and briefly notes what he did afterwards (\"Who Loves You\").\n\nPrincipal roles and casts\n\nMusic\n\nMusical numbers\n\n; Act I\n* \"Ces soirées-là (Oh What a Night) - Paris, 2000\" – French Rap Star Yannick and Backup Group\n* \"Silhouettes\" – Tommy DeVito, Nick Massi, Nick DeVito and Frankie Valli\n* \"You're the Apple of My Eye\" – Tommy DeVito, Nick Massi and Nick DeVito\n* \"I Can't Give You Anything But Love\" – Frankie Valli\n* \"Earth Angel\" – Tommy DeVito and Full Company\n* \"A Sunday Kind of Love\" – Frankie Valli, Tommy DeVito, Nick Massi and Nick's Date\n* \"My Mother's Eyes\" – Frankie Valli\n* \"I Go Ape\" – The Four Lovers\n* \"(Who Wears) Short Shorts\" – The Royal Teens\n* \"I'm in the Mood for Love\" / \"Moody's Mood for Love\" – Frankie Valli\n* \"Cry for Me\" – Bob Gaudio, Frankie Valli, Tommy DeVito and Nick Massi\n* \"An Angel Cried\" – Hal Miller and The Rays\n* \"I Still Care\" – Miss Frankie Nolan and The Romans\n* \"Trance\" – Billy Dixon and The Topix\n* \"Sherry\" – The Four Seasons\n* \"Big Girls Don't Cry\" – The Four Seasons\n* \"Walk Like a Man\" – The Four Seasons\n* \"December, 1963 (Oh, What a Night)\" – Bob Gaudio and Full Company\n* \"My Boyfriend's Back\" – The Angels\n* \"My Eyes Adored You\" – Frankie Valli, Mary Delgado and The Four Seasons\n* \"Dawn (Go Away)\" – The Four Seasons\n* \"Walk Like a Man\" (reprise) – Full Company\n\n; Act II\n* \"Big Man in Town\" – The Four Seasons\n* \"Beggin'\" – The Four Seasons\n* \"Stay\" – Bob Gaudio, Frankie Valli and Nick Massi\n* \"Let's Hang On! (To What We've Got)\" – Bob Gaudio and Frankie Valli\n* \"Opus 17 (Don't You Worry 'bout Me)\" – Bob Gaudio, Frankie Valli and The New Seasons\n* \"Bye Bye Baby\" – Frankie Valli and The Four Seasons\n* \"C'mon Marianne\" – Frankie Valli and The Four Seasons\n* \"Can't Take My Eyes Off You\" – Frankie Valli\n* \"Working My Way Back to You\" – Frankie Valli and The Four Seasons\n* \"Fallen Angel\" – Frankie Valli\n* \"Rag Doll\" – The Four Seasons\n* \"Who Loves You\" – The Four Seasons and Full Company\n\nInstrumentation\n\nThe score for Jersey Boys requires a small orchestra with nine musicians: three keyboards, guitar, bass, drums, two woodwind players, and trumpet. The first woodwind player doubles on alto and tenor saxophone, clarinet, flute, and oboe. The second woodwind part doubles on tenor and baritone sax, clarinet, and bass clarinet. The trumpet also doubles on flugelhorn.\n\nCritical response\n\nBen Brantley of The New York Times wrote, \"THE CROWD GOES WILD. I'm talking about the real, mostly middle-aged crowd at the August Wilson Theater, who seem to have forgotten what year it is or how old they are or, most important, that John Lloyd Young is not Frankie Valli. And everything that has led up to that curtain call feels, for just a second, as real and vivid as the sting of your hands clapping together.\" \n\nCharles Spencer from The Daily Telegraph wrote: \"Overpaid, over-sexed and over here, it will, I suspect be some time before London says Bye Bye Baby (Baby Goodbye) to the PHENOMENAL Jersey Boys.\" Benedict Nightingale from The Times said, “Oh What a Night. There were times when I felt that the performers were making even the Beatles sound somewhat lacking in musical texture.\" Quentin Letts from The Daily Mail said, \"I must say I thoroughly enjoyed it. This is a big thumper of a show with fantastic songs.\" \n\nRecording and adaptations\n\nAn original cast recording was made by Rhino Entertainment, Jersey Boys: Original Broadway Cast Recording (Rhino R2 73271), released in November 2005, which won the 2007 Grammy Award for Best Musical Show Album. In February 2008, the album was certified Gold, having shipped more than 500,000 copies in the US. In October 2009, the cast album was certified Platinum, selling over 1,000,000 copies in the United States. \n\nA Movie adaptation of the musical, directed by Clint Eastwood was released in 2014.\n\nCharity performances\n\nThe West End cast of Jersey Boys appeared as a guest act for the Royal Variety Performance 2008, which was staged at the London Palladium on December 11 in the presence of senior members of the Royal family. The Royal Variety Performance is a gala event held annually at a major British theatre, to raise money for the Entertainment Artistes' Benevolent Fund. In 2010, The West End cast of Jersey Boys performed a show, with the profits going to Children In Need. The show ended with Pudsey Bear joining in to sing a medley, and raised £60,150 for the charity. In 2009 the cast also appeared as a guest act for Children In Need.\n\nJersey Boys Chicago has been honored two years in a row at the Broadway Cares event for being the top fundraiser in the Tour category. In 2008, Jersey Boys Chicago raised $220,000 for BC/EFA. \n\nFor every ticket sold for every Broadway performance in the month of October 2010, $1 was donated to the VH1 Save the Music Foundation. Jersey Boys aimed to raise funds to restore one full music education program in a New York City school. The show eventually raised $43,521, enough to restore the instrumental music education program at PS 85 in the Bronx.[http://www.vh1savethemusic.com/node/5477 Jersey Boys at www.vh1savethemusic.com] Plans were made to donate additional funds raised to a second VH1 Save The Music Foundation grant recipient school.\n\nThe Boys in Concert\n\nFour actors of the original Broadway production, Christian Hoff, Michael Longoria, Daniel Reichard and J. Robert Spencer, launched a concert tour titled The Boys in Concert in 2010. Frankie Valli, Bob Gaudio, Marshall Brickman and Rick Elice sued the production, claiming that it \"steals songs, stage elements and copyrighted logo\" that imply that it is an authorized spin-off of Jersey Boys. The production was rebranded as The 4 Hitmen, and Hoff, Longoria, Reichard and Spencer counter-sued, claiming that the accusations were false, and alleging the use of \"bully tactics\" in an \"effort to injure the livelihood and the reputations\" of the actors. On September 23, 2010, Valli and company dropped the original suit, on the condition that the name of the performance is changed to distance itself from Jersey Boys. As of February 2013, this production is still active, and is named The Midtown Men. \n\nAwards and nominations\n\nOriginal Broadway production\n\nOriginal London production\n\nIn popular culture\n\nThe HBO series The Sopranos made several nods to Jersey Boys. For example:\nFrankie Valli played Mob captain Rusty Millio, one of a group of just-released prison felons referred to the show's fictional journalists as \"the Class of 2004\". \nIn The Sopranos episode, \"The Ride\" (May 7, 2006), Marianucci Gaultieri accompanies several other Green Grove Retirement Home residents on a bus trip to see Jersey Boys.\nAnd the Season 6 episode, \"Walk Like a Man\" (May 6, 2007), is titled after the Four Seasons' eponymous 1963 song.", "Frankie Valli (born Francesco Stephen Castelluccio; May 3, 1934) is an American popular singer, known as the frontman of The Four Seasons beginning in 1960. He is known for his unusually powerful falsetto voice.\n\nValli scored 29 Top 40 hits with The Four Seasons, one Top 40 hit under The Four Seasons' alias 'The Wonder Who?', and nine Top 40 hits as a solo artist. As a member of The Four Seasons, Valli's number-one hits included \"Sherry\" (1962), \"Big Girls Don't Cry\" (1962), \"Walk Like a Man\" (1963), \"Rag Doll\" (1964) and \"December, 1963 (Oh, What a Night)\" (1975). Valli's recording of the song \"Can't Take My Eyes Off You\" reached number two in 1967. \"You're Ready Now\", a Valli solo recording from 1966, became a surprise hit in the UK as part of the Northern soul scene and hit number eleven on the British pop charts in December 1970. As a solo artist, Valli scored number-one hits with the songs \"My Eyes Adored You\" (1974) and \"Grease\" (1978).\n\nValli, Tommy DeVito, Nick Massi and Bob Gaudio - the original members of The Four Seasons - were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1990 and the Vocal Group Hall of Fame in 1999. \n\nEarly life\n\nValli was born Francesco Stephen Castelluccio, the eldest of three sons to an Italian family in the First Ward of Newark, New Jersey. His father, Anthony Castelluccio, was a barber and display designer for Lionel model trains; his mother, Mary Rinaldi, was a homemaker and beer company employee. He was inspired to take up a singing career at the age of seven after his mother took him to see the young Frank Sinatra at the Paramount Theater in New York City. His early mentor was singer \"Texas\" Jean Valli, from whom he obtained his last name. Until he could support himself with music, he worked as a barber.\n\nValli's birth year has been called into question. Valli never addressed the issue himself, until the 2007 posting at the Official Frankie Valli Site, sponsored by his current record label, Universal Records. Much of the previous official publicity surrounding his career used 1937 as the birth year. Other sources, such as the Bear Family Records release, titled \"The Four Lovers\" (BCD 15424), as well as a 1965 mug shot, available through The Smoking Gun, all identify his year of birth as 1934.\n\nMusic career\n\n1950s–1960s\n\nValli began his professional singing career in 1951 with the Variety Trio (Nickie DeVito, Tommy DeVito and Nick Macioci). Valli's desire to sing in public was initially granted when, having heard Valli sing, the group offered him a guest spot when the group performed. In late 1952, the Variety Trio disbanded and Valli, along with Tommy DeVito, became part of the house band at The Strand in New Brunswick, New Jersey. For his part, Valli played bass and sang.\n\nHe cut his first single, \"My Mother's Eyes\", in 1953 as \"Frankie Valley\", a variation on a name he adopted from \"Texas\" Jean Valli, a favorite female singer. Around this time, Valli and Tommy DeVito left the house band at The Strand and formed The Variatones with Hank Majewski, Frank Cattone and Billy Thompson. In 1956, as part of an audition backing a female singer, the group impressed New York record man Peter Paul, who had them auditioning at RCA Victor a week later.\n\nRenamed The Four Lovers, the group recorded several singles and one album's worth of tracks. They had a minor hit with \"You're the Apple of My Eye\" in 1956. Nickie DeVito and Hank Majewski left in 1958 to be replaced by Nick Macioci (now Nick Massi) and Hugh Garrity. Massi was in and out of the group, and, occasionally Charles Calello joined on accordion. The group continued to perform until 1959, when Bob Gaudio became a member. After a few more changes, the group was renamed \"The 4 Seasons\" after a cocktail lounge the group was at after auditioning in a big suburban bowling alley in 1960. \n\nAs the lead singer of The Four Seasons, Valli had a string of hits beginning with the number-one hit \"Sherry\" in 1962. As a footnote to this period of his career with The Four Seasons, the group's bassist and vocal arranger Nick Massi was replaced in 1965 by Charlie Calello, the group's instrumental arranger, and, then shortly thereafter, Calello was replaced by Joseph LaBracio, who went by the pseudonym Joe Long.\n\nDuring the 1960s, Gaudio and his then-songwriting partner, producer Bob Crewe, worked with Valli to craft solo recordings with varying degrees of success. This concept of a major recording artist performing solo in opposition to his or her own group performances was rare in the rock/pop world (Buddy Holly and The Crickets were an exception) and may have given tacit approval to other groups and members of other groups to pursue such a path. The potential to dominate the charts with group and solo recordings was great, and Valli, Gaudio and Crewe occasionally rose to the occasion with both great performances and commercial hits. Valli was the original artist to record the Gaudio-Crewe composition \"The Sun Ain't Gonna Shine (Anymore)\", a performance that was copied nearly note for note when recorded by The Walker Brothers, an American group based in England. The Walker Brothers version was a huge success. Valli continued to record solo performances and finally reached major success with the release of \"Can't Take My Eyes Off You\", which reached number two in the charts and was widely recorded by many other artists.\n\nValli's debut solo album was a gathering together of various single releases and a few new recordings. Before the release of Valli's second solo album, a single was released in July 1967 with the A-side \"I Make a Fool of Myself\", a record that reached number 18. Timeless, Valli's second solo album release was more coherent and Valli took more time in recording it. Timeless contains one Top 40 hit, \"To Give (The Reason I Live)\".\n\nValli ended the 1960s with a string of recordings that were included in the Valli/Four Seasons album Half & Half or released as various singles. The only hit to emerge at this time was the recording of \"The Girl I'll Never Know (Angels Never Fly This Low)\", reaching number 52.\n\n1970s–1990s\n\n\"You're Ready Now\", a Valli solo recording from 1966, became a surprise hit in the UK as part of the Northern soul scene and hit number eleven on the UK pop charts in December 1970. \n\nIn 1975, his single \"My Eyes Adored You\" hit number one on the Billboard Hot 100. In the same year, he also had a number six Billboard hit with the disco-laden \"Swearin' to God\", while a further UK Chart success came with \"Fallen Angel\", written by Guy Fletcher and Doug Flett; and produced by Bob Gaudio. Valli was in the UK charts with this at the same time as The Four Seasons enjoyed a UK hit with \"Silver Star\" on which Valli did not appear as lead.\n\nIn 1976, Valli covered The Beatles song \"A Day in the Life\" for the ephemeral musical documentary All This and World War II.\n\nIn 1978, he sang the theme song for the film version of the stage play Grease, a song written by Barry Gibb of the Bee Gees, which became a number one hit. He had two further chart successes the following year, \"Save Me, Save Me\" in November 1978, which entered the Billboard Easy Listening chart; and \"Fancy Dancer\" in January 1979, which entered the pop charts.\n\nValli began suffering from otosclerosis in 1967, forcing him to \"sing from memory\" in the latter part of the 1970s. Surgery performed by Los Angeles ear specialist Victor Goodhill restored most of his hearing by 1980. \n\nIn 1992, a new Four Seasons album was released entitled Hope and Glory.\n\nSince 2000\n\nIn 2005, the musical Jersey Boys opened on Broadway. Besides performances of many of Frankie Valli and The Four Seasons hit recordings, it features a biographical narrative, told as four separate points of view by each of the members of The Four Seasons (Tommy DeVito, Frankie Valli, Nick Massi and Bob Gaudio), with Valli himself portrayed by John Lloyd Young in the original production. The musical dramatizes several real-life incidents from Valli's life, including his estrangement from daughter Francine, who died in 1980. The show has been widely acclaimed, financially successful, and won six Tony Awards. The musical has touring companies around the world, as well as a version at Paris Las Vegas. This musical was adapted into a 2014 film of the same name directed by Clint Eastwood, with Young again appearing as Valli.\n\nIn October 2007, Valli released Romancing the '60s, an album containing covers of his favorite songs from the 1960s, two of which—\"Sunny\" and \"Any Day Now\"—he had previously recorded.\n\nIn October 2010, a duet version of \"The Biggest Part of Me\" by Valli and Juice Newton was released on Newton's album Duets: Friends & Memories.\n\nIn October 2012, Valli made his Broadway debut with a week-long concert engagement at the Broadway Theatre in New York starting October 19. \n\nFrom March 2016 to January 2017, \"Frankie Valli and the Four Seasons\" were touring the US, scheduled to play small-to-mid-size venues such as the Silver Legacy Casino in Reno, Nevada, the Celebrity Theatre in Phoenix, Arizona and the County Fair in Bloomsburg, Pennsylvania.\n\nActing career\n\nValli made an appearance in 1985 on Miami Vice season 2 episode 5 titled \"Buddies\". He played Frank Doss, an outfit Boss.\n\nIn 1998 he played the role of Frank LoCascio the former Consigliere of the Gambino crime family under John Gotti's regime in the TV movie Witness to the Mob.\n\nHe also made several appearances in Seasons 5 and 6 of the HBO series The Sopranos as mobster Rusty Millio (once referred to as \"The Mayor of Munchkin Land\"). Also, his and the Four Seasons' music is heard in other Sopranos episodes, especially in the one eponymously titled \"Big Girls Don't Cry\".\n\nValli made a special guest appearance (as himself) during Season 8 of Full House, on the episode \"DJ's Choice\". He appeared in the 2014 film And So It Goes.\n\nOn the November 21, 2014 episode of Hawaii Five-0 entitled \"Ka Hana malu (Inside Job)\", Valli played mysterious lawyer Leonard Cassano who was engaged to Carol Burnett's character, Aunt Deb. \n\nPersonal life\n\nValli has been married three times. He married his first wife, Mary Mandel, who already had a two-year-old daughter, when he was in his early twenties; they had two daughters together and divorced 13 years later in 1971. He married MaryAnn Hannagan in 1974, and that marriage lasted eight years. In 1984 he married Randy Clohessy, 26 years his junior; the couple had three sons and separated in 2004. In 1980 his stepdaughter, Celia, was killed when she fell off a fire escape, and six months later a drug overdose claimed the life of his youngest daughter Francine. \n\nValli has been a supporter of heritage-related causes, particularly the National Italian American Foundation (NIAF). In 2006, he received the NIAF Lifetime Achievement Award at the foundation's Anniversary Gala. In 2008, NIAF presented a scholarship in his name to an Italian-American music student during the foundation's East Coast Gala.\n\nIn May 2012, Valli received the Ellis Island Medal of Honor for his commitment to many humanitarian causes. \n\nDiscography\n\n;Singles\n\n;Studio albums\nFor albums recorded as part of The Four Seasons, see Discography of The Four Seasons\n\nMany of Valli's solo recordings, recorded before 1975 were recorded with the participation of one or more of The Four Seasons.\n\n;Compilations and miscellaneous Four Seasons albums with Frankie Valli \"solo\" recordings\nApril 1970: Half & Half - Philips PHS 600-341 (five tracks by Frankie Valli; five tracks by The 4 Seasons)\nMay 1972: Chameleon - MoWest MW108L (two tracks by Frankie Valli; seven tracks by The Four Seasons)\nDecember 1975: Valli Gold - Private Stock PS 2001\nApril 1978: Frankie Valli Hits - Private Stock PS 7012\nDecember 1979: Very Best of Frankie Valli - MCA 3198\nAugust 1980: Superstar Series Volume 4 - Motown M5-104V1 (five tracks by Frankie Valli; four tracks by The Four Seasons)\n1988: Frankie Valli and The Four Seasons: 25th Anniversary Collection - Rhino Records Inc RNRD 72998-2 (twelve tracks by Frankie Valli; forty-two tracks by either The Four Seasons or The Wonder Who?)\n1990: Volume 2: Rarities - Rhino Records Inc R2 70924 (two tracks by Frankie Valli; sixteen tracks by The Four Seasons)\n1994: The 4 Seasons Present Frankie Valli Solo / Timeless (2 LPs on 1 CD + bonus tracks) - ACE Records Ltd CDCHD 538\n1996: Half & Half (plus 6 bonus tracks) - ACE Records Ltd CDCHD 635 (eight tracks by Frankie Valli; eight tracks by The Four Seasons)\nJuly 1996: Greatest Hits - Curb Records D2-77714\nMay 2001: In Season: The Frankie Valli & The 4 Seasons Anthology - Rhino/Warner Special Products R2 74266 OPCD-5508 (fourteen tracks by Frankie Valli; thirty-seven tracks by either The Four Seasons or The Wonder Who?)\nJune 2007: ...Jersey Beat... The Music of Frankie Valli & The 4 Seasons - Rhino R2 74852 3 CDs + 1 DVD (thirteen tracks by Frankie Valli; sixty-three tracks by either The Four Seasons or The Wonder Who?) (DVD contains two solo performances by Frankie Valli and ten group performances by The Four Seasons)\nApril 2008: The Four Seasons Present Frankie Valli Solo / Timeless - Collector's Choice Music CCM-927\nApril 2008: Closeup / Valli - Collector's Choice Music CCM-928 (this CD contains a longer version of \"Swearin' to God\" than the original album release of February 1975. This version clocks in at 10:35. Also, the tracks \"Can't Get You Off My Mind\" and \"Easily\" have been edited down from their original album lengths.)\nApril 2008: Our Day Will Come / Lady Put the Light Out - Collector's Choice Music CCM-929\nApril 2008: Frankie Valli... Is the Word / Heaven Above Me - Collector's Choice Music CCM-930\n*May 2008: The Motown Years - Hip-O Select.com Motown A Universal Music Company B0010777-02 2 CDs (fourteen tracks by Frankie Valli; thirteen tracks by The Four Seasons)", "The Four Seasons is an American rock and pop band that became internationally successful in the 1960s and 1970s. The Vocal Group Hall of Fame has stated that the group was the most popular rock band before the Beatles. Since 1970, they have also been known at times as Frankie Valli and the Four Seasons. In 1960, the group known as the Four Lovers evolved into the Four Seasons, with Frankie Valli as the lead singer, Bob Gaudio (formerly of the Royal Teens) on keyboards and tenor vocals, Tommy DeVito on lead guitar and baritone vocals, and Nick Massi on electric bass and bass vocals.\n\nThe legal name of the organization is the Four Seasons Partnership, formed by Gaudio and Valli after a failed audition in 1960. While singers, producers, and musicians have come and gone, Gaudio and Valli remain the group's constant (with each owning fifty percent of the act and its assets, including virtually all of its recording catalog). Gaudio no longer plays live, leaving Valli the only member of the group from its inception who is touring .\n\nThe Four Seasons (group members 1960–1966) were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1990, and joined the Vocal Group Hall of Fame in 1999. They are one of the best-selling musical groups of all time, having sold an estimated 100 million records worldwide. \n\nHistory\n\nBefore the Four Seasons\n\nFrankie Valli's first commercial release was \"My Mother's Eyes\" (as Frankie Valley) in 1953. The following year, he and guitarist Tommy DeVito formed the Variatones (with Hank Majewski, rhythm guitar, Frank Cattone, accordion, and Billy Thompson, drums), which between 1954 and 1956 performed and recorded under a variety of names before settling on the name The Four Lovers. The same year, the quartet released their first record, \"You're the Apple of My Eye\", which appeared on the Billboard Hot 100 singles chart, peaking at #62. Five additional Four Lovers singles (on RCA Victor) were released over the next year, with virtually no sales, airplay, or jukebox play. In 1957, the group's seventh single (this time on Epic) had a similar lack of success. \n\nFrom 1956 until 1958, the group stayed together, performing in clubs and lounges as the Four Lovers and recording on various record labels with various names: Frankie Tyler, Frankie Valley, Frankie Valley and the Travelers, Frankie Valley and the Romans, the Village Voices, and the Topics are some of the 18 \"stage names\" used individually or collectively by the members of the group. In 1958, Charles Calello replaced Nick Massi on bass in the lineup.\n\nIn 1959, the group started working with producer/songwriter Bob Crewe, primarily for session work (Crewe wrote \"I Go Ape\", which Valli recorded with the intention of releasing it as a \"solo\" single). Later that year, the Four Lovers were performing in Baltimore on the same stage as the Royal Teens, who were riding the wave of success of \"Short Shorts\", a song co-written by then-15-year-old Bob Gaudio, who was also the Royal Teens' keyboardist. In late 1959, Gaudio was added to the Four Lovers on keyboards and guitar, as a replacement for rhythm guitarist Hank Majewski. Early the following year, Nick Massi returned to replace Calello, who remained the band's musical arranger.\n\nIn 1960, despite the changes of personnel, the fortunes of the Four Lovers had not changed—they failed an audition for a lounge at a Union Township, Union County, New Jersey bowling establishment. According to Gaudio, \"We figured we'll come out of this with something. So we took the name of the bowling alley. It was called the Four Seasons.\" Despite the last few years of frustration of the Four Lovers, this proved to be the turning point for the group. Later, on a handshake agreement between keyboardist/composer Bob Gaudio and lead singer Frankie Valli, the Four Seasons Partnership was formed.\n\nThe rise of the Four Seasons\n\nThe Four Seasons signed as artists to Crewe's production company, and they released their first Crewe-produced single under their new name in 1961 (\"Bermuda\"/\"Spanish Lace\" on Gone Records). The single did not chart. The group continued working with producer Bob Crewe as background vocalists, and sometimes leads under different group names, for productions on Crewe's own Topix label. As a follow-up, Bob Gaudio wrote a song that, after some discussion between Crewe and Gaudio, was titled \"Sherry\". After the song was recorded, Crewe and the members of the group solicited record labels to release it. It was Frankie Valli who spoke with Randy Wood, West coast sales manager for Vee-Jay Records (not the founder of Dot Records) who, in turn, suggested the release of \"Sherry\" to the decision makers at Vee-Jay. \"Sherry\" made enough of an impression that Crewe was able to sign a deal between his production company and Vee-Jay for its release. They were the first white artists to sign with Vee-Jay. \n\nIn 1962, the group released their first album, featuring the single \"Sherry\", which was not only their first charted hit but also their first number-one song. Under the guidance of Bob Crewe, the Four Seasons followed up \"Sherry\" with several million-selling hits, generally composed by Crewe and Gaudio, including \"Big Girls Don't Cry\" (their second #1 hit), \"Walk Like a Man\" (their third #1), \"Candy Girl\", \"Ain't That a Shame\", and several others. In addition, they released a Christmas album in December 1962 and charted with a unique rendition of \"Santa Claus Is Coming to Town\".\n\nFrom 1962 to early 1964, only the Beach Boys matched the Four Seasons in record sales in the United States, and their first three Vee-Jay non-holiday single releases marked the first time that a rock band hit #1 on the Billboard singles charts with three consecutive entries (ignoring their version of \"Santa Claus Is Coming to Town\").\n\nIn 1962 they were invited to perform their hit \"Big Girls Don't Cry\" on the show American Bandstand.\n\nFrom Vee-Jay to Philips\n\nDespite the group's success, Vee-Jay Records was in financial distress. The label had released several early Beatles singles in America. When the Beatles became wildly popular, Vee-Jay was swamped with orders, and they shipped more than two million Beatles records in a single month. The huge demands of mass production, the cash-flow problems involved, and the loss of the Beatles when Trans-Global (a firm licensed by EMI to distribute its products) canceled Vee-Jay's contract on August 3, 1963, due to non-payment of royalties, found Vee-Jay hard-pressed to stay afloat. Vee-Jay continued to produce one Beatles album (in various forms) in defiance of the cancellation. After over a year of legal negotiations, Capitol Records was finally able to stop Vee-Jay, effective October 15, 1964. \n\nWhile the label went through internal turmoil with the Beatles and Capitol Records, a separate royalty dispute between Vee-Jay and the Four Seasons headed to court. In January 1964, after several successful albums but a lack of money from Vee-Jay, the Seasons left Vee-Jay and moved to Philips Records, then a division of Mercury Records. In the 1965 settlement of the lawsuit, Vee-Jay retained release rights for all material the group recorded for the label. Vee-Jay exercised those rights liberally over the following year. The group was obligated to deliver one final album to Vee-Jay, which they did in the form of a \"faux\" live LP. (When Vee-Jay was finally declared bankrupt in 1966, the Four Seasons' Vee-Jay catalog reverted to the band to settle unpaid royalties, and the tracks were then reissued by Philips.) \n\nThe change of label did not diminish the popularity of the Four Seasons in 1964, nor did the onslaught of the British Invasion and Beatlemania. In fact, the Seasons were the only act to have had a Hot 100 #1 hit before, during, and after the years that the Beatles had their Hot 100 #1 hits. However, \"Dawn (Go Away)\" (recorded for Atlantic Records, but never released by them), was kept from the #1 spot on the Hot 100 by no fewer than three Beatles singles in the March 21, 1964, edition (two weeks later, the top five slots were filled by Beatles singles). In a two-record set dubbed The Beatles vs the Four Seasons: The International Battle of the Century!, Vee-Jay created an elaborate two-disc package that the purchaser could use to write on and score individual recordings by their favorite artist. The discs were reissues of the albums Introducing... The Beatles and Golden Hits of the Four Seasons, featuring each original album's label, title and catalog number. Today, this album package is a collector's item. \n\nOne group, several acts\n\nNick Massi left the Four Seasons in September 1965. The group's arranger, Charles Calello (a former member of the Four Lovers), stepped in as a temporary replacement. A few months later, Joe Long was permanently hired and became a mainstay of the group on bass and backing vocals until 1975, with Calello returning to arranging. In the meantime, the Four Seasons released recordings under a variety of names, including the Valli Boys, the Wonder Who?, and Frankie Valli. Every Valli \"solo\" recording from 1965 to \"My Eyes Adored You\" in 1974 was recorded by the Four Seasons at the same time and in the same sessions as other Four Seasons material. Valli's first post-1960 single without the Seasons was 1975's \"Swearin' to God\".\n\nMore Top 20 singles followed in 1965, 1966, and 1967, including \"Let's Hang On!\", \"Don't Think Twice, It's All Right\" (as the Wonder Who?), \"Working My Way Back to You\", \"Opus 17 (Don't You Worry 'bout Me)\", \"I've Got You Under My Skin\", \"Can't Take My Eyes Off You\" (released under Valli's name as a \"solo\" single), \"Beggin'\", \"Tell It to the Rain\", \"C'mon Marianne\", and \"I Make a Fool of Myself\" (Frankie Valli \"solo\"). In addition, other Crewe/Gaudio songs that did not become hits for either Valli or the Four Seasons became international hits in cover versions, such as \"Silence Is Golden\" (The Tremeloes) and \"The Sun Ain't Gonna Shine (Anymore)\" (The Walker Brothers). However, 1968's \"Will You Love Me Tomorrow\" was the group's last Top 40 hit for seven years (reaching #24), just after Valli's last \"solo\" hit of the 1960s, the #29 charted \"To Give (The Reason I Live)\".\n\nThe end of the 1960s and move to Motown\n\nBy 1969 the group's popularity had deteriorated as public interest moved towards rock with a harder edge and music with more socially conscious lyrics. Aware of that, Bob Gaudio partnered with folk-rock songwriter Jake Holmes to write a concept album titled The Genuine Imitation Life Gazette, which discussed contemporary issues from the group's standpoint as men in their thirties, including issues such as divorce (\"Saturday's Father\") and Kinks-style satirical looks at modern life (e.g., \"American Crucifixion and Resurrection\", \"Mrs. Stately's Garden\", \"Genuine Imitation Life\"). The album cover was designed to resemble a newspaper's front page, pre-dating Jethro Tull's Thick as a Brick by several years; however, the album was a commercial failure, although it did catch the attention of Frank Sinatra, whose 1969 album Watertown was also done by Gaudio, Holmes and Calello. However, the group's new direction led to group's departure from Philips shortly thereafter. The Seasons' last single on Philips, 1970's \"Patch of Blue,\" featured the group's name as \"Frankie Valli & the Four Seasons,\" but the change in billing did not alter the act's lack of success. Reverting to the \"Four Seasons\" billing without Valli's name up front, the group issued a single on Crewe's eponymous label, \"And That Reminds Me,\" which got as high as number 45 on the Billboard chart.\n\nAfter leaving Philips, the Four Seasons recorded a one-off single for the Warner Brothers label in England. John Stefan, the band's lead trumpeter, had arranged the horn section parts for these recordings. This single was never released in the USA. The songs were \"Sleeping Man\" backed with \"Whatever You Say\". Following that single, the group signed to Motown. The first LP, Chameleon, failed to sell after it was released by Motown subsidiary label MoWest Records in 1972. A Frankie Valli \"solo\" single from 1971 (\"Love Isn't Here\" on Motown) and three Four Seasons singles (\"Walk On, Don't Look Back\" on MoWest in 1972, \"How Come\" and \"Hickory\" on Motown in 1973) sank without a trace. A song from Chameleon that was later to become a Northern soul hit and reach the top 10 of the UK Singles Chart, \"The Night\", was not commercially released as a single by Motown in the United States after promotional copies (showing the artist as Frankie Valli) were distributed in 1972.\n\nIn late 1973 and early 1974, the Four Seasons recorded eight songs for a planned second Motown album which the company refused to release to the public. Later in 1974, the record label and the band parted ways. On behalf of the Four Seasons Partnership, Valli initially tried to purchase the entire collection of master recordings the group had made for Motown. Upon hearing the amount needed to buy them all, Valli arranged to purchase one recording for $4000 (US): \"My Eyes Adored You\". Valli took the tape to Private Stock Records' owner and founder Larry Uttal, who, after repeated listenings of the Four Seasons recording, wanted to release it as a Frankie Valli \"solo\" single. While the group remained unsigned in the later part of 1974, Valli had a new label—and a new solo career.\n\nResurgence\n\nWhile the hits for the Four Seasons had dried up in the first half of the 1970s, the group never lost its popularity as a performing act. Longtime member Joe Long stayed in the group until 1975. The new lineup boasted two new lead singers in Don Ciccone (formerly of the Critters) and Gerry Polci, who eased the singing load on an ailing Frankie Valli (who was gradually losing his hearing due to otosclerosis, though eventually surgery restored most of it). As \"My Eyes Adored You\" climbed the Hot 100 singles chart in early 1975, Valli and Gaudio managed to get the Four Seasons signed with Warner Bros. Records as the disco era dawned. At the same time, Uttal was persuaded to release The Four Seasons Story, a two-record compilation of the group's biggest hit singles from 1962 to 1970. It quickly became a gold record, selling over one million copies before the RIAA started awarding platinum records for million-selling albums.\n\nIn 1975, record sales exploded for both Valli and the Four Seasons as both acts had million-selling singles in the United States (\"My Eyes Adored You\" hit #1 on the Hot 100 for Valli in March, \"Who Loves You\" peaked at #3 in November for the group). In the United Kingdom, Tamla Motown released \"The Night\" as a single and saw it reach the #7 position on the UK Singles Chart. \"My Eyes Adored You\" was also a Top 10 hit in the United Kingdom, in February of that year. Valli had his first truly solo hit in the summer of 1975 when the Bob Crewe-produced \"Swearin' to God\" followed \"My Eyes Adored You\" into the upper reaches of the Hot 100, peaking at the #6 position and capitalizing on the growing disco craze. The song was released in three forms: the eight-minute album version, the ten-minute extended 12-inch single version, and the four-minute single version. This record featured Patti Austin on bridge vocals, before she became well-known. Valli followed this with a discofied #11 hit version of Ruby & the Romantics' \"Our Day Will Come\", also featuring Austin.\n\nThe album Who Loves You became a surprise million-seller for the group, as it was the first Four Seasons album to prominently feature lead vocals by anyone other than Valli (\"Sorry\" on Half & Half had featured Gaudio, DeVito and Long minus Valli, while \"Wall Street Village Day\" on Genuine Imitation Life Gazette featured Valli on just a couple of 'bridge' section lead vocal lines). Gerry Polci did about half of the lead vocals, sharing them with Valli and one lead by Ciccone ('Slip Away'). The title song had Valli doing the lead on the verses, but none of the trademark falsettos in the chorus. It was a Top 10 British hit in October 1975, relaunching their career there. \"December, 1963 (Oh, What a Night)\" had Polci singing lead on the verses, Ciccone featured on specific sections, and Valli doing lead vocals only on the two bridge sections and backup vocals on the chorus. \"Silver Star\" had Polci doing all the lead vocals, with Valli on harmony vocals.\n\nThe Four Seasons opened 1976 atop the Billboard chart with their fifth #1 single, \"December, 1963 (Oh, What a Night)\", co-written by Bob Gaudio and his future wife Judy Parker. The single also hit number one in the United Kingdom. Although the group also scored minor chart placements with \"Silver Star\" (#38), \"Down the Hall\" (#65 in 1977) both sung by Polci, and \"Spend the Night in Love\" (#91 in 1980) which again featured Polci as main Lead vocalist and Valli singing the bridge section and contributing to backup group vocals, \"December, 1963\" marked the end of the Seasons' hit-making run. Both singles were hits in the United Kingdom, with Silver Star making the Top 10. (A dance remix version of \"December 1963\" returned them briefly to the upper reaches of the Billboard singles charts almost two decades later.)\n\nAfter disco\n\nThe success of Who Loves You increased the popularity of the Four Seasons as a touring group and reignited recording unit, but when 1977's Helicon album was released by Warner Bros., the climate was changing again, both for the group and for Valli. The new record yielded only one USA single, \"Down the Hall\", which limped onto the Hot 100. In the UK they had chart hits with both \"Down The Hall\" and \"Rhapsody\" (with verses sung by Don Ciccone and Valli appearing to notable effect only as lead voice over group harmonies on the chorus). At the same time, Valli's string of solo hits had come to an end as he parted ways with Private Stock Records. Helicon saw Polci and Ciccone heavily featured as lead vocalists, Valli, besides his co-lead chorus vocal on \"Rhapsody\" and some backing vocals, only taking a brief bridge lead vocal on two songs that were largely sung by Polci, though on \"New York Street Song (No Easy Way)\", Valli also clearly stands out over the group harmonies on two notable a cappella sections. Plus Valli took one solo lead vocal role on the album's concluding song, the brief Gaudio-Parker-penned \"I Believe in You\".\n\nExcluding Valli's 1978 \"Grease\" single, which hit #1 while the motion picture of the same name became the highest-grossing musical in cinematic history, the last Top 40 hit for the group was behind them. Both Valli and the group released singles and albums on an occasional basis, but after \"Grease\", only a remixed version of their biggest seller, \"December 1963\" would visit the upper half of the Hot 100 (in 1994). In January 1981, Warners released Frankie Valli & the Four Seasons Reunited Live. Produced by Bob Gaudio, it was a double album of concert recordings which included the two studio recordings \"Spend The Night in Love\" and \"Heaven Must Have Sent You (Here in The Night)\" sung by Valli. The latter became a UK single but failed to chart, while the former was released as a single in America, inching its way into the Hot 100.\n\nIn 1984, a long-awaited collaboration between the Four Seasons and the Beach Boys, East Meets West, was released on FBI Records, owned by the Four Seasons Partnership, which included most of the surviving Beach Boys (including Brian Wilson). However, the record did not sell well. Even after the rise and fall of the group's sales in the disco era, the Four Seasons, in one version or another (the group became a sextet as Jerry Corbetta, formerly of Sugarloaf, joined the lineup), continued to be a popular touring act, with Valli being the only constant in the midst of a fluctuating lineup. Although Gaudio is still officially part of the group (he and Valli are still equal partners in the Four Seasons Partnership), he now restricts his activities to writing, producing, and the occasional studio work. In August 1985, MCA Records released the group album Streetfighter which yielded two singles in the title track and \"Book Of Love\", a post-disco-style revamp of the Monotones' 1957 recording. In September 1992, a group album was released entitled Hope + Glory on the MCA/Curb label.\n\nThe latest edition of the Four Seasons, including Valli, conducted a North American tour in the latter half of 2007. Incidental to this tour, the massive 3CD + 1DVD box set ...Jersey Beat... The Music Of Frankie Valli & the 4 Seasons was released in mid-2007, marketed as the most comprehensive collection of Four Seasons music yet. The album title Jersey Beat is a play on Jersey Boys, a wildly successful Broadway musical about the Four Seasons, as well as on \"Mersey Beat\", a term first coined as the title of a music magazine published in Liverpool, U.K., from 1961 but subsequently also used to describe Liverpool's \"beat music\" culture of the early 1960s. \n\nIn 2008, the Four Seasons' \"Beggin'\" was revived not by one but by two acts. Pilooski made an electro remix of that song, while rap act Madcon used it as the basis of their song \"Beggin'\". The latter went to number 5 in the UK charts and was a hit across Europe. The song was featured in a TV commercial for adidas shoes entitled \"Celebrate Originality\". The Adidas commercial is a popular hit on YouTube and features a house party with famous celebrities such as David Beckham, Russel Simmons, Kevin Garnett, Missy Elliott, Katy Perry, and Mark Gonzales. Since 2008 Frankie Valli has continued to tour worldwide with a new group of Four Seasons consisting of Todd Fournier, Brian Brigham, Brandon Brigham, and Landon Beard providing him with backup vocal harmonies. \n\nAlso known as ...\n\nFrom 1956 until \"My Eyes Adored You\" in 1975, records which the Four Seasons recorded had the following artist credit (a sampling):\n\nPre-1960\n\nFrankie Valli\n\n1960 and after\n\nThe Four Seasons\nHal Miller and the Rays\nJohnny Halo featuring The Four Seasons\nThe 4 Seasons\nThe Wonder Who?\nFrankie Valli\nThe Valli Boys\nFrankie Valli and The Four Seasons\nThe Romans\n\nMembers\n\nTimeline \n\nImageSize = width:1000 height:auto barincrement:20\nPlotArea = left:90 bottom:80 top:0 right:20\nAlignbars = justify\nDateFormat = dd/mm/yyyy\nPeriod = from:01/01/1960 till:31/12/2015\nTimeAxis = orientation:horizontal format:yyyy\nLegend = orientation:horizontal position:bottom\nScaleMajor = increment:5 start:1965\nScaleMinor = increment:1 start:1961\n\nColors =\n id:vocals value:red legend:Lead_vocals\n id:guitar value:green legend:Guitar\n id:bass value:blue legend:Bass\n id:keys value:purple legend:Keyboards\n id:drums value:orange legend:Drums\n id:trump value:tan2 legend:Trumpet\n id:sax value:coral legend:Saxophone\n id:backvox value:lightorange legend:Backing_vocals\n id:lines value:black legend:Studio_albums\n\nBarData =\n bar:Frankie text:\"Frankie Valli\"\n\n bar:Tommy text:\"Tommy DeVito\"\n bar:Bob2 text:\"Bob Grimm\"\n bar:Demetri text:\"Demetri Callas\"\n bar:Clay text:\"Clay Jordan\" \n bar:John text:\"John Paiva\"\n bar:Larry text:\"Larry Lingle\"\n bar:Fino text:\"Fino Roverato\"\n bar:Adrian text:\"Adrian Baker\"\n bar:Matt text:\"Matt Baldoni\"\n bar:Gary text:\"Gary Melvin\"\n\n bar:Nick text:\"Nick Massi\"\n bar:Charlie text:\"Charlie Calello\"\n bar:Joe text:\"Joe Long\"\n bar:Don text:\"Don Ciccone\"\n bar:Rex text:\"Rex Robinson\"\n bar:Keith text:\"Keith Hubacher\"\n\n bar:Bob text:\"Bob Gaudio\"\n bar:Al text:\"Al Ruzicka\"\n bar:Joe2 text:\"Joseph Stefanelli\"\n bar:Lee text:\"Lee Shapiro\"\n bar:Robbie text:\"Robbie Robinson\"\n bar:Jerry text:\"Jerry Corbetta\"\n bar:Robin text:\"Robin Swenson\"\n bar:Howard text:\"Howard Laravea\"\n bar:Tim text:\"Tim Stone\"\n bar:Rich text:\"Rich Callaci\"\n\n bar:Gary2 text:\"Gary Volpe\"\n bar:Paul text:\"Paul Wilson\"\n bar:Billy text:\"Billy DeLoach\"\n bar:Gerry text:\"Gerry Polci\"\n bar:Lynn text:\"Lynn Hamman\"\n bar:Zoro text:\"Zoro\"\n\n bar:John2 text:\"John Stefan\"\n\n bar:Chuck text:\"Chuck Wilson\"\n bar:Tom text:\"Tommy Alvarado\"\n bar:Warren text:\"Warren Hamm\"\n bar:Steve text:\"Steve Gregory\"\n\n bar:Todd text:\"Todd Fournier\"\n bar:Brian text:\"Brian Brigham\"\n bar:Brandon text:\"Brandon Brigham\"\n bar:Landon text:\"Landon Beard\"\n\nPlotData =\n width:10 textcolor:black align:left anchor:from shift:(10,-4)\n\n bar:Frankie from:01/01/1960 till:end color:vocals\n\n bar:Tommy from:01/01/1960 till:30/04/1970 color:guitar\n bar:Bob2 from:01/05/1970 till:31/12/1970 color:guitar\n bar:Demetri from:01/01/1971 till:31/12/1974 color:guitar\n bar:Clay from:01/01/1972 till:31/12/1973 color:guitar\n bar:John from:01/01/1975 till:31/12/1977 color:guitar\n bar:Larry from:01/01/1981 till:31/12/1992 color:guitar\n bar:Fino from:01/01/1993 till:31/12/1993 color:guitar\n bar:Adrian from:01/01/1994 till:31/12/1994 color:guitar\n bar:Fino from:01/01/1995 till:31/12/1999 color:guitar\n bar:Adrian from:01/01/2000 till:31/12/2004 color:guitar\n bar:Matt from:01/01/2005 till:31/12/2005 color:guitar\n bar:Gary from:01/01/2006 till:end color:guitar\n\n bar:Nick from:01/01/1960 till:31/08/1965 color:bass\n bar:Charlie from:01/09/1965 till:30/11/1965 color:bass\n bar:Joe from:01/12/1965 till:30/04/1974 color:bass\n bar:Don from:01/05/1974 till:31/12/1978 color:bass\n bar:Rex from:01/01/1979 till:31/12/1980 color:bass\n bar:Don from:01/01/1981 till:31/12/1982 color:bass\n bar:Rex from:01/01/1983 till:31/12/2000 color:bass\n bar:Keith from:01/01/2001 till:end color:bass\n\n bar:Bob from:01/01/1960 till:31/08/1971 color:keys\n bar:Al from:01/09/1971 till:31/12/1972 color:keys\n bar:Joe2 from:01/01/1971 till:31/12/1972 color:keys\n bar:Lee from:01/01/1973 till:31/12/1979 color:keys\n bar:Robbie from:01/01/1978 till:31/12/1979 color:keys\n bar:Jerry from:01/01/1980 till:31/12/1984 color:keys\n bar:Robin from:01/01/1985 till:31/12/1985 color:keys\n bar:Howard from:01/01/1986 till:31/05/1988 color:keys\n bar:Robin from:01/06/1988 till:14/11/1990 color:keys\n bar:Tim from:15/11/1990 till:31/12/1997 color:keys\n bar:Rich from:01/01/1998 till:08/08/2000 color:keys\n bar:Robbie from:08/08/2000 till:end color:keys\n\n bar:Gary2 from:01/01/1970 till:31/12/1971 color:drums\n bar:Paul from:01/01/1972 till:31/12/1972 color:drums\n bar:Billy from:01/01/1973 till:31/03/1973 color:drums\n bar:Gerry from:01/04/1973 till:31/12/1977 color:drums\n bar:Gerry from:01/01/1979 till:28/02/1982 color:drums\n bar:Lynn from:01/03/1982 till:31/12/1987 color:drums\n bar:Gerry from:01/01/1988 till:31/12/1990 color:drums\n bar:Zoro from:01/01/1992 till:04/04/1996 color:drums\n bar:Billy from:05/04/1996 till:31/12/1997 color:drums\n bar:Billy from:01/01/1998 till:31/12/2000 color:drums\n\n bar:John2 from:01/01/1970 till:31/12/1971 color:trump\n\n bar:Chuck from:01/01/1982 till:31/12/1992 color:sax\n bar:Tom from:01/01/1994 till:31/12/2000 color:sax\n bar:Warren from:01/01/1997 till:31/12/2000 color:sax\n bar:Steve from:01/01/2001 till:31/12/2005 color:sax\n\n bar:Todd from:01/01/2008 till:end color:backvox\n bar:Brian from:01/01/2008 till:end color:backvox\n bar:Brandon from:01/01/2008 till:end color:backvox\n bar:Landon from:01/01/2008 till:end color:backvox\n\nLineData =\n at:01/09/1962 color:black layer:back\n at:01/12/1962 color:black layer:back\n at:01/02/1963 color:black layer:back\n at:01/06/1963 color:black layer:back\n at:01/02/1964 color:black layer:back\n at:01/03/1964 color:black layer:back\n at:01/07/1964 color:black layer:back\n at:01/03/1965 color:black layer:back\n at:01/10/1965 color:black layer:back\n at:01/01/1966 color:black layer:back\n at:01/05/1967 color:black layer:back\n at:01/02/1969 color:black layer:back\n at:01/05/1970 color:black layer:back\n at:01/05/1972 color:black layer:back\n at:01/11/1975 color:black layer:back\n at:01/04/1977 color:black layer:back\n at:01/08/1985 color:black layer:back\n at:01/09/1992 color:black layer:back\n\nU.S. discography\n\nU.S. studio albums \n\nThis is not a complete list of album releases. These recordings have been reissued on a variety of labels, some of which are noted here. This only includes Frankie Valli solo albums that were recorded as Four Seasons productions, which are his first two.\n\nCompilation and live albums\n\nThe peak position on the Billboard Top 200 albums chart follows the album title.\n\nSelected U.S. singles\n\nThe US chart position on the Billboard Hot 100 singles chart follows the song title. Only singles that reached a position of #30 or higher on the Hot 100 are listed.\nFrankie Valli \"solo\" singles are also not listed but can be found here.\n\nJersey Boys\n\nJersey Boys, a musical play based on the lives of the Four Seasons and directed by Des McAnuff (The Who's Tommy, 700 Sundays), premiered at his La Jolla Playhouse and opened on November 6, 2005, to generally positive reviews and subsequently won multiple Tony Awards after its move to Broadway. The original cast included John Lloyd Young as Frankie Valli, Daniel Reichard as Bob Gaudio, Christian Hoff as Tommy DeVito, and J. Robert Spencer as Nick Massi. The play portrays the history of the Four Seasons in four parts, with each part narrated by a different member of the band and supposedly reflecting that band member's perspective on the band's history. The author of the book of the play, Rick Elice, interviewed Valli, Gaudio, and DeVito in writing the play, and pieced together Nick Massi's point of view based on those interviews (Massi died before the play was written). The Broadway production won four 2006 Tony Awards, including Best Musical, Best Actor (for John Lloyd Young as Frankie Valli), Best Featured Actor (for Christian Hoff as Tommy DeVito), and Best Lighting Design. There are currently three U.S. productions of Jersey Boys running outside New York and other productions overseas including productions in Toronto, London, Australia, South Africa and The Netherlands.\n\nThe movie adaptation, directed by Clint Eastwood with John Lloyd Young as Valli, released on June 20, 2014." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Four Seasons", "The Four Seasons (film)", "The Four Seasons", "The 4 Seasons", "The four seasons", "4 seasons", "The Four Seasons (movie)", "Four seasons", "The Four Seasons (disambiguation)" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "four seasons", "4 seasons", "four seasons film", "four seasons disambiguation", "four seasons movie" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "four seasons", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "The Four Seasons" }
In which country was Angelica Huston born?	tc_555	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "Search" ], "filename": [ "Anjelica_Huston.txt" ], "title": [ "Anjelica Huston" ], "wiki_context": [ "Anjelica Huston (; born July 8, 1951) is an American actress, director and former fashion model. Huston became the third generation of her family to win an Academy Award, when she won Best Supporting Actress for her performance in 1985's Prizzi's Honor, joining her father, director John Huston, and grandfather, actor Walter Huston. She also received Academy Award nominations for Enemies, a Love Story (1989) and The Grifters (1990).\n\nHuston received British Academy Award nominations for her work in the Woody Allen films Crimes and Misdemeanors (1989) and Manhattan Murder Mystery (1993). Among her other roles, she starred as Morticia Addams in The Addams Family (1991) and Addams Family Values (1993), receiving Golden Globe nominations for both, and played the Grand High Witch in the children's movie The Witches (1990). She has frequently collaborated with director Wes Anderson, including The Royal Tenenbaums (2001) and The Life Aquatic with Steve Zissou (2004). She is also the author of two memoirs; A Story Lately Told and Watch Me.\n\nEarly life \n\nAnjelica Huston was born in Santa Monica, California, and is the daughter of director and actor John Huston and Italian–American prima ballerina and model Enrica Soma. Huston's paternal grandfather was Canadian-born actor Walter Huston. Huston has Scots-Irish, English and Welsh ancestry from her father.\n\nShe spent much of her childhood in Ireland, particularly near Craughwell, County Galway, and England, where she attended Holland Park School. In the late 1960s, she began taking a few small roles in her father's movies.\n\nShe started very small indeed, substituting her hands for Deborah Kerr's in the British Casino Royale and advanced to bigger roles in 1969, starring, for example, in A Walk with Love and Death, where she played the 16-year-old French noblewoman Claudia. In the same year, her mother, who was 39 years old, died in a car accident, and Anjelica relocated to the U.S., where she modeled for several years. While she modeled, she worked with photographers such as Richard Avedon and Bob Richardson. \n\nHuston has an older brother, Tony, a younger maternal half-sister named Allegra, whom she called \"Legs\", a younger paternal half-brother, actor Danny Huston, and an adopted older brother, Pablo. She is the aunt of Boardwalk Empire actor Jack Huston. \n\nCareer \n\nActing career \n\nDeciding to focus more on movies, in the early 1980s she studied acting. Her first notable role was in Bob Rafelson's remake of The Postman Always Rings Twice (1981). Later, her father cast her as Maerose, daughter of a Mafia don whose love is scorned by a hit man (Jack Nicholson) in the film adaptation of Richard Condon's Mafia-satire novel Prizzi's Honor (1985). Huston won the Best Supporting Actress Oscar for her performance, making her the first person in Academy Award history to win an Oscar when a parent and a grandparent had also won one.\n\nHuston earned a Best Actress Oscar nomination for her portrayal of a con artist in Stephen Frears' The Grifters (1990). She also starred as the lead in her father's final directorial film, The Dead (1987), an adaptation of a James Joyce story.\n\nShe was then cast as Morticia Addams, in the hugely successful 1991 movie adaptation of The Addams Family. In 1993, she reprised the role for the sequel Addams Family Values. Anjelica also starred in the 1998 Hollywood blockbuster, Ever After: A Cinderella Story alongside Drew Barrymore and Melanie Lynskey as the Baroness Rodmilla De Ghent. She starred in two Wes Anderson films, The Royal Tenenbaums (2001) and The Life Aquatic with Steve Zissou (2004), as well as appearing in a minor role in 2007's The Darjeeling Limited. She voiced the role of Queen Clarion in the Disney Fairies film series starring Tinker Bell. On January 22, 2010, Huston was honored on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.\nIn 2011, Huston was in the film Horrid Henry: The Movie.\nHuston later appeared on the NBC television series, Smash, portraying Broadway producer Eileen Rand. In 2015, Huston appeared in two episodes of the second season of the Amazon Video series Transparent.\n\nDirecting career \n\nHuston has recently expanded her horizons, following in her father's footsteps in the director's chair. Her first directorial credit was Bastard Out of Carolina (1996), followed by Agnes Browne (1999), in which she both directed and starred, and then Riding the Bus with My Sister (2005).\n\nPolitical activism \n\n In November 2007, Huston led a letter campaign organized by the U.S. Campaign for Burma and Human Rights Action Center. The letter, signed by over twenty five high-profile individuals from the entertainment business, was addressed to the United Nations Secretary General Ban Ki-moon and urged him to \"personally intervene\" to secure the release of Nobel Peace Prize recipient Aung San Suu Kyi of Burma.United States Campaign for Burma. [http://www.uscampaignforburma.org/index.html Hollywood: UN Should Act on Burma]. United States Campaign for Burma's homepage, September 6, 2007. Received November \n\nIn December 2012, Huston recorded a public service announcement for PETA, urging her colleagues in Hollywood to refrain from using great apes in television, movies and advertisements. \nLater, the animal rights organization named her their Person of the Year 2012. \n\nPersonal life\n\nIn 1969, at age 18, Huston began dating photographer Bob Richardson who was 23 years her senior. Their relationship lasted almost four years. She met Jack Nicholson in 1973 and they lived together, on and off, from that year until 1990, when the media reported he had fathered a child with Rebecca Broussard. She was briefly involved in a relationship with Ryan O'Neal during one of her separations from Nicholson in the late 1970s.\n\nOn May 23, 1992, Huston married sculptor Robert Graham. The couple lived in a five-story house designed by Graham at 69 Windward Avenue in Venice, California, until his death on December 27, 2008. They did not have any children.\n\nHuston's home went on the market for $18 million in 2010, but initially failed to sell. In September 2012, the New York Post reported that Huston was planning to transform her house into a private social club; the actress was said to have accepted $12 million for the property and to serve on the advisory board for a new private club to be based there. In April 2014, Huston sold the house for $11.15 million. \n\nHuston was close friends with actor Gregory Peck, whom her father directed in Moby Dick (1956). The two of them first met on the set of the film when she was four years old as Peck was in costume as Captain Ahab. Decades later, after her father's death, Huston reunited with Peck and maintained a friendship that lasted until his death. \n\nHuston wrote her memoirs as one 900-page book; she split it into two books at her publisher's urging. \n\nFilmography \n\nFilm\n\nTelevision\n\nBibliography\n\nBooks\n\n* Also published in London by Simon & Schuster.\n*\n\n\nCritical studies, reviews and biography\n\n* Review of A story lately told.\n\nAwards and nominations" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Irlanda", "Island ireland", "Ireland (region)", "Irlandia", "Erin's Isle", "Airlan", "Ireland", "West Coast of Ireland", "The island of Ireland", "Island Ireland", "Ireland (island)", "Irland", "HÉireann", "Ireland Ulster", "Population of Ireland", "Irelander", "Ireland and Ulster", "Ireland (Island)", "IRELAND", "Symbol of Ireland", "Scotia major", "Island of Ireland", "Airlann", "Mikra Britannia", "Irelanders", "Auld Sod", "Ierne (placename)" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "irlandia", "erin s isle", "héireann", "airlann", "ireland", "irelanders", "airlan", "mikra britannia", "irelander", "population of ireland", "west coast of ireland", "scotia major", "symbol of ireland", "irland", "auld sod", "island of ireland", "ireland region", "irlanda", "ireland ulster", "ierne placename", "island ireland", "ireland island", "ireland and ulster" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "ireland", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Ireland" }
What were the first two names of 'Cannonball' Adderley?	tc_560	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Cannonball_Adderley.txt" ], "title": [ "Cannonball Adderley" ], "wiki_context": [ "Julian Edwin \"Cannonball\" Adderley (September 15, 1928 – August 8, 1975) was a jazz alto saxophonist of the hard bop era of the 1950s and 1960s. \n\nAdderley is remembered for his 1966 single \"Mercy, Mercy, Mercy\", a crossover hit on the pop charts, and for his work with trumpeter Miles Davis, including on the epochal album Kind of Blue (1959). He was the brother of jazz cornetist Nat Adderley, a longtime member of his band.\n\nEarly life and career\n\nOriginally from Tampa, Florida, Adderley moved to New York in 1955. His nickname derived from \"cannibal\", a title imposed on him by high school colleagues as a tribute to his voracious appetite. \n\nCannonball moved to Tallahassee, when his parents obtained teaching positions at Florida A&M University. Both Cannonball and brother Nat played with Ray Charles when Charles lived in Tallahassee during the early 1940s. Adderley moved to Broward County, Florida, in 1948 after finishing his music studies at Tallahassee and became the band director at Dillard High School in Fort Lauderdale, a position which he held until 1950. Cannonball was a local legend in Southeast Florida until he moved to New York City in 1955.\n\nOne of his known addresses in New York was in the neighborhood of Corona, Queens. He left Florida originally to seek graduate studies at New York conservatories, but one night in 1955 he brought his saxophone with him to the Café Bohemia. Asked to sit in with Oscar Pettiford in place of his band's regular saxophonist, who was late for the gig, the \"buzz\" on the New York jazz scene after Adderley's performance announced him as the heir to the mantle of Charlie Parker.\n\nAdderley formed his own group with his brother Nat after signing onto the Savoy jazz label in 1957. He was noticed by Miles Davis, and it was because of his blues-rooted alto saxophone that Davis asked him to play with his group. He joined the Davis band in October of 1957, three months prior to the return of John Coltrane to the group. Adderley played on the seminal Davis records Milestones and Kind of Blue. This period also overlapped with pianist Bill Evans' time with the sextet, an association that led to recording Portrait of Cannonball and Know What I Mean?.\n\nHis interest as an educator carried over to his recordings. In 1961, Cannonball narrated The Child's Introduction to Jazz, released on Riverside Records.\n\nBand leader\n\nThe Cannonball Adderley Quintet featured Cannonball on alto sax and his brother Nat Adderley on cornet. Cannonball's first quintet was not very successful; however, after leaving Davis' group, he formed another, again with his brother, which enjoyed more success.\n\nThe new quintet, which later became the Cannonball Adderley Sextet, and Cannonball's other combos and groups, included such noted musicians as saxophonists Charles Lloyd and Yusef Lateef, pianists Bobby Timmons, Victor Feldman, Joe Zawinul, Hal Galper, Michael Wolff, and George Duke, bassists Ray Brown, Sam Jones, Walter Booker, and Victor Gaskin, and drummers Louis Hayes and Roy McCurdy.\n\nLater life\n\nBy the end of the 1960s, Adderley's playing began to reflect the influence of the electric jazz, avant-garde, and Davis's experiments on the album Bitches Brew. On his albums from this period, such as Accent on Africa (1968) and The Price You Got to Pay to Be Free (1970), he began doubling on soprano saxophone, showing the influence of Coltrane and Wayne Shorter. In that same year, his quintet appeared at the Monterey Jazz Festival in California, and a brief scene of that performance was featured in the 1971 psychological thriller Play Misty for Me, starring Clint Eastwood. In 1975 he also appeared in an acting role alongside José Feliciano and David Carradine in the episode \"Battle Hymn\" in the third season of the TV series Kung Fu. \n\nSongs made famous by Adderley and his bands include \"This Here\" (written by Bobby Timmons), \"The Jive Samba\", \"Work Song\" (written by Nat Adderley), \"Mercy, Mercy, Mercy\" (written by Joe Zawinul) and \"Walk Tall\" (written by Zawinul, Marrow, and Rein). A cover version of Pops Staples' \"Why (Am I Treated So Bad)?\" also entered the charts. His instrumental \"Sack o' Woe\" was covered by Manfred Mann on their debut album.\n\nHe had a cerebral hemorrhage and four weeks later, on August 9, 1975, he died at St. Mary Methodist Hospital in Gary, Indiana. He was 46 years old. He was buried in the Southside Cemetery, Tallahassee.\n\nLegacy\n\nLater that year he was inducted into the Down Beat Jazz Hall of Fame. Joe Zawinul's composition \"Cannon Ball\" on Black Market is a tribute to his former leader. Pepper Adams and George Mraz dedicated the composition \"Julian\" on the 1975 Pepper Adams album of the same name days after Cannonball's death. \n\nAdderley was initiated as an honorary member of Phi Mu Alpha Sinfonia fraternity (Gamma Theta chapter, University of North Texas, '60, & Xi Omega chapter, Frostburg State University, '70) and Alpha Phi Alpha (Beta Nu chapter, Florida A&M University).\n\nDiscography" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Julian Edwin" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "julian edwin" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "julian edwin", "type": "FreeForm", "value": "Julian Edwin" }
Carrasco international airport is in which country?	tc_562	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Carrasco_International_Airport.txt" ], "title": [ "Carrasco International Airport" ], "wiki_context": [ "Carrasco/General Cesáreo L. Berisso International Airport is the international airport of Montevideo, the capital city of Uruguay. It also is the country's largest airport and is located in the namegiving Carrasco neighborhood located in the adjoining department of Canelones. It has been cited as one of the most efficient and traveler-friendly airports in Latin America and the world. \n\nHistory\n\nThe original passenger terminal, which is now the cargo terminal, was inaugurated in 1947.\n\nIn 2003 the Uruguayan government transferred the administration, operation and maintenance of the airport to the private investment group Puerta del Sur S.A, which since then invested in several upgrades of the airport.\n\nOn 3 February 2007, construction began on a new and modern terminal that is located parallel to Runway 06/24. The new terminal, designed by Uruguayan born architect Rafael Viñoly, has the capacity to handle 3 million passengers a year, including a much larger parking area built for over 1200 vehicles. This new terminal building has four jetways, separate floors for arrivals and departures and a large viewing area on the top floor. The terminal has room for expansion for two additional jetways and a maximum capacity of 6 million passengers per year before the building would need actual enlargement. The new terminal was inaugurated on 5 October 2009 with official operations beginning on 29 December 2009. A new US$15 million cargo terminal was also constructed.\n\nRunway 06/24 has been strengthened and lengthened to 3200 m, which allows airlines to operate non-stop flights to the U.S.A. and Europe. Runway 01/19 was lengthened to 2250 m and the former Runway 10/28 (rarely ever used) is permanently closed because the new terminal cuts across it.\n\nAirlines and destinations\n\nPassenger\n\nCargo\n\nStatistics\n\nGround transportation\n\nThe airport is located 19 km from downtown Montevideo. There are three bus companies and several private taxi and remise services connecting the airport with Montevideo as well as with Punta del Este. The trip time to Montevideo by car is approximately 20 minutes, while by bus it is 1 hour and 15 minutes. The cost of the trip depends on the destination point and is arranged in the airport or booked online.\n\nOther facilities\n\nThe Oficina de Investigación y Prevención de Accidentes e Incidentes de Aviación (OIPAIA) of the National Civil Aviation and Aviation Infrastructure Direction (DINACIA) has its head office on the airport property. \n\nAccidents and incidents\n\n18 September 1957: a Real Transportes Aéreos Convair 440-62 registration PP-AQE belonging to Transportes Aéreos Nacional, flying from Porto Alegre to Montevideo had an accident during touch down operations in Montevideo. While on a night landing procedure under fog, the aircraft undershot the runway by 1,030m, causing the left and middle gear to hit an earth bank bordering a highway. The right wing touched the ground and further on the aircraft lost both propellers. The right wing then broke off. One crew member died. \n20 July 1972: a cargo Aerotransportes Entre Rios Canadair CC-106 Yukon registration LV-JYR flying from Montevideo to Santiago de Chile went missing during the flight. The crew of 5 perished. \n*6 June 2012: an Air Class Líneas Aéreas Fairchild SA227AC Metro III, registered CX-LAS, performing a freight flight on behalf of DHL from Montevideo to Buenos Aires disappeared south of Isla de Flores. Parts of the aircraft were located by a scuba diver approximately 1 NM south of Isla de Flores on 20 July 2012." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Cruzada Libertadora", "Uraguay", "Uruguayan", "Uruguay", "Health care in Uruguay", "Uruguayo", "Urú", "Republic East of the Uruguay", "Eastern Republic of the Uruguay", "República Oriental del Uruguay", "ISO 3166-1:UY", "Etymology of Uruguay", "Eastern Republic of Uruguay", "Uruguai", "Uruguayan (disambiguation)", "Uruguay (country)", "Oriental Republic of Uruguay", "Name of Uruguay", "Health in Uruguay", "Media of Uruguay" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "cruzada libertadora", "uraguay", "uruguayo", "urú", "uruguayan", "health care in uruguay", "república oriental del uruguay", "health in uruguay", "iso 3166 1 uy", "etymology of uruguay", "eastern republic of uruguay", "oriental republic of uruguay", "uruguay", "uruguayan disambiguation", "uruguay country", "republic east of uruguay", "uruguai", "name of uruguay", "media of uruguay" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "uruguay", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Uruguay" }
What was the profession of New Yorker Garry Winogrand?	tc_567	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Garry_Winogrand.txt" ], "title": [ "Garry Winogrand" ], "wiki_context": [ "Garry Winogrand (14 January 1928 – 19 March 1984) was a street photographer from the Bronx, New York, known for his portrayal of American life, and its social issues, in the mid-20th century. Though he photographed in Los Angeles and elsewhere, Winogrand was essentially a New York photographer. \n\nHe received three Guggenheim Fellowships to work on personal projects, a fellowship from the National Endowment for the Arts, and published four books during his lifetime. He was one of three photographers featured in the influential New Documents exhibition at Museum of Modern Art in New York in 1967 and had solo exhibitions there in 1969, 1977 and 1988. He supported himself by working as a freelance photojournalist and advertising photographer in the 1950s and 1960s, and taught photography in the 1970s. His photographs featured in photography magazines including Popular Photography, Eros, Contemporary Photographer and Photography Annual.\n\nPhotography curator, historian, and critic John Szarkowski called Winogrand the central photographer of his generation. Critic Sean O'Hagan, writing in The Guardian in 2014, said \"In the 1960s and 70s, he defined street photography as an attitude as well as a style – and it has laboured in his shadow ever since, so definitive are his photographs of New York.\" Phil Coomes, writing for BBC News in 2013, said \"For those of us interested in street photography there are a few names that stand out and one of those is Garry Winogrand, whose pictures of New York in the 1960s are a photographic lesson in every frame.\" \n\nAt the time of his death Winogrand's late work remained undeveloped, with about 2,500 rolls of undeveloped film, 6,500 rolls of developed but not proofed exposures, and about 3,000 rolls only realised as far as contact sheets being made. \n\nEarly Life\n\nWinogrand's parents, Abraham and Bertha, emigrated to the US from Budapest and Warsaw. Garry grew up with his sister Stella in a then predominantly Jewish working-class area of the Bronx, New York, where his father was a leather worker in the garment industry, and his mother made neckties for piecemeal work. Winogrand graduated from high school in 1946 and entered the US Army Air Force. He returned to New York in 1947 and studied painting at City College of New York and painting and photography at Columbia University, also in New York, in 1948. He also attended a photojournalism class taught by Alexey Brodovich at The New School for Social Research in New York in 1951.\n\nWinogrand married Adrienne Lubeau in 1952. They had two children, Laurie in 1956 and Ethan in 1958. They separated in 1963 and divorced in 1966.\n\nCareer \n\nHe worked as a freelance photojournalist and advertising photographer in the 1950s and 1960s. Between 1952 and 1954 he freelanced with the PIX Publishing agency in Manhattan on an introduction from Ed Feingersh, and from 1954 at Brackman Associates.\n\nTwo of Winogrand's photographs appeared in the 1955 The Family of Man exhibition at the Museum of Modern Art (MoMA) in New York. His first solo show was held at Image Gallery in New York in 1959. His first notable exhibition was in Five Unrelated Photographers in 1963, also at MoMA in New York, along with Minor White, George Krause, Jerome Liebling and Ken Heyman.\n\nIn the early 1960s, he photographed on the streets of New York City at the same time as contemporaries Lee Friedlander, Tod Papageorge, Diane Arbus and Joel Meyerowitz.\n\nIn 1964 Winogrand was awarded a Guggenheim Fellowship from the John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation to travel \"for photographic studies of American life\".\n\nIn 1966 he exhibited at the George Eastman House in Rochester, New York with Friedlander, Duane Michals, Bruce Davidson, and Danny Lyon in an exhibition entitled Toward a Social Landscape, curated by Nathan Lyons. In 1967 his work was included in the \"influential\" New Documents show at MoMA in New York with Diane Arbus and Lee Friedlander, curated by John Szarkowski. \n\nAround 1967 Winogrand married his second wife, Judy Teller. They were together until 1969.\n\nHis photographs of the Bronx Zoo and the Coney Island Aquarium made up his first book The Animals (1969), a collection of pictures that observes the connections between humans and animals.\n\nHe was awarded his second Guggenheim Fellowship in 1969 to continue exploring \"the effect of the media on events\", through the then novel phenomenon of events created specifically for the mass media. Between 1969 and 1976 he photographed at public events, producing 6,500 prints for Papageorge to select for his solo exhibition at MoMA, and book, Public Relations (1977).\n\nIn 1972 he married Eileen Adele Hale, with whom he had a daughter, Melissa. \n\nHe supported himself in the 1970s by teaching, first in New York. He moved to Chicago in 1971 and taught photography at the Institute of Design, Illinois Institute of Technology between 1971 and 1972. He moved to Texas in 1973 and taught at the University of Texas at Austin between 1973 and 1978. He moved to Los Angeles in 1978, where he exposed 8,522 rolls of film.\n\nIn 1979 he used his third Guggenheim Fellowship to travel throughout the southern and western United States investigating the social issues of his time. \n\nIn his book Stock Photographs (1980) he showed \"people in relation to each other and to their show animals\" at the Fort Worth Fat Stock Show and Rodeo.\n\nSzarkowski, the Director of Photography at New York's MoMA, became an editor and reviewer of Winogrand's work. Szarkowski called him the central photographer of his generation.\n\nWinogrand was diagnosed with gallbladder cancer on 1 February 1984 and went immediately to the Gerson Clinic in Tijuana to seek an alternative cure. He died on 19 March, at age 56.\n\nAt the time of his death his late work remained largely unprocessed, with about 2,500 rolls of undeveloped film, 6,500 rolls of developed but not proofed exposures, and about 3,000 rolls only realised as far as contact sheets being made. In total he left nearly 300,000 unedited images. The Garry Winogrand Archive at the Center for Creative Photography (CCP) comprises over 20,000 fine and work prints, 20,000 contact sheets, 100,000 negatives and 30,500 35 mm colour slides as well as a small number of Polaroid prints and several amateur and independent motion picture films. Some of his undeveloped work was exhibited posthumously, and published by MoMA in the overview of his work Winogrand, Figments from the Real World (2003). Yet more from his largely unexamined archive of early and late work, plus well known photographs, were included in a retrospective touring exhibition beginning in 2013 and in the accompanying book Garry Winogrand (2013).\n\nExhibitions\n\nSelected solo exhibitions\n\n* 1969: The Animals, Museum of Modern Art, New York.\n* 1972: Light Gallery, New York.\n* 1975: Women are Beautiful, Light Gallery, New York.\n* 1977: Light Gallery, New York.\n* 1977: The Cronin Gallery, Houston.\n* 1977: Public Relations, Museum of Modern Art, New York.\n* 1979: The Rodeo, Alan Frumkin Gallery, Chicago.\n* 1979: Greece, Light Gallery, New York.\n* 1980: University of Colorado Boulder.\n* 1980: Garry Winogrand: Retrospective, Fraenkel Gallery, San Francisco.\n* 1980: Galerie de Photographie, Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris.\n* 1981: The Burton Gallery of Photographic Art, Toronto.\n* 1981: Light Gallery, New York.\n* 1983: Big Shots, Photographs of Celebrities, 1960-80, Fraenkel Gallery, San Francisco.\n* 1984: Garry Winogrand: A Celebration, Light Gallery, New York.\n* 1984: Women are Beautiful, Zabriskie Gallery, New York.\n* 1984: Recent Works, Houston Center for Photography, Texas.\n* 1985: Williams College Museum of Art, Williamstown, Massachusetts.\n* 1986: Little-known Photographs by Garry Winogrand, Fraenkel Gallery, San Francisco.\n* 1988: Garry Winogrand, Museum of Modern Art. Retrospective. \n* 2001: Winogrand's Street Theater, Rencontres d'Arles festival, Arles, France.\n* 2013/2014: Garry Winogrand, San Francisco Museum of Modern Art, San Francisco, March–June 2013 and toured; National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C., March–June 2014; Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, June–September 2014; Galerie nationale du Jeu de Paume, Paris, October 2014–February 2015. \n\nSelected group exhibitions\n\n* 1955: The Family of Man, The Museum of Modern Art, New York. \n* 1957: Seventy Photographers Look at New York, The Museum of Modern Art, New York.\n* 1963: Photography '63, George Eastman House, Rochester, New York.\n* 1964: The Photographer's Eye, Museum of Modern Art, New York. Curated by John Szarkowski. \n* 1967: New Documents, Museum of Modern Art, New York with Diane Arbus and Lee Friedlander, curated by John Szarkowski.\n* 1969: New Photography USA, Traveling exhibition prepared for the International Program of Museum of Modern Art, New York.\n* 1970: The Descriptive Tradition: Seven Photographers, Boston University, Massachusetts.\n* 1971: Seen in Passing, Latent Image Gallery, Houston.\n* 1975: 14 American Photographers, Baltimore Museum of Art, Maryland.\n* 1976: The Great American Rodeo, Fort Worth Art Museum, Texas.\n* 1978: Mirrors and Windows: American Photography since 1960, Museum of Modern Art, New York.\n* 1981: Garry Winogrand, Larry Clark and Arthur Tress, G. Ray Hawkins Gallery, Los Angeles.\n* 1981: Bruce Davidson and Garry Winogrand, Moderna Museet / Fotografiska, Stockholm, Sweden.\n* 1981: Central Park Photographs: Lee Friedlander, Tod Papageorge and Garry Winogrand, The Dairy in Central Park, New York, 1980.\n* 1983: Masters of the Street: Henri Cartier-Bresson, Josef Koudelka, Robert Frank and Garry Winogrand, University Gallery, University of Massachusetts Amherst.\n\nCollections\n\nWinogrand's work is held in the following public collections:\nMuseum of Modern Art, New York. \nWhitney Museum of American Art, New York. \n\nAwards\n\n1964: Guggenheim Fellowship from the John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation.\n1969: Guggenheim Fellowship from the John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation.\n1975: Fellowship from the National Endowment for the Arts.\n1979: Guggenheim Fellowship from the John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation.\n\nPublications\n\nPublications by Winogrand\n\n* The Animals. New York, NY: Museum of Modern Art, 1969. ISBN 0-374-51301-5.\n* Women are Beautiful. New York, NY: Light Gallery; New York, NY: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1975. ISBN 0-87070-633-0.\n* Public Relations. New York, NY: Museum of Modern Art, 1977. ISBN 0-87070-632-2.\n* Stock Photographs: The Fort Worth Fat Stock Show and Rodeo. Minnetonka, MN: Olympic Marketing Corp, 1980. ISBN 0-292-72433-0.\n* The Man in the Crowd: The Uneasy Streets of Garry Winogrand. San Francisco, CA: Fraenkel Gallery, 1998. ISBN 1-881337-05-7.\n* El Juego de la Fotografía = The Game of Photography. Madrid: TF, 2001. ISBN 84-95183-66-8. Spanish and English. \"Published to accompany an exhibition at Sala del Canal de Isabel II, Madrid, Nov.-Dec. 2001 and at three other institutions through June of 2002.\"\n* Winogrand 1964. Santa Fe, NM: Arena, 2002. ISBN 0-374-51301-5.\n* Arrivals & Departures: The Airport Pictures of Garry Winogrand.\nCharles Rivers, 2002. ISBN 1-891024-47-7.\nNew York: Distributed Art Publishers; Göttingen: Steidl, 2004. ISBN 9781891024474. Edited by Alex Harris and Lee Friedlander and with text by Alex Harris ('The Trip of our Lives') and Lee Friedlander ('The Hair of the Dog').\n* Figments from the Real World. New York, NY: Museum of Modern Art, 2003. ISBN 0-87070-635-7.\n* Garry Winogrand.\nSan Francisco, CA: San Francisco Museum of Modern Art; New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2013. ISBN 978-0-300-19177-6. Edited by Leo Rubinfien. Introduction by Rubinfien, Erin O'Toole and Sarah Greenough, and essays by Rubinfien ('Garry Winogrand's Republic'), Greenough ('The Mystery of the Visible: Garry Winogrand and Postwar American Photography'), Tod Papageorge ('In the City'), Sandra S. Phillips ('Considering Winogrand Now') and O'Toole ('How much Freedom can you Stand? Garry Winogrand and the Problem of Posthumous Editing').\nParis: Jeu De Paume; Paris: Flammarion, 2014. ISBN 9782081342910. French-language version.\n\nContributions to publications\n\n*Looking at Photographs: 100 Pictures from the Collection of The Museum of Modern Art. New York: Museum of Modern Art, 1973. ISBN 978-0-87070-515-1. By John Szarkowski." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Photographist", "Photographer", "Freelance photographer", "Freelance Photography", "Photographr" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "photographr", "photographist", "freelance photographer", "photographer", "freelance photography" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "photographer", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Photographer" }
Amelia Earhart was born in which state?	tc_569	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Amelia_Earhart.txt" ], "title": [ "Amelia Earhart" ], "wiki_context": [ "Amelia Mary Earhart (; July 24, 1897 – disappeared July 2, 1937) was an American aviation pioneer and author. Earhart was the first female aviator to fly solo across the Atlantic Ocean. She received the U.S. Distinguished Flying Cross for this record. She set many other records, wrote best-selling books about her flying experiences and was instrumental in the formation of The Ninety-Nines, an organization for female pilots. Earhart joined the faculty of the Purdue University aviation department in 1935 as a visiting faculty member to counsel women on careers and help inspire others with her love for aviation. She was also a member of the National Woman's Party, and an early supporter of the Equal Rights Amendment. \n\nDuring an attempt to make a circumnavigational flight of the globe in 1937 in a Purdue-funded Lockheed Model 10 Electra, Earhart disappeared over the central Pacific Ocean near Howland Island. Fascination with her life, career and disappearance continues to this day.\n\nEarly life\n\nChildhood\n\nAmelia Mary Earhart, daughter of Samuel \"Edwin\" Stanton Earhart (1867-1930) and Amelia \"Amy\" (nee Otis) (1869–1962), was born in Atchison, Kansas, in the home of her maternal grandfather, Alfred Gideon Otis (1827–1912), a former federal judge, president of the Atchison Savings Bank and a leading citizen in the town. Amelia was the second child of the marriage, after an infant stillborn in August 1896. She was of part German descent. Alfred Otis had not initially favored the marriage and was not satisfied with Edwin's progress as a lawyer.\n\nEarhart was named, according to family custom, after her two grandmothers (Amelia Josephine Harres and Mary Wells Patton). From an early age Earhart, nicknamed \"Meeley\" (sometimes \"Millie\") was the ringleader while her younger sister (two years her junior), Grace Muriel Earhart (1899–1998), nicknamed \"Pidge\", acted the dutiful follower. Both girls continued to answer to their childhood nicknames well into adulthood. Their upbringing was unconventional since Amy Earhart did not believe in molding her children into \"nice little girls.\" Meanwhile their maternal grandmother disapproved of the \"bloomers\" worn by Amy's children and although Earhart liked the freedom they provided, she was aware other girls in the neighborhood did not wear them.\n\nEarly influence\n\nA spirit of adventure seemed to abide in the Earhart children with the pair setting off daily to explore their neighborhood. As a child, Earhart spent long hours playing with Pidge, climbing trees, hunting rats with a rifle and \"belly-slamming\" her sled downhill. Although this love of the outdoors and \"rough-and-tumble\" play was common to many youngsters, some biographers have characterized the young Earhart as a tomboy. The girls kept \"worms, moths, katydids and a tree toad\" in a growing collection gathered in their outings. In 1904, with the help of her uncle, she cobbled together a home-made ramp fashioned after a roller coaster she had seen on a trip to St. Louis and secured the ramp to the roof of the family toolshed. Earhart's well-documented first flight ended dramatically. She emerged from the broken wooden box that had served as a sled with a bruised lip, torn dress and a \"sensation of exhilaration.\" She exclaimed, \"Oh, Pidge, it's just like flying!\" \n\nAlthough there had been some missteps in his career up to that point, in 1907 Edwin Earhart's job as a claims officer for the Rock Island Railroad led to a transfer to Des Moines, Iowa. The next year, at the age of 10, Earhart saw her first aircraft at the Iowa State Fair in Des Moines. Her father tried to interest her and her sister in taking a flight. One look at the rickety \"flivver\" was enough for Earhart, who promptly asked if they could go back to the merry-go-round. She later described the biplane as \"a thing of rusty wire and wood and not at all interesting.\" \n\nEducation\n\nThe two sisters, Amelia and Muriel (she went by her middle name from her teens on), remained with their grandparents in Atchison, while their parents moved into new, smaller quarters in Des Moines. During this period, Earhart received a form of home-schooling together with her sister, from her mother and a governess. She later recounted that she was \"exceedingly fond of reading\" and spent countless hours in the large family library. In 1909, when the family was finally reunited in Des Moines, the Earhart children were enrolled in public school for the first time with Amelia Earhart entering the seventh grade at the age of 12 years.\n\nFamily fortunes\n\nWhile the family's finances seemingly improved with the acquisition of a new house and even the hiring of two servants, it soon became apparent Edwin was an alcoholic. Five years later (in 1914), he was forced to retire and although he attempted to rehabilitate himself through treatment, he was never reinstated at the Rock Island Railroad. At about this time, Earhart's grandmother Amelia Otis died suddenly, leaving a substantial estate that placed her daughter's share in trust, fearing that Edwin's drinking would drain the funds. The Otis house, and all of its contents, was auctioned; Earhart was heartbroken and later described it as the end of her childhood. \n\nIn 1915, after a long search, Earhart's father found work as a clerk at the Great Northern Railway in St. Paul, Minnesota, where Earhart entered Central High School as a junior. Edwin applied for a transfer to Springfield, Missouri, in 1915 but the current claims officer reconsidered his retirement and demanded his job back, leaving the elder Earhart with nowhere to go. Facing another calamitous move, Amy Earhart took her children to Chicago, where they lived with friends. Earhart made an unusual condition in the choice of her next schooling; she canvassed nearby high schools in Chicago to find the best science program. She rejected the high school nearest her home when she complained that the chemistry lab was \"just like a kitchen sink.\" She eventually was enrolled in Hyde Park High School but spent a miserable semester where a yearbook caption captured the essence of her unhappiness, \"A.E. – the girl in brown who walks alone.\" \n\nEarhart graduated from Hyde Park High School in 1916. Throughout her troubled childhood, she had continued to aspire to a future career; she kept a scrapbook of newspaper clippings about successful women in predominantly male-oriented fields, including film direction and production, law, advertising, management and mechanical engineering. She began junior college at Ogontz School in Rydal, Pennsylvania but did not complete her program. \n\nDuring Christmas vacation in 1917, Earhart visited her sister in Toronto. World War I had been raging and Earhart saw the returning wounded soldiers. After receiving training as a nurse's aide from the Red Cross, she began work with the Volunteer Aid Detachment at Spadina Military Hospital. Her duties included preparing food in the kitchen for patients with special diets and handing out prescribed medication in the hospital's dispensary. \n\n1918 Spanish flu pandemic\n\nWhen the 1918 Spanish flu pandemic reached Toronto, Earhart was engaged in arduous nursing duties including night shifts at the Spadina Military Hospital. Earhart 1932, p. 21. She became a patient herself, suffering from pneumonia and maxillary sinusitis. She was hospitalized in early November 1918 owing to pneumonia and discharged in December 1918, about two months after the illness had started. Her sinus-related symptoms were pain and pressure around one eye and copious mucus drainage via the nostrils and throat. In the hospital, in the pre-antibiotic era, she had painful minor operations to wash out the affected maxillary sinus, but these procedures were not successful and Earhart subsequently suffered from worsening headache attacks. Her convalescence lasted nearly a year, which she spent at her sister's home in Northampton, Massachusetts. She passed the time by reading poetry, learning to play the banjo and studying mechanics. Chronic sinusitis was to significantly affect Earhart's flying and activities in later life, and sometimes even on the airfield she was forced to wear a bandage on her cheek to cover a small drainage tube. \n\nEarly flying experiences\n\nAt about that time, with a young woman friend, Earhart visited an air fair held in conjunction with the Canadian National Exposition in Toronto. One of the highlights of the day was a flying exhibition put on by a World War I ace. The pilot overhead spotted Earhart and her friend, who were watching from an isolated clearing, and dived at them. \"I am sure he said to himself, 'Watch me make them scamper,'\" she said. Earhart stood her ground as the aircraft came close. \"I did not understand it at the time,\" she said, \"but I believe that little red airplane said something to me as it swished by.\" \n\nBy 1919 Earhart prepared to enter Smith College but changed her mind and enrolled at Columbia University, in a course in medical studies among other programs. She quit a year later to be with her parents, who had reunited in California.\n\nIn Long Beach, on December 28, 1920, Earhart and her father visited an airfield where Frank Hawks (who later gained fame as an air racer) gave her a ride that would forever change Earhart's life. \"By the time I had got two or three hundred feet [60–90 m] off the ground,\" she said, \"I knew I had to fly.\" After that 10-minute flight (that cost her father $10), she immediately became determined to learn to fly. Working at a variety of jobs, including photographer, truck driver, and stenographer at the local telephone company, she managed to save $1,000 for flying lessons. Earhart had her first lessons, beginning on January 3, 1921, at Kinner Field, near Long Beach. In order to reach the airfield, Earhart had to take a bus to the end of the line, then walk four miles (6 km). Earhart's mother also provided part of the $1,000 \"stake\" against her \"better judgement.\" Her teacher was Anita \"Neta\" Snook, a pioneer female aviator who used a surplus Curtiss JN-4 \"Canuck\" for training. Earhart arrived with her father and a singular request, \"I want to fly. Will you teach me?\" \n\nEarhart's commitment to flying required her to accept the frequently hard work and rudimentary conditions that accompanied early aviation training. She chose a leather jacket, but aware that other aviators would be judging her, she slept in it for three nights to give the jacket a \"worn\" look. To complete her image transformation, she also cropped her hair short in the style of other female flyers. Six months later, Earhart purchased a secondhand bright yellow Kinner Airster biplane which she nicknamed \"The Canary.\" On October 22, 1922, Earhart flew the Airster to an altitude of 14000 ft, setting a world record for female pilots. On May 15, 1923, Earhart became the 16th woman to be issued a pilot's license (#6017) by the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI). \n\nAviation career and marriage\n\nBoston\n\nThroughout this period, her grandmother's inheritance, which was now administered by her mother, was constantly depleted until it finally ran out following a disastrous investment in a failed gypsum mine. Consequently, with no immediate prospects for recouping her investment in flying, Earhart sold the \"Canary\" as well as a second Kinner and bought a yellow Kissel \"Speedster\" two-passenger automobile, which she named the \"Yellow Peril.\" Simultaneously, Earhart experienced an exacerbation of her old sinus problem as her pain worsened and in early 1924, she was hospitalized for another sinus operation, which was again unsuccessful. After trying her hand at a number of unusual ventures including setting up a photography company, Earhart set out in a new direction. Following her parents' divorce in 1924, she drove her mother in the \"Yellow Peril\" on a transcontinental trip from California with stops throughout the West and even a jaunt up to Calgary, Alberta. The meandering tour eventually brought the pair to Boston, Massachusetts, where Earhart underwent another sinus procedure, this operation being more successful. After recuperation, she returned for several months to Columbia University but was forced to abandon her studies and any further plans for enrolling at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology because her mother could no longer afford the tuition fees and associated costs. Soon after, she found employment first as a teacher, then as a social worker in 1925 at Denison House, living in Medford, Massachusetts. \n\nWhen Earhart lived in Medford, she maintained her interest in aviation, becoming a member of the American Aeronautical Society's Boston chapter and was eventually elected its vice president. She flew out of Dennison Airport (later the Naval Air Station Squantum) in Quincy, Massachusetts, and helped finance its operation by investing a small sum of money. Earhart also flew the first official flight out of Dennison Airport in 1927. As well as acting as a sales representative for Kinner aircraft in the Boston area, Earhart wrote local newspaper columns promoting flying and as her local celebrity grew, she laid out the plans for an organization devoted to female flyers. \n\n1928 transatlantic flight\n\nAfter Charles Lindbergh's solo flight across the Atlantic in 1927, Amy Phipps Guest (1873–1959) expressed interest in being the first woman to fly (or be flown) across the Atlantic Ocean. After deciding the trip was too perilous for her to undertake, she offered to sponsor the project, suggesting they find \"another girl with the right image.\" While at work one afternoon in April 1928, Earhart got a phone call from Capt. Hilton H. Railey, who asked her, \"Would you like to fly the Atlantic?\"\n\nThe project coordinators (including book publisher and publicist George P. Putnam) interviewed Earhart and asked her to accompany pilot Wilmer Stultz and copilot/mechanic Louis Gordon on the flight, nominally as a passenger, but with the added duty of keeping the flight log. The team departed Trepassey Harbor, Newfoundland in a Fokker F.VIIb/3m on June 17, 1928, landing at Pwll near Burry Port, South Wales, exactly 20 hours and 40 minutes later. There is a commemorative blue plaque at the site. Since most of the flight was on \"instruments\" and Earhart had no training for this type of flying, she did not pilot the aircraft. When interviewed after landing, she said, \"Stultz did all the flying—had to. I was just baggage, like a sack of potatoes.\" She added, \"...maybe someday I'll try it alone.\" \n\nWhile in England, Earhart is reported as receiving a rousing welcome on June 19, 1928, when landing at Woolston in Southampton, England. She flew the Avro Avian 594 Avian III, SN: R3/AV/101 owned by Lady Mary Heath and later purchased the aircraft and had it shipped back to the United States (where it was assigned \"unlicensed aircraft identification mark\" 7083). \n\nWhen the Stultz, Gordon and Earhart flight crew returned to the United States, they were greeted with a ticker-tape parade along the Canyon of Heroes in Manhattan, followed by a reception with President Calvin Coolidge at the White House.\n\nCelebrity image\n\nTrading on her physical resemblance to Lindbergh, whom the press had dubbed \"Lucky Lindy,\" some newspapers and magazines began referring to Earhart as \"Lady Lindy.\" The United Press was more grandiloquent; to them, Earhart was the reigning \"Queen of the Air.\" Immediately after her return to the United States, she undertook an exhausting lecture tour (1928–1929). Meanwhile, Putnam had undertaken to heavily promote her in a campaign including publishing a book she authored, a series of new lecture tours and using pictures of her in mass market endorsements for products including luggage, Lucky Strike cigarettes (this caused image problems for her, with McCall's magazine retracting an offer) and women's clothing and sportswear. The money that she made with \"Lucky Strike\" had been earmarked for a $1,500 donation to Commander Richard Byrd's imminent South Pole expedition.\n\nThe marketing campaign by both Earhart and Putnam was successful in establishing the Earhart mystique in the public psyche. Rather than simply endorsing the products, Earhart actively became involved in the promotions, especially in women's fashions. For a number of years she had sewn her own clothes, but the \"active living\" lines that were sold in 50 stores such as Macy's in metropolitan areas were an expression of a new Earhart image. Her concept of simple, natural lines matched with wrinkle-proof, washable materials was the embodiment of a sleek, purposeful but feminine \"A.E.\" (the familiar name she went by with family and friends). The luggage line that she promoted (marketed as Modernaire Earhart Luggage) also bore her unmistakable stamp.\n\nA wide range of promotional items appeared bearing the Earhart name.\n\nPromoting aviation\n\nThe celebrity endorsements helped Earhart finance her flying. Accepting a position as associate editor at Cosmopolitan magazine, she turned this forum into an opportunity to campaign for greater public acceptance of aviation, especially focusing on the role of women entering the field. In 1929, Earhart was among the first aviators to promote commercial air travel through the development of a passenger airline service; along with Charles Lindbergh, she represented Transcontinental Air Transport (TAT, later TWA) and invested time and money in setting up the first regional shuttle service between New York and Washington, DC., the Ludington Airline. She was a Vice President of National Airways, which conducted the flying operations of the Boston-Maine Airways and several other airlines in the northeast. By 1940, it had become Northeast Airlines.\n\nCompetitive flying\n\nAlthough Earhart had gained fame for her transatlantic flight, she endeavored to set an \"untarnished\" record of her own. Shortly after her return, piloting Avian 7083, she set off on her first long solo flight which occurred just as her name was coming into the national spotlight. By making the trip in August 1928, Earhart became the first woman to fly solo across the North American continent and back. Gradually her piloting skills and professionalism grew, as acknowledged by experienced professional pilots who flew with her. General Leigh Wade flew with Earhart in 1929: \"She was a born flier, with a delicate touch on the stick.\" \n\nEarhart subsequently made her first attempt at competitive air racing in 1929 during the first Santa Monica-to-Cleveland Women's Air Derby (nicknamed the \"Powder Puff Derby\" by Will Rogers), which left Santa Monica on August 18 and arrived at Cleveland on August 26. During the race, she settled into fourth place in the \"heavy planes\" division. At the second last stop at Columbus, her friend Ruth Nichols, who was coming third, had an accident while on a test flight before the race recommenced. Nichols' aircraft hit a tractor at the start of the runway and flipped over, forcing her out of the race. At Cleveland, Earhart was placed third in the heavy division. \n\nIn 1930, Earhart became an official of the National Aeronautic Association where she actively promoted the establishment of separate women's records and was instrumental in the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI) accepting a similar international standard. In 1931, flying a Pitcairn PCA-2 autogyro, she set a world altitude record of 18,415 feet (5,613 m) in a borrowed company machine. While to a reader today it might seem that Earhart was engaged in flying \"stunts,\" she was, with other female flyers, crucial to making the American public \"air minded\" and convincing them that \"aviation was no longer just for daredevils and supermen.\" \n\nDuring this period, Earhart became involved with The Ninety-Nines, an organization of female pilots providing moral support and advancing the cause of women in aviation. She had called a meeting of female pilots in 1929 following the Women's Air Derby. She suggested the name based on the number of the charter members; she later became the organization's first president in 1930. Earhart was a vigorous advocate for female pilots and when the 1934 Bendix Trophy Race banned women, she openly refused to fly screen actress Mary Pickford to Cleveland to open the races. \n\nMarriage\n\nFor a while Earhart was engaged to Samuel Chapman, a chemical engineer from Boston, breaking off her engagement on November 23, 1928. During the same period, Earhart and George Putnam had spent a great deal of time together, leading to intimacy. Putnam, who was known as GP, was divorced in 1929 and sought out Earhart, proposing to her six times before she finally agreed. After substantial hesitation on her part, they married on February 7, 1931, in Putnam's mother's house in Noank, Connecticut. Earhart referred to her marriage as a \"partnership\" with \"dual control.\" In a letter written to Putnam and hand delivered to him on the day of the wedding, she wrote, \"I want you to understand I shall not hold you to any midaevil code of faithfulness to me nor shall I consider myself bound to you similarly.\" \n\nEarhart's ideas on marriage were liberal for the time as she believed in equal responsibilities for both \"breadwinners\" and pointedly kept her own name rather than being referred to as Mrs. Putnam. When The New York Times, per the rules of its stylebook, insisted on referring to her as Mrs. Putnam, she laughed it off. GP also learned quite soon that he would be called \"Mr. Earhart.\" There was no honeymoon for the newlyweds as Earhart was involved in a nine-day cross-country tour promoting autogyros and the tour sponsor, Beech-Nut chewing gum. Although Earhart and Putnam had no children, he had two sons by his previous marriage to Dorothy Binney (1888–1982), a chemical heiress whose father's company, Binney & Smith, invented Crayola crayons: the explorer and writer David Binney Putnam (1913–1992) and George Palmer Putnam, Jr. (1921–2013). Earhart was especially fond of David who frequently visited his father at their family home in Rye, New York. George had contracted polio shortly after his parents' separation and was unable to visit as often.\n\n1932 transatlantic solo flight\n\nAt the age of 34, on the morning of May 20, 1932, Earhart set off from Harbour Grace, Newfoundland with a copy of the Telegraph-Journal, given to her by journalist Stuart Trueman,\"Eighty years since famed flight; Anniversary Amelia Earhart's stop in Saint John may have been brief but pivotal in record-breaking feat\". The Telegraph-Journal, May 19, 2012. intended to confirm the date of the flight. She intended to fly to Paris in her single engine Lockheed Vega 5B to emulate Charles Lindbergh's solo flight. Her technical advisor for the flight was famed Norwegian American aviator Bernt Balchen who helped prepare her aircraft. He also played the role of \"decoy\" for the press as he was ostensibly preparing Earhart's Vega for his own Arctic flight. After a flight lasting 14 hours, 56 minutes during which she contended with strong northerly winds, icy conditions and mechanical problems, Earhart landed in a pasture at Culmore, north of Derry, Northern Ireland. The landing was witnessed by Cecil King and T. Sawyer. When a farm hand asked, \"Have you flown far?\" Earhart replied, \"From America.\" The site now is the home of a small museum, the Amelia Earhart Centre. \n\nAs the first woman to fly solo nonstop across the Atlantic, Earhart received the Distinguished Flying Cross from Congress, the Cross of Knight of the Legion of Honor from the French Government and the Gold Medal of the National Geographic Society from President Herbert Hoover. As her fame grew, she developed friendships with many people in high offices, most notably Eleanor Roosevelt, the First Lady from 1933 to 1945. Roosevelt shared many of Earhart's interests and passions, especially women's causes. After flying with Earhart, Roosevelt obtained a student permit but did not pursue her plans to learn to fly. The two friends communicated frequently throughout their lives. Another famous flyer, Jacqueline Cochran, considered Earhart's greatest rival by both media and the public, also became a confidante and friend during this period. \n\nOther solo flights\n\nOn January 11, 1935, Earhart became the first person to fly solo from Honolulu, Hawaii to Oakland, California. Although this transoceanic flight had been attempted by many others, notably by the unfortunate participants in the 1927 Dole Air Race which had reversed the route, her trailblazing flight had been mainly routine, with no mechanical breakdowns. In her final hours, she even relaxed and listened to \"the broadcast of the Metropolitan Opera from New York.\"\n\nThat year, once more flying her faithful Vega which Earhart had tagged \"old Bessie, the fire horse,\" she soloed from Los Angeles to Mexico City on April 19. The next record attempt was a nonstop flight from Mexico City to New York. Setting off on May 8, her flight was uneventful although the large crowds that greeted her at Newark, New Jersey, were a concern as she had to be careful not to taxi into the throng.\n\nEarhart again participated in long-distance air racing, placing fifth in the 1935 Bendix Trophy Race, the best result she could manage considering that her stock Lockheed Vega topping out at 195 mi/h was outclassed by purpose-built air racers which reached more than 300 mi/h. The race had been a particularly difficult one as one competitor, Cecil Allen, died in a fiery takeoff mishap and rival Jacqueline Cochran was forced to retire due to mechanical problems, the \"blinding fog\", and violent thunderstorms that plagued the race.\n\nBetween 1930 and 1935, Earhart had set seven women's speed and distance aviation records in a variety of aircraft including the Kinner Airster, Lockheed Vega, and Pitcairn Autogiro. By 1935, recognizing the limitations of her \"lovely red Vega\" in long, transoceanic flights, Earhart contemplated, in her own words, a new \"prize... one flight which I most wanted to attempt – a circumnavigation of the globe as near its waistline as could be.\" For the new venture, she would need a new aircraft.\n\nMove to California\n\nWhile Earhart was away on a speaking tour in late November 1934, a fire broke out at the Putnam residence in Rye destroying many family treasures and Earhart's personal mementos. As Putnam had already sold his interest in the New York based publishing company to his cousin, Palmer, following the fire the couple decided to move to the West Coast where Putnam took up his new position as head of the editorial board of Paramount Pictures in North Hollywood. While speaking in California in late 1934, Earhart had contacted Hollywood \"stunt\" pilot Paul Mantz in order to improve her flying, focusing especially on long-distance flying in her Vega and wanted to move closer to him.\n\nAt Earhart's urging, Putnam purchased a small house in June 1935 adjacent to the clubhouse of the Lakeside Golf Club in Toluca Lake, a San Fernando Valley celebrity enclave community nestled between the Warner Brothers and Universal Pictures studio complexes where they had earlier rented a temporary residence. Earhart and Putnam would not move in immediately, however, as they decided to very considerably remodel and enlarge the existing small structure to meet their needs, thus delaying their occupation of their new home for some months. \n\nIn September 1935, Earhart and Mantz formally established a business partnership they had been considering since late 1934 by creating the short-lived Earhart-Mantz Flying School which Mantz controlled and operated through his aviation company, United Air Services, located at the Burbank Airport about five miles from Earhart's Toluca Lake home. Putnam handled publicity for the school which primarily taught instrument flying using Link Trainers. \n\n1937 world flight\n\nPlanning\n\nEarhart joined the faculty of Purdue University in 1935 as a visiting faculty member to counsel women on careers and as a technical advisor to the Department of Aeronautics. Early in 1936, Earhart started to plan a round-the-world flight. Not the first to circle the globe, it would be the longest at 29,000 miles (47,000 km), following a grueling equatorial route. With financing from Purdue, in July 1936, a Lockheed Electra 10E was built at Lockheed Aircraft Company to her specifications which included extensive modifications to the fuselage to incorporate a large fuel tank. Earhart dubbed the twin engine monoplane airliner her \"flying laboratory\" and hangared it at Mantz's United Air Services located just across the airfield from Lockheed's Burbank, California plant in which it had been built. \n\nAlthough the Electra was publicized as a \"flying laboratory\", little useful science was planned and the flight was arranged around Earhart's intention to circumnavigate the globe along with gathering raw material and public attention for her next book. Her first choice as navigator was Captain Harry Manning, who had been the captain of the , the ship that had brought Earhart back from Europe in 1928. \n\nThrough contacts in the Los Angeles aviation community, Fred Noonan was subsequently chosen as a second navigator because there were significant additional factors which had to be dealt with while using celestial navigation for aircraft. He had vast experience in both marine (he was a licensed ship's captain) and flight navigation. Noonan had recently left Pan Am, where he established most of the company's China Clipper seaplane routes across the Pacific. Noonan had also been responsible for training Pan American's navigators for the route between San Francisco and Manila. The original plans were for Noonan to navigate from Hawaii to Howland Island, a particularly difficult portion of the flight; then Manning would continue with Earhart to Australia and she would proceed on her own for the remainder of the project.\n\nFirst attempt\n\nOn March 17, 1937, Earhart and her crew flew the first leg from Oakland, California to Honolulu, Hawaii. In addition to Earhart and Noonan, Harry Manning and Mantz (who was acting as Earhart's technical advisor) were on board. Due to lubrication and galling problems with the propeller hubs' variable pitch mechanisms, the aircraft needed servicing in Hawaii. Ultimately, the Electra ended up at the United States Navy's Luke Field on Ford Island in Pearl Harbor. The flight resumed three days later from Luke Field with Earhart, Noonan and Manning on board. During the takeoff run, Earhart ground-looped, circumstances of which remain controversial. Some witnesses at Luke Field including the Associated Press journalist on the scene said they saw a tire blow. Earhart thought either the Electra's right tire had blown and/or the right landing gear had collapsed. Some sources, including Mantz, cited pilot error.\n\nWith the aircraft severely damaged, the flight was called off and the aircraft was shipped by sea to the Lockheed Burbank facility for repairs. \n\nSecond attempt\n\nWhile the Electra was being repaired Earhart and Putnam secured additional funds and prepared for a second attempt. This time flying west to east, the second attempt began with an unpublicized flight from Oakland to Miami, Florida, and after arriving there Earhart publicly announced her plans to circumnavigate the globe. The flight's opposite direction was partly the result of changes in global wind and weather patterns along the planned route since the earlier attempt. On this second flight, Fred Noonan was Earhart's only crew member. The pair departed Miami on June 1 and after numerous stops in South America, Africa, the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia, arrived at Lae, New Guinea, on June 29, 1937. At this stage about 22,000 miles (35,000 km) of the journey had been completed. The remaining 7,000 miles (11,000 km) would be over the Pacific.\n\nDeparture from Lae\n\nOn July 2, 1937, midnight GMT, Earhart and Noonan took off from Lae Airfield in the heavily loaded Electra. Their intended destination was Howland Island, a flat sliver of land 6,500 ft (2,000 m) long and 1,600 ft (500 m) wide, 10 ft (3 m) high and 2,556 miles (4,113 km) away. Their last known position report was near the Nukumanu Islands, about 800 miles (1,300 km) into the flight. The USCGC Itasca was on station at Howland, assigned to communicate with Earhart's Electra and guide them to the island once they arrived in the vicinity.\n\nFinal approach to Howland Island\n\nThrough a series of misunderstandings or errors (the details of which are still controversial), the final approach to Howland Island using radio navigation was not successful. Fred Noonan had earlier written about problems affecting the accuracy of radio direction finding in navigation. Another cited cause of possible confusion was that the Itasca and Earhart planned their communication schedule using time systems set a half-hour apart, with Earhart using Greenwich Civil Time (GCT) and the Itasca under a Naval time zone designation system. \n\nSome sources have noted Earhart's apparent lack of understanding of her direction-finding system, which had been fitted to the aircraft just prior to the flight. The system was equipped with a new receiver from Bendix that operated on five wavelength \"bands\", marked 1 to 5. The loop antenna was equipped with a tuneable loading coil that changed the effective length of the antenna to allow it to work efficiently at different wavelengths. The tuner on the antenna was also marked with five settings, 1 to 5, but, critically, these were not the same frequency bands as the corresponding bands on the radio. The two were close enough for settings 1, 2 and 3, but the higher frequency settings, 4 and 5, were entirely different. Earhart's only training on the system was a brief introduction by Joe Gurr at the Lockheed factory, and the topic had not come up. A card displaying the band settings of the antenna was mounted so it was not visible. Gurr explained that higher frequency bands would offer better accuracy and longer range. \n\nMotion picture evidence from Lae suggests that an antenna mounted underneath the fuselage may have been torn off from the fuel-heavy Electra during taxi or takeoff from Lae's turf runway, though no antenna was reported found at Lae. Don Dwiggins, in his biography of Paul Mantz (who assisted Earhart and Noonan in their flight planning), noted that the aviators had cut off their long-wire antenna, due to the annoyance of having to crank it back into the aircraft after each use.\n\nRadio signals\n\nDuring Earhart and Noonan's approach to Howland Island the Itasca received strong and clear voice transmissions from Earhart identifying as KHAQQ but she apparently was unable to hear voice transmissions from the ship. Signals from the ship would also be used for direction finding, implying that the aircraft's direction finder was also not functional.\n\nThe first calls, routine reports stating the weather as cloudy and overcast, were received at 2:45 and just before 5 am on July 2. These calls were broken up by static, but at this point the aircraft would still be a long distance from Howland. \n\nAt 6:14 am another call was received stating the aircraft was within 200 miles, and requested that the ship use its direction finder to provide a bearing for the aircraft. Earhart began whistling into the microphone to provide a continual signal for them to home in on. It was at this point that the radio operators on the Itasca realized that their RDF system could not tune in the aircraft's 3015 kHz frequency; radioman Leo Bellarts later commented that he \"was sitting there sweating blood because I couldn't do a darn thing about it.\" A similar call asking for a bearing was received at 6:45 am, when Earhart estimated they were 100 miles out. \n\nAt 7:42 am Earhart radioed \"We must be on you, but cannot see you—but gas is running low. Have been unable to reach you by radio. We are flying at 1,000 feet.\" Her 7:58 am transmission said she couldn't hear the Itasca and asked them to send voice signals so she could try to take a radio bearing. This transmission was reported by the Itasca as the loudest possible signal, indicating Earhart and Noonan were in the immediate area. They couldn't send voice at the frequency she asked for, so Morse code signals were sent instead. Earhart acknowledged receiving these but said she was unable to determine their direction. \n\nIn her last known transmission at 8:43 am Earhart broadcast \"We are on the line 157 337. We will repeat this message. We will repeat this on 6210 kilocycles. Wait.\" However, a few moments later she was back on the same frequency (3105 kHz) with a transmission which was logged as a \"questionable\": \"We are running on line north and south.\" Earhart's transmissions seemed to indicate she and Noonan believed they had reached Howland's charted position, which was incorrect by about five nautical miles (10 km). The Itasca used her oil-fired boilers to generate smoke for a period of time but the fliers apparently did not see it. The many scattered clouds in the area around Howland Island have also been cited as a problem: their dark shadows on the ocean surface may have been almost indistinguishable from the island's subdued and very flat profile.\n\nWhether any post-loss radio signals were received from Earhart and Noonan remains unclear. If transmissions were received from the Electra, most if not all were weak and hopelessly garbled. Earhart's voice transmissions to Howland were on 3105 kHz, a frequency restricted to aviation use in the United States by the FCC. This frequency was not thought to be fit for broadcasts over great distances. When Earhart was at cruising altitude and midway between Lae and Howland (over 1000 mi from each) neither station heard her scheduled transmission at 0815 GCT. Moreover, the 50-watt transmitter used by Earhart was attached to a less-than-optimum-length V-type antenna. \n\nThe last voice transmission received on Howland Island from Earhart indicated she and Noonan were flying along a line of position (taken from a \"sun line\" running on 157–337 degrees) which Noonan would have calculated and drawn on a chart as passing through Howland. After all contact was lost with Howland Island, attempts were made to reach the flyers with both voice and Morse code transmissions. Operators across the Pacific and the United States may have heard signals from the downed Electra but these were unintelligible or weak. \n\nSome of these reports of transmissions were later determined to be hoaxes but others were deemed authentic. Bearings taken by Pan American Airways stations suggested signals originating from several locations, including Gardner Island (Nikumaroro), 360 miles to the SSE. It was noted at the time that if these signals were from Earhart and Noonan, they must have been on land with the aircraft since water would have otherwise shorted out the Electra's electrical system. Sporadic signals were reported for four or five days after the disappearance but none yielded any understandable information. The captain of the USS later said \"There was no doubt many stations were calling the Earhart plane on the plane's frequency, some by voice and others by signals. All of these added to the confusion and doubtfulness of the authenticity of the reports.\" \n\nSearch efforts\n\nBeginning approximately one hour after Earhart's last recorded message, the USCGC Itasca undertook an ultimately unsuccessful search north and west of Howland Island based on initial assumptions about transmissions from the aircraft. The United States Navy soon joined the search and over a period of about three days sent available resources to the search area in the vicinity of Howland Island. The initial search by the Itasca involved running up the 157/337 line of position to the NNW from Howland Island. The Itasca then searched the area to the immediate NE of the island, corresponding to the area, yet wider than the area searched to the NW. Based on bearings of several supposed Earhart radio transmissions, some of the search efforts were directed to a specific position on a line of 281 degrees (approximately northwest) from Howland Island without evidence of the flyers. Four days after Earhart's last verified radio transmission, on July 6, 1937, the captain of the battleship Colorado received orders from the Commandant, Fourteenth Naval District to take over all naval and coast guard units to coordinate search efforts.\n\nLater search efforts were directed to the Phoenix Islands south of Howland Island. A week after the disappearance, naval aircraft from the Colorado flew over several islands in the group including Gardner Island (now called Nikumaroro), which had been uninhabited for over 40 years. The subsequent report on Gardner read: \"Here signs of recent habitation were clearly visible but repeated circling and zooming failed to elicit any answering wave from possible inhabitants and it was finally taken for granted that none were there... At the western end of the island a tramp steamer (of about 4000 tons)... lay high and almost dry head onto the coral beach with her back broken in two places. The lagoon at Gardner looked sufficiently deep and certainly large enough so that a seaplane or even an airboat could have landed or takenoff in any direction with little if any difficulty. Given a chance, it is believed that Miss Earhart could have landed her aircraft in this lagoon and swum or waded ashore.\" They also found that Gardner's shape and size as recorded on charts were wholly inaccurate. Other Navy search efforts were again directed north, west and southwest of Howland Island, based on a possibility the Electra had ditched in the ocean, was afloat, or that the aviators were in an emergency raft. \n\nThe official search efforts lasted until July 19, 1937. At $4 million, the air and sea search by the Navy and Coast Guard was the most costly and intensive in U.S. history up to that time but search and rescue techniques during the era were rudimentary and some of the search was based on erroneous assumptions and flawed information. Official reporting of the search effort was influenced by individuals wary about how their roles in looking for an American hero might be reported by the press. Despite an unprecedented search by the United States Navy and Coast Guard no physical evidence of Earhart, Noonan or the Electra 10E was found. The aircraft carrier USS , the Colorado, and the Itasca (and even two Japanese ships, the oceanographic survey vessel Koshu and auxiliary seaplane tender Kamoi) searched for six–seven days each, covering 150000 sqmi. \n\nImmediately after the end of the official search, Putnam financed a private search by local authorities of nearby Pacific islands and waters, concentrating on the Gilberts. In late July 1937, Putnam chartered two small boats and while he remained in the United States, directed a search of the Phoenix Islands, Christmas (Kiritimati) Island, Fanning (Tabuaeran) Island, the Gilbert Islands and the Marshall Islands, but no trace of the Electra or its occupants was found. \n\nBack in the United States, Putnam acted to become the trustee of Earhart's estate so that he could pay for the searches and related bills. In probate court in Los Angeles, Putnam requested to have the \"declared death in absentia\" seven-year waiting period waived so that he could manage Earhart's finances. As a result, Earhart was declared legally dead on January 5, 1939. \n\nSpeculation on disappearance\n\nMany ideas emerged after the disappearance of Earhart and Noonan. Two possibilities concerning the flyers' fate have prevailed among researchers and historians.\n\nCrash and sink theory\n\nMany researchers believe the Electra ran out of fuel and that Earhart and Noonan ditched at sea. Navigator and aeronautical engineer Elgen Long and his wife Marie K. Long devoted 35 years of exhaustive research to the \"crash and sink\" theory, which is the most widely accepted explanation for the disappearance. United States Navy Captain Laurance Safford (retired) who was responsible for the interwar Mid-Pacific Strategic Direction Finding Net, and the decoding of the Japanese Purple cipher messages for the attack on Pearl Harbor, began a lengthy analysis of the Earhart flight during the 1970s. His research included the intricate radio transmission documentation. Safford came to the conclusion, \"poor planning, worse execution\". Rear Admiral Richard R. Black, USN, who was in administrative charge of the Howland Island airstrip and was present in the radio room on the Itasca, asserted in 1982 that \"the Electra went into the sea about 10 am, July 2, 1937 not far from Howland\". British aviation historian Roy Nesbit interpreted evidence in contemporary accounts and Putnam's correspondence and concluded Earhart's Electra was not fully fueled at Lae. William L. Polhemous, the navigator on Ann Pellegreno's 1967 flight which followed Earhart and Noonan's original flight path, studied navigational tables for July 2, 1937, and thought Noonan may have miscalculated the \"single line approach\" intended to \"hit\" Howland. \n\nDavid Jourdan, a former Navy submariner and ocean engineer specializing in deep-sea recoveries, has claimed any transmissions attributed to Gardner Island were false. Through his company Nauticos he extensively searched a 1200 sqmi quadrant north and west of Howland Island during two deep-sea sonar expeditions (2002 and 2006, total cost $4.5 million) and found nothing. The search locations were derived from the line of position (157–337) broadcast by Earhart on July 2, 1937. Nevertheless, Elgen Long's interpretations have led Jourdan to conclude, \"The analysis of all the data we have – the fuel analysis, the radio calls, other things – tells me she went into the water off Howland.\" Earhart's stepson George Palmer Putnam Jr. has been quoted as saying he believes \"the plane just ran out of gas\". Susan Butler, author of the \"definitive\" Earhart biography East to the Dawn, says she thinks the aircraft went into the ocean out of sight of Howland Island and rests on the seafloor at a depth of 17000 ft. Tom D. Crouch, Senior Curator of the National Air and Space Museum, has said the Earhart/Noonan Electra is \"18,000 ft. down\" and may even yield a range of artifacts that could rival the finds of the Titanic, adding that \"the mystery is part of what keeps us interested. In part, we remember her because she's our favorite missing person.\"\n\nGardner Island hypothesis\n\nImmediately after Earhart and Noonan's disappearance, the U.S. Navy, Paul Mantz, and Earhart's mother (who convinced G.P. Putnam to undertake a search in the Phoenix Group) all expressed belief the flight had ended in the Phoenix Islands, now part of the Republic of Kiribati, some 350 mi southeast of Howland Island. Ultimately, Gardner Island (now Nikumaroro), larger than Howland and much more visible from the air, was identified as a viable location for landing an aircraft running out of fuel.\n\nIn 1988, The International Group for Historic Aircraft Recovery (TIGHAR) began an investigation of the Earhart/Noonan disappearance and since then has sent ten research expeditions to Gardner Island/Nikumaroro. They have suggested Earhart and Noonan may have flown without further radio transmissions for two and a half hours along the line of position Earhart noted in her last transmission received at Howland, then found the then uninhabited Gardner Island, landed the Electra on an extensive reef flat near the wreck of a large freighter (the ) on the northwest side of the atoll, and ultimately perished. In 2012, a photograph made in October 1937 of the reef at Nikumaroro after her disappearance was enhanced and showed what the experts said was 'a blurry object sticking out of the water in the lower left corner of the black-and-white photo is consistent with a strut and wheel of a Lockheed Electra landing gear.' \n\nDuring World War II, US Coast Guard LORAN Unit 92, a radio navigation station built in the summer and fall of 1944, and operational from mid-November 1944 until mid-May 1945, was located on Gardner Island's southeast end. Dozens of U.S. Coast Guard personnel were involved in its construction and operation, but were mostly forbidden from leaving the small base or having contact with the Gilbertese colonists then on the island, and found no artifacts known to relate to Earhart. \n\nNevertheless, in July 2007, an editor at Avionews in Rome compared the Gardner Island hypothesis to other non-crash-and-sink theories and called it the \"most confirmed\" of them. \n\nTIGHAR's research has produced a range of documented archaeological and anecdotal evidence supporting this hypothesis. For example, in 1940, Gerald Gallagher, a British colonial officer and licensed pilot, radioed his superiors to inform them that he had found a \"skeleton ... possibly that of a woman,\" along with an old-fashioned sextant box, under a tree on the island's southeast corner. He was ordered to send the remains to Fiji, where in 1941, British colonial authorities took detailed measurements of the bones and concluded they were from a male about 5 ft 5 in tall. In 1998, however, an analysis of the measurement data by forensic anthropologists did not confirm the original findings, concluding instead, that the skeleton had belonged to a \"tall white female of northern European ancestry.\" The bones themselves were misplaced in Fiji long ago and have not been found. \n\nIn 2007, a TIGHAR expedition visited Nikumaroro searching for unambiguously identifiable aircraft artifacts and DNA. The group included engineers, technical experts, archaeologists, anthropologists, and researchers. They found artifacts of uncertain origin on the weather-ravaged atoll, including bronze bearings which may have belonged to Earhart's aircraft and a zipper pull which might have come from her flight suit. In 2010, the research group said it had found bones that appeared to be part of a human finger. Subsequent DNA testing at the University of Oklahoma proved inconclusive as to whether the bone fragments were from a human or from a sea turtle. \n\nIn July 2012, TIGHAR conducted an underwater expedition off the northwest reef of Nikumaroro, using sonar mapping. Some of the sonar images suggested a possible wreckage site, although Ric Gillespie, executive director of TIGHAR, cautioned that most of the Electra's parts would likely have disintegrated after 75 years in sea water. Nevertheless, in May 2013, TIGHAR announced that professional analysis of a 32 ft anomaly in the sonar images showed what could possibly be the aircraft. \n\nArtifacts discovered by TIGHAR on Nikumaroro have included improvised tools; an aluminum panel, possibly from an Electra, made using 1930s manufacturing specifications; an oddly cut piece of clear Plexiglas the same thickness and curvature of an Electra window; and a size 9 Cat's Paw heel dating from the 1930s which resembles Earhart's footwear in world flight photos. Recently rediscovered photos of Earhart's Electra just before departure in Miami shows an aluminum panel over a window on the right side. Ric Gillespie, head of TIGHAR, claimed the found aluminum panel artifact has the same dimensions and rivet pattern as the one shown in the photo \"to a high degree of certainty\". Based on this new evidence, Gillespie returned to the atoll in June 2015, but operations of a Remotely operated underwater vehicle to investigate a sonar detection of a possible wreckage was hampered by technical problems. Further, a review of sonar data concluded it was most like a coral ridge. The evidence remains circumstantial, but Earhart's surviving stepson, George Putnam Jr., has expressed support for TIGHAR's research. \n\nJapanese capture theory \n\nAnother theory purports that Amelia Earhart was captured by Japanese forces. This theory came about as a result of the similarities of Earhart's Lockheed Electra's components to the Mitsubishi A6M Zero. In 1966, CBS Correspondent Fred Goerner published a book claiming Earhart and Noonan were captured and executed when their aircraft crashed on the island of Saipan, part of the Mariana Islands archipelago, while it was under Japanese occupation. In 2009, an Earhart relative stated that the pair died in Japanese custody, citing unnamed witnesses including Japanese troops and Saipan natives. He said that the Japanese cut the valuable Lockheed aircraft into scrap and threw the pieces into the ocean.\n\nIn 1993 a former PAN AM pilot named Henri Keyzer-Andre published an autobiography called Age Of Heroes: Incredible Adventures of a PAN AM Pilot and his Greatest Triumph, Unravelling the Mystery of Amelia Earhart. This autobiography is about himself and his flying experiences during the early period of commercial air travel. In this action-packed memoir, he vividly describes trips to Siberia and China, as well as WW II missions transporting refugees across war zones. He subsequently spent 28 years with the State Department's Federal Aviation Authority, participating in diplomatic and, occasionally, covert assignments. While in Japan to assist in reviving its aviation industry, Keyzer-Andre uncovered information, documented in this book, that led him to conclude that Amelia Earhart, whose plane vanished somewhere in the Pacific in 1937, was shot down by the Japanese. \n\nIn 1990, the NBC-TV series Unsolved Mysteries broadcast an interview with a Saipanese woman who claimed to have witnessed Earhart and Noonan's execution by Japanese soldiers. No independent confirmation or support has ever emerged for any of these claims. Purported photographs of Earhart during her captivity have been identified as either fraudulent or having been taken before her final flight. \n\nSince the end of World War II, a location on Tinian, which is five miles (eight km) southwest of Saipan, had been rumoured to be the grave of the two aviators. In 2004, a scientifically supported archaeological dig at the site failed to turn up any bones. \n\nMyths, legends, and claims\n\nThe unresolved circumstances of Earhart's disappearance, along with her fame, attracted a great body of other claims relating to her last flight, all of which have been generally dismissed for lack of verifiable evidence. Several unsupported theories have become well known in popular culture.\n\nSpies for FDR\n\nA World War II-era movie called Flight for Freedom (1943) starring Rosalind Russell and Fred MacMurray furthered a myth that Earhart was spying on the Japanese in the Pacific at the request of the Franklin Roosevelt administration. By 1949, both the United Press and U.S. Army Intelligence had concluded this rumor was groundless. Jackie Cochran, another pioneering aviator and one of Earhart's friends, made a postwar search of numerous files in Japan and was convinced the Japanese were not involved in Earhart's disappearance. \n\nTokyo Rose rumor\n\nA rumor which claimed that Earhart had made propaganda radio broadcasts as one of the many women compelled to serve as Tokyo Rose was investigated closely by George Putnam. According to several biographies of Earhart, Putnam investigated this rumor personally but after listening to many recordings of numerous Tokyo Roses, he did not recognize her voice among them. \n\nNew Britain\n\nThe theory that Earhart may have turned back mid-flight has been posited. She would then have tried to reach the airfield at Rabaul, New Britain (northeast of mainland Papua New Guinea), approximately 2200 mi from Howland. \n\nIn 1990, Donald Angwin, a veteran of the Australian Army's World War II campaign in New Britain, contacted researchers to suggest that a wrecked aircraft he had witnessed in jungle about 40 mi southwest of Rabaul, on April 17, 1945, may have been Earhart's Electra. Angwin, who was a corporal in the 11th Battalion at the time, reported that he and other members of a forward patrol on Japanese-occupied New Britain had found a wrecked twin-engined, unpainted all-metal aircraft. The soldiers recorded a rough position on a map, along with serial numbers seen on the wreckage. While the map was located in the possession of another veteran in 1993, subsequent searches of the area indicated failed to find a wreck.\n\nWhile Angwin died in 2001, David Billings, an Australian aircraft engineer, has continued to investigate his theory. Billings claims that the serial numbers written on the map, \"600H/P S3HI C/N1055\", represent:\n* a 600 hp Pratt & Whitney R-1340-S3H1 model engine and;\n* \"Constructor's Number 1055\", an airframe identifier.\nThese would be consistent with a Lockheed Electra 10E, such as that flown by Earhart, although they do not contain enough information to identify the wreck in question as NR16020.\n\nPacific Wrecks, a website that documents World War II-era aircraft crash sites, notes that no Electra has been reported lost in or around Papua New Guinea. Gillespie wrote that the 2000 mi distance from Earhart's last known position to New Britain was impossible for the aircraft to fly, requiring more than 13 hours of flight when there were only 4 hours of fuel remaining. \n\nAssuming another identity\n\nIn November 2006, the National Geographic Channel aired episode two of the Undiscovered History series about a claim that Earhart survived the world flight, moved to New Jersey, changed her name, remarried and became Irene Craigmile Bolam. This claim had originally been raised in the book Amelia Earhart Lives (1970) by author Joe Klaas, based on the research of Major Joseph Gervais. Irene Bolam, who had been a banker in New York during the 1940s, denied being Earhart, filed a lawsuit requesting $1.5 million in damages and submitted a lengthy affidavit in which she refuted the claims. The book's publisher, McGraw-Hill, withdrew the book from the market shortly after it was released and court records indicate that they made an out-of-court settlement with her. Subsequently, Bolam's personal life history was thoroughly documented by researchers, eliminating any possibility she was Earhart. Kevin Richlin, a professional criminal forensic expert hired by National Geographic, studied photographs of both women and cited many measurable facial differences between Earhart and Bolam. \n\nLegacy\n\nEarhart was a widely known international celebrity during her lifetime. Her shyly charismatic appeal, independence, persistence, coolness under pressure, courage and goal-oriented career along with the circumstances of her disappearance at a comparatively early age have driven her lasting fame in popular culture. Hundreds of articles and scores of books have been written about her life which is often cited as a motivational tale, especially for girls. Earhart is generally regarded as a feminist icon. \n\nEarhart's accomplishments in aviation inspired a generation of female aviators, including the more than 1,000 women pilots of the Women Airforce Service Pilots (WASP) who ferried military aircraft, towed gliders, flew target practice aircraft, and served as transport pilots during World War II. \n\nThe home where Earhart was born is now the Amelia Earhart Birthplace Museum and is maintained by The Ninety-Nines, an international group of female pilots of whom Earhart was the first elected president. \n\nA small section of Earhart's Lockheed Electra starboard engine nacelle recovered in the aftermath of the Hawaii crash has been confirmed as authentic and is now regarded as a control piece that will help to authenticate possible future discoveries. The evaluation of the scrap of metal was featured on an episode of History Detectives on Season 7 in 2009. \n\nMemorial flights\n\nTwo notable memorial flights by female aviators subsequently followed Earhart's original circumnavigational route.\nIn 1967, Ann Dearing Holtgren Pellegreno and a crew of three successfully flew a similar aircraft (a Lockheed 10A Electra) to complete a world flight that closely mirrored Earhart's flight plan. On the 30th anniversary of her disappearance, Pellegreno dropped a wreath in Earhart's honor over tiny Howland Island and returned to Oakland, completing the 28000 mi commemorative flight on July 7, 1967.\nIn 1997, on the 60th anniversary of Earhart's world flight, San Antonio businesswoman Linda Finch retraced the final flight path flying the same make and model of aircraft as Earhart, a restored 1935 Lockheed Electra 10E. Finch touched down in 18 countries before finishing the trip two and a half months later when she arrived back at Oakland Airport on May 28, 1997.\n\nIn 2001, another commemorative flight retraced the route undertaken by Earhart in her August 1928 transcontinental record flight. Dr. Carlene Mendieta flew an original Avro Avian, the same type that was used in 1928.\n\nIn 2013, Amelia Rose Earhart, a pilot and reporter from Denver Colorado, announced that she would be recreating the 1937 flight during the Summer of 2014 in a single engine Pilatus PC-12NG. She completed the flight without incident on July 11, 2014. \n\nOther honors\n\nCountless other tributes and memorials have been made in Amelia Earhart's name, including a 2012 tribute from Secretary of State Hillary Clinton, speaking at a State Department event celebrating the ties of Earhart and the United States to its Pacific neighbors, noting: \"Earhart ... created a legacy that resonates today for anyone, girls and boys, who dreams of the stars.\" In 2013, Flying magazine ranked Earhart No. 9 on their list of the \"51 Heroes of Aviation\". The following list is not considered definitive, but serves also to give significant examples of tributes and honors.\n\nAmelia Earhart Centre And Wildlife Sanctuary was established at the site of her 1932 landing in Northern Ireland, Ballyarnet Country Park, Derry.\nThe \"Earhart Tree\" on Banyan Drive in Hilo, Hawaii, was planted by Earhart in 1935.\nThe Zonta International Amelia Earhart Fellowship Awards were established in 1938.\n\nEarhart Light (also known as the Amelia Earhart Light), a navigational day beacon on Howland Island (has not been maintained and is crumbling).\nThe Amelia Earhart Memorial Scholarships (established in 1939 by The Ninety-Nines), provides scholarships to women for advanced pilot certificates and ratings, jet type ratings, college degrees and technical training.\nThe Purdue University Amelia Earhart Scholarship, first awarded in 1940, is based on academic merit and leadership and is open to juniors and seniors enrolled in any school at the West Lafayette campus. After being discontinued in the 1970s, a donor resurrected the award in 1999.\nIn 1942, a United States Liberty ship named was launched. It was wrecked in 1948.\nAmelia Earhart Field (1947), formerly Masters Field and Miami Municipal Airport, after closure in 1959, Amelia Earhart Park was dedicated in an area of undeveloped federal government land located north and west of the former Miami Municipal Airport and immediately south of Opa-locka Airport.\nAmelia Earhart Airport (1958), located in Atchison, Kansas.\nAmelia Earhart Commemorative Stamp (8¢ airmail postage) was issued in 1963 by the United States Postmaster-General.\nThe Civil Air Patrol Amelia Earhart Award (since 1964) is awarded to cadets who have completed the first 11 achievements of the cadet program along with receipt of the General Billy Mitchell Award.\nAmelia Earhart Residence Hall opened in 1964 as a residence hall for women at Purdue University and became coed in 2002. An eight-foot sculpture of Earhart, by Ernest Shelton, was placed in front of the Earhart Hall Dining Court in 2009. \nMember of National Aviation Hall of Fame (1968). \nMember of National Women's Hall of Fame (1973).\nCrittenton Women's Union (Boston) Amelia Earhart Award recognizes a woman who continues Earhart's pioneering spirit and who has significantly contributed to the expansion of opportunities for women. (since 1982)\nEarhart Corona, a corona on Venus was named by the IAU in 1982. \nThe Amelia Earhart Birthplace, Atchison, Kansas (a museum and historic site, owned and maintained by The Ninety-Nines since 1984).\nUCI Irvine Amelia Earhart Award (since 1990).\nMember of Motorsports Hall of Fame of America (1992).\n3895 Earhart, a minor planet discovered in 1987, was named in 1995 after her, by its discoverer, Carolyn S. Shoemaker.\nEarhart Foundation, located in Ann Arbor, Michigan. Established in 1995, the foundation funds research and scholarship through a network of 50 \"Earhart professors\" across the United States.\nAmelia Earhart Festival (annual event since 1996), located in Atchison, Kansas.\nAmelia Earhart Pioneering Achievement Award, Atchison, Kansas: Since 1996, the Cloud L. Cray Foundation provides a $10,000 women's scholarship to the educational institution of the honoree's choice.\nAmelia Earhart Earthwork in Warnock Lake Park, Atchison, Kansas. Stan Herd created the 1 acre landscape mural in 1997 from permanent plantings and stone to celebrate the 100th anniversary of Earhart's birth. Located at and best viewed from the air.\nAmelia Earhart Bridge (1997), located in Atchison, Kansas.\nGreater Miami Aviation Association Amelia Earhart Award for outstanding achievement (2006); first recipient: noted flyer Patricia \"Patty\" Wagstaff.\nOn December 6, 2006, California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger and First Lady Maria Shriver inducted Earhart into the California Hall of Fame located at The California Museum for History, Women and the Arts.\nUSNS Amelia Earhart (T-AKE-6) was named in her honor in May 2007.\nAmelia Earhart full size bronze statue was placed at the Spirit of Flight Center located in Lafayette, Colorado in 2008.\n\nThe Amelia Earhart General Aviation Terminal, a satellite terminal at Boston's Logan Airport (formerly used by American Eagle, now unused)\nAmelia Earhart Dam on the Mystic River in eastern Massachusetts.\nSchools named after Earhart are found throughout the United States including the Amelia Earhart Elementary School, in Alameda, California, Amelia Earhart Elementary School, in Hialeah, Florida, Amelia Earhart Middle School, Riverside, California and Amelia Earhart International Baccalaureate World School, in Indio, California.\nAmelia Earhart Hotel, located in Wiesbaden, Germany, originally used as a hotel for women, then as temporary military housing is now operated as the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Europe District Headquarters with offices for the Army Contracting Agency and the Defense Contract Management Agency.\nAmelia Earhart Road, located in Oklahoma City (headquarters of The Ninety-Nines), Oklahoma.\nEarhart Road, located next to the Oakland International Airport North Field in Oakland, California.\nAmelia Earhart Playhouse, at Wiesbaden Army Airfield. \n* Tio commemorate her first transatlantic flight, on the Millennium Coastal Path at Pwll, Burry Port, South Wales is a blue plaque sponsored by Llanelli Community Heritage. \n* In 2015, a newly discovered Lunar Crater was provisionally named after Amelia Earhart. \n\nPopular culture\n\nEarhart's life has spurred the imaginations of many writers and others; the following examples are given although many other mentions have also occurred in contemporary or current media:\n* \"Amelia Earhart's Last Flight\", by \"Yodelling Cowboy\" Red River Dave McEnery, is thought to be the first song ever performed on commercial television (at the 1939 World's Fair). He recorded it in 1941 and it was subsequently covered by artists including Kinky Friedman and the Country Gentlemen.\n* The 1943 Rosalind Russell film Flight for Freedom derived from a treatment, \"Stand by to Die\", was a fictionalized treatment of Earhart's life.\n* Possibly the first tribute album dedicated to the legend of Earhart was by Plainsong, In Search of Amelia Earhart, Elektra K42120, released in 1972. Both the album and the Press Pak released by Elektra are highly prized by collectors and have reached cult status. \n* Patti Smith published two poems dedicated to Earhart: \"Amelia Earhart I\" and \"Amelia Earhart II\" in her 1972 poetry collection Seventh Heaven.\n* Singer Joni Mitchell's song \"Amelia\" appears on her 1976 album Hejira and also features in the video of her 1980 live album Shadows and Light (1980) with clips of Earhart. Commenting on the origins of the song, which interweaves the story of a desert journey with aspects of Earhart's disappearance, Mitchell said: \"I was thinking of Amelia Earhart and addressing it from one solo pilot to another ... sort of reflecting on the cost of being a woman and having something you must do.\" \n* In the \"Rare Objects\" episode of \"Rod Serling's Night Gallery\" in 1972, Amelia Earhart is seen among a set of missing persons who are assembled by a unique collector of human beings played by Raymond Massey.\n* \"In Search of: Amelia Earhart,\" (1976) was episode 16 of the 1976–1982 In Search Of series; this episode spurred a number of popular documentaries that followed.\n* A 1976 television bio production titled Amelia Earhart starring Susan Clark and John Forsythe included flying by Hollywood stunt pilot Frank Tallman whose late partner in Tallmantz Aviation, Paul Mantz, had tutored Earhart in the 1930s.\n* In the 1978 novel \"Wings\" by Robert J. Serling, Earhart appears as an acquaintance and romantic interest of the novel's protagonist, Barney Burton. \n* William Katz's 1980 novel Ghostflight features Amelia Earhart's reappearance after being captured by nazis, and subjected to age-prolonging treatment.\n* Clive Cussler's 1992 novel Sahara mentions that Amelia Earhart and Fred Noonan were executed on Saipan and their remains returned and hidden near Washington DC.\n* The documentary Amelia Earhart: The Price of Courage (1993) from American Experience. \nAmelia Earhart: The Final Flight (1994) starring Diane Keaton, Rutger Hauer and Bruce Dern was initially released as TV movie and subsequently released as a theatrical feature. \n I Was Amelia Earhart (1996) is a faux autobiography by Jane Mendelsohn in which \"Earhart\" tells the story of what happened to her in 1937, complete with heavy doses of romance with her navigator.\n* Amelia And Eleanor Go For A Ride (1999) is a children's picture book written by Pam Munoz Ryan and illustrated by Brian Selznick. It tells the story of the impromptu flight taken by Earhart and Eleanor Roosevelt in 1933.\n* Amelia Earhart is quoted in a verse of New Radicals 1999 hit single \"Someday We'll Know.\"\n* In the Star Trek: Voyager episode \"The 37's\" (first aired 1995), Earhart, portrayed by Sharon Lawrence, was one of many humans abducted by an alien race in 1937, only to be found in cryo-stasis on a planet on the other side of the galaxy.\n* Academy Award nominee Amy Adams portrayed Earhart in Night at the Museum 2: Battle of the Smithsonian (2009).\n* In Amelia (2009), Earhart is portrayed by Hilary Swank, who also served as co-executive producer of the biopic. \n* In 2011, the Great Canadian Theatre Company hosted a musical play titled Amelia: The Girl Who Wants To Fly. \n* Antje Duvekot penned the \"Ballot of Fred Noonan\" for her 2012 album \"New Siberia\" as a view of Earhart from her collaborator's perspective.\nGoogle honored Earhart on her 115th birthday anniversary by putting up a doodle on its site on July 24, 2012.\n\nRecords and achievements\n\n Woman's world altitude record: 14,000 ft (1922)\n* First woman to fly the Atlantic Ocean (1928)\n* Speed records for 100 km (and with 500 lb cargo) (1931)\n* First woman to fly an autogyro (1931)\n* Altitude record for autogyros: 18,415 ft (1931)\n* First person to cross the USA in an autogyro (1932)\n* First woman to fly the Atlantic solo (1932)\n* First person to fly the Atlantic twice (1932)\n* First woman to receive the Distinguished Flying Cross (1932)\n* First woman to fly nonstop, coast-to-coast across the U.S. (1933)\n* Woman's speed transcontinental record (1933)\n* First person to fly solo between Honolulu, Hawaii and Oakland, California (1935)\n* First person to fly solo from Los Angeles, California to Mexico City, Mexico (1935)\n* First person to fly solo nonstop from Mexico City, Mexico to Newark, New Jersey (1935)\n* Speed record for east-to-west flight from Oakland, California to Honolulu, Hawaii (1937) \n* First person to fly solo from the Red Sea to Karachi (1937)\n\nBooks by Earhart\n\nEarhart was a successful and heavily promoted writer who served as aviation editor for Cosmopolitan magazine from 1928 to 1930. She wrote magazine articles, newspaper columns, essays and published two books based upon her experiences as a flyer during her lifetime:\n* 20 Hrs., 40 Min. (1928) was a journal of her experiences as the first woman passenger on a transatlantic flight.\nThe Fun of It (1932) was a memoir of her flying experiences and an essay on women in aviation.\nLast Flight (1937) featured the periodic journal entries she sent back to the United States during her world flight attempt, published in newspapers in the weeks prior to her final departure from New Guinea. Compiled by her husband GP Putnam after she disappeared over the Pacific, many historians consider this book to be only partially Earhart's original work." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Kans.", "Demographics of Kansas", "Economy of Kansas", "Kansasanian Soviet Socialist Republic", "Politics of Kansas", "Law of Kansas", "Climate of Kansas", "Kan.", "Cansas", "Kansas", "State of Kansas", "Geography of Kansas", "Culture of Kansas", "Transportation in Kansas", "KS, USA", "Thirty-fourth State", "Brownbackistan", "Sunflower State", "Transport in Kansas", "Religion in Kansas", "The Sunflower State", "Kansas (State)", "Sports in Kansas", "Thirty-Fourth State", "Kansas (U.S. state)", "Kansas, United States", "34th State", "Kansas (state)" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "transport in kansas", "state of kansas", "sunflower state", "34th state", "culture of kansas", "politics of kansas", "thirty fourth state", "sports in kansas", "kansas united states", "kans", "kansas", "demographics of kansas", "kansas u s state", "kansas state", "cansas", "brownbackistan", "religion in kansas", "economy of kansas", "transportation in kansas", "climate of kansas", "kan", "geography of kansas", "ks usa", "kansasanian soviet socialist republic", "law of kansas" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "kansas", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Kansas" }
Who was Theodore Roosevelt's Vice President between 1901 and 1905?	tc_570	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Theodore_Roosevelt.txt", "Vice_President_of_the_United_States.txt" ], "title": [ "Theodore Roosevelt", "Vice President of the United States" ], "wiki_context": [ "Theodore Roosevelt Jr. ( ; October 27, 1858 – January 6, 1919) was an American statesman, author, explorer, soldier, naturalist, and reformer who served as the 26th President of the United States from 1901 to 1909. As a leader of the Republican Party during this time, he became a driving force for the Progressive Era in the United States in the early 20th century.\n\nBorn a sickly child with debilitating asthma, Roosevelt successfully overcame his health problems by embracing a strenuous lifestyle. He integrated his exuberant personality, vast range of interests, and world-famous achievements into a \"cowboy\" persona defined by robust masculinity. Home-schooled, he became a lifelong naturalist before attending Harvard College. His first of many books, The Naval War of 1812 (1882), established his reputation as both a learned historian and as a popular writer. Upon entering politics, he became the leader of the reform faction of Republicans in New York's state legislature. Following the deaths of his wife and mother, he took time to grieve by escaping to the wilderness of the American West and operating a cattle ranch in the Dakotas for a time, before returning East to run unsuccessfully for Mayor of New York City in 1886. He served as Assistant Secretary of the Navy under William McKinley, resigning after one year to serve with the Rough Riders, where he gained national fame for courage during the Spanish–American War. Returning a war hero, he was elected governor of New York in 1898. The state party leadership distrusted him, so they took the lead in moving him to the prestigious but powerless role of vice president as McKinley's running mate in the election of 1900. Roosevelt campaigned vigorously across the country, helping McKinley's re-election in a landslide victory based on a platform of peace, prosperity, and conservatism.\n\nFollowing the assassination of President McKinley in September 1901, Roosevelt, at age 42, succeeded to the office, becoming the youngest United States President in history. Leading his party and country into the Progressive Era, he championed his \"Square Deal\" domestic policies, promising the average citizen fairness, breaking of trusts, regulation of railroads, and pure food and drugs. Making conservation a top priority, he established a myriad of new national parks, forests, and monuments intended to preserve the nation's natural resources. In foreign policy, he focused on Central America, where he began construction of the Panama Canal. He greatly expanded the United States Navy, and sent the Great White Fleet on a world tour to project the United States' naval power around the globe. His successful efforts to end the Russo-Japanese War won him the 1906 Nobel Peace Prize.\n\nElected in 1904 to a full term, Roosevelt continued to promote progressive policies, but many of his efforts and much of his legislative agenda were eventually blocked in Congress. Roosevelt successfully groomed his close friend, William Howard Taft, to succeed him in the presidency. After leaving office, Roosevelt went on safari in Africa and toured Europe. Returning to the USA, he became frustrated with Taft's approach as his successor. He tried but failed to win the presidential nomination in 1912. Roosevelt founded his own party, the Progressive, so-called \"Bull Moose\" Party, and called for wide-ranging progressive reforms. The split among Republicans enabled the Democrats to win both the White House and a majority in the Congress in 1912. The Democrats in the South had also gained power by having disenfranchised most blacks (and Republicans) from the political system from 1890 to 1908, fatally weakening the Republican Party across the region, and creating a Solid South dominated by their party alone. Republicans aligned with Taft nationally would control the Republican Party for decades.\n\nFrustrated at home, Roosevelt led a two-year expedition in the Amazon Basin, nearly dying of tropical disease. During World War I, he opposed President Woodrow Wilson for keeping the U.S. out of the war against Germany, and offered his military services, which were never summoned. Although planning to run again for president in 1920, Roosevelt suffered deteriorating health and died in early 1919. Roosevelt has consistently been ranked by scholars as one of the greatest U.S. presidents. His face was carved into Mount Rushmore alongside those of George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, and Abraham Lincoln.\n\nEarly life and family\n\nTheodore Roosevelt Jr. was born on October 27, 1858, at East 20th Street in New York City, New York. He was the second of four children born to socialite Martha Stewart \"Mittie\" Bulloch and glass businessman and philanthropist Theodore Roosevelt Sr. He had an older sister, Anna (nicknamed \"Bamie\"), a younger brother, Elliott, and a younger sister, Corinne. Elliott was later the father of First Lady Anna Eleanor Roosevelt, the wife of Theodore's distant cousin, President Franklin Delano Roosevelt. His paternal grandfather was of Dutch descent; his other ancestry included primarily Scottish and Scots-Irish, English and smaller amounts of German, Welsh, and French. Theodore Sr. was the fifth son of businessman Cornelius Van Schaack \"C.V.S.\" Roosevelt and Margaret Barnhill. Thee's fourth cousin, James Roosevelt I, who was also a businessman, was the father of President Franklin Delano Roosevelt. Mittie was the younger daughter of Major James Stephens Bulloch and Martha P. \"Patsy\" Stewart. Through the Van Schaacks Roosevelt is a descendant of the Schuyler family. \n\nRoosevelt's youth was largely shaped by his poor health and debilitating asthma. He repeatedly experienced sudden nighttime asthma attacks that caused the experience of being smothered to death, which terrified both Theodore and his parents. Doctors had no cure. Nevertheless, he was energetic and mischievously inquisitive. His lifelong interest in zoology began at age seven when he saw a dead seal at a local market; after obtaining the seal's head, Roosevelt and two cousins formed what they called the \"Roosevelt Museum of Natural History\". Having learned the rudiments of taxidermy, he filled his makeshift museum with animals that he killed or caught; he then studied the animals and prepared them for display. At age nine, he recorded his observation of insects in a paper entitled \"The Natural History of Insects\"..\n\nRoosevelt's father significantly influenced him. His father had been a prominent leader in New York's cultural affairs; he helped to found the Metropolitan Museum of Art, and had been especially active in mobilizing support for the Union war effort. Roosevelt wrote: \"My father, Theodore Roosevelt, was the best man I ever knew. He combined strength and courage with gentleness, tenderness, and great unselfishness. He would not tolerate in us children selfishness or cruelty, idleness, cowardice, or untruthfulness.\" Family trips abroad, including tours of Europe in 1869 and 1870, and Egypt in 1872, also had a lasting impact. Hiking with his family in the Alps in 1869, Roosevelt found that he could keep pace with his father. He had discovered the significant benefits of physical exertion to minimize his asthma and bolster his spirits. With encouragement from his father, Roosevelt began a heavy regime of exercise. After being manhandled by two older boys on a camping trip, he found a boxing coach to teach him to fight and strengthen his weakened body.\n\nRoosevelt later articulated the abiding influence of the courageous men he read about, including those in his family: \"I was nervous and timid. Yet from reading of the people I admired—ranging from the soldiers of Valley Forge and Morgan's riflemen, to the heroes of my favorite stories—and from hearing of the feats of my southern forefathers and kinsfolk and from knowing my father, I felt a great admiration for men who were fearless and who could hold their own in the world, and I had a great desire to be like them.\"\n\nEducation\n\nRoosevelt was mostly home schooled by tutors and his parents. Biographer H. W. Brands argues that \"The most obvious drawback to the home schooling Roosevelt received was uneven coverage of the various areas of human knowledge\". He was solid in geography (as a result of self study during travels), and bright in history, biology, French, and German; however, he struggled in mathematics and the classical languages. He entered Harvard College on September 27, 1876; his father told him \"Take care of your morals first, your health next, and finally your studies\".\n\nAfter recovering from devastation over his father's death on February 9, 1878, Roosevelt doubled his activities. He did well in science, philosophy, and rhetoric courses but continued to struggle in Latin and Greek. He studied biology intently and was already an accomplished naturalist and a published ornithologist; he read prodigiously with an almost photographic memory. While at Harvard, Roosevelt participated in rowing and boxing; he was once runner-up in a Harvard boxing tournament. Roosevelt was a member of the Alpha Delta Phi literary society, the Delta Kappa Epsilon fraternity, and the Porcellian Club; he was also an editor of The Harvard Advocate. On June 30, 1880, Roosevelt graduated Phi Beta Kappa (22nd of 177) from Harvard with an A.B. magna cum laude.\n\nHe entered Columbia Law School, and was an able student, but he often found law to be irrational; he spent much of his time writing a book on the War of 1812. Roosevelt eventually became entirely disenchanted with law and diverted his attention to politics at Morton Hall on 59th Street, the headquarters for New York's 21st District Republican Association. When the members of the association encouraged him to run for public office, he dropped out of law school to do so, later saying, \"I intended to be one of the governing class.\"\n\nNaval history and strategy\n\nWhile at Harvard, Roosevelt began a systematic study of the role played by the young US Navy in the War of 1812. Assisted by two uncles, he scrutinized original source materials and official US Navy records. Roosevelt's carefully researched book, published in 1882, remains one of the most important scholarly studies of the war, complete with drawings of individual and combined ship maneuvers, charts depicting the differences in iron throw weights of cannon shot between rival forces, and analyses of the differences between British and American leadership down to the ship-to-ship level. Published after Roosevelt's graduation from Harvard, The Naval War of 1812 was praised for its scholarship and style, and it showed Roosevelt to be a scholar of history. It remains a standard study of the war. Roosevelt waved the Stars and Stripes:\nIt must be but a poor spirited American whose veins do not tingle with pride when he reads of the cruises and fights of the sea-captains, and their grim prowess, which kept the old Yankee flag floating over the waters of the Atlantic for three years, in the teeth of the mightiest naval power the world has ever seen. \n\nWith the publication of The Influence of Sea Power upon History, 1660–1783 in 1890, Navy Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan was immediately hailed as the outstanding naval theorist by the leaders of Europe. Roosevelt paid very close attention to Mahan's emphasis that only a nation with the world's most powerful fleet could dominate the world's oceans, exert its diplomacy to the fullest, and defend its own borders. He incorporated Mahan's ideas into American naval strategy when he served as assistant secretary of the Navy in 1897-98. As president, 1901-1909, Roosevelt made building up a world-class fighting fleet of high priority, sending his \"white fleet\" around the globe in 1908-1909 to make sure all the naval powers understood the United States was now a major player. Roosevelt's fleet still did not challenge the superior British fleet, but it did become dominant in the Western Hemisphere. Building the Panama Canal was designed not just to open Pacific trade to East Coast cities, but also to enable the new Navy to move back and forth across the globe. \n\nFirst marriage and widowerhood\n\nOn his 22nd birthday, Roosevelt married socialite Alice Hathaway Lee, daughter of banker George Cabot Lee and Caroline Watts Haskell. Their daughter, Alice Lee Roosevelt, was born on February 12, 1884. Roosevelt's wife died two days after giving birth due to an undiagnosed case of kidney failure (called Bright's disease at the time), which had been masked by the pregnancy. In his diary, Roosevelt wrote a large 'X' on the page and then, \"The light has gone out of my life.\" His mother, Mittie, had died of typhoid fever eleven hours earlier at 3:00 a.m., in the same house. Distraught, Roosevelt left baby Alice in the care of his sister Bamie in New York City while he grieved. He assumed custody of his daughter when she was three.\n\nRoosevelt also reacted by focusing on work, specifically by re-energizing a legislative investigation into corruption of the New York City government, which arose from a concurrent bill proposing that power be centralized in the mayor's office. For the rest of his life, he rarely spoke about his wife Alice and did not write about her in his autobiography. While working with Joseph Bucklin Bishop on a biography that included a collection of his letters, Roosevelt did not mention his marriage to Alice nor his second marriage to Edith Kermit Carow. \n\nEarly political career\n\nState Assemblyman\n\nRoosevelt was soon put forth as the Republican party's candidate for the District's House seat in Albany. He was a member of the New York State Assembly (New York Co., 21st D.) in 1882, 1883 and 1884. He immediately began making his mark, specifically in corporate corruption issues. He blocked a corrupt effort by financier Jay Gould to lower his taxes. Roosevelt exposed suspected collusion in the matter by Judge Theodore Westbrook, and argued for and received approval for an investigation to proceed, aiming for the impeachment of the judge. The investigation committee rejected impeachment, but Roosevelt had exposed the potential corruption in Albany, and thus assumed a high and positive political profile in multiple New York publications. In 1883, Roosevelt became the Assembly Minority Leader. In 1884, he lost the nomination for Speaker to Titus Sheard by a vote of 41 to 29 in the GOP caucus. Roosevelt was also Chairman of the Committee on Affairs of Cities; he wrote more bills than any other legislator. \n\nPresidential election of 1884\n\nWith numerous presidential hopefuls to choose from, Roosevelt supported Senator George F. Edmunds of Vermont, a colorless reformer. The state GOP preferred the incumbent president, New York City's Chester Arthur, who was known as a spoilsman. Roosevelt fought hard and succeeded in influencing the Manhattan delegates at the state convention in Utica. He then took control of the state convention, bargaining through the night and outmaneuvering the supporters of Arthur and James G. Blaine; he gained a national reputation as a key person in New York State. \n\nRoosevelt attended the 1884 GOP National Convention in Chicago and fought alongside the Mugwump reformers; they lost to the Stalwart faction, who nominated James G. Blaine. In a crucial moment of his budding political career, Roosevelt resisted the demand of the Mugwumps that he bolt from Blaine. He bragged about his one small success: \"We achieved a victory in getting up a combination to beat the Blaine nominee for temporary chairman... To do this needed a mixture of skill, boldness and energy... to get the different factions to come in... to defeat the common foe.\" He was also impressed by an invitation to speak before an audience of ten thousand, the largest crowd he had addressed up to that date. Having gotten a taste of national politics, Roosevelt felt less aspiration for advocacy on the state level; he then retired to his new \"Chimney Butte Ranch\" on the Little Missouri. Roosevelt refused to join other Mugwumps in supporting Grover Cleveland, the governor of New York and the Democratic nominee in the general election. He debated the pros and cons of staying loyal with his political friend, Henry Cabot Lodge. After Blaine won the nomination, Roosevelt had carelessly said that he would give \"hearty support to any decent Democrat\". He distanced himself from the promise, saying that it had not been meant \"for publication\". When a reporter asked if he would support Blaine, Roosevelt replied, \"That question I decline to answer. It is a subject I do not care to talk about.\" In the end, he realized that he had to support Blaine to maintain his role in the GOP, and he did so in a press release on July 19. \n\nIn 1886, Roosevelt was the Republican candidate for mayor of New York City, portraying himself as \"The Cowboy of the Dakotas\". GOP precinct workers warned voters that the independent radical candidate Henry George was leading and that Roosevelt would lose, thus causing a last-minute defection of GOP voters to the Democratic candidate Abram Hewitt. Roosevelt took third place with 27% (60,435 votes). Hewitt won with 41% (90,552 votes), and George was held to 31% (68,110 votes). \n\nCowboy in Dakota\n\nRoosevelt built a second ranch named Elk Horn, thirty-five miles (56 km) north of the boomtown of Medora, North Dakota. On the banks of the Little Missouri, Roosevelt learned to ride western style, rope and hunt; though he earned the respect of the authentic cowboys, they were not overly impressed. However, he identified with the herdsman of history, a man he said possesses, \"few of the emasculated, milk-and-water moralities admired by the pseudo-philanthropists; but he does possess, to a very high degree, the stern, manly qualities that are invaluable to a nation\". He reoriented, and began writing about frontier life for national magazines; he also published three books – Hunting Trips of a Ranchman, Ranch Life and the Hunting-Trail, and The Wilderness Hunter.\n\nAs a deputy sheriff, Roosevelt pursued three outlaws who had stolen his riverboat and escaped north up the Little Missouri. He captured them, but decided against a vigilante hanging; instead, he sent his foreman back by boat, and conveyed the thieves to Dickinson for trial. He assumed guard over them for forty hours without sleep, while reading Leo Tolstoy to keep himself awake. When he ran out of his own books, he read a dime store western that one of the thieves was carrying. On another occasion, while searching for a group of relentless horse thieves, Roosevelt met Seth Bullock, the famous sheriff of Deadwood, South Dakota. The two would remain friends for life.\n\nRoosevelt brought his desire to address the common interests of citizens to the west. He successfully led efforts to organize ranchers to address the problems of overgrazing and other shared concerns; his work resulted in the formation of the Little Missouri Stockmen's Association. He was also compelled to coordinate conservation efforts and was able to form the Boone and Crockett Club, whose primary goal was the conservation of large game animals and their habitats. After the uniquely severe US winter of 1886–87 wiped out his herd of cattle and those of his competitors, and with it over half of his $80,000 investment, Roosevelt returned to the East.\n\nSecond marriage\n\nOn December 2, 1886, Roosevelt married his childhood and family friend, Edith Kermit Carow (August 6, 1861 – September 30, 1948), a daughter of Charles Carow and Gertrude Elizabeth Tyler. The couple married at St George's, Hanover Square in London, England. English diplomat Cecil Arthur Spring Rice, Roosevelt's close friend, served as best man. The couple honeymooned in Europe, and while there, Roosevelt led a group to the summit of Mont Blanc, an achievement that resulted in his induction into the Royal Society of London. They had five children: Theodore \"Ted\" III (1887–1944), Kermit (1889–1943), Ethel (1891–1977), Archibald (1894–1979), and Quentin (1897–1918). At the time of Ted's birth, Roosevelt was both eager and worried for Edith after losing his first wife, Alice, shortly after childbirth.\n\nReentering public life\n\nCivil Service Commission\n\nIn the 1888 presidential election, Roosevelt successfully campaigned, primarily in the Midwest, for Benjamin Harrison. President Harrison appointed Roosevelt to the United States Civil Service Commission, where he served until 1895. While in office, Roosevelt vigorously fought the spoilsmen and demanded enforcement of civil service laws. The New York Sun then described Roosevelt as \"irrepressible, belligerent, and enthusiastic\". Despite Roosevelt's support for Harrison's reelection bid in the presidential election of 1892, the eventual winner, Grover Cleveland (a Bourbon Democrat), reappointed him to the same post. Roosevelt's close friend and biographer, Joseph Bucklin Bishop, described his assault on the spoils system:\n\nNew York City Police Commissioner\n\nIn 1894, a group of reform Republicans approached Roosevelt about running for Mayor of New York again; he declined, mostly due to his wife's resistance to being removed from the Washington social set. Soon after he declined, he realized that he had missed an opportunity to reinvigorate a dormant political career. He retreated to the Dakotas for a time; his wife Edith regretted her role in the decision and vowed that there would be no repeat of it.\n\nRoosevelt became president of the board of the New York City Police Commissioners for two years in 1895 and radically reformed the police force. The New York Police Department (NYPD) was reputed as one of the most corrupt in America; the NYPD's history division records that Roosevelt was \"an iron-willed leader of unimpeachable honesty, (who) brought a reforming zeal to the New York City Police Commission in 1895\". Roosevelt implemented regular inspections of firearms and annual physical exams; he appointed 1,600 recruits based on their physical and mental qualifications, regardless of political affiliation, established Meritorious Service Medals and closed corrupt police hostelries. During his tenure, a Municipal Lodging House was established by the Board of Charities, and Roosevelt required officers to register with the Board; he also had telephones installed in station houses. \n\nIn 1894, Roosevelt met Jacob Riis, the muckraking Evening Sun newspaper journalist who was opening the eyes of New Yorkers to the terrible conditions of the city's millions of poor immigrants with such books as How the Other Half Lives. Riis described how his book affected Roosevelt:\n\nRoosevelt made a habit of walking officers' beats late at night and early in the morning to make sure that they were on duty. He made a concerted effort to uniformly enforce New York's Sunday closing law; in this, he ran up against boss Tom Platt as well as Tammany Hall—he was notified that the Police Commission was being legislated out of existence. Roosevelt chose to defer rather than split with his party. As Governor of New York State before becoming Vice President in March 1901, Roosevelt signed an act replacing the Police Commissioners with a single Police Commissioner. \n\nEmergence as a national figure\n\nAssistant Secretary of the Navy\n\nRoosevelt had demonstrated, through his research and writing, a fascination with naval history; President William McKinley, urged by Roosevelt's close friend Congressman Henry Cabot Lodge, appointed Roosevelt as the Assistant Secretary of the Navy in 1897. Secretary of the Navy John D. Long was more concerned about formalities than functions, was in poor health, and left major decisions to Roosevelt. Roosevelt seized the opportunity and began pressing his national security views regarding the Pacific and the Caribbean on McKinley. Roosevelt was particularly adamant that Spain be ejected from Cuba, to foster the latter's independence and to demonstrate the U.S. resolve to reinforce the Monroe Doctrine. Ten days after the battleship Maine exploded in the harbor of Havana, Cuba, the Secretary left the office and Roosevelt became Acting Secretary for four hours. Roosevelt cabled the Navy worldwide to prepare for war, ordered ammunition and supplies, brought in experts and went to Congress asking for the authority to recruit as many sailors as he wanted. Roosevelt was instrumental in preparing the Navy for the Spanish–American War. Roosevelt had an analytical mind, even as he was itching for war. He explained his priorities to one of the Navy's planners in late 1897:\n\nWar in Cuba\n\nPrior to his service in the Spanish–American War, Roosevelt had already seen reserve military service from 1882 to 1886 with the New York National Guard. Commissioned on August 1, 1882 as a 2nd Lieutenant with B Company, 8th Regiment, he was promoted to Captain and company commander a year later, and he remained in command until he resigned his commission. \n\nWhen the United States and Spain declared war against each other in late April 1898, Roosevelt resigned from his civilian leadership job with the Navy on May 6 and formed the First US Volunteer Cavalry Regiment along with Army Colonel Leonard Wood. Referred to by the press as the \"Rough Riders\", the regiment was one of many temporary units active only for the duration of the war.\n\nAfter securing modern multiple-round Krag smokeless carbines, Lieutenant Colonel Roosevelt arrived on May 15. The regiment trained for several weeks in San Antonio, Texas, and in his autobiography Roosevelt wrote that his prior National Guard experience had been invaluable, in that it enabled him to immediately begin teaching his men basic soldiering skills. The Rough Riders used some standard issue gear and some of their own design, purchased with gift money. Diversity characterized the regiment, which included Ivy Leaguers, professional and amateur athletes, upscale gentlemen as well as cowboys, frontiersmen, Native Americans, hunters, miners, prospectors, former soldiers, tradesmen, and sheriffs. The Rough Riders were part of the cavalry division commanded by former Confederate general Joseph Wheeler. It was one of three divisions in the V Corps under Lieutenant General William Rufus Shafter. Roosevelt and his men departed Tampa on June 13, landed in Daiquiri, Cuba, on June 23, 1898, and marched to Siboney. Wheeler sent parts of the 1st and 10th Regular Cavalry on the lower road northwest and sent the \"Rough Riders\" on the parallel road running along a ridge up from the beach. To throw off his infantry rival, Wheeler left one regiment of his Cavalry Division, the 9th, at Siboney so that he could claim that his move north was only a limited reconnaissance if things went wrong. Roosevelt was promoted to colonel and took command of the regiment when Wood was put in command of the brigade.\n\nThe Rough Riders had a short, minor skirmish known as the Battle of Las Guasimas; they fought their way through Spanish resistance and, together with the Regulars, forced the Spaniards to abandon their positions. \n\nUnder his leadership, the Rough Riders became famous for the charge up Kettle Hill on July 1, 1898, while supporting the regulars. Roosevelt had the only horse, and rode back and forth between rifle pits at the forefront of the advance up Kettle Hill, an advance that he urged despite the absence of any orders from superiors. He was forced to walk up the last part of Kettle Hill, because his horse had been entangled in barbed wire. The victories came at a cost of 200 killed and 1000 wounded.\n\nRoosevelt commented on his role in the battles: \"On the day of the big fight I had to ask my men to do a deed that European military writers consider utterly impossible of performance, that is, to attack over open ground an unshaken infantry armed with the best modern repeating rifles behind a formidable system of entrenchments. The only way to get them to do it in the way it had to be done was to lead them myself.\"\n\nRoosevelt as a veteran\n\nIn August, Roosevelt and other officers demanded that the soldiers be returned home. Roosevelt always recalled the Battle of Kettle Hill (part of the San Juan Heights) as \"the great day of my life\" and \"my crowded hour\". In 2001, Roosevelt was posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor for his actions; he had been nominated during the war, but Army officials, annoyed at his grabbing the headlines, blocked it. After returning to civilian life, Roosevelt preferred to be known as \"Colonel Roosevelt\" or \"The Colonel\". However, \"Teddy\" remained much more popular with the public, even though Roosevelt openly despised it. Men working closely with Roosevelt customarily called him \"Colonel\" or \"Theodore\".\n\nGovernor of New York\n\nAfter leaving the Army, Roosevelt discovered that New York Republicans needed him, because their current governor was tainted by scandal and would probably lose. He campaigned vigorously on his war record, winning the 1898 state election by a historical margin of 1%.\n\nAs governor, Roosevelt learned much about ongoing economic issues and political techniques that later proved valuable in his presidency. He was exposed to the problems of trusts, monopolies, labor relations, and conservation. Chessman argues that Roosevelt's program \"rested firmly upon the concept of the square deal by a neutral state\". The rules for the Square Deal were \"honesty in public affairs, an equitable sharing of privilege and responsibility, and subordination of party and local concerns to the interests of the state at large\".\n\nBy holding twice-daily press conferences—which was an innovation—Roosevelt remained connected with his middle-class political base. Roosevelt successfully pushed the Ford Franchise-Tax bill, which taxed public franchises granted by the state and controlled by corporations, declaring that \"a corporation which derives its powers from the State, should pay to the State a just percentage of its earnings as a return for the privileges it enjoys\". He rejected \"boss\" Thomas C. Platt's worries that this approached Bryanite Socialism, explaining that without it, New York voters might get angry and adopt public ownership of streetcar lines and other franchises.\n\nThe New York state government affected many interests, and the power to make appointments to policy-making positions was a key role for the governor. Platt insisted that he be consulted; Roosevelt appeared to comply, but then made his own decisions. Historians marvel that Roosevelt managed to appoint so many first-rate men with Platt's approval. He even enlisted Platt's help in securing reform, such as in the spring of 1899, when Platt pressured state senators to vote for a civil service bill that the secretary of the Civil Service Reform Association called \"superior to any civil service statute heretofore secured in America\".\n\nChessman argues that as governor, Roosevelt developed the principles that shaped his presidency, especially insistence upon the public responsibility of large corporations, publicity as a first remedy for trusts, regulation of railroad rates, mediation of the conflict of capital and labor, conservation of natural resources and protection of the less fortunate members of society.\n\nVice President\n\nIn November 1899, William McKinley's first Vice-President Garret Hobart died of heart failure. Theodore Roosevelt had anticipated a second term as governor or, alternatively, a cabinet post in the War Department; his friends (especially Henry Cabot Lodge) saw this as a dead end. They supported him for Vice President, and no one else of prominence was actively seeking that job. Some people in the GOP wanted Roosevelt as Vice President. His friends were pushing, and so were his foes. Roosevelt's reforming zeal ran afoul of the insurance and franchise businesses, who had a major voice in the New York GOP. Platt engineered Roosevelt's removal from the state by pressuring him to accept the GOP nomination. McKinley refused to consider Roosevelt as Secretary of War, but saw no risk in making him Vice President. Roosevelt accepted the nomination, although his campaign manager, Mark Hanna, thought Roosevelt was too cowboy-like. While the party executives were pleased with their success in engineering Roosevelt's next political foray, Roosevelt, very much to the contrary, thought he had \"stood the state machine on its head\". Roosevelt proved highly energetic, and an equal match for William Jennings Bryan's famous barnstorming style of campaigning. Roosevelt's theme was that McKinley had brought America peace and prosperity and deserved reelection. In a whirlwind campaign, Roosevelt made 480 stops in 23 states. Roosevelt showed the nation his energy, crisscrossing the land denouncing the radicalism of William Jennings Bryan, in contrast to the heroism of the soldiers and sailors who fought and won the war against Spain. Bryan had strongly supported the war itself, but he denounced the annexation of the Philippines as imperialism, which would spoil America's innocence. Roosevelt countered that it was best for the Filipinos to have stability, and the Americans to have a proud place in the world. With the nation basking in peace and prosperity, the voters gave conservative McKinley an even larger landslide than in 1896. The Republicans won by a landslide.\n\nThe office of Vice President was a powerless sinecure, and did not suit Roosevelt's aggressive temperament. Roosevelt's six months as Vice President (March to September 1901) were uneventful. On September 2, 1901, Roosevelt first publicized an aphorism that thrilled his supporters at the Minnesota State Fair: \"Speak softly and carry a big stick, and you will go far.\"\n\nPresidency (1901–09)\n\nOn September 6, President McKinley was shot by an anarchist acting alone while in Buffalo, New York. Initial reports suggested that his condition was improving, so Roosevelt, after visiting the ailing president, embarked for the west. When McKinley's condition worsened, Roosevelt rushed back. McKinley died on September 14, and Roosevelt was sworn in at the Ansley Wilcox House. The following month, Roosevelt invited Booker T. Washington to dinner at the White House. To his dismay, this sparked a bitter, and at times vicious, reaction across the heavily segregated South. Roosevelt reacted with astonishment and protest, saying that he looked forward to many future dinners with Washington. Upon further reflection, Roosevelt wanted to ensure that this had no effect on political support in the South, and further dinner invitations to Washington were avoided; their next meeting was scheduled as typical business at 10:00am instead. Roosevelt kept McKinley's Cabinet and promised to continue McKinley's policies. In the November 1904 presidential election, Roosevelt won the presidency in his own right in a landslide victory against Alton Brooks Parker. His vice president was Charles Warren Fairbanks of Indiana.\n\nDomestic policies\n\nTrust busting\n\nOne of Roosevelt's first notable acts as president was to deliver a 20,000-word address to Congress asking it to curb the power of large corporations (called \"trusts\"). He also spoke in support of organized labor to further chagrin big business, but to their delight, he endorsed the gold standard, protective tariffs and lower taxes. For his aggressive use of United States antitrust law, he became known as the \"trust-buster\". He brought 40 antitrust suits, and broke up major companies, such as the largest railroad and Standard Oil, the largest oil company. \n\nCoal strike\n\nIn May 1902, anthracite coal miners went on strike, threatening a national energy shortage. After threatening the coal operators with intervention by federal troops, Roosevelt won their agreement to an arbitration of the dispute by a commission, which succeeded in stopping the strike, dropping coal prices and retiring furnaces; the accord with J.P. Morgan resulted in the workers getting more pay for fewer hours, but with no union recognition. Journalist Ray Baker quoted Roosevelt concerning his policy towards capitalists and laborers: \"My action on labor should always be considered in connection with my action as regards capital, and both are reducible to my favorite formula—a square deal for every man.\"\n\nRailroads\n\nRoosevelt thought it was particularly important for the government to supervise the workings of the railway to avoid corruption in interstate commerce related to the shipment of coal and other commodities and goods. The result was enactment of the Hepburn Act in 1906, that established Federal control over railroad rates.\n\nPure Food and drugs\n\nRoosevelt responded to public anger over the abuses in the food packing industry by pushing Congress to pass the Meat Inspection Act of 1906 and the Pure Food and Drug Act. The Meat Inspection Act of 1906 banned misleading labels and preservatives that contained harmful chemicals. The Pure Food and Drug Act banned food and drugs that were impure or falsely labeled from being made, sold, and shipped. Roosevelt also served as honorary president of the American School Hygiene Association from 1907 to 1908, and in 1909 he convened the first White House Conference on the Care of Dependent Children.\n\nBusiness\n\nDuring the Panic of 1907, nearly all agreed that a more flexible system to ensure liquidity was needed—the Republicans sought a response to the money supply through the bankers, whereas the Democrats sought government control; Roosevelt was unsure, but leaned towards the Republican view while continuing to denounce corporate corruption. Nonetheless, in 1910, Roosevelt commented on \"enormously wealthy and economically powerful men\" and suggested \"a graduated inheritance tax on big fortunes... increasing rapidly in amount with the size of the estate\". \n\nRoosevelt was also inclined to extend the regulatory reach of his office. In a moment of frustration, House Speaker Joseph Gurney Cannon commented on Roosevelt's desire for executive branch control in domestic policy-making: \"That fellow at the other end of the avenue wants everything from the birth of Christ to the death of the devil.\" Biographer Brands states, \"Even his friends occasionally wondered whether there wasn't any custom or practice too minor for him to try to regulate, update or otherwise improve.\" In fact, Roosevelt's willingness to exercise his power included attempted rule changes in the game of football; at the Naval Academy, he sought to force retention of martial arts classes and to revise disciplinary rules. He even ordered changes made in the minting of a coin whose design he disliked, and ordered the Government Printing Office to adopt simplified spellings for a core list of 300 words, according to reformers on the Simplified Spelling Board. He was forced to rescind the latter after substantial ridicule from the press and a resolution of protest from the House of Representatives.\n\nConservation\n\nOf all Roosevelt's achievements, he was proudest of his work in conservation of natural resources, and extending Federal protection to land and wildlife. Roosevelt established the United States Forest Service, signed into law the creation of five National Parks, and signed the 1906 Antiquities Act, under which he proclaimed 18 new U.S. National Monuments. He also established the first 51 Bird Reserves, four Game Preserves, and 150 National Forests, including Shoshone National Forest, the nation's first. The area of the United States that he placed under public protection totals approximately 230000000 acre. He worked closely with Gifford Pinchot. \n\nForeign policy\n\nIn the late 1890s, Roosevelt had been an ardent imperialist, and vigorously defended the permanent acquisition of the Philippines in the 1900 election campaign. After the rebellion ended in 1901, he largely lost interest in the Philippines and Asian expansion in general, despite the contradictory opinion of his Secretary of War, William Howard Taft. As president, he primarily focused the nation's overseas ambitions on the Caribbean, especially locations that had a bearing on the defense of his pet project, the Panama Canal.\n\nIn 1905, Roosevelt offered to mediate a treaty to end the Russo-Japanese War. The parties agreed to meet in Portsmouth, New Hampshire and they resolved the final conflict over the division of Sakhalin– Russia took the northern half, and Japan the south; Japan also dropped its demand for an indemnity. Roosevelt won the Nobel Peace Prize for his successful efforts. George E. Mowry concludes that Roosevelt handled the arbitration well, doing an \"excellent job of balancing Russian and Japanese power in the Orient, where the supremacy of either constituted a threat to growing America\". \n\nThe Gentlemen's Agreement of 1907 resolved unpleasant racial tensions with Japan. Tokyo was angered over the segregation of Japanese children in San Francisco schools. The tensions were ended, but Japan also agreed not to allow unskilled workers to emigrate to the U.S.\n\nLatin America\n\nRoosevelt's attention concerning Latin American turmoil was heightened by his plans for building a canal. In December 1902, the Germans, English, and Italians sought to impose a naval blockade against Venezuela in order to force the repayment of delinquent loans. Roosevelt was particularly concerned with the motives of Germany's Kaiser Wilhelm. He succeeded in getting the aggressors to agree to arbitration by a tribunal at The Hague, and averted the Venezuela Crisis of 1902–1903. The latitude granted to the Europeans by the arbiters was in part responsible for the \"Roosevelt Corollary\" to the Monroe Doctrine, which the President issued in 1904: \"Chronic wrongdoing or an impotence which results in a general loosening of the ties of civilized society, may in America, as elsewhere, ultimately require intervention by some civilized nation, and in the Western Hemisphere, the adherence of the United States to the Monroe doctrine may force the United States, however reluctantly, in flagrant cases of such wrongdoing or impotence, to the exercise of an international police power.\"\n\nThe pursuit of an isthmus canal in Central America during this period focused on two possible routes—Nicaragua and Panama, which was then a rebellious district within Colombia. Roosevelt convinced Congress to approve the Panamanian alternative, and a treaty was approved, only to be rejected by the Colombian government. When the Panamanians learned of this, a rebellion followed, was supported by Roosevelt, and succeeded. A treaty with the new Panama government for construction of the canal was then reached in 1903. \n\nIn 1906, following a disputed election, an insurrection ensued in Cuba; Roosevelt sent Taft, the Secretary of War, to monitor the situation; he was convinced that he had the authority to unilaterally authorize Taft to deploy Marines if necessary, without congressional approval.\n\nExamining the work of numerous scholars, Ricard (2014) reports that:\n\nThe most striking evolution in the twenty-first century historiography of Theodore Roosevelt is the switch from a partial arraignment of the imperialist to a quasi-unanimous celebration of the master diplomatist.... [Regarding British relations these studies] have underlined cogently Roosevelt's exceptional statesmanship in the construction of the nascent twentieth-century \"special relationship\". ...The twenty-sixth president's reputation as a brilliant diplomatist and realpolitician has undeniably reached new heights in the twenty-first century...yet, his Philippine policy still prompts criticism. \n\nThe media\n\nBuilding on McKinley's effective use of the press, Roosevelt made the White House the center of news every day, providing interviews and photo opportunities. After noticing the reporters huddled outside the White House in the rain one day, he gave them their own room inside, effectively inventing the presidential press briefing. The grateful press, with unprecedented access to the White House, rewarded Roosevelt with ample coverage.\n\nRoosevelt normally enjoyed very close relationships with the press, which he used to keep in daily contact with his middle-class base. While out of office, he made a living as a writer and magazine editor. He loved talking with intellectuals, authors, and writers. He drew the line, however, at expose-oriented scandal-mongering journalists who, during his term, set magazine subscriptions soaring by their attacks on corrupt politicians, mayors, and corporations. Roosevelt himself was not usually a target, but his speech in 1906 coined the term \"muckraker\" for unscrupulous journalists making wild charges. \"The liar,\" he said, \"is no whit better than the thief, and if his mendacity takes the form of slander he may be worse than most thieves.\" \n\nThe press did briefly target Roosevelt in one instance. Ever since 1904, he had been periodically criticized for the manner in which he facilitated the Panama Canal. In the least judicious use of executive power, according to biographer Brands, Roosevelt, near the end of his term, demanded that the Justice Department bring charges of criminal libel against Joseph Pulitzer's New York World. The publication had accused him of \"deliberate misstatements of fact\" in defense of family members who were criticized as a result of the Panama affair. Though indictment was obtained, the case was ultimately dismissed in federal court—it was not a federal offense, but one enforceable at the state court level. The Justice Department had predicted that result, and had also advised Roosevelt accordingly.\n\nElection of 1904\n\nThe control and management of the Republican Party lay in the hands of chairman Mark Hanna until McKinley's death. Hanna's domination, and potential rivalry for the party's nomination in 1904, began to wane with his own health issues; he died early that year. In deference to Hanna's conservative loyalists, Roosevelt at first offered the party chairmanship to Cornelius Bliss, but he declined. Roosevelt turned to his own man, George B. Cortelyou of New York, the first Secretary of Commerce and Labor. To buttress his hold on the party's nomination, Roosevelt made it clear that anyone opposing Cortelyou would be considered to be opposing the President. The President secured his own nomination, but his preferred vice-presidential running mate, Robert R. Hitt, was not nominated. Charles Warren Fairbanks gained the nomination.\n\nWhile Roosevelt followed the tradition of incumbents in not actively campaigning on the stump, he sought to control the campaign's message through specific instructions to Cortelyou. He also attempted to manage the press's release of White House statements by forming the Ananias Club. Any journalist who repeated a statement made by the president without approval was penalized by restriction of further access.\n\nThe Democratic Party's nominee in 1904 was Alton Brooks Parker. Roosevelt won 56% of the popular vote, and Parker received 38%; Roosevelt also won the Electoral College vote, 336 to 140. Before his inauguration ceremony, Roosevelt declared that he would not serve another term.\n\nSecond-term troubles\n\nRoosevelt, moving to the left of his Republican Party base, called for a series of reforms that were mostly not passed. He sought a national incorporation law (at a time when all corporations had state charters, which varied greatly state by state). He called for a federal income tax, but the Supreme Court in the 1890s had ruled any income tax would require a constitutional amendment. Roosevelt sought an inheritance tax so the great fortunes could not pay out in perpetuity. In the area of labor legislation, Roosevelt called for limits on the use of court injunctions against labor unions during strikes; injunctions were a powerful weapon that mostly helped business. He wanted an employee liability law for industrial injuries (pre-empting state laws). He called for an eight-hour law for federal employees. In other areas he also sought a postal savings system (to provide competition for local banks), and he asked for campaign reform laws. He secured passage of the Hepburn Bill, with help from Democrats, which increased the regulating power of the Interstate Commerce Commission. Eventually some of his proposals were enacted under his successors. When Roosevelt ran for president on an independent Progressive Party ticket in 1912, in addition to these policies he proposed stringent new controls on the court system, especially state courts, to make a more democratic. His court policies in particular caused his anointed successor, William Howard Taft, to lead a counter-crusade that defeated Roosevelt in 1912. \n\nPost-presidency\n\nElection of 1908\n\nBefore leaving office, while attempting to push through the nomination of William Howard Taft for the Presidency in 1908, Roosevelt declared Taft to be a \"genuine progressive\". In January of that year, Roosevelt wrote the following to Taft: \"Dear Will: Do you want any action about those federal officials? I will break their necks with the utmost cheerfulness if you say the word!\" Just weeks later he branded as \"false and malicious\"; the charge was that he was using the offices at his disposal to favor Taft.\n\nTaft easily defeated three-time candidate William Jennings Bryan. Taft promoted a progressivism that stressed the rule of law; he preferred that judges rather than administrators or politicians make the basic decisions about fairness. Taft usually proved to be a less adroit politician than Roosevelt and lacked the energy and personal magnetism, along with the publicity devices, the dedicated supporters, and the broad base of public support that made Roosevelt so formidable. When Roosevelt realized that lowering the tariff would risk creating severe tensions inside the Republican Party by pitting producers (manufacturers and farmers) against merchants and consumers, he stopped talking about the issue. Taft ignored the risks and tackled the tariff boldly, encouraging reformers to fight for lower rates, and then cutting deals with conservative leaders that kept overall rates high. The resulting Payne-Aldrich tariff of 1909 was too high for most reformers, but instead of blaming this on Senator Nelson Wilmarth Aldrich and big businesses, Taft took credit, calling it the best tariff ever. He managed to alienate all sides. While the crisis was building inside the Party, Roosevelt was touring Africa and Europe, to allow Taft to be his own man. \n\nRepublican Party schism\n\nRoosevelt had attempted to refashion Taft into a younger version of himself, but as soon as Taft began to display his individuality, the former president expressed his disenchantment. He was offended on election night when Taft wrote and indicated that his success had been possible not just through the efforts of Roosevelt, but also his brother Charley. Roosevelt was further alienated when Taft, intent on becoming his own man, did not consult him about cabinet appointments. Lodge empathized with Roosevelt, and therefore declined an offer to become Secretary of State.\n\nUnlike Roosevelt, Taft never attacked business or businessmen in his rhetoric. However, he was attentive to the law, so he launched 90 antitrust suits, including one against the largest corporation, US Steel, for an acquisition which Roosevelt had personally approved. Consequently, Taft lost the support of antitrust reformers (who disliked his conservative rhetoric), of big business (which disliked his actions), and of Roosevelt, who felt humiliated by his protégé. More trouble came when Taft fired Roosevelt's friend and appointee Gifford Pinchot, a leading conservationist. Pinchot alleged that Taft's Secretary of the Interior, Richard Ballinger, was in league with big timber interests. Conservationists sided with Pinchot, and Taft alienated yet another vocal constituency. The left wing of the Republican Party began turning against Taft.\n\nSenator Robert M. La Follette Sr. of Wisconsin joined with Pinchot, William White and Hiram Johnson to create the National Progressive Republican League; their objectives were to defeat the power of political bossism at the state level and to replace Taft at the national level. Roosevelt declined to join this group—he was reluctant to leave the GOP. Back from Europe, Roosevelt unexpectedly launched an attack on the courts. He gave a notable speech at Osawatomie, Kansas, in August 1910, which was the most radical of his career and openly initiated his break with the Taft administration and the conservative Republicans. Osawatomie was well known as the base used by John Brown when he launched his bloody attacks on slavery. Advocating a program of \"New Nationalism\", Roosevelt emphasized the priority of labor over capital interests, a need to more effectively control corporate creation and combination, and proposed a ban on corporate political contributions.\n\nRoosevelt shortly thereafter made it clear in a meeting with Lloyd Carpenter Griscom, a New York Republican regular, that Taft no longer enjoyed his support, since he had \"deliberately abandoned\" their previous close relations. Taft was deeply upset. In the 1910 Congressional elections, Democrats won a majority in the House, and significantly diminished the Republicans' hold on the Senate. From 1890 to 1908, Southern legislatures dominated by white conservative Democrats had completed the disenfranchisement of most blacks, and therefore most Republicans in the region, through a series of new constitutions and laws creating barriers to voter registration. Democrats built the Solid South, a one-party region, which was maintained as such nearly into the late 1960s.\n\nThese changes made Taft's reelection in 1912 doubtful. The Republican progressives interpreted the 1910 defeats as compelling argument for the complete reorganization of the party in 1911, and Roosevelt reacted with renewed interest in more personal political endeavors. Despite skepticism of La Follette's new League, Roosevelt expressed general support for progressive principles; between January and April 1911, Roosevelt wrote a series of articles for The Outlook, defending what he called \"the great movement of our day, the progressive nationalist movement against special privilege, and in favor of an honest and efficient political and industrial democracy\".\n\nSmithsonian-Roosevelt African Expedition (1909–10)\n\nIn March 1909, shortly after the end of his presidency, Roosevelt left New York for the Smithsonian-Roosevelt African Expedition, a safari in east and central Africa outfitted by the Smithsonian Institution. Roosevelt's party landed in Mombasa, British East Africa (now Kenya), traveled to the Belgian Congo (now Democratic Republic of the Congo), before following the Nile to Khartoum in modern Sudan. Financed by Andrew Carnegie and by his own writings, Roosevelt's party hunted for specimens for the Smithsonian Institution and for the American Museum of Natural History in New York. The group, led by the legendary hunter-tracker RJ Cunninghame, included scientists from the Smithsonian, and was joined from time to time by Frederick Selous, the famous big game hunter and explorer. Among other items, Roosevelt brought with him four tons of salt for preserving animal hides, a lucky rabbit's foot given to him by boxer John L. Sullivan, a Holland & Holland double rifle in .500/450 donated by a group of 56 admiring Britons, a Winchester 1895 rifle in .405 Winchester, an Army (M1903) Springfield in .30-06 caliber stocked and sighted for him, a Fox No. 12 shotgun, and the famous Pigskin Library, a collection of classics bound in pig leather and transported in a single reinforced trunk. Participants on the expedition included Kermit Roosevelt, Edgar Alexander Mearns, Edmund Heller, and John Alden Loring. \n\nRoosevelt and his companions killed or trapped approximately 11,400 animals, from insects and moles to hippopotamuses and elephants. The 1000 large animals included 512 big game animals, including six rare White rhinos. Tons of salted animals and their skins were shipped to Washington; it took years to mount them all, and the Smithsonian shared many duplicate specimens with other museums. Regarding the large number of animals taken, Roosevelt said, \"I can be condemned only if the existence of the National Museum, the American Museum of Natural History, and all similar zoological institutions are to be condemned\".\n\nAlthough the safari was ostensibly conducted in the name of science, it was as much a political and social event as it was a hunting excursion; Roosevelt interacted with renowned professional hunters and land-owning families, and met many native peoples and local leaders. Roosevelt had become a life member of the National Rifle Association in 1907. He wrote a detailed account of the safari in the book African Game Trails, recounting the excitement of the chase, the people he met, and the flora and fauna he collected in the name of science. \n\nElection of 1912\n\nRepublican primaries and convention\n\nIn November 1911, a group of Ohio Republicans endorsed Roosevelt for the party's nomination for president; the endorsers included James R. Garfield and Dan Hanna. This was notable, as the endorsement was made by leaders of President Taft's home state. Roosevelt conspicuously declined to make a statement requested by Garfield—that he flatly refuse a nomination. Soon thereafter, Roosevelt said, \"I am really sorry for Taft... I am sure he means well, but he means well feebly, and he does not know how! He is utterly unfit for leadership and this is a time when we need leadership.\" In January 1912, Roosevelt declared \"if the people make a draft on me I shall not decline to serve\". Later that year, Roosevelt spoke before the Constitutional Convention in Ohio, openly identifying as a progressive and endorsing progressive reforms—even endorsing popular review of state judicial decisions. In reaction to Roosevelt's proposals for popular overrule of court decisions, Taft said, \"Such extremists are not progressives—they are political emotionalists or neurotics\".\n\nRoosevelt began to envision himself as the savior of the Republican party (the \"GOP\") from defeat in the upcoming Presidential election and declared as a candidate for the GOP banner. In February 1912, Roosevelt announced in Boston, \"I will accept the nomination for president if it is tendered to me. I hope that so far as possible the people may be given the chance through direct primaries to express who shall be the nominee. Both Elihu Root and Henry Cabot Lodge thought that division of the party would lead to its defeat in the next election; Taft believed he was witnessing the end of his political career—it was only a matter of whether he would be defeated by his own party or in the general election.\n\nThe 1912 primaries represented the first extensive use of the presidential primary, a reform achievement of the progressive movement. The primaries in the South, where party regulars dominated, went for Taft, as did results in New York, Indiana, Michigan, Kentucky and Massachusetts. Meanwhile, Roosevelt won in Illinois, Minnesota, Nebraska, South Dakota, California, Maryland and Pennsylvania; Roosevelt also won Taft's home state of Ohio. These primary elections, while demonstrating Roosevelt's continuing popularity with the electorate, were not pivotal. The final credentials of the state delegates at the national convention were determined by the national committee, which was controlled by the party leaders, headed by the incumbent president.\n\nAt the Republican Convention in Chicago, though Taft's victory was not immediate, the hard fought outcome was in his favor. Black delegates from the South played a key role: they voted heavily for Taft and put him over the top. Roosevelt said \"Seven-eights of the negro delegates, and about the same proportion of white men representing negro districts in the South, went for Mr. Taft.\" \n\nThe Progressive (\"Bull Moose\") Party\n\nOnce his defeat as the GOP nominee was probable, Roosevelt announced that he would \"accept the progressive nomination on a progressive platform and I shall fight to the end, win or lose\". At the same time, Roosevelt prophetically said, \"My feeling is that the Democrats will probably win if they nominate a progressive\". After two weeks at the GOP convention, Roosevelt asked his followers to leave the hall, and they moved to the Auditorium Theatre. Then Roosevelt, along with key allies such as Pinchot and Albert Beveridge, created the Progressive Party, structuring it as a permanent organization that would field complete tickets at the presidential and state level. It was popularly known as the \"Bull Moose Party\", after Roosevelt told reporters, \"I'm as fit as a bull moose\". At the convention Roosevelt cried out, \"We stand at Armageddon and we battle for the Lord.\"\n\nRoosevelt's platform echoed his 1907–8 proposals, calling for vigorous government intervention to protect the people from the selfish interests;\n\nMany Progressive party supporters in the North were supporters of civil rights for blacks. Roosevelt did not want to alienate them. On the other hand, his chief advisors in the South insisted the Progressive party had to be a white man's party there. Rival all-white and all-black delegations from four southern states arrived at the Progressive national convention. Roosevelt decided to seat the all-white delegations. He ran a \"lily-white\" campaign in the South in 1912. Nevertheless, he won little support outside mountain Republican strongholds. Out of nearly 1100 counties in the South, Roosevelt won two counties in Alabama, one in Arkansas, seven in North Carolina, three in Georgia, 17 in Tennessee two in Texas, one in Virginia, and none in Florida, Louisiana, Mississippi, or South Carolina. \n\nAssassination attempt\n\nOn October 14, 1912, while campaigning in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, Roosevelt was shot by a saloonkeeper named John Flammang Schrank. The bullet lodged in his chest after penetrating his steel eyeglass case and passing through a thick (50 pages) single-folded copy of the speech he was carrying in his jacket. Roosevelt, as an experienced hunter and anatomist, correctly concluded that since he was not coughing blood, the bullet had not reached his lung, and he declined suggestions to go to the hospital immediately. Instead, he delivered his scheduled speech with blood seeping into his shirt. He spoke for 90 minutes. His opening comments to the gathered crowd were, \"Ladies and gentlemen, I don't know whether you fully understand that I have just been shot, but it takes more than that to kill a Bull Moose.\" Afterwards, probes and an x-ray showed that the bullet had lodged in Roosevelt's chest muscle, but did not penetrate the pleura, and it would be less dangerous to leave it in place. Roosevelt carried the bullet with him for the rest of his life. \n\nBecause of the bullet wound, Roosevelt was taken off the campaign trail in the final weeks of the race (which ended on election day, November 5). Though the other two campaigners stopped their own campaigns during the week Roosevelt was in the hospital, they resumed it once he was released. The bullet lodged in his chest exacerbated his rheumatoid arthritis and prevented him from doing his daily stint of exercises; Roosevelt soon became obese..\n\nElection of 1912\n\nIn an era of party loyalty, Roosevelt failed to move enough Republicans to vote a third party ticket. He won 4.1 million votes (27%), compared to Taft's 3.5 million (23%). The Democratic candidate, New Jersey governor Woodrow Wilson gained 6.3 million votes (42% of the total), enough for a massive landslide in the Electoral College, with 435 electoral votes; Roosevelt won 88 electoral votes, and Taft had 8. Pennsylvania was the only eastern state won by Roosevelt; in the Midwest, he carried Michigan, Minnesota, and South Dakota; in the West, California, and Washington. The South as usual was solidly Democratic. \n\n1913–14 South American Expedition\n\nA friend of Roosevelt's, Father John Augustine Zahm, a Catholic priest and scientist at the University of Notre Dame, had searched for new adventures and found them in the forests of South America. After a briefing of several of his own expeditions, he persuaded Roosevelt to participate in such an expedition in 1912. To finance the expedition, Roosevelt received support from the American Museum of Natural History, promising to bring back many new animal specimens. Roosevelt's popular book, Through the Brazilian Wilderness describes his expedition into the Brazilian jungle in 1913 as a member of the Roosevelt-Rondon Scientific Expedition, co-named after its leader, Brazilian explorer Cândido Rondon. The book describes the scientific discovery, scenic tropical vistas, and exotic flora and fauna experienced during the adventure.\n\nOnce in South America, a new, far more ambitious goal was added: to find the headwaters of the Rio da Duvida, the River of Doubt, and trace it north to the Madeira and thence to the Amazon River. It was later renamed Roosevelt River in honor of the former President. Roosevelt's crew consisted of his son Kermit, naturalist Colonel Rondon, George K. Cherrie, sent by the American Museum of Natural History, Brazilian Lieutenant João Lira, team physician Dr. José Antonio Cajazeira, and 16 skilled paddlers and porters (called camaradas [comrades] in Portuguese). The initial expedition started somewhat tenuously on December 9, 1913, at the height of the rainy season. The trip down the River of Doubt started on February 27, 1914. \n\nDuring the trip down the river, Roosevelt suffered a minor leg wound after he jumped into the river to try to prevent two canoes from smashing against the rocks. The flesh wound he received, however, soon gave him tropical fever that resembled the malaria he had contracted while in Cuba fifteen years before. Because the bullet lodged in his chest from the assassination attempt in 1912 was never removed, his health worsened from the infection. This weakened Roosevelt so greatly that six weeks into the adventure, he had to be attended to day and night by the expedition's physician and his son Kermit. By then, he could not walk because of the infection in his injured leg and an infirmity in the other, which was due to a traffic accident a decade earlier. Roosevelt was riddled with chest pains, fighting a fever that soared to 103 °F (39 °C) and at times made him delirious. Regarding his condition as a threat to the survival of the others, Roosevelt insisted he be left behind to allow the poorly provisioned expedition to proceed as rapidly as it could. Only an appeal by his son persuaded him to continue. \n\nDespite Roosevelt's continued decline and loss of over 50 pounds (20 kg), Commander Rondon reduced the pace of the expedition to allow for his commission's mapmaking and other geographical tasks, which required regular stops to fix the expedition's position by sun-based survey. Upon Roosevelt's return to New York, friends and family were startled by his physical appearance and fatigue. Roosevelt wrote, perhaps prophetically, to a friend that the trip had cut his life short by ten years. For the rest of his few remaining years, he would be plagued by flare-ups of malaria and leg inflammations so severe as to require surgery. Before Roosevelt had even completed his sea voyage home, critics raised doubts over his claims of exploring and navigating a completely uncharted river over 625 miles (1,000 km) long. When he had recovered sufficiently, he addressed a standing-room-only convention organized in Washington, D.C., by the National Geographic Society and satisfactorily defended his claims.\n\nWorld War I\n\nWhen World War I began in 1914, Roosevelt strongly supported the Allies and demanded a harsher policy against Germany, especially regarding submarine warfare. Roosevelt angrily denounced the foreign policy of President Wilson, calling it a failure regarding the atrocities in Belgium and the violations of American rights. In 1916, he campaigned energetically for Charles Evans Hughes and repeatedly denounced Irish-Americans and German-Americans whom he described as unpatriotic, saying they put the interests of Ireland and Germany ahead of America's by supporting neutrality. He insisted that one had to be 100% American, not a \"hyphenated American\" who juggled multiple loyalties. In March 1917, Congress gave Roosevelt the authority to raise a maximum of four divisions similar to the Rough Riders, and Major Frederick Russell Burnham was put in charge of both the general organization and recruitment. However, the Commander-in-chief, President Woodrow Wilson, announced to the press that he would not send Roosevelt and his volunteers to France, but instead would send an American Expeditionary Force under the command of General John J. Pershing. Roosevelt was forced to disband the volunteers. He never forgave Wilson, and quickly published The Foes Of Our Own Household, an indictment of the sitting president. \n\nRoosevelt's attacks on Wilson helped the Republicans win control of Congress in the off-year elections of 1918. Roosevelt was popular enough to contest the 1920 Republican nomination, but his health was broken by 1918, because of the lingering malaria. His family and supporters threw their support behind Roosevelt's old military companion, General Leonard Wood, who was ultimately defeated by Taft supporter Warren G. Harding. Roosevelt's youngest son, Quentin, a pilot with the American forces in France, was shot down behind German lines on July 14, 1918, at the age of 20. It is said that Quentin's death distressed Roosevelt so much that he never recovered from his loss. \n\nDeath\n\nOn the night of January 5, 1919, Roosevelt suffered breathing problems. He felt better after treatment from his physician, Dr. George W. Faller, and went to bed. Roosevelt's last words were \"Please put out that light, James\" to his family servant James Amos. Between 4:00 and 4:15 the next morning, Roosevelt died in his sleep at Sagamore Hill; a blood clot had detached from a vein and traveled to his lungs. Upon receiving word of his death, his son Archibald telegraphed his siblings: \"The old lion is dead.\" Woodrow Wilson's vice president, Thomas R. Marshall, said that \"Death had to take Roosevelt sleeping, for if he had been awake, there would have been a fight.\" Following a private farewell service in the North Room at Sagamore Hill, a simple funeral was held at Christ Episcopal Church in Oyster Bay. Vice President Thomas R. Marshall, Charles Evans Hughes, Warren Harding, Henry Cabot Lodge, and William Howard Taft were among the mourners. The snow-covered procession route to Youngs Memorial Cemetery was lined with spectators and a squad of mounted policemen who had ridden from New York City. Roosevelt was buried on a hillside overlooking Oyster Bay.\n\nPolitical positions and speeches\n\nTheodore Roosevelt introduced the phrase \"Square Deal\" to describe his progressive views in a speech delivered after leaving the office of the Presidency in August 1910. In his broad outline, he stressed equality of opportunity for all citizens and emphasized the importance of fair government regulations of corporate \"special interests\". Roosevelt was one of the first Presidents to make conservation a national issue. In his speech at Osawatomie, Kansas, on August 31, 1910, he outlined his views on conservation of the lands of the United States. He favored using America's natural resources, but opposed wasteful consumption. One of his most lasting legacies was his significant role in the creation of 5 national parks, 18 national monuments, and 150 National Forests, among other works of conservation. Roosevelt was instrumental in conserving about 230 e6acre of American soil among various parks and other federal projects. In the 21st century, historians have paid renewed attention to President Roosevelt as \"The Wilderness Warrior\" and his energetic promotion of the conservation movement. He collaborated with his chief advisor, Gifford Pinchot, the chief of the Forest Service. Pinchot and Roosevelt scheduled a series of news events that garnered nationwide media attention in magazines and newspapers. They used magazine articles, speeches, press conferences, interviews, and especially large-scale presidential commissions. Roosevelt's goal was to encourage his middle-class reform-minded base to add conservation to their list of issues. \n\nPositions on immigration, minorities, civil rights, and eugenics\n\nImmigration\n\nIn an 1894 article on immigration, Roosevelt said, \"We must Americanize in every way, in speech, in political ideas and principles, and in their way of looking at relations between church and state. We welcome the German and the Irishman who becomes an American. We have no use for the German or Irishman who remains such... He must revere only our flag, not only must it come first, but no other flag should even come second.\"\n\nRoosevelt took an active interest in immigration, and had launched an extensive reorganization of the federal immigration depot at Ellis Island within months of assuming the presidency. Roosevelt \"straddled the immigration question\", taking the position that \"we cannot have too much immigration of the right sort, and we should have none whatever of the wrong sort\". As president, his stated preferences were relatively inclusive, across the then diverse and mostly European sources of immigration:\n\nMinorities and Civil Rights\n\nHe was the first president to appoint a Jewish cabinet member—Secretary of Commerce and Labor, Oscar Solomon Straus, who served from 1906 to 1909. Straus, who had helped co-found the Immigration Protective League in 1898, was the Roosevelt Administration's cabinet official overseeing immigration; he helped secure the passage and implementation of the Immigration Act of 1907. \n\nIn 1886, Roosevelt criticized the morals of Indians he had seen:\nI don't go so far as to think that the only good Indians are dead Indians, but I believe nine out of ten are, and I shouldn't like to inquire too closely into the case of the tenth. The most vicious cowboy has more moral principle than the average Indian. Turn three hundred low families of New York into New Jersey, support them for fifty years in vicious idleness, and you will have some idea of what the Indians are. Reckless, revengeful, fiendishly cruel, they rob and murder, not the cowboys, who can take care of themselves, but the defenseless, lone settlers on the plains. \n\nRegarding African-Americans, Roosevelt told a civil rights leader:\nI have not been able to think out any solution of the terrible problem offered by the presence of the Negro on this continent, but of one thing I am sure, and that is that inasmuch as he is here and can neither be killed nor driven away, the only wise and honorable and Christian thing to do is to treat each black man and each white man strictly on his merits as a man, giving him no more and no less than he shows himself worthy to have. \n\nRoosevelt appointed numerous African Americans to federal offices, such as Walter L. Cohen of New Orleans, a leader of the Black and Tan Republican faction, whom Roosevelt named register of the federal land office. \n\nContrasting the European conquest of North America with that of Australia, Roosevelt wrote: \"The natives [of Australia] were so few in number and of such a low type, that they practically offered no resistance at all, being but little more hindrance than an equal number of ferocious beasts\"; however, the Native Americans were \"the most formidable savage foes ever faced ever encountered by colonists of European stock\". He regarded slavery as \"a crime whose shortsighted folly was worse than its guilt\" because it \"brought hordes of African slaves, whose descendants now form immense populations in certain portions of the land\". Contrasting the European conquest of North America with that of South Africa, Roosevelt felt that the fate of the latter's colonists would be different because, unlike the Native American, the African \"neither dies out nor recedes before their advance\", meaning the colonists would likely \"be swallowed up in the overwhelming mass of black barbarism\".\n\nRace suicide and eugenics\n\nRoosevelt was intensely active in warning against race suicide, and held a Neo-Lamarkist viewpoint. When Roosevelt used the word 'race', he meant the entirety of the human race or Americans as one race and culture. Americans, he repeatedly said, were getting too soft and having too few children and were thus dying out. While he agreed with some of the ideas of eugenics, he strongly opposed the core eugenics movement principle that some people should have fewer children. As historian Thomas Dyer explains, Roosevelt, \"Strenuously dissented from the ideas which contravened the race suicide..... And categorically rejected any measure which would not produce enough children to maintain racial integrity and national preeminence.\" Roosevelt attacked the fundamental axioms of eugenics, warning against \"twisted eugenics\". \n\nIn 1914 he said: \"I wish very much that the wrong people could be prevented entirely from breeding; and when the evil nature of these people is sufficiently flagrant, this should be done. Criminals should be sterilized and feeble-minded persons forbidden to leave offspring behind them.\" \n\nWhen Madison Grant published his book The Passing of the Great Race, Roosevelt wrote this to Scribner's Magazine to promote it:\nThe book is a capital book; in purpose, in vision, in grasp of the facts our people most need to realize. It shows an extraordinary range of reading and a wide scholarship. It shows a habit of singular serious thought on the subject of most commanding importance. It shows a fine fearlessness in assailing the popular and mischievous sentimentalities and attractive and corroding falsehoods which few men dare assail. It is the work of an American scholar and gentleman; and all Americans should be sincerely grateful to you for writing it. \n\nRoosevelt was greatly impressed by the performance of ethnic American soldiers in the world war. Biographer Kathleen Dalton says:\nHe insisted to [Madison] Grant that race and ethnicity did not matter because men of foreign parentage across the nation fought well, including Jews....Roosevelt took the final step toward believing in racial equality. At the end of his life TR repudiated the Madison Grants and other racists and promised W.E.B. DuBois to work with more energy for racial justice. \n\nWriter\n\nRoosevelt was a prolific author, writing with passion on subjects ranging from foreign policy to the importance of the national park system. Roosevelt was also an avid reader of poetry. Poet Robert Frost said that Roosevelt \"was our kind. He quoted poetry to me. He knew poetry.\" \n\nAs an editor of Outlook magazine, Roosevelt had weekly access to a large, educated national audience. In all, Roosevelt wrote about 18 books (each in several editions), including his autobiography, The Rough Riders, History of the Naval War of 1812, and others on subjects such as ranching, explorations, and wildlife. His most ambitious book was the four volume narrative The Winning of the West, focused on the American frontier in the 18th and early 19th centuries. Roosevelt said that the American character – indeed a new \"American race\" (ethnic group) had emerged from the heroic wilderness hunters and Indian fighters, acting on the frontier with little government help. Roosevelt also published an account of his 1909–10 African expedition entitled African Game Trails.\n\nIn 1907, Roosevelt became embroiled in a widely publicized literary debate known as the nature fakers controversy. A few years earlier, naturalist John Burroughs had published an article entitled \"Real and Sham Natural History\" in the Atlantic Monthly, attacking popular writers of the day such as Ernest Thompson Seton, Charles G. D. Roberts, and William J. Long for their fantastical representations of wildlife. Roosevelt agreed with Burroughs' criticisms, and published several essays of his own denouncing the booming genre of \"naturalistic\" animal stories as \"yellow journalism of the woods\". It was the President himself who popularized the negative term \"nature faker\" to describe writers who depicted their animal characters with excessive anthropomorphism. \n\nCharacter and beliefs\n\nRoosevelt intensely disliked being called \"Teddy\", and was quick to point out this fact to those who referred to him as such, though it would become widely used by newspapers during his political career. He attended church regularly. In 1907, concerning the motto \"In God We Trust\" on money, he wrote, \"It seems to me eminently unwise to cheapen such a motto by use on coins, just as it would be to cheapen it by use on postage stamps, or in advertisements.\" He was also a member of the Freemasons and Sons of the American Revolution. \n\nRoosevelt had a lifelong interest in pursuing what he called, in an 1899 speech, \"The Strenuous Life\". To this end, he exercised regularly and took up boxing, tennis, hiking, rowing, polo, and horseback riding. As governor of New York, he boxed with sparring partners several times each week, a practice he regularly continued as President until being hit so hard in the face he became blind in his left eye (a fact not made public until many years later). Thereafter, he practiced judo, attaining a third degree brown belt; he also continued his habit of skinny-dipping in the Potomac River during the winter. \n\nRoosevelt was an enthusiastic singlestick player and, according to Harper's Weekly, showed up at a White House reception with his arm bandaged after a bout with General Leonard Wood in 1905. Roosevelt was an avid reader, reading tens of thousands of books, at a rate of several per day in multiple languages. Along with Thomas Jefferson, Roosevelt was the most well-read of all American politicians. \n\nLegacy\n\nHistorians credit Roosevelt for changing the nation's political system by permanently placing the presidency at center stage and making character as important as the issues. His notable accomplishments include trust busting and conservationism. He is a hero to liberals for his proposals in 1907–12 that presaged the modern welfare state of the New Deal Era, and put the environment on the national agenda. Conservatives admire his \"big stick\" diplomacy and commitment to military values. Dalton says, \"Today he is heralded as the architect of the modern presidency, as a world leader who boldly reshaped the office to meet the needs of the new century and redefined America's place in the world.\"\n\nHowever, liberals have criticized him for his interventionist and imperialist approach to nations he considered \"uncivilized\". Conservatives reject his vision of the welfare state and emphasis on the superiority of government over private action. Historians typically rank Roosevelt among the top five presidents. \n\nPersona and masculinity\n\nDalton says Roosevelt is remembered as, \"one of the most picturesque personalities who has ever enlivened the landscape\". His friend, historian Henry Adams, proclaimed:\n\nRecent biographers have stressed Roosevelt's personality. Cooper compared him with Woodrow Wilson, and discovered that both of them played the roles of warrior and priest. Dalton stressed Roosevelt's strenuous life. Sarah Watts examined the desires of the \"Rough Rider in the White House\". Brands calls Roosevelt \"the last romantic\", arguing that his romantic concept of life emerged from his belief that \"physical bravery was the highest virtue and war the ultimate test of bravery\".\n\nRoosevelt as the exemplar of American masculinity has become a major theme. As president, he repeatedly warned men that they were becoming too office-bound, too complacent, too comfortable with physical ease and moral laxity, and were failing in their duties to propagate the race and exhibit masculine vigor. French historian Serge Ricard says, \"the ebullient apostle of the Strenuous Life offers ideal material for a detailed psycho-historical analysis of aggressive manhood in the changing socio-cultural environment of his era; McKinley, Taft, or Wilson would perhaps inadequately serve that purpose\". He promoted competitive sports and the Boy Scouts of America, founded in 1910, as the way forward. Brands shows that heroic displays of bravery were essential to Roosevelt's image and mission:\n\nMemorials\n\nRoosevelt was included with Presidents George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, and Abraham Lincoln at the Mount Rushmore Memorial, designed in 1927 with the approval of Republican President Calvin Coolidge. For his gallantry at San Juan Hill, Roosevelt's commanders recommended him for the Medal of Honor. In the late 1990s, Roosevelt's supporters again recommended the award. On January 16, 2001, President Bill Clinton awarded Theodore Roosevelt the Medal of Honor posthumously for his charge on San Juan Hill, Cuba, during the Spanish–American War. \nThe United States Navy named two ships for Roosevelt: the , a submarine that was in commission from 1961 to 1982, and the , an aircraft carrier that has been on active duty in the Atlantic Fleet since 1986. On November 18, 1956, the United States Postal Service released a 6¢ Liberty Issue postage stamp honoring Roosevelt. A 32¢ stamp was issued on February 3, 1998, as part of the Celebrate the Century stamp sheet series. \n\nIn 2008, Columbia Law School awarded a law degree to Roosevelt, posthumously making him a member of the class of 1882. In Chicago, the city renamed 12th Street to Roosevelt Road four months after Roosevelt's death. \n\nTheodore Roosevelt Association\n\nIn 1919, the Theodore Roosevelt Association (originally known as the Permanent Memorial National Committee) was founded by friends and supporters of Roosevelt. Soon renamed the Roosevelt Memorial Association (RMA), it was chartered in 1920 under Title 36 of the United States Code. In parallel with the RMA was an organization for women, The Women's Theodore Roosevelt Association, that had been founded in 1919 by an act of the New York State Assembly. Both organizations merged in 1956 under the current name. This organization preserved Roosevelt's papers in a 20-year project, preserved his photos and established four public sites: the reconstructed Theodore Roosevelt Birthplace National Historic Site, New York City, dedicated in 1923 and donated to the National Park Service in 1963; Theodore Roosevelt Memorial Park, Oyster Bay, Long Island, New York, dedicated in 1928 and given to the people of Oyster Bay; Theodore Roosevelt Island in the Potomac River in Washington, D.C., given to the federal government in 1932; Sagamore Hill (house), Roosevelt's Oyster Bay home, opened to the public in 1953 and was donated to the National Park Service in 1963 and is now the Sagamore Hill National Historic Site. The organization has its own web site at http://www.theodoreroosevelt.org and maintains a Facebook page at https://www.facebook.com/pages/Theodore-Roosevelt-Association/41852696878.\n\nOther locations named for Roosevelt include Theodore Roosevelt National Park in North Dakota, and Theodore Roosevelt Lake and Theodore Roosevelt Dam in Arizona.\n\nIn popular culture\n\nRoosevelt's \"Speak Softly and Carry a Big Stick\" ideology is still quoted by politicians and columnists in different countries—not only in English, but also in translations to various other languages.\n\nOne lasting, popular legacy of Roosevelt is the stuffed toy bears—teddy bears—named after him following an incident on a hunting trip in Mississippi in 1902. Roosevelt famously refused to shoot a defenseless black bear that had been tied to a tree. After the cartoonist Clifford K. Berryman illustrated the President with a bear, a toy maker heard the story and named the teddy bear after Roosevelt. Bears, and later bear cubs, became closely associated with Roosevelt in political cartoons, despite Roosevelt openly despising being called \"Teddy\". On June 26, 2006, Roosevelt was on the cover of TIME magazine with the lead story, \"The Making of America—Theodore Roosevelt—The 20th Century Express\": \"At home and abroad, Theodore Roosevelt was the locomotive President, the man who drew his flourishing nation into the future.\" \n\nIn 1905, Roosevelt, an admirer of various western figures, named Captain Bill McDonald of the Texas Rangers as his bodyguard and entertained the legendary Texan at the White House. Ironically, in the 1912 campaign, McDonald was Woodrow Wilson's bodyguard. Wilson thereafter named the Democrat McDonald as the U.S. Marshal for the Northern district of Texas. \n\nRoosevelt has been portrayed many times in film and on television. Karl Swenson played him in the 1967 western picture Brighty of the Grand Canyon, the story of a real-life burro who guided Roosevelt on a hunting trip to find mountain lions. Brian Keith played Roosevelt in the 1975 film The Wind and the Lion. He was also portrayed by actor Tom Berenger in 1997 for the TNT movie Rough Riders, a made-for-cable film about his exploits during the Spanish–American War in Cuba. Frank Albertson played Roosevelt in the episode \"Rough and Ready\" of the CBS series My Friend Flicka.\" Robin Williams portrayed Roosevelt in the form of a wax mannequin that comes to life in Night at the Museum and its sequels Night at the Museum: Battle of the Smithsonian and Night at the Museum: Secret of the Tomb.\n\nIn Don Rosa's comic book series The Life and Times of Scrooge McDuck (1994–96), Roosevelt meets and befriends Scrooge McDuck in 1882 when both were visiting the Dakota badlands and later again in 1902 at Fort Duckburg. In Don Rosa's story The Sharpie of the Culebra Cut (2001), collected in The Life and Times of Scrooge McDuck Companion, they meet for the third time during the construction of the Panama Canal in 1906.\n\nMedia\n\n* Theodore Roosevelt was one of the first presidents whose voice was recorded for posterity. Several of his recorded speeches survive. A 4.6-minute voice recording, which preserves Roosevelt's lower timbre ranges particularly well for its time, is among those available from the Michigan State University libraries (this is the 1912 recording of The Right of the People to Rule, recorded by Edison at Carnegie Hall). The audio clip sponsored by the Authentic History Center includes his defense of the Progressive Party in 1912, wherein he proclaims it the \"party of the people\", in contrast with the other major parties.\n\n* [http://www.loc.gov/item/mp76000114/ Roosevelt goes for a ride] in Arch Hoxsey's plane in October 1910\n\nAncestry\n\nSource:", "The Vice President of the United States (VPOTUS) is the second-highest position in the executive branch of the United States, after the President. The executive power of both the vice president and the president is granted under Article Two, Section One of the Constitution. The vice president is indirectly elected, together with the president, to a four-year term of office by the people of the United States through the Electoral College. The vice president is the first person in the presidential line of succession, and would normally ascend to the presidency upon the death, resignation, or removal of the president. The Office of the Vice President of the United States assists and organizes the vice president's official functions.\n\nThe vice president is also president of the United States Senate and in that capacity only votes when it is necessary to break a tie. While Senate customs have created supermajority rules that have diminished this constitutional tie-breaking authority, the vice president still retains the ability to influence legislation; for example, the Deficit Reduction Act of 2005 was passed in the Senate by a tie-breaking vice presidential vote. Additionally, pursuant to the Twelfth Amendment, the vice president presides over the joint session of Congress when it convenes to count the vote of the Electoral College.\n\nWhile the vice president's only constitutionally prescribed functions aside from presidential succession relate to their role as President of the Senate, the office is commonly viewed as a component of the executive branch of the federal government. The United States Constitution does not expressly assign the office to any one branch, causing a dispute among scholars whether it belongs to the executive branch, the legislative branch, or both. The modern view of the vice president as a member of the executive branch is due in part to the assignment of executive duties to the vice president by either the president or Congress, though such activities are only recent historical developments.\n\nOrigin\n\nThe creation of the office of vice president was a direct consequence of the creation of the Electoral College. Delegates to the Philadelphia Convention gave each state a number of presidential electors equal to that state's combined share of House and Senate seats. Yet the delegates were worried that each elector would only favor his own state's favorite son candidate, resulting in deadlocked elections that would produce no winners. To counter this potential difficulty, the delegates gave each presidential elector two votes, requiring that at least one of their votes be for a candidate from outside the elector's state; they also mandated that the winner of an election must obtain an absolute majority of the total number of electors. The delegates expected that each elector's second vote would go to a statesman of national character.\n\nFearing that electors might throw away their second vote to bolster their favorite son's chance of winning, however, the Philadelphia delegates specified that the runner-up would become vice president. Creating this new office imposed a political cost on discarded votes and forced electors to cast their second ballot.\n\nRoles of the vice president\n\nThe Constitution limits the formal powers and role of vice president to becoming president, should the president become unable to serve, prompting the well-known expression \"only a heartbeat away from the presidency,\" and to acting as the presiding officer of the U.S. Senate.\nOther statutorily granted roles include membership of both the National Security Council and the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. \n\nPresident of the United States Senate\n\nAs President of the Senate, the vice president has two primary duties: to cast a vote in the event of a Senate deadlock and to preside over and certify the official vote count of the U.S. Electoral College. For example, in the first half of 2001, the Senators were divided 50-50 between Republicans and Democrats and Dick Cheney's tie-breaking vote gave the Republicans the Senate majority.\n\nRegular duties\n\nAs President of the Senate (Article I, Section 3, Clause 4), the vice president oversees procedural matters and may cast a tie-breaking vote. There is a strong convention within the U.S. Senate that the vice president should not use their position as President of the Senate to influence the passage of legislation or act in a partisan manner, except in the case of breaking tie votes. As President of the Senate, John Adams cast twenty-nine tie-breaking votes, a record no successor except John C. Calhoun ever threatened. Adams's votes protected the president's sole authority over the removal of appointees, influenced the location of the national capital, and prevented war with Great Britain. On at least one occasion Adams persuaded senators to vote against legislation he opposed, and he frequently addressed the Senate on procedural and policy matters. Adams's political views and his active role in the Senate made him a natural target for critics of George Washington's administration. Toward the end of his first term, a threatened resolution that would have silenced him except for procedural and policy matters caused him to exercise more restraint in hopes of seeing his election as President of the United States.\n\nFormerly, the vice president would preside regularly over Senate proceedings, but in modern times, the vice president rarely presides over day-to-day matters in the Senate; in their place, the Senate chooses a President pro tempore (or \"president for a time\") to preside in the vice president's absence; the Senate normally selects the longest-serving senator in the majority party. The President pro tempore has the power to appoint any other senator to preside, and in practice junior senators from the majority party are assigned the task of presiding over the Senate at most times.\n\nExcept for this tie-breaking role, the Standing Rules of the Senate vest no significant responsibilities in the vice president. Rule XIX, which governs debate, does not authorize the vice president to participate in debate, and grants only to members of the Senate (and, upon appropriate notice, former presidents of the United States) the privilege of addressing the Senate, without granting a similar privilege to the sitting vice president. Thus, as Time magazine wrote during the controversial tenure of Vice President Charles G. Dawes, \"once in four years the Vice President can make a little speech, and then he is done. For four years he then has to sit in the seat of the silent, attending to speeches ponderous or otherwise, of deliberation or humor.\" \n\nRecurring, infrequent duties\n\nThe President of the Senate also presides over counting and presentation of the votes of the Electoral College. This process occurs in the presence of both houses of Congress, generally on January 6 of the year following a U.S. presidential election. In this capacity, only four vice presidents have been able to announce their own election to the presidency: John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, Martin Van Buren, and George H. W. Bush. At the beginning of 1961, it fell to Richard Nixon to preside over this process, which officially announced the election of his 1960 opponent, John F. Kennedy. In 2001, Al Gore announced the election of his opponent, George W. Bush. In 1969, Vice President Hubert Humphrey would have announced the election of his opponent, Richard Nixon; however, on the date of the Congressional joint session (January 6), Humphrey was in Norway attending the funeral of Trygve Lie, the first elected Secretary-General of the United Nations. \n\nIn 1933, incumbent Vice President Charles Curtis announced the election of House Speaker John Nance Garner as his successor, while Garner was seated next to him on the House dais.\n\nThe President of the Senate may also preside over most of the impeachment trials of federal officers. However, whenever the President of the United States is impeached, the US Constitution requires the Chief Justice of the United States to preside over the Senate for the trial. The Constitution is silent as to the presiding officer in the instance where the vice president is the officer impeached.\n\nSuccession and the Twenty-Fifth Amendment\n\nThe U.S. Constitution provides that should the president die, become disabled while in office or removed from office, the \"powers and duties\" of the office are transferred to the vice president. Initially, it was unclear whether the vice president actually became the new president or merely an acting president. This was first tested in 1841 with the death of President William Henry Harrison. Harrison's vice president, John Tyler, asserted that he had succeeded to the full presidential office, powers, and title, and declined to acknowledge documents referring to him as \"Acting President.\" Despite some strong calls against it, Tyler took the oath of office as the tenth President. Tyler's claim was not challenged legally, and so the Tyler precedent of full succession was established. This was made explicit by Section 1 of the Twenty-fifth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, ratified in 1967.\n\nSection 2 of the Twenty-fifth Amendment provides for vice presidential succession:\n Gerald Ford was the first vice president selected by this method, after the resignation of Vice President Spiro Agnew in 1973; after succeeding to the presidency, Ford nominated Nelson Rockefeller as vice president.\n\nAnother issue was who had the power to declare that an incapacitated president is unable to discharge his duties. This question had arisen most recently with the illnesses of President Dwight D. Eisenhower. Section 3 and Section 4 of the amendment provide means for the vice president to become acting president upon the temporary disability of the president. Section 3 deals with self-declared incapacity of the president. Section 4 deals with incapacity declared by the joint action of the vice president and of a majority of the Cabinet.\n\nWhile Section 4 has never been invoked, Section 3 has been invoked three times: on July 13, 1985 when Ronald Reagan underwent surgery to remove cancerous polyps from his colon, and twice more on June 29, 2002 and July 21, 2007 when George W. Bush underwent colonoscopy procedures requiring sedation. Prior to this amendment, Vice President Richard Nixon informally assumed some of President Dwight Eisenhower's duties for several weeks on each of three occasions when Eisenhower was ill.\n\nInformal roles\n\nThe extent of any informal roles and functions of the vice president depend on the specific relationship between the president and the vice president, but often include tasks such as drafter and spokesperson for the administration's policies, adviser to the president, and being a symbol of American concern or support. The influence of the vice president in this role depends almost entirely on the characteristics of the particular administration. Dick Cheney, for instance, was widely regarded as one of President George W. Bush's closest confidants. Al Gore was an important adviser to President Bill Clinton on matters of foreign policy and the environment. Often, vice presidents are chosen to act as a \"balance\" to the president, taking either more moderate or radical positions on issues.\n\nUnder the American system the president is both head of state and head of government, and the ceremonial duties of the former position are often delegated to the vice president. The vice president is often assigned the ceremonial duties of representing the president and the government at state funerals or other functions in the United States. This often is the most visible role of the vice president, and has occasionally been the subject of ridicule, such as during the vice presidency of George H. W. Bush. The vice president may meet with other heads of state or attend state funerals in other countries, at times when the administration wishes to demonstrate concern or support but cannot send the president themselves.\n\nOffice as stepping stone to the presidency\n\nIn recent decades, the vice presidency has frequently been used as a platform to launch bids for the presidency. The transition of the office to its modern stature occurred primarily as a result of Franklin Roosevelt's 1940 nomination, when he captured the ability to nominate his running mate instead of leaving the nomination to the convention. Prior to that, party bosses often used the vice presidential nomination as a consolation prize for the party's minority faction. A further factor potentially contributing to the rise in prestige of the office was the adoption of presidential preference primaries in the early 20th century. By adopting primary voting, the field of candidates for vice president was expanded by both the increased quantity and quality of presidential candidates successful in some primaries, yet who ultimately failed to capture the presidential nomination at the convention.\n\nOf the thirteen presidential elections from 1956 to 2004, nine featured the incumbent president; the other four (1960, 1968, 1988, 2000) all featured the incumbent vice president. Former vice presidents also ran, in 1984 (Walter Mondale), and in 1968 (Richard Nixon, against the incumbent vice president, Hubert Humphrey). The first presidential election to include neither the incumbent president nor the incumbent vice president on a major party ticket since 1952 came in 2008 when President George W. Bush had already served two terms and Vice President Cheney chose not to run. Richard Nixon is also the only non-sitting vice president to be elected president, as well as the only person to be elected president and vice president twice each.\n\nSelection process\n\nEligibility\n\nThe Twelfth Amendment states that \"no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible to that of Vice President of the United States.\" Thus, to serve as vice president, an individual must:\n* Be a natural-born U.S. citizen;\n* Be at least 35 years old\n* Have resided in the U.S. at least 14 years. \n\nDisqualifications\n\nAdditionally, Section 3 of the Fourteenth Amendment denies eligibility for any federal office to anyone who, having sworn an oath to support the United States Constitution, later has rebelled against the United States. This disqualification, originally aimed at former supporters of the Confederacy, may be removed by a two-thirds vote of each house of the Congress.\n\nUnder the Twenty-second Amendment, the President of the United States may not be elected to more than two terms. However, there is no similar such limitation as to how many times one can be elected vice president. Scholars disagree whether a former president barred from election to the presidency is also ineligible to be elected or appointed vice president, as suggested by the Twelfth Amendment. The issue has never been tested in practice.\n\nAlso, Article I, Section 3, Clause 7 allows the Senate, upon voting to remove an impeached federal official from office, to disqualify that official from holding any federal office.\n\nResidency limitation\n\nWhile it is commonly held that the president and vice president must be residents of different states, this is not actually the case. Nothing in the Constitution prohibits both candidates being from a single state. Instead, the limitation imposed is on the members of the Electoral College, who must cast a ballot for at least one candidate who is not from their own state.\n\nIn theory, the candidates elected could both be from one state, but the electors of that state would, in a close electoral contest, run the risk of denying their vice presidential candidate the absolute majority required to secure the election, even if the presidential candidate is elected. This would then place the vice presidential election in the hands of the Senate.\n\nIn practice, however, residency is rarely an issue. Parties have avoided nominating tickets containing two candidates from the same state. Further, the candidates may themselves take action to alleviate any residency conflict. For example, at the start of the 2000 election cycle Dick Cheney was a resident of Texas; Cheney quickly changed his residency back to Wyoming, where he had previously served as a U.S. Representative, when Texas governor and Republican presidential nominee George W. Bush asked Cheney to be his vice presidential candidate.\n\nNominating process\n\nThough the vice president does not need to have any political experience, most major-party vice presidential nominees are current or former United States Senators or Representatives, with the occasional nominee being a current or former Governor, a high-ranking military officer, or a holder of a major post within the Executive Department. The vice presidential candidates of the major national political parties are formally selected by each party's quadrennial nominating convention, following the selection of the party's presidential candidates. The official process is identical to the one by which the presidential candidates are chosen, with delegates placing the names of candidates into nomination, followed by a ballot in which candidates must receive a majority to secure the party's nomination.\n\nIn practice, the presidential nominee has considerable influence on the decision, and in the 20th century it became customary for that person to select a preferred running mate, who is then nominated and accepted by the convention. In recent years, with the presidential nomination usually being a foregone conclusion as the result of the primary process, the selection of a vice presidential candidate is often announced prior to the actual balloting for the presidential candidate, and sometimes before the beginning of the convention itself. The first presidential aspirant to announce his selection for vice president before the beginning of the convention was Ronald Reagan who, prior to the 1976 Republican National Convention announced that Richard Schweiker would be his running mate. Reagan's supporters then sought to amend the convention rules so that Gerald R. Ford would be required to name his vice presidential running mate in advance as well. The proposal was defeated, and Reagan did not receive the nomination in 1976. Often, the presidential nominee will name a vice presidential candidate who will bring geographic or ideological balance to the ticket or appeal to a particular constituency.\n\nThe vice presidential candidate might also be chosen on the basis of traits the presidential candidate is perceived to lack, or on the basis of name recognition. To foster party unity, popular runners-up in the presidential nomination process are commonly considered. While this selection process may enhance the chances of success for a national ticket, in the past it often insured that the vice presidential nominee represented regions, constituencies, or ideologies at odds with those of the presidential candidate. As a result, vice presidents were often excluded from the policy-making process of the new administration. Many times their relationships with the president and his staff were aloof, non-existent, or even adversarial.\n\nThe ultimate goal of vice presidential candidate selection is to help and not hurt the party's chances of getting elected. A selection whose positive traits make the presidential candidate look less favorable in comparison can backfire, such as in 1988 when Democratic candidate Michael Dukakis chose experienced Texas Senator Lloyd Bentsen, and in 2008 when Republican candidate John McCain picked dynamic Alaska Governor Sarah Palin. However, Palin also hurt McCain when her interviews with Katie Couric led to concerns about her fitness for the presidency. In 1984, Walter Mondale picked Geraldine Ferraro whose nomination became a drag on the ticket due to repeated questions about her husband's finances. Questions about Dan Quayle's experience and temperament were raised in the 1988 presidential campaign of George H.W. Bush, but he still won. James Stockdale, the choice of third-party candidate Ross Perot in 1992, was seen as unqualified by many, but the Perot-Stockdale ticket still won about 19% of the vote.\n\nHistorically, vice presidential candidates were chosen to provide geographic and ideological balance to a presidential ticket, widening a presidential candidate's appeal to voters from outside his regional base or wing of the party. Candidates from electoral-vote rich states were usually preferred. However, in 1992, moderate Democrat Bill Clinton (of Arkansas) chose moderate Democrat Al Gore (of Tennessee)\nas his running mate. Despite the two candidates' near-identical ideological and regional backgrounds, Gore's extensive experience in national affairs enhanced the appeal of a ticket headed by Clinton, whose political career had been spent entirely at the local and state levels of government. In 2000, George W. Bush chose Dick Cheney of Wyoming, a reliably Republican state with only three electoral votes, and in 2008, Barack Obama mirrored Bush's strategy when he chose Joe Biden of Delaware, a reliably Democratic state, likewise one with only three electoral votes. Both Cheney and Biden were chosen for their experience in national politics (experience lacked by both Bush and Obama) rather than the ideological balance or electoral vote advantage they would provide.\n\nThe first presidential candidate to choose his vice presidential candidate was Franklin Delano Roosevelt in 1940. The last not to name a vice presidential choice, leaving the matter up to the convention, was Democrat Adlai Stevenson in 1956. The convention chose Tennessee Senator Estes Kefauver over Massachusetts Senator (and later president) John F. Kennedy. At the tumultuous 1972 Democratic convention, presidential nominee George McGovern selected Senator Thomas Eagleton as his running mate, but numerous other candidates were either nominated from the floor or received votes during the balloting. Eagleton nevertheless received a majority of the votes and the nomination, though he later resigned from the ticket, resulting in Sargent Shriver becoming McGovern's final running mate; both lost to the Nixon-Agnew ticket by a wide margin, carrying only Massachusetts and the District of Columbia.\n\nIn cases where the presidential nomination is still in doubt as the convention approaches, the campaigns for the two positions may become intertwined. In 1976, Ronald Reagan, who was trailing President Gerald R. Ford in the presidential delegate count, announced prior to the Republican National Convention that, if nominated, he would select Senator Richard Schweiker as his running mate. This move backfired to a degree, as Schweiker's relatively liberal voting record alienated many of the more conservative delegates who were considering a challenge to party delegate selection rules to improve Reagan's chances. In the end, Ford narrowly won the presidential nomination and Reagan's selection of Schweiker became moot.\n\nElection, oath, and tenure\n\nVice presidents are elected indirectly in the United States. A number of electors, collectively known as the Electoral College, officially select the president. On Election Day, voters in each of the states and the District of Columbia cast ballots for these electors. Each state is allocated a number of electors, equal to the size of its delegation in both Houses of Congress combined. Generally, the ticket that wins the most votes in a state wins all of that state's electoral votes and thus has its slate of electors chosen to vote in the Electoral College.\n\nThe winning slate of electors meet at its state's capital on the first Monday after the second Wednesday in December, about six weeks after the election, to vote. They then send a record of that vote to Congress. The vote of the electors is opened by the sitting vice president, acting in his capacity as President of the Senate and read aloud to a joint session of the incoming Congress, which was elected at the same time as the president.\n\nPursuant to the Twentieth Amendment, the vice president's term of office begins at noon on January 20 of the year following the election. This date, known as Inauguration Day, marks the beginning of the four-year terms of both the president and vice president.\n\nAlthough Article VI requires that the vice president take an oath or affirmation of allegiance to the US Constitution, unlike the president, the United States Constitution does not specify the precise wording of the oath of office for the vice president. Several variants of the oath have been used since 1789; the current form, which is also recited by Senators, Representatives and other government officers, has been used since 1884:\n\nThe term of office for vice president is four years. While the Twenty-Second Amendment generally restricts the president to two terms, there is no similar limitation on the office of vice president, meaning an eligible person could hold the office as long as voters continued to vote for electors who in turn would renew the vice president's tenure. A vice president could even serve under different administrations, as George Clinton and John C. Calhoun have done.\n\nOriginal election process and reform\n\nUnder the original terms of the Constitution, the electors of the Electoral College voted only for office of president rather than for both president and vice president. Each elector was allowed to vote for two people for the top office. The person receiving the greatest number of votes (provided that such a number was a majority of electors) would be president, while the individual who received the next largest number of votes became vice president. If no one received a majority of votes, then the House of Representatives would choose among the five candidates with the largest numbers of votes, with each state's representatives together casting a single vote. In such a case, the person who received the highest number of votes but was not chosen president would become vice president. In the case of a tie for second, then the Senate would choose the vice president.Wikisource:Constitution of the United States of America#Section 1 2\n\nThe original plan, however, did not foresee the development of political parties and their adversarial role in the government. For example, in the election of 1796, Federalist John Adams came in first, but because the Federalist electors had divided their second vote amongst several vice presidential candidates, Democratic-Republican Thomas Jefferson came second. Thus, the president and vice president were from opposing parties. Predictably, Adams and Jefferson clashed over issues such as states' rights and foreign policy. \n\nA greater problem occurred in the election of 1800, in which the two participating parties each had a secondary candidate they intended to elect as vice president, but the more popular Democratic-Republican party failed to execute that plan with their electoral votes. Under the system in place at the time (Article II, Section 1, Clause 3), the electors could not differentiate between their two candidates, so the plan had been for one elector to vote for Thomas Jefferson but not for Aaron Burr, thus putting Burr in second place. This plan broke down for reasons that are disputed, and both candidates received the same number of votes. After 35 deadlocked ballots in the House of Representatives, Jefferson finally won on the 36th ballot and Burr became vice president. \n\nThis tumultuous affair led to the adoption of the Twelfth Amendment in 1804, which directed the electors to use separate ballots to vote for the president and vice president. While this solved the problem at hand, it ultimately had the effect of lowering the prestige of the vice presidency, as the office was no longer for the leading challenger for the presidency.\n\nThe separate ballots for president and vice president became something of a moot issue later in the 19th century when it became the norm for popular elections to determine a state's Electoral College delegation. Electors chosen this way are pledged to vote for a particular presidential and vice presidential candidate (offered by the same political party). So, while the Constitution says that the president and vice president are chosen separately, in practice they are chosen together.\n\nIf no vice presidential candidate receives an Electoral College majority, then the Senate selects the vice president, in accordance with the United States Constitution. The Twelfth Amendment states that a \"majority of the whole number\" of Senators (currently 51 of 100) is necessary for election. Further, the language requiring an absolute majority of Senate votes precludes the sitting vice president from breaking any tie which might occur. The election of 1836 is the only election so far where the office of the vice president has been decided by the Senate. During the campaign, Martin Van Buren's running mate Richard Mentor Johnson was accused of having lived with a black woman. Virginia's 23 electors, who were pledged to Van Buren and Johnson, refused to vote for Johnson (but still voted for Van Buren). The election went to the Senate, where Johnson was elected 33-17.\n\nSalary\n\nThe vice president's salary is $230,700. The salary was set by the 1989 Government Salary Reform Act, which also provides an automatic cost of living adjustment for federal employees.\n\nThe vice president does not automatically receive a pension based on that office, but instead receives the same pension as other members of Congress based on his position as President of the Senate. The vice president must serve a minimum of five years to qualify for a pension. \n\nSince 1974, the official residence of the vice president and their family has been Number One Observatory Circle, on the grounds of the United States Naval Observatory in Washington, D.C.\n\nVacancy\n\nArticle I, Section 2, Clause 5 and Article II, Section 4 of the Constitution both authorize the House of Representatives to serve as a \"grand jury\" with the power to impeach high federal officials, including the president, for \"treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors.\" Similarly, Article I, Section 3, Clause 6 and Article II, Section 4 both authorize the Senate to serve as a court with the power to remove impeached officials from office, given a two-thirds vote to convict. No vice president has ever been impeached.\n\nPrior to ratification of the Twenty-fifth Amendment in 1967, no provision existed for filling a vacancy in the office of vice president. As a result, the vice presidency was left vacant 16 times—sometimes for nearly four years—until the next ensuing election and inauguration: eight times due to the death of the sitting president, resulting in the vice presidents becoming president; seven times due to the death of the sitting vice president; and once due to the resignation of Vice President John C. Calhoun to become a senator.\n\nCalhoun resigned because he had been dropped from the ticket by President Andrew Jackson in favor of Martin Van Buren, due primarily to conflicting with the President over the issue of nullification. Already a lame duck vice president, he was elected to the Senate by the South Carolina state legislature and resigned the vice presidency early to begin his Senate term because he believed he would have more power as a senator.\n\nSince the adoption of the Twenty-Fifth Amendment, the office has been vacant twice while awaiting confirmation of the new vice president by both houses of Congress. The first such instance occurred in 1973 following the resignation of Spiro Agnew as Richard Nixon's vice president. Gerald Ford was subsequently nominated by President Nixon and confirmed by Congress. The second occurred 10 months later when Nixon resigned following the Watergate scandal and Ford assumed the presidency. The resulting vice presidential vacancy was filled by Nelson Rockefeller. Ford and Rockefeller are the only two people to have served as vice president without having been elected to the office, and Ford remains the only person to have served as both vice president and president without being elected to either office.\n\nThe original Constitution had no provision for selecting such a replacement, so the office of vice president would remain vacant until the beginning of the next presidential and vice presidential terms. This issue had arisen most recently when the John F. Kennedy assassination caused a vacancy from November 22, 1963, until January 20, 1965, and was rectified by Section 2 of the Twenty-Fifth Amendment.\n\nGrowth of the office\n\nFor much of its existence, the office of vice president was seen as little more than a minor position. Adams, the first vice president, was the first of many who found the job frustrating and stupefying, writing to his wife Abigail that \"My country has in its wisdom contrived for me the most insignificant office that ever the invention of man contrived or his imagination conceived.\" Many vice presidents lamented the lack of meaningful work in their role. John Nance Garner, who served as vice president from 1933 to 1941 under President Franklin D. Roosevelt, claimed that the vice presidency \"isn't worth a pitcher of warm piss.\" Harry Truman, who also served as vice president under Roosevelt, said that the office was as \"useful as a cow's fifth teat.\" \n\nThomas R. Marshall, the 28th vice president, lamented: \"Once there were two brothers. One ran away to sea; the other was elected Vice President of the United States. And nothing was heard of either of them again.\" His successor, Calvin Coolidge, was so obscure that Major League Baseball sent him free passes that misspelled his name, and a fire marshal failed to recognize him when Coolidge's Washington residence was evacuated. \n\nWhen the Whig Party asked Daniel Webster to run for the vice presidency on Zachary Taylor's ticket, he replied \"I do not propose to be buried until I am really dead and in my coffin.\" This was the second time Webster declined the office, which William Henry Harrison had first offered to him. Ironically, both of the presidents making the offer to Webster died in office, meaning the three-time presidential candidate could have become president if he had accepted either. Since presidents rarely died in office, however, the better preparation for the presidency was considered to be the office of Secretary of State, in which Webster served under Harrison, Tyler, and later, Taylor's successor, Fillmore.\n\nFor many years, the vice president was given few responsibilities. Garret Hobart, the first vice president under William McKinley, was one of the very few vice presidents at this time who played an important role in the administration. A close confidant and adviser of the president, Hobart was called \"Assistant President.\" However, until 1919, vice presidents were not included in meetings of the President's Cabinet. This precedent was broken by President Woodrow Wilson when he asked Thomas R. Marshall to preside over Cabinet meetings while Wilson was in France negotiating the Treaty of Versailles. President Warren G. Harding also invited his vice president, Calvin Coolidge, to meetings. The next vice president, Charles G. Dawes, did not seek to attend Cabinet meetings under President Coolidge, declaring that \"the precedent might prove injurious to the country.\" Vice President Charles Curtis was also precluded from attending by President Herbert Hoover.\n\nIn 1933, Franklin D. Roosevelt raised the stature of the office by renewing the practice of inviting the vice president to cabinet meetings, which every president since has maintained. Roosevelt's first vice president, John Nance Garner, broke with him at the start of the second term on the Court-packing issue and became Roosevelt's leading political enemy. In 1937, Garner became the first vice president to be sworn in on the Capitol steps in the same ceremony with the president, a tradition that continues. Prior to that time, vice presidents were traditionally inaugurated at a separate ceremony in the Senate chamber. Gerald R. Ford and Nelson A. Rockefeller, who were both appointed to the office under the terms of the 25th amendment, were inaugurated in the House and Senate chambers, respectively.\n\nGarner's successor, Henry Wallace, was given major responsibilities during the war, but he moved further to the left than the Democratic Party and the rest of the Roosevelt administration and was relieved of actual power. Roosevelt kept his last vice president, Harry Truman, uninformed on all war and postwar issues, such as the atomic bomb, leading Truman to remark, wryly, that the job of the vice president was to \"go to weddings and funerals.\" Following Roosevelt's death and Truman's ascension to the presidency, the need to keep vice presidents informed on national security issues became clear, and Congress made the vice president one of four statutory members of the National Security Council in 1949.\n\nRichard Nixon reinvented the office of vice president. He had the attention of the media and the Republican party, when Dwight Eisenhower ordered him to preside at Cabinet meetings in his absence. Nixon was also the first vice president to formally assume temporary control of the executive branch, which he did after Eisenhower suffered a heart attack on September 24, 1955, ileitis in June 1956, and a stroke in November 1957.\n\nUntil 1961, vice presidents had their offices on Capitol Hill, a formal office in the Capitol itself and a working office in the Russell Senate Office Building. Lyndon B. Johnson was the first vice president to be given an office in the White House complex, in the Old Executive Office Building. The former Navy Secretary's office in the OEOB has since been designated the \"Ceremonial Office of the Vice President\" and is today used for formal events and press interviews. President Jimmy Carter was the first president to give his vice president, Walter Mondale, an office in the West Wing of the White House, which all vice presidents have since retained. Because of their function as Presidents of the Senate, vice presidents still maintain offices and staff members on Capitol Hill.\n\nThough Walter Mondale's tenure was the beginning of the modern day power of the vice presidency, the tenure of Dick Cheney saw a rapid growth in the office of the vice president. Vice President Cheney held a tremendous amount of power and frequently made policy decisions on his own, without the knowledge of the President. After his tenure, and during the 2008 presidential campaign, both vice presidential candidates, Sarah Palin and Joe Biden, stated that the office had expanded too much under Cheney's tenure and both had planned to reduce the role to simply being an adviser to the president. \n\nPost–vice presidency\n\nThe five former vice presidents now living are:\n\nFile:Walter Mondale 2014.jpg\|Walter Mondale42nd (1977–1981)\nFile:President George H. W.tif\|George H. W. Bush43rd (1981–1989)\nFile:Quayle2k11.tif\|Dan Quayle44th (1989–1993)\nFile:Gore2k11.tif\|Al Gore45th (1993–2001)\nFile:Cheney.tif\|Dick Cheney46th (2001–2009)\n\nFour vice presidents have been elected to the presidency immediately after serving as vice president: John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, Martin Van Buren and George H. W. Bush. Richard Nixon, John C. Breckinridge, Hubert Humphrey and Al Gore were all nominated by their respective parties, but failed to succeed the presidents with whom they were elected, though Nixon was elected president eight years later.\n\nTwo vice presidents served under different presidents. George Clinton served under both Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, while John C. Calhoun served under John Quincy Adams and Andrew Jackson. In the modern era, Adlai Stevenson I became the first former vice president to seek election with a different running mate, running in 1900 with William Jennings Bryan after serving under Bryan's rival, Grover Cleveland. (He was also narrowly defeated for Governor of Illinois in 1908.) Charles W. Fairbanks, vice president under Theodore Roosevelt, sought unsuccessfully to return to office as Charles Evans Hughes' running mate in 1916.\n\nSome former vice presidents have sought other offices after serving as vice president. Daniel D. Tompkins ran for Governor of New York in 1820 whilst serving as vice president under James Monroe. He lost to DeWitt Clinton, but was re-elected vice president. John C. Calhoun resigned as vice president to accept election as US Senator from South Carolina. Hannibal Hamlin, Andrew Johnson, Alben Barkley and Hubert H. Humphrey were all elected to the Senate after leaving office. Levi P. Morton, vice president under Benjamin Harrison, was elected Governor of New York after leaving office.\n\nRichard Nixon unsuccessfully sought the governorship of California in 1962, nearly two years after leaving office as vice president and just over six years before becoming president. Walter Mondale ran unsuccessfully for president in 1984, served as U.S. Ambassador to Japan from 1993 to 1996, and then sought unsuccessfully to return to the Senate in 2002. George H. W. Bush won the presidency, and his vice president, Dan Quayle, sought the Republican nomination in 2000. Al Gore also ran unsuccessfully for the presidency in 2000, turning to environmental advocacy afterward. Cheney had previously explored the possibility of running for president before serving as vice president, but chose not to run for president after his two terms as vice president.\n\nSince 1977, former presidents and vice presidents who are elected or re-elected to the Senate are entitled to the largely honorific position of Deputy President pro tempore. So far, the only former vice president to have held this title is Hubert Humphrey following his return to the Senate. Walter Mondale would have been entitled to the position had his 2002 Senate bid been successful.\n\nUnder the terms of an 1886 Senate resolution, all former vice presidents are entitled to a portrait bust in the Senate wing of the United States Capitol, commemorating their service as presidents of the Senate. Dick Cheney is the most recent former vice president to be so honored.\n\nUnlike former presidents, who receive a pension automatically regardless of their time in office, former vice presidents must reach pension eligibility by accumulating the appropriate time in federal service. Since 2008, former vice president are also entitled to Secret Service personal protection. Former vice presidents traditionally receive Secret Service protection for up to six months after leaving office, by order of the Secretary of Homeland Security, though this can be extended if the Secretary believes the level of threat is sufficient. In 2008, a bill titled the \"Former Vice President Protection Act\" was passed by Congress and signed into law by President Bush. It provides six-month Secret Service protection by law to a former vice president and family. According to the Department of Homeland Security, protection for former vice president Cheney has been extended numerous times because threats against him have not decreased since his leaving office. \n\nTimeline of vice presidents" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "No One (song)", "No one", "No-One", "No One (disambiguation)", "No One", "No-one" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "no one song", "no one", "no one disambiguation" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "no one", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "No one" }
What was Phil Collins' last UK No 1 of the 80s?	tc_571	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Phil_Collins.txt" ], "title": [ "Phil Collins" ], "wiki_context": [ "Philip David Charles \"Phil\" Collins (born 30 January 1951) is an English singer, songwriter, instrumentalist, record producer and actor. He is known as the drummer and lead singer in the rock band Genesis and as a solo artist. Between 1983 and 1990, Collins scored three UK and seven US number-one singles in his solo career. When his work with Genesis, his work with other artists, as well as his solo career is totalled, Collins had more US top 40 singles than any other artist during the 1980s. His most successful singles from the period include \"In the Air Tonight\", \"Against All Odds\", \"Sussudio\" and \"Another Day in Paradise\".\n\nBorn and raised in west London, Collins played drums from the age of five and completed drama school training, which secured him various roles as a child actor. He then pursued a music career, joining Genesis in 1970 as their drummer and becoming lead singer in 1975 following the departure of Peter Gabriel. Collins began a solo career in the 1980s, initially inspired by his marital breakdown and love of soul music, releasing a series of successful albums, including Face Value (1981), No Jacket Required (1985), and ...But Seriously (1989). Collins became \"one of the most successful pop and adult contemporary singers of the '80s and beyond\". He also became known for a distinctive gated reverb drum sound on many of his recordings. After leaving Genesis in 1996, Collins pursued various solo projects before a return in 2007 for the Turn It On Again Tour. In 2011, he retired to focus on his family life, but continued to write songs. He announced his return to the music industry in 2015.\n\nCollins' discography includes eight studio albums that have sold 33.5 million certified units in the US and an estimated 150 million worldwide, making him one of the world's best-selling artists. He is one of three recording artists, along with Paul McCartney and Michael Jackson, who have sold over 100 million albums worldwide both as solo artists and separately as principal members of a band. He has won seven Grammy Awards, six Brit Awards, two Golden Globe Awards, an Academy Award, and a Disney Legend Award. In 1999, he received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame and was inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame in 2003, the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a member of Genesis in 2010, and the Modern Drummer Hall of Fame in 2012. Despite his commercial success and his status as a respected and influential drummer, music critics are divided in their opinion of his work and he has publicly received both criticism and praise from other prominent music artists.\n\nEarly life\n\nPhilip David Charles Collins was born on 30 January 1951 in Chiswick, the son of Winifred M. \"June\" (née Strange), a theatrical agent, and Greville Philip Austin Collins, an insurance agent. He was given a toy drum kit for Christmas when he was five. Later, his uncle made him a makeshift set that he used regularly. As Collins grew older, these were followed by more complete sets bought by his parents. He practiced by playing with music on the television and radio, but never learned to read and write conventional musical notation; instead, he used a system which he devised himself. According to Barbara Speake, founder of the eponymous stage school he later attended, Collins always had a rare ear for music: \"Phil was always special; aged five he entered a Butlins talent contest singing Davy Crockett, but he stopped the orchestra halfway through to tell them they were in the wrong key.\" \n\nCollins studied drum rudiments as a teenager, first learning basic rudiments under Lloyd Ryan and later studying further under Frank King. Collins would recall: \"Rudiments I found very, very helpful – much more helpful than anything else because they're used all the time. In any kind of funk or jazz drumming, the rudiments are always there.\" However, Collins regretted that he never mastered musical notation, saying: \"I never really came to grips with the music. I should have stuck with it. I've always felt that if I could hum it, I could play it. For me, that was good enough, but that attitude is bad.\" Lloyd Ryan recalled: \"Phil always had a problem with reading. That was always a big problem for him. That’s a shame because reading drum music isn’t that difficult.\" \n\nThe Beatles were a strong early musical influence on Collins, including their drummer Ringo Starr. He also followed the lesser-known London band the Action, whose drummer he would copy and whose work introduced him to the soul music of Motown and Stax Records. Collins was also influenced by the jazz and big band drummer Buddy Rich, whose opinion on the importance of the hi-hat prompted Collins to stop using two bass drums and start using the hi-hat. While attending Chiswick County School for Boys, Collins formed a band called the Real Thing and later joined the Freehold. With the latter group, he wrote his first song titled \"Lying Crying Dying\". His professional acting training began at age 14, at the Barbara Speake Stage School, a fee-paying but non-selective independent school in East Acton, whose talent agency had been established by his mother. \n\nCareer\n\n1963–1970: Early acting roles and Flaming Youth\n\nCollins began a career as a child actor while at the Barbara Speake Stage School and won his first major role as the Artful Dodger in the London stage production of Oliver! He was an extra in the the Beatles's film A Hard Day's Night (1964) among the screaming teenagers during the television concert sequence. This was followed by a role in Calamity the Cow (1967), produced by the Children's Film Foundation, and Chitty Chitty Bang Bang (1968) as one of the children who storm the castle at the end, but the scene was cut. Collins auditioned for the role of Romeo in Romeo and Juliet (1968) but this was won by Leonard Whiting. \n\nDespite the beginnings of an acting career, Collins continued to gravitate towards music. His first record deal came as drummer for Hickory with guitarists Ronnie Caryl and Gordon Smith and keyboardist Brian Chatton. After changing their name to Flaming Youth they recorded one album, Ark 2, released in October 1969 on Uni Records that premiered with a performance at the London Planetarium. A concept album inspired by the media attention surrounding the 1969 moon landing, Ark 2 featured each member sharing lead vocals. Though a commercial failure, it received some positive critical reviews; Melody Maker named it \"Pop Album of the Month\", describing it as \"adult music beautifully played with nice tight harmonies\". After a year of touring, the group disbanded in 1970. Collins went on to play percussion on \"Art of Dying\" by George Harrison for his album All Things Must Pass. Harrison acknowledged Collins's contribution in the remastered edition released in 2000.\n\n1970–1978: Joining Genesis\n\nIn mid-1970, rock band Genesis advertised for \"a drummer sensitive to acoustic music and 12-string acoustic guitarist\" following the departure of guitarist Anthony Phillips and drummer John Mayhew. Collins recognised Charisma Records owner Tony Stratton-Smith's name in the ad and applied to audition with Caryl. Auditions took place at the parents' home of singer Peter Gabriel in Chobham, Surrey. As they arrived early, Collins took a swim in the pool and memorised the pieces before his own audition. He recalled, \"They put on 'Trespass', and my initial impression was of a very soft and round music, not edgy, with vocal harmonies and I came away thinking Crosby, Stills and Nash\". In August 1970, Collins became Genesis's new drummer. Caryl's audition was unsuccessful; guitarist Mike Rutherford thought he was not a good fit for the group (they selected Steve Hackett in January 1971).\n\nFrom 1970 to 1975, Collins played the drums, percussion, and backing vocals on Genesis albums and live shows. His first album recorded with the band, Nursery Cryme, was recorded and released in 1971. \"For Absent Friends\", an acoustic track written by Collins and Hackett, is the first Genesis song with Collins on lead vocals. He sang \"More Fool Me\" on their 1973 album Selling England by the Pound. In 1974, during the recording of The Lamb Lies Down on Broadway, Collins played drums on Brian Eno's second album Taking Tiger Mountain after Eno had contributed electronic effects known as \"Enossification\" on \"In the Cage\" and \"Grand Parade of Lifeless Packaging\". \n\nIn August 1975, following the The Lamb Lies Down on Broadway tour, Gabriel left Genesis. Collins became lead vocalist during production of A Trick of the Tail after a lengthy search for Gabriel's replacement where he sang back-up with applicants that responded to a Melody Maker advert that attracted around 400 replies. A Trick of the Tail was a commercial and critical success for the band, reaching No. 3 in the UK and No. 31 in the U.S. Rolling Stone wrote, \"Genesis has managed to turn the possible catastrophe of Gabriel's departure into their first broad-based American success.\" For the album's 1976 tour, Collins accepted an offer from former Yes and King Crimson drummer Bill Bruford to play drums while Collins sang vocals. Wind & Wuthering is the last album recorded with Hackett before his 1977 departure. Bruford was replaced by Chester Thompson, who became a mainstay of the band's live line-up, as well as Collins's solo back-up band, through the following decades.\n\nIn 1977, Collins, Banks, and Rutherford decided to continue Genesis as a trio. As the decade closed, Genesis began to shift from their progressive rock roots to a more accessible, radio-friendly pop-rock sound. The 1978 album ...And Then There Were Three... featured their first UK Top 10 and U.S. Top 40 single, \"Follow You Follow Me\".\n\nIn 1975 Collins played with several artists. He played the drums and sang on Hackett's first solo album, Voyage of the Acolyte; performed on Eno's albums Another Green World, Before and After Science, and Music for Films; and replaced drummer Phil Spinelli of the jazz fusion group Brand X before recording their 1976 debut album, Unorthodox Behaviour. Collins credits Brand X as his first use of a drum machine as well as his first use of a home 8-track tape machine. He then sang on Phillips's solo album, The Geese and the Ghost, and the second Brand X album, Moroccan Roll.\n\n1978–1983: Start of solo career: Face Value and Hello, I Must Be Going!\n\nIn December 1978, Genesis began a period of inactivity as Collins's marriage was at risk of collapse after touring had made him frequently absent from his wife and children. Collins went to Vancouver, Canada to try and rebuild the family. He explained: \"I was never going to leave the band. It was just that if I was going to be living in Vancouver then we'd have had to organise ourselves differently.\" In April 1979, Collins returned to the UK after his attempt to save his marriage had failed. With time to spare before working on a new Genesis album, Collins played on the Brand X album Product and its accompanying tour, and started writing his first solo album, Face Value, at his home in Shalford, Surrey. After Banks and Rutherford rejoined with Collins, work began on Duke, released in 1980. The dominant theme running through Collins's early solo recordings, though never specifically mentioned, was the acrimonious breakdown of his first marriage. Two songs he wrote on Duke, \"Please Don't Ask\", and the U.S. top 20 hit \"Misunderstanding\", dealt with his failed relationships.\n\nFace Value was released in February 1981. It features a rework of \"Behind the Lines\" from Duke with a more funk and dance-oriented style. Collins cited his divorce as his main influence. Regarding Face Value, he says, \"I had a wife, two children, two dogs, and the next day I didn't have anything. So a lot of these songs were written because I was going through these emotional changes.\" Collins produced the album in collaboration with Hugh Padgham, with whom he had worked on Peter Gabriel's 1980 studio album. Collins played keyboards and drums on Face Value. \n\nUpon its release, Face Value was an international success, reaching No. 1 in seven countries worldwide and No. 7 in the U.S. where it went on to sell 5 million copies. \"In the Air Tonight\", the album's lead single, became a hit and reached No. 2 in the UK. The song is known for the gated reverb effect used on Collins's drums, a technique developed by producer Hugh Padgham when he worked as an engineer on Peter Gabriel's song \"Intruder\", which Collins played drums on. Following an invitation by record producer Martin Lewis, Collins made his debut live performance as a solo artist at the Amnesty International benefit show The Secret Policeman's Other Ball at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane in London in September 1981. He performed \"In the Air Tonight\" and \"The Roof Is Leaking\" accompanied by Troy Street United.\n\nIn September 1981, Genesis released Abacab. This was followed by its 1981 supporting tour and a two-month tour in 1982 promoting the Genesis live album Three Sides Live. On 2 October 1982, Collins took part in a Genesis concert, 'Six of the Best' which featured Gabriel on lead vocals and Hackett on guitar.\n\nCollins's second solo album, Hello, I Must Be Going!, was released in November 1982. His marital problems continued to provide inspiration for his songs, including \"I Don't Care Anymore\" and \"Do You Know, Do You Care\". The album reached No. 2 in the UK and No. 8 in the U.S., where it sold 3 million copies. Its second single, a cover of \"You Can't Hurry Love\" by The Supremes, became Collins's first UK No. 1 single and went to No. 10 in the US. Collins supported the album with the Hello, I Must Be Going! tour of Europe and North America from November 1982 to February 1983.\n\nIn May 1983, Collins recorded Genesis with Banks and Rutherford. Its tour ended in February 1984.\n\n1984–1985: No Jacket Required\n\nCollins changed his musical style with \"Against All Odds\", the main theme song for the movie of the same name in 1984. The more pop-friendly and radio-accessible single became Collins's first solo single to reach No. 1 on the Billboard Hot 100 and gave him his first Grammy Award for Best Pop Vocal Performance, Male. Later that year, Collins contributed to production on Earth, Wind & Fire vocalist Philip Bailey's third solo album, Chinese Wall, collaborating with Bailey on the duet, \"Easy Lover\", which reached No. 1 in the UK.\n\nIn November 1984, Collins played drums and was part of the all-star choir for Band Aid's \"Do They Know It's Christmas?\", a song written by Bob Geldof and Midge Ure to raise funds for the victims of the 1983–1985 famine in Ethiopia, which became the UK Christmas #1 and the best-selling single in UK Singles Chart history, selling a million copies in the first week alone. \n\nCollins released his most successful album, the Diamond-certified No Jacket Required, in February 1985. It reached No. 1 in both the UK and U.S. It contained the U.S. number-one hits \"One More Night\" and \"Sussudio\" as well top ten hits \"Don't Lose My Number\" and \"Take Me Home\". It also contains the lesser known \"Who Said I Would\", and \"Only You Know and I Know\". The album featured contributions from The Police's vocalist, Sting, ex-bandmate Peter Gabriel, and Helen Terry as backing vocalists. He also recorded the successful song \"Separate Lives\", a duet with Marilyn Martin, and a U.S. #1, for the movie White Nights. Collins had three U.S. number-one songs in 1985, the most by any artist that year. No Jacket Required won three Grammy Awards including Album of the Year. \n\nNo Jacket Required was criticised for being \"too commercial\", despite favourable reviews from many music critics. A positive review by David Fricke of Rolling Stone ended, \"After years on the art-rock fringe, Collins has established himself firmly in the middle of the road. Perhaps he should consider testing himself and his new fans's expectations next time around.\" \"Sussudio\" attracted negative attention for sounding too similar to Prince's \"1999\", a charge that Collins did not deny, and its hook line (\"Su-su-su-sussudio\") has been named as the most widely disliked element of his career.\n\nIn 1985 Bob Geldof asked Collins to perform at the Live Aid charity event, a continuation of the fundraising effort for Ethiopia started by Band Aid. Collins had the distinction of being the only performer to appear at both the UK concert at Wembley Stadium and the U.S. concert at JFK Stadium in Philadelphia; he performed several songs, including \"Against All Odds (Take a Look at Me Now)\" and \"In the Air Tonight\". He accomplished this by performing early in the day at Wembley as both a solo artist and alongside Sting, then transferring to a Concorde flight to the U.S. enabling him to perform his solo material, and play drums with Led Zeppelin and Eric Clapton in Philadelphia. The Led Zeppelin reunion was poorly received and later disowned by the band. Guitarist Jimmy Page alleged that Collins \"hadn't learned\" his drum part. Page said: \"You can get away with that in a pop band but not with Led Zeppelin\". Collins responded that the band \"weren't very good\" and that he \"was made to feel a little uncomfortable by the dribbling Jimmy Page.\" To avoid negative attention, he persisted with the set rather than leave the stage. \n\nBesides his number-one duet with Marilyn Martin in 1985, Collins scored two more hits from movies with the singles, \"A Groovy Kind of Love\" (#1 UK and U.S.) and \"Two Hearts\" (#1 U.S., #6 UK), both from the soundtrack of his feature film, Buster. In 1986 Collins won the first two of his six Brit Awards for Best British Male and Best British Album for No Jacket Required. \n\nThe music press noted Collins's astronomical success as a solo artist had made him more popular than Genesis. Before the release of No Jacket Required, Collins insisted that he would not leave the band. \"The next one to leave the band will finish it,\" Collins told Rolling Stone magazine in May 1985. \"I feel happier with what we're doing now, because I feel it's closer to me. I won't be the one.\" Collins added, \"Poor old Genesis does get in the way sometimes. I still won't leave the group, but I imagine it will end by mutual consent.\"\n\n1985–1991: ...But Seriously\n\nIn October 1985, Collins reunited with Banks and Rutherford to record the next Genesis album, Invisible Touch. Its title track was released as a single and reached No. 1 in the US, the only Genesis song to do so. The group received a Grammy Award (their only one) and a nomination for the MTV Video Music Award for Video of the Year in 1987 for the single \"Land of Confusion\" which featured puppet caricatures created by the British satirical team Spitting Image. The video was directed by Jim Yukich. Reviews of Invisible Touch were mixed and many comparisons were made with Collins's solo work, but Rolling Stones J. D. Considine praised the album's commercial appeal, stating, \"every tune is carefully pruned so that each flourish delivers not an instrumental epiphany but a solid hook\". \n\nIn 1989 Collins worked on his fourth studio album ...But Seriously, and appeared on The Who Tour 1989, performing the role of young Tommy's wicked Uncle Ernie in a reprisal of the rock opera Tommy (a part originally played by their late drummer, Keith Moon). In November, Collins released ...But Seriously, which became another huge success, featuring as its lead single the anti-homelessness anthem \"Another Day in Paradise\", with David Crosby singing backing vocals. \"Another Day in Paradise\" reached No. 1 on the Billboard charts at the end of 1989, won Collins Best British Single at the Brit Awards in 1990, and the Grammy Award for Record of the Year in 1991; it was also one of Germany's most successful singles of all time. It became the final U.S. number-one single of the 1980s. Despite its success, the song was also heavily criticised. It also became linked to allegations of hypocrisy made against Collins.\n\n...But Seriously became the first number-one U.S. album of the 1990s and the best-selling album of 1990 in the UK. Other songs included \"Something Happened on the Way to Heaven\" (#4 U.S., #15 UK), \"Do You Remember?\" (not released in the UK, but #4 in the U.S.), and \"I Wish It Would Rain Down\" (the latter featuring Eric Clapton on guitar; #3 U.S., #7 UK). Songs about apartheid and homelessness demonstrated Collins's turn to political themes. A live album, Serious Hits... Live!, followed, which reached the top ten around the world. In September 1990 Collins performed \"Sussudio\" at the 1990 MTV Video Music Awards in Los Angeles. Collins also played drums on the 1989 Tears for Fears hit single, \"Woman in Chains\". \n\n1991–1997: Leaving Genesis, Both Sides and Dance into the Light\n\nAfter a hiatus of five years, Genesis reconvened for the 1991 album release We Can't Dance, Collins's last studio album with the group to date. It features the singles \"Jesus He Knows Me\", \"I Can't Dance\", \"No Son of Mine\", and \"Hold on My Heart\". Collins performed on their 1992 tour. At the 1993 American Music Awards, Genesis won the award for Favorite Pop/Rock Band, Duo, or Group. \n\nCollins's record sales began to drop with the 1993 release of Both Sides, a largely experimental album that, according to Collins, included songs that \"were becoming so personal, so private, I didn't want anyone else's input\". Featuring a less polished sound and fewer up-tempo songs than his previous albums, Both Sides was a significant departure. Collins used no backing musicians and he performed all the vocal and instrumental parts at his home studio, using rough vocal takes for the final product. The album was not as well received by radio. Its two biggest hits were \"Both Sides of the Story\" and \"Everyday\". In 1995, Collins turned down the chance to contribute to Tower of Song, an album of covers of Leonard Cohen songs, due to his touring commitments. \n\nCollins left Genesis in 1996 to focus on his solo career. He formed The Phil Collins Big Band with himself on drums. The band performed jazz renditions of songs from Genesis and his solo career. His sixth solo album, Dance into the Light, was released in October 1996. The album was received negatively by the music press and sold less than his previous albums. Entertainment Weekly reviewed by saying that \"even Phil Collins must know that we all grew weary of Phil Collins\". Singles from the album included the title track, which reached No. 9 in the UK, and The Beatles-inspired \"It's in Your Eyes\". The album achieved Gold certification in the United States. On 15 September 1997, Collins appeared at the Music for Montserrat concert at the Royal Albert Hall. \n\n1998–2006: Big Band Tour, work with Disney and Testify\n\nThe Phil Collins Big Band completed a world tour in 1998 that included a performance at the Montreux Jazz Festival. In 1999 they released the CD A Hot Night in Paris including big band versions of \"Invisible Touch\", \"Sussudio\", and \"The Los Endos Suite\" from A Trick of the Tail.\n\nA compilation album ...Hits was released in 1998 and sold well, returning Collins to multi-platinum status in the U.S. The album's one new track, a cover of the Cyndi Lauper hit \"True Colors\", received considerable airplay on U.S. Adult Contemporary stations while peaking at No. 2. \n\nIn 1999 Collins reunited with Genesis to re-record \"The Carpet Crawlers\" for the compilation album Turn It On Again: The Hits.\n\nCollins's next single, \"You'll Be in My Heart\", from the Disney animated movie Tarzan, spent 19 weeks at No. 1 on the Billboard Adult Contemporary chart—the longest time ever up to that point. The song won Collins an Academy Award and a Golden Globe Award both for Best Original Song. It was his third nomination in the songwriters's category, after being nominated in 1985 and 1989. Collins was awarded a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, on 16 June 1999. \n\nIn 2000 Collins suddenly developed a deafness in one ear, due to a viral infection.[http://www.theguardian.com/music/2016/feb/11/phil-collins-interview-take-a-look-at-me-now-remastered-albums-rerelease-2016?utm_source\nesp&utm_mediumEmail&utm_campaign\nGU+Today+USA+-+Version+CB+header&utm_term158329&subid\n9600366&CMP=ema_565] \"Phil Collins Returns\", The Guardian, 11 February 2016 He contemplated ending his musical career at that point; the combined partial deafness and growing criticism were wearing him down. However, when medical treatment cured his deafness, he continued his chosen path. In June 2002 he accepted an invitation to drum for the house band at the Party at the Palace event held at Buckingham Palace Garden, a concert celebrating Queen Elizabeth II's Golden Jubilee. \n\nIn November 2002 Collins released his seventh solo album, Testify. Metacritic's roundup of album reviews found this record to be the worst-reviewed album at the time of its release, though it has since been \"surpassed\" by three more recent releases. The album's single \"Can't Stop Loving You\" (a Leo Sayer cover) was a number-one Adult Contemporary hit. Testify only sold 140,000 copies in the U.S. by year's end. From June 2004 to November 2005, Collins performed his First Final Farewell Tour, a reference to the multiple farewell tours of other popular artists. In 2006, he worked with Disney on a musical production of Tarzan. \n\n2006–2015: Genesis reunion, Going Back, and retirement\n\nCollins reunited with Banks and Rutherford and announced Turn It On Again: The Tour on 7 November 2006, nearly 40 years after the band first formed. The tour took place during summer 2007, and played in twelve countries across Europe, followed by a second leg in North America. During the tour Genesis performed at the Live Earth concert at Wembley Stadium, London. In 2007 they were honoured at the second annual VH1 Rock Honors, performing \"Turn It On Again\", \"No Son of Mine\" and \"Los Endos\" at the ceremony in Las Vegas. \n\nIn October 2009, it was reported that Collins was to record a Motown covers album. He told a German newspaper, \"I want the songs to sound exactly like the originals\", and that the album would feature up to 30 songs. In January 2010, Chester Thompson said that the album had been completed and would be released some time soon. He also revealed that Collins managed to play the drums on the album despite a spinal operation. \n\nGoing Back was released on 13 September 2010, entering the UK charts at No. 4, rising to No. 1 the following week. In summer 2010, Collins played six concerts with the music from Going Back. These included a special programme, Phil Collins: One Night Only, aired ITV1 on 18 September 2010. Collins also promoted Going Back with his first and only appearance on the BBC's foremost music series Later... with Jools Holland, broadcast on 17 September 2010. \n\nIn March 2010, Collins was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a member of Genesis at a ceremony in New York City. As of January 2011, Collins has spent 1,730 weeks in the German music charts—766 weeks of them with Genesis albums and singles and 964 weeks with solo releases. \n\nOn 4 March 2011, citing health problems and other concerns, Collins announced that he was taking time off from his career, prompting widespread reports of his retirement. On 7 March his UK representative told the press, \"He is not, has no intention of, retiring.\" However, later that day, Collins posted a message to his fans on his own website, confirming his intention to retire to focus on his family life. \n\nIn July 2012, Collins's greatest hits collection ...Hits re-entered the U.S. charts, reaching No. 6 on the Billboard 200. \n\nIn November 2013, Collins told German media that he was considering a return to music and speculated that this could mean further live shows with Genesis, stating: \"Everything is possible. We could tour in Australia and South America. We haven't been there yet.\" Speaking to reporters in Miami, Florida in December 2013 at an event promoting his charity work, Collins indicated that he was writing music once again and might tour again. \n\nOn 24 January 2014, Collins announced in an interview with Inside South Florida that he was writing new compositions with fellow English singer Adele. Collins said he had no idea who Adele was when he learned she wanted to collaborate with him. He said \"I wasn't actually too aware [of her]. I live in a cave.\" Collins agreed to join her in the studio after hearing her voice. He said, \"[She] achieved an incredible amount. I really love her voice. I love some of this stuff she's done, too.\" However, in September 2014, Collins revealed that the collaboration had ended and he said it had been \"a bit of a non-starter\". \n\nIn May 2014, Collins gave a live performance of \"In the Air Tonight\" and \"Land of Confusion\" with young student musicians at the Miami Country Day School in Miami, Florida. Collins was asked to perform there by his sons, who are students at the school. In August 2014, Collins was reported to have accepted an invitation to perform in December at a benefit concert in Miami in aid of his Little Dreams Foundation charity. He ultimately missed the concert due to illness. \n\n2015–present: Out of retirement\n\nIn May 2015 Collins signed a deal with Warner Music Group to remaster his eight solo albums with previously unreleased material. In October, he announced that he was no longer officially retired and is planning to tour and write a new album. Collins said that he plans to release an autobiography Not Dead Yet on 25 October 2016. \n\nDrumming and impact\n\nIn his book on the \"legends\" who defined progressive rock drumming, American drummer Rich Lackowski wrote: \"Phil Collins's grooves in early Genesis recordings paved the way for many talented drummers to come. His ability to make the drums bark with musicality and to communicate so convincingly in odd time signatures left many a drummer tossing on the headphones and playing along to Phil's lead.\" In 2014, readers of Rhythm voted Collins the fourth most influential progressive rock drummer for his work on the 1974 Genesis album The Lamb Lies Down on Broadway. MusicRadar named Collins one of the six pioneers of progressive rock drumming. In 2005, Planet Rock listeners voted Collins the fifth greatest rock drummer in history. Collins was ranked tenth in \"The Greatest Drummers of All Time\" list by Gigwise and number nine in a list of \"The 20 greatest drummers of the last 25 years\" by MusicRadar in 2010. \n\nFoo Fighters drummer Taylor Hawkins cites Collins as one of his drumming heroes. He said, \"Collins is an incredible drummer. Anyone who wants to be good on the drums should check him out – the man is a master.\" In the April 2001 issue of Modern Drummer, Dream Theater drummer Mike Portnoy named Collins in an interview when asked about drummers he was influenced by and had respect for. In another conversation in 2014, Portnoy lauded his \"amazing progressive drumming\" back in the early and mid-1970s. Rush drummer Neil Peart praised his \"beautiful drumming\" and \"lovely sound\" on the 1973 Genesis album Selling England by the Pound, which he called \"an enduring masterpiece of drumming\". Marco Minnemann, drummer for artists including Joe Satriani and Steven Wilson, described Collins as \"brilliant\" for the way \"he composes his parts, and the sounds he gets\". He said, \"Phil is almost like John Bonham to me. I hear his personality, his perspective.\" He singled out the drumming on \"In the Air Tonight\" as an example of \"ten notes that everybody knows\" and concluded \"Phil is a insanely talented drummer\". \n\nModern Drummer readers voted for Collins every year between 1987 and 1991 as Pop/Mainstream Rock drummer of the year. In 2000, he was voted as Big Band drummer of the year. In 2012, he was inducted into the Hall of Fame.\n\nEquipment\n\nCollins is a left-handed drummer, and uses Gretsch drums, Remo heads and Sabian cymbals. Past kits he used were made by Pearl and Premier.\n\nThe Gretsch Company drums: (all drums are single head concert toms except snare)\n* 14 x 20\" bass drum\n* 5.5 x 8\" rack tom\n* 6.5 x 10\" rack tom\n* 8 x 12\" rack tom\n* 12 x 15\" rack tom\n* 16 x 16\" floor tom\n* 18 x 18\" floor tom\n* 3.5 x 14\" snare drum\n\nSabian cymbals:\n15\" Hi Hats\n22\" HH China\n16\" HH Medium Thin Crash\n17\" HH Extra Thin Crash\n21\" HH Raw Bell Dry Ride\n20\" HH Medium Crash\n20\" HH China\n\nOther instruments associated with Collins's sound (particularly in his post-1978 Genesis and subsequent solo career) include the Roland CR-78, Roland TR-808, Roland TR-909, the Simmons SDS-V electronic drum set, and the Linn LM-1 and LinnDrum drum machines; he also used a Sequential Circuits Prophet-5 synthesizer, the Yamaha CP-70 electric grand piano, the Yamaha DX7 synthesizer, Oberheim DMX drum machine (as heard on \"Sussudio\"), Korg Wavestation, Korg KARMA, Korg Trinity, \n\nRecord producer and guest musician\n\nFor his solo career and his career with Genesis, Collins produced or co-produced virtually all of his singles and albums, the notable exceptions being \"Against All Odds\" (produced by Arif Mardin), and his cover of \"True Colors\" (produced by Kenneth \"Babyface\" Edmonds). \n\nCollins also maintained a career as a producer for other artists throughout the 1980s, usually working on outside projects at the rate of one artist per year. His first outside work as a producer was the 1981 album Glorious Fool for John Martyn; in 1979 he had played drums and contributed backing vocals on Martyn's Grace and Danger. He followed that up by producing Anni-Frid \"Frida\" Lyngstad's (Frida Lyngstad of ABBA) 1982 album Something's Going On, which contained the international hit \"I Know There's Something Going On\". \n\nIn 1976 Collins was brought in to contribute some percussion to one or more tracks on Thin Lizzy's album Johnny The Fox, seemingly because he was a close friend of Phil Lynott. Brian Robertson later said, \"Collins was a mate of Phil's... I think Phil probably wanted to get him on the album to name-drop.\" Neither Brian Robertson nor Brian Downey has been able to remember exactly which songs Collins played on. \n\nCollins played drums on Robert Plant's first two solo albums, Pictures at Eleven and The Principle of Moments. \n\nIn 1983 Collins produced two tracks for Adam Ant, on which he also played drums, both of which hit the UK charts: \"Puss 'N' Boots\" and \"Strip\". \"Strip\" was a minor US hit as well. \n\nIn 1984 Collins produced Phillip Bailey's album Chinese Wall, which included the hit Bailey/Collins duet \"Easy Lover\". It also contained the Bailey hit \"Walking on the Chinese Wall\". \n\nIn 1985 Collins produced and played drums on several tracks on the Eric Clapton album Behind the Sun. The following year, he produced (in collaboration with Hugh Padgham) one track for Howard Jones, the international hit No One Is to Blame, on which he also played drums. \n\nCollins was one of the producers on Eric Clapton's 1987 album August, which included the UK top 20 single \"Behind the Mask\". \n\nIn 1988, Collins and Lamont Dozier collaborated as writers and producers of The Four Tops top 10 UK hit Loco in Acapulco, from the soundtrack of the film Buster, in which Collins starred.\n\nIn 1989, Collins played drums on one track, \"Bad Love,\" on Eric Clapton's Journeyman album. He also appeared in the music video for the song. \n\nCollins co-wrote, sang and played on the song \"Hero\" on David Crosby's 1993 album Thousand Roads. \n\nFilm, theatre, and television\n\nThe majority of Collins's film work has been through music. Four of his seven U.S. number-one songs came from film soundtracks, and his work on Disney's Tarzan earned him an Oscar. Collins also sang German, Italian, Spanish and French versions of the Tarzan soundtrack for the respective film versions. He also did the soundtrack to another Disney film Brother Bear in 2003. His acting career has been brief. As a child, he appeared in three films, although two of the films were for brief moments as an extra. \n\nCollins wrote and performed the title song to Against All Odds in 1984. The song became the first of his seven U.S. number-one songs, and received an Academy Award nomination for Best Song. Collins was not invited to perform the song at that year's presentation, although he was in the audience as the song's composer. Collins had arranged his U.S. tour to accommodate the possibility of appearing on the telecast in the event his song was nominated for an Oscar. It is believed that the producers of that year's Academy Awards show were not aware of his prominence as a musical performer. A note to Collins's label from telecast co-producer Larry Gelbart explaining the lack of invitation stated, \"Thank you for your note regarding Phil Cooper [sic]. I'm afraid the spots have already been filled\". Collins instead watched actress and dancer Ann Reinking perform his song. Reinking's performance was described by one critic as an \"absurdly inept rendition\" of the song. The Los Angeles Times said: \"Reinking did an incredible job of totally destroying a beautiful song. The best that can be said about her performance is that the stage set was nice.\" Collins would introduce it at subsequent concerts by saying: \"I'm sorry Miss Ann Reinking couldn't be here tonight; I guess I just have to sing my own song.\"\n\nAs a lead vocalist, Collins sang Stephen Bishop's composition \"Separate Lives\" for the film White Nights (1985) as a duet with Marilyn Martin. The single of the recording became another number-one hit for Collins. The song was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Song (a category that honours composers, not vocalists). Bishop's song had parallels to some of those on Collins's first two albums. Writer Stephen Bishop noted that he was inspired by a failed relationship and called \"Separate Lives\" \"a song about anger\". When the song was being nominated for an Academy Award, in interviews about the original snub by the Academy for \"Against All Odds\", Collins would jokingly say \"the hell with him – I'm going up too,\" should Bishop's song win the award.\n\nCollins's first film role since embarking on his career as a musician came in 1988 with the romantic comedy-drama Buster. He starred as Buster Edwards, a criminal convicted for his role in the Great Train Robbery, which took place in England in August 1963. Reviews for the film were mixed and controversy ensued over its subject matter, with Prince Charles and Princess Diana deciding to withdraw from attending the film's première after it was accused of glorifying crime. However, Collins's performance opposite Julie Walters received good reviews and he contributed four songs to the film's soundtrack. His slow ballad rendition of \"A Groovy Kind of Love\", originally a 1966 single by The Mindbenders, became his only single to reach No. 1 in both the U.S. and the UK. The film also spawned the hit single Two Hearts, which he co-wrote with legendary Motown songwriter Lamont Dozier; the two artists would go on to win a Golden Globe for Best Original Song and receive an Oscar nomination in the same category, the second such honour for Collins; \"Big Noise\", written by Phil Collins and Lamont Dozier, which included Collins on the lead vocals (although the song was not released as a single, an instrumental version of this song appeared as the B-side to the single version of \"A Groovy Kind of Love\"). The final song, \"Loco in Acapulco\", was another collaboration with Dozier, with the vocals performed by the legendary Motown group The Four Tops. Film critic Roger Ebert said the role of Buster was \"played with surprising effectiveness\" by Collins, although the film's soundtrack proved more successful than the film did. \n\nCollins had cameo appearances in Steven Spielberg's Hook (1991) and the AIDS docudrama And the Band Played On (1993). He starred in Frauds, which competed for the Palme d'Or at the 1993 Cannes Film Festival. He supplied voices to two animated features: Amblin's Balto (1995) and Disney's The Jungle Book 2 (2003). A long-discussed but never completed project was a film titled The Three Bears; originally meant to star Collins, Danny DeVito, and Bob Hoskins. He often mentioned the film, though an appropriate script never materialised. \n\nCollins performed the soundtrack to the animated film Tarzan (1999) for The Walt Disney Company. He won an Academy Award for You'll Be in My Heart, which he performed at that year's telecast as well as during a Disney-themed Super Bowl halftime show. The song, which he also recorded in Spanish among other languages, became his only appearance on the Billboard Hot Latin Tracks chart. Disney hired Collins and Tina Turner for the soundtrack to the 2003 animated film, Brother Bear, and had some airplay with the song \"Look Through My Eyes\". \n\nCollins's music is featured in the satirical black comedy film American Psycho, with psychotic lead character Patrick Bateman (played by Christian Bale) portrayed as an obsessive fan who reads deep meaning into his work, especially with Genesis, while describing his solo music as \"...more commercial and therefore more satisfying, in a narrower way.\" Bateman delivers a monologue praising Collins and Genesis during a sequence in which he engages the services of two prostitutes while playing \"In Too Deep\" and \"Sussudio\".\n\nCollins twice hosted the Billboard Music Awards on television, which were produced and directed by his longtime music video and TV special collaborators, Paul Flattery and Jim Yukich of FYI (Flattery Yukich Inc). He also appeared in an episode of the series Miami Vice, entitled \"Phil the Shill\", in which he plays a cheating con-man. He also appeared in several sketches with The Two Ronnies.\n\nIn 2001, Collins was one of several celebrities who were tricked into appearing in a controversial British comedy series, Brass Eye, shown on public service broadcaster Channel 4. In the episode, Collins endorsed a hoax anti-paedophile campaign wearing a T-shirt with the words \"Nonce Sense\" and warned children against speaking to suspicious people. Collins was reported by the BBC to have consulted lawyers regarding the programme, which was originally pulled from broadcast but eventually rescheduled. Collins said he had taken part in the programme \"in good faith for the public benefit\", believing it to be \"a public service programme that would be going around schools and colleges in a bid to stem child abduction and abuse\". Collins also accused the makers of the programme of \"some serious taste problems\" and warned it would prevent celebrities from supporting \"public spirited causes\" in the future. \n\nCollins appeared as himself in the 2006 PSP and PS2 video game Grand Theft Auto: Vice City Stories. Set in 1984, he appears in three missions in which the main character, Victor, must save him from a gang that is trying to kill him, the final mission occurring during his concert, where the player must defend the scaffolding against saboteurs while Collins is performing \"In the Air Tonight\". After this, the player is given the opportunity to watch this performance of \"In the Air Tonight\" for only 6,000 dollars in the game. \"In the Air Tonight\" was also featured in the soundtrack of Grand Theft Auto: Vice City Stories and it was also featured in the film Aqua Teen Hunger Force Colon Movie Film For Theaters, the 2009 movie The Hangover and the 2007 Gorilla commercial for Cadbury's Dairy Milk chocolate. The advertisement also helped the song re-enter the New Zealand RIANZ Singles Chart at No. 3 in July 2008, the following week reaching No. 1, beating its original 1981 No. 6 peak. \"In the Air Tonight\" was also sampled in the song \"I Can Feel It\" on Sean Kingston's self-titled debut album. \n\nCollins was portrayed in the cartoon South Park in the episode \"Timmy 2000\" holding his Oscar throughout, referring to his 1999 win for You'll Be in My Heart, which defeated \"Blame Canada\" from South Park: Bigger, Longer & Uncut. He was seen again in the episode \"Cartman's Silly Hate Crime 2000\". Collins appears briefly in the Finnish animated sitcom Pasila in the episode \"Phil Collins Hangover\". The music of this episode is a pastiche of Collins's Another Day in Paradise. Collins was mentioned in the Psych episode \"Disco Didn't Die. It Was Murdered!\" as resembling Shawn Spencer's father, Henry, portrayed by actor Corbin Bernsen. \n\nCriticism and praise\n\nCritical and public perceptions \n\nAccording to a 2000 BBC biography of Collins, \"critics sneer at him\" and \"bad publicity also caused problems\", which \"damaged his public profile\". Rock historian Martin C. Strong wrote that Collins \"truly polarised opinion from the start, his ubiquitous smugness and increasingly sterile pop making him a favourite target for critics\". During his recording career Collins would regularly place telephone calls to music writers to take issue with their written reviews. Over time, he came to be personally disliked; in 2009, journalist Mark Lawson told how Collins's media profile had shifted from \"pop's Mr. Nice Guy, patron saint of ordinary blokes\", to someone accused of \"blandness, tax exile and ending a marriage by sending a fax\". Collins has rejected accusations of tax avoidance, and, despite confirming that some of the divorce-related correspondence between him and second wife Jill Tavelman, was by fax (a message from Collins regarding access to their daughter was reproduced for the front cover of The Sun in 1993), he states that he did not terminate the marriage in that fashion. Nevertheless, the British media has often repeated the fax claim. Collins has been the victim of scathing remarks in regard to his alleged right-wing political leanings. Caroline Sullivan, a music critic of The Guardian, referred to his cumulative negative publicity in her 2007 article \"I wish I'd never heard of Phil Collins\", writing that it was difficult for her to hear his work \"without being riven by distaste for the man himself\". According to Jeff Shannon in The Seattle Times, Collins is the \"target of much South Park derision\". A New Musical Express writer also observed the series' \"endless lampooning\" of Collins. \n\nSeveral critics have commented on Collins's omnipresence, especially in the 1980s and early 1990s. Journalist Frank DiGiacomo wrote a 1999 piece for The New York Observer titled The Collins Menace; he said, \"Even when I sought to escape the sounds [of Collins] in my head by turning on the TV, there would be Mr. Collins...mugging for the cameras—intent on showing the world just how hard he would work to sell millions of records to millions of stupid people.\" In his 2010 article Love don't come easy: artists we love to hate, The Irish Times critic Kevin Courtney expressed similar sentiments. Naming Collins as one of the ten most disliked pop stars in the world, he wrote: \"[Collins] performed at Live Aid, playing first at Wembley, then flying over to Philadelphia via Concorde, just to make sure no one in the U.S. got off lightly. By the early 1990s, Phil phatigue [sic] had really set in.\" Appraising Collins's legacy in a 2013 review of the American Psycho musical (adapted from a 2000 film incorporating his music), The Guardian critic Tom Service described Collins as \"un-stomachable\" and his music as \"perfectly vacuous\". He also compared him unfavourably with pop contemporaries such as the Pet Shop Boys and The Human League, whose music he said had endured far more successfully. Service described Collins's most popular album No Jacket Required (1985) as \"unlistenable to today\", reserving particular criticism for \"Sussudio\". \n\nCollins received acerbic comments in the press following reports about his retirement in 2011. He was dubbed \"the most hated man in rock\" by The Daily Telegraph, and by FHM as \"the pop star that nobody likes\". Rolling Stone journalist John Dioso acknowledged \"the incredible, overwhelming popularity\" Collins and Genesis achieved, but said that he had become \"a negative figure in the music world\" and that the reaction to his legacy was strongly unfavourable. Tim Chester of the New Musical Express alluded to the widespread disdain for Collins in an article titled, \"Is It Time We All Stopped Hating Phil Collins?\" He described Collins as \"the go-to guy for ironic appreciation and guilty pleasures\" and stated he was responsible for \"some moments of true genius (often accompanied, it must be said, by some real stinkers)\". He also argued that \"Genesis turned shit at the precise point he jumped off the drum stool\" to replace the departing Peter Gabriel as frontman, and said of the unrelenting derision he has suffered, \"..a lot of it he brings on himself.\" He said that Collins was \"responsible for some of the cheesiest music ever committed to acetate\". Erik Hedegaard of Rolling Stone mentioned that Phil Collins hate sites had \"flourished\" online, and acknowledged that he had been called \"the sellout who took Peter Gabriel's Genesis, that paragon of prog-rock, and turned it into a lame-o pop act and went on to make all those supercheesy hits that really did define the 1980s\". \n\nCriticism from other artists\n\nWriting about Collins in a 2013 publication on 1980s popular music, Dylan Jones said that, along with the press, \"many of his peers despised him so\". Some fellow artists have criticised Collins publicly. Appearing on a 1989 edition of BBC programme Juke Box Jury, Collins applauded an upcoming single by British new wave band Sigue Sigue Sputnik; this prompted their singer, Martin Degville, to say directly to Collins's face: \"God! We must have really got it wrong if you like us!\" In 1990, former Pink Floyd frontman Roger Waters criticised Collins's \"ubiquitous nature\", including his involvement in The Who's 1989 reunion tour. David Bowie subsequently dismissed his own critically reviled 1980s output as his \"Phil Collins years/albums\". In addition to the song's negative press from music journalists, singer-songwriter and political activist Billy Bragg also criticised Collins for writing \"Another Day in Paradise\", stating: \"Phil Collins might write a song about the homeless, but if he doesn't have the action to go with it he's just exploiting that for a subject.\" \n\nOasis songwriter Noel Gallagher criticised Collins on multiple occasions, including the comment: \"Just because you sell lots of records, it doesn't mean to say you're any good. Look at Phil Collins.\" Collins said he has \"at times, been very down\" about Gallagher's criticisms. Gallagher's brother, Oasis singer Liam, recalled the \"boring\" Collins's chart dominance in the 1980s and stated that, by the 1990s, it was \"time for some real lads to get up there and take charge\". Appearing on television series Room 101 in 2005, Collins nominated the Gallaghers as entrants into the titular room. He described them as \"horrible\" and stated: \"They're rude and not as talented as they think they are. I won't mince words here, but they've had a go at me personally.\" On the closing track of their 2014 album What Have We Become?, titled \"When I Get Back to Blighty\", former Beautiful South collaborators Paul Heaton and Jacqui Abbott included the lyric: \"Everyone around us agrees that Phil Collins must die\". MusicOMH critic David Meller remarked that the line \"is delivered with willing, almost pleasurable conviction by Abbott\". \n\nCollins on criticism \n\nCollins acknowledged in 2010 that he had been \"omnipresent\". He said of his character: \"The persona on stage came out of insecurity...it seems embarrassing now. I recently started transferring all my VHS tapes onto DVD to create an archive, and everything I was watching, I thought, 'God, I'm annoying.' I appeared to be very cocky, and really I wasn't.\" Collins concedes his status as a figure of contempt for many people and has said that he believes this is a consequence of his music being overplayed. In 2011 Collins was quoted: \"The fact that people got so sick of me wasn't really my fault … It's hardly surprising that people grew to hate me. I'm sorry that it was all so successful. I honestly didn't mean it to happen like that!\" Collins has described criticism of his physical appearance over the years as \"a cheap shot\", but has acknowledged the \"very vocal element\" of Genesis fans who believe that the group sold out under his tenure as lead singer. \n\nRegarding criticism of his single \"Another Day in Paradise\", Collins stated: \"When I drive down the street, I see the same things everyone else sees. It's a misconception that if you have a lot of money you're somehow out of touch with reality.\" \n\nResponding to reports about his retirement in 2011, Collins dismissed the notion that his departure from the music industry was due to negative attention, and stated small parts of conversations had been made into headlines. He said: \"I have ended up sounding like a tormented weirdo who thinks he was at the Alamo in another life, who feels very sorry for himself, and is retiring hurt because of the bad press over the years. None of this is true.\"\n\nPraise\n\nPaul Lester of The Guardian wrote in 2013 that Collins is one of several pop acts that \"used to be a joke\" but are \"now being hailed as gods\". Despite the criticism he has received, Collins has become an iconic figure within U.S. urban music, influencing artists such as Kanye West, Alicia Keys and Beyoncé. His songs have been sampled by various hip-hop and contemporary R&B acts, and performers including Lil' Kim, Kelis and Wu-Tang Clan co-founder Ol' Dirty Bastard covered his work on the 2001 tribute album Urban Renewal. In 2004, indie rock musician Ben Gibbard praised Collins's singing, claiming he's a \"great vocalist\". Collins's music has been championed by his contemporary, the heavy metal singer Ozzy Osbourne, David Crosby has called him \"a dear friend\" who has helped him \"enormously\" and Robert Plant paid tribute to him as \"the most spirited and positive and really encouraging force\" when commencing his own solo career after the break-up of Led Zeppelin. Collins has been championed by modern artists in diverse genres, including indie rock groups The 1975, Generationals, Neon Indian, Yeasayer, St. Lucia and Sleigh Bells, electronica artist Lorde, and soul singer Diane Birch, who said in 2014, \"Collins walks a really fine line between being really cheesy and being really sophisticated. He can seem appalling, but at the same time, he has awesome production values and there's a particular richness to the sound. It's very proficient in the instrumentation and savvy about melodies.\" \n\nGenesis bandmate Mike Rutherford has praised Collins's personality, saying that \"he always had a bloke-next-door, happy-go-lucky demeanour about him: let's have a drink in the pub, crack a joke, smoke a cigarette or a joint\". He has been characterised by favourable critics as a \"rock god\", and an artist who has remained \"down to earth\". In The New Rolling Stone Album Guide, published in 2004, J. D. Considine wrote: \"For a time, Phil Collins was nearly inescapable on the radio, and enormously popular with the listening public—something that made him an obvious target for critics. Despite his lumpen-pop appeal, however, Collins is an incisive songwriter and resourceful musician.\" Creation Records founder Alan McGee wrote in 2009 that there was a \"non-ironic revival of Phil Collins\" happening. According to McGee: \"The kids don't care about 'indie cred' anymore. To them, a great pop song is just that: a great pop song. In this time of revivals, nothing is a sacred cow anymore, and that can only be a good thing for music.\" Commenting on Collins's popularity with hip-hop acts, he argued: \"It's not surprising. Collins is a world-class drummer whose songs immediately lend themselves to being sampled.\"\n\nIn 2010, Gary Mills of The Quietus made an impassioned defence of Collins: \"There can't be many figures in the world of pop who have inspired quite the same kind of hatred-bordering-on-civil-unrest as Collins, and there can't be too many who have shifted anything like the 150 million plus units that he's got through as a solo artist either...The disgrace of a career bogged entirely in the determined dross of No Jacket Required however is simply not justified, regardless of how Collins gained either his fortune, or his public image.\" David Sheppard wrote for the BBC in 2010: \"Granted, Collins has sometimes been guilty of painting the bull’s-eye on his own forehead (that self-aggrandising Live Aid Concorde business, the cringe-worthy lyrics to 'Another Day in Paradise', Buster, etc.), but nonetheless, the sometime Genesis frontman’s canon is so substantial and his hits so profuse that it feels myopic to dismiss him merely as a haughty purveyor of tortured, romantic ballads for the middle income world.\" \n\nRolling Stone journalist Erik Hedegaard has expressed disapproval of the widespread criticism which Collins has received, suggesting that he has been \"unfairly and inexplicably vilified\". Martin C. Strong stated in 2011 that \"the enigmatic and amiable Phil Collins has had his fair share of mockers and critics over the years, although one thing is sure, and that is his dexterity and undeniable talent\". In a piece the following year, titled \"10 Much-Mocked Artists It's Time We Forgave\", New Musical Express critic Anna Conrad said Collins had been portrayed as a \"villain\", and wrote: \"Was the bile really justified?...come on, admit it. You've air drummed to 'In the Air Tonight', and loved it.\" The Guardian journalist Dave Simpson wrote a complimentary article in 2013; while acknowledging \"few pop figures have become as successful and yet reviled as Phil Collins\", he argued \"it's about time we recognised Collins's vast influence as one of the godfathers of popular culture\".\n\nPersonal life\n\nFamily\n\nCollins has been married three times; each has ended in divorce. He married Andrea Bertorelli in 1975. They met as students in a London drama class. They had a son, Simon Collins, who became a vocalist and drummer with the band Sound of Contact. Collins adopted Bertorelli's daughter Joely, who became a Canadian actress and film producer. \n\nCollins met his second wife, U.S. citizen Jill Tavelman, in 1980. They were married from 1984 to 1996. They had one daughter, Lily Collins, born in 1989. \n\nCollins married his third wife, Orianne Cevey, a Swiss national, in 1999. They have two sons, Nicholas and Matthew. They bought Sir Jackie Stewart's former house located in Begnins, Switzerland, overlooking Lake Geneva. Announcing their separation on 16 March 2006, they were divorced on 17 August 2008. Collins continued to live in Switzerland at the time, residing in Féchy, while he also maintained homes in New York City and Dersingham, Norfolk. In 2008, after his wife left him, she and the boys moved to Miami, leaving Collins devastated. He recalled: \"I went through a few bits of darkness; drinking too much. I killed my hours watching TV and drinking, and it almost killed me.\" He revealed in 2015 that he hadn't consumed alcohol in three years. In 2015, Collins then moved to Miami (in a separate home, previously owned by Jennifer Lopez) to be closer to his family. In January 2016, Collins said he was back with his third wife and they were living together in the house he had bought in Miami. \n\nFrom 2007 to 2015, Collins dated CBS 2 WCBS-TV news reporter Dana Tyler. \n\nFortune\n\nCollins was estimated to have a fortune of £115 million in the Sunday Times Rich List of 2011, making him one of the 20 wealthiest people in the British music industry. In 2012 Collins was estimated to be the second wealthiest drummer in the world, beaten to first place by Ringo Starr. \n\nCourt case\n\nOn 29 March 2000, Collins launched a case against two former musicians from his band to recoup £500,000 ($780,000) in royalties that were overpaid. Louis Satterfield, 62, and Rahmlee Davis, 51, claimed their contract entitled them to 0.5 per cent of the royalties from Serious Hits... Live!, a live album recorded during Collins's Seriously, Live! World Tour in 1990. Their claim was they were an integral part of the whole album, but Collins responded the two should only receive royalties from the five tracks in which they were involved. Instead of asking for a return of what Collins considered overpayment, he sought to recoup the funds by withholding future royalties to Satterfield and Davis.\n\nOn 19 April 2000, the High Court ruled that the two musicians would receive no more royalty money from Phil Collins. The amount that Collins was seeking was halved, and Satterfield and Davis (who originally brought the suit forward in California) would not have to repay any of it. The judge agreed with Collins's argument that Satterfield and Davis should have been paid for only the five tracks on which they performed, including the hit \"Sussudio\". \n\nHealth problems\n\nCollins had reportedly lost hearing in his left ear in 2000 due to a viral infection; the condition was resolved after the infection was cured. In September 2009, it was reported that Collins could no longer play the drums, due to a recent operation to repair dislocated vertebrae in his neck. A statement from Collins on the Genesis band website said, \"There isn't any drama regarding my 'disability' and playing drums. Somehow during the last Genesis tour I dislocated some vertebrae in my upper neck and that affected my hands. After a successful operation on my neck, my hands still can't function normally. Maybe in a year or so it will change, but for now it is impossible for me to play drums or piano. I am not in any 'distressed' state; stuff happens in life.\" However, in 2010 Collins alluded to feelings of depression and low self-esteem in recent years, claiming in an interview that he had contemplated committing suicide, but he resisted for the sake of his children. \n\nIn October 2014, Collins told John Wilson on BBC Radio 4's Front Row that he still could not play the drums; he said the problem was not arthritis but an undiagnosed nerve problem where he was unable to \"grip the sticks\". He confirmed in a 2016 interview that he was still unable to drum with the left hand; however, he has also said that after a major back surgery, his doctor advised him that if he wanted to play the drums again, all he needed to do was practice as long as he took it step by step. \n\nHonorary degrees\n\nCollins has received several honorary degrees in recognition of his work in music and his personal interests. In 1987 he received an honorary doctorate of fine arts at Fairleigh Dickinson University. In 1991 he received an honorary doctorate of music at the Berklee College of Music. On 12 May 2012 he received an honorary doctorate of history at the McMurry University in Abilene, Texas, for his research and collection of Texas Revolution artefacts and documents (see other interests section).\n\nPolitics\n\nCollins has often been mentioned erroneously in the British media as being a supporter of the Conservative Party and an opponent of the Labour Party. This derives from the famous article in The Sun, printed on the day of the 1992 UK general election, titled \"If Kinnock wins today will the last person to leave Britain please turn out the lights\", which stated that Collins was among several celebrities who were planning to leave Britain in the event of a Labour victory. \n\nCollins is sometimes reported in the British press to have left the UK and moved to Switzerland in protest at the Labour Party's victory in the 1997 general election. Shortly before the 2005 election (when Collins was living in Switzerland), Labour supporter Noel Gallagher was quoted: \"Vote Labour. If you don't and the Tories get in, Phil Collins is threatening to come back and live here. And let's face it, none of us want that.\" However, Collins has since stated that although he did once claim many years earlier that he might leave Britain if most of his income was taken in tax, which was Labour Party policy at that time for top earners, he has never been a Conservative Party supporter and he left Britain for Switzerland in 1994 purely because he started a relationship with a woman who lived there. He said of Gallagher: \"I don't care if he likes my music or not. I do care if he starts telling people I'm a wanker because of my politics. It's an opinion based on an old misunderstood quote.\" \n\nDespite his statement that he did not leave Britain for tax purposes, Collins was one of several wealthy figures living in tax havens who were singled out for criticism in a 2008 report by the charity Christian Aid. The Independent included Collins as one of their \"ten celebrity tax exiles\", erroneously repeating that he had left the country when Labour won the 1997 general election and that he threatened to return if the Conservatives won in 2005. Referring to the 1997 general election in his article \"Famous men and their misunderstood politics\" for MSN, Hugh Wilson stated: \"Labour won it in a landslide, which just goes to show the influence pop stars really wield\". He also wrote that Collins's reported comments and subsequent move to Switzerland led to \"accusations of hypocrisy\" since he had \"bemoaned the plight of the homeless in the song 'Another Day in Paradise'\", making him \"an easy target when future elections came round\". The Paul Heaton and Jacqui Abbott song \"When I Get Back to Blighty\", from their 2014 album What Have We Become?, made reference to Collins as \"a prisoner to his tax returns\".\n\nQuestioned about his politics by Mark Lawson in an interview for the BBC, broadcast in 2009, Collins said: \"My father was Conservative but it wasn't quite the same, I don't think, when he was alive. Politics never loomed large in our family anyway. I think the politics of the country were very different then.\" In a 2016 interview in The Guardian, Collins stated that talking about politics to The Sun was one of his biggest regrets. When asked whether he had ever voted Conservative, he said: \"I didn’t vote, actually. And that’s not something I’m proud of. I was just so busy that I rarely was here.\" \n\nOther interests\n\nCollins has a long-standing interest in the Alamo. He has collected hundreds of artefacts related to the famous 1836 battle in San Antonio, Texas, narrated a light and sound show about the Alamo, and has spoken at related events. His passion for the Battle of the Alamo has also led him to write the book The Alamo and Beyond: A Collector's Journey, ISBN 978-1-933337-50-0, published in 2012. A short film was released in 2013 called Phil Collins and the Wild Frontier which captures Collins on a book tour in June 2012. On 26 June 2014, a press conference was held from The Alamo, where Collins spoke, announcing that he was donating his entire collection to The Alamo via the State of Texas. On 11 March 2015, in honour of his donation, Collins was named an honorary Texan by the state legislature. \n\nIn common with Rod Stewart and Eric Clapton, Collins is also a model railway enthusiast. \n\nActivism\n\nCollins was appointed a Lieutenant of the Royal Victorian Order (LVO) in 1994, in recognition of his work on behalf of the Prince's Trust. Collins has stated he is a supporter of animal rights and People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA). In 2005 he donated autographed drum sticks in support of PETA's campaign against Kentucky Fried Chicken. \n\nIn February 2000, Collins and his wife Orianne founded Little Dreams Foundation, a non-profit organisation that aims to \"...realise the dreams of children in the fields of sports and art\" by providing future prodigies aged 4 to 16 years with financial, material, and mentoring support with the help of experts in various fields. Collins took the action after receiving letters from children asking him how they could break into the music industry. Mentors to the students who have benefited from his foundation include Tina Turner and Natalie Cole. In 2013 he visited Miami Beach, Florida, to promote the expansion of his foundation. \n\nCollins supports the South African charity Topsy Foundation, which provides relief services to some of South Africa's most under-resourced rural communities through a multi-faceted approach to the consequences of HIV/AIDS and extreme poverty. He donates all the royalties earned from his music sales in South Africa to the organisation. \n\nAwards and nominations\n\nDiscography\n\n;Studio albums\n Face Value (1981)\n* Hello, I Must Be Going! (1982)\n* No Jacket Required (1985)\n* ...But Seriously (1989)\n* Both Sides (1993)\n* Dance into the Light (1996)\n* Testify (2002)\n* Going Back (2010)\n\nFilmography" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Another Day in Paradise (Jam Tronix song)", "Another day in paradise", "Another Day in Paradise" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "another day in paradise", "another day in paradise jam tronix song" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "another day in paradise", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Another Day in Paradise" }
What was Al Pacino's first movie?	tc_572	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Al_Pacino.txt" ], "title": [ "Al Pacino" ], "wiki_context": [ "Alfredo James \"Al\" Pacino (; born April 25, 1940) is an American actor of stage and screen, filmmaker, and screenwriter. Pacino has had a career spanning fifty years, during which time he has received numerous accolades and honors both competitive and honorary, among them an Academy Award, two Tony Awards, two Primetime Emmy Awards, a British Academy Film Award, four Golden Globe Awards, the Lifetime Achievement Award from the American Film Institute, the Golden Globe Cecil B. DeMille Award, and the National Medal of Arts. He is also one of few performers to have won a competitive Oscar, an Emmy and a Tony Award for acting, dubbed the \"Triple Crown of Acting\".\n\nA method actor and former student of the Herbert Berghof Studio and the Actors Studio in New York City, where he was taught by Charlie Laughton and Lee Strasberg, Pacino made his feature film debut with a minor role in Me, Natalie (1969) and gained favourable notices for his lead role as a heroin addict in The Panic in Needle Park (1971). He achieved international acclaim and recognition for his breakthrough role as Michael Corleone in Francis Ford Coppola's The Godfather (1972). He received his first Oscar nomination and would reprise the role in sequels Part II (1974) and Part III (1990). Pacino's performance as Corleone is now regarded as one of the greatest screen performances in film history.\n\nPacino received his first Best Actor Oscar nomination for Serpico (1973); he was also nominated for The Godfather Part II, Dog Day Afternoon (1975) and ...And Justice for All (1979) and won the award in 1993 for his performance as a blind Lieutenant Colonel in Scent of a Woman (1992). For his performances in The Godfather, Dick Tracy (1990) and Glengarry Glen Ross (1992), Pacino was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor. Other notable roles include Tony Montana in Scarface (1983), Carlito Brigante in Carlito's Way (1993), Lieutenant Vincent Hanna in Heat (1995), Benjamin Ruggiero in Donnie Brasco (1997), Lowell Bergman in The Insider (1999) and Detective Will Dormer in Insomnia (2002). In television, Pacino has acted in several productions for HBO including the miniseries Angels in America (2003) and the Jack Kevorkian biopic You Don't Know Jack (2010), both of which won him the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Miniseries or a Movie.\n\nIn addition to his work in film, Pacino has had an extensive career on stage and is a two-time Tony Award winner, in 1969 and 1977, for his performances in Does a Tiger Wear a Necktie? and The Basic Training of Pavlo Hummel respectively. A lifelong fan of Shakespeare, Pacino directed and starred in Looking for Richard (1996), a documentary film about the play Richard III, a role which Pacino had earlier portrayed on-stage in 1977. He has also acted as Shylock in a 2004 feature film adaptation and a 2010 production of The Merchant of Venice. Having made his filmmaking debut with Looking for Richard, Pacino has also directed and starred in the independent film Chinese Coffee (2000) and the films Wilde Salomé (2011) and Salomé (2013), about the play Salomé by Oscar Wilde. Since 1994, Pacino has been the joint president of the Actors Studio with Ellen Burstyn and Harvey Keitel.\n\nEarly life and education\n\nPacino was born in New York City (East Harlem), to Sicilian-American parents Salvatore Pacino and Rose, who divorced when he was two years old. His mother moved near the Bronx Zoo to live with her parents, Kate and James Gerardi, who, coincidentally, had come from a town in Sicily named Corleone. His father, who was from San Fratello in the Province of Messina, moved to Covina, California, and worked as an insurance salesman and restaurateur.\n\nIn his teen years \"Sonny\", as he was known to his friends, aimed to become a baseball player, and was also nicknamed \"The Actor\". Pacino dropped out of many classes, but not English. He dropped out of school at age 17. His mother disagreed with his decision; they argued and he left home. He worked at low-paying jobs, messenger, busboy, janitor, and postal clerk, to finance his acting studies. He once worked in the mail room for Commentary magazine. \n\nHe began smoking and drinking at age nine, and took up casual cannabis use at age 13, but never used hard drugs. His two closest friends died from drug abuse at the ages of 19 and 30. Growing up in The Bronx, he got into occasional fights and was considered something of a troublemaker at school. \n\nHe acted in basement plays in New York's theatrical underground but was rejected for the Actors Studio while a teenager. Pacino then joined the Herbert Berghof Studio (HB Studio), where he met acting teacher Charlie Laughton (not to be confused with the British actor Charles Laughton), who became his mentor and best friend. In this period, he was often unemployed and homeless, and sometimes slept on the street, in theaters, or at friends' houses. \n\nIn 1962, his mother died at the age of 43. The following year, Pacino's grandfather James Gerardi, one of the most influential people in his life, also died.\n\nActors Studio training\n\nAfter four years at HB Studio, Pacino successfully auditioned for the Actors Studio.Grobel; p. xix The Actors Studio is a membership organization of professional actors, theatre directors and playwrights in the Hell's Kitchen neighborhood of Manhattan in New York City. Pacino studied \"method acting\" under acting coach Lee Strasberg, who later appeared with Pacino in the films The Godfather Part II and in ...And Justice for All.\n\nDuring later interviews he spoke about Strasberg and the Studio's effect on his career. \"The Actors Studio meant so much to me in my life. Lee Strasberg hasn't been given the credit he deserves ... Next to Charlie, it sort of launched me. It really did. That was a remarkable turning point in my life. It was directly responsible for getting me to quit all those jobs and just stay acting.\" \n\nIn another interview he added, \"It was exciting to work for him [Lee Strasberg] because he was so interesting when he talked about a scene or talked about people. One would just want to hear him talk, because things he would say, you'd never heard before ... He had such a great understanding ... he loved actors so much.\" \n\nPacino is currently co-president, along with Ellen Burstyn and Harvey Keitel, of the Actors Studio.\n\nStage career\n\nIn 1967, Pacino spent a season at the Charles Playhouse in Boston, performing in Clifford Odets' Awake and Sing! (his first major paycheck: $125 a week); and in Jean-Claude Van Itallie's America, Hurrah, where he met actress Jill Clayburgh on this play. They had a five-year romance and moved back together to New York City. \n\nIn 1968, Pacino starred in Israel Horovitz's The Indian Wants the Bronx at the Astor Place Theater, playing Murph, a street punk. The play opened January 17, 1968, and ran for 177 performances; it was staged in a double bill with Horovitz's It's Called the Sugar Plum, starring Clayburgh. Pacino won an Obie Award for Best Actor for his role, with John Cazale winning for Best Supporting actor and Horowitz for Best New Play. Martin Bregman saw the play and became Pacino's manager, a partnership that became fruitful in the years to come, as Bregman encouraged Pacino to do The Godfather, Serpico and Dog Day Afternoon. \"Martin Bregman discovered me off Broadway. I was 26, 25. And he discovered me and became my manager. And that's why I'm here. I owe it to Marty, I really do,\" Pacino himself has stated about his own career. \n\nPacino and this production of The Indian Wants the Bronx traveled to Italy for a performance at the Festival dei Due Mondi in Spoleto. It was Pacino's first journey to Italy; he later recalled that \"performing for an Italian audience was a marvelous experience\". Pacino and Clayburgh were cast in \"Deadly Circle of Violence\", an episode of the ABC television series NYPD, premiering November 12, 1968. Clayburgh at the time was also appearing on the soap opera Search for Tomorrow, playing the role of Grace Bolton. Her father would send the couple money each month to help. \n\nOn February 25, 1969, Pacino made his Broadway debut in Don Petersen's Does a Tiger Wear a Necktie? at the Belasco Theater produced by A&P Heir Huntington Hartford. It closed after 39 performances on March 29, 1969, but Pacino received rave reviews and won the Tony Award on April 20, 1969. Pacino continued performing onstage in the 1970s, winning a second Tony Award for The Basic Training of Pavlo Hummel and performing the title role in Richard III. In the 1980s, Pacino again achieved critical success on stage while appearing in David Mamet's American Buffalo, for which Pacino was nominated for a Drama Desk Award. Since 1990, Pacino's stage work has included revivals of Eugene O'Neill's Hughie, Oscar Wilde's Salome and in 2005 Lyle Kessler's Orphans. \n\nPacino made his return to the stage in summer 2010, as Shylock in a Shakespeare in the Park production of The Merchant of Venice. The acclaimed production moved to Broadway at the Broadhurst Theatre in October, earning US$1 million at the box office in its first week. The performance also garnered him a Tony Award nomination for Best Leading Actor in a Play. In October 2012 Pacino starred in the 30th anniversary Broadway revival of David Mamet's classic play, Glengarry Glen Ross, which ran through January 20, 2013. \n\nFrom the end of 2015 through January 2016 he starred on Broadway in \"China Doll\", a play written for him by David Mamet. It is a limited run of 87 performances, after acclaimed reviews of 4 performances in October 2015.\n\nFilm career\n\nEarly film career\n\nPacino found acting enjoyable and realized he had a gift for it while studying at The Actors Studio. However, his early work was not financially rewarding. After his success on stage, Pacino made his movie debut in 1969 with a brief appearance in Me, Natalie, an independent film starring Patty Duke. In 1970, Pacino signed with the talent agency Creative Management Associates (CMA).\n\n1970s\n\nIt was the 1971 film The Panic in Needle Park, in which he played a heroin addict, that brought Pacino to the attention of director Francis Ford Coppola, who cast him as Michael Corleone in the blockbuster Mafia film The Godfather (1972). Although several established actorsincluding Jack Nicholson, Robert Redford, Warren Beatty, and little-known Robert De Niroalso tried out for the part, Coppola selected the relatively unknown Pacino, to the dismay of studio executives. \n\nPacino's performance earned him an Academy Award nomination, and offered a prime example of his early acting style, described by Halliwell's Film Guide as \"intense\" and \"tightly clenched\". Pacino boycotted the Academy Award ceremony, insulted at being nominated for the Supporting Acting award, noting that he had more screen time than co-star and Best Actor winner Marlon Brandowho also boycotted the awards, but for unrelated reasons. \n\nIn 1973, he co-starred in Scarecrow, with Gene Hackman, and won the Palme d'Or at the Cannes Film Festival. That same year, Pacino was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Actor after starring in Serpico, based on the true story of New York City policeman Frank Serpico, who went undercover to expose the corruption of fellow officers. In 1974, Pacino reprised his role as Michael Corleone in the sequel The Godfather Part II, which was the first sequel to win the Best Picture Oscar; Pacino, meanwhile, was nominated for his third Oscar.\n\nNewsweek has described his performance in The Godfather Part II as \"arguably cinema's greatest portrayal of the hardening of a heart\". In 1975, he enjoyed further success with the release of Dog Day Afternoon, based on the true story of bank robber John Wojtowicz. It was directed by Sidney Lumet, who had directed him in Serpico a few years earlier, and Pacino was again nominated for Best Actor. \n\nIn 1977, Pacino starred as a race-car driver in Bobby Deerfield, directed by Sydney Pollack, and received a Golden Globe nomination for Best Actor – Motion Picture Drama for his portrayal of the title role. His next film was the courtroom drama ...And Justice for All, which again saw Pacino lauded by critics for his wide range of acting abilities, and nominated for the Best Actor Oscar for a fourth time. However he lost out that year to Dustin Hoffman in Kramer vs. Kramer—a role that Pacino had declined.\n\nDuring the 1970s, Pacino had four Oscar nominations for Best Actor, for his performances in Serpico, The Godfather Part II, Dog Day Afternoon, and ...And Justice for All.\n\n1980s\n\nPacino's career slumped in the early 1980s; his appearances in the controversial Cruising, a film that provoked protests from New York's gay community, and the comedy-drama Author! Author!, were critically panned. However, 1983's Scarface, directed by Brian De Palma, proved to be a career highlight and a defining role. Upon its initial release, the film was critically panned due to violent content, but later received critical acclaim. The film did well at the box office, grossing over US$45 million domestically. Pacino earned a Golden Globe nomination for his role as Cuban drug lord Tony Montana. \n\nIn 1985, Pacino worked on his personal project, The Local Stigmatic, a 1969 Off Broadway play by the English writer Heathcote Williams. He starred in the play, remounting it with director David Wheeler and the Theater Company of Boston in a 50-minute film version. The film was not released theatrically, but was later released as part of the Pacino: An Actor's Vision box set in 2007.\n\nHis 1985 film Revolution about a fur trapper during the American Revolutionary War, was a commercial and critical failure, which Pacino blamed on a rushed production, resulting in a four-year hiatus from films. At this time Pacino returned to the stage. He mounted workshop productions of Crystal Clear, National Anthems and other plays; he appeared in Julius Caesar in 1988 in producer Joseph Papp's New York Shakespeare Festival. Pacino remarked on his hiatus from film: \"I remember back when everything was happening, '74, '75, doing The Resistible Rise of Arturo Ui on stage and reading that the reason I'd gone back to the stage was that my movie career was waning! That's been the kind of ethos, the way in which theater's perceived, unfortunately.\" Pacino returned to film in 1989's Sea of Love, when he portrayed a detective hunting a serial killer who finds victims through the singles column in a newspaper. The film earned solid reviews. \n\n1990s\n\nPacino received an Academy Award nomination for playing Big Boy Caprice in the box office hit Dick Tracy in 1990, of which critic Roger Ebert described Pacino as \"the scene-stealer\". Later in the year he followed this up in a return to one of his most famous characters, Michael Corleone, in The Godfather Part III (1990). The film received mixed reviews, and had problems in pre-production due to script rewrites and the withdrawal of actors shortly before production.\n\nIn 1991, Pacino starred in Frankie and Johnny with Michelle Pfeiffer, who co-starred with Pacino in Scarface. Pacino portrays a recently paroled cook who begins a relationship with a waitress (Pfeiffer) in the diner where they work. It was adapted by Terrence McNally from his own Off-Broadway play Frankie and Johnny in the Clair de Lune (1987), that featured Kenneth Welsh and Kathy Bates. The film received mixed reviews, although Pacino later said he enjoyed playing the part. Janet Maslin in The New York Times wrote, \"Mr. Pacino has not been this uncomplicatedly appealing since his \"Dog Day Afternoon\" days, and he makes Johnny's endless enterprise in wooing Frankie a delight. His scenes alone with Ms. Pfeiffer have a precision and honesty that keep the film's maudlin aspects at bay.\" \n\nIn 1992, Pacino won the Academy Award for Best Actor, for his portrayal of the blind U.S. Army Lieutenant Colonel Frank Slade in Martin Brest's Scent of a Woman. That year, he was also nominated for Best Supporting Actor for Glengarry Glen Ross, making Pacino the first male actor ever to receive two acting nominations for two movies in the same year, and to win for the lead role.\n\nPacino starred alongside Sean Penn in the crime drama Carlito's Way in 1993, in which he portrayed a gangster released from prison with the help of his lawyer (Penn) and vows to go straight. Pacino starred in Michael Mann's Heat (1995), in which he and Robert De Niro appeared on-screen together for the first time (though both Pacino and De Niro starred in The Godfather Part II, they did not share any scenes).\n\nIn 1996, Pacino starred in his theatrical docudrama Looking for Richard, a performance of selected scenes of Shakespeare's Richard III and a broader examination of Shakespeare's continuing role and relevance in popular culture. The cast brought together for the performance included Alec Baldwin, Kevin Spacey, and Winona Ryder. Pacino played Satan in the supernatural thriller The Devil's Advocate (1997) which co-starred Keanu Reeves. The film was a success at the box office, taking US$150 million worldwide. Roger Ebert wrote in the Chicago Sun-Times, \"The satanic character is played by Pacino with relish bordering on glee.\" \n\nIn 1997's Donnie Brasco, Pacino played gangster \"Lefty\" in the true story of undercover FBI agent Donnie Brasco (Johnny Depp) and his work in bringing down the mafia from the inside. In 1999, Pacino starred as 60 Minutes producer Lowell Bergman in the multi-Oscar nominated The Insider opposite Russell Crowe, and in Oliver Stone's Any Given Sunday.\n\n2000s\n\nPacino has not received another Academy Award nomination since winning for Scent of a Woman, but has won three Golden Globes since the year 2000, the first being the Cecil B. DeMille Award in 2001 for lifetime achievement in motion pictures. \n\nIn 2000, Pacino released a low-budget film adaptation of Ira Lewis' play Chinese Coffee to film festivals. Shot almost exclusively as a one-on-one conversation between two main characters, the project took nearly three years to complete and was funded entirely by Pacino. Chinese Coffee was included with Pacino's two other rare films he was involved in producing, The Local Stigmatic and Looking for Richard, on a special DVD box set titled Pacino: An Actor's Vision, which was released in 2007. Pacino produced prologues and epilogues for the discs containing the films. \n\nPacino turned down an offer to reprise his role as Michael Corleone in the computer game version of The Godfather. As a result, Electronic Arts was not permitted to use Pacino's likeness or voice in the game, although his character does appear in it. He did allow his likeness to appear in the video game adaptation of 1983's Scarface, quasi-sequel titled Scarface: The World is Yours. \n\nDirector Christopher Nolan worked with Pacino on Insomnia, a remake of the Norwegian film of the same name, co-starring Robin Williams. Newsweek stated that \"he [Pacino] can play small as rivetingly as he can play big, that he can implode as well as explode\". The film and Pacino's performance were well received, gaining a favorable rating of 93 percent on the review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes. The film did moderately well at the box office, taking in $113 million worldwide. His next film, S1m0ne, did not gain much critical praise or box office success. \n\nHe played a publicist in People I Know, a small film that received little attention despite Pacino's well-received performance. Rarely taking a supporting role since his commercial breakthrough, he accepted a small part in the box office flop Gigli, in 2003, as a favor to director Martin Brest. The Recruit, released in 2003, featured Pacino as a CIA recruiter and co-stars Colin Farrell. The film received mixed reviews, and has been described by Pacino as something he \"personally couldn't follow\". Pacino next starred as lawyer Roy Cohn in the 2003 HBO miniseries Angels in America, an adaptation of Tony Kushner's Pulitzer Prize winning play of the same name. For this performance, Pacino won his third Golden Globe, for Best Performance by an Actor, in 2004. \n\nPacino starred as Shylock in Michael Radford's 2004 film adaptation of The Merchant of Venice, choosing to bring compassion and depth to a character traditionally played as a villainous caricature. In Two for the Money, Pacino portrays a sports gambling agent and mentor for Matthew McConaughey, alongside Rene Russo. The film was released on October 8, 2005, to mixed reviews. Desson Thomson wrote in The Washington Post, \"Al Pacino has played the mentor so many times, he ought to get a kingmaker's award ... the fight between good and evil feels fixed in favor of Hollywood redemption.\" \n\nOn October 20, 2006, the American Film Institute named Pacino the recipient of the 35th AFI Life Achievement Award. On November 22, 2006, the University Philosophical Society of Trinity College, Dublin awarded Pacino the Honorary Patronage of the Society. \n\nPacino played a spoof role in Steven Soderbergh's Ocean's Thirteen, alongside George Clooney, Brad Pitt, Matt Damon, Elliott Gould and Andy García, as the villain Willy Bank, a casino tycoon targeted by Danny Ocean and his crew. The film received generally favorable reviews. \n\n88 Minutes was released on April 18, 2008, in the United States, after having been released in various other countries in 2007. The film co-starred Alicia Witt and was critically panned, although critics found fault with the plot, and not Pacino's acting. In Righteous Kill, Pacino and Robert De Niro co-star as New York detectives searching for a serial killer. The film was released to theaters on September 12, 2008. While it was an anticipated return for the two stars, it was not well received by critics. Lou Lumenick of the New York Post gave Righteous Kill one star out of four, saying: \"Al Pacino and Robert De Niro collect bloated paychecks with intent to bore in Righteous Kill, a slow-moving, ridiculous police thriller that would have been shipped straight to the remainder bin at Blockbuster if it starred anyone else.\" \n\n2010s\n\nPacino played Dr. Jack Kevorkian in an HBO Films biopic entitled You Don't Know Jack, which premiered April 2010. The film is about the life and work of the physician-assisted suicide advocate. The performance earned Pacino his second Emmy Award for lead actor and his fourth Golden Globe award.\n\nIt was announced in May 2011 that Pacino was to be honored with the \"Glory to the Film-maker\" award at the 68th Venice International Film Festival. The award was presented ahead of the premiere of his film Wilde Salome, the third film Pacino has directed. Pacino, who plays the role of Herod in the film, describes it as his \"most personal project ever\".\n\nThe United States premiere of Wilde Salomé took place on the evening of March 21, 2012, before a full house at the 1,400-seat Castro Theatre in San Francisco's Castro District. Marking the 130th anniversary of Oscar Wilde's visit to San Francisco, the event was a benefit for the GLBT Historical Society. \n\nPacino most recently starred in a 2013 HBO biographical picture about record producer Phil Spector's murder trial, titled Phil Spector. \n\nPacino and Robert De Niro were reportedly set to star in the upcoming project The Irishman, to be directed by Martin Scorsese and co-star Joe Pesci. It was announced in January 2013 that Pacino would play the late former Penn State University football coach Joe Paterno in the movie tentatively titled Happy Valley and based on a 2012 biography of Paterno by sportswriter Joe Posnanski. \n\nPersonal life\n\nAlthough he has never married, Pacino has three children. The eldest, Julie Marie (born 1989), is his daughter with acting coach Jan Tarrant. He also has twins, son Anton James and daughter Olivia Rose (born January 25, 2001), with actress Beverly D'Angelo, with whom he had a relationship from 1996 until 2003. Pacino had a relationship with Diane Keaton, his co-star in the Godfather trilogy. The on-again, off-again relationship ended following the filming of The Godfather Part II. He has had relationships with Tuesday Weld, Jill Clayburgh, Marthe Keller, Kathleen Quinlan and Lyndall Hobbs.\n\nThe Internal Revenue Service filed a tax lien against Pacino, claiming he owes the government a total of $188,000 for 2008 and 2009. A representative for Pacino blamed his former business manager Kenneth Starr for the discrepancy. \n\nFilmography\n\nAwards and nominations\n\nPacino has been nominated and has won many awards during his acting career, including eight Oscar nominations (winning one), 15 Golden Globe nominations (winning four), five BAFTA nominations (winning two), two Primetime Emmy Awards for his work on television, and two Tony Awards for his stage work. In 2007, the American Film Institute awarded Pacino with a lifetime achievement award and, in 2003, British television viewers voted Pacino as the greatest film star of all time in a poll for Channel 4." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Me Natalie", "Me, Natalie" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "me natalie" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "me natalie", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Me Natalie" }
In which year did Alcock and Brown make their Atlantic crossing?	tc_574	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Transatlantic_flight_of_Alcock_and_Brown.txt", "Atlantic_Ocean.txt", "Transatlantic_flight.txt" ], "title": [ "Transatlantic flight of Alcock and Brown", "Atlantic Ocean", "Transatlantic flight" ], "wiki_context": [ "British aviators John Alcock and Arthur Brown made the first non-stop transatlantic flight in June 1919. They flew a modified First World War Vickers Vimy bomber from St. John's, Newfoundland, to Clifden, Connemara, County Galway, Ireland. The Secretary of State for Air, Winston Churchill, presented them with the Daily Mail prize for the first crossing of the Atlantic Ocean by aeroplane in \"less than 72 consecutive hours\". A small amount of mail was carried on the flight, making it the first transatlantic airmail flight. The two aviators were awarded the honour of Knight Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (KBE) a week later by King George V at Windsor Castle.\n\nBackground\n\nJohn Alcock was born in 1892 in Basford House on Seymour Grove, Firswood, Manchester, England. Known to his family and friends as \"Jack\", he first became interested in flying at the age of seventeen and gained his pilot's licence in November 1912. Alcock was a regular competitor in aircraft competitions at Hendon in 1913–14. He became a military pilot during World War I and was taken prisoner in Turkey after the engines on his Handley Page bomber failed over the Gulf of Xeros. After the war, Alcock wanted to continue his flying career and took up the challenge of attempting to be the first to fly directly across the Atlantic.\n\nArthur Whitten Brown was born in Glasgow in 1886 to American parents, and shortly afterwards the family moved to Manchester. Known to his family and friends as \"Teddie\", he began his career in engineering before the outbreak of World War I. Brown also became a prisoner of war, after being shot down over Germany. Once released and back in Britain, Brown continued to develop his aerial navigation skills.\n\nIn April 1913 the London newspaper The Daily Mail offered a prize of £10,000 to \n\nThe competition was suspended with the outbreak of war in 1914 but reopened after Armistice was declared in 1918.\n\nDuring his imprisonment Alcock had resolved to fly the Atlantic one day, and after the war he approached the Vickers engineering and aviation firm at Weybridge, who had considered entering their Vickers Vimy IV twin-engined bomber in the competition but had not yet found a pilot. Alcock's enthusiasm impressed the Vickers' team and he was appointed as their pilot. Work began on converting the Vimy for the long flight, replacing the bomb racks with extra petrol tanks. Shortly afterwards Brown, who was unemployed, approached Vickers seeking a post and his knowledge of long distance navigation convinced them to take him on as Alcock's navigator. \n\nFlight \n\nSeveral teams had entered the competition and when Alcock and Brown arrived in St. John's, Newfoundland, the Handley Page team were in the final stages of testing their aircraft for the flight, but their leader, Admiral Mark Kerr, was determined not to take off until the plane was in perfect condition. The Vickers team quickly assembled their plane and at around 1:45 p.m. on 14 June, whilst the Handley Page team were conducting yet another test, the Vickers plane took off from Lester's Field. Alcock and Brown flew the modified Vickers Vimy, powered by two Rolls-Royce Eagle 360 hp engines. \n\nIt was not an easy flight. The overloaded aircraft had difficulty taking off the rough field and only barely missed the tops of the trees.\nAt 17:20 the wind-driven electrical generator failed, depriving them of radio contact, their intercom and heating.\nAn exhaust pipe burst shortly afterwards, causing a frightening noise which made conversation impossible without the failed intercom.\n\nAt 5pm they had to fly through thick fog. This was serious because it prevented Brown from being able to navigate using his sextant.\nBlind flying in fog or cloud should only be undertaken with gyroscopic instruments, which they did not have, and Alcock twice lost control of the aircraft and nearly hit the sea after a spiral dive. Alcock also had to deal with a broken trim control that made the plane become very nose-heavy as fuel was consumed.\n\nAt 12:15am Brown got a glimpse of the stars and could use his sextant, and found that they were on course.\nTheir electric heating suits had failed, making them very cold in the open cockpit, but their coffee was spiked with whiskey.\n\nThen at 3:00am they flew into a large snowstorm. They were drenched by rain, their instruments iced up, and the plane was in danger of icing and becoming unflyable. The carburettors also iced up; it has been said that Brown had to climb out onto the wings to clear the engines, although he made no mention of that.\n\nThey made landfall in Galway at 8:40 a.m. on 15 June 1919, not far from their intended landing place, after less than sixteen hours' flying time.\nThe aircraft was damaged upon arrival because of an attempt to land on what appeared from the air to be a suitable green field, but which turned out to be a bog, near Clifden in County Galway in Ireland, but neither of the airmen was hurt. \nBrown said that if the weather had been good they could have pressed on to London.\n\nTheir altitude varied between sea level and 12,000 ft (3,700 m). They took off with 865 imperial gallons (3,900 L) of fuel. They had spent around fourteen-and-a-half hours over the North Atlantic crossing the coast at 4:28 p.m., having flown 1,890 miles (3040 km) in 15 hours 57 minutes at an average speed of 115 mph (185 km/h). Their first interview was given to Tom 'Cork' Kenny of The Connacht Tribune.\n\nAlcock and Brown were treated as heroes on the completion of their flight. In addition to the Daily Mail award of £10,000, the crew received 2,000 guineas (£2,100) from the Ardath Tobacco Company and £1,000 from Lawrence R. Phillips for being the first British subjects to fly the Atlantic Ocean. Both men were knighted a few days later by King George V. \n\nAlcock and Brown flew to Manchester on 17 July 1919, where they were given a civic reception by the Lord Mayor and Corporation, and awards to mark their achievement.\n\nMemorials\n\nAlcock was killed on 18 December 1919 when he crashed near Rouen whilst flying the new Vickers Viking amphibian to the Paris Airshow. Brown died on 4 October 1948.\n\nTwo memorials commemorating the flight are sited near the landing spot in County Galway, Ireland. The first is an isolated cairn four kilometres south of Clifden on the site of Marconi's first transatlantic wireless station from which the aviators transmitted their success to London, and around 500 metres from the spot where they landed. In addition there is a sculpture of an aircraft's tail-fin on Errislannan Hill two kilometres north of their landing spot, dedicated on the fortieth anniversary of their landing, 15 June 1959.\n\nThree monuments mark the flight's starting point in Newfoundland. One was erected by the government of Canada in 1954 at the junction of Lemarchant Road and Patrick Street in St. John's, a second monument is located on Lemarchant Road, while the third was unveiled by then Premier of Newfoundland Joey Smallwood on Blackmarsh Road. \n\nA memorial statue was erected at London Heathrow Airport in 1954 to celebrate their flight. There is also a monument at Manchester Airport, less than 8 miles from John Alcock's birthplace. Their aircraft (rebuilt by the Vickers Company) can be seen in the Science Museum in South Kensington, London.\n\nThe Royal Mail issued a 5d (approximately 2.1p in modern UK currency) stamp commemorating the 50th anniversary of the flight on 2 April 1969.\n\nOther crossings\n\nTwo weeks before Alcock and Brown's flight, the first transatlantic flight had been made by the NC-4, a United States Navy flying boat, commanded by Lt. Commander Albert Cushing Read, who flew from Naval Air Station Rockaway, New York to Plymouth with a crew of five, over 23 days, with six stops along the way. This flight was not eligible for the Daily Mail prize since it took more than 72 consecutive hours and also because more than one aircraft was used in the attempt.\n\nA month after Alcock and Brown's achievement, British airship R34 made the first double crossing of the Atlantic, carrying 31 people (one a stowaway) and a cat; 29 of this crew, plus two flight engineers and a different American observer, then flew back to Europe. \n\nOn 2–3 July 2005, American adventurer Steve Fossett and co-pilot Mark Rebholz recreated the flight in a replica of the Vickers Vimy aeroplane. They did not land in the bog near Clifden, but a few miles away on the Connemara golf course. They had to call on the services of a local motor mechanic to fabricate a replacement part from materials at hand. \n\nA replica Vimy, NX71MY, was built in Australia and the USA in 1994 for an American, Peter McMillan, who flew it from England to Australia with Australian Lang Kidby in 1994 to re-enact the first England-Australia flight by Ross & Keith Smith with Vimy G-EAOU in 1919. In 1999, Mark Rebholz and John LaNoue re-enacted the first flight from London to Cape Town with this same replica, and in late 2006 the aeroplane was donated to Brooklands Museum at Weybridge, Surrey. After making a special Alcock & Brown 90th anniversary return visit to Clifden in June 2009 (flown by John Dodd and Clive Edwards), and some final public flying displays at the Goodwood Revival that September, the Vimy made its final flight on 15 November 2009 from Dunsfold Park to Brooklands crewed by John Dodd (pilot), Clive Edwards and Peter McMillan. Retired from flying for the foreseeable future, it is now on public display in the Museum's Bellman hangar but will be maintained to full airworthy standards.\n\nOne of the propellers from the Vickers Vimy was given to Arthur Whitten Brown and hung for many years on the wall of his office in Swansea before he presented it to the RAF College Cranwell. It is believed to have been displayed in the RAF Careers Office in Holborn until 1990. It is believed to be in use today as a ceiling fan in Luigi Malone's Restaurant in Cork, Ireland. \n\nThe other propeller, serial number G1184.N6, was originally given to the Vickers Works Manager at Brooklands, Percy Maxwell Muller, and displayed for many years suspended inside the transatlantic terminal (Terminal 3) at London's Heathrow Airport. In October 1990 it was donated by the BAA (via its former Chairman, Sir Peter Masefield) to Brooklands Museum, where it is now motorised and displayed as part of a full-size Vimy wall mural.\n\nA small amount of mail, 196 letters and a parcel, was carried on Alcock and Brown's flight, the first time mail was carried by air across the ocean. The government of the Dominion of Newfoundland overprinted stamps for this carriage with the inscription \"Transatlantic air post 1919\". \n\nUpon landing in Paris after his own record breaking flight in 1927, Charles Lindbergh told the crowd welcoming him that \"Alcock and Brown showed me the way!\"", "The Atlantic Ocean is the second largest of the world's oceanic divisions, following the Pacific Ocean. With a total area of about , it covers approximately 20 percent of the Earth's surface and about 29 percent of its water surface area. Its name refers to Atlas of Greek mythology, making the Atlantic the \"Sea of Atlas\".\n\nThe oldest known mention of \"Atlantic\" is in The Histories of Herodotus around 450 BC (Hdt. 1.202.4): Atlantis thalassa (Greek: Ἀτλαντὶς θάλασσα; English: Sea of Atlas). The term Ethiopic Ocean, derived from Ethiopia, was applied to the southern Atlantic as late as the mid-19th century. Before Europeans discovered other oceans, their term \"ocean\" was synonymous with the waters beyond the Strait of Gibraltar that are now known as the Atlantic. The early Greeks believed this ocean to be a gigantic river encircling the world.\n\nThe Atlantic Ocean occupies an elongated, S-shaped basin extending longitudinally between Eurasia and Africa to the east, and the Americas to the west. As one component of the interconnected global ocean, it is connected in the north to the Arctic Ocean, to the Pacific Ocean in the southwest, the Indian Ocean in the southeast, and the Southern Ocean in the south (other definitions describe the Atlantic as extending southward to Antarctica). The equator subdivides it into the North Atlantic Ocean and South Atlantic Ocean.\n\nGeography\n\nThe Atlantic Ocean is bounded on the west by North and South America. It connects to the Arctic Ocean through the Denmark Strait, Greenland Sea, Norwegian Sea and Barents Sea. To the east, the boundaries of the ocean proper are Europe: the Strait of Gibraltar (where it connects with the Mediterranean Sea–one of its marginal seas–and, in turn, the Black Sea, both of which also touch upon Asia) and Africa.\n\nIn the southeast, the Atlantic merges into the Indian Ocean. The 20° East meridian, running south from Cape Agulhas to Antarctica defines its border. Some authorities show it extending south to Antarctica, while others show it bounded at the 60° parallel by the Southern Ocean. \n\nIn the southwest, the Drake Passage connects it to the Pacific Ocean. The man-made Panama Canal links the Atlantic and Pacific. Besides those mentioned, other large bodies of water that form part of the Atlantic are the Caribbean Sea, the Gulf of Mexico, Hudson Bay, the Mediterranean Sea, the North Sea, the Baltic Sea, and the Celtic Sea.\n\nCovering approximately 22% of Earth's surface, the Atlantic is second in size to the Pacific. With its adjacent seas, it occupies an area of about 106400000 km2; without them, it has an area of 82400000 km2. The land that drains into the Atlantic covers four times that of either the Pacific or Indian oceans. The volume of the Atlantic with its adjacent seas is 354,700,000 cubic kilometers (85,100,000 cu mi) and without them 323,600,000 cubic kilometres (77,640,000 cu mi).\n\nThe average depth of the Atlantic with its adjacent seas, is 3339 m; without them it is 3926 m. The greatest depth, Milwaukee Deep with 8380 m, is in the Puerto Rico Trench.\n\nFurther information: \n\nCultural significance\n\nThe Atlantic Ocean was named by the ancient Greeks after either Atlas the Titan or the Atlas Mountains named for him; both involve the concept of holding up the sky. Transatlantic travel played a major role in the expansion of Western civilization into the Americas. It is the Atlantic that separates the \"Old World\" from the \"New World\".\n\nIn modern times, some idioms refer to the ocean in a humorously diminutive way as the Pond, describing both the geographical and cultural divide between North America and Europe, in particular between the English-speaking nations of both continents. Many Irish or British people refer to the United States and Canada as \"across the pond\", and vice versa. \n\nThe \"Black Atlantic\" refers to the role of this ocean in shaping black people's history, especially through the Atlantic slave trade. Irish migration to the US is meant when the term \"The Green Atlantic\" is used. The term \"Red Atlantic\" has been used in reference to the Marxian concept of an Atlantic working class, as well as to the Atlantic experience of indigenous Americans.\n \n\nOcean floor\n\nThe principal feature of the bathymetry (bottom topography) is a submarine mountain range called the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. It extends from Iceland in the north to approximately 58° South latitude, reaching a maximum width of about 860 nmi. A great rift valley also extends along the ridge over most of its length. The depth of water at the apex of the ridge is less than 2700 m in most places, while the bottom of the ridge is three times as deep. Several peaks rise above the water and form islands. The South Atlantic Ocean has an additional submarine ridge, the Walvis Ridge. \n\nThe Mid-Atlantic Ridge separates the Atlantic Ocean into two large troughs with depths from 3700 -. Transverse ridges running between the continents and the Mid-Atlantic Ridge divide the ocean floor into numerous basins. Some of the larger basins are the Blake, Guiana, North American, Cape Verde, and Canaries basins in the North Atlantic. The largest South Atlantic basins are the Angola, Cape, Argentina, and Brazil basins.\n\nThe deep ocean floor is thought to be fairly flat with occasional deeps, abyssal plains, trenches, seamounts, basins, plateaus, canyons, and some guyots. Various shelves along the margins of the continents constitute about 11% of the bottom topography with few deep channels cut across the continental rise.\n\nOcean floor trenches and seamounts:\n* Puerto Rico Trench, in the North Atlantic, is the deepest trench at 8605 m \n* Laurentian Abyss is found off the eastern coast of Canada\n* South Sandwich Trench reaches a depth of 8428 m\n* Romanche Trench is located near the equator and reaches a depth of about 7454 m.\n\nOcean sediments are composed of:\n* Terrigenous deposits with land origins, consisting of sand, mud, and rock particles formed by erosion, weathering, and volcanic activity on land washed to sea. These materials are found mostly on the continental shelves and are thickest near large river mouths or off desert coasts.\n* Pelagic deposits, which contain the remains of organisms that sink to the ocean floor, include red clays and Globigerina, pteropod, and siliceous oozes. Covering most of the ocean floor and ranging in thickness from 60 - they are thickest in the convergence belts, notably at the Hamilton Ridge and in upwelling zones.\n* Authigenic deposits consist of such materials as manganese nodules. They occur where sedimentation proceeds slowly or where currents sort the deposits, such as in the Hewett Curve.\n\nWater characteristics\n\nOn average, the Atlantic is the saltiest major ocean; surface water salinity in the open ocean ranges from 33 to 37 parts per thousand (3.3 – 3.7%) by mass and varies with latitude and season. Evaporation, precipitation, river inflow and sea ice melting influence surface salinity values. Although the lowest salinity values are just north of the equator (because of heavy tropical rainfall), in general the lowest values are in the high latitudes and along coasts where large rivers enter. Maximum salinity values occur at about 25° north and south, in subtropical regions with low rainfall and high evaporation.\n\nSurface water temperatures, which vary with latitude, current systems, and season and reflect the latitudinal distribution of solar energy, range from below to over 30 C. Maximum temperatures occur north of the equator, and minimum values are found in the polar regions. In the middle latitudes, the area of maximum temperature variations, values may vary by 7 –.\n\nThe Atlantic Ocean consists of four major water masses. The North and South Atlantic central waters make up the surface. The sub-Antarctic intermediate water extends to depths of 1000 m. The North Atlantic Deep Water reaches depths of as much as 4000 m. The Antarctic Bottom Water occupies ocean basins at depths greater than 4,000 meters.\n\nWithin the North Atlantic, ocean currents isolate the Sargasso Sea, a large elongated body of water, with above average salinity. The Sargasso Sea contains large amounts of seaweed and is also the spawning ground for both the European eel and the American eel.\n\nThe Coriolis effect circulates North Atlantic water in a clockwise direction, whereas South Atlantic water circulates counter-clockwise. The south tides in the Atlantic Ocean are semi-diurnal; that is, two high tides occur during each 24 lunar hours. In latitudes above 40° North some east-west oscillation occurs.\n\nClimate\n\nClimate is influenced by the temperatures of the surface waters and water currents as well as winds. Because of the ocean's great capacity to store and release heat, maritime climates are more moderate and have less extreme seasonal variations than inland climates. Precipitation can be approximated from coastal weather data and air temperature from water temperatures.\n\nThe oceans are the major source of the atmospheric moisture that is obtained through evaporation. Climatic zones vary with latitude; the warmest zones stretch across the Atlantic north of the equator. The coldest zones are in high latitudes, with the coldest regions corresponding to the areas covered by sea ice. Ocean currents influence climate by transporting warm and cold waters to other regions. The winds that are cooled or warmed when blowing over these currents influence adjacent land areas.\n\nThe Gulf Stream and its northern extension towards Europe, the North Atlantic Drift, for example, warms the atmosphere of the British Isles and north-western Europe and influences weather and climate as far south as the northern Mediterranean. The cold water currents contribute to heavy fog off the coast of eastern Canada (the Grand Banks of Newfoundland area) and Africa's north-western coast. In general, winds transport moisture and air over land areas. Hurricanes develop in the southern part of the North Atlantic Ocean(Hurricanes are rare in the South Atlantic Ocean). More local particular weather examples could be found in examples such as the Azores High, Benguela Current, and Nor'easter.\n\nHistory\n\nThe Atlantic Ocean appears to be the second youngest of the five oceans. It did not exist prior to 130 million years ago, when the continents that formed from the breakup of the ancestral super continent Pangaea were drifting apart. The Atlantic has been extensively explored since the earliest settlements along its shores.\n\nThe Norsemen, the Portuguese and the Spanish were the first to explore and to cross it systematically, from Europe to the Americas, as well as to its islands and archipelagos, and from the North Atlantic to the South Atlantic. It was after the voyages of Christopher Columbus in 1492, at the service of Castile (later Spain), that the Americas became well known in Europe and European exploration rapidly accelerated, leading to many new trade routes and the colonization of the Americas.\n\nAs a result, the Atlantic became and remains the major artery between Europe and the Americas (known as transatlantic trade). Scientific explorations include the Challenger expedition, the German Meteor expedition, Columbia University's Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory and the United States Navy Hydrographic Office.\n\nNotable crossings\n\n* Around 600–400 BC, Hanno the Navigator explored West Africa and possibly reached and crossed the Gulf of Guinea and the equator.\n \n* Around 980–982, Norse explorer Erik the Red discovered Greenland, geographically and geologically a part of the Americas.\n\n* Around 1000, Norse explorer Leifur Eríksson, son of Erik the Red, made landfall at Vinland, tentatively identified with the Norse archeological site at L'Anse aux Meadows on the northern tip of Newfoundland on the Atlantic coast of Canada.\n\n* Around 1010, Norse explorers and spouses Þorfinnur karlsefni Þórðarson and Guðríður víðförla Þorbjarnardóttir led an expedition to Vinland where they begat their son Snorri Þorfinnsson, the first European born in the Americas outside of Greenland.\n\n* In 1419 and 1427, Portuguese navigators reached Madeira and Azores, respectively.\n\n* From 1415 to 1488, Portuguese navigators explored the Western African coast, crossed the Equator, and reached the South Atlantic, the Southern Hemisphere, and the Cape of Good Hope in the southern tip of Africa, entering the Indian Ocean.\n\n* In 1492, Christopher Columbus crossed the Atlantic Ocean and landed on the Bahamas, Cuba and Hispaniola. He made three additional voyages over the next few years, during which he explored the Caribbean coast from Honduras to Venezuela as well as numerous Caribbean islands. These explorations, along with Columbus's attempts to establish a permanent settlement on Hispaniola, led to the European colonization of the Americas and a period of Columbian Exchange that permanently altered human cultures and the environment on both sides of the Atlantic. The establishment of the first transatlantic trade route provided a significant source of revenue to the Crown of Castile, leading to the development of the Spanish Empire. Communicable diseases, unintentionally brought from the Old World to the New World by Europeans, devastated the Amerindian populations, causing the deaths of an estimated 80-95% of the native population of the Americas within 150 years of Columbus's arrival. Columbus also hoped to enslave the native residents of Hispaniola and transport them to Europe; although unsuccessful in this endeavor, his efforts marked the beginning of the transatlantic slave trade that displaced an estimated 11-20 million people from Africa to the Americas over the next several centuries. \n\n* From 1496 to 1498 John Cabot made three voyages to North America from Bristol, landing in Newfoundland and/or possibly the Canadian Maritimes.\n\n* In 1500, Pedro Álvares Cabral reached Brazil.\n\n* In 1519 Ferdinand Magellan sailed from Spain to the South Atlantic, navigating the straits named after him and entering the Pacific Ocean.\n\n* In 1524, Florentine explorer Giovanni da Verrazzano, in the service of the King Francis I of France, discovered the United States of America's east coast.\n\n* In 1534, Jacques Cartier entered the Gulf of St. Lawrence and reached the mouth of the St. Lawrence River.\n\n* In April 1563, Nicolas Barre and 20 other stranded Huguenots were the first to build a (crude) boat in the Americas and sail across the Atlantic. They sailed from Charlesfort, South Carolina to just off the coast of England where they were rescued by an English ship. Though they resorted to cannibalism, seven men survived the voyage, including Barre. \n\n* In 1764, William Harrison (the son of John Harrison) sailed aboard HMS Tartar, with the H-4 time piece. The voyage became the basis for the invention of the global system of Longitude.\n\n* In 1858, Cyrus West Field laid the first transatlantic telegraph cable (it quickly failed).\n\n* In 1865, Brunel's ship the SS Great Eastern laid the first successful transatlantic telegraph cable.\n\n* In 1870, the small City of Ragusa (Dubrovnik) became the first small lifeboat to cross the Atlantic from Cork to Boston with two crew, John Charles Buckley and Nikola Primorac (di Costa). \n\n* In 1896, Frank Samuelsen and George Harbo from Norway became the first people to ever row across the Atlantic Ocean.\n\n* On 15 April 1912 the RMS Titanic sank after hitting an iceberg with a loss of more than 1,500 lives. \n\n* On 7 May 1915 the RMS Lusitania was torpedoed en route to Queenstown, Ireland, at the loss of 1,198 passengers.\n\n* 1914–1918, during the Atlantic U-boat campaign of World War I, more than 2,100 ships were sunk and 153 U-boats destroyed.\n\n* In 1919, the American NC-4 became the first seaplane to cross the Atlantic (though it made a couple of landings on islands and the sea along the way, and taxied several hundred miles).\n\n* Later in 1919, a British aeroplane piloted by Alcock and Brown made the first non-stop transatlantic flight, from Newfoundland to Ireland.\n\n* In 1921, the British were the first to cross the North Atlantic in an airship.\n\n* In 1922, Portuguese aviators Sacadura Cabral and Gago Coutinho were the First aerial crossing of the South Atlantic on a seaplane connecting Lisbon to Rio de Janeiro.\n\n* In May 1927, Charles Nungesser and François Coli in their aircraft L'Oiseau Blanc (The White Bird) mysteriously disappeared in an attempt to make the first non-stop transatlantic flight from Paris to New York. \n\n* In 1927, Charles Lindbergh made the first solo non-stop transatlantic flight in an aircraft (between New York City and Paris).\n\n* In 1931, Bert Hinkler made the first solo non-stop transatlantic flight across the South Atlantic in an aircraft.\n\n* In 1932, Amelia Earhart became the first female to make a solo flight across the Atlantic from Harbour Grace, Newfoundland to Derry, Northern Ireland. \n\n* 1939–1945, during World War II, the Battle of the Atlantic resulted in nearly 3,700 ships sunk and 783 U-boats destroyed. \n\n* In 1952, Ann Davison was the first woman to single-handedly sail the Atlantic Ocean.\n\n* In 1965, Robert Manry crossed the Atlantic from the U.S. to England non-stop in a sailboat named \"Tinkerbell\". Several others also crossed the Atlantic in very small sailboats in the 1960s, none of them non-stop, though.\n\n* In 1969 and 1970 Thor Heyerdahl launched expeditions to cross the Atlantic in boats built from papyrus. He succeeded in crossing the Atlantic from Morocco to Barbados after a two-month voyage of 6,100 km with Ra II in 1970, thus conclusively proving that boats such as the Ra could have sailed with the Canary Current across the Atlantic in prehistoric times. \n\n* In 1980, Gérard d'Aboville was the first man to cross the Atlantic Ocean rowing solo.\n\n* In 1984, Amyr Klink crossed the south atlantic rowing solo from Namibia to Brazil in 100 days.\n\n* In 1984, five Argentines sail in a 10-meter-long raft made from tree trunks named Atlantis from Canary Islands and after 52 days 3000 mi journey arrived to Venezuela in an attempt to prove travelers from Africa may have crossed the Atlantic before Christopher Columbus. \n\n* In 1994, Guy Delage was the first man to allegedly swim across the Atlantic Ocean (with the help of a kick board, from Cape Verde to Barbados).\n\n* In 1998, Benoît Lecomte was the first man to swim across the northern Atlantic Ocean without a kick board, stopping for only one week in the Azores.\n\n* In 1999, after rowing for 81 days and 4767 km, Tori Murden became the first woman to cross the Atlantic Ocean by rowboat alone when she reached Guadeloupe from the Canary Islands.\n\n* In 2003 Alan Priddy and three crew members made a record crossing of the North Atlantic in a RIB from Newfoundland to Scotland, via Greenland and Iceland, in 103 hours.\n\nEconomy\n\nThe Atlantic has contributed significantly to the development and economy of surrounding countries. Besides major transatlantic transportation and communication routes, the Atlantic offers abundant petroleum deposits in the sedimentary rocks of the continental shelves. The Atlantic hosts the world's richest fishing resources, especially in the waters covering the shelves. The major fish are cod, haddock, hake, herring, and mackerel.\n\nThe most productive areas include the Grand Banks of Newfoundland, the Nova Scotia shelf, Georges Bank off Cape Cod, the Bahama Banks, the waters around Iceland, the Irish Sea, the Dogger Bank of the North Sea, and the Falkland Banks. Eel, lobster, and whales appear in great quantities. Various international treaties attempt to reduce pollution caused by environmental threats such as oil spills, marine debris, and the incineration of toxic wastes at sea. \n\nTerrain\n\nFrom October to June the surface is usually covered with sea ice in the Labrador Sea, Denmark Strait, and Baltic Sea. A clockwise warm-water gyre occupies the northern Atlantic, and a counter-clockwise warm-water gyre appears in the southern Atlantic. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge, a rugged north-south centerline for the entire Atlantic basin, first discovered by the Challenger Expedition dominates the ocean floor. This was formed by the vulcanism that also formed the ocean floor and the islands rising from it.\n\nThe Atlantic has irregular coasts indented by numerous bays, gulfs, and seas. These include the Norwegian Sea, Baltic Sea, North Sea, Labrador Sea, Black Sea, Gulf of Saint Lawrence, Bay of Fundy, Gulf of Maine, Mediterranean Sea, Gulf of Mexico, and Caribbean Sea.\n\nIslands include Newfoundland (including hundreds of surrounding islands), Greenland, Iceland, Faroe Islands, Great Britain, Ireland, Rockall, Sable Island, Azores, St. Pierre and Miquelon, Madeira, Bermuda, Canary Islands, Caribbean Islands (including Greater Antilles, Leeward Islands, Windward Islands, Leeward Antilles), Cape Verde, São Tomé and Príncipe, Annobón Province, Fernando de Noronha, Rocas Atoll, Ascension Island, Saint Helena, Trindade and Martim Vaz, Tristan da Cunha, Gough Island (Also known as Diego Alvarez), Falkland Islands, Tierra del Fuego, South Georgia Island, South Sandwich Islands, and Bouvet Island.\n\nNatural resources\n\nThe Atlantic harbors petroleum and gas fields, fish, marine mammals (seals and whales), sand and gravel aggregates, placer deposits, polymetallic nodules, and precious stones.\n\nGold deposits are a mile or two under water on the ocean floor, however the deposits are also encased in rock that must be mined through. Currently, there is no cost-effective way to mine or extract gold from the ocean to make a profit. \n\nNatural hazards\n\nIcebergs are common from February to August in the Davis Strait, Denmark Strait, and the northwestern Atlantic and have been spotted as far south as Bermuda and Madeira. Ships are subject to superstructure icing in the extreme north from October to May. Persistent fog can be a maritime hazard from May to September, as can hurricanes north of the equator (May to December).\n\nThe United States' southeast coast has a long history of shipwrecks due to its many shoals and reefs. The Virginia and North Carolina coasts were particularly dangerous.\n\nThe Bermuda Triangle is popularly believed to be the site of numerous aviation and shipping incidents because of unexplained and supposedly mysterious causes, but Coast Guard records do not support this belief.\n\nHurricanes are also a natural hazard in the Atlantic, but mainly in the northern part of the ocean, rarely tropical cyclones form in the southern parts. Hurricanes usually form between 1 June and 30 November of every year.\n\nCurrent environmental issues\n\nEndangered marine species include the manatee, seals, sea lions, turtles, and whales. Drift net fishing can kill dolphins, albatrosses and other seabirds (petrels, auks), hastening the fish stock decline and contributing to international disputes. Municipal pollution comes from the eastern United States, southern Brazil, and eastern Argentina; oil pollution in the Caribbean Sea, Gulf of Mexico, Lake Maracaibo, Mediterranean Sea, and North Sea; and industrial waste and municipal sewage pollution in the Baltic Sea, North Sea, and Mediterranean Sea.\n\nIn 2005, there was some concern that warm northern European currents were slowing down. \n\nOn 7 June 2006, Florida's wildlife commission voted to take the manatee off the state's endangered species list. Some environmentalists worry that this could erode safeguards for the popular sea creature.\n\nMarine pollution\n\nMarine pollution is a generic term for the entry into the ocean of potentially hazardous chemicals or particles. The biggest culprits are rivers and with them many agriculture fertilizer chemicals as well as livestock and human waste. The excess of oxygen-depleting chemicals leads to hypoxia and the creation of a dead zone. \n\nMarine debris, which is also known as marine litter, describes human-created waste floating in a body of water. Oceanic debris tends to accumulate at the center of gyres and coastlines, frequently washing aground where it is known as beach litter.\n\nBordering countries and territories\n\nThe states (territories in italics) with a coastline on the Atlantic Ocean (excluding the Black, Baltic and Mediterranean Seas) are:\n\nEurope\n\n* ' (PRT)\n* \n* \n* ' (DEN)\n* \n* \n* ' (UK)\n* \n* \n* ' (UK)\n* ' (UK)\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\nAfrica\n\n* \n* \n* ' (NOR)\n* \n* ' (ESP)\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* ' (PRT)\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* ' (UK)\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* (claimed by Morocco) (MAR)\n\nSouth America\n\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* ' (UK)\n* ' (FRA)\n* \n* ' (UK)\n* \n* \n* \n\nNorth and Central America\n\n* \n* ' (UK)\n* \n* \n* ' (DEN)\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* ' (FRA)\n* \n\nCaribbean\n\n* ' (UK)\n* \n* ' (NED)\n* \n* \n* ' (NED)\n* ' (UK)\n* ' (UK)\n* \n* ' (NED)\n* \n* \n* ' (FRA)\n* \n* \n* \n* ' (FRA)\n* ' (UK)\n* ' (NED)\n* ' (USA)\n* ' (FRA)\n* \n* \n* ' (NED)\n* ' (FRA)\n* \n* ' (NED)\n* \n* ' (UK)\n* ' (USA)\n\nMajor ports and harbours", "A transatlantic flight is the flight of an aircraft across the Atlantic Ocean, from Europe, Africa or the Middle East to North America, Central America or South America, or vice versa. Such flights have been made by fixed-wing aircraft, airships, balloons and other devices.\n\nEarly aircraft engines did not have the reliability needed for the crossing, nor the power to lift the required fuel. There are difficulties navigating over featureless expanses of water for thousands of miles, and the weather, especially in the North Atlantic Ocean, is unpredictable. Since the middle of the 20th century, however, transatlantic flight has been routine, for commercial, military, diplomatic, and other purposes. Experimental flights (in balloons, small aircraft, etc.) still present challenges for transatlantic fliers.\n\nIn 2016 Dr Paul Williams of the University of Reading published a scientific study showing that transatlantic flight times are expected to change as the North Atlantic jet stream responds to global warming, with eastbound flights speeding up and westbound flights slowing down. \n\nHistory\n\nThe idea of transatlantic flight came about with the advent of the balloon. The balloons of the period were inflated with coal gas, a moderate lifting medium compared to hydrogen or helium, but with enough lift to use the winds that would later be known as the Jet Stream. In 1859, John Wise built an enormous aerostat named the Atlantic, intending to cross the Atlantic. The flight lasted less than a day, crash-landing in Henderson, New York. Thaddeus S. C. Lowe prepared a massive balloon of called the City of New York to take off from Philadelphia in 1860, but was interrupted by the onset of the American Civil War in 1861. (The first successful transatlantic flight in a balloon was the Double Eagle II from Presque Isle, Maine, to Miserey, near Paris in 1978.)\n\nFirst transatlantic flights\n\nThe possibility of transatlantic flight by aircraft emerged after the First World War, which had seen tremendous advances in aerial capabilities. In April 1913 the London newspaper The Daily Mail offered a prize of £10,000 to \n\nThe competition was suspended with the outbreak of war in 1914 but reopened after Armistice was declared in 1918. \n\nBetween 8 and 31 May 1919, the Curtiss seaplane NC-4 made a crossing of the Atlantic flying from the U.S. to Newfoundland, then to the Azores and on to mainland Portugal and finally the UK. The whole journey took 23 days, with six stops along the way. A trail of 53 \"station ships\" across the Atlantic gave the aircraft points to navigate by. This flight was not eligible for the Daily Mail prize since it took more than 72 consecutive hours and also because more than one aircraft was used in the attempt.\n\nWith the war over, there were four teams competing to be the first non-stop across the Atlantic. They were pilot Harry Hawker with observer Kenneth Mackenzie-Grieve in a single engine Hawker; Frederick Raynham and C.W.F. Morgan in a Martinsyde; the Handley Page Group, led by Mark Kerr and the Vickers entry John Alcock and Arthur Whitten Brown. Each group had to ship their aircraft to Newfoundland and make a rough field for the take off.\n\nHawker and Mackenzie-Grieve made the first attempt on 18th May, but engine failure brought them down in the ocean where they were rescued. Raynham and Morgan also made an attempt on 18th May but crashed on take off due to the high fuel load.\nThe Handley Page team were in the final stages of testing their aircraft for the flight in June but the Vickers group was ready before them.\n\nOn 14–15 June 1919, British aviators Alcock and Brown made the first non-stop transatlantic flight. During the War, Alcock resolved to fly the Atlantic, and after the war he approached the Vickers engineering and aviation firm at Weybridge, who had considered entering their Vickers Vimy IV twin-engined bomber in the competition but had not yet found a pilot. Alcock's enthusiasm impressed the Vickers' team and he was appointed as their pilot. Work began on converting the Vimy for the long flight, replacing the bomb carriers with extra petrol tanks. Shortly afterwards Brown, who was unemployed, approached Vickers seeking a post and his knowledge of long distance navigation convinced them to take him on as Alcock's navigator. \n\nThe Vickers team quickly assembled their plane and at around 1:45 p.m. on 14 June, whilst the Handley Page team were conducting yet another test, the Vickers plane took off from Lester's Field, in St. John's, Newfoundland. \n\nAlcock and Brown flew the modified Vickers Vimy, powered by two Rolls-Royce Eagle 360 hp engines.\n \nIt was not an easy flight, with unexpected fog and a snow storm almost causing them to crash into the sea.\nTheir altitude varied between sea level and 12,000 ft (3,700 m) and upon take-off they carried 865 imperial gallons (3,900 L) of fuel. They made landfall in Galway at 8:40 a.m. on 15 June 1919, not far from their intended landing place, after less than sixteen hours' flying time. \n\nThe Secretary of State for Air, Winston Churchill, presented them with the Daily Mail prize for the first crossing of the Atlantic Ocean in 'less than 72 consecutive hours'. There was also a small amount of mail carried on the flight making it the first transatlantic airmail flight. The two aviators were awarded the honour of Knight Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (KBE) a week later by King George V at Windsor Castle.\n\nThe first transatlantic flight by rigid airship, and the first return transatlantic flight, was made just a couple of weeks after the transatlantic flight of Alcock and Brown, on 2 July 1919. Major George Herbert Scott of the Royal Air Force flew the airship R34 with his crew and passengers from RAF East Fortune, Scotland to Mineola, New York (on Long Island) covering a distance of about 3,000 statute miles (4,800 km) in about four and a half days.\n\nThe flight was intended as a testing ground for postwar commercial services by airship (see Imperial Airship Scheme) and was the first flight to transport paying passengers. R34 wasn't initially built as a passenger carrier and extra accommodation was arranged by slinging hammocks in the keel walkway. The return journey to Pulham in Norfolk was from 10 to 13 July and took 75 hours.\n\nThe first night-time crossing of the Atlantic was accomplished 16–17 April 1927 by Portuguese aviator José Manuel Sarmento de Beires, flying from Portuguese Guinea to Brazil.\n\nIn the early morning of Friday, 20 May 1927, Charles Lindbergh took off from Roosevelt Field, New York, on his successful attempt to fly nonstop from New York City to the European continental land mass. Over the next 33.5 hours, Lindbergh and the \"Spirit of St. Louis\" encountered many challenges before landing at Le Bourget Airport near Paris, France, at 10:22 PM on Saturday, 21 May 1927, completing the first solo crossing of the Atlantic.\n\nThe first east-west non-stop transatlantic crossing by an aeroplane was made in 1928 by the Bremen, a German Junkers W33 type aircraft, from Baldonnel Airfield in County Dublin, Ireland. On 18 August 1932 Jim Mollison made the first east-to-west solo trans-Atlantic flight; flying from Portmarnock in Ireland to Pennfield, New Brunswick, Canada in a de Havilland Puss Moth. \n\nThe first transpolar transalantic (and transcontinental) crossing was the non-stop flight piloted by Valery Chkalov, 63 hours, 8,811 kilometers, from St. Petersburg, Russia to Vancouver, Washington, June 18 - 20, 1937.\n\nCommercial airship flights\n\nOn 11 October 1928, Hugo Eckener, commanding the Graf Zeppelin airship as part of DELAG's operations, began the first non-stop transatlantic passenger flights, leaving Friedrichshafen, Germany, at 07:54 on 11 October 1928, and arriving at NAS Lakehurst, New Jersey, on 15 October.\n\nThereafter, DELAG used the Graf Zeppelin on regular scheduled passenger flights across the North Atlantic, from Frankfurt-am-Main to Lakehurst. In the summer of 1931 a South Atlantic route was introduced, from Frankfurt and Friedrichshafen to Recife and Rio de Janeiro. Between 1931 and 1937 the Graf Zeppelin crossed the South Atlantic 136 times. \n\nDELAG introduced the Hindenburg, which began passenger flights in 1936 and made 36 Atlantic crossings (North and South). The first passenger trip across the North Atlantic left Friedrichshafen on 6 May with 56 crew and 50 passengers, arriving Lakehurst on 9 May. Fare was $400 one way; the ten westward trips that season took 53 to 78 hours and eastward took 43 to 61 hours. The last eastward trip of the year left Lakehurst on 10 October; the first North Atlantic trip of 1937 ended in the Hindenburg disaster.\n\nThe British rigid airship R100 also made a successful return trip from Cardington to Montreal in July–August 1930, in what was intended to be a proving flight for regularly scheduled passenger services. Following the R101 disaster in October 1930, the British rigid airship program was abandoned and the R100 scrapped, leaving DELAG as the sole remaining operator of transatlantic passenger airship flights.\n\nCommercial aeroplane service attempts\n\nAlthough Alcock and Brown first flew across the Atlantic in 1919, it took two more decades before commercial flights could become practical. The North Atlantic presented severe challenges for aviators due to weather and the long distances involved, with few stopping points. Initial transatlantic services, therefore, focused on the South Atlantic, where a number of French, German, and Italian airlines offered seaplane service for mail between South America and West Africa in the 1930s.\n\nFrom February 1934 to August 1939 Deutsche Lufthansa operated a regular airmail service between Natal, Brazil, and Bathurst, Gambia, continuing via the Canary Islands and Spain to Stuttgart, Germany. From December 1935, Air France opened a regular weekly airmail route between South America and Africa. German airlines, such as Deutsche Luft Hansa, experimented with mail routes over the North Atlantic in the early 1930s, with seaplanes and dirigibles.\n\nIn the 1930s, a seaplane route was the only practical means of transatlantic travel, as land-based planes lacked sufficient flying range for the crossing. An agreement between the governments of the US, Britain, Canada and the Irish Free State in 1935 set aside the Irish town of Foynes, the most westerly port in Ireland, as the terminal for all such services to be established. \n\nImperial Airways had bought the Short Empire seaplane, primarily for use along the empire routes in Africa and Asia, but began to explore the possibility of using it for transatlantic flights from 1937. The range of the Short Empire was less than that of the equivalent US Sikorsky \"Clipper\" flying boats and as such was initially unable to provide a true trans-Atlantic service.\n\nTwo boats (Caledonia and Cambria) were lightened and given long range tanks to increase the aircraft's range to 3,300 miles.\n\nMeanwhile, in the US, attention was initially focused on transatlantic flight for a faster postal service between Europe and America. In 1931 W. Irving Glover, the second assistant postmaster, wrote an article for Popular Mechanics on the challenges and the need for a regular service. In the 1930s, under the direction of Juan Trippe, Pan American World Airways began to get interested in the feasibility of a transatlantic passenger service using seaplanes.\n\nOn 5 July 1937, A.S. Wilcockson flew a Short Empire for Imperial Airways from Foynes to Botwood, Newfoundland and Harold Gray piloted a Sikorsky S-42 for Pan American in the opposite direction. Both flights were a success and both airlines made a series of subsequent proving flights that same year to test out a variety of different weather conditions. France's Air France also became interested and began experimental flights in 1938. \n\nAs the Short Empire only had enough range with enlarged fuel tanks at the expense of passenger room, a number of pioneering experiments were done with the aircraft to work around the problem. It was known that aircraft could maintain flight with a greater load than is possible to take off with, so Major Robert H. Mayo, Technical General Manager at Imperial Airways proposed mounting a small, long-range seaplane on top of a larger carrier aircraft, using the combined power of both to bring the smaller aircraft to operational height, at which time the two aircraft would separate, the carrier aircraft returning to base while the other flew on to its destination.\n\nThe Short Mayo Composite project, co-designed by Mayo and Shorts chief designer Arthur Gouge, comprised the Short S.21 Maia, (G-ADHK) which was a variant of the Short \"C-Class\" Empire flying-boat fitted with a trestle or pylon on the top of the fuselage to support the Short S.20 Mercury(G-ADHJ). \n\nThe first successful in-flight separation of the Composite was carried out on 6 February 1938, and the first transatlantic flight was made on 21 July 1938 from Foynes to Boucherville. Mercury, piloted by Captain Don Bennett, separated from her carrier at 8 pm to continue what was to become the first commercial non-stop East-to-West transatlantic flight by a heavier-than-air machine. This initial journey took 20 hrs 21 min at an average ground speed of 144 mph (232 km/h). \n\nAnother technology developed for the purpose of transatlantic commercial flight, was aerial refuelling. Sir Alan Cobham developed the Grappled-line looped-hose system to stimulate the possibility for long-range transoceanic commercial aircraft flights, and publicly demonstrated it for the first time in 1935. In the system the receiver aircraft trailed a steel cable which was then grappled by a line shot from the tanker. The line was then drawn back into the tanker where the receiver's cable was connected to the refueling hose. The receiver could then haul back in its cable bringing the hose to it. Once the hose was connected, the tanker climbed sufficiently above the receiver aircraft to allow the fuel to flow under gravity. \n\nCobham founded Flight Refuelling Ltd in 1934 and by 1938 had demonstrated the FRL's looped-hose system to refuel the Short Empire flying boat Cambria from an Armstrong Whitworth AW.23. Handley Page Harrows were used in the 1939 trials to aerial refuel the Empire flying boats for regular transatlantic crossings. From August 5 to October 1, 1939, sixteen crossings of the Atlantic were made by Empire flying boats, with fifteen crossings using FRL's aerial refueling system. After the sixteen crossings further trials were suspended due to the outbreak of World War II. \n\nThe Short S.26 was built in 1939 as an enlarged Short Empire, powered by four 1,400 hp (1,044 kW) Bristol Hercules sleeve valve radial engines and designed with the capability of crossing the Atlantic without refuelling. It was intended to form the backbone of Imperial Airways' Empire services. It could fly 6,000 miles unburdened, or 150 passengers for a \"short hop\". On 21 July 1939, the first aircraft, (G-AFCI \"Golden Hind\"), was first flown at Rochester by Shorts' chief test pilot, John Lankester Parker. Although two aircraft were handed over to Imperial Airways for crew training, all three were impressed (along with their crews) into the RAF before they could start civilian operation with the onset of WWII.\n\nMeanwhile, Pan Am purchased nine Boeing 314 Clippers in 1939, a long-range flying boat capable of flying the Atlantic. The \"Clippers\" were built for \"one-class\" luxury air travel, a necessity given the long duration of transoceanic flights. The seats could be converted into 36 bunks for overnight accommodation; with a cruising speed of only 188 mph. The 314s had a lounge and dining area, and the galleys were crewed by chefs from four-star hotels. Men and women were provided with separate dressing rooms, and white-coated stewards served five and six-course meals with gleaming silver service. \n\nThe Yankee Clippers inaugural trip across the Atlantic was on June 24, 1939. Its route was from Southampton to Port Washington, New York with intermediate stops at Foynes, Ireland, Botwood, Newfoundland, and Shediac, New Brunswick. Its first passenger flight was on 9 July, and this continued until the onset of the Second World War. The Clipper fleet was then pressed into military service and the flying boats were used for ferrying personnel and equipment to the European and Pacific fronts.\n\nIn 1938 a Lufthansa Focke-Wulf Fw 200 Condor long range airliner flew non-stop from Berlin to New York and returned non-stop as a proving flight for the development of passenger carrying services. This was the first landplane to fulfil this function and marked a departure from the British and American reliance on seaplanes for long over-water routes. A regular Lufthansa Transatlantic service was planned but didn't start before World War II.\n\nMaturation\n\nIt was from the emergency exigencies of World War II that the crossing of the Atlantic by landplane became a practical and commonplace possibility. With the Fall of France in June 1940, and the loss of much war materiel on the continent, the need for the British to purchase replacement materiel from the United States was urgent.\n\nThe aircraft - such as the Lockheed Hudson - purchased in the United States by Britain were flown to airports in Nova Scotia and Newfoundland, partially dis-assembled and loaded on ships and transported to England where they were unloaded and re-assembled, a process that could take several weeks, not counting repairing any damage to the aircraft incurred in the shipment. In addition, German U-boats operating in the North Atlantic Ocean were a constant menace to shipping routes in the North Atlantic making it very hazardous for merchant shipping between Newfoundland and Britain. \n\nHowever, larger aircraft could be flown directly to the UK and an organization was set up to manage this using civilian pilots. The program was begun by the Ministry of Aircraft Production. Its minister, Lord Beaverbrook a Canadian by origin, reached an agreement with Sir Edward Beatty, a friend and chairman of the Canadian Pacific Railway Company to provide ground facilities and support. Ministry of Aircraft Production would provide civilian crews and management and former RAF officer Don Bennett, a specialist in long distance flying and later Air Vice Marshal and commander of the Pathfinder Force, led the first delivery flight in November 1940.[http://www.junobeach.org/e/4/can-tac-air-fer-e.htm Ferrying Aircraft Overseas] Juno Beach Centre\n\nIn 1941, MAP took the operation off CPR to put the whole operation under the Atlantic Ferry Organization (\"Atfero\") was set up by Morris W. Wilson, a banker in Montreal. Wilson hired civilian pilots to fly the aircraft to the UK. The pilots were then ferried back in converted RAF Liberators. \"Atfero hired the pilots, planned the routes, selected the airports [and] set up weather and radiocommunication stations.\" \n\nThe organization was passed to Air Ministry administration though retaining civilian pilots, some of which were Americans, alongside RAF navigators and British radio operators. After completing delivery, crews were flown back to Canada for the next run. RAF Ferry Command was formed on 20 July 1941, by the raising of the RAF Atlantic Ferry Service to Command status.[http://www.rafweb.org/Cmd_H3A.htm \"RAF Home Commands formed between 1939 - 1957\"] Air of Authority - A History of RAF Organisation Its commander for its whole existence was Air Chief Marshal Sir Frederick Bowhill.\n\nAs its name suggests, the main function of Ferry Command was the ferrying of new aircraft from factory to operational unit.[http://www.vanderkloot.com/sky2.html Flying the Secret Sky: The Story of the RAF Ferry Command] Ferry Command did this over only one area of the world, rather than the more general routes that Transport Command later developed. The Command's operational area was the north Atlantic, and its responsibility was to bring the larger aircraft that had the range to do the trip over the ocean from American and Canadian factories to the RAF home Commands.\n\nWith the entry of the United States into the War, the Atlantic Division of the United States Army Air Forces Air Transport Command began similar ferrying services to transport aircraft, supplies and passengers to the British Isles.\n\nBy September 1944 British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC), as Imperial Airways had by then become, had made 1,000 transatlantic crossings. \n\nAfter World War II long runways were available, and North American and European carriers such as Pan Am, TWA, Trans Canada Airlines (TCA), BOAC, and Air France acquired larger piston airliners that could cross the North Atlantic with stops (usually in Gander, Newfoundland and/or Shannon, Ireland). In January 1946 Pan Am's DC-4 was scheduled New York (La Guardia) to London (Hurn) in 17 hours 40 minutes, five days a week; in June 1946 Lockheed 049s had brought the eastward time to Heathrow down to 15 hr 15 min.\n\nTo aid aircraft crossing the Atlantic, six nations grouped to divide the Atlantic into ten zones. Each zone had a letter and a vessels station in that zone, providing radio relay, radio navigation beacons, weather reports and rescues if an aircraft went down. The six nations of the group split the cost of these vessels. \n\nThe September 1947 ABC Guide shows 27 passenger flights a week west across the North Atlantic to the US and Canada on BOAC and other European airlines and 151 flights every two weeks on Pan Am, AOA, TWA and TCA. 15 flights a week to the Caribbean and South America, plus three a month on Iberia and a Latecoere 631 six-engine flying boat every two weeks to Fort de France.\n\nIn May 1952 BOAC was the first airline to introduce a passenger jet, the de Havilland Comet, into airline service. All Comet 1 aircraft were grounded in April 1954 after four Comets crashed, the last two being BOAC aircraft at altitude. Later jet airliners including the revised Comet 4 were designed to be fail-safe: in the event of for example a skin-failure due to cracking the damage would be localized and not catastrophic. In October 1958 BOAC operated the first transatlantic Jet service with the larger and longer-range Comet 4.\n\nSupersonic flights on the Concorde were offered from 1976 to 2003. Since the loosening of regulations in the 1970s and 1980s, many airlines now compete across the Atlantic.\n\nPresent day \n\nIn 2015, 44 million seats were offered on the transatlantic routes, an increase of 6% over the previous year. Of the 67 European airports with links to North America, the busiest was London Heathrow Airport with 231,532 weekly seats, followed by Paris Charles de Gaulle Airport with 129,831, Frankfurt Airport with 115,420, and Amsterdam Airport Schiphol with 79,611. Of the 45 airports in North America, the busiest linked to Europe was New York John F. Kennedy International Airport with 198,442 seats, followed by Toronto Pearson International Airport with 90,982, New York Newark Liberty International Airport with 79,107, and Chicago O'Hare International Airport with 75,391 seats.\n\nJoint Ventures, allowing coordination on prices, schedules, and strategy control near 75% of Transatlantic capacity. They are parallel to Airline alliances : International Airlines Group and American Airlines are part of Oneworld, Lufthansa Group, Air Canada and United Airlines of Star Alliance and Delta Air Lines with Air France–KLM and Alitalia of SkyTeam. Low cost carriers are starting to compete on this market, most importantly Norwegian Air Shuttle and WestJet. \n\nTransatlantic routes\n\nUnlike over land, transatlantic flights use standardized aircraft routes called North Atlantic Tracks (NATs). These change daily in position (although altitudes are standardized) to compensate for weather—particularly the jet stream tailwinds and headwinds, which may be substantial at cruising altitudes and have a strong influence on trip duration and fuel economy. Eastbound flights generally operate during night-time hours, while westbound flights generally operate during daytime hours, for passenger convenience. The eastbound flow, as it is called, generally makes European landfall from about 0600UT to 0900UT. The westbound flow generally operates within a 1200–1500UT time-slot. Restrictions on how far a given aircraft may be from an airport also play a part in determining its route; in the past, airliners with three or more engines were not restricted, but a twin-engine airliner was required to stay within a certain distance of airports that could accommodate it (since a single engine failure in a four-engine aircraft is less crippling than a single engine failure in a twin). Modern aircraft with two engines flying transatlantic (the most common models used for transatlantic service being the Airbus A330, Boeing 767 and Boeing 777) have to be ETOPS certified.\n\nGaps in air traffic control and radar coverage over large stretches of the Earth's oceans, as well as an absence of most types of radio navigation aids, impose a requirement for a high level of autonomy in navigation upon transatlantic flights. Aircraft must include reliable systems that can determine the aircraft's course and position with great accuracy over long distances. In addition to the traditional compass, inertials and satellite navigation systems such as GPS all have their place in transatlantic navigation. Land-based systems such as VOR and DME, because they operate \"line of sight\", are mostly useless for ocean crossings, except in initial and final legs within about 240 nmi of those facilities. In the late 1950s and early 1960s an important facility for low-flying aircraft was the Radio Range. Inertial navigation systems became prominent in the 1970s.\n\nBusiest transatlantic routes\n\nThis table is for the twenty busiest commercial routes between North America and Europe (traffic traveling in both directions):\n\nThis table is for the twenty busiest commercial routes between North, Central and South America and Africa (traffic traveling in both directions) :\n\nEarly notable transatlantic flights and attempts\n\n1910s\n\n;Airship America failure: In October 1910, the American journalist Walter Wellman, who had in 1909 attempted to reach the North Pole by balloon, set out for Europe from Atlantic City in a dirigible, America. A storm off Cape Cod sent him off course, and then engine failure forced him to ditch half way between New York and Bermuda. Wellman, his crew of five – and the balloon's cat – were rescued by RMS Trent, a passing British ship. The Atlantic bid failed, but the distance covered, about 1000 smi, was at the time a record for a dirigible. \n\n;First transatlantic flight: On 8–31 May 1919, the U.S. Navy Curtiss NC-4 flying boat under the command of Albert Read, flew from Rockaway, New York, to Plymouth (England), via among other stops Trepassey (Newfoundland), Horta and Ponta Delgada (both Azores) and Lisbon (Portugal) in 53h 58m, spread over 23 days. The crossing from Newfoundland to the European mainland had taken 10 days 22 hours, with the total time in flight of 26h 46m. The longest non-stop leg of the journey, from Trepassey, Newfoundland, to Horta in the Azores, was and lasted 15h 18m.\n\n;Sopwith Atlantic failure: On 18 May 1919, the Australian Harry Hawker, together with navigator Kenneth Mackenzie Grieve, attempted to become the first to achieve a non-stop flight across the Atlantic Ocean. They set off from Mount Pearl, Newfoundland, in the Sopwith Atlantic biplane. After fourteen and a half hours of flight the engine overheated and they were forced to divert towards the shipping lanes: they found a passing freighter, the Danish Mary, established contact and crash-landed ahead of her. Mary's radio was out of order, so that it was not until six days later when the boat reached Scotland that word was received that they were safe. The wheels from the undercarriage, jettisoned soon after takeoff, were later recovered by local fishermen and are now in the Newfoundland Museum in St. John's.Kev Darling: Hawker Typhoon, Tempest and Sea Fury. The Crowood Press, 2003. ISBN 1 86126 620 0. p.8\n\n; First non-stop transatlantic flight: On 14–15 June 1919, Capt. John Alcock and Lieut. Arthur Whitten Brown of the United Kingdom in Vickers Vimy bomber, between islands, , from St. John's, Newfoundland, to Clifden, Ireland, in 16h 12m.\n;First east-to-west transatlantic flight: On 2 July 1919, Major George Herbert Scott of the Royal Air Force with his crew and passengers flies from RAF East Fortune, Scotland to Mineola, New York (on Long Island) in airship R34, covering a distance of about in about four and a half days. R34 then made the return trip to England arriving at RNAS Pulham in 75 hours, thus also completing the first double crossing of the Atlantic (east-west-east).\n\n1920s\n\n; First flight across the South Atlantic: On 30 March–17 June 1922, Lieutenant Commander Sacadura Cabral and Commander Gago Coutinho of Portugal, using three Fairey IIID floatplanes (Lusitania, Portugal, and Santa Cruz), after two ditchings, with only internal means of navigation (the Coutinho-invented sextant with artificial horizon) from Lisbon, Portugal, to Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. \n; First non-stop aircraft flight between European and American mainlands: In October 1924, the Zeppelin ZR-3 (LZ-126), flew from Germany to New Jersey with a crew commanded by Dr. Hugo Eckener, covering a distance of about . \n; First flight across the South Atlantic made by a non-European crew: On 28 April 1927, Brazilian João Ribeiro de Barros, with the assistance of João Negrão (co-pilot), Newton Braga (navigator), and Vasco Cinquini (mechanic), crossed the Atlantic in the hydroplane Jahú. The four aviators flew from Genoa, in Italy, to Santo Amaro (São Paulo), making stops in Spain, Gibraltar, Cabo Verde and Fernando de Noronha, in the Brazilian territory.\n\n; Disappearance of L'Oiseau Blanc: On 8–9 May 1927, Charles Nungesser and François Coli attempted to cross the Atlantic from Paris to the USA in a Levasseur PL-8 biplane L'Oiseau Blanc (\"The White Bird\"), but were lost.\n\n; First solo transatlantic flight and first non-stop fixed-wing aircraft flight between America and mainland Europe: On 20–21 May 1927, Charles A. Lindbergh flew his Ryan monoplane (named Spirit of St. Louis), , from Roosevelt Field, New York to Paris–Le Bourget Airport, in 33½ hours.\n; First transatlantic air passenger: On 4–6 June 1927, the first transatlantic air passenger was Charles A. Levine. He was carried as a passenger by Clarence D. Chamberlin from Roosevelt Field, New York, to Eisleben, Germany, in a Wright-powered Bellanca.\n; First non-stop air crossing of the South Atlantic: On 14–15 October 1927, Dieudonne Costes and Joseph le Brix, flying a Breguet 19, flew from Senegal to Brazil.\n; First non-stop fixed-wing aircraft westbound flight over the North Atlantic: On 12–13 April 1928, Gunther von Huenfeld and Capt. Hermann Köhl of Germany and Comdr. James Fitzmaurice of Ireland, flew a Junkers W33 monoplane (named Bremen), 2070 smi, from Baldonnell near Dublin, Ireland, to Labrador, in 36½ hours. \n; First crossing of the Atlantic by a woman: On 17–18 June 1928, Amelia Earhart was a passenger on an aircraft piloted by Wilmer Stultz. Since most of the flight was on instruments for which Earhart had no training, she did not pilot the aircraft. Interviewed after landing, she said, \"Stultz did all the flying — had to. I was just baggage, like a sack of potatoes. Maybe someday I'll try it alone.\"\n; Notable flight (around the world): On 1–8 August 1929, in making the circumnavigation, Dr Hugo Eckener piloted the LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin across the Atlantic three times: from Germany 4391 smi east to west in four days from 1 August; return 4391 smi west to east in two days from 8 August; after completing the circumnavigation to Lakehurst, a final 4391 smi west to east landing 4 September, making three crossings in 34 days. \n\n1930s\n\n; First scheduled transatlantic passenger flights: From 1931 onwards, LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin operated the world's first scheduled transatlantic passenger flights, mainly between Germany and Brazil (64 such round trips overall) sometimes stopping in Spain, Miami, London, and Berlin.\n; First nonstop east-to-west fixed-wing aircraft flight between European and American mainlands: On 1–2 September 1930, Dieudonne Costes and Maurice Bellonte flew a Breguet 19 Super Bidon biplane (named Point d'Interrogation, Question Mark), 6,200 km from Paris to New York City.\n; Notable flight (around the world): On 23 June–1 July 1931, Wiley Post and Harold Gatty in a Lockheed Vega monoplane (named Winnie Mae), 15,477 nm (28,663 km) flew from Long Island in 8d 15h 51m, with 14 stops, with a total flying time 107h 2m.\n; First solo crossing of the South Atlantic: 27–28 November 1931. Bert Hinkler flew from Canada to New York, then via the West Indies, Venezuela, Guiana, Brazil and the South Atlantic to Great Britain in a de Havilland Puss Moth. \n; First solo crossing of the Atlantic by a woman: On 20 May 1932, Amelia Earhart set off from Harbour Grace, Newfoundland, intending to fly to Paris in her single engine Lockheed Vega 5b to emulate Charles Lindbergh's solo flight. After encountering storms and a burnt exhaust pipe, Earhart landed in a pasture at Culmore, north of Derry, Northern Ireland, ending a flight lasting 14h 56m.\n; First solo westbound crossing of the Atlantic: On 18–19 August 1932, Jim Mollison, flying a de Havilland Puss Moth, flew from Dublin to New Brunswick.\n; Lightest (empty weight) aircraft that crossed the Atlantic: On 7–8 May 1933, Stanisław Skarżyński made a solo flight across the South Atlantic, covering 3582 km, in a RWD-5bis - empty weight below 450 kg. If considering the total takeoff weight (as per FAI records) then there is a longer distance Atlantic crossing: the distance world record holder, Piper PA-24 Comanche in this class, 1000–1750 kg. [http://records.fai.org/documents.asp?fromgeneral_aviation&id\n10921\|FAI].\n; Mass flight: Notable mass transatlantic flight: On 1–15 July 1933, Gen. Italo Balbo of Italy led 24 Savoia-Marchetti S.55X seaplanes 6100 smi, in a flight from Orbetello, Italy, to the Century of Progress International Exposition Chicago, Illinois, in 47h 52m. The flight made six intermediate stops. Previously, Balbo had led a flight of 12 flying boats from Rome to Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in December 1930-January 1931, taking nearly a month.\n; First around the world solo flight: On 15–22 July 1933, Wiley Post flew Lockheed Vega monoplane Winnie Mae 15596 smi in 7d 8h 49m, with 11 stops; flying time, 115h 36 mi.\n; First solo westbound crossing of the Atlantic by a woman and first person to solo westbound from England: On 4–5 September 1936, Beryl Markham, flying a Percival Vega Gull from Abingdon, England intended to fly to New York, but was forced down at Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, due to icing of fuel tank vents.\n; First transatlantic passenger service on heavier-than air aircraft: on June 24, 1939, Pan American inaugurated transatlantic passenger service between New York and Marseilles, France, using Boeing 314 flying boats. On 8 July 1939, a service began between New York and Southampton as well. A single fare was US$375. Scheduled landplane flights started in October 1945.\n\n1940s\n\n; First transatlantic flight of non-rigid airships: On 1 June 1944, two K class blimps from Blimp Squadron 14 of the United States Navy (USN) completed the first transatlantic crossing by non-rigid airships. On 28 May 1944, the two K-ships (K-123 and K-130) left South Weymouth, Massachusetts, and flew approximately 16 hours to Naval Station Argentia, Newfoundland. From Argentia, the blimps flew approximately 22 hours to Lajes Field on Terceira Island in the Azores. The final leg of the first transatlantic crossing was about a 20-hour flight from the Azores to Craw Field in Port Lyautey (Kenitra), French Morocco. \n;First jet aircraft to cross the Atlantic Ocean: On 14 July 1948, six de Havilland Vampire F3s of No. 54 Squadron RAF, commanded by Wing Commander D S Wilson-MacDonald, DSO, DFC, flew via Stornoway, Iceland, and Labrador to Montreal on the first leg of a goodwill tour of the U.S. and Canada. \n; First piston aircraft to make a non-stop World flight: In 1949, the Lucky Lady II, a Boeing B-50 Superfortress of the U. S. Air Force, commanded by Captain James Gallagher, became the first aeroplane to circle the world nonstop. This was achieved by refueling the plane in flight. Total time airborne was 94 hours and 1 minute.\n\n1950s\n\n; First jet aircraft to make a non-stop transatlantic flight: On 21 February 1951, an RAF English Electric Canberra B Mk 2 (serial number WD932) flown by Squadron Leader A Callard of the A&AEE, flew from Aldergrove Northern Ireland, to Gander, Newfoundland. The flight covered almost 1800 nmi in 4h 37 m. The aircraft was being flown to the U.S. to act as a pattern aircraft for the Martin B-57 Canberra.\n; First jet aircraft transatlantic passenger service: On 4 October 1958, British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC) flew the first jet airliner service using the de Havilland Comet, when G-APDC initiated the first transatlantic Comet 4 service and the first scheduled transatlantic passenger jet service in history, flying from London to New York with a stopover at Gander.\n\n1970s\n\n; First supersonic commercial flight across the atlantic ocean: On 21, January 1976 Concorde jet makes first commercial flight. Supersonic flights were available until 2003.\n\n1980s\n\n; First piston aircraft to make a non-stop World flight without refueling: On 14 December 1986 the Rutan Model 76 Voyager was the first aircraft to fly around the world without stopping or refueling. It was piloted by Dick Rutan and Jeana Yeager. The flight took off from Edwards Air Force Base's 15,000 foot (4,600 m) long runway in the Mojave Desert, and ended 9 days, 3 minutes and 44 seconds after start on December 23, setting a flight endurance record. The aircraft flew westerly 26,366 statute miles (42,432 km; the FAI accredited distance is 40,212 km) \n\n2000s\n\n; First jet aircraft to make a non-stop World flight without refueling: In 2005, Steve Fossett, flying a Virgin Atlantic GlobalFlyer, set the current record for fastest aerial circumnavigation (first non-stop, non-refueled solo circumnavigation in an airplane) in 67 hours, covering 37,000 kilometers.\n\nOther early transatlantic flights\n\n* 29 June–1 July 1927: Admiral Richard Byrd with crew flew Fokker F.VIIa/3m America from New York City to France.\n* 13 July 1928: Ludwik Idzikowski and Kazimierz Kubala attempt a crossing of the Atlantic westbound from Paris to the USA in an Amiot 123 biplane, but crash in the Azores.\n* 6–9 February 1933. Jim Mollison flew a Puss Moth from Senegal to Brazil, across South Atlantic, becoming the first person to fly solo across the North and South Atlantics.\n* 15–17 July 1933: Lithuanians Steponas Darius and Stasys Girėnas were supposed to make a non-stop flight from New York City via Newfoundland to Kaunas in their aircraft named Lituanica, but crashed in the forests of Germany after 6,411 km of flying, only 650 km short of their final destination after a flying time 37 hours, 11 minutes. They carried the first transatlantic airmail consignment.\n* 10 December 1936: Luso-American aviator Joseph Costa took off from the Elmira-Corning Regional Airport in a Lockheed Vega named \"Crystal City\", attempting to cross the Atlantic and land in Portugal, via Brazil. His plane crashed just before a stopover in Rio de Janeiro, on 15 January 1937.\n* 5 July 1937: Captain Harold Gray of Pan Am flew from Botwood, Newfoundland to Foynes, Ireland, in a Sikorsky S-42 flying boat as part of the first transatlantic commercial passenger test flights. On 6 July 1937, Captain Arthur Wilcockson of Imperial Airways flew from Foynes to Botwood, in a Short Empire class flying boat named Caledonia.\n* 21 July 1938: The Short Mercury flew from Foynes, on the west coast of Ireland, to Boucherville, Montreal, Canada, a flight of 2930 smi. The Short Maia, flown by Captain A.S. Wilcockson, took off carrying Mercury (piloted by Captain, later Air Vice Marshal Don Bennett).Mercury separated from the carrier aircraft to continue what was to become the first commercial non-stop east-to-west transatlantic flight by a heavier-than-air machine. This initial journey took 20 hrs 21 min at an average ground speed of 144 mph (232 km/h).\n* 10 August 1938: The first non-stop flight from Berlin to New York was with a Focke-Wulf Fw 200 that flew Staaken to Floyd Bennett in 24 hours, 56 minutes and did the return flight three days later in 19 hours, 47 minutes.\n\nNotable transatlantic flights of the 21st century\n\n* 2 May 2002: Lindbergh's grandson, Erik Lindbergh, celebrated the 75th anniversary of the pioneering 1927 flight of the Spirit of St. Louis by duplicating the journey in a single engine, two seat Lancair Columbia 200. The younger Lindbergh's solo flight from Republic Airport on Long Island, to Le Bourget Airport in Paris was completed in 17 hours and 7 minutes, or just a little more than half the time of his grandfather's 33.5 hour original flight. \n* 22–23 September 2011: Mike Blyth and Jean d'Assonville flew a Sling 4 prototype Light Sport Aircraft, registration ZU-TAF, non-stop from Cabo Frio International Airport, Brazil to Cape Town International Airport, South Africa, a distance of 6,222 km, in 27 hours. The crew set course for co-ordinates 34°S 31°W to take advantage of the westerly winds and at the turning point proceeded in an easterly direction, roughly following the 35°S parallel. This took them within 140 km north of the most remote inhabited island in the world, Tristan da Cunha. The Cabo Frio/Cape Town leg was part of an around the world flight. \n\nFailed transatlantic attempts of the 21st century\n\nIn September 2013, Jonathan Trappe lifted off from Caribou, Maine, United States in an attempt to make the first crossing of the Atlantic Ocean by cluster balloon. The craft is essentially a small yellow lifeboat attached to 370 balloons filled with helium. A short time later, due to difficulty controlling the balloons, Trappe was forced to land near the town of York Harbour, Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada. Trappe had expected to arrive in Europe sometime between three and six days after liftoff.\nThe craft ascended by the dropping of ballast, and was to drift at an altitude of up to 25,000 ft (7.6 km). It was intended to follow wind currents toward Europe, the intended destination, however, unpredictable wind currents could have forced the craft to North Africa or Norway. To descend, Trappe would have popped or released some of the balloons.\nThe last time the Atlantic was crossed by helium balloon was in 1984 by Colonel Joe Kittinger." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "1919", "one thousand, nine hundred and nineteen" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "one thousand nine hundred and nineteen", "1919" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "1919", "type": "Numerical", "value": "1919" }
Which singer wrote the musical Someone Like You?	tc_576	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Musical_theatre.txt", "Someone_like_You_(musical).txt" ], "title": [ "Musical theatre", "Someone like You (musical)" ], "wiki_context": [ "Musical theatre is a form of theatrical performance that combines songs, spoken dialogue, acting, and dance. The story and emotional content of a musical – humor, pathos, love, anger – are communicated through the words, music, movement and technical aspects of the entertainment as an integrated whole. Although musical theatre overlaps with other theatrical forms like opera and dance, it may be distinguished by the equal importance given to the music as compared with the dialogue, movement and other elements. Since the early 20th century, musical theatre stage works have generally been called, simply, musicals.\n\nAlthough music has been a part of dramatic presentations since ancient times, modern Western musical theatre emerged during the 19th century, with many structural elements established by the works of Gilbert and Sullivan in Britain and those of Harrigan and Hart in America. These were followed by the numerous Edwardian musical comedies and the musical theatre works of American creators like George M. Cohan. The Princess Theatre musicals and other smart shows like Of Thee I Sing (1931) were artistic steps forward beyond revues and other frothy entertainments of the early 20th century and led to such groundbreaking works as Show Boat (1927) and Oklahoma! (1943). Some of the most famous and iconic musicals through the decades that followed include\nWest Side Story (1957), The Fantasticks (1960), Hair (1967), A Chorus Line (1975), Les Misérables (1985), The Phantom of the Opera (1986), Rent (1996), The Producers (2001), Wicked (2003) and Hamilton (2015).\n\nMusicals are performed around the world. They may be presented in large venues, such as big-budget Broadway or West End productions in New York City or London. Alternatively, musicals may be staged in smaller fringe theatre, Off-Broadway or regional theatre productions, or on tour. Musicals are often presented by amateur and school groups in churches, schools and other performance spaces. In addition to the United States and Britain, there are vibrant musical theatre scenes in continental Europe, Asia, Australasia, Canada and Latin America.\n\nDefinitions and scope \n\nBook musicals\n\nSince the 20th century, the \"book musical\" has been defined as a musical play where songs and dances are fully integrated into a well-made story with serious dramatic goals that is able to evoke genuine emotions other than laughter. The three main components of a book musical are its music, lyrics and book. The book or script of a musical refers to the story, character development, and dramatic structure, including the spoken dialogue and stage directions, but it can also refer to the dialogue and lyrics together, which are sometimes referred to as the libretto (Italian for “little book”). The music and lyrics together form the score of a musical and includes songs; incidental music; and musical scenes, which are \"theatrical sequence[s] set to music, often combining song with spoken dialogue.\" The interpretation of a musical by is influenced by its creative team, which includes a director, a musical director, usually a choreographer and sometimes an orchestrator. A musical's production is also creatively characterized by technical aspects, such as set design, costumes, stage properties (props), lighting and sound, which generally change from the original production to succeeding productions. Some famous production elements, however, may be retained from the original production; for example, Bob Fosse's choreography in Chicago.\n\nThere is no fixed length for a musical. While it can range from a short one-act entertainment to several acts and several hours in length (or even a multi-evening presentation), most musicals range from one and a half to three hours. Musicals are usually presented in two acts, with one short intermission and the first act frequently longer than the second. The first act generally introduces nearly all of the characters and most of the music, and often ends with the introduction of a dramatic conflict or plot complication while the second act may introduce a few new songs but usually contains reprises of important musical themes and resolves the conflict or complication. A book musical is usually built around four to six main theme tunes that are reprised later in the show, although it sometimes consists of a series of songs not directly musically related. Spoken dialogue is generally interspersed between musical numbers, although \"sung dialogue\" or recitative may be used, especially in so-called \"sung-through\" musicals such as Jesus Christ Superstar, Les Misérables, and Evita. Several shorter musicals on Broadway and in the West End have been presented in one act in recent decades.\n\nMoments of greatest dramatic intensity in a book musical are often performed in song. Proverbially, \"when the emotion becomes too strong for speech you sing; when it becomes too strong for song, you dance.\" In a book musical, a song is ideally crafted to suit the character (or characters) and their situation within the story; although there have been times in the history of the musical (e.g. from the 1890s to the 1920s) when this integration between music and story has been tenuous. As New York Times critic Ben Brantley described the ideal of song in theatre when reviewing the 2008 revival of Gypsy: \"There is no separation at all between song and character, which is what happens in those uncommon moments when musicals reach upward to achieve their ideal reasons to be.\" Typically, many fewer words are sung in a five-minute song than are spoken in a five-minute block of dialogue. Therefore, there is less time to develop drama in a musical than in a straight play of equivalent length, since a musical usually devotes more time to music than to dialogue. Within the compressed nature of a musical, the writers must develop the characters and the plot.\n\nThe material presented in a musical may be original, or it may be adopted or born from novels (Wicked and Man of La Mancha), plays (Hello, Dolly!), classic legends (Camelot), historical events (Evita) or films (The Producers and Billy Elliot). On the other hand, many successful musical theatre works have been adapted for musical films, such as West Side Story, My Fair Lady, The Sound of Music, Oliver! and Chicago.\n\nComparisons with opera\n\nMusical theatre is closely related to the theatrical form of opera, but the two are usually distinguished by weighing a number of factors. Musicals generally have a greater focus on spoken dialogue (though some musicals are entirely accompanied and sung through; and on the other hand, some operas, such as Die Zauberflöte, and most operettas, have some unaccompanied dialogue); on dancing (particularly by the principal performers as well as the chorus); on the use of various genres of popular music (or at least popular singing styles); and on the avoidance of certain operatic conventions. In particular, a musical is almost always performed in the language of its audience. Musicals produced on Broadway or in the West End, for instance, are invariably sung in English, even if they were originally written in another language. While an opera singer is primarily a singer and only secondarily an actor (and rarely needs to dance), a musical theatre performer is often an actor first and then a singer and dancer. Someone who is equally accomplished at all three is referred to as a \"triple threat\". Composers of music for musicals often consider the vocal demands of roles with musical theatre performers in mind. Today, large theatres staging musicals generally use microphones and amplification of the actors' singing voices in a way that would generally be disapproved of in an operatic context.\n\nSome works (e.g. by George Gershwin, Leonard Bernstein and Stephen Sondheim) have received both \"musical theatre\" and \"operatic\" productions. Similarly, some older operettas or light operas (such as The Pirates of Penzance by Gilbert and Sullivan) have had modern productions or adaptations that treat them as musicals. For some works, production styles are almost as important as the work's musical or dramatic content in defining into which art form the piece falls. Sondheim said, \"I really think that when something plays Broadway it's a musical, and when it plays in an opera house it's opera. That's it. It's the terrain, the countryside, the expectations of the audience that make it one thing or another.\" Although this article primarily concerns musical theatre works that are \"non-operatic\", the overlap remains between lighter operatic forms and more musically complex or ambitious musicals. In practice, it is often difficult to distinguish among the various kinds of musical theatre, including \"musical play\", \"musical comedy\", \"operetta\" and \"light opera\".\n\nLike opera, the singing in musical theatre is generally accompanied by an instrumental ensemble called a pit orchestra, located in a lowered area in front of the stage. While opera typically uses a conventional symphony orchestra, musicals are generally orchestrated for ensembles ranging from 27 players down to only a few players. Rock musicals usually employ a small group of mostly rock instruments, and some musicals may call for only a piano or two instruments. The music in musicals uses a range of \"styles and influences including operetta, classical techniques, folk music, jazz [and] local or historical styles [that] are appropriate to the setting.\" Musicals may begin with an overture played by the orchestra that \"weav[es] together excerpts of the score's famous melodies.\" \n\nOther forms\n\nThere are various Eastern traditions of theatre that include music, such as Chinese opera, Taiwanese opera, Noh and Musical theatre in India, including Sanskrit drama, Classical Indian dance and Yakshagana. India has, since the 20th century, produced numerous musical films, referred to as \"Bollywood\" musicals, and in Japan a series of musicals based on popular Anime and Manga comics has developed in recent decades. Shorter or simplified \"junior\" versions of many musicals are available for schools and youth groups, and very short works created or adapted for performance by children are sometimes called minimusicals. \n\nHistory\n\nEarly antecedents of musical theatre\n\nThe antecedents of musical theatre in Europe can be traced back to the theatre of ancient Greece, where music and dance were included in stage comedies and tragedies during the 5th century BCE.Thornton, Shay\| last \n Thornton. [http://web.archive.org/web/20071127051412/http://www.tuts.com/season07/wonderful_study.pdf \"A Wonderful Life\"], Theatre Under the Stars, Houston, Texas, p. 2 (2007), accessed May 26, 2009 The music from the ancient forms is lost, however, and they had little influence on later development of musical theatre.Kenrick, John. [http://www.musicals101.com/stagecap.htm \"A Capsule History\"], Musicals101.com, 2003, accessed October 12, 2015 In the 12th and 13th centuries, religious dramas taught the liturgy. Groups of actors would use outdoor Pageant wagons (stages on wheels) to tell each part of the story. Poetic forms sometimes alternated with the prose dialogues, and liturgical chants gave way to new melodies. \n\nThe European Renaissance saw older forms evolve into two antecedents of musical theatre: commedia dell'arte, where raucous clowns improvised familiar stories, and later, opera buffa. In England, Elizabethan and Jacobean plays frequently included music, and short musical plays began to be included in an evenings' dramatic entertainments. Court masques developed during the Tudor period that involved music, dancing, singing and acting, often with expensive costumes and a complex stage design. These developed into sung plays that are recognizable as English operas, the first usually being thought of as The Siege of Rhodes (1656). In France, meanwhile, Molière turned several of his farcical comedies into musical entertainments with songs (music provided by Jean Baptiste Lully) and dance in the late 17th century. These influenced a brief period of English opera by composers such as John Blow and Henry Purcell.\n\nFrom the 18th century, the most popular forms of musical theatre in Britain were ballad operas, like John Gay's The Beggar's Opera, that included lyrics written to the tunes of popular songs of the day (often spoofing opera), and later pantomime, which developed from commedia dell'arte, and comic opera with mostly romantic plot lines, like Michael Balfe's The Bohemian Girl (1845). Meanwhile, on the continent, singspiel, comédie en vaudeville, opéra comique, zarzuela and other forms of light musical entertainment were emerging. The Beggar's Opera was the first recorded long-running play of any kind, running for 62 successive performances in 1728. It would take almost a century afterwards before any play broke 100 performances, but the record soon reached 150 in the late 1820s. Other musical theatre forms developed in England by the 19th century, such as music hall, melodrama and burletta, which were popularized partly because most London theatres were licensed only as music halls and not allowed to present plays without music.\n\nColonial America did not have a significant theatre presence until 1752, when London entrepreneur William Hallam sent a company of actors to the colonies managed by his brother Lewis.Wilmeth and Miller, p. 182 In New York in the summer of 1753, they performed ballad-operas, such as The Beggar’s Opera, and ballad-farces. By the 1840s, P.T. Barnum was operating an entertainment complex in lower Manhattan. Other early musical theatre in America consisted of British forms, such as burletta and pantomime, but what a piece was called did not necessarily define what it was. The 1852 Broadway extravaganza The Magic Deer advertised itself as \"A Serio Comico Tragico Operatical Historical Extravaganzical Burletical Tale of Enchantment.\"Kenrick, John. [http://www.musicals101.com/erastage.htm \"History of Stage Musicals\"], Musicals101.com, 2003, accessed May 26, 2009 Theatre in New York moved from downtown gradually to midtown from around 1850, and did not arrive in the Times Square area until the 1920s and 1930s. Broadway's The Elves (1857) broke the 50 performance barrier. New York runs continued to lag far behind those in London, but Laura Keene's \"musical burletta\" Seven Sisters (1860) shattered previous New York records with a run of 253 performances. \n\n1850s to 1880s\n\nAround 1850, the French composer Hervé was experimenting with a form of comic musical theatre he called opérette. The best known composers of operetta were Jacques Offenbach from the 1850s to the 1870s and Johann Strauss II in the 1870s and 1880s. Offenbach's fertile melodies, combined with his librettists' witty satire, formed a model for the musical theatre that followed.Lubbock, Mark. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/937354 \"The Music of 'Musicals'\",] The Musical Times, Vol. 98, No. 1375 (September 1957), pp. 483–485 Adaptations of the French operettas (played in mostly bad, risqué translations), musical burlesques, music hall, pantomime and burletta dominated the London musical stage into the 1870s.Bond, Jessie. [http://math.boisestate.edu/gas/books/bond/intro.html Introduction to The Life and Reminiscences of Jessie Bond], reprinted at The Gilbert and Sullivan Archive, accessed March 4, 2011\n\nIn America, mid-18th century musical theatre entertainments included crude variety revue, which eventually developed into vaudeville, minstrel shows, which soon crossed the Atlantic to Britain, and Victorian burlesque, first popularized in the US by British troupes. The first original theatre piece in English that conforms to many of the modern definitions of a musical, including dance and original music that helped to tell the story, is generally considered The Black Crook, which premiered in New York on September 12, 1866. The production was a staggering five-and-a-half hours long, but despite its length, it ran for a record-breaking 474 performances. The same year, The Black Domino/Between You, Me and the Post was the first show to call itself a \"musical comedy.\" Comedians Edward Harrigan and Tony Hart produced and starred in musicals on Broadway between 1878 (The Mulligan Guard Picnic) and 1885. These musical comedies featured characters and situations taken from the everyday life of New York's lower classes and represented a significant step forward towards a more legitimate theatrical form. They starred high quality singers (Lillian Russell, Vivienne Segal, and Fay Templeton) instead of the ladies of questionable repute who had starred in earlier musical forms.\n\nAs transportation improved, poverty in London and New York diminished, and street lighting made for safer travel at night, the number of patrons for the growing number of theatres increased enormously. Plays ran longer, leading to better profits and improved production values, and men began to bring their families to the theatre. The first musical theatre piece to exceed 500 consecutive performances was the French operetta The Chimes of Normandy in 1878. English comic opera adopted many of the successful ideas of European operetta, none more successfully than the series of more than a dozen long-running Gilbert and Sullivan comic operas, including H.M.S. Pinafore (1878) and The Mikado (1885). These were sensations on both sides of the Atlantic and in Australia and helped to raise the standard for what was considered a successful show.Kenrick, John. [http://www.musicals101.com/usafter.htm \"G&S in the USA\" at the musicals101 website] The Cyber Encyclopedia of Musical Theatre, TV and Film (2008). Retrieved on 4 May 2012. These shows were designed for family audiences, a marked contrast from the risqué burlesques, bawdy music hall shows and French operettas that sometimes drew a crowd seeking less wholesome entertainment. Only a few 19th-century musical pieces exceeded the run of The Mikado, such as Dorothy, which opened in 1886 and set a new record with a run of 931 performances. Gilbert and Sullivan's influence on later musical theatre was profound, creating examples of how to \"integrate\" musicals so that the lyrics and dialogue advanced a coherent story.Jones, 2003, [https://books.google.com/books?id\nWqQH31qkYNoC&pgPA9&lpg\nPA9&dqBordman+pinafore&source\nbl&ots-4A-Dm231B&sig\nUwT_XytKbxkRXtLo_OV7-_VTlps&hlen&ei\nRPzlSezEBpeUMcSs4I4J&saX&oi\nbook_result&ctresult&resnum\n7#PPA4,M1 pp. 10–11] Their works were admired and copied by early authors and composers of musicals in Britain and America. \n\n1890s to the new century\n\nA Trip to Chinatown (1891) was Broadway's long-run champion (until Irene in 1919), running for 657 performances, but New York runs continued to be relatively short, with a few exceptions, compared with London runs, until the 1920s. Gilbert and Sullivan were both pirated and imitated in New York by productions such as Reginald de Koven's Robin Hood (1891) and John Philip Sousa's El Capitan (1896). A Trip to Coontown (1898) was the first musical comedy entirely produced and performed by African Americans on Broadway (largely inspired by the routines of the minstrel shows), followed by ragtime-tinged shows. Hundreds of musical comedies were staged on Broadway in the 1890s and early 20th century, composed of songs written in New York's Tin Pan Alley, including those by George M. Cohan, who worked to create an American style distinct from the Gilbert and Sullivan works. The most successful New York shows were often followed by extensive national tours. \n\nMeanwhile, musicals took over the London stage in the Gay Nineties, led by producer George Edwardes, who perceived that audiences wanted a new alternative to the Savoy-style comic operas and their intellectual, political, absurdist satire. He experimented with a modern-dress, family-friendly musical theatre style, with breezy, popular songs, snappy, romantic banter, and stylish spectacle at the Gaiety and his other theatres. These drew on the traditions of comic opera and used elements of burlesque and of the Harrigan and Hart pieces. He replaced the bawdy women of burlesque with his \"respectable\" corps of Gaiety Girls to complete the musical and visual fun. The success of the first of these, In Town (1892) and A Gaiety Girl (1893) set the style for the next three decades. The plots were generally light, romantic \"poor maiden loves aristocrat and wins him against all odds\" shows, with music by Ivan Caryll, Sidney Jones and Lionel Monckton. These shows were immediately widely copied in America, and the Edwardian musical comedy swept away the earlier musical forms of comic opera and operetta. The Geisha (1896) was one of the most successful in the 1890s, running for more than two years and achieving great international success.\n\nThe Belle of New York (1898) became the first American musical to run for over a year in London. The British musical comedy Florodora (1899) was a popular success on both sides of the Atlantic, as was A Chinese Honeymoon (1901), which ran for a record-setting 1,074 performances in London and 376 in New York. After the turn of the 20th century, Seymour Hicks joined forces with Edwardes and American producer Charles Frohman to create another decade of popular shows. Other enduring Edwardian musical comedy hits included The Arcadians (1909) and The Quaker Girl (1910). \n\nEarly 20th century\n\nVirtually eliminated from the English-speaking stage by competition from the ubiquitous Edwardian musical comedies, operettas returned to London and Broadway in 1907 with The Merry Widow, and adaptations of continental operettas became direct competitors with musicals. Franz Lehár and Oscar Straus composed new operettas that were popular in English until World War I. In America, Victor Herbert produced a string of enduring operettas including The Fortune Teller (1898), Babes in Toyland (1903), Mlle. Modiste (1905), The Red Mill (1906) and Naughty Marietta (1910).\n\nIn the 1910s, the team of P. G. Wodehouse, Guy Bolton and Jerome Kern, following in the footsteps of Gilbert and Sullivan, created the \"Princess Theatre shows\" and paved the way for Kern's later work by showing that a musical could combine light, popular entertainment with continuity between its story and songs. Historian Gerald Bordman wrote:\n\nThe theatre-going public needed escapist entertainment during the dark times of World War I, and they flocked to the theatre. The 1919 hit musical Irene ran for 670 performances, a Broadway record that held until 1938.Kenrick, John. [http://www.musicals101.com/1930bway3.htm Hellzapoppin - History of The Musical Stage 1930s: Part III - Revues], Musicals101.com, accessed October 8, 2015 The British theatre public supported far longer runs like that of Maid of the Mountains (1,352 performances) and especially Chu Chin Chow. Its run of 2,238 performances was more than twice as long as any previous musical, setting a record that stood for nearly forty years.[http://www.guidetomusicaltheatre.com/shows_s/salad_days.htm \"Salad Days History, Story, Roles and Musical Numbers\"] guidetomusicaltheatre.com, accessed March 16, 2012 Revues like The Bing Boys Are Here in Britain, and those of Florenz Ziegfeld and his imitators in America, were also extraordinarily popular.\n\n \nThe musicals of the Roaring Twenties, borrowing from vaudeville, music hall and other light entertainments, tended to emphasize big dance routines and popular songs at the expense of plot. Typical of the decade were lighthearted productions like Sally, Lady Be Good, No, No, Nanette, Oh, Kay! and Funny Face. Despite forgettable stories, these musicals featured stars such as Marilyn Miller and Fred Astaire and produced dozens of enduring popular songs by Kern, George and Ira Gershwin, Irving Berlin, Cole Porter, and Rodgers and Hart. Popular music was dominated by musical theatre standards, such as \"Fascinating Rhythm\", \"Tea for Two\" and \"Someone to Watch Over Me\". Many shows were revues, series of sketches and songs with little or no connection between them. The best-known of these were the annual Ziegfeld Follies, spectacular song-and-dance revues on Broadway featuring extravagant sets, elaborate costumes, and beautiful chorus girls. These spectacles also raised production values, and mounting a musical generally became more expensive. Shuffle Along (1921), an all-African American show was a hit on Broadway. A new generation of composers of operettas also emerged in the 1920s, such as Rudolf Friml and Sigmund Romberg, to create a series of popular Broadway hits. \n\nIn London, writer-stars such as Ivor Novello and Noël Coward became popular, but the primacy of British musical theatre from the 19th century through 1920 was gradually replaced by American innovation after the war as Kern and other Tin Pan Alley composers began to bring new musical styles such as ragtime and jazz to the theatres and the Shubert Brothers took control of the Broadway theatres. Musical theatre writer Andrew Lamb notes, \"The operatic and theatrical styles of nineteenth-century social structures were replaced by a musical style more aptly suited to twentieth-century society and its vernacular idiom. It was from America that the more direct style emerged, and in America that it was able to flourish in a developing society less hidebound by nineteenth-century tradition.\" \n\nShow Boat and the Great Depression\n\nProgressing far beyond the comparatively frivolous musicals and sentimental operettas of the decade, Broadway's Show Boat (1927), represented an even more complete integration of book and score than the Princess Theatre musicals, with dramatic themes told through the music, dialogue, setting and movement. This was accomplished by combining the lyricism of Kern's music with the skillful libretto of Oscar Hammerstein II. One historian wrote, \"Here we come to a completely new genre – the musical play as distinguished from musical comedy. Now ... everything else was subservient to that play. Now ... came complete integration of song, humor and production numbers into a single and inextricable artistic entity.\"Lubbock (2002)\n\nAs the Great Depression set in during the post-Broadway national tour of Show Boat, the public turned back to mostly light, escapist song-and-dance entertainment. Audiences on both sides of the Atlantic had little money to spend on entertainment, and only a few stage shows anywhere exceeded a run of 500 performances during the decade. The revue The Band Wagon (1931) starred dancing partners Fred Astaire and his sister Adele, while Porter's Anything Goes (1934) confirmed Ethel Merman's position as the First Lady of musical theatre, a title she maintained for many years. Coward and Novello continued to deliver old fashioned, sentimental musicals, such as The Dancing Years, while Rodgers and Hart returned from Hollywood to create a series of successful Broadway shows, including On Your Toes (1936, with Ray Bolger, the first Broadway musical to make dramatic use of classical dance), Babes In Arms (1937) and The Boys From Syracuse (1938). Porter added DuBarry Was a Lady (1939). The longest-running piece of musical theatre of the 1930s was Hellzapoppin (1938), a revue with audience participation, which played for 1,404 performances, setting a new Broadway record.\n\nStill, a few creative teams began to build on Show Boats innovations. Of Thee I Sing (1931), a political satire by the Gershwins, was the first musical awarded the Pulitzer Prize. As Thousands Cheer (1933), a revue by Irving Berlin and Moss Hart in which each song or sketch was based on a newspaper headline, marked the first Broadway show in which an African-American, Ethel Waters, starred alongside white actors. Waters' numbers included \"Supper Time\", a woman's lament for her husband who has been lynched. The Gershwins' Porgy and Bess (1935) featured an all African-American cast and blended operatic, folk, and jazz idioms. The Cradle Will Rock (1937), directed by Orson Welles, was a highly political pro-union piece that, despite the controversy surrounding it, ran for 108 performances. Rodgers and Hart's I'd Rather Be Right (1937) was a political satire with George M. Cohan as President Franklin D. Roosevelt, and Kurt Weill's Knickerbocker Holiday depicted New York City's early history while good-naturedly satirizing Roosevelt's good intentions.\n\nThe motion picture mounted a challenge to the stage. Silent films had presented only limited competition, but by the end of the 1920s, films like The Jazz Singer could be presented with synchronized sound. \"Talkie\" films at low prices effectively killed off vaudeville by the early 1930s. Despite the economic woes of the 1930s and the competition from film, the musical survived. In fact, it continued to evolve thematically beyond the gags and showgirls musicals of the Gay Nineties and Roaring Twenties and the sentimental romance of operetta, adding technical expertise and the fast-paced staging and naturalistic dialogue style led by director George Abbott.\n\nThe Golden Age (1940s to 1960s)\n\n1940s\n\nThe 1940s would begin with more hits from Porter, Irving Berlin, Rodgers and Hart, Weill and Gershwin, some with runs over 500 performances as the economy rebounded, but artistic change was in the air.\n\nRodgers and Hammerstein's Oklahoma! (1943) completed the revolution begun by Show Boat, by tightly integrating all the aspects of musical theatre, with a cohesive plot, songs that furthered the action of the story, and featured dream ballets and other dances that advanced the plot and developed the characters, rather than using dance as an excuse to parade scantily clad women across the stage. Rodgers and Hammerstein hired ballet choreographer Agnes de Mille, who used everyday motions to help the characters express their ideas. It defied musical conventions by raising its first act curtain not on a bevy of chorus girls, but rather on a woman churning butter, with an off-stage voice singing the opening lines of Oh, What a Beautiful Mornin' unaccompanied. It drew rave reviews, set off a box-office frenzy and received a Pulitzer Prize. Brooks Atkinson wrote in The New York Times that the show's opening number changed the history of musical theater: “After a verse like that, sung to a buoyant melody, the banalities of the old musical stage became intolerable.\"Gordon, John Steele. [http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/ah/1993/1/1993_1_58.shtml Oklahoma'!']. Retrieved June 13, 2010 It was the first \"blockbuster\" Broadway show, running a total of 2,212 performances, and was made into a hit film. It remains one of the most frequently produced of the team's projects. William A. Everett and Paul R. Laird wrote that this was a \"show, that, like Show Boat, became a milestone, so that later historians writing about important moments in twentieth-century theatre would begin to identify eras according to their relationship to Oklahoma!\" \n\n\"After Oklahoma!, Rodgers and Hammerstein were the most important contributors to the musical-play form... The examples they set in creating vital plays, often rich with social thought, provided the necessary encouragement for other gifted writers to create musical plays of their own\". The two collaborators created an extraordinary collection of some of musical theatre's best loved and most enduring classics, including Carousel (1945), South Pacific (1949), The King and I (1951), and The Sound of Music (1959). Some of these musicals treat more serious subject matter than most earlier shows: the villain in Oklahoma! is a suspected murderer and psychopath with a fondness for lewd post cards; Carousel deals with spousal abuse, thievery, suicide and the afterlife; South Pacific explores miscegenation even more thoroughly than Show Boat; and the hero of The King and I dies onstage.\n\nThe show's creativity stimulated Rodgers and Hammerstein's contemporaries and ushered in the \"Golden Age\" of American musical theatre. Americana was displayed on Broadway during the \"Golden Age\", as the wartime cycle of shows began to arrive. An example of this is On the Town (1944), written by Betty Comden and Adolph Green, composed by Leonard Bernstein and choreographed by Jerome Robbins. The story is set during wartime and concerns three sailors who are on a 24-hour shore leave in New York City, during which each falls in love. The show also gives the impression of a country with an uncertain future, as the sailors and their women also have. Irving Berlin used sharpshooter Annie Oakley's career as a basis for his Annie Get Your Gun (1946, 1,147 performances); Burton Lane, E. Y. Harburg, and Fred Saidy combined political satire with Irish whimsy for their fantasy Finian's Rainbow (1947, 725 performances); and Cole Porter found inspiration in William Shakespeare's Taming of the Shrew for Kiss Me, Kate (1948, 1,077 performances). The American musicals overwhelmed the old-fashioned British Coward/Novello-style shows, one of the last big successes of which was Novello's Perchance to Dream (1945, 1,021 performances). The formula for the Golden Age musicals reflected one or more of four widely held perceptions of the \"American dream\": That stability and worth derives from a love relationship sanctioned and restricted by Protestant ideals of marriage; that a married couple should make a moral home with children away from the city in a suburb or small town; that the woman's function was as homemaker and mother; and that Americans incorporate an independent and pioneering spirit or that their success is self-made. \n\n1950s\n\nDamon Runyon's eclectic characters were at the core of Frank Loesser's and Abe Burrows' Guys and Dolls, (1950, 1,200 performances); and the Gold Rush was the setting for Alan Jay Lerner and Frederick Loewe's Paint Your Wagon (1951). The relatively brief seven-month run of that show didn't discourage Lerner and Loewe from collaborating again, this time on My Fair Lady (1956), an adaptation of George Bernard Shaw's Pygmalion starring Rex Harrison and Julie Andrews, which at 2,717 performances held the long-run record for many years. Popular Hollywood films were made of all of these musicals. This surpassed the run of two hits by British creators: The Boy Friend (1954), which ran for 2,078 performances in London and marked Andrews' American debut, was very briefly the third longest-running musical in West End or Broadway history (after Chu Chin Chow and Oklahoma!), until Salad Days (1954) surpassed its run and became the new long-run record holder, with 2,283 performances.\n\nAnother record was set by The Threepenny Opera, which ran for 2,707 performances, becoming the longest-running off-Broadway musical until The Fantasticks. The production also broke ground by showing that musicals could be profitable off-Broadway in a small-scale, small orchestra format. This was confirmed in 1959 when a revival of Jerome Kern and P. G. Wodehouse's Leave It to Jane ran for more than two years. The 1959–1960 Off-Broadway season included a dozen musicals and revues including Little Mary Sunshine, The Fantasticks and Ernest in Love, a musical adaptation of Oscar Wilde's 1895 hit The Importance of Being Earnest. \n\nWest Side Story (1957) transported Romeo and Juliet to modern day New York City and converted the feuding Montague and Capulet families into opposing ethnic gangs, the Jets and the Sharks. The book was adapted by Arthur Laurents, with music by Leonard Bernstein and lyrics by newcomer Stephen Sondheim. It was embraced by the critics, but failed to be a popular choice for the \"blue-haired matinee ladies\", who preferred the small town River City, Iowa of Meredith Willson's The Music Man to the alleys of Manhattan's Upper West Side. Apparently Tony Award voters were of a similar mind, since they favored the former over the latter. West Side Story had a respectable run of 732 performances (1,040 in the West End), while The Music Man ran nearly twice as long, with 1,375 performances. However, the film of West Side Story was extremely successful. Laurents and Sondheim teamed up again for Gypsy (1959, 702 performances), with Jule Styne providing the music for a backstage story about the most driven stage mother of all-time, stripper Gypsy Rose Lee's mother Rose. The original production ran for 702 performances, and was given four subsequent revivals, with Angela Lansbury, Tyne Daly, Bernadette Peters and Patti LuPone later tackling the role made famous by Ethel Merman.\n\nAlthough directors and choreographers have had a major influence on musical theatre style since at least the 19th century, George Abbott and his collaborators and successors took a central role in integrating movement and dance fully into musical theatre productions in the Golden Age.Kenrick, John. [http://www.musicals101.com/dancestage3.htm \"Dance in Stage Musicals – Part III\"], Musicals101.com, 2003, accessed August 14, 2012 Abbott introduced ballet as a story-telling device in On Your Toes in 1936, which was followed by Agnes DeMille's ballet and choreography in Oklahoma!. After Abbott collaborated with Jerome Robbins in On the Town and other shows, Robbins combined the roles of director and choreographer, emphasizing the story-telling power of dance in West Side Story, A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum (1962) and Fiddler on the Roof (1964). Bob Fosse choreographed for Abbott in The Pajama Game (1956) and Damn Yankees (1957), injecting playful sexuality into those hits. He was later the director-choreographer for Sweet Charity (1968), Pippin (1972) and Chicago (1975). Other notable director-choreographers have included Gower Champion, Tommy Tune, Michael Bennett, Gillian Lynne and Susan Stroman. Prominent directors have included Hal Prince, who also got his start with Abbott, and Trevor Nunn. \n\nDuring the Golden Age, automotive companies and other large corporations began to hire Broadway talent to write corporate musicals, private shows only seen by their employees or customers. The 1950s ended with Rodgers and Hammerstein's last hit, The Sound of Music, which also became another hit for Mary Martin. It ran for 1,443 performances and shared the Tony Award for Best Musical. Together with its extremely successful 1965 film version, it has become one of the most popular musicals in history.\n\n1960s\n\nIn 1960, The Fantasticks was first produced off-Broadway. This intimate allegorical show would quietly run for over 40 years at the Sullivan Street Theatre in Greenwich Village, becoming by far the longest-running musical in history. Its authors produced other innovative works in the 1960s, such as Celebration and I Do! I Do!, the first two-character Broadway musical. The 1960s would see a number of blockbusters, like Fiddler on the Roof (1964; 3,242 performances), Hello, Dolly! (1964; 2,844 performances), Funny Girl (1964; 1,348 performances), and Man of La Mancha (1965; 2,328 performances), and some more risqué pieces like Cabaret, before ending with the emergence of the rock musical. Two men had considerable impact on musical theatre history beginning in this decade: Stephen Sondheim and Jerry Herman.\n\nThe first project for which Sondheim wrote both music and lyrics was A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum (1962, 964 performances), with a book based on the works of Plautus by Burt Shevelove and Larry Gelbart, and starring Zero Mostel. Sondheim moved the musical beyond its concentration on the romantic plots typical of earlier eras; his work tended to be darker, exploring the grittier sides of life both present and past. Other early Sondheim works include Anyone Can Whistle (1964, which ran only nine performances, despite having stars Lee Remick and Angela Lansbury), and the successful Company (1970), Follies (1971) and A Little Night Music (1973). Later, Sondheim found inspiration in unlikely sources: the opening of Japan to Western trade for Pacific Overtures (1976), a legendary murderous barber seeking revenge in the Industrial Age of London for Sweeney Todd (1979), the paintings of Georges Seurat for Sunday in the Park with George (1984), fairy tales for Into the Woods (1987), and a collection of presidential assassins in Assassins (1990).\n\nWhile some critics have argued that some of Sondheim’s musicals lack commercial appeal, others have praised their lyrical sophistication and musical complexity, as well as the interplay of lyrics and music in his shows. Some of Sondheim's notable innovations include a show presented in reverse (Merrily We Roll Along) and the above-mentioned Anyone Can Whistle, in which the first act ends with the cast informing the audience that they are mad.\n\nJerry Herman played a significant role in American musical theatre, beginning with his first Broadway production, Milk and Honey (1961, 563 performances), about the founding of the state of Israel, and continuing with the blockbuster hits Hello, Dolly! (1964, 2,844 performances), Mame (1966, 1,508 performances), and La Cage aux Folles (1983, 1,761 performances). Even his less successful shows like Dear World (1969) and Mack & Mabel (1974) have had memorable scores (Mack & Mabel was later reworked into a London hit). Writing both words and music, many of Herman's show tunes have become popular standards, including \"Hello, Dolly!\", \"We Need a Little Christmas\", \"I Am What I Am\", \"Mame\", \"The Best of Times\", \"Before the Parade Passes By\", \"Put On Your Sunday Clothes\", \"It Only Takes a Moment\", \"Bosom Buddies\", and \"I Won't Send Roses\", recorded by such artists as Louis Armstrong, Eydie Gorme, Barbra Streisand, Petula Clark and Bernadette Peters. Herman's songbook has been the subject of two popular musical revues, Jerry's Girls (Broadway, 1985), and Showtune (off-Broadway, 2003).\n\nThe musical started to diverge from the relatively narrow confines of the 1950s. Rock music would be used in several Broadway musicals, beginning with Hair, which featured not only rock music but also nudity and controversial opinions about the Vietnam War, race relations and other social issues. \n\nSocial themes\n\nAfter Show Boat and Porgy and Bess, and as the struggle in America and elsewhere for minorities' civil rights progressed, Hammerstein, Harold Arlen, Yip Harburg and others were emboldened to write more musicals and operas that aimed to normalize societal toleration of minorities and urged racial harmony. Early Golden Age works that focused on racial tolerance included Finian's Rainbow and South Pacific. Towards the end of the Golden Age, several shows tackled Jewish subjects and issues, such as Fiddler on the Roof, Milk and Honey, Blitz! and later Rags. The original concept that became West Side Story was set in the Lower East Side during Easter-Passover celebrations; the rival gangs were to be Jewish and Italian Catholic. The creative team later decided that the Polish (white) vs. Puerto Rican conflict was fresher. \n\nTolerance as an important theme in musicals has continued in recent decades. The final expression of West Side Story left a message of racial tolerance. By the end of the 1960s, musicals became racially integrated, with black and white cast members even covering each other's roles, as they did in Hair. Homosexuality has also been explored in musicals, starting with Hair, and even more overtly in La Cage aux Folles, Falsettos, Rent, Hedwig and the Angry Inch and other shows in recent decades. Parade is a sensitive exploration of both anti-Semitism and historical American racism, and Ragtime similarly explores the experience of immigrants and minorities in America.\n\n1970s to present\n\n1970s\n\nAfter the success of Hair, rock musicals flourished in the 1970s, with Jesus Christ Superstar, Godspell, The Rocky Horror Show, Evita, and Two Gentlemen of Verona. Some of these began with \"concept albums\" and then moved to film or stage, such as Tommy. Others had no dialogue or were otherwise reminiscent of opera, with dramatic, emotional themes; these sometimes started as concept albums and were referred to as rock operas. Shows like Raisin, Dreamgirls, Purlie and The Wiz brought a significant African-American influence to Broadway. More varied musical genres and styles were incorporated into musicals both on and especially off-Broadway. At the same time, Stephen Sondheim found success with some of his musicals, as mentioned above.\n\nIn 1975, the dance musical A Chorus Line emerged from recorded group therapy-style sessions Michael Bennett conducted with \"gypsies\" – those who sing and dance in support of the leading players – from the Broadway community. From hundreds of hours of tapes, James Kirkwood, Jr. and Nick Dante fashioned a book about an audition for a musical, incorporating many real-life stories from the sessions; some who attended the sessions eventually played variations of themselves or each other in the show. With music by Marvin Hamlisch and lyrics by Edward Kleban, A Chorus Line first opened at Joseph Papp's Public Theater in lower Manhattan. What initially had been planned as a limited engagement eventually moved to the Shubert Theatre on Broadway for a run of 6,137 performances, becoming the longest-running production in Broadway history up to that time. The show swept the Tony Awards and won the Pulitzer Prize, and its hit song, What I Did for Love, became an instant standard.\n\nBroadway audiences welcomed musicals that varied from the golden age style and substance. John Kander and Fred Ebb explored the rise of Nazism in Germany in Cabaret, and murder and the media in Prohibition-era Chicago, which relied on old vaudeville techniques. Pippin, by Stephen Schwartz, was set in the days of Charlemagne. Federico Fellini's autobiographical film 8½ became Maury Yeston's Nine. At the end of the decade, Evita and Sweeney Todd were precursors of the darker, big budget musicals of the 1980s that depended on dramatic stories, sweeping scores and spectacular effects. At the same time, old-fashioned values were still embraced in such hits as Annie, 42nd Street, My One and Only, and popular revivals of No, No, Nanette and Irene. Although many film versions of musicals were made in the 1970s, few were critical or box office successes, with the notable exceptions of Fiddler on the Roof, Cabaret and Grease. \n\n1980s\n\nThe 1980s saw the influence of European \"mega-musicals\", or \"pop operas\", on Broadway, in the West End and elsewhere. These typically featured a pop-influenced score, had large casts and sets and were identified by their notable effects – a falling chandelier (in The Phantom of the Opera), a helicopter landing on stage (in Miss Saigon) – and big budgets. Many were based on novels or other works of literature. The most important writers of mega-musicals include the French team of Claude-Michel Schönberg and Alain Boublil, responsible for Les Misérables, which became the longest-running international musical hit in history. The team, in collaboration with Richard Maltby, Jr., continued to produce hits, including Miss Saigon, inspired by the Puccini opera Madame Butterfly.\n\nThe British composer Andrew Lloyd Webber saw similar success with Evita, based on the life of Argentina's Eva Perón; Cats, derived from the poems of T. S. Eliot (both of which musicals originally starred Elaine Paige); Starlight Express, performed on roller skates; The Phantom of the Opera, derived from the Gaston Leroux novel, \"Le Fantôme de l'Opéra\"; and Sunset Boulevard (from the classic film of the same name). These works ran (or are still running) for decades in both New York and London and had extraordinary international and touring success. The mega-musicals' huge budgets redefined expectations for financial success on Broadway and in the West End. In earlier years, it was possible for a show to be considered a hit after a run of several hundred performances, but with multimillion-dollar production costs, a show must run for years simply to turn a profit.\n\n1990s\n\nIn the 1990s, a new generation of theatrical composers emerged, including Jason Robert Brown and Michael John LaChiusa, and who began with productions Off-Broadway. The most conspicuous success of these artists was Jonathan Larson's show Rent (1996), a rock musical (based on the opera La bohème) about a struggling community of artists in Manhattan. While the cost of tickets to Broadway and West End musicals was escalating beyond the budget of many theatregoers, Rent was marketed to increase the popularity of musicals among a younger audience. It featured a young cast and a heavily rock-influenced score; the musical became a hit. Its young fans, many of them students, calling themselves RENTheads, camped out at the Nederlander Theatre in hopes of winning the lottery for $20 front row tickets, and some saw the show dozens of times. Other shows on Broadway followed Rents lead by offering heavily discounted day-of-performance or standing-room tickets, although often the discounts are offered only to students. \n\nThe 1990s also saw the influence of large corporations on the production of musicals. The most important has been Disney Theatrical Productions, which began adapting some of Disney's animated film musicals for the stage, starting with Beauty and the Beast (1994), The Lion King (1997) and Aida (2000), the latter two with music by Elton John. The Lion King is the highest-grossing musical in Broadway history. The Who's Tommy (1993), a theatrical adaptation of the rock opera Tommy, achieved a healthy run of 899 performances but was criticized for sanitizing the story and \"musical theatre-izing\" the rock music. \n\nDespite the growing number of large-scale musicals in the 1980s and 1990s, a number of lower-budget, smaller-scale musicals managed to find critical and financial success, such as Falsettoland and Little Shop of Horrors, Bat Boy: The Musical and Blood Brothers. The topics of these pieces vary widely, and the music ranges from rock to pop, but they often are produced off-Broadway, or for smaller London theatres, and some of these stagings have been regarded as imaginative and innovative. \n\n2000s – 2010s\n\n;Trends\nIn the new century, familiarity has been embraced by producers and investors anxious to guarantee that they recoup their considerable investments, if not show a healthy profit. Some took (usually modest-budget) chances on the new and unusual, such as Urinetown (2001), Avenue Q (2003), Caroline or Change (2004), The 25th Annual Putnam County Spelling Bee (2005), The Light in the Piazza (2005), Spring Awakening (2006), In the Heights (2007), Next to Normal (2009) and American Idiot (2010). But most took a safe route with revivals of familiar fare, such as Fiddler on the Roof, A Chorus Line, South Pacific, Gypsy, Hair, West Side Story and Grease, or with other proven material, such as films (The Producers, Spamalot, Hairspray, Legally Blonde, The Color Purple, Xanadu, Billy Elliot and Shrek) or well-known literature (The Scarlet Pimpernel and Wicked) hoping that the shows would have a built-in audience as a result. Some critics consider the reuse of film plots, especially those from Disney (such as Mary Poppins, and The Little Mermaid) a redefinition of the Broadway and West End musical as a tourist attraction, rather than a creative outlet.\n\nToday, it is less likely that a sole producer, such as David Merrick or Cameron Mackintosh, backs a production. Corporate sponsors dominate Broadway, and often alliances are formed to stage musicals, which require an investment of $10 million or more. In 2002, the credits for Thoroughly Modern Millie listed ten producers, and among those names were entities composed of several individuals. Typically, off-Broadway and regional theatres tend to produce smaller and therefore less expensive musicals, and development of new musicals has increasingly taken place outside of New York and London or in smaller venues. For example, Spring Awakening, Grey Gardens, Fun Home and Hamilton were developed Off-Broadway before being launched on Broadway.\n\nSeveral musicals returned to the spectacle format that was so successful in the 1980s, recalling extravaganzas that have been presented at times, throughout theatre history, since the ancient Romans staged mock sea battles. Examples include the musical adaptations of The Lord of the Rings (2007), Gone With the Wind (2008) and Spider-Man: Turn Off the Dark (2011). These musicals involved songwriters with little theatrical experience, and the expensive productions generally lost money. Conversely, The Drowsy Chaperone, Avenue Q, The 25th Annual Putnam County Spelling Bee and Xanadu, among others, have been presented in smaller-scale productions, mostly uninterrupted by an intermission, with short running times, and enjoyed financial success. In 2013, Time magazine reported a trend Off-Broadway has been \"immersive\" theatre, citing shows such as Natasha, Pierre & The Great Comet of 1812 (2012) and Here Lies Love (2013) in which the staging takes place around and within the audience. The shows set a joint record, each receiving 11 nominations for Lucille Lortel Awards. and feature contemporary scores. \n\nIn 2013, Cyndi Lauper was the \"first female composer to win the [Tony for] Best Score without a male collaborator\" for writing the music and lyrics for Kinky Boots. In 2015, for the first time, an all-female writing team, Lisa Kron and Jeanine Tesori, won the Tony Award for Best Original Score (and Best Book for Kron) for Fun Home, although work by male songwriters continues to be produced more often. \n\n;Jukebox musicals\nAnother trend has been to create a minimal plot to fit a collection of songs that have already been hits. Following the earlier success of Buddy - The Buddy Holly Story, these have included Movin' Out (2002, based on the tunes of Billy Joel), Jersey Boys (2006, The Four Seasons), Rock of Ages (2009, featuring classic rock of the 1980s) and many others. This style is often referred to as the \"jukebox musical\".Kaye, Kimberly. [http://www.broadway.com/buzz/152360/broadwaycom-at-10-the-10-biggest-broadway-trends-of-the-decade/ \"Broadway.com at 10: The 10 Biggest Broadway Trends of the Decade\"], Broadway.com, May 10, 2010, accessed August 14, 2012 Similar but more plot-driven musicals have been built around the canon of a particular pop group including Mamma Mia! (1999, based on the songs of ABBA), Our House (2002, based on the songs of Madness), and We Will Rock You (2002, based on the songs of Queen).\n\n;Film and TV musicals\nLive-action film musicals were nearly dead in the 1980s and early 1990s, with exceptions of Victor/Victoria, Little Shop of Horrors and the 1996 film of Evita.Kenrick, John. [http://www.musicals101.com/1980film.htm \"The 1980s\"], History of Musical Film, musicals101.com, accessed July 11, 2014; and Kenrick, John. [http://www.musicals101.com/1990film.htm \"The 1990s: Disney & Beyond\"], History of Musical Film, musicals101.com, accessed July 11, 2014 In the new century, Baz Luhrmann began a revival of the film musical with Moulin Rouge! (2001). This was followed by Chicago in 2002; Phantom of the Opera in 2004; Dreamgirls in 2006; Hairspray, Across the Universe, Enchanted and Sweeney Todd all in 2007; Mamma Mia! in 2008; Nine in 2009; Burlesque in 2010; Les Misérables and Pitch Perfect in 2012, and Into The Woods in 2014. Dr. Seuss's How the Grinch Stole Christmas! (2000) and The Cat in the Hat (2003), turned children's books into live-action film musicals. After the immense success of Disney and other houses with animated film musicals beginning with The Little Mermaid in 1989 and running throughout the 1990s (including some more adult-themed films, like South Park: Bigger, Longer & Uncut (1999)), fewer animated film musicals were released in the first decade of the 21st century. The genre made a comeback beginning in 2010 with Tangled (2010), Rio (2011) and Frozen (2013). In Asia, India continues to produce numerous \"Bollywood\" film musicals, and Japan produces \"Anime\" and \"Manga\" film musicals.\n\nMade for TV musical films were popular in the 1990s, such as Gypsy (1993), Cinderella (1997) and Annie (1999). Several made for TV musicals in the first decade of the 21st century were adaptations of the stage version, such as South Pacific (2001), The Music Man (2003) and Once Upon A Mattress (2005), and a televised version of the stage musical Legally Blonde in 2007. Additionally, several musicals were filmed on stage and broadcast on Public Television, for example Contact in 2002 and Kiss Me, Kate and Oklahoma! in 2003. The made-for-TV musical High School Musical (2006), and its several sequels, enjoyed particular success and were adapted for stage musicals and other media. In 2013, NBC began a series of live television broadcasts of musicals with The Sound of Music Live! Although the production received mixed reviews, it was a ratings success. Further broadcasts have included Peter Pan Live! (NBC 2014), The Wiz Live! (NBC 2015), a UK broadcast, The Sound of Music Live (ITV 2015) and Grease: Live (Fox 2016). \n\nSome television shows have set episodes as a musical. Examples include episodes of Ally McBeal, Xena, the Buffy the Vampire Slayer episode Once More, with Feeling, That's So Raven, Daria, Oz, Scrubs (one episode was written by the creators of Avenue Q), Batman: The Brave and the Bold, episode \"Mayhem of the Music Meister\", and the 100th episode of That '70s Show, called That '70s Musical. Others have included scenes where characters suddenly begin singing and dancing in a musical-theatre style during an episode, such as in several episodes of The Simpsons, 30 Rock, Hannah Montana, South Park and Family Guy. The television series Cop Rock extensively used the musical format, as do the series Flight of the Conchords, Glee and Smash.\n\nThere have also been musicals made for the internet, including Dr. Horrible's Sing-Along Blog, about a low-rent super-villain played by Neil Patrick Harris. It was written during the WGA writer's strike. Since 2006, reality TV shows have been used to help market musical revivals by holding a talent competition to cast (usually female) leads. Examples of these are How Do You Solve a Problem Like Maria?, Grease: You're the One that I Want!, Any Dream Will Do, Legally Blonde - The Musical: The Search for Elle Woods, I'd Do Anything and Over the Rainbow.\n\nInternational musicals\n\nThe U.S. and Britain were the most active sources of book musicals from the 19th century through much of the 20th century (although Europe produced various forms of popular light opera and operetta, for example Spanish Zarzuela, during that period and even earlier). However, the light musical stage in other countries has become more active in recent decades.\n\nMusicals from other English-speaking countries (notably Australia and Canada) often do well locally, and occasionally even reach Broadway or the West End (e.g., The Boy from Oz and The Drowsy Chaperone). South Africa has an active musical theatre scene, with revues like African Footprint and Umoja and book musicals, such as Kat and the Kings and Sarafina! touring internationally. Locally, musicals like Vere, Love and Green Onions, Over the Rainbow: the all-new all-gay... extravaganza and Bangbroek Mountain and In Briefs – a queer little Musical have been produced successfully.\n\nSuccessful musicals from continental Europe include shows from (among other countries) Germany (Elixier and Ludwig II), Austria (Tanz der Vampire, Elisabeth, Mozart! and Rebecca), Czech Republic (Dracula), France (Notre Dame de Paris, Les Misérables, Roméo et Juliette and Mozart, l'opéra rock) and Spain (Hoy No Me Puedo Levantar and The Musical Sancho Panza).\n\nJapan has recently seen the growth of an indigenous form of musical theatre, both animated and live action, mostly based on Anime and Manga, such as Kiki's Delivery Service and Tenimyu. The popular Sailor Moon metaseries has had twenty-nine Sailor Moon musicals, spanning thirteen years. Beginning in 1914, a series of popular revues have been performed by the all-female Takarazuka Revue, which currently fields five performing troupes. Elsewhere in Asia, the Indian Bollywood musical, mostly in the form of motion pictures, is tremendously successful. \n\nHong Kong's first modern musical, produced in both Cantonese and Mandarin, is Snow.Wolf.Lake (1997). Beginning with a 2002 tour of Les Misérables, numerous Western musicals have been imported to mainland China and staged in English.Zhou, Xiaoyan. Taking the Stage, Beijing Review, 2011, p. 42 Attempts at localizing Western productions in China began in 2008 when Fame was produced in Mandarin with a full Chinese cast at the Central Academy of Drama in Beijing. Since then, other western productions have been staged in China in Mandarin with a Chinese cast. The first Chinese production in the style of Western musical theatre was The Gold Sand in 2005. In addition, Li Dun, a well-known Chinese producer, produced Butterflies, based on a classic Chinese love tragedy, in 2007 as well as Love U Teresa in 2011.\n\nOther countries with an especially active musicals scene include the Netherlands, Italy, Poland, Sweden, Mexico, Brazil, Argentina, Russia, and Turkey.\n\nAmateur and school productions\n\nMusicals are often presented by amateur and school groups in churches, schools and other performance spaces. Although amateur theatre has existed for centuries, even in the New World,Lynch, Twink. [http://www.aact.org/community-theatre-history \"Community Theatre History\"], American Association of Community Theatre, accessed March 14, 2016 François Cellier and Cunningham Bridgeman wrote, in 1914, that prior to the late 19th century, amateur actors were treated with contempt by professionals. After the formation of amateur Gilbert and Sullivan companies licensed to perform the Savoy operas, professionals recognized that the amateur societies \"support the culture of music and the drama. They are now accepted as useful training schools for the legitimate stage, and from the volunteer ranks have sprung many present-day favourites.\" The National Operatic and Dramatic Association was founded in the UK in 1899. It reported, in 1914, that nearly 200 amateur dramatic societies were producing Gilbert and Sullivan operas in Britain that year. Similarly, more than 100 community theatres were founded in the US in the early 20th century. This number has grown to an estimated 18,000 in the US. The Educational Theater Association in the US has nearly 5,000 member schools. \n\nRelevance\n\nThe Broadway League announced that in the 2007–08 season, 12.27 million tickets were purchased for Broadway shows for a gross sale amount of almost a billion dollars. The League further reported that during the 2006–07 season, approximately 65% of Broadway tickets were purchased by tourists, and that foreign tourists were 16% of attendees. (These figures do not include off-Broadway and smaller venues.) The Society of London Theatre reported that 2007 set a record for attendance in London. Total attendees in the major commercial and grant-aided theatres in Central London were 13.6 million, and total ticket revenues were £469.7 million. Also, the international musicals scene has been particularly active in recent years. However, Stephen Sondheim has commented:\n\nThe success of original material like Urinetown, Avenue Q, Spelling Bee, In the Heights, The Book of Mormon, as well as creative re-imaginings of film properties, including Thoroughly Modern Millie, Hairspray, Billy Elliot and The Color Purple, and plays or biographies, such as Spring Awakening and Hamilton, prompted theatre historian John Kenrick to write: \"Is the Musical dead? ... Absolutely not! Changing? Always! The musical has been changing ever since Offenbach did his first rewrite in the 1850s. And change is the clearest sign that the musical is still a living, growing genre. Will we ever return to the so-called 'golden age,' with musicals at the center of popular culture? Probably not. Public taste has undergone fundamental changes, and the commercial arts can only flow where the paying public allows.\"", "Someone Like You is a musical with a book by Robin Midgley and Fay Weldon, lyrics by Dee Shipman, and music by Petula Clark.\n\nBased on a concept developed by Clark and Ferdie Pacheco over a period of several years, it is set in West Virginia immediately after the end of the Civil War. Originally entitled Amen, it was conceived as a dark view of the difficulties Southerners faced dealing with carpetbaggers during the Reconstruction period, and also dealt with the problems of morphine-addicted Confederate soldiers returning home. It lost many of its serious overtones as the project evolved; Clark and Shipman's original book was revised substantially by Weldon (who also contributed the new title), and the plot became convoluted, often bordering on the ridiculous. Shipman later stated, \"For all the faults there were in the original book . . . it was better than the hybrid we ended up with because it had passion.\" \n\nThe story centers on Abigail Kane, who journeys to America from her native England with her son Andy in search of her preacher husband, who allegedly had gone to the States to participate in the skirmish between North and South. She comes to the aid of the Major, a doctor struggling to care for a multitude of injured soldiers without benefit of medical supplies, and soon discovers her missing husband is involved in shady dealings not usually associated with a man of the cloth. Drawn together out of both necessity and desire, Abigail and the Major forsake their marital vows and become involved in a passionate romance.\n\nDirected by Midgley, the musical premiered on October 25, 1989 at the Cambridge Arts Theatre in Cambridge, and in his review in the Cambridge Evening News, Alan Kersey wrote, \"Petula Clark proved last night at the world premiere of Someone Like You that she can still work wonders both on stage and in the tough real world of show business.\" The production toured the UK through December 9.\n\nOn March 22, 1990, Someone Like You opened at the Strand Theatre in London's West End. In addition to Clark, it starred Dave Willetts (The Phantom of the Opera) as the Major and Clive Carter as Kane (roles in which Clark had hoped Andy Williams and Sting would be cast). Reviews were mixed, although most critics praised Clark's performance and her contribution to the score.\n\nDue to financial difficulties faced by producer Harold Fielding, all his assets were seized, and the show closed without warning after the April 25 performance. Although an original cast album was never released at the time, Clark's recordings of several of the tunes were issued on various CDs throughout the ensuing years.\n\nA studio recording of the score was released by Sepia Records in May 2007. With arrangements by the show's original musical director and arranger, Kenny Clayton, it features vocals by Debi Doss, Andrew Derbyshire, and Lewis Rae, who appeared in the original production as young Andy. Clayton is featured on piano and keyboards, with David Martin on guitar and Eric Young on percussion.\n\nSong list\n\nIntroduction\nHome Is Where the Heart Is\nHere We Are\nEmpty Spaces\nSomeone Like You\nAll Through the Years\nSo Easy\nWhat You Got!\nGetting the Right Thing Wrong\nI Am What You Need\nYoung 'Un\nLosing You\n*Amen" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Petula Clark", "Petula Clarke", "Pet clark", "Petula Sally Olwen Clark" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "petula clarke", "petula sally olwen clark", "pet clark", "petula clark" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "petula clark", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Petula Clark" }
With which instrument was Charlie Christian associated?	tc_578	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Charlie_Christian.txt" ], "title": [ "Charlie Christian" ], "wiki_context": [ "Charles Henry \"Charlie\" Christian (July 29, 1916 – March 2, 1942) was an American swing and jazz guitarist.\n\nChristian was an important early performer on the electric guitar, and a key figure in the development of bebop and cool jazz. He gained national exposure as a member of the Benny Goodman Sextet and Orchestra from August 1939 to June 1941. His single-string technique, combined with amplification, helped bring the guitar out of the rhythm section and into the forefront as a solo instrument. John Hammond and George T. Simon called Christian the best improvisational talent of the swing era. In the liner notes to the 1972 Columbia album Solo Flight: The Genius of Charlie Christian, Gene Lees writes that, \"Many critics and musicians consider that Christian was one of the founding fathers of bebop, or if not that, at least a precursor to it.\" \n\nChristian's influence reached beyond jazz and swing. In 1990, he was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame under the early influence category. Christian was raised in Oklahoma City and was one of many musicians who jammed along the city's \"Deep Deuce\" section on N.E. Second Street. In 2006 Oklahoma City renamed a street in its Bricktown entertainment district Charlie Christian Avenue.\n\nEarly life\n\nChristian was born in Bonham, Texas, but his family moved to Oklahoma City, Oklahoma when he was a small child. His parents were musicians and he had two brothers, Edward, born in 1906, and Clarence, born in 1911. All three sons were taught music by their father, Clarence Henry Christian. Clarence Henry was struck blind by fever, and in order to support the family he and the boys would work as buskers, on what the Christians called \"busts.\" He would have them lead him into the better neighborhoods where they would perform for cash or goods. When Charles was old enough to go along, he first entertained by dancing. Later he learned guitar, inheriting his father's instruments upon his death when Charles was 12. \n\nHe attended Douglass School in Oklahoma City, and was further encouraged in music by instructor Zelia N. Breaux. Charles wanted to play tenor saxophone in the school band, but she insisted he try trumpet instead. As he believed playing the trumpet would disfigure his lip, he quit to pursue his interest in baseball, at which he excelled. \n\nIn a 1978 interview with Charlie Christian biographer Craig McKinney, Clarence Christian said that in the 1920s and '30s Edward Christian led a band in Oklahoma City as a pianist and had a shaky relationship with trumpeter James Simpson. Around 1931, he took guitarist \"Bigfoot\" Ralph Hamilton and began secretly schooling the younger Charles on jazz. They taught him to solo on three songs, \"Rose Room\", \"Tea for Two\", and \"Sweet Georgia Brown\". When the time was right they took him out to one of the many after-hours jam sessions along \"Deep Deuce\", Northeast Second Street in Oklahoma City.\n\n\"Let Charles play one,\" they told Edward. \"Ah, nobody wants to hear them old blues,\" Edward replied. After some encouragement, he allowed Charles to play. \"What do you want to play?\" he asked. All three songs were big in the early 1930s and Edward was surprised that Charles knew them. After two encores, Charles had played all three and \"Deep Deuce\" was in an uproar. He coolly dismissed himself from the jam session, and his mother had heard about it before he got home.Wayne Goins and Craig McKinney, A Biography of Charlie Christian: Jazz Guitar's King of Swing, pp. 18-20, 137 399\n\nCharles fathered a daughter, Billie Jean Christian (December 23, 1932 – July 19, 2004) by Margretta Lorraine Downey of Oklahoma City, Oklahoma.\n\nCharles soon was performing locally and on the road throughout the Midwest, as far away as North Dakota and Minnesota. By 1936 he was playing electric guitar and had become a regional attraction. He jammed with many of the big name performers traveling through Oklahoma City including Teddy Wilson and Art Tatum. It was Mary Lou Williams, pianist for \"Andy Kirk and His Clouds of Joy\", who told record producer John Hammond about Charlie Christian. \n\nNational fame\n\nIn 1939, Christian auditioned for John Hammond, who recommended him to bandleader Benny Goodman. Goodman was the fourth white bandleader to feature black musicians in his live band: the first was Jimmy Durante, for whom Achille Baquet, a light-skinned black clarinetist who could pass as white, played and recorded in Durante's Original New Orleans Jazz Band (1918–1920); the second was violinist Arthur Hand, who led the California Ramblers, which from 1922-1925 included light-skinned black trumpeter Bill Moore, who was billed as The Hot Hawaiian. The third was Ben Bernie, whose band from 1925-1928 also featured Bill Moore. Goodman became the fourth by bringing Teddy Wilson in on piano in 1935, and Lionel Hampton on vibraphone in 1936. Goodman hired Christian to play with the newly formed Goodman Sextet in September 1939. \n\nIt has been claimed that Goodman was initially uninterested in hiring Christian because the electric guitar was a relatively new instrument. Goodman had been exposed to the instrument with Floyd Smith and Leonard Ware among others, none of whom had the ability of Christian. There is a report of Goodman unsuccessfully trying to buy out Floyd Smith's contract from Andy Kirk. However, Goodman was so impressed by Christian's playing that he hired him instead.\n]\nThere are several versions of the first meeting of Christian and Goodman on August 16, 1939. The encounter that afternoon at the recording studio had not gone well. Christian recalled in a 1940 Metronome magazine article, \"I guess neither one of us liked what I played,\" but Hammond decided to try again—without consulting Goodman. (Christian says Goodman invited him to the show that evening.) \n\nHe installed Christian on the bandstand for that night's set at the Victor Hugo restaurant in Los Angeles. Displeased at the surprise, Goodman called Rose Room, a tune he assumed Christian would be unfamiliar with. Unknown to Goodman, Charles had been reared on the tune, and he came in with his first chorus of about twenty, all of them different, all unlike anything Goodman had heard before. That version of Rose Room lasted forty minutes. By its end, Christian was in the band. In the course of a few days, Christian went from making $2.50 a night to $150 a week.\n\nChristian was placed in Goodman's new sextet, which included Lionel Hampton, Fletcher Henderson, Artie Bernstein and Nick Fatool. By February 1940 Christian dominated the jazz and swing guitar polls and was elected to the Metronome All Stars. In the spring of 1940 Goodman let most of his entourage go in a reorganization move. He retained Christian, and in the fall of that year Goodman led a sextet with Christian, Count Basie, longtime Duke Ellington trumpeter Cootie Williams, former Artie Shaw tenor saxophonist Georgie Auld and later drummer Dave Tough. This all-star band dominated the jazz polls in 1941, including another election to the Metronome All Stars for Christian. Johnny Guarnieri, who replaced Henderson in the first sextet, filled the piano chair in Basie's absence.\n\nIn 1966, 24 years after his death, Christian was inducted into the Down Beat Jazz Hall of Fame. In 1989, Christian became one of the first inductees into the Oklahoma Jazz Hall of Fame.\n\nStyle and influences\n\nChristian's solos are frequently referred to as horn-like, and in that sense he was more influenced by horn players such as Lester Young and Herschel Evans than by early acoustic guitarists like Eddie Lang and jazz/bluesman Lonnie Johnson, although they both had contributed to the expansion of the guitar's role from \"rhythm section\" instrument to a solo instrument. Christian admitted he wanted his guitar to sound like a tenor saxophone. French gypsy jazz guitarist Django Reinhardt had little influence on Christian, but he was obviously familiar with some of his recordings.Leonard Feather, \"Inside Jazz\" Guitarist Mary Osborne recalled hearing him play Django's solo on \"St. Louis Blues\" note for note, but then following it with his own ideas.\n\nBy 1939 there had already been electric guitar soloists—Leonard Ware, George Barnes, trombonist/composer (\"Topsy\") Eddie Durham had recorded with Count Basie's Kansas City Six, Floyd Smith recorded \"Floyd's Guitar Blues\" with Andy Kirk in March 1939, using an amplified lap steel guitar, and Texas Swing pioneer Eldon Shamblin was using amplified electric guitar with Bob Wills.\n\nChristian paved the way for the modern electric guitar sound that was followed by other pioneers, including T-Bone Walker, Eddie Cochran, Cliff Gallup, Scotty Moore, Franny Beecher, B.B. King, Chuck Berry, Carlos Santana and Jimi Hendrix. For this reason Christian was inducted in 1990 into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. \n\nChristian's exposure was so great in the brief period he played with Goodman that he influenced not only guitarists, but other musicians as well. The influence he had on \"Dizzy\" Gillespie, Charlie Parker, Thelonious Monk and Don Byas can be heard on their early \"bop\" recordings \"Blue'n Boogie\" and \"Salt Peanuts\". Other musicians, such as trumpeter Miles Davis, cite Christian as an early influence. Indeed, Christian's \"new\" sound influenced jazz as a whole. He reigned supreme in the jazz guitar polls up to two years after his death. Earth/Black Sabbath's first manager Jim Simpson describes the band's first song, \"A Song for Jim\" as an “absolute Charlie Christian takeoff.”Black Sabbath FAQ, Martin Popoff; Backbeat Books, 2011.\n\nBebop and Minton's Playhouse\n\nCharlie Christian was an important contributor to the music that became known as \"bop\" or \"Bebop\". Some of the participants in those early after-hours affairs at Minton's Playhouse, where be-bop was born, credit Charlie with the name \"be-bop,\" citing his humming of phrases as the onomatopoetic origin of the term.Feather, L. (1960). The New Edition of the Encyclopedia of Jazz. Horizon Press: New York. \n\nPrivate recordings made in September 1939 in Minneapolis, Minnesota by Goodman aficionado Jerry Newhouse capture the newly hired Christian while on the road with Goodman and feature Goodman tenor sax man Jerry Jerome and then local bass man Oscar Pettiford. Taking multiple solos, Christian shows much the same improvisational skills later captured on the Minton's and Monroe's recordings in 1941, suggesting that he had already matured as a musician. The Minneapolis recordings include \"Stardust\", \"Tea for Two\", and \"I've Got Rhythm\", the latter a favorite piece of bop composers and jammers.\n\nAn even more striking example is a series of recordings made at Minton's Playhouse, an after-hours club located in the Hotel Cecil at 210 West 118th Street in Harlem by Columbia student Jerry Newman on a portable disk recorder in 1941. Newman captured Christian, accompanied by Joe Guy on trumpet, Kenny Kersey on piano and Kenny Clarke on drums. \n\nHis use of tension and release, a technique employed by Lester Young, Count Basie and later bop musicians, is also present on \"Stompin' at the Savoy\", included among the Newman recordings. The collection also includes recordings made at Clark Monroe's Uptown House, another late-night jazz haunt in the Harlem of 1941 that include Oran \"Hot Lips\" Page. Other recordings include tenor sax man Don Byas. The Minton's recordings were long rumored to feature \"Dizzy\" Gillespie and Thelonious Monk, but that has since been proven untrue, although both were regulars at the jam sessions, with Monk a regular in the Minton's house band.\n\nKenny Clarke claimed that Epistrophy and Rhythm-a-Ning were Charlie Christian compositions that Christian played with Clarke and Thelonious Monk at Minton's jam sessions. The Rhythm-a-ning line is heard on Down on Teddy's Hill, and behind the introduction on Guy's Got To Go from the Newman recordings. It is also a line from Mary Lou Williams' Walkin' and Swingin.\n\nClarke said Christian first showed him the chords to Epistrophy on a ukulele. These recordings have been packaged under a number of different titles, including After Hours and The Immortal Charlie Christian. While the recording quality of many of these sessions is poor, they show Christian stretching out much longer than he could on the Benny Goodman sides. On the Minton's and Monroe's recordings, Christian can be heard taking multiple choruses on a single tune, playing long stretches of melodic ideas with ease. \n\nChristian was just as adept with understatement as well. His work on the Goodman sextet sides Soft Winds, Till Tom Special, and A Smo-o-o-oth One, show his use of very few, well placed melodic notes. His work on the Sextet's recordings of ballads Stardust, Memories of You, Poor Butterfly, I Surrender Dear and On the Alamo as well as his work on Profoundly Blue with the Edmond Hall Celeste Quartet (1941) show hints of what was later called cool jazz. Although credited for very few, Christian composed many of the original tunes recorded by the Benny Goodman Sextet. \n\nHealth and death\n\nIn the late 1930s Christian had contracted tuberculosis and in early 1940 was hospitalized for a short period in which the Goodman group was on hiatus due to Goodman's back trouble. Goodman was hospitalized in the summer of 1940 after the band's brief stay at Santa Catalina Island, California, where the group stayed when on the west coast. Christian returned home to Oklahoma City in late July 1940 before returning to New York City in September 1940. In early 1941, Christian resumed his hectic lifestyle, heading to Harlem for late-night jam sessions after finishing gigs with the Goodman Sextet and Orchestra in New York City. In June 1941 he was admitted to Seaview, a sanitarium on Staten Island in New York City. He was reported to be making progress, and Down Beat magazine reported in February 1942 that he and Cootie Williams were starting a band. \n\nAfter a visit that same month to the hospital by tap dancer and drummer Marion Joseph \"Taps\" Miller, Christian declined in health and died March 2, 1942. He was 25 years old. He was buried in an unmarked grave in Bonham, Texas, and a Texas State Historical Commission Marker and headstone were placed in Gates Hill Cemetery in 1994. The location of the historical marker and headstone was disputed, and in March 2013, Fannin County, Texas, recognized that the marker was in the wrong spot and that Christian is buried under the concrete slab. \n\nDiscography\n\nAs leader\n\nAlthough Christian never recorded professionally as a leader, compilations have been released of his sessions as a sideman where he is a featured soloist, of practice and warm-up recordings for these sessions, and some lower-quality recordings of Christian's own groups performing in nightclubs, by amateur technicians.\nElectric (Uptown Records, 2011, UPCD27-63), with the Benny Goodman Sextet and the Charlie Christian Quartet\nCharlie Christian with the Benny Goodman Sextet and Orchestra (Columbia lp CL652-195?)\nSolo Flight: The Genius of Charlie Christian (Columbia, 1972)\nSolo Flight (live performances as member of the Benny Goodman Sextet, Vintage Jazz Classics, 2003)\nGenius of the Electric Guitar (Columbia, 1939–1941 recordings)\nGuitar Wizard (LeJazz, 1993 Charly Holdings Inc.)\nLive At Minton's Playhouse 1941\n\nAs sideman\n\nWith Dizzy Gillespie\nThe Complete RCA Victor Recordings (Bluebird, 1937–1949 [1995])\n\nFilmography\n\n* 2005 Solo Flight: The Genius of Charlie Christian\n* 2007 Charlie Christian- The Life & Music of the Legendary Jazz Guitarist (Grossman Guitar Workshop)\n\nNotes" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Saddle (guitar)", "Guitar tone", "Guitar music", "Geetar", "Guitar components", "Belly Fiddler", "The guitar", "Gitarre", "Guitar history", "Gitfiddle", "Kinds of guitars", "Gutiar", "Guitar", "Guiatar", "🎸", "Gitiar", "Strap lock system", "Types of guitars", "Guitar Lessons", "Parts of the guitar", "Guitar lesson", "Archguitar", "Guitars", "6-string guitar", "Guiatr", "Left handed guitar", "Playing guitars", "Guitariste", "Guitar instruction", "Six-string guitar", "Black Plastic Guitar Case", "Rock guitar", "Gitar", "Usa Guitar", "Giutar", "Guitar strap", "Strap Lock System", "Gatar" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "strap lock system", "archguitar", "gatar", "guitar lesson", "gitfiddle", "🎸", "guitar lessons", "guitar music", "guiatar", "guitar history", "6 string guitar", "six string guitar", "rock guitar", "left handed guitar", "gitiar", "types of guitars", "guitar tone", "guitariste", "guitar strap", "black plastic guitar case", "usa guitar", "gutiar", "guitar", "guitar components", "giutar", "guitar instruction", "gitar", "saddle guitar", "playing guitars", "parts of guitar", "guiatr", "gitarre", "belly fiddler", "kinds of guitars", "geetar", "guitars" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "guitar", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Guitar" }
In which country is the Howrah bridge?	tc_579	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Howrah_Bridge.txt" ], "title": [ "Howrah Bridge" ], "wiki_context": [ "Howrah Bridge is a cantilever bridge with a suspended span over the Hooghly River in West Bengal, India. Commissioned in 1943, the bridge was originally named the New Howrah Bridge, because it replaced a pontoon bridge at the same location linking the two cities of Howrah and Kolkata (Calcutta). On 14 June 1965 it was renamed Rabindra Setu after the great Bengali poet Rabindranath Tagore, who was the first Indian and Asian Nobel laureate. It is still popularly known as the Howrah Bridge.\n\nThe bridge is one of four on the Hooghly River and is a famous symbol of Kolkata and West Bengal. The other bridges are the Vidyasagar Setu (popularly called the Second Hooghly Bridge), the Vivekananda Setu, and the newly built Nivedita Setu. It weathers the storms of the Bay of Bengal region, carrying a daily traffic of approximately 100,000 vehicles and possibly more than 150,000 pedestrians, easily making it the busiest cantilever bridge in the world. The third-longest cantilever bridge at the time of its construction, the Howrah Bridge is currently the sixth-longest bridge of its type in the world. \n\nHistory\n\n1862 proposal by Turnbull\n\nIn 1862, the Government of Bengal asked George Turnbull, Chief Engineer of the East India Railway Company to study the feasibility of bridging the Hooghly River — he had recently established the company's rail terminus in Howrah. He reported on 29 March with large-scale drawings and estimates that: \n#The foundations for a bridge at Calcutta would be at a considerable depth and cost because of the depth of the mud there.\n#The impediment to shipping would be considerable.\n#A good place for the bridge was at Pulta Ghat \"about a dozen miles north of Calcutta\" where a \"bed of stiff clay existed at no great depth under the river bed\".\n#A suspended-girder bridge of five spans of 400 feet and two spans of 200 feet would be ideal.\nThe bridge was not built.\n\nPontoon bridge\n\nIn view of the increasing traffic across the Hooghly river, a committee was appointed in 1855-56 to review alternatives for constructing a bridge across it. The plan was shelved in 1859-60, to be revived in 1868, when it was decided that a bridge should be constructed and a newly appointed trust vested to manage it. The Calcutta Port Trust was founded in 1870, and the Legislative department of the then Government of Bengal passed the Howrah Bridge Act in the year 1871 under the Bengal Act IX of 1871, empowering the Lieutenant-Governor to have the bridge constructed with Government capital under the aegis of the Port Commissioners. \n\nEventually a contract was signed with Sir Bradford Leslie to construct a pontoon bridge. Different parts were constructed in England and shipped to Calcutta, where they were assembled. The assembling period was fraught with problems. The bridge was considerably damaged by the great cyclone on 20 March 1874. A steamer named Egeria broke from her moorings and collided head-on with the bridge, sinking three pontoons and damaging nearly 200 feet of the bridge. The bridge was completed in 1874, at a total cost of 2.2 million, and opened to traffic on 17 October of that year. The bridge was then 1528 ft. long and 62 ft. wide, with 7-foot wide pavements on either side. Initially the bridge was periodically unfastened to allow steamers and other marine vehicles to pass through. Before 1906, the bridge used to be undone for the passage of vessels during daytime only. Since June of that year it started opening at night for all vessels except ocean steamers, which were required to pass through during daytime. From 19 August 1879, the bridge was illuminated by electric lamp-posts, powered by the dynamo at the Mullick Ghat Pumping Station. As the bridge could not handle the rapidly increasing load, the Port Commissioners started planning in 1905 for a new improved bridge.\n\nPlans for a new bridge\n\nIn 1906 the Port Commission appointed a committee headed by R.S. Highet, Chief Engineer, East Indian Railway and W.B. MacCabe, Chief Engineer, Calcutta Corporation. They submitted a report stating that\n\nThe committee considered six options:\n# Large ferry steamers capable of carrying vehicular load (set up cost 900,000, annual cost 437,000)\n# A transporters bridge (set up cost 2 million)\n# A tunnel (set up cost 338.2 million, annual maintenance cost 1779,000)\n# A bridge on piers (set up cost 22.5 million)\n# A floating bridge (set up cost 2140,000, annual maintenance cost 200,000)\n# An arched bridge\nThe committee eventually decided on a floating bridge. It extended tenders to 23 firms for its design and construction. Prize money of £ 3,000 (45,000, at the then exchange rate) was declared for the firm whose design would be accepted.\n\nPlanning and estimation\n\nThe initial construction process of the bridge was stalled due to the World War I, although the bridge was partially renewed in 1917 and 1927. In 1921 a committee of engineers named the 'Mukherjee Committee' was formed, headed by Sir R.N. Mukherjee, Sir Clement Hindley, Chairman of Calcutta Port Trust and J. McGlashan, Chief Engineer. They referred the matter to Sir Basil Mott, who proposed a single span arch bridge.\n\nIn 1922 the New Howrah Bridge Commission was set up, to which the Mukherjee Committee submitted its report. In 1926 the New Howrah Bridge Act passed. In 1930 the Goode Committee was formed, comprising S.W. Goode as President, S.N. Mallick, and W.H. Thompson, to investigate and report on the advisability of constructing a pier bridge between Calcutta and Howrah. Based on their recommendation, M/s. Rendel, Palmer and Tritton were asked to consider the construction of a suspension bridge of a particular design prepared by their chief draftsman Mr. Walton. On basis of the report, a global tender was floated. The lowest bid came from a German company, but due to increasing political tensions between Germany and Great Britain in 1935, it was not given the contract. The Braithwaite Burn and Jessop Construction Company Limited was awarded the construction contract that year. The New Howrah Bridge Act was amended in 1935 to reflect this, and construction of the bridge started the next year.\n\nConstruction\n\nThe bridge does not have nuts and bolts, but was formed by riveting the whole structure. It consumed 26,500 tons of steel, out of which 23,000 tons of high-tensile alloy steel, known as Tiscrom, were supplied by Tata Steel. The main tower was constructed with single monolith caissons of dimensions 55.31 x 24.8 m with 21 shafts, each 6.25 metre square. The Chief Engineer of the Port Trust, Mr. J. McGlashan, wanted to replace the pontoon bridge, with a permanent structure, as the present bridge interfered with North/South river traffic. Work could not be started as World War I (1914-1918) broke out. Then in 1926 a commission under the Chairmanship of Sir R. N. Mukherjee recommended a suspension bridge of a particular type to be built across the River Hoogly. The bridge was designed by one Mr.Walton of M/s Rendel, Palmer & Triton. The order for construction and erection was placed on M/s.Cleveland Bridge & Engineering Company in 1939. Again World War II (1939-1945 ) intervened. All the steel that was to come from England were diverted for war effort in Europe. Out of 26,000 tons of steel, that was required for the bridge, only 3000 tons were supplied from England. In spite of the Japanese threat the then ( British ) Government of India pressed on with the construction. Tata Steel were asked to supply the remaining 23,000 tons of high tension steel. The Tatas developed the quality of steel required for the bridge and called it Tiscom. The entire 23,000 tons was supplied in time. The fabrication and erection work was awarded to a local engineering firm of Howrah - The Braithwaite Burn & Jessop Construction Company. The two anchorage caissons were each 16.4 m by 8.2 m, with two wells 4.9 m square. The caissons were so designed that the working chambers within the shafts could be temporarily enclosed by steel diaphragms to allow work under compressed air if required. The caisson at Kolkata side was set at 31.41 m and that at Howrah side at 26.53 m below ground level.\n\nOne night, during the process of grabbing out the muck to enable the caisson to move, the ground below it yielded, and the entire mass plunged two feet, shaking the ground. The impact of this was so intense that the seismograph at Kidderpore registered it as an earthquake and a Hindu temple on the shore was destroyed, although it was subsequently rebuilt. While muck was being cleared, numerous varieties of objects were brought up, including anchors, grappling irons, cannons, cannonballs, brass vessels, and coins dating back to the East India Company.\nThe job of sinking the caissons was carried out round-the-clock at a rate of a foot or more per day. The caissons were sunk through soft river deposits to a stiff yellow clay 26.5 m below ground level. The accuracy of sinking the huge caissons was exceptionally precise, within 50–75 mm of the true position. After penetrating 2.1 m into clay, all shafts were plugged with concrete after individual dewatering, with some 5 m of backfilling in adjacent shafts. The main piers on the Howrah side were sunk by open wheel dredging, while those on the Kolkata side required compressed air to counter running sand. The air pressure maintained was about 40 lbs per square inch (2.8 bar), which required about 500 workers to be employed. Whenever excessively soft soil was encountered, the shafts symmetrical to the caisson axes were left unexcavated to allow strict control. In very stiff clays, a large number of the internal wells were completely undercut, allowing the whole weight of the caisson to be carried by the outside skin friction and the bearing under the external wall. Skin friction on the outside of the monolith walls was estimated at 29 kN/m2 while loads on the cutting edge in clay overlying the founding stratum reached 100 tonnes/m. The work on the foundation was completed on November 1938.\n\nBy the end of 1940, the erection of the cantilevered arms was commenced and was completed in mid-summer of 1941. The two halves of the suspended span, each 282 feet (86 m) long and weighing 2,000 tons, were built in December 1941. The bridge was erected by commencing at the two anchor spans and advancing towards the center, with the use of creeper cranes moving along the upper chord. 16 hydraulic jacks, each of which had an 800-ton capacity, were pressed into service to join the two halves of the suspended span.\n\nThe entire project cost 25 million (£2,463,887). The project was a pioneer in bridge construction, particularly in India, but the government did not have a formal opening of the bridge due to fears of attacks by Japanese planes fighting the Allied Powers. Japan had attacked the United States at Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941. The first vehicle to use the bridge was a solitary tram.\n\nDescription\n\nSpecifications\n\nWhen commissioned in 1943, Howrah was the 3rd-longest cantilever bridge in the world, behind Pont de Québec (549 m) in Canada and Forth Bridge (521 m) in Scotland. It has since been surpassed by three bridges, making it the sixth-longest cantilever bridge in the world in 2013. It is a Suspension type Balanced Cantilever bridge, with a central span between centers of main towers and a suspended span of 564 ft. The main towers are 280 ft high above the monoliths and 76 ft apart at the top. The anchor arms are 325 ft each, while the cantilever arms are 468 ft each. The bridge deck hangs from panel points in the lower chord of the main trusses with 39 pairs of hangers. The roadways beyond the towers are supported from ground, leaving the anchor arms free from deck load. The deck system includes cross girders suspended between the pairs of hangers by a pinned connection. Six rows of longitudinal stringer girders are arranged between cross girders. Floor beams are supported transversally on top of the stringers, while themselves supporting a continuous pressed steel troughing system surfaced with concrete.\n\nThe longitudinal expansion and lateral sway movement of the deck are taken care of by expansion and articulation joints. There are two main expansion joints, one at each interface between the suspended span and the cantilever arms, and there are others at the towers and at the interface of the steel and concrete structures at both approach. There are total 8 articulation joints, 3 at each of the cantilever arms and 1 each in the suspended portion. These joints divide the bridge into segments with vertical pin connection between them to facilitate rotational movements of the deck. The bridge deck has longitudinal ruling gradient of 1 in 40 from either end, joined by a vertical curve of radius . The cross gradient of deck is 1 in 48 between kerbs.\n\nTraffic\n\nThe bridge serves as the gateway to Kolkata, connecting it to the Howrah Station, which is one of the four intercity train stations serving Howrah and Kolkata. As such, it carries the near entirety of the traffic to and from the station, taking its average daily traffic close to nearly 150,000 pedestrians and 100,000 vehicles. In 1946 a census was taken to take a count of the daily traffic, it amounted to 27,400 vehicles, 121,100 pedestrians and 2,997 cattle. The bulk of the vehicular traffic comes from buses and cars. Prior to 1993 the bridge used to carry trams also. Trams departed from the terminus at Howrah station towards Rajabazar, Sealdah, High Court, Dalhousie Square, Park Circus and Shyambazar. From 1993 the tram services on the bridge were discontinued due to increasing load on the bridge. However the bridge still continues to carry much more than the expected load. A 2007 report revealed that nearly 90,000 vehicles were plying on the bridge daily (15,000 of which were goods-carrying), though its load-bearing capacity is only 60,000. One of the main reasons of overloading was that although vehicles carrying up to 15 tonnes are allowed on the structure, vehicles with 12-18 wheels and carrying load up to 25 tonnes often plied on it. 31 May 2007 onwards, overloaded trucks were banned from plying on the bridge, and were redirected to the Vidyasagar Setu instead. The road is flanked by footpaths of width 15 feet, and they swarm with pedestrians.\n\nMaintenance\n\nThe Kolkata Port Trust (KoPT) is vested with the maintenance of the bridge. The bridge has been subject to damage from vehicles due to rash driving, and corrosion due to atmospheric conditions and biological wastes. On October 2008, 6 high-tech surveillance cameras were placed to monitor the entire 705 m long and 30 m wide structure from the control room. Two of the cameras were placed under the floor of the bridge to track the movement of barges, steamers and boats on the river, while the other four were fixed to the first layer of beams — one at each end and two in the middle — to monitor vehicle movements. This was in response to substantial damage caused to the bridge from collisions with vehicles, so that compensation could be claimed from the miscreants. \n\nCorrosion has been caused by bird droppings and human spitting. An investigation in 2003 revealed that as a result of prolonged chemical reaction caused by continuous collection of bird excreta, several joints and parts of the bridge were damaged. As an immediate measure, the Kolkata Port Trust engaged contractors to regularly clean the bird droppings, at an annual expense of . In 2004, KoPT spent to paint the entirety of of the bridge. Two coats of aluminium paint, with a primer of zinc chromate before that, was applied on the bridge, requiring a total of 26,500 litres of paint. \n\nThe bridge is also considerably damaged by human spitting. A technical inspection by Port Trust officials in 2011 revealed that spitting had reduced the thickness of the steel hoods protecting the pillars from six to less than three millimeters since 2007. The hangers need those hoods at the base to prevent water seeping into the junction of the cross-girders and hangers, and damage to the hoods can jeopardize the safety of the bridge. KoPT announced that it will spend on covering the base of the steel pillars with fibreglass casing to prevent spit from corroding them. \n\nOn 24 June 2005, a private cargo vessel M V Mani, belonging to the Ganges Water Transport Pvt. Ltd, while trying to pass under the bridge during high tide, had its funnel stuck underneath for three hours, causing substantial damage worth about 15 million to the stringer and longitudinal girder of the bridge. Some of the 40 cross-girders were also broken. Two of four trolley guides, bolted and welded with the girders, were extensively damaged. Nearly 350 m of 700 m of the track were twisted beyond repair. The damage was so severe that KoPT requested help from Rendall-Palmer & Tritton Limited, the original consultant on the bridge from UK. KoPT also contacted SAIL to provide 'matching steel' used during its construction in 1943, for the repairs. For the repair costing around , about 8 tonnes of steel was used. The repairs were completed in early 2006. \n\nCultural significance\n\nThe bridge has been shown in numerous films, such as Bimal Roy's 1953 film Do Bigha Zamin, Ritwik Ghatak's Bari Theke Paliye in 1958, Satyajit Ray's Parash Pathar in the same year, Mrinal Sen's Neel Akasher Neechey in 1959, Shakti Samanta's Howrah Bridge (1958), that featured the famous song Mera Naam Chin Chin Chu and China Town (1962) and Amar Prem (1971), Amar Jeet's 1965 Teen Devian in 1965, Mrinal Sen's 1972 National Award winning Bengali film Calcutta 71 and Sen's Calcutta Trilogy its sequel in 1973, Padatik, Richard Attenborough's 1982 Academy Award winning film Gandhi, Goutam Ghose's 1984 Hindi film Paar, Raj Kapoor's Ram Teri Ganga Maili in 1985, Nicolas Klotz's The Bengali Night in 1988, Roland Joffé's English language film City of Joy in 1992, Florian Gallenberger's Bengali film Shadows of Time in 2004, Mani Ratnam's Bollywood film Yuva in 2004, Pradeep Sarkar's 2005 Bollywood film Parineeta, Subhrajit Mitra's 2008 Bengali film Mon Amour: Shesher Kobita Revisited, Mira Nair's 2006 film The Namesake, Blessy's 2008 Malayalam Film Calcutta News, Surya Sivakumar's 2009 Tamil film Aadhavan, Imtiaz Ali's 2009 Hindi film Love Aaj Kal, Abhik Mukhopadhyay's 2010 Bengali film Ekti Tarar Khonje, Sujoy Ghosh's 2012 Bollywood film Kahaani, Anurag Basu's 2012 Hindi film Barfi!, Riingo Banerjee's 2012 Bengali film Na Hannyate, Rana Basu's 2013 Bengali film Namte Namte, and Ali Abbas Zafar's 2014 Hindi film Gunday and the 2015 YRF release from director Dibakar Banerjee's Detective Byomkesh Bakshy! also features some scenes on this iconic bridge." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "ഭാരത മഹാരാജ്യം", "هندستانڀارت،", "भारतीय गणराज्याच्या", "Bhārtiya Prajāsattāk", "Indian Republic", "ভারতরাষ্টৃ", "Indian republic", "ಭಾರತ ಗಣರಾಜ್ಯ", "Union of India", "இந்தியக் குடியரசு", "भारतीय प्रजासत्ताक", "India (country)", "ISO 3166-1:IN", "Indea", "Etymology of India", "ভারত গণরাজ্য", "Republic Of India", "INDIA", "ભારતીય ગણતંત્ર", "ভারত", "Republic of India", "Les Indes", "Bhārat Gaṇarājya", "جمہوٗرِیت بًارت", "भारतमहाराज्यम्", "Indya", "Bharat Ganrajya", "جمہوریہ بھارت", "இந்திய", "ଭାରତ ଗଣରାଜ୍ଯ", "भारत गणराज्य", "Republic of india", "जुम्हूरियत भारत", "Hindio", "The Republic of India", "భారత గణతంత్ర రాజ్యము", "India's", "Hindistan", "ਭਾਰਤ ਗਣਤੰਤਰ", "Bhart", "India", "భారత రిపబ్లిక్", "India.", "ভাৰত গণৰাজ্য", "Indian State", "ISO 3166-1 alpha-3/IND", "ভারতীয় প্রজাতন্ত্র" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "భారత గణతంత్ర రాజ్యము", "భారత రిపబ్లిక్", "bhārtiya prajāsattāk", "republic of india", "ভারত", "hindio", "ਭਾਰਤ ਗਣਤੰਤਰ", "भारतीय प्रजासत्ताक", "ભારતીય ગણતંત્ર", "indea", "ভারত গণরাজ্য", "இந்தியக் குடியரசு", "india country", "les indes", "هندستانڀارت،", "etymology of india", "भारतमहाराज्यम्", "india", "جمہوٗرِیت بًارت", "भारतीय गणराज्याच्या", "ভারতরাষ্টৃ", "india s", "ভারতীয় প্রজাতন্ত্র", "ഭാരത മഹാരാജ്യം", "bhārat gaṇarājya", "ভাৰত গণৰাজ্য", "ଭାରତ ଗଣରାଜ୍ଯ", "இந்திய", "जुम्हूरियत भारत", "union of india", "hindistan", "indya", "bhart", "iso 3166 1 in", "bharat ganrajya", "भारत गणराज्य", "indian republic", "ಭಾರತ ಗಣರಾಜ್ಯ", "indian state", "جمہوریہ بھارت", "iso 3166 1 alpha 3 ind" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "india", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "India" }
What are the international registration letters of a vehicle from Brunei?	tc_581	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Brunei.txt" ], "title": [ "Brunei" ], "wiki_context": [ "Brunei (, ), officially the Nation of Brunei, the Abode of Peace (, Jawi: ), is a sovereign state located on the north coast of the island of Borneo in Southeast Asia. Apart from its coastline with the South China Sea, the country is completely surrounded by the state of Sarawak, Malaysia. It is separated into two parts by the Sarawak district of Limbang. Brunei is the only sovereign state completely on the island of Borneo; the remainder of the island's territory is divided between the nations of Malaysia and Indonesia. Brunei's population was 408,786 in July 2012.\n\nAt the peak of the Bruneian Empire, Sultan Bolkiah (reigned 1485–1528) is alleged to have had control over most regions of Borneo, including modern-day Sarawak and Sabah, as well as the Sulu archipelago off the northeast tip of Borneo, Seludong (modern-day Manila), and the islands off the northwest tip of Borneo. The maritime state was visited by Spain's Magellan Expedition in 1521 and fought against Spain in the 1578 Castille War.\n\nDuring the 19th century, the Bruneian Empire began to decline. The Sultanate ceded Sarawak (Kuching) to James Brooke and installed him as the White Rajah, and it ceded Sabah to the British North Borneo Chartered Company. In 1888, Brunei became a British protectorate and was assigned a British resident as colonial manager in 1906. After the Japanese occupation during World War II, in 1959 a new constitution was written. In 1962, a small armed rebellion against the monarchy was ended with the help of the British. \n\nBrunei gained its independence from the United Kingdom on 1 January 1984. Economic growth during the 1990s and 2000s, with the GDP increasing 56% from 1999 to 2008, transformed Brunei into an industrialised country. It has developed wealth from extensive petroleum and natural gas fields. Brunei has the second-highest Human Development Index among the Southeast Asia nations, after Singapore, and is classified as a \"developed country\". According to the International Monetary Fund (IMF), Brunei is ranked fifth in the world by gross domestic product per capita at purchasing power parity. The IMF estimated, in 2011, that Brunei was one of two countries (the other being Libya) with a public debt at 0% of the national GDP. Forbes also ranks Brunei as the fifth-richest nation out of 182, based on its petroleum and natural gas fields. \n\nEtymology\n\nAccording to legend, Brunei was founded by Awang Alak Betatar, later to be Sultan Muhammad Shah. He moved from Garang, a place in the Temburong District to the Brunei River estuary, discovering Brunei. According to legend, upon landing he exclaimed, Baru nah (loosely translated as \"that's it!\" or \"there\"), from which the name \"Brunei\" was derived. He was the first Muslim ruler of Brunei. Before the rise of the Bruneian Empire under the Muslim Bolkiah Dynasty, Brunei is believed to have been under Buddhist rulers. \n\nIt was renamed \"Barunai\" in the 14th century, possibly influenced by the Sanskrit word \"'\" (), meaning \"seafarers\". The word \"Borneo\" is of the same origin. In the country's full name, ', ' () means \"abode of peace\", while ' means \"country\" in Malay.\n\nThe earliest recorded documentation by the West about Brunei is by an Italian known as Ludovico di Varthema, who also said the \"Bruneian people have fairer skin tone than the peoples he met in Maluku Islands\". On his documentation back to 1550;\n\nWe arrived at the island of Bornei (Brunei or Borneo), which is distant from the Maluch about two hundred miles, and we found that it was somewhat larger than the aforesaid and much lower. The people are pagans and are men of goodwill. Their colour is whiter than that of the other sort....in this island justice is well administered... \n\nHistory\n\nEarly history\n\nOne of the earliest Chinese records is the 977 AD letter to Chinese emperor from the ruler of Po-ni, which some scholars believe to refer to Borneo. In 1225, a Chinese official, Chau Ju-Kua (Zhao Rugua), reported that Po-ni had 100 warships to protect its trade, and that there was a lot of wealth in the kingdom. \n\nIn the fourteenth century, the Javanese manuscript Nagarakretagama, written by Prapanca in 1365, mentioned Barune as the vassal state of Majapahit, which had to make an annual tribute of 40 katis of camphor. In 1369, the Sulus attacked Po-ni, looting it of treasure and gold. A fleet from Majapahit succeeded in driving away the Sulus, but Po-ni was left weaker after the attack. A Chinese report from 1371 described Po-ni as poor and totally controlled by Majapahit. \n\nHowever, scholars claim that the power of the Sultanate of Brunei was at its peak between the 15th and 17th centuries, with its power extending from northern Borneo to the southern Philippines. By the 16th century, Islam was firmly rooted in Brunei, and the country had built one of its biggest mosques. In 1578, Alonso Beltrán, a Spanish traveller, described it as being five stories tall and built on the water. \n\nWar with Spain and decline\n\nEuropean influence gradually brought an end to the regional power, as Brunei entered a period of decline compounded by internal strife over royal succession. Since the Spanish regarded Brunei the center of Islamic preaching in the Philippines Spain declared war in 1578, planning to attack and capture Kota Batu, Brunei's capital at the time. This was based in part on the assistance of two Bruneian noblemen, Pengiran Seri Lela and Pengiran Seri Ratna. The former had travelled to Manila, then the centre of the Spanish colony, Manila itself was captured from Brunei and Christianized, Pengiran Seri Lela came to offer Brunei as a tributary to Spain for help to recover the throne usurped by his brother, Saiful Rijal. The Spanish agreed that if they succeeded in conquering Brunei, Pengiran Seri Lela would be appointed as the sultan, while Pengiran Seri Ratna would be the new Bendahara.\n\nIn March 1578, the Spanish fleet had arrived from Mexico and settled at the Philippines, they were led by De Sande, acting as Capitán-General, he organized an expedition from Manila for Brunei. The expedition consisted of 400 Spanish, 1,500 Filipino natives and 300 Borneans. The campaign was one of many, which also included action in Mindanao and Sulu. \n\nThe Spanish invaded the capital on 16 April 1578, with the help of Pengiran Seri Lela and Pengiran Seri Ratna. The Sultan Saiful Rijal and Paduka Seri Begawan Sultan Abdul Kahar were forced to flee to Meragang then to Jerudong. In Jerudong, they made plans to chase the conquering army away from Brunei. Suffering high fatalities due to a cholera or dysentery outbreak, the Spanish decided to abandon Brunei and returned to Manila on 26 June 1578, after 72 days. Before doing so, they burned the mosque, a high structure with a five-tier roof. \n\nPengiran Seri Lela died in August or September 1578, probably from the same illness suffered by his Spanish allies. There was suspicion he could have been poisoned by the ruling sultan. Seri Lela's daughter, a Bruneian princess had left with the Spanish, she married a Christian Tagalog, named Agustín de Legazpi de Tondo. \n\nThe local Brunei accounts differ greatly from the generally accepted view of events. What was called the Castilian War was seen as a heroic episode, with the Spaniards being driven out by Bendahara Sakam, purportedly a brother of the ruling sultan, and a thousand native warriors. Most historians consider this to be a folk-hero account, which probably developed decades or centuries after. The country suffered a civil war from 1660 to 1673.\n\nBritish intervention\n\nThe British have intervened in the affairs of Brunei on several occasions. Britain attacked Brunei in July 1846 due to internal conflicts over who was the rightful Sultan. \n\nIn the 1880s, the decline of the Bruneian Empire continued. The sultan granted land (now Sarawak) to James Brooke, who had helped him quell a rebellion and allowed him to establish the Kingdom of Sarawak. Over time, Brooke and his nephews (who succeeded him) leased or annexed more land. Brunei lost much of its territory to him and his dynasty, known as the White Rajahs.\n\nSultan Hashim Jalilul Alam Aqamaddin appealed to the British to stop further encroachment by the Brookes. The \"Treaty of Protection\" was negotiated by Sir Hugh Low and signed into effect on 17 September 1888. The treaty said that the sultan \"could not cede or lease any territory to foreign powers without British consent\"; it provided Britain effective control over Brunei's external affairs, making it a British protectorate (which continued until 1984). But, when the Kingdom of Sarawak annexed Brunei's Pandaruan District in 1890, the British did not take any action to stop it. They did not regard either Brunei or the Kingdom of Sarawak as 'foreign' (per the Treaty of Protection). This final annexation by Sarawak left Brunei with its current small land mass and separation into two parts. \n\nBritish residents were introduced in Brunei under the Supplementary Protectorate Agreement in 1906. The residents were to advise the sultan on all matters of administration. Over time, the resident assumed more executive control than the sultan. The residential system ended in 1959. \n\nDiscovery of oil\n\nPetroleum was discovered in 1929 after several fruitless attempts. Two men, F.F. Marriot and T.G. Cochrane, smelled oil near the Seria river in late 1926. They informed a geophysicist, who conducted a survey there. In 1927, gas seepages were reported in the area. Seria Well Number One (S-1) was drilled on 12 July 1928. Oil was struck at 297 m on 5 April 1929. Seria Well Number 2 was drilled on 19 August 1929, and, , continues to produce oil. Oil production was increased considerably in the 1930s with the development of more oil fields. In 1940, oil production was at more than six million barrels. The British Malayan Petroleum Company (now Brunei Shell Petroleum Company) was formed on 22 July 1922. The first offshore well was drilled in 1957. Oil and natural gas have been the basis of Brunei's development and wealth since the late 20th century.\n\nJapanese occupation\n\nThe Japanese invaded Brunei on 16 December 1941, eight days after their attack on Pearl Harbor and the United States Navy. They landed 10,000 troops of the Kawaguchi Detachment from Cam Ranh Bay at Kuala Belait. After six days fighting, they occupied the entire country. The only Allied troops in the area were the 2nd Battalion of the 15th Punjab Regiment based at Kuching, Sarawak. \n\nOnce the Japanese occupied Brunei, they made an agreement with Sultan Ahmad Tajuddin over governing the country. Inche Ibrahim (known later as Pehin Datu Perdana Menteri Dato Laila Utama Awang Haji Ibrahim), a former Secretary to the British Resident, Ernest Edgar Pengilly, was appointed Chief Administrative Officer under the Japanese Governor. The Japanese had proposed that Pengilly retain his position under their administration, but he declined. Both he and other British nationals still in Brunei were interned by the Japanese at Batu Lintang camp in Sarawak. While the British officials were under Japanese guard, Ibrahim made a point of personally shaking each one by the hand and wishing him well. \n\nThe Sultan retained his throne and was given a pension and honours by the Japanese. During the later part of the occupation, he resided at Tantuya, Limbang and had little to do with the Japanese. Most of the Malay government officers were retained by the Japanese. Brunei's administration was reorganised into five prefectures, which included British North Borneo. The Prefectures included Baram, Labuan, Lawas, and Limbang. Ibrahim hid numerous significant government documents from the Japanese during the occupation. Pengiran Yusuf (later YAM Pengiran Setia Negara Pengiran Haji Mohd Yusuf), along with other Bruneians, was sent to Japan for training. Although in the area the day of the atomic bombing of Hiroshima, Yusuf survived.\n\nThe British had anticipated a Japanese attack, but lacked the resources to defend the area because of their engagement in the war in Europe. The troops from the Punjab Regiment filled in the Seria oilfield oilwells with concrete in September 1941 to deny the Japanese their use. The remaining equipment and installations were destroyed when the Japanese invaded Malaya. By the end of the war, 16 wells at Miri and Seria had been restarted, with production reaching about half the pre-war level. Coal production at Muara was also recommenced, but with little success.\n\nDuring the occupation, the Japanese had their language taught in schools, and Government officers were required to learn Japanese. The local currency was replaced by what was to become known as duit pisang (banana money). From 1943 hyper-inflation destroyed the currency's value and, at the end of the war, this currency was worthless. Allied attacks on shipping eventually caused trade to cease. Food and medicine fell into short supply, and the population suffered famine and disease.\n\nThe airport runway was constructed by the Japanese during the occupation, and in 1943 Japanese naval units were based in Brunei Bay and Labuan. The naval base was destroyed by Allied bombing, but the airport runway survived. The facility was developed as a public airport. In 1944 the Allies began a bombing campaign against the occupying Japanese, which destroyed much of the town and Kuala Belait, but missed Kampong Ayer. \n\nOn 10 June 1945, the Australian 9th Division landed at Muara under Operation Oboe Six to recapture Borneo from the Japanese. They were supported by American air and naval units. Brunei town was bombed extensively and recaptured after three days of heavy fighting. Many buildings were destroyed, including the Mosque. The Japanese forces in Brunei, Borneo, and Sarawak, under Lieutenant-General Masao Baba, formally surrendered at Labuan on 10 September 1945. The British Military Administration took over from the Japanese and remained until July 1946.\n\nPost-World War II\n\nAfter World War II, a new government was formed in Brunei under the British Military Administration (BMA). It consisted mainly of Australian officers and servicemen. The administration of Brunei was passed to the Civil Administration on 6 July 1945. The Brunei State Council was also revived that year. The BMA was tasked to revive the Bruneian economy, which was extensively damaged by the Japanese during their occupation. They also had to put out the fires on the wells of Seria, which had been set by the Japanese prior to their defeat.\n\nBefore 1941, the Governor of the Straits Settlements, based in Singapore, was responsible for the duties of British High Commissioner for Brunei, Sarawak, and North Borneo (now Sabah). The first British High Commissioner for Brunei was the Governor of Sarawak, Sir Charles Ardon Clarke.\nThe Barisan Pemuda (\"Youth Movement\") (abbreviated as BARIP) was the first political party to be formed in Brunei, on 12 April 1946. The party intended to \"preserve the sovereignty of the Sultan and the country, and to defend the rights of the Malays\". BARIP also contributed to the composition of the country's national anthem. The party was dissolved in 1948 due to inactivity.\n\nIn 1959, a new constitution was written declaring Brunei a self-governing state, while its foreign affairs, security, and defence remained the responsibility of the United Kingdom. A small rebellion erupted against the monarchy in 1962, which was suppressed with help of the UK. Known as the Brunei Revolt, it contributed to the failure to create the North Borneo Federation. The rebellion partially affected Brunei's decision to opt out of the Malaysian Federation.\n\nBrunei gained its independence from the United Kingdom on 1 January 1984. The official National Day, which celebrates the country's independence, is held by tradition on 23 February.\n\nWriting of the Constitution\n\nIn July 1953, Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddien III formed a seven-member committee named Tujuh Serangkai, to find out the citizens' views regarding a written constitution for Brunei. In May 1954, the Sultan, Resident and High Commissioner met to discuss the findings of the committee. They agreed to authorise the drafting of a constitution. In March 1959 Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddien III led a delegation to London to discuss the proposed Constitution. The British delegation was led by Sir Alan Lennox-Boyd, Secretary of State for the Colonies. The British Government later accepted the draft constitution.\n\nOn 29 September 1959, the Constitution Agreement was signed in Bandar Seri Begawan. The agreement was signed by Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddien III and Sir Robert Scott, the Commissioner-General for Southeast Asia.\nIt included the following provisions:\n* The Sultan was made the Supreme Head of State.\n* Brunei was responsible for its internal administration.\n* The British Government was responsible for foreign and defence affairs only.\n* The post of Resident was abolished and replaced by a British High Commissioner.\n\nFive councils were set up: \n* The Executive Council\n* The Legislative Council of Brunei\n* The Privy Council\n* The Council of Succession\n* The State Religious Council\n\nNational development plans\n\nA series of National Development Plans was initiated by the 28th Sultan of Brunei, Omar Ali Saifuddien III.\n\nThe first was introduced in 1953. A total sum of B$100 million was approved by the Brunei State Council for the plan. E.R. Bevington, from the Colonial Office in Fiji, was appointed to implement it. A $US14 million Gas Plant was built under the plan. In 1954, survey and exploration work were undertaken by the Brunei Shell Petroleum on both offshore and onshore fields. By 1956, production reached 114,700 bpd.\n\nThe plan also aided the development of public education. By 1958, expenditure on education totalled at $4 million. Communications were improved, as new roads were built and reconstruction at Berakas Airport was completed in 1954. \n\nThe second National Development Plan was launched in 1962. A major oil and gas field was discovered in 1963, with this discovery, Liquefied Natural Gas became important. Developments in the oil and gas sector have continued, and oil production has steadily increased since then. The plan also promoted the production of meat and eggs for consumption by citizens. The fishing industry increased its output by 25% throughout the course of the plan. The deepwater port at Muara was also constructed during this period. Power requirements were met, and studies were made to provide electricity to rural areas. Efforts were made to eradicate malaria, an endemic disease in the region, with the help of the World Health Organisation. Malaria cases were reduced from 300 cases in 1953 to only 66 cases in 1959. The death rate was reduced from 20 per thousand in 1947 to 11.3 per thousand in 1953. Infectious disease has been prevented by public sanitation and improvement of drainage, and the provision of piped pure water to the population.\n\nIndependence\n\nOn 14 November 1971, His Royal Highness Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah, which then used the title due to it being a protectorate of the UK, left for London to discuss matters regarding the amendments to the 1959 Constitution. A new agreement was signed on 23 November 1971 with the British representative being Anthony Henry Fanshawe Royle. \n\nUnder this agreement, the following terms were agreed upon:\n* Brunei was granted full internal self-government\n* The UK would still be responsible for external affairs and defence.\n* Brunei and the UK agreed to share the responsibility for security and defence.\n\nThis agreement also caused Gurkha units to be deployed in Brunei, where they remain up to this day.\n\nOn 7 January 1979, another treaty was signed between Brunei and the UK. It was signed with Lord Goronwy-Roberts being the representative of the UK. This agreement granted Brunei to take over international responsibilities as an independent nation. Britain agreed to assist Brunei in diplomatic matters. \n\nIn May 1983, it was announced by the UK that the date of independence of Brunei would be 1 January 1984.\n\nOn 31 December 1983, a mass gathering was held on main mosques on all four of the districts of the country and at midnight, on 1 January 1984, the Proclamation of Independence was read by His Majesty Hassanal Bolkiah, which is now addressed in this manner. \n\n21st century \n\nIn October 2013, Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah announced his intention to impose Sharia law on the country's Muslims, which take up roughly two thirds of the country's population. This would be implemented in three phases, culminating in 2016, and making Brunei the first and only country in East Asia to introduce Sharia law into its penal code. The move attracted international criticism, the United Nations expressing \"deep concern\". \n\nGeography\n\nBrunei is a southeast Asian country consisting of two unconnected parts with a total area of 5765 km2 on the island of Borneo. It has 161 km of coastline next to the South China sea, and it shares a 381 km (237 mi) border with Malaysia. It has 500 km2 of territorial waters, and a 200 nmi exclusive economic zone.\n\nAbout 97% of the population lives in the larger western part (Belait, Tutong, and Brunei-Muara), while only about 10,000 people live in the mountainous eastern part (Temburong District). The total population of Brunei is approximately 408,000 , of which around 150,000 live in the capital Bandar Seri Begawan. Other major towns are the port town of Muara, the oil-producing town of Seria and its neighbouring town, Kuala Belait. In Belait District, the Panaga area is home to large numbers of Europeans expatriates, due to Royal Dutch Shell and British Army housing, and several recreational facilities are located there. \n\nMost of Brunei is within the Borneo lowland rain forests ecoregion, which covers most of the island. Areas of mountain rain forests inland. \n\nClimate \n\nThe climate of Brunei is tropical equatorial. The average annual temperature for the two years 2013 and 2014 was , in figures supplied by the Meteorology Department for the weather station located at the airport. In those two years, the highest average temperature for one day was (on 7 May 2014) and the lowest average temperature for one day was (on 22 January 2014).\n\nPolitics and government\n\nBrunei's political system is governed by the constitution and the national tradition of the Malay Islamic Monarchy, the concept of Melayu Islam Beraja (MIB). The three components of MIB cover Malay culture, Islamic religion, and the political framework under the monarchy. It has a legal system based on English common law, although Islamic shariah law supersedes this in some cases. Brunei has a parliament but there are no elections; the last election was held in 1962. \n\nUnder Brunei's 1959 constitution, His Majesty Paduka Seri Baginda Sultan Haji Hassanal Bolkiah Mu'izzaddin Waddaulah is the head of state with full executive authority. Since 1962, this authority has included emergency powers, which are renewed every two years. Brunei has technically been under martial law since the Brunei Revolt of 1962. Hassanal Bolkiah also serves as the state's Prime Minister, Finance Minister and Defence Minister. The Royal family retains a venerated status within Brunei.\n\nForeign relations\n\nUntil 1979, Brunei's foreign relations were managed by the UK government. After that, they were handled by the Brunei Diplomatic Service. After independence in 1984, this Service was upgraded to ministerial level and is now known as the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. \n\nOfficially, Brunei's foreign policy is as follows:\n* Mutual respect of others' territorial sovereignty, integrity and independence;\n* The maintenance of friendly relations among nations;\n* Non-interference in the internal affairs of other countries; and\n* The maintenance and the promotion of peace, security and stability in the region.\n\nWith its traditional ties with the United Kingdom, Brunei became the 49th member of the Commonwealth immediately on the day of its independence on 1 January 1984. As one of its first initiatives toward improved regional relations, Brunei joined ASEAN on 7 January 1984, becoming the sixth member. To achieve recognition of its sovereignty and independence, it joined the United Nations as a full member on 21 September of that same year. \n\nAs an Islamic country, Brunei became a full member of the Organisation of the Islamic Conference (now the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation) in January 1984 at the Fourth Islamic Summit held in Morocco. \n\nAfter its accession to the Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation forum (APEC) in 1989, Brunei hosted the APEC Economic Leaders' Meeting in November 2000 and the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) in July 2002. Brunei became a founding member of the World Trade Organization (WTO) on 1 January 1995, and is a major player in BIMP-EAGA, which was formed during the Inaugural Ministers' Meeting in Davao, Philippines on 24 March 1994. \n\nBrunei shares a close relationship with Singapore and the Philippines. In April 2009, Brunei and the Philippines signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) that seeks to strengthen the bilateral co-operation of the two countries in the fields of agriculture and farm-related trade and investments. \n\nBrunei is one of many nations to lay claim to some of the disputed Spratly Islands. The status of Limbang as part of Sarawak has been disputed by Brunei since the area was first annexed in 1890. The issue was reportedly settled in 2009, with Brunei agreeing to accept the border in exchange for Malaysia giving up claims to oil fields in Bruneian waters. The Brunei government denies this and says that their claim on Limbang was never dropped. \n\nBrunei was the chair for ASEAN in 2013. It also hosted the ASEAN summit on that same year. \n\nDefence\n\nBrunei maintains three infantry battalions stationed around the country. The Brunei navy has several \"Ijtihad\"-class patrol boats purchased from a German manufacturer. The United Kingdom also maintains a base in Seria, the centre of the oil industry in Brunei. A Gurkha battalion consisting of 1,500 personnel is stationed there. United Kingdom military personnel are stationed there under a defence agreement signed between the two countries.\n\nA Bell 212 operated by the air force crashed in Kuala Belait on 20 July 2012 with the loss of 12 of the 14 crew on board. The cause of the accident has yet to be ascertained. The crash is the worst aviation incident in the history of Brunei.\n\nThe Army is currently acquiring new equipment, including UAVs and S-70i Black Hawks. \n\nBrunei’s Legislative Council proposed an increase of the defence budget for the 2016-17 fiscal year of about five per cent to 564 million Brunei dollars ($408 million). This amounts to about ten per cent of the state’s total national yearly expenditure and represents around 2.5 per cent of GDP. \n\nAdministrative divisions\n\nBrunei is divided into four districts (daerahs) and 38 subdistricts (mukims).\n\nThe daerah of Temburong is physically separated from the rest of Brunei by the Malaysian state of Sarawak.\n\nThe daerah of Brunei-Maura includes Brunei's capital city, Bandar Seri Begawan, whose suburbs dominate fifteen of the eighteen mukims in this daerah.\n\nOver 90% of Brunei's total population lives in 15 of the 38 mukims:\n\nEconomy\n\nBrunei's small, wealthy economy is a mixture of foreign and domestic entrepreneurship, government regulation, welfare measures, and village tradition. Crude oil and natural gas production account for about 90% of its GDP. About 167000 oilbbl of oil are produced every day, making Brunei the fourth-largest producer of oil in Southeast Asia. It also produces approximately of liquified natural gas per day, making Brunei the ninth-largest exporter of the substance in the world.\n\nSubstantial income from overseas investment supplements income from domestic production. Most of these investments are made by the Brunei Investment Agency, an arm of the Ministry of Finance. The government provides for all medical services, and subsidises rice and housing. \n\nThe national air carrier, Royal Brunei Airlines, is trying to develop Brunei as a modest hub for international travel between Europe and Australia/New Zealand. Central to this strategy is the position that the airline maintains at London Heathrow Airport. It holds a daily slot at the highly capacity-controlled airport, which it serves from Bandar Seri Begawan via Dubai. The airline also has services to major Asian destinations including Shanghai, Bangkok, Singapore and Manila.\n\nBrunei depends heavily on imports such as agricultural products (e.g. rice, food products, livestock, etc.), motorcars and electrical products from other countries. Brunei imports 60% of its food requirements; of that amount, around 75% come from the ASEAN countries.\n\nBrunei's leaders are very concerned that steadily increased integration in the world economy will undermine internal social cohesion. But, it has become a more prominent player by serving as chairman for the 2000 Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) forum. Leaders plan to upgrade the labour force, reduce unemployment, which was at 6.9% in 2014; strengthen the banking and tourism sectors, and, in general, broaden the economic base. \n\nThe government of Brunei has also promoted food self-sufficiency, especially in rice. Brunei renamed its Brunei Darussalam Rice 1 as Laila Rice during the launch of the \"Padi Planting Towards Achieving Self-Sufficiency of Rice Production in Brunei Darussalam\" ceremony at the Wasan padi fields in April 2009. In August 2009, the Royal Family reaped the first few Laila padi stalks, after years of attempts to boost local rice production, a goal first articulated about half a century ago. In July 2009 Brunei launched its national halal branding scheme, Brunei Halal, with a goal to export to foreign markets. \n\nInfrastructure\n\nThe population centres in the country are linked by a network of 2800 km of road. The 135 km highway from Muara Town to Kuala Belait is being upgraded to a dual carriageway.\n\nBrunei is accessible by air, sea, and land transport. Brunei International Airport is the main entry point to the country. Royal Brunei Airlines is the national carrier. There is another airfield, the Anduki Airfield, located in Seria. The ferry terminal at Muara services regular connections to Labuan (Malaysia). Speedboats provide passenger and goods transportation to the Temburong district. The main highway running across Brunei is the Tutong-Muara Highway. The country's road network is well developed. Brunei has one main sea port located at Muara.\n\nThe airport in Brunei is currently being extensively upgraded. Changi Airport International is the consultant working on this modernisation, which planned cost is currently $150 million. This project is slated to add 14000 m2 of new floorspace and includes a new terminal and arrival hall. With the completion of this project, the annual passenger capacity of the airport is expected to double from 1.5 to 3 million.\n\nWith one private car for every 2.09 persons, Brunei has one of the highest car ownership rates in the world. This has been attributed to the absence of a comprehensive transport system, low import tax, and low unleaded petrol price of B$0.53 per litre.,\n\nA new 30 km roadway connecting the Muara and Temburong districts of Brunei is slated to be completed in 2019. Fourteen kilometres (9 mi) of this roadway would be crossing the Brunei Bay. The bridge cost is $1.6 billions.\n\nBanking\n\nBank of China has just (April 2016) received permission to open a branch in Brunei. Citibank, which entered in 1972, closed its operations in Brunei in 2014. HSBC, which had entered in 1947, is currently in the process of closing its operations in the country. \n\nDemographics\n\nEthnicities indigenous to Brunei include the Belait, Brunei Bisaya (not to be confused with the Bisaya/Visaya of the nearby Philippines), indigenous Bruneian Malay, Dusun, Kedayan, Lun Bawang, Murut and Tutong.\n\nThe population of Brunei in July 2013 was 415,717 of which 76% live in urban areas. The rate of urbanisation is estimated at 2.13% per year from 2010 to 2015. The average life expectancy is 77.7 years. In 2014, 65.7% of the population were Malay, 10.3% are Chinese, 3.4% are indigenous, with 20.6% smaller groups making up the rest. \nThe official language of Brunei is Malay. The Ministry of Culture, Youth and Sports supports for a lingual movement aimed at the increased use of the language in Brunei. \n\nThe principal spoken language is Melayu Brunei (Brunei Malay). Brunei Malay is rather divergent from standard Malay and the rest of the Malay dialects, being about 84% cognate with standard Malay, and is mostly mutually unintelligible with it. \n\nEnglish and Chinese are also widely spoken, English is also used in business, as a working language, and as the language of instruction from primary to tertiary education, and there is a relatively large expatriate community. \n\nMost expat are coming from non-Muslim countries such as Australia, United Kingdom, South Korea, Japan, The Philippines, Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam and India.\n\nOther languages and dialects spoken include Arabic, Kedayan Malay dialect, Tutong Malay dialect, Murut and Dusun.\n\nReligion\n\nIslam is the official religion of Brunei, specifically that of the Sunni branch, as dictated by the Madhhab of Shafi'i. Two-thirds of the population, including the majority of Bruneian Malays and Bruneian Chinese, adhere to Islam. Other faiths practised are Buddhism (13%, mainly by the Chinese) and Christianity (10%). Freethinkers, mostly Chinese, form about 7% of the population. Although most of them practise some form of religion with elements of Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism, they prefer to present themselves as having practised no religion officially, hence labelled as atheists in official censuses. Followers of indigenous religions are about 2% of the population. \n\nCulture\n\nThe culture of Brunei is predominantly Malay (reflecting its ethnicity), with heavy influences from Islam, but is seen as much more conservative than Indonesia and Malaysia. Influences to Bruneian culture come from the Malay cultures of the Malay Archipelago. Four periods of cultural influence have occurred, animist, Hindu, Islamic, and Western. Islam had a very strong influence, and was adopted as Brunei's ideology and philosophy. Brunei's official main language is the Malay language but the English language is also widely spoken as it is considered a compulsory subject in the majority of the schools. \n\nAs a Sharia country, the sale and public consumption of alcohol is banned. Non-Muslims are allowed to bring in a limited amount of alcohol from their point of embarkation overseas for their own private consumption.\n\nMedia\n\nMedia in Brunei are said to be pro-government. The country has been given \"Not Free\" status by Freedom House; press criticism of the government and monarchy is rare. Nonetheless, the press is not overtly hostile toward alternative viewpoints and is not restricted to publishing only articles regarding the government. The government allowed a printing and publishing company, Brunei Press PLC, to form in 1953. The company continues to print the English daily Borneo Bulletin. This paper began as a weekly community paper and became a daily in 1990 Apart from The Borneo Bulletin, there is also the Media Permata and Pelita Brunei, the local Malay newspapers which are circulated daily. The Brunei Times is another English independent newspaper published in Brunei since 2006. \n\nThe Brunei government owns and operates six television channels with the introduction of digital TV using DVB-T (RTB 1, RTB 2, RTB 3 (HD), RTB 4, RTB 5 and RTB New Media (Game portal)) and five radio stations (National FM, Pilihan FM, Nur Islam FM, Harmony FM and Pelangi FM). A private company has made cable television available (Astro-Kristal) as well as one private radio station, Kristal FM.\nIt also has an online campus radio station, UBD FM that streams from its first university, Universiti Brunei Darussalam' \n\nLegal system\n\nBrunei has numerous courts in its judicial branch. The highest court is the Supreme Court, which consists of the Court of Appeal and High Court. Both of these have a chief justice and two judges.\n\nWomen, children\n\nThe government has made efforts to protect women's rights. The law prohibits sexual harassment and stipulates that whoever assaults or uses criminal force, intending thereby to outrage or knowing it is likely to outrage the modesty of a person, shall be punished with imprisonment for as much as five years and caning. The law stipulates imprisonment of up to 30 years, and caning with not fewer than 12 strokes for rape. The law does not criminalise spousal rape; it explicitly states that sexual intercourse by a man with his wife, as long as she is not under 13 years of age, is not rape. Protections against sexual assault by a spouse are provided under the amended Islamic Family Law Order 2010 and Married Women Act Order 2010. The penalty for breaching a protection order is a fine not exceeding BN$2,000 ($1,538) or imprisonment not exceeding six months.\n\nCitizenship is derived through one's parents rather than through birth within the country's territory. Parents with stateless status are required to apply for a special pass for a child born in the country; failure to register a child may make it difficult to enroll the child in school. By law sexual intercourse with a female under 14 years of age constitutes rape and is punishable by imprisonment for not less than eight years and not more than thirty years and not less than twelve strokes of the cane. The intent of the law is to protect girls from exploitation through prostitution and \"other immoral purposes\" including pornography.\n\nHuman rights\n\nBrunei's revised penal code came into force on April 22, 2014, stipulating the death penalty for numerous offences, and insult or defamation of the Prophet Mohammed, insulting any verses of the Quran and Hadith, blasphemy, declaring oneself a prophet or non-Muslim, robbery, rape, adultery, sodomy, extramarital sexual relations for Muslims and murder. Stoning to death was the specified \"method of execution for crimes of a sexual nature.\" Rupert Colville, spokesperson for the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) declared that, \"Application of the death penalty for such a broad range of offences contravenes international law.\" \n\nMale and female homosexuality is illegal in Brunei. The country passed a law that came into force on 22 April 2014, allowing the death penalty to be administered by stoning for homosexual acts, such as sexual intercourse, given there is enough evidence pointing to the action (i.e. with 4 trusted, impartial, and truthful witnesses in attendance). It has been acknowledged as a crime in Brunei with the introduction of the Sharia law. The law also stipulates that adultery is to be punished with death by stoning given there is enough evidence pointing to the action (i.e. with 4 trusted, impartial, and truthful witnesses in attendance). Without 4 qualified witnesses, there will be no stoning. \n\nAs of August 2015, there were no cases within the Sharia Penal Code that would entail the death penalty without four qualified witnesses.\n\nReligious rights\n\nUpon adopting sharia, the Sultan banned Christmas decorations in public places such as shopping malls, believing that it might interfering with the practise of Islam. However, local and foreign Christians are still allowed to celebrate Christmas as usual. On December 25, 2015, 4,000 out of 18,000 estimated local Catholics attended the mass of Christmas Day and Christmas Eve. \n\n\"To be quite honest there has been no change for us this year; no new restrictions have been laid down, although we fully respect and adhere to the existing regulations that our celebrations and worship be [confined] to the compounds of the church and private residences,\" according to Bishop Cornelius Sim, head of the Catholic Church in Brunei.\n\nAnimal rights\n\nBrunei is the first country in Asia to ban on shark finning nationwide. \n\nSelling other rare animals such as pangolins and endangered birds are considered as a serious crimes, however Brunei is lacking of animal rights enforcers.\n\nHealth\n\nThere are four government-run hospitals in Brunei, one for every district. There are also 16 health centres and 10 health clinics. \n\nHealthcare in Brunei is charged at B$1 per consultation for citizens and is free for anyone under 12 years old. A health centre run by Brunei Shell Petroleum is located in Panaga. For medical assistance not available in the country, citizens are sent overseas at the government's expense. In the period of 2011–12, 327 patients were treated in Malaysia and Singapore at the cost to the government of $12 million. \n\nBrunei has 2.8 hospital beds per 1000 people. The prevalence of HIV/AIDS is currently at 0.1%, and numerous AIDS awareness campaigns are currently being held. \n\n7.5% of the population are obese, the highest prevalence rate in ASEAN. Also, studies by the Ministry of Health show that at least 20% of schoolchildren in Brunei are either overweight or obese. \n\nThe largest hospital in Brunei is Raja Isteri Pengiran Anak Saleha Hospital (RIPAS) hospital, which had 550 beds in year 1992, is situated in the country's capital Bandar Seri Begawan. There are two private medical centres, Gleneagles JPMC Sdn Bhd . and Jerudong Park Medical Centre. The Health Promotion Centre opened in November 2008 and serves to educate the public on the importance of having a healthy lifestyle. \n\nThere is currently no medical school in Brunei, and Bruneians wishing to study to become doctors must attend university overseas. However, the Institute of Medicines had been introduced at the Universiti Brunei Darussalam and a new building has been built for the faculty. The building, including research lab facilities, was completed in 2009. There has been a School of Nursing since 1951. Fifty-eight nurse managers were appointed in RIPAS to improve service and provide better medical care. In December 2008, The nursing college merged with the Institute of Medicines at the Universiti Brunei Darussalam to produce more nurses and midwives. It is now called the PAPRSB (Pengiran Anak Puteri Rashidah Sa'datul Bolkiah) Institute of Health Sciences." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "BRU", "BRU (disambiguation)" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "bru disambiguation", "bru" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "bru", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "BRU" }
What was Oliver Hardy's real first name?	tc_582	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Oliver_Hardy.txt" ], "title": [ "Oliver Hardy" ], "wiki_context": [ "Oliver Norvell \"Babe\" Hardy (born Norvell Hardy) (January 18, 1892 – August 7, 1957) was an American comic actor famous as one half of Laurel and Hardy, the classic double act that began in the era of silent films and lasted 25 years, from 1927 to 1951. He was credited with his first film, Outwitting Dad, in 1914. In some of his early works, he was billed as Babe Hardy, using his nickname.\n\nEarly life and education\n\nOliver Hardy was born Norvell Hardy in Harlem, Georgia. His father Oliver was a Confederate veteran who was wounded at the Battle of Antietam on September 17, 1862. After his demobilization as a recruiting officer for Company K, 16th Georgia Regiment, the elder Oliver Hardy assisted his father in running the vestiges of the family cotton plantation. He bought a share in a retail business and was elected full-time Tax Collector for Columbia County, Georgia. Norvell's mother Emily Norvell was the daughter of Thomas Benjamin Norvell and Mary Freeman, descended from Captain Hugh Norvell of Williamsburg, Virginia, who had arrived in Virginia before 1635. Hardy and Norvell had married March 12, 1890; it was the second marriage for the widow Emily, and the third for Oliver. He was of paternal English American descent and maternal Scottish American descent.\n\nThe family moved to Madison in 1891, before Norvell's birth. Emily Hardy owned a house in Harlem, which was either empty or rented out to tenant farmers. Norvell was likely born in Harlem, though some sources say that his birth occurred in Covington, his mother's home town. His father died less than a year after his birth. Hardy was the youngest of five children. His older brother Sam Hardy died in a drowning accident in the Oconee River. Hardy pulled his brother from the river but was unable to resuscitate him. \n\nAs a child, Hardy was sometimes difficult. He was sent to Georgia Military College in Milledgeville as a youngster. He was sent to Young Harris College in north Georgia in the 1905-1906 school year fall semester (September–January) when he was 13. He was in the junior high component of that institution of the time (the equivalent of high school today).\n\nHardy had little interest in formal education, although he acquired an early interest in music and theater, possibly from his mother's tenants. He joined a theatrical group, and later ran away from a boarding school near Atlanta to sing with the group. His mother recognized his talent for singing and sent him to Atlanta to study music and voice with singing teacher Adolf Dahm-Petersen. Hardy skipped some of his lessons to sing in the Alcazar Theater, a cinema, for US$3.50 a week. He subsequently decided to go back to Milledgeville.\n\nSometime prior to 1910, Hardy began styling himself \"Oliver Norvell Hardy\", adding the first name \"Oliver\" as a tribute to his father. He appeared as \"Oliver N. Hardy\" in the 1910 U.S. census, and he used \"Oliver\" as his first name in all subsequent legal records, marriage announcements, etc.\n\nHardy was initiated into Freemasonry at Solomon Lodge No. 20 in Jacksonville, Florida. His membership is mentioned in the TV interview on an episode of This Is Your Life in 1954. Hardy's mother wanted him to attend the University of Georgia in the fall of 1912 to study law, but there is no evidence that he did.\n\nCareer\n\nEarly career\n\nIn 1910, when a movie theater opened in Hardy's home town of Milledgeville, he became the projectionist, ticket taker, janitor and manager. He soon became obsessed with the new motion picture industry, and was convinced that he could do a better job than the actors he saw. A friend suggested that he move to Jacksonville, Florida, where some films were being made. In 1913, Hardy did that, working in Jacksonville as a cabaret and vaudeville singer at night, and at the Lubin Manufacturing Company during the day. It was at this time that he met and married his first wife Madelyn Saloshin, a pianist.\n\nThe next year he made his first movie, Outwitting Dad (1914), for the Lubin studio. He was billed as O. N. Hardy. In his personal life, he was known as \"Babe\" Hardy, a nickname that he was given by an Italian barber, who would apply talcum powder to Oliver's cheeks and say, \"nice-a-bab-y.\" In many of his later films at Lubin, he was billed as \"Babe Hardy.\" Hardy was a big man at 6'1\" tall and weighing up to 300 pounds. His size placed limitations on the roles he could play. He was most often cast as \"the heavy\" or the villain. He also frequently had roles in comedy shorts, his size complementing the character.\n\nBy 1915, Hardy had made 50 short one-reeler films at Lubin. He later moved to New York and made films for the Pathé, Casino and Edison Studios. After returning to Jacksonville, he made films for the Vim Comedy Company. That studio closed after Hardy discovered the owners were stealing from the payroll. He worked for the King Bee studio, which bought Vim. He worked with Bill Ruge, Billy West (a Charlie Chaplin imitator), and comedic actress Ethel Burton Palmer during this time. (Hardy continued playing the \"heavy\" for West well into the early 1920s, often imitating Eric Campbell to West's Chaplin.)\n\nIn 1917 Hardy moved to Los Angeles, working freelance for several Hollywood studios. \nBetween 1918 and 1923, Hardy made more than 40 films for Vitagraph, mostly playing the \"heavy\" for Larry Semon. In 1919, he separated from his wife, ending with a divorce in 1921, allegedly due to Hardy's infidelity. The next week on November 24, 1921, Hardy married again, to actress Myrtle Reeves. This marriage was also unhappy. Reeves was said to have become alcoholic.\n\nIn 1921, he appeared in the movie The Lucky Dog, produced by G.M. (\"Broncho Billy\") Anderson and starring a young British comedian named Stan Laurel. Oliver Hardy played the part of a robber, trying to stick up Stan's character. They did not work together again for several years. In 1924, Hardy began working at Hal Roach Studios with the Our Gang films and Charley Chase. In 1925, he starred as the Tin Man in the Wizard of Oz. Also that year he was in the film, Yes, Yes, Nanette!, starring Jimmy Finlayson and directed by Stan Laurel. (In later years Finlayson frequently was a supporting actor in the Laurel and Hardy film series.) He also continued playing supporting roles in films featuring Clyde Cooke and Bobby Ray.\n\nIn 1926, Hardy was scheduled to appear in Get 'Em Young. He was unexpectedly hospitalized after being burned by a hot leg of lamb. Laurel, who had been working as a gag man and director at Roach Studios, was recruited to fill in. Laurel continued to act and, later that year, appeared in the same movie as Hardy, 45 Minutes from Hollywood, although they did not share any scenes together.\n\nWith Stan Laurel\n\nIn 1927, Laurel and Hardy began sharing screen time together in Slipping Wives, Duck Soup (no relation to the 1933 Marx Brothers' film of the same name) and With Love and Hisses. Roach Studios' supervising director Leo McCarey, realizing the audience reaction to the two, began intentionally teaming them together. This led to the start of a Laurel and Hardy series later that year.\n\nThey began producing a huge body of short movies, including The Battle of the Century (1927) (with one of the largest pie fights ever filmed), Should Married Men Go Home? (1928), Two Tars (1928), Unaccustomed As We Are (1929, marking their transition to talking pictures) Berth Marks (1929), Blotto (1930), Brats (1930) (with Stan and Ollie portraying themselves, as well as their own \"sons\", using oversized furniture sets for the \"young\" Laurel and Hardy); Another Fine Mess (1930), Be Big! (1931), and many others.\n\nIn 1929, they appeared in their first feature, in one of the revue sequences of Hollywood Revue of 1929, and the following year they appeared as the comic relief in a lavish all-color (in Technicolor) musical feature entitled The Rogue Song. This film marked their first appearance in color, yet only a few fragments of this film survive. In 1931, they starred in their first full-length movie, Pardon Us; they continued to make features and shorts until 1935. The Music Box, a 1932 short, won them an Academy Award for best short film — their only such award.\n\nIn 1936, Hardy and Myrtle Reeves divorced. In 1939, while waiting for a contractual issue between Laurel and Hal Roach to be resolved, Hardy made Zenobia with Harry Langdon. Eventually, however, new contracts were agreed upon and the team was loaned out to producer Boris Morros at General Service Studios to make The Flying Deuces (1939). While on the lot, Hardy fell in love with Virginia Lucille Jones, a script girl, whom he married the next year. They enjoyed a happy marriage until his death.\n\nIn 1939, Laurel and Hardy made A Chump at Oxford (1940) (which features a moment of role reversal, with Oliver becoming a subordinate to a temporarily concussed Stan) and Saps at Sea (1940) before leaving Roach Studios. They began performing for the USO, supporting the Allied troops during World War II. They teamed up to make films for 20th Century Fox and later Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. Although they made more money at the bigger studios, they had very little artistic control; critics say that these films lack the very qualities that had made Laurel and Hardy worldwide names. Their last Fox feature was The Bullfighters (1945), after which they declined to extend their contract with the studio.\n\nIn 1947, Laurel and Hardy went on a six-week tour of the United Kingdom. Initially unsure of how they would be received, they were mobbed wherever they went. The tour was lengthened to include engagements in Scandinavia, Belgium, France, as well as a Royal Command Performance for King George VI and Queen Elizabeth. Biographer John McCabe said they continued to make live appearances in the United Kingdom and France for the next several years, until 1954, often using new sketches and material that Laurel had written for them.\n\nIn 1949, Hardy's friend, John Wayne, asked him to play a supporting role in The Fighting Kentuckian. Hardy had previously worked with Wayne and John Ford in a charity production of the play What Price Glory? while Laurel began treatment for his diabetes a few years previously. Initially hesitant, Hardy accepted the role at the insistence of his comedy partner. Frank Capra later invited Hardy to play a cameo role in Riding High with Bing Crosby in 1950.\n\nDuring 1950–51, Laurel and Hardy made their final film. Atoll K (also known as Utopia) was a simple concept; Laurel inherits an island, and the boys set out to sea, where they encounter a storm and discover a brand new island, rich in uranium, making them powerful and wealthy. However, the film was produced by a consortium of European interests, with an international cast and crew that could not speak to each other.Aping, Norbert. The Final Film of Laurel and Hardy. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland, 2008. ISBN 978-0-7864-3302-5. In addition, the script needed to be rewritten by Laurel to make it fit the comedy team's style, and both suffered serious physical illness during the filming.\n\nOliver Hardy, along with Stan Laurel, made two, live television appearances: In 1953, on a live BBC television broadcast of the popular show \"Face the Music\" with host Henry Hall and in December 1954, on NBC's This Is Your Life. They also appeared in a filmed insert for the BBC-TV show \"This Is Music Hall\" in 1955, their final public appearance together.\n\nParty due to the overwhelmingly positive response to the This Is Your Life telecast, the pair contracted with Hal Roach, Jr., to produce a series of TV shows based on the Mother Goose fables in 1955. According to biographer John McCabe, they were to be filmed in color for NBC. But, Laurel suffered a stroke and required a lengthy convalescence and postponement of the TV series. While Laurel was recovering, Hardy had a heart attack and stroke later that year, from which he never physically recovered.\n\nDeath \n\nIn May 1954, Hardy suffered a mild heart attack. During 1956, he began looking after his health for the first time in his life. He lost more than 150 pounds in a few months, which completely changed his appearance. Letters written by Laurel refer to Hardy having terminal cancer. Some readers have thought this was the real reason for Hardy's rapid weight loss. Both men were heavy smokers. Hal Roach said they were a couple of \"freight train smoke stacks\". \n\nHardy suffered a major stroke on September 14, 1956, which left him confined to bed and unable to speak for several months. He remained at home, in the care of his beloved Lucille. He suffered two more strokes in early August 1957, and slipped into a coma from which he never recovered. Hardy died from cerebral thrombosis on August 7, 1957, at the age of 65.[http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res\nF60C13FF3E55137A93CAA91783D85F438585F9 \"Oliver Hardy of Film Team Dies. Co-Star of 200 Slapstick Movies. Portly Master of the Withering Look and 'Slow Burn'. Features Popular on TV.\"] The New York Times, August 8, 1957. Retrieved: March 20, 2010. His cremated remains are located in the Masonic Garden of Valhalla Memorial Park Cemetery in North Hollywood.\n \n\nStan Laurel was too ill to go to the funeral of his friend and film partner, stating, \"Babe would understand.\" \n\nLegacy\n\nHardy's star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame is located at 1500 Vine Street, Hollywood, California.\nIn 1999, merchandiser Larry Harmon produced the direct-to-video film The All New Adventures of Laurel and Hardy: For Love or Mummy, starring Bronson Pinchot and Gailard Sartain as the comedy duo.\nThere is a small Laurel and Hardy Museum in Hardy's hometown of Harlem, Georgia, which opened on July 15, 2000. Every year, the first Saturday in October, Oliver Hardy is celebrated and remembered with the Oliver Hardy Festival in this town.\nAn upcoming film, Stan & Ollie, will see Hardy played by American actor John C. Reilly, and Laurel played by English comedian Steve Coogan. Developed by BBC Films, the film is set in the twilight of their careers, and will focus on their farewell tour of Britain's variety halls in 1953.\n\nFilmography" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Norvell", "Norvell (disambiguation)" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "norvell", "norvell disambiguation" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "norvell", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Norvell" }
Benito Juarez international airport is in which country?	tc_584	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Mexico_City_International_Airport.txt" ], "title": [ "Mexico City International Airport" ], "wiki_context": [ "Mexico City International Airport (); officially Aeropuerto Internacional Benito Juárez () is an international airport that serves Greater Mexico City. It is Mexico's busiest and Latin America's second busiest airport by passenger traffic; and it is both Mexico's and Latin America's busiest airport by aircraft movements. The airport sustains 35,000 jobs directly and around 15,000 indirectly in the immediate area. The airport is owned by Grupo Aeroportuario de la Ciudad de México and operated by Aeropuertos y Servicios Auxiliares, the government-owned corporation, which also operates 22 other airports throughout Mexico.\n In recent years Toluca Airport has become an alternate airport. \n\nThis hot and high airport is served by 27 domestic and international passenger airlines and 17 cargo carriers. As the main hub for Mexico's largest airline Aeroméxico (with Aeroméxico Connect), the airport has become a SkyTeam hub. It is also a hub for Aeromar, Interjet, Volaris and a focus city for VivaAerobus. On a typical day, more than 100,000 passengers pass through the airport to and from more than 100 destinations on three continents. In 2015, the airport handled 38,433,078 passengers, a 12.2% increase compared to 2014. For the 12-month period ending May 31, 2016 the airport handled 39,563,710 passengers.\n\nOperating at the limits of its capacity, the airport will be replaced by a new Mexico City international airport, announced in September 2014, to be built about 16 km north-northeast of the current airport, east of Ecatepec. \n\nLocation\n\nLocated at the neighborhood of Peñón de los Baños within Venustiano Carranza, one of the sixteen boroughs into which Mexico's Federal District is divided, the airport is east from Downtown Mexico City and is surrounded by the built-up areas of Gustavo A. Madero to the north and Venustiano Carranza to the west, south and east. As the airport is located on the east side of Mexico City and its runways run southwest-northeast, an airliner's landing approach is usually directly over the conurbation of Mexico City when the wind is from the northeast. Therefore, there is an important overflying problem and noise pollution. \n\nHistory\n\nOrigins\n\nThe original site, known as Llanos de Balbuena, had been used for aeronautical activities since 1910, when Alberto Braniff became the first to fly an aeroplane in Mexico, and in Latin America. The flight was onboard of a Voisin biplane. On November 30, 1911, President Francisco I. Madero, was the first head of State in the world to fly onboard of a Deperdussin airplane piloted by Geo M. Dyott of Moisant International. \nIn 1915 the airport first opened as Balbuena Military Airport with five runways. Construction of a small civilian airport began in 1928. The first landing was on November 5, 1928, and regular service started in 1929, but was officially inaugurated on May 15, 1931. On July 8, 1943, the Official Gazette of the Federation published a decree that acknowledged Mexico City's Central Airport as an international airport, capable of managing international arrivals and departures of passengers and aircraft. Its first international route was to Los Angeles International Airport operated by Mexicana. Construction of Runway 05D-23I started six years later, as well as new facilities such as a platform, a terminal building, a control tower and offices for the authorities. The runway started its operations in 1951. On November 19, 1952, President Miguel Alemán opened the passenger terminal, which later became Terminal 1. \n\nIn 1956 the airport had four runways in service: 05L-23R (2,720m long, 40m wide), 05R-23L (3,000m long, 45m wide), with electric lights for night-time service; 13-31 (2,300m long, 40m wide) which had been built to relieve 14-32, to which residential areas had encroached too closely; and 5 Auxiliar (759m long). \n\n1960s–1990s\n\nOn December 2, 1963, Walter C. Buchanan, former director of the Transport and Communications Department (SCT), changed the airport's name \"Aeropuerto Central\" (Central Airport) to \"Aeropuerto Internacional de la Ciudad de México\" (Mexico City International Airport). \n\nIn the 1970s, president Luis Echeverría closed the two remaining shorter runways (13/31 and 5 Auxiliar); on the land of 13-31 a social housing complex was built, Unidad Fiviport. leaving the two parallel runways. In 1980, the terminal was expanded to double its capacity, using a single large terminal rather than multiple terminals as in other airports. Ten years later in 1990, the mixed domestic/international gates were separated to increase the terminal's functionality, along with the separation of domestic and international check-in halls. \n\nOn November 24, 1978, the \"Mexico\" Control Tower began its operations; it has been in service since then.\n\nThe AICM has continually improved its infrastructure. On August 15, 1979, and after about a year of remodeling works, the terminal building reopened to the public; the airport continued its operations during the renovation, which improved passenger transit with better space distribution in walkways and rooms. \n\nDue to constant growth in demand of both passengers and operations, on January 13, 1994, the Official Gazette of the Federation, published a presidential decree that prohibited general aviation operations in the AICM, which were moved to Toluca International Airport in order to clear air traffic in the capital's airport. \n\nRenovations to the AICM continued and on April 11, 1994, a new International Terminal building was ready and operational. It was built by a private contractor according to a co-investment agreement with Airports and Auxiliary Services. In 2001, in order to further improve service to passengers, construction for Module XI started. This Module permitted eight new contact positions in the Airport Terminal, capable of receiving eight regular airplanes, two wide-body, or four narrow-body aircraft. \n\n2003–2007 expansion\n\nBecause of the increasing traffic, president Vicente Fox announced the construction of a new, larger airport on in the municipalities of Texcoco and San Salvador Atenco, but when local violent protests took place in 2002, the new airport was cancelled. Instead, to respond to the growing demand and aiming to position the AICM as one of the greatest in terms of quality, services, security, and operational functionality, on May 30, 2003, the Federal Government announced an update: an extension to the air terminal in order to widen its service capacity from 20 million to 32 million passengers a year. This program was part of the Metropolitan Airport System, promoted by the Federal Administration. The Communications and Transportation Ministry (SCT), Aeropuertos y Servicios Auxiliares (ASA) and AICM performed expansion and remodeling work on Terminal 1, over a surface area of 90000 m2; 48,000 of which were new construction and 42,000 of which were remodeled. The renovations include new airline counters, commercial spaces and an elevator for people with disabilities, which improved the flow of passengers with domestic destinations.\n\nAmong other works performed in the international area, a long-distance bus terminal was built with connections to Puebla, Cuernavaca, Pachuca, Toluca, Querétaro and Orizaba. The new bus station has access to a food court and the international arrivals and departures area, as well as a pedestrian bridge that connects to \"The Peñón de los Baños\" neighborhood.\n\nThe airport was formally named after the 19th-century president Benito Juárez in 2006. \n\nOn November 15, 2007, Terminal 2 was opened, significantly increasing the airport's capacity. All SkyTeam members moved their operations to the new terminal, except Air France and KLM. It was officially inaugurated in March 2008, once the new road accesses and taxiways were finished. Terminal 2 increased the airport's contact positions by 40% and the operational capacity by 15%. The terminal was inaugurated by former President Felipe Calderón Hinojosa. \n\nLack of capacity and slot restriction\n\nThe airport has suffered from a lack of capacity due to restrictions on expansion, since it is located in a densely populated area. In 2014, Mexican authorities established \nand declared a maximum capacity of 61 operations per hour with a total of 16 rush hours (7:00 –22:59). Another issue with the airport is the limitation that its two runways provide, since they are used at 97.3% of their maximum capacity, leaving a very short room for new operations into the airport. Only government, military, commercial, and specially authorized aircraft are allowed to land at the airport. Private aircraft must use alternate airports, such as Lic. Adolfo López Mateos International Airport in Toluca, General Mariano Matamoros Airport in Cuernavaca, or Hermanos Serdán International Airport in Puebla. \n\nSome analysts have reported that if the airport had grown at the same speed as demand, it would have served over 40 million passengers annually by 2010. Even with the inauguration of the new Terminal 2 in 2007, the airport would be ideally designed to serve around 18 million passengers per year, according to international standards for runway and terminal usage. Instead, the airport has increased the number of passengers from around 26 million passengers in 2008 to almost 39 million in 2015, at a rate of 16% per year. \n\nNew airport\n\nThe construction of a new Mexico City international airport was announced by Mexican president Enrique Peña Nieto on September 2, 2014, who said that it would be emblemático, or a national symbol. The new airport will replace the current Mexico City International Airport, which is at capacity. It is to have one large terminal of 6000000 ft2 and six runways: two that are each long and four that are each 4 km long. The architects are Sir Norman Foster and Fernando Romero, son-in-law of billionaire Carlos Slim and architect of the Soumaya Museum. \n\nConstruction will take eight years and depending on the source, is estimated to cost 120 or 169 billion Mexican pesos, about 9–13 billion US dollars. It will be built on land already owned by the federal government in the Zona Federal del Lago de Texcoco, between Ecatepec and Atenco in the State of Mexico, about 10 km northeast of the current airport. \n\nThe terminal is to be sustainable, aiming for a LEED Platinum certification. \n\nTerminals and facilities\n\nTerminals\n\nMexico City International Airport has two passenger terminals. Terminal 1 is separated from Terminal 2 by the runways.\n\nTerminal 1\n\n* Opened in 1958; expanded in 1970, 1989, 1998, 2000 and 2004\n* Overall terminal surface: \n* Contact positions: 33\n** Two contact positions equipped for the Airbus A380\n* Remote positions: 17 (34 Before New T2 was built)\n* Number of jetways: 33\n* Number of airside halls: 10\n* Number of landside (check-in) halls: 9 \n* Number of mobile-lounges: 11 \n* Hotel service:\n 600 room Camino Real\n 288 room Courtyard by Marriott\n 327 room Fiesta Inn by Fiesta Americana (Located across from Terminal 1)\n 110 room Hilton\n* Parking service: 3,100 vehicles (Domestic), 2,400 vehicles (International)\n* Space per passenger in T1: \n* Number of baggage claim carousels: 22\n\nTerminal 1 is currently the largest airport terminal in the Americas and the fourth largest in the world.\n\nTerminal 2\n\n* Opened in 2007\n* Overall terminal surface: \n* Contact positions: 23\n* Remote positions: 18 (Aeromar and Aeroméxico Connect)\n* Number of jetways: 23\n* Number of airside halls: 2 (Domestic, International)\n* Number of landside (check-in) halls: 3 (L1, L2, L3)\n* Hotel service:\n** 287 room NH\n* Parking service: 3,000 vehicles\n* Space per passenger in T2: \n* Number of baggage claim carousels: 15)\n* Platform surface: \n* Inter-terminal Aerotrén capacity: 7,800 daily passengers\n\nTerminal 2 was built over a surface area of 242,666.55m² and has modern security systems, in accordance with international standards including a passenger traffic separation systems. The new facility will help AICM increase its capacity to 32 million passengers per year.\n\nAir operations in the new facilities began on November 15, 2007, with flights by Aeromar and Delta Air Lines, and later AeroMéxico, Copa, LAN and Continental Airlines. Terminal 2 was formally inaugurated by former Presidente Felipe Calderón Hinojosa on March 26, 2008.\n\nThese projects were done without affecting airplane takeoffs and landings, and will help Mexico City International Airport offer better services, and respond to the growing demand of passengers and operations in the coming years.\n\nTerminal 2 now houses all Aeroméxico flights out of the airport, becoming the airline's main distribution center. Although the terminal was intended to be served by all-SkyTeam member airlines, Air France and KLM decided to remain at Terminal 1.\n\nOther facilities\n\nAeropuertos y Servicios Auxiliares, a government-owned corporation that operates airports in Mexico, has its headquarters on the airport property., Aeropuertos y Servicios Auxiliares. The Aeromar headquarters are located in Hangar 7 in Zone D of the General Aviation Terminal of the airport. Aviacsa had its headquarters in Hangar 1 in Zone C, but ceased operations on May 4, 2011. \n\nAirlines and destinations\n\nThe airport connects 52 domestic and 50 international destinations in Latin America, North America, Europe and Asia. Aeromexico serves the largest number of cities from any Latin American hub (80), 46 domestic and 34 international.[http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/aeromexico-the-airline-serving-the-largest-number-of-cities-from-a-hub-in-latin-america-300158276.html Aeromexico, The Airline Serving The Largest Number Of Cities From A Hub In Latin America] Most prominent foreign airlines are United Airlines, combined with ExpressJet Airlines traffic, American Airlines, Delta Air Lines and Avianca Holdings. Aeroméxico/Aeroméxico Connect operates the most departures from the airport followed by Interjet, Volaris, and Aeromar. Aeroméxico also operates to the most destinations followed by Interjet. In peak season, Iberia and Air France operate the most trans-Atlantic flights (28 flights per week) with nonstop service to Madrid and Paris.\n\nPassenger Airlines\n\nThis table lists passengers flights served with a nonstop or direct flight with no change of aircraft carrying passengers originating in Mexico City according to the airlines' published schedules, unless otherwise noted.\n\nOther Services\n\nIn addition to the scheduled airlines above, Mexico City airport is used by some further airlines for chartered flights including:\n\n* Global Air\n* Miami Air International\n* Sunwing Airlines\n\nCargo Airlines\n\nAs of January 2016, Mexico City airport is served by 19 cargo airlines flying directly to Europe, Central, North and South America, Middle East and East Asia. The following airlines operate the scheduled destinations below.\n\nAirlines providing on-demand cargo services\n\n* Aeronaves TSM\n* Air Cargo Carriers\n* Air Transport International\n* Ameristar Air Cargo\n* Atlas Air operated by Panalpina\n* Cielos Airlines\n* Florida West International Airways\n* IFL Group operated by Contract Air Cargo\n* Kalitta Air\n* LAN Cargo\n* Líneas Aéreas Suramericanas\n* USA Jet Airlines\n* Vigo Jet\n* World Airways\n\nTraffic statistics\n\nIn 2015, Mexico City International Airport moved 38,433,078 passengers. It was the busiest airport in the country and the 2nd busiest in Latin America in terms of total passengers, an increase of 12.2% since last year and 60% since 2010. It was the biggest growing airport in Latin America during 2015 by net traffic, with an increase of over 4.5 million passengers. \n\nIn terms of international passengers, it was the fourth-busiest airport in Latin America with 12,758,456 passengers, behind São Paulo-Guarulhos (13,620,000), Cancún (13,566,003) and Tocumen (13,434,673), and the second busiest in Mexico after Cancún.\n\nThe airport is the busiest in Mexico and Latin America by aircraft movements with 24% more operations than Bogotá-El Dorado and 44.65% more than São Paulo-Guarulhos. It is the 15th busiest airport in the world in terms of aircraft departures. For the 12-month period ending April 30, 2016, the airport handled 433,019 aircraft operations, an average of 1,183 operations per day.\n\nRegarding cargo, the airport is also the busiest in the country and the second busiest in Latin America, after El Dorado International Airport in Bogotá. During 2015, it moved over 446,915 tons, an annual increase of 12.5%. The net growth of almost 50,000 tons was the biggest in the region.\n\nTop Destinations\n\nInter-terminal transportation\n\nTerminal 1 is connected to Terminal 2 by the Aerotrén monorail system in which only connecting passengers with hand baggage are allowed to use with their boarding pass. Technical and cabin crew can also use it. The distance between the terminals is . and the Airtrain's speed is . Also there is a land service between terminals called \"inter-terminal transportation\". These buses are located at entrance no. 6 of Terminal 1 and entrance no. 4 of Terminal 2.\n\nGround transportation\n\nMetro and bus services\n\nTerminal 1 is served by the Terminal Aérea Metro station, which belongs to Line 5 of the subway, running from Pantitlán station to Politécnico station. It is located just outside the national terminal. Also, trolley bus line G runs from the bus stop next to the Metro to Boulevard Puerto Aéreo station away, allowing transfer to Metro Line 1 (one can also take line 5 to Pantitlán and change to line 1, which is a geographical detour). Terminal 2 does not have any Metro station, but is a walk from Pantitlán served by Metro lines 1, 5, 9, A and numerous local buses.\n\nTerminals 1 and 2 have two land terminals operating 24 hours a day, 365 days a year. Different bus lines operate from here [http://www.aicm.com.mx/serviciosausuarios_en/transportacion.php?Grupo=4], and provide continuous transportation services to the main cities located around Mexico City, such as Córdoba, Cuernavaca, Pachuca, Puebla, Querétaro, Tlaxcala and Toluca.\n\nMetrobús\n\nIn late 2010, former Head of Government of the Federal District Marcelo Ebrard announced a plan to build a new Metrobús Line 4 that would run from near Buenavista Station in the west of the city towards Mexico City airport. Construction on Line 4 started on July 4, 2011. The plans for Line 4 include a two step construction process with the first operational segment to be built between Buenavista and Metro San Lázaro. An extension provides travel between San Lázaro and the airport. The line opened on April 1, 2012.\n\nAuthorized taxis\n\nTaxis are in operation in Terminals 1 and 2 and there are two models of service: Ordinary service in a sedan type vehicle for 4 passengers. Executive service in 8 passengers vans. At present there are 5 taxi groups in operation. These are the only taxis authorized by the Ministry of Communications and Transport (SCT) of the Federal Government.\n\nAccidents and incidents\n\n* On April 10, 1968, an Aerovías Rojas Douglas R4D-3 crashed on approach, killing all eighteen people on board. The aircraft was operating a domestic scheduled passenger flight, which was the airline's inaugural flight from Aguascalientes International Airport to Mexico City.\n* On October 31, 1979, Western Airlines Flight 2605 crash-landed. The crew of the DC-10 landed on a closed runway and hit construction vehicles on the runway. There were 73 fatalities (including one on the ground) and 16 survivors. \n* On December 12, 1981, a bomb exploded inside the passenger cabin of a parked Aeronica Boeing 727-100, tearing a hole into the fuselage. The captain, two flight attendants and a ground worker were injured. They had been on board the aircraft for pre-departure checks for a scheduled passenger flight to San Salvador and onwards to Managua's Augusto C. Sandino International Airport. \n* An Aero California DC-9-15 overran a runway on July 21, 2004, during an intense storm at the airport. There were no victims, but the aircraft was scrapped. However, a woman died later due to a heart attack. \n* On November 4, 2008 a Mexican Interior Ministry LearJet 45 crashed on approach around 18:45 local time. On board were Mexican Secretary of the Interior Juan Camilo Mouriño, who was top aide to President Felipe Calderón. Mouriño was in charge of the fight against the drug trade in Mexico. Also on board was José Luis Santiago Vasconcelos, former assistant attorney general and current head of the federal technical secretariat for implementing the recent constitutional reforms on criminal justice and public security. All eight on board perished along with eight others on the ground. 40 others on the ground were injured. The crash was attributed to pilot error. \n* On September 9, 2009, hijacked Aeroméxico Flight 576 landed at Mexico City International Airport from Cancún International Airport. \n* On September 13, 2009, a Lufthansa Cargo McDonnell-Douglas MD-11 was damaged in a heavy landing. Post landing inspection revealed that there were wrinkles in the fuselage skin and the nose gear was bent. According to a Lufthansa spokesman, the aircraft will be repaired and returned into full service. \n* On June 25, 2012, two federal police officers who were stationed at the airport opened fire at colleagues who were surrounding them and were about to arrest them after an investigation showed they were involved in drug trafficking offenses. Two federal police officers were killed at the scene and a third officer died later at a local hospital. The suspects were able to flee the scene, but their identities are known. Operations at the airport were not affected." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Mexican Republic", "MEXICO", "Estados Unidos de México", "Sierra de la Estrella", "Mexico (country)", "Mexicó", "The United Mexican States", "Estados Unidos de Mexico", "Central Mexico", "ISO 3166-1:MX", "Mexiko", "Méjico", "Mexique", "Mexican United States", "Mexican'", "The United State of Mexico", "Mountains of Mexico", "Old Mexico", "United states of mexico", "EUM", "Messico", "Mejico", "The United States of Mexicans", "Untied Mexican States", "México", "Etymology of Mexico", "Meixcan", "Estados Unidos Mexicanos", "Mexic", "Mexxico", "Mexican Union", "The United States of Mexico", "United State of Mexico", "Mexico", "Republic of Mexico", "Mexican Federal Republic", "United Mexican States", "Mexican coast", "Mehico", "United States of Mexicans", "United States of Mexico" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "mexican coast", "united mexican states", "mexican united states", "mexxico", "mexic", "estados unidos de mexico", "mexique", "mountains of mexico", "mehico", "republic of mexico", "mexican republic", "sierra de la estrella", "mexican", "united states of mexico", "central mexico", "eum", "estados unidos mexicanos", "old mexico", "etymology of mexico", "iso 3166 1 mx", "untied mexican states", "messico", "mexico country", "mexiko", "mexican union", "meixcan", "estados unidos de méxico", "united states of mexicans", "mexican federal republic", "mejico", "united state of mexico", "méxico", "mexico", "mexicó", "méjico" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "mexico", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Mexico" }
How old would Rocky Marciano have been had he lived to the end of the 20th century?	tc_589	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Rocky_Marciano.txt" ], "title": [ "Rocky Marciano" ], "wiki_context": [ "Rocky Marciano (born Rocco Francis Marchegiano; September 1, 1923 – August 31, 1969) was an American professional boxer who held the world heavyweight title from September 23, 1952 to April 27, 1956. Marciano went undefeated in his career and defended his title six times, against Jersey Joe Walcott, Roland La Starza, Ezzard Charles (twice), Don Cockell, and Archie Moore.\n\nKnown for his relentless fighting style, stamina, and an iron chin, Marciano has been ranked by many boxing historians as one of the best heavyweight boxers of all time. His knockout percentage of 87.75 is one of the highest in heavyweight history.\n\nEarly life\n\nMarciano was born and raised on the south side of Brockton, Massachusetts, to Pierino Marchegiano and Pasqualina Picciuto. Both of his parents were immigrants from Italy. His father was from Ripa Teatina, Abruzzo, while his mother was from San Bartolomeo in Galdo, Campania. Rocky had two brothers, Peter and Louis and three sisters, Alice, Concetta, and Elizabeth. When he was about eighteen months old, Marciano contracted pneumonia, from which he almost died.\n\nIn his youth, he played baseball with his brother Sonny and David Rooslet (a neighborhood friend of Marciano's), worked out on homemade weightlifting equipment (later in his life, Marciano was also a client of Charles Atlas) and used a stuffed mailbag that hung from a tree in his back yard as a heavy bag. He attended Brockton High School, where he played both baseball and football. However, he was cut from the school baseball team because he had joined a church league, violating a school rule forbidding players from joining other teams. He dropped out of school after finishing tenth grade.\n\nMarciano then worked as a chute man on delivery trucks for the Brockton Ice and Coal Company. He also worked as a ditch digger, railroad layer, and as a shoemaker. Rocky was also a resident of Hanson, Massachusetts; the house he lived in still stands on Main Street.\n\nIn March 1943, Marciano was drafted into the United States Army for a term of two years. Stationed in Swansea, Wales, he helped ferry supplies across the English Channel to Normandy. After the war ended, he completed his service in March 1946 at Fort Lewis, Washington. \n\nAmateur career\n\nMarciano's amateur record was 8–4. While awaiting discharge, Marciano, representing the army, won the 1946 Amateur Armed Forces boxing tournament. His amateur career was interrupted on March 17, 1947, when Marciano stepped into the ring as a professional competitor. That night, he knocked out Lee Epperson in three rounds. In an unusual move Marciano returned to the amateur ranks and fought in the Golden Gloves All-East Championship Tournament in March 1948. He was beaten by Coley Wallace. He continued to fight as an amateur throughout the spring and competed in the AAU Olympic tryouts in the Boston Garden. There, he knocked out George McInnis, but hurt his hands during the bout and was forced to withdraw from the tournament. That was his last amateur bout. \n\nIn late March, 1947, Marciano and several friends traveled to Fayetteville, North Carolina, to try out for the Fayetteville Cubs, a farm team for the Chicago Cubs baseball team. Marciano lasted three weeks before being cut. After failing to find a spot on another team, he returned to Brockton and began boxing training with longtime friend Allie Colombo. Al Weill and Chick Wergeles served as his managers and Charley Goldman as his trainer and teacher.\n\nProfessional career\n\nAlthough he had one professional fight (against Lee Epperson) on his record, Marciano began fighting permanently as a professional boxer on July 12, 1948. That night, he notched a win over Harry Bilizarian (3–6–0). He won his first sixteen bouts by knockout, all before the fifth round, and nine before the first round was over. Don Mogard (17–9–1) became the first boxer to last the distance (full 10 rounds scheduled) with \"The Rock\", but Marciano won by unanimous decision.\n\nEarly in his career, he changed the spelling of his last name Marchegiano. The ring announcer in Providence, Rhode Island, could not pronounce Marchegiano, so Marciano's handler, Al Weill, suggested they create a pseudonym. The first suggestion was Rocky Mack, which Marciano rejected. He decided to go with the more Italian-sounding \"Marciano\" (,).\n\nMarciano won three more fights by knockout and then he met Ted Lowry (58–48–9). Marciano kept his winning streak alive by beating Lowry by unanimous decision. Four more knockout wins followed, including a five-rounder on December 19, 1949, with Phil Muscato (56–20–0), an experienced heavyweight from Buffalo, New York, and the first \"name fighter\" Marciano would face. Three weeks after that fight, Marciano beat Carmine Vingo (16–1–0) by a fifth round knockout in New York that almost killed Vingo.\n\nMarciano vs. La Starza\n\nOn March 24, 1950, Marciano fought Roland La Starza, winning by split decision. La Starza may have come closer than any other boxer to defeating Marciano as a professional. The scoring for the bout was 5–4, 4–5, 5–5 and Marciano won on a supplemental point system used by New York and Massachusetts at that time. The scoring system did not award an extra point for a knockdown and Marciano scored a knockdown in the fight. Referee Watson decided the bout, scoring it 9–6 for Marciano. Both boxers were undefeated at the time of the fight, with La Starza's record at 37–0.\n\nSubsequent bouts\n\nMarciano won three more knockouts in a row before a rematch with Lowry (61–56–10), which Marciano again won by unanimous decision. After that, he won four more by knockout, and, after a decision over Red Applegate (11–14–2) in late April 1951, he was showcased on national television for the first time, when he knocked out Rex Layne (34–1–2) in six rounds on July 12, 1951.\n\nOn October 27, 1951, the 28-year-old Marciano took on the 37-year-old Joe Louis. Coming into the bout, Marciano was a 13-to-10 underdog. Marciano upset Louis in what was the latter's last career bout.\n\nAfter four more wins, including victories over 35-year-old Lee Savold (96–37–3) and Harry Matthews (81–3–5), Marciano received an opportunity to win the title.\n\nChampionship fights\n\nMarciano, 29, faced the World Heavyweight Champion, 38-year-old Jersey Joe Walcott, in Philadelphia on September 23, 1952. Walcott dropped Marciano in the first round and steadily built a points lead; but in the thirteenth, Walcott used his trademark feint to set up his right hand, but Marciano's \"Suzie Q\" landed first. Marciano landed a glancing right hook as Walcott slumped to his knees with his arm draped over the ropes. He lay motionless long after he had been counted out and Marciano became the new World Heavyweight Champion. At the time of the stoppage, Walcott was leading on all scorecards, 8–4, 7–5 and 7–4.\n\nHis first defense came a year later, a rematch against Walcott, 39, who this time was knocked out in the first round.\n\nNext, it was Roland La Starza's turn to challenge Marciano. After building a small lead on the judges' scorecards all the way to the middle rounds, Marciano won the rematch by a technical knockout in the eleventh round.\n\nThen came two consecutive bouts against former World Heavyweight Champion and light heavyweight legend Ezzard Charles, 33, who became the only man to ever last fifteen rounds against Marciano. Marciano won the first fight on points and the second by an eighth-round knockout. Then, Marciano met British and European Champion Don Cockell. Marciano knocked him out in the ninth round.\n\nMarciano's last title bout was against 38-year-old Archie Moore, on September 21, 1955. The bout was originally scheduled for September 20, but because of hurricane warnings, it had to be delayed a day. Marciano was knocked down for a four count in the second round, but recovered and retained his title with a knockout in round nine.\n\nMarciano announced his retirement on April 27, 1956, aged 32. He finished his career at 49-0.\n\nAfter boxing\n\nMarciano considered a comeback in 1959 when Ingemar Johansson won the Heavyweight Championship from Floyd Patterson on June 26, 1959. After only a month of training in nearly four years, Marciano decided against it and never seriously considered a comeback again. \n\nAfter his retirement, Marciano entered the world of television, first appearing in the Combat! episode \"Masquerade\" and then hosting a weekly boxing show on TV in 1961. For a brief period, he worked as a troubleshooting referee in wrestling (Marciano was a good wrestler in high school). He continued as a referee and boxing commentator in boxing matches for many years. He was also active in business as a partner and vice president of Papa Luigi Spaghetti Dens, a San Francisco-based franchise company formed by Joe Kearns and James Braly. He built a custom home at 641 NW 24 Street in Wilton Manors, Florida, a suburb of Fort Lauderdale. The house still stands today.\n\nIn late July 1969, shortly before his death, Marciano participated in the filming of the fantasy The Superfight: Marciano vs. Ali. The two boxers were filmed sparring, then the film was edited to match a computer simulation of a hypothetical fight between them, each in their prime. It aired on January 20, 1970, with one version having Marciano winning and the second version having Ali winning.\n\nDeath\n\nOn August 31, 1969, on the eve of his 46th birthday, Marciano was a passenger in a small private plane, a Cessna 172 headed to Des Moines, Iowa. It was at night and bad weather had set in. The pilot, Glenn Belz, had only 231 total hours of flying time, only 35 of them at night, and was not certified to fly in instrument meteorological conditions. Belz tried to set the plane down at a small airfield outside Newton, Iowa, but hit a tree two miles short of the runway. Flying with Marciano, in the back seat, was Frankie Farrell, 28, the oldest son of Lew Farrell, a former boxer who had known Marciano since childhood. Marciano, Belz and Farrell were killed on impact. \nThe National Transportation Safety Board report said, \"The pilot attempted an operation exceeding his experience and ability level, continued visual flight rules under adverse weather conditions and experienced spatial disorientation in the last moments of the flight.\" Marciano was on his way to give a speech to support his friend's son and there was a surprise birthday celebration waiting for him. He had hoped to return in the early morning for his 46th birthday celebration with his wife. He was coming from a dinner in Chicago at STP CEO Andy Granatelli's home.\n\nHe is interred in a crypt at Forest Lawn Memorial Cemetery in Fort Lauderdale, Florida. His wife died five years after him at the age of 46 due to lung cancer, and is entombed next to him. His father died in March 1972 and his mother in early January 1986.\n\nFighting style\n\nMarciano is commonly remembered as a swarmer due to his use of constant pressure in the ring, but he has also been called a slugger and a brawler; he was essentially all three. A late starter in the sport with little training and a short amateur career, he lacked the skills and finesse of most heavyweight champions, but he made up for it in brute force and raw power. He was notorious early in his career for his punching power, holding eleven first-round knockouts to his name. As the opposition got better, Marciano relied on his incredible stamina, relentlessness, and ability to fight rough and swarm on the inside to get him through fights just as much as the power. He would sometimes go entire fights being pummeled by opponents such as Jersey Joe Walcott, Ezzard Charles, and Archie Moore but would come on strong as his opponent faded. He was also noted for hitting his opposition on their arms while they were blocking. Although this didn't score points, over the rounds it made their arms numb and essentially useless. Rocky faced criticism over his career for poor foot movement and for taking too many shots: he utilized weaving but would often be caught coming in. This, however, did not matter because he was able to take the shots. He is now known for having one of the best chins in boxing history, being knocked down just twice in his entire career, both times more to do with poor balancing rather than being dazed.\n\nLegacy\n\nRocky Marciano was the inspiration for the name, iconography, and fighting style of the title character Rocky Balboa from Sylvester Stallone's American classic Rocky movie series. The character Rocky dreams of becoming like his idol Rocky Marciano and later in the series even gifts his son a valuable possession (a boxing glove necklace made from a cuff link) given to him by his trainer Mickey, who had received it from Marciano.\n\nIn 1971, Nat Fleischer, perhaps boxing's most famous historian and also editor and founder of Ring magazine, named Marciano as the all-time 10th greatest Heavyweight Champion. Nat Fleischer wrote that Marciano was \"crude, wild swinging, awkward, and missed heavily. In his bout with light heavyweight Champion Archie Moore, for example, he missed almost two-thirds of the fifty odd punches he tossed when he had Archie against the ropes, a perfect target for the kill.\"\n\nJohn Durant, author of The Heavyweight Champions, wrote in 1971 (pg. 123) \"Critics do not rate Rocky with the great ones, like Jeffries, Johnson, Dempsey, Tunney, and Louis. He never faced top fighters like they did. It was not Rocky's fault, of course, that there was not much talent when he was fighting. He fought them all and that is what a champion is supposed to do.\"\n\nIn December 1962, a Ring magazine poll of 40 boxing experts had Jack Dempsey rated the #1 heavyweight of all time, with Joe Louis 2nd, Jack Johnson 3rd and Marciano 7th. Two boxing historians, Herb Goldman and Charley Rose, and John McCallum's Survey of Old Timers (survey of a group of historians and writers), rated Marciano at #7, #8 and #9 of greatest heavyweights of all time respectively. \n\nIn 1998, Ring named Marciano as the 6th greatest heavyweight champion ever. In 2002, Ring numbered Marciano at #12 on the list of the 80 Best Fighters of the Last 80 Years. In 2003, Ring rated Marciano #14 on the list of 100 greatest punchers of all time. In 2005, Marciano was named the fifth greatest heavyweight of all time by the International Boxing Research Organization. A 1977 ranking by Ring listed Marciano as the greatest Italian American fighter. In 2007, on ESPN.com's list of the 50 Greatest Boxers of All Time, Marciano was ranked #14.\n\nMarciano holds the record with heavyweight Brian Nielsen for the longest undefeated streak by a heavyweight. He also has the record for being the only world heavyweight champion to go undefeated throughout his career. Willie Pep, a featherweight, had a perfect 62–0 record before he was defeated once, followed by a 72–0–1 undefeated streak. Packy McFarland was a lightweight (fighting between 1904–1915) who lost his first fight and then won his next 98, though he never won the lightweight title. Heavyweight champion Gene Tunney never suffered a defeat at heavyweight and retired as champion, although he did lose one fight at light heavyweight.\n\nThroughout history, only a few boxers have retired as undefeated world champions. As of 2015 apart from Marciano only Michael Loewe, Pichit Sitbangprachan, Harry Simon, Sven Ottke, Joe Calzaghe, Edwin Valero and Floyd Mayweather, Jr. retired with a perfect record containing neither defeats nor draws. Only Mayweather, Jr. has managed to match Marciano's 49-0 record.\n\nMarciano has the highest knockout percentage of any heavyweight champion in history with 87.76%.\nMarciano was knocked down to the canvas only twice in his professional career. The first occurred in his first championship against Jersey Joe Walcott, 38, and the second occurred against Archie Moore, 38.\n\nOn the bootleg tapes of the Beatles in session in 1965 recording \"Think For Yourself\", John Lennon can be heard reflecting and joking about a meeting he had with Marciano, in which Marciano talked about Joe Louis.\n\nMarciano's punch was tested and it was featured in the December 1963 issue of Boxing Illustrated: \"Marciano's knockout blow packs more explosive energy than an armour-piercing bullet and represents as much energy as would be required to spot lift 1000 pounds one foot off the ground.\" \n\nMarciano was named fighter of the year by Ring three times. His three championship fights between 1952–54 were named fights of the year by that magazine. Marciano won the Sugar Ray Robinson Award in 1952. In 2006, an ESPN poll voted Marciano's 1952 championship bout against Walcott as the greatest knockout ever. Marciano also received the Hickok Belt for top professional athlete of the year in 1952. In 1955, he was voted the second most important American athlete of the year.\n\nMarciano is a member of the International Boxing Hall of Fame and the World Boxing Hall of Fame.\n\nA bronze statue of Marciano was planned for a 2009 completion date in his hometown of Brockton, Massachusetts, to be a gift to the city by the World Boxing Council. The artist Mario Rendon, head of the Instituto Universitario de las Bellas Artes in Colima, Mexico, was selected to sculpt the statue. After years of delays in the planning stages, the groundbreaking for the statue was held on April 1, 2012, on the grounds of Brockton High School. The statue was officially unveiled on September 23, 2012, which was the 60th anniversary of Marciano winning the World Heavyweight title. A bronze statue of Marciano was also erected in Ripa Teatina, Italy, to celebrate the birthplace of Marciano's father.\n\nProfessional boxing record\n\n\|-\n\| style\"text-align:center;\" colspan\n\"8\"\|49 wins (43 knockouts, 6 decisions), 0 losses, 0 draws \n\|- style=\"text-align:center; background:#e3e3e3;\"\n\| style=\"border-style:none none solid solid; \"\|Res.\n\| style=\"border-style:none none solid solid; \"\|Record\n\| style=\"border-style:none none solid solid; \"\|Opponent\n\| style=\"border-style:none none solid solid; \"\|Type\n\| style=\"border-style:none none solid solid; \"\|Round\n\| style=\"border-style:none none solid solid; \"\|Date\n\| style=\"border-style:none none solid solid; \"\|Location\n\| style=\"border-style:none none solid solid; \"\|Notes\n\|- align=center\n\|Win\n\|49–0\n\|align=left\| Archie Moore\n\|KO\n\|9 \n\|\n\|align=left\| \n\|align=left\|\n\|- align=center\n\|Win\n\|48–0\n\|align=left\| Don Cockell\n\|TKO\n\|9 \n\|\n\|align=left\| \n\|align=left\|\n\|- align=center\n\|Win\n\|47–0\n\|align=left\| Ezzard Charles\n\|KO\n\|8 \n\|\n\|align=left\| \n\|align=left\|\n\|- align=center\n\|Win\n\|46–0\n\|align=left\| Ezzard Charles\n\|UD\n\|15\n\|\n\|align=left\| \n\|align=left\|\n\|- align=center\n\|Win\n\|45–0\n\|align=left\| Roland La Starza\n\|TKO\n\|11 \n\|\n\|align=left\| \n\|align=left\|\n\|- align=center\n\|Win\n\|44–0\n\|align=left\| Jersey Joe Walcott\n\|KO\n\|1 \n\|\n\|align=left\| \n\|align=left\|\n\|- align=center\n\|Win\n\|43–0\n\|align=left\| Jersey Joe Walcott\n\|KO\n\|13 \n\|\n\|align=left\| \n\|align=left\|\n\|- align=center\n\|Win\n\|42–0\n\|align=left\| Harry Matthews\n\|KO\n\|2 \n\|\n\|align=left\| \n\|align=left\|\n\|- align=center\n\|Win\n\|41–0\n\|align=left\| Bernie Reynolds\n\|KO\n\|3 \n\|\n\|align=left\| \n\|align=left\|\n\|- align=center\n\|Win\n\|40–0\n\|align=left\| Gino Buonvino\n\|KO\n\|2 \n\|\n\|align=left\| \n\|align=left\|\n\|- align=center\n\|Win\n\|39–0\n\|align=left\| Lee Savold\n\|RTD\n\|6 \n\|\n\|align=left\| \n\|align=left\|\n\|- align=center\n\|Win\n\|38–0\n\|align=left\| Joe Louis\n\|TKO\n\|8 \n\|\n\|align=left\| \n\|align=left\|\n\|- align=center\n\|Win\n\|37–0\n\|align=left\| Freddie Beshore\n\|KO\n\|4 \n\|\n\|align=left\| \n\|align=left\|\n\|- align=center\n\|Win\n\|36–0\n\|align=left\| Rex Layne\n\|KO\n\|6 \n\|\n\|align=left\| \n\|align=left\|\n\|- align=center\n\|Win\n\|35–0\n\|align=left\| Willis Applegate\n\|UD\n\|10\n\|\n\|align=left\| \n\|align=left\|\n\|- align=center\n\|Win\n\|34–0\n\|align=left\| Art Henri\n\|TKO\n\|9 \n\|\n\|align=left\| \n\|align=left\|\n\|- align=center\n\|Win\n\|33–0\n\|align=left\| Harold Mitchell\n\|TKO\n\|2 \n\|\n\|align=left\| \n\|align=left\|\n\|- align=center\n\|Win\n\|32–0\n\|align=left\| Keene Simmons\n\|TKO\n\|8 \n\|\n\|align=left\| \n\|align=left\|\n\|- align=center\n\|Win\n\|31–0\n\|align=left\| Bill Wilson\n\|TKO\n\|1 \n\|\n\|align=left\| \n\|align=left\|\n\|- align=center\n\|Win\n\|30–0\n\|align=left\| Ted Lowry\n\|UD\n\|10\n\|\n\|align=left\| \n\|align=left\|\n\|- align=center\n\|Win\n\|29–0\n\|align=left\| Johnny Shkor\n\|TKO\n\|6 \n\|\n\|align=left\| \n\|align=left\|\n\|- align=center\n\|Win\n\|28–0\n\|align=left\| Gino Buonvino\n\|TKO\n\|10 \n\|\n\|align=left\| \n\|align=left\|\n\|- align=center\n\|Win\n\|27–0\n\|align=left\| Eldridge Eatman\n\|TKO\n\|3 \n\|\n\|align=left\| \n\|align=left\|\n\|- align=center\n\|Win\n\|26–0\n\|align=left\| Roland La Starza\n\|SD\n\|10\n\|\n\|align=left\| \n\|align=left\|\n\|- align=center\n\|Win\n\|25–0\n\|align=left\| Carmine Vingo\n\|KO\n\|6 \n\|\n\|align=left\| \n\|align=left\|\n\|- align=center\n\|Win\n\|24–0\n\|align=left\| Phil Muscato\n\|TKO\n\|5 \n\|\n\|align=left\| \n\|align=left\|\n\|- align=center\n\|Win\n\|23–0\n\|align=left\| Pat Richards\n\|TKO\n\|2 \n\|\n\|align=left\| \n\|align=left\|\n\|- align=center\n\|Win\n\|22–0\n\|align=left\| Joe Dominic\n\|KO\n\|2 \n\|\n\|align=left\| \n\|align=left\|\n\|- align=center\n\|Win\n\|21–0\n\|align=left\| Ted Lowry\n\|UD\n\|10\n\|\n\|align=left\| \n\|align=left\|\n\|- align=center\n\|Win\n\|20–0\n\|align=left\| Tommy DiGiorgio\n\|KO\n\|4 \n\|\n\|align=left\| \n\|align=left\|\n\|- align=center\n\|Win\n\|19–0\n\|align=left\| Pete Louthis\n\|KO\n\|3 \n\|\n\|align=left\| \n\|align=left\|\n\|- align=center\n\|Win\n\|18–0\n\|align=left\| Harry Haft\n\|KO\n\|3 \n\|\n\|align=left\| \n\|align=left\|\n\|- align=center\n\|Win\n\|17–0\n\|align=left\| Don Mogard\n\|UD\n\|10\n\|\n\|align=left\| \n\|align=left\|\n\|- align=center\n\|Win\n\|16–0\n\|align=left\| Jimmy Evans\n\|TKO\n\|3 \n\|\n\|align=left\| \n\|align=left\|\n\|- align=center\n\|Win\n\|15–0\n\|align=left\| Jimmy Walls\n\|KO\n\|3 \n\|\n\|align=left\| \n\|align=left\|\n\|- align=center\n\|Win\n\|14–0\n\|align=left\| Artie Donato\n\|KO\n\|1 \n\|\n\|align=left\| \n\|align=left\|\n\|- align=center\n\|Win\n\|13–0\n\|align=left\| Johnny Pretzie\n\|TKO\n\|5 \n\|\n\|align=left\| \n\|align=left\|\n\|- align=center\n\|Win\n\|12–0\n\|align=left\| Gilley Ferron\n\|TKO\n\|2 \n\|\n\|align=left\| \n\|align=left\|\n\|- align=center\n\|Win\n\|11–0\n\|align=left\| James Patrick Connolly\n\|TKO\n\|1 \n\|\n\|align=left\| \n\|align=left\|\n\|- align=center\n\|Win\n\|10–0\n\|align=left\| Bob Jefferson\n\|TKO\n\|2 \n\|\n\|align=left\| \n\|align=left\|\n\|- align=center\n\|Win\n\|9–0\n\|align=left\| Gilbert Cardone\n\|KO\n\|1 \n\|\n\|align=left\| \n\|align=left\|\n\|- align=center\n\|Win\n\|8–0\n\|align=left\| Bill Hardeman\n\|KO\n\|1 \n\|\n\|align=left\| \n\|align=left\|\n\|- align=center\n\|Win\n\|7–0\n\|align=left\| Humphrey Jackson\n\|KO\n\|1 \n\|\n\|align=left\| \n\|align=left\|\n\|- align=center\n\|Win\n\|6–0\n\|align=left\| Jimmy Weeks\n\|TKO\n\|1 \n\|\n\|align=left\| \n\|align=left\|\n\|- align=center\n\|Win\n\|5–0\n\|align=left\| Eddie Ross\n\|KO\n\|1 \n\|\n\|align=left\| \n\|align=left\|\n\|- align=center\n\|Win\n\|4–0\n\|align=left\| Bobby Quinn\n\|KO\n\|3 \n\|\n\|align=left\| \n\|align=left\|\n\|- align=center\n\|Win\n\|3–0\n\|align=left\| John Edwards\n\|KO\n\|1 \n\|\n\|align=left\| \n\|align=left\|\n\|- align=center\n\|Win\n\|2–0\n\|align=left\| Harry Bilzerian\n\|TKO\n\|1 \n\|\n\|align=left\| \n\|align=left\|\n\|- align=center\n\|Win\n\|1–0\n\|align=left\| Lee Epperson\n\|KO\n\|3 \n\|\n\|align=left\| \n\|align=left\|\n\|- align=center" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "76", "seventy-six" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "76", "seventy six" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "76", "type": "Numerical", "value": "76" }
Who had a 70s No 1 hit with The Night The Lights Went Out In Georgia?	tc_591	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "Search" ], "filename": [ "The_Night_the_Lights_Went_Out_in_Georgia.txt", "The_Night_the_Lights_Went_Out_in_Georgia_(film).txt" ], "title": [ "The Night the Lights Went Out in Georgia", "The Night the Lights Went Out in Georgia (film)" ], "wiki_context": [ "\"The Night the Lights Went Out in Georgia\" is a Southern Gothic song, written in 1972 by songwriter Bobby Russell and sung by Vicki Lawrence, an American singer, actress, and comedian. Lawrence's version, from her 1973 Bell Records album of the same name, was a number one hit on the Billboard Hot 100 after its release. In addition to several other renditions, the song was again a hit in 1991 when Reba McEntire recorded it for her album For My Broken Heart. McEntire's version was a single, as well, reaching number 12 on Hot Country Songs.\n\nHistory and original recording\n\nAlthough Bobby Russell wrote both the lyrics and music for the song, he was reluctant to record even a demonstration because he \"didn't like it.\" According to Lawrence, who was married to Russell at the time, she believed it was destined to be successful and recorded the demo herself. The publishers and the record label did not quite know how to pitch the song, as it was not really a country or a pop song. The first thought was to offer the song to actress/singer Liza Minnelli, but eventually it was offered to singer Cher, but her then-husband and manager Sonny Bono reportedly refused it, as he was said to be concerned that the song might offend Cher's southern fans. Without a singer to record the song, Lawrence went into a studio and recorded it professionally herself, with the instrumental backing of L.A. session musicians from the Wrecking Crew, then pressed the label to release it as a single.\n\nRelease and reception\n\nReleased as a single in June 1972, the song would ultimately become a number-one success for Lawrence, topping the Hot 100 chart in early 1973. Lawrence was, at the time, a regular performer on the ensemble variety comedy television show The Carol Burnett Show. On the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 chart, it scored number six on the Easy Listening chart, and it peaked at number 36 on Billboards Hot Country Singles chart. It was number one for two weeks on the Billboard Hot 100, and was finally topped by Tony Orlando and Dawn's \"Tie a Yellow Ribbon Round the Ole Oak Tree\". Billboard ranked it as the No. 11 song for 1973. \n\nIn Canada, the single version scored number one, as well, topping the RPM 100 national singles chart on May 5 of the same year. On the RPM Country Singles chart, it reached #25. \n\nLyrical explanation\n\nAfter two weeks out of town at a place called Candletop, an unnamed man (identified later as the singer's brother) returns home, stopping at Webb's Bar. At the bar he encounters Andy Wolloe, his best friend. Andy confronts the man with bad news: his wife is not at home and has been unfaithful in his absence, having affairs with both Andy and another man, \"that Amos boy, Seth.\" (Amos does not factor into the rest of the song.)\n\nFearing his now-former friend's fury, Andy, described as a loner, heads for home. Shortly after, \"Brother\" also returns to his home; with his wife still absent, he grabs \"the only thing Papa had left him, and that was a gun\" and makes his way toward Andy's house. When he arrives, he sees two things: a set of footprints that could not have possibly been Andy's because they were too small, and Andy's dead body \"in a puddle of blood.\" A shocked \"Brother\" fires his gun into the air to catch the attention of the Georgia State Patrol, only to realize too late that a scene with his former best friend dead, an audible gunshot, and him holding a gun (along with having a motive for the killing) made him look like the prime suspect—the arresting officer immediately assumes his guilt. The resulting show trial is swift, and Brother only has a \"backwoods southern lawyer\" to aid in his defense; the judge (who is friendly with the sheriff) finds Brother guilty, and Brother is hanged before the judge heads home to eat dinner.\n\nIn the closing verse, the singer reveals that she is the executed man's little sister, and that not only did she shoot and kill Andy (and thus the footprints her brother saw at Andy's house were hers), but she also killed the unfaithful wife and disposed of the body in a place it would \"never be found.\"\n\nMusical structure\n\nThe lyrics use an AABCCB rhyming pattern on the verses, and ABCB on the chorus. The song's verses are in C Dorian; i.e., a C minor scale with the sixth tone raised by a semitone. Verse one consists of four lines, each using the chord pattern Cm-B/C-Cm-F/C-Cm-Gm7-Cm. At the chorus, the song modulates to the key of G major, with a chord pattern of Am-D7-G-Em used three times before ending on Am-D7-Gm. (This is true of the Reba McEntire version; Lawrence's original is a whole step lower, alternating between B Dorian and F major.)\n\nVerse two uses the same structure as verse one, with an additional two lines. The first additional lines also modulates to G major with a chord pattern of Am-D7-G-Em-Am-D-Gm, before returning to C Dorian for another repetition of the original chord pattern. After the second chorus, the third verse consists of only two lines before the chorus is sung a third time. The song then ends with a four-measure riff played in the key of G minor. The overall vocal range is G-D. \n\nTanya Tucker cover \n\nIn 1981, country singer Tanya Tucker recorded a version (on an album of the same name) with differing lyrics and an altered timeline. These altered lyrics were based on the plot line of the 1981 movie The Night the Lights Went Out in Georgia.\n\nReba McEntire cover\n\nDuring 1991, the song was sung as a cover version by Reba McEntire on her album For My Broken Heart. It reached number 12 on Billboards Hot Country Songs chart. While still a commercially successful release, this broke a string of 24 consecutive top 10 country singles by McEntire.\n\nThe song also had a successful music video, wherein the older brother of the story is given the name \"Raymond Brody\"; the video for McEntire's version also contained spoken dialogue that expanded on several of the song's plot points, by suggesting that the judge knew that the narrator's brother did not commit the crime, but was nonetheless anxious to convict him, since he, himself (the judge) had also been having sex with the wife (played by Playboy centerfold/pin up model Barbara Moore) and was worried that a long, involved trial would cause this fact to become known. It also establishes that the little sister (played by McEntire, and portrayed both as a young woman in flashbacks and as a 60-year-old woman using heavy makeup) caught Andy in the act with her brother's wife and that the unfaithful woman also had an affair with the sister's own fiancé.\n\nCultural references\n\nFor a 1986 Designing Women episode, the character Julia Sugarbaker has one of her famous tirades, defending her beauty queen sister Suzanne against catty remarks made by a young woman, concluding with \"And that, just so you will know, and your children will someday know, was the night the lights went out in Georgia!\"\nIt is a prime example of a twist ending in a song, and in the 1992 film Reservoir Dogs, one of the mobsters in the film named Nice Guy Eddie says \"...this is the first time I ever realized that the girl singin' the song is the one who shot Andy.\"\nThe opening motif is sampled in \"The Time Is Now\", which is currently used as American professional wrestler John Cena's entrance music; specifically, the song samples Pete Schofield and The Canadians' rendition.\nIn 2011, a book was released titled \"The Night the Lights Went Out in Georgia,\" written by Jeremy G.T. Reuschling and is casually based on the McEntire version of both the song and the music video.\n\nChart performance\n\nVicki Lawrence version\n\nYear-end charts\n\nReba McEntire version\n\nYear-end charts", "The Night the Lights Went Out in Georgia is a 1981 film, starring Kristy McNichol, Dennis Quaid, Mark Hamill, and Don Stroud, directed by Ronald F. Maxwell.\n\nIt was very loosely inspired by the 1973 Vicki Lawrence song of the same name (it shares almost no plot elements with the original song). In 1981, Tanya Tucker recorded a different version for the film's soundtrack and new lyrics related to the plot of the film were written. These altered lyrics were based on the plot line of the movie, which is not the same as the story of the original song.\n\nThe film was shot on location in Dade County, Georgia some scenes were filmed around Chattanooga, Tennessee, and Manchester, TN \n\nAt least one of the scenes was filmed on 23rd St. in Chattanooga, TN, and Scotty Maclellan had a small role in it. The bedroom scene was filmed in Ringgold, GA, at least according to the granddaughter of the woman who owned the house.\n\nPlot summary \n\nA young singer and his sister/manager travel to Nashville in search of stardom. As they journey from one grimy hotel to another, it becomes increasingly obvious that only one of them has what it takes to become a star.\n\nTravis Child (Quaid) is a country singer who had one hit song and then faded from the scene. His ambitious younger sister, Amanda (McNichol), is determined to get them to Nashville where Travis can once again become a star. Her plans are derailed by Travis's lack of ambition and easy distraction by women and booze.\n\nThe two are separated in one town and by the time they find each other in the next one, Travis has been arrested for public drunkenness. To pay the fine he takes a job bartending at a roadside tavern called Andy's, where he meets and falls for a young lady with a very jealous ex-boyfriend—who happens to be the deputy sheriff.\n\nMain cast\n\n* Kristy McNichol - Amanda Child\n* Dennis Quaid - Travis Child\n* Mark Hamill - Conrad\n* Sunny Johnson - Melody\n* Don Stroud - Seth James\n* Barry Corbin - Wimbish\n* Arlen Dean Snyder - Andy\n* Ellen Saland - Nellie\n\n\"The Night the Lights Went Out in Georgia\" proves to be a film of considerable feeling and tenderness.\"\nKevin Thomas, Los Angeles Times, Aug 7, 1981" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Vicky lawrence", "Vicki Lawrence Schultz", "Vicki Lawrence" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "vicky lawrence", "vicki lawrence schultz", "vicki lawrence" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "vicki lawrence", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Vicki Lawrence" }
Which country does the airline Gronlandsfly come from?	tc_592	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Air_Greenland.txt" ], "title": [ "Air Greenland" ], "wiki_context": [ "Air Greenland A/S is the flag carrier airline of Greenland, a subsidiary of the SAS Group, owned by the SAS Group, The Greenlandic Government and The Danish Government. It operates a fleet of 32 aircraft, including 1 airliner used for transatlantic and charter flights, 9 fixed-wing aircraft primarily serving the domestic network, and 22 helicopters feeding passengers from the smaller communities into the domestic airport network. Flights to heliports in the remote settlements are operated on contract with the government of Greenland.\n\nFounded in 1960 as Grønlandsfly, the airline started its first services with Catalina water planes and within the decade expanded to include DHC-3 Otters as well as Sikorsky S-61 helicopters, some of which remain in active service. The majority of operations were based on helicopters until the newly established Greenland Home Rule began investing in a network of short takeoff and landing airfields. These were very expensive to construct and Greenland's airport fees are still among the highest in the world; they also required a new fleet: DHC-7 turboprops uniquely suited to the harsh terrain and weather conditions in Greenland. The reliability of connections improved as the domestic airport network expanded in the 1990s: increasing use of the Dash 7s made the airline less restricted by inclement weather. In the late 1990s and early 2000s, Air Greenland acquired a Boeing 757 and an Airbus A330, allowing it to open connections to Copenhagen, until then operated by SAS which also competed mid to late 2000s. In the 21st century, it competes with Air Iceland for international connections and small charter services domestically.\n\nBesides running scheduled services and government-contracted flights to most villages in the country, the airline also supports remote research stations, provides charter services for tourists and Greenland's energy and mineral-resource industries, and permits medivac during emergencies. Air Greenland has seven subsidiaries, an airline, hotels, tour operators, a travel agency specialized in Greenlandic tourism and the Arctic Umiaq Line, an unprofitable but government-subsidized ferry service.\n\nHistory \n\n1960s \n\nThe airline was established on 7 November 1960 as Grønlandsfly A/S by the Scandinavian Airlines System (now SAS) and Kryolitselskabet Øresund, a Danish mining company involved with the cryolite operations at Ivittuut to provide transport and logistics for four American radar bases in Greenland. In 1962, interests in the firm were acquired by the Provincial Council (now the Greenland Home Rule Government) and the Royal Greenland Trade Department (now KNI).\n\nThe first flights serving the American bases in Greenland operated lightweight DHC-3 Otters and Sikorsky S-55 helicopters chartered from Canada. After a crash in 1961, Grønlandsfly used PBY Catalina water planes and DHC-6 Twin Otters on domestic routes. One of the Catalinas then crashed in 1962. In 1965, the Douglas DC-4 became the line's first larger airplane. It was followed by Sikorsky S-61 helicopters, which have remained in use: in 2010, they still served the communities of Kujalleq municipality in southern Greenland year-round and those of Disko Bay during the winter.\n\n1970s \n\nDuring the 1970s, Grønlandsfly upgraded its DC-4 to the newer DC-6, but principally focused on expanding its helicopter fleet, purchasing five more S-61s. By 1972, it opened up service to east Greenland with a helicopter based in Tasiilaq, and established Greenlandair Charter. Mining at Maamorilik in the Uummannaq Fjord required still more helicopters, and the airline purchased Bell 206s for the route. Grønlandsfly also picked up a Danish government contract to fly reconnaissance missions regarding the sea ice around Greenland.\n\nBy the end of 1979, the number of Grønlandsfly passengers served annually exceeded 60,000, more than the population of Greenland. That year, the airline's first international route was also opened, running between Greenland's capital Nuuk and the town of Iqaluit in northern Canada. The route connected Greenland's Kalaallit with Canada's Inuit and was operated in conjunction with the Canadian First Air line, but the planes were generally run empty and the route was shuttered 13 years later. \n\n1980s \n\nThe establishment of the Greenland Home Rule Government in 1979 led to investment in a regional network of true airports, with short take-off and landing (STOL) airfields constructed in Nuuk, Ilulissat (1984), and Kulusuk. (These early airports were built without de-icing equipment, a situation which has proven problematic during Greenland's winters and continues to cause delays and losses for the airline. ) The decade also saw the company train and hire its first native Kalaallit pilots.\n\nTo service the enlarged network, Grønlandsfly began acquiring DHC-7s, planes particularly suited to the often severe weather conditions in Greenland. The first was delivered on 29 September 1979, followed by more over the next decade. These planes remain in active service, serving every airport except Nerlerit Inaat near Ittoqqortoormiit, whose operation is handled by Air Iceland under contract with Greenland Home Rule. \n\nIn 1981, Grønlandsfly opened its first route to Iceland, linking Reykjavík Airport to its main hub at Kangerlussuaq via Kulusuk. In 1986, a route to Keflavík allowed the company to break SAS's monopoly on flights between Greenland and Denmark via a Keflavík-Copenhagen leg operated by Icelandair. By 1989, the airline employed more than 400 Greenlanders and carried more than 100,000 passengers annually.\n\n1990s \n\nThe company saw its activity curtailed as the mines at Ivittuut (1987) and Maamorilik (1990) closed operation, leading to a recession in the Greenlandic economy.\n\nAs the situation improved, the network of regional STOL airports was extended with Sisimiut Airport, Maniitsoq Airport, and Aasiaat Airport built in mid-western Greenland and Qaarsut Airport and Upernavik Airport built in northwestern Greenland. With the purchase of a fifth Dash 7, Grønlandsfly was for the first time since its inception able to provide plane services to all major towns in Greenland. (Uummannaq is served by Qaarsut Airport in conjunction with its heliport.)\n\nGrønlandsfly also purchased its first jet aircraft, a Boeing 757–200 which began operation in May 1998. The airliner was named Kunuunnguaq in honor of the Greenlandic explorer and ethnologist Knud Rasmussen, whose bust decorates in the terminal of Kangerlussuaq hub. The airliner allowed the company to run the profitable Kangerlussuaq–Copenhagen route directly, without affiliates or a layover in Iceland. Thus, in 1999, the airline served 282,000 passengers, nearly triple the number at the end of the previous decade.\n\n2000s \n\nAround the turn of the millennium, the airline renewed its aging fleet, retiring several of its S-61 and 206 helicopters and replacing them with Bell 212s and Eurocopter AS350s. The company also sacked its CEO Peter Fich, who had proven unable to balance Greenland Home Rule's demands for local Greenlander service with the board's for expanded tourism, lower fares, and higher profits. Under his replacement Finn Øelund, Grønlandsfly initially posted a DKK 30 million loss as contractual obligations maintained unprofitable service while a strike ruined the summer tourist season and Post Greenland relocated a lucrative mail contract to the Danish-owned Air Alpha Greenland. In response, the company successfully pushed back against Greenland Home Rule's large demands, high fees, and low subsidies and rebranded itself, anglicizing its name to Air Greenland and adopting a new logo and livery on 18 April 2002. \n\nIn 2003, Finn Øelund left to head Maersk Air and was replaced as CEO by Flemming Knudson. Air Greenland opened a route from Copenhagen to Akureyri in Iceland; the service lasted for six years before finally being deemed unprofitable and ended. Also in 2003, SAS abandoned its Greenland service, leading Air Greenland to purchase its second airliner, an Airbus A330-200 named Norsaq. (SAS briefly revived the service during the peak season in 2007 before dropping it again in January 2009. ) Owing to SAS's withdrawal from the market, Air Greenland received its contract with the U.S. Air Force for passenger service to and from Thule Air Base. Running from February 2004, the contract was renewed for another five-year period in 2008 despite SAS's brief return to the market.\n\nThe first takeover of another airline took place on 28 July 2006: Air Greenland acquired the Danish carrier Air Alpha's Greenland subsidiary. Air Alpha Greenland had operated helicopter flights in Disko Bay and in eastern Greenland. Since the takeover, the acquired Bell 222 helicopters have been used for passenger transfers between Nerlerit Inaat Airport and Ittoqqortoormiit Heliport. \n\nIn 2007, Flemming Knudson was moved to head the Royal Greenland fishing concern and current CEO Michael Binzer was hired with a mandate to lead the company towards greater commercialization and self-sufficiency under the Qarsoq 2012 (\"Arrow 2012\") plan. On 13 June, SAS announced its intention to sell its stake in Air Greenland, a move later incorporated into its restructuring program, but as of 2012 it has not found any buyers. On 1 October, the airline introduced its e-ticket system. Also in 2007, Air Greenland began direct service with Baltimore/Washington International Airport in the United States of America. After sixty American visitors were stranded by a strike of Air Greenland employees and the company refused to make alternate arrangements for their return, ticket sales slumped and the route was closed in March 2008.\n\nIn 2009, the airline carried 399,000 passengers. \n\n2010s \n\nIn the 2010s, Air Greenland has curtailed some services. On 1 January 2010, Air Greenland suspended its participation in SAS's EuroBonus frequent-flyer program. In 2011, nonstop service from Narsarsuaq to Copenhagen was suspended. \n\nHowever, some expansion is planned. In order to compete with Air Iceland, which operates service from Reykjavik Airport to Nuuk, Narsarsuaq, Ilulissat, and the east coast of Greenland and now controls about 15% the market in Greenland-bound travel, Air Greenland may open a nonstop route between Nuuk and Keflavík International Airport in Iceland. Also, owing to improved technology and higher commodity prices, the Maarmorilik mines were due to reopen in November 2010 with zinc and iron ore reserves projected to last 50 years. As in the 1970s, the mine's supply flights to the mine will be operated by Air Greenland, using Bell helicopters (212s) based out of the Uummannaq Heliport. \n\nAir Greenland's last remaining Twin Otter was sold in 2011 to Norlandair in exchange for cash and a one-fourth interest in the Icelandic company.\n\nReopening the connection to Iqaluit, now the capital of Nunavut, was considered by Air Greenland in late 2009, but finally happened in 2012. However, this service ceased in 2015. \n\nDestinations \n\nAir Greenland's domestic airport network includes all 13 civilian airports within Greenland. Outside Greenland, the airline currently operates transatlantic flights to Keflavík International Airport in Iceland, Copenhagen Airport in Denmark, and Iqaluit Airport in Canada.\n\nTwo international airports capable of serving large airliners – Kangerlussuaq Airport and Narsarsuaq Airport – were constructed as U.S. Air Force military bases during World War II and continue to be used for transatlantic flights. All other regional airports are STOL-capable and are served with Dash 7 and Dash 8 fixed-wing aircraft.\n\nSmaller communities are served via heliports which connect with hubs located at Upernavik Airport in the Upernavik Archipelago in northwestern Greenland; at Uummannaq Heliport in the Uummannaq Fjord region in northwestern Greenland; at Ilulissat and Aasiaat Airports in the Disko Bay region in western Greenland; at Qaqortoq and Nanortalik Heliports in southern Greenland; and at Tasiilaq Heliport in southeastern Greenland. Of the 45 heliports in use, 8 are primary and equipt with a tarmac, a terminal building, and permanent staff. The other heliports are helistops with either a gravel or grass landing area. Often helicopters need to make more than one flight for each connection to a fixed-wing flight because of passenger capacity, causing longer total travel time.\n\nAir Greenland also performs charter flights within Europe on behalf of European travel agencies using its Airbus A330. \n\nInterline agreements\n\nThe agreement makes it again possible to combine a trip, in one ticket.\n\nAir Greenland has interline agreements with the following airlines:\n\nFleet \n\nAs of April 2015, the Air Greenland fleet includes the following active aircraft: \n\nFixed-wing fleet \n\nThe Bombardier Dash 8 Q200 is the airline's primary aircraft, operating on all domestic airport-to-airport routes. In 2010, the airline acquired its first Dash 8 aircraft.\n\n there are one outstanding aircraft order, with the airline operating the following fleet:\n\nFile:15-09-21 127 Air Greenland, Kangerlussuaq, Greenland.jpg\| Short take-off and landing (STOL) capability and the ability to carry both passengers and freight are important for airline success in the far north.\nFile:15-09-21 111 Air Greenland, Kangerlussuaq, Greenland.jpg\| Air Greenland Dash 8 Q200 taxiing in from the main runway at Kangerlussuaq.\nFile:15-09-21 103 Air Greenland, Kangerlussuaq, Greenland.jpg\| During the long daylight hours of the summer season, turnaround of passengers and freight is constant on these Dash 8 Q200 aircraft.\n\nHelicopter fleet \n\nThe Bell 212 is the primary helicopter used for flights to district villages. The older Sikorsky S-61N machines are stationed in Ilulissat Airport and Qaqortoq Heliport. With a capacity to seat 25 passengers, the S-61 based in southern Greenland was used to shuttle passengers arriving from Copenhagen at Narsarsuaq Airport. The sale of the Boeing 757 in April 2010 contributed to the long-term decline of the airport, with the airline planning to remove the old helicopter from the fleet. Three of the Bell 222 helicopters are taken out of active service and remain stationed in Kangerlussuaq Airport having been put up for sale.\n\nHistorical Fleet\n\nIn the past, Air Greenland (Grønlandsfly) also used the following aircraft:\n\n* de Havilland Canada Dash 7\n* Aérospatiale Alouette III\n* Bell 212\n* Bell 204\n* Bell 206B Jet Ranger\n* Boeing 757-200,named Kunuunnguaq and registered OY-GRL. First jet airliner in fleet. Sold in 2010\n* Cessna 172\n* Cessna 550\n* de Havilland Canada DHC-3 Otter\n* Douglas DC-3\n* Douglas DC-4\n* Douglas DC-6\n* MD-500\n* Consolidated PBY Catalina\n* Piper PA-18 Super Cub\n* Piper PA-31\n* Sikorsky S-55\n* Sikorsky S-58\n\nManagement and structure \n\nThe Greenlandic Government and the SAS Group are the largest shareholders of the airline, owning a 37.5% stake each. The Danish Government owns the remaining 25% of the stock. The Ministry of Housing, Infrastructure, and Transport oversees the development of the transport industry in Greenland and controls Mittarfeqarfiit, the airport authority in Greenland. Between them, they control mandatory services, airport taxes, pricing policies, maritime connections, and tourism development, effectively allowing Greenland Home Rule to control the company in spite of the other stakeholders.\n\nThe board of directors, chaired by Julia Pars of Greenland Home Rule, includes representatives of all three shareholders and the airline employees. Michael Binzer, previously heading the airline's marketing and sales department, has been holding the position of chief executive officer since June 2007. \n\nHeadquartered in Nuuk, the airline had 668 employees in December 2009. The airline's technical base is located at Nuuk Airport. \n\nCharter \n\nThe charter unit within Air Greenland is led by Hans Peter Hansen and employs 8 people, with 13 helicopters and 3 fixed-wing aircraft at its disposal. Excess capacity of airplanes is used for regular charters to tourist destinations in Europe, Asia, and Africa.\n\nThe helicopters, primarily the AS350, are used for special flights, such as search and rescue, air ambulance, charter flights to the Thule Air Base on contract with the U.S. Air Force, geological exploration, and supply flights to the mining sites and the research stations on the Greenland ice sheet. During the peak summer season, the helicopter crew is supplemented by freelance pilots from Norway and Sweden.\n\nOther charter flights include heliskiing shuttles, services for the energy industry such as facilitating oil exploration or surveying for hydroelectric stations, and environmental research counting polar bears and tracking other large Arctic fauna.\n\nSubsidiary companies \n\nArctic Umiaq Line \n\nAir Greenland co-owns the Arctic Umiaq Line jointly (50% each) with Royal Arctic, Greenland's government-owned shipping line. Arctic Umiaq runs the ferry M/S Sarfaq Ittuk among Greenland's coastal communities from Ilulissat in the north to Narsaq in the south. \n\nThe ferry has been unprofitable since its founding in 2006, but Greenland Home Rule provided the owners with a loss guarantee through 2011, allowing the subsidiary to break even. The deficit was DKK 8.1 million for 2011 and, on 16 March 2010, Air Greenland announced plans to divest its stock. Greenland Home Rule avoided this by undertaking to continue the guarantee at least through 2016. \n\nTourism \n\nAir Greenland wholly owns Hotel Arctic A/S, a hotel and travel agency based in Ilulissat. Hotel Arctic in turn partially owns World of Greenland, an outfitter company also based in Ilulissat. The airline also owns Greenland Travel, a package-tour travel agency based in Copenhagen.\n\nService \n\nIn-flight service \n\nEconomy class \n\nAir Greenland offers flexible and restricted economy class on all flights operated with fixed-wing aircraft, with complimentary snacks and drinks. On transatlantic flights to Copenhagen, both economy class and business class seats are available, with in-flight meals served in all classes. Air Greenland publishes a quarterly Suluk (Kalaallisut: \"Wing\") in-flight magazine, with general information about current political and cultural events in Greenland and with news from the airline.\n\nBusiness class \n\nA flexible business class – named \"Business-Class\" – is offered by Air Greenland on transatlantic flights aboard Norsaq, its Airbus A330-200. The service includes a personal video screen, an in-seat power source, an amenity kit, blankets, and a selection of newspapers. Passengers travelling on this class are eligible to use the Novia Business Class Lounge at Copenhagen Airport.\n\nSettlement flights \n\nAir Greenland operates helicopter flights to most settlements in Greenland (\"settlement flights\") on contract with the government of Greenland, with the destination network subsidized and coordinated by the Ministry of Housing, Infrastructure, and Transport. Settlement flights are not featured in the company's timetable, although they can be pre-booked.\n\nDeparture times for these flights as specified during booking are by definition approximate, with the settlement service optimized on the fly depending on local demand for a given day. Settlement flights in the Disko Bay region are unique in that they are operated only during winter and spring. During summer and autumn, transportation between settlements is only by sea, with services operated by Diskoline, a government-contracted ferry service based in Ilulissat. \n\nAccidents and incidents \n\n* On 29 August 1961, a DHC-3 Otter (registration CF-MEX) crashed 20 km from Kangerlussuaq. The aircraft was a non-scheduled service en route from Kangerlussuaq Airport to Aasiaat Airport when a fuel leak caused an in-flight fire. One of the pilots was killed, while the other pilot and the four passengers survived. \n* On 12 May 1962, a PBY Catalina flying boat (registration CF-IHA) crashed during landing at Nuuk Airport. The accident was caused by a mechanical malfunction in the nose wheel doors preventing them from closing during landing on water, resulting in the aircraft sinking. The accident killed 15 of the 21 people on board. \n* On 25 October 1973, the Akigssek (\"Grouse\"), an Air Greenland S-61N (registration OY-HAI), crashed about 40 km south of Nuuk, resulting in the loss of 15 lives. It was en route to Paamiut from Nuuk. The same helicopter had had an emergency landing on the Kangerlussuaq fjord 2 years earlier, due to a double flameout on both engines because of ice in its intake. \n* On 7 June 2008, a Eurocopter AS350 crashed on the runway at Nuuk Airport. There were no injuries, but the helicopter was damaged beyond repair. \n* On 29 January 2014, the Paartoq an Air Greenland Dash 8-Q202 (registration OY-GRI), was involved in a runway excursion accident at Ilulissat Airport (BGJN), Greenland. Flight GL3205 originated in Kangerlussuaq Airport (BGSF), Greenland. four passengers were taken to the hospital for observation, there were no fatalities or serious injuries. Evidence available so far indicates that the airplane landed on runway 07 at the time of the accident. It then went off the left side of the runway. It then went down a 10–15 m dropoff and came to rest on rocky terrain approximately abeam the runway 25 threshold. The weather at the time of the incident was reported: Wind 110 degrees at 29 knots, gusting at 40 knots" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Antarctica of The North", "Greenland", "Lupanlunti", "Kallaallit Nunaat", "Name of Greenland", "Greenlander", "Island of Greenland", "Lupanglunti", "Eastern Greenland", "Kalaallit Nunaat", "Green Land", "Western Greenland", "Greenlanders", "ISO 3166-1:GL", "Greenland (island)", "Kangat Bay", "Sport in Greenland", "Social issues in Greenland", "Grinland", "Climate of Greenland", "Greenland Island" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "sport in greenland", "island of greenland", "kangat bay", "kalaallit nunaat", "lupanlunti", "social issues in greenland", "climate of greenland", "lupanglunti", "iso 3166 1 gl", "name of greenland", "greenland island", "greenland", "antarctica of north", "kallaallit nunaat", "eastern greenland", "greenlanders", "greenlander", "western greenland", "grinland", "green land" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "greenland", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Greenland" }
In Greek mythology, who was the goddess of the rainbow?	tc_598	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "Search" ], "filename": [ "Rainbow.txt", "Iris_(mythology).txt" ], "title": [ "Rainbow", "Iris (mythology)" ], "wiki_context": [ "A rainbow is a meteorological phenomenon that is caused by reflection, refraction and dispersion of light in water droplets resulting in a spectrum of light appearing in the sky. It takes the form of a multicoloured arc. Rainbows caused by sunlight always appear in the section of sky directly opposite the sun.\n\nRainbows can be full circles; however, the average observer sees only an arc formed by illuminated droplets above the ground, and centred on a line from the sun to the observer's eye.\n\nIn a primary rainbow, the arc shows red on the outer part and violet on the inner side. This rainbow is caused by light being refracted when entering a droplet of water, then reflected inside on the back of the droplet and refracted again when leaving it.\n\nIn a double rainbow, a second arc is seen outside the primary arc, and has the order of its colours reversed, with red on the inner side of the arc.\n\nOverview \n\nA rainbow is not located at a specific distance from the observer, but comes from an optical illusion caused by any water droplets viewed from a certain angle relative to a light source. Thus, a rainbow is not an object and cannot be physically approached. Indeed, it is impossible for an observer to see a rainbow from water droplets at any angle other than the customary one of 42 degrees from the direction opposite the light source. Even if an observer sees another observer who seems \"under\" or \"at the end of\" a rainbow, the second observer will see a different rainbow—farther off—at the same angle as seen by the first observer.\n\nRainbows span a continuous spectrum of colours. Any distinct bands perceived are an artefact of human colour vision, and no banding of any type is seen in a black-and-white photo of a rainbow, only a smooth gradation of intensity to a maximum, then fading towards the other side. For colours seen by the human eye, the most commonly cited and remembered sequence is Newton's sevenfold red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet,Gary Waldman, Introduction to Light: The Physics of Light, Vision, and Color, 2002, p. 193:A careful reading of Newton’s work indicates that the color he called indigo, we would normally call blue; his blue is then what we would name blue-green or cyan. remembered by the mnemonic, Richard Of York Gave Battle In Vain (ROYGBIV).\n\nRainbows can be caused by many forms of airborne water. These include not only rain, but also mist, spray, and airborne dew.\n\nVisibility\n\nRainbows can be observed whenever there are water drops in the air and sunlight shining from behind the observer at a low altitude angle. Because of this, rainbows are usually seen in the western sky during the morning and in the eastern sky during the early evening. The most spectacular rainbow displays happen when half the sky is still dark with raining clouds and the observer is at a spot with clear sky in the direction of the sun. The result is a luminous rainbow that contrasts with the darkened background. During such good visibility conditions, the larger but fainter secondary rainbow is often visible. It appears about 10° outside of the primary rainbow, with inverse order of colours.\n\nThe rainbow effect is also commonly seen near waterfalls or fountains. In addition, the effect can be artificially created by dispersing water droplets into the air during a sunny day. Rarely, a moonbow, lunar rainbow or nighttime rainbow, can be seen on strongly moonlit nights. As human visual perception for colour is poor in low light, moonbows are often perceived to be white. \n\nIt is difficult to photograph the complete semicircle of a rainbow in one frame, as this would require an angle of view of 84°. For a 35 mm camera, a wide-angle lens with a focal length of 19 mm or less would be required. Now that software for stitching several images into a panorama is available, images of the entire arc and even secondary arcs can be created fairly easily from a series of overlapping frames.\n\nFrom above the earth such as in an airplane, it is sometimes possible to see a rainbow as a full circle. This phenomenon can be confused with the glory phenomenon, but a glory is usually much smaller, covering only 5–20°.\n\nThe sky inside a primary rainbow is brighter than the sky outside of the bow. This is because each raindrop is a sphere and it scatters light over an entire circular disc in the sky. The radius of the disc depends on the wavelength of light, with red light being scattered over a larger angle than blue light. Over most of the disc, scattered light at all wavelengths overlaps, resulting in white light which brightens the sky. At the edge, the wavelength dependence of the scattering gives rise to the rainbow. \n\nLight of primary rainbow arc is 96% polarised tangential to the arch. Light of second arc is 90% polarised.\n\nNumber of colours in spectrum or rainbow\n\nA spectrum obtained using a glass prism and a point source is a continuum of wavelengths without bands. The number of colours that the human eye is able to distinguish in a spectrum is in the order of 100. Accordingly, the Munsell colour system (a 20th-century system for numerically describing colours, based on equal steps for human visual perception) distinguishes 100 hues. The apparent discreteness of main colours is an artefact of human perception and the exact number of main colours is a somewhat arbitrary choice.\n\nNewton, who admitted his eyes were not very critical in distinguishing colours, originally (1672) divided the spectrum into five main colours: red, yellow, green, blue and violet. Later he included orange and indigo, giving seven main colours by analogy to the number of notes in a musical scale.Isaac Newton, Optice: Sive de Reflexionibus, Refractionibus, Inflexionibus & Coloribus Lucis Libri Tres, Propositio II, Experimentum VII, edition 1740:Ex quo clarissime apparet, lumina variorum colorum varia esset refrangibilitate : idque eo ordine, ut color ruber omnium minime refrangibilis sit, reliqui autem colores, aureus, flavus, viridis, cæruleus, indicus, violaceus, gradatim & ex ordine magis magisque refrangibiles. Newton chose to divide the visible spectrum into seven colours out of a belief derived from the beliefs of the ancient Greek sophists, who thought there was a connection between the colours, the musical notes, the known objects in the Solar System, and the days of the week. According to Isaac Asimov, \"It is customary to list indigo as a color lying between blue and violet, but it has never seemed to me that indigo is worth the dignity of being considered a separate color. To my eyes it seems merely deep blue.\" \n\nThe colour pattern of a rainbow is different from a spectrum, and the colours are less saturated. There is spectral smearing in a rainbow owing to the fact that for any particular wavelength, there is a distribution of exit angles, rather than a single unvarying angle. In addition, a rainbow is a blurred version of the bow obtained from a point source, because the disk diameter of the sun (0.5°) cannot be neglected compared to the width of a rainbow (2°). The number of colour bands of a rainbow may therefore be different from the number of bands in a spectrum, especially if the droplets are particularly large or small. Therefore, the number of colours of a rainbow is variable. If, however, the word rainbow is used inaccurately to mean spectrum, it is the number of main colours in the spectrum.\n\nThe question of whether everyone sees seven colours in a rainbow is related to the idea of Linguistic relativity. Suggestions have been made that there is universality in the way that a rainbow is perceived. However, more recent research suggests that the number of distinct colours observed and what these are called depend on the language that one uses with people whose language has fewer colour words seeing fewer discrete colour bands. \n\nExplanation\n\nWhen sunlight encounters a raindrop, part is reflected but part enters, being refracted at the surface of the raindrop. When this light hits the back of the drop, some of it is reflected off the back. When the internally reflected light reaches the surface again, once more some is internally reflected and some is refracted as it exits the drop. (The light that reflects off the drop, exits from the back, or continues to bounce around inside the drop after the second encounter with the surface, is not relevant to the formation of the primary rainbow.) The overall effect is that part of the incoming light is reflected back over the range of 0° to 42°, with the most intense light at 42°. This angle is independent of the size of the drop, but does depend on its refractive index. Seawater has a higher refractive index than rain water, so the radius of a \"rainbow\" in sea spray is smaller than a true rainbow. This is visible to the naked eye by a misalignment of these bows. \n\nThe reason the returning light is most intense at about 42° is that this is a turning point – light hitting the outermost ring of the drop gets returned at less than 42°, as does the light hitting the drop nearer to its centre. There is a circular band of light that all gets returned right around 42°. If the sun were a laser emitting parallel, monochromatic rays, then the luminance (brightness) of the bow would tend toward infinity at this angle (ignoring interference effects). (See Caustic (optics).) But since the sun's luminance is finite and its rays are not all parallel (it covers about half a degree of the sky) the luminance does not go to infinity. Furthermore, the amount by which light is refracted depends upon its wavelength, and hence its colour. This effect is called dispersion. Blue light (shorter wavelength) is refracted at a greater angle than red light, but due to the reflection of light rays from the back of the droplet, the blue light emerges from the droplet at a smaller angle to the original incident white light ray than the red light. Due to this angle, blue is seen on the inside of the arc of the primary rainbow, and red on the outside. The result of this is not only to give different colours to different parts of the rainbow, but also to diminish the brightness. (A \"rainbow\" formed by droplets of a liquid with no dispersion would be white, but brighter than a normal rainbow.)\n\nThe light at the back of the raindrop does not undergo total internal reflection, and some light does emerge from the back. However, light coming out the back of the raindrop does not create a rainbow between the observer and the sun because spectra emitted from the back of the raindrop do not have a maximum of intensity, as the other visible rainbows do, and thus the colours blend together rather than forming a rainbow. \n\nA rainbow does not exist at one particular location. Many rainbows exist; however, only one can be seen depending on the particular observer's viewpoint as droplets of light illuminated by the sun. All raindrops refract and reflect the sunlight in the same way, but only the light from some raindrops reaches the observer's eye. This light is what constitutes the rainbow for that observer. The whole system composed by the sun's rays, the observer's head, and the (spherical) water drops has an axial symmetry around the axis through the observer's head and parallel to the sun's rays. The rainbow is curved because the set of all the raindrops that have the right angle between the observer, the drop, and the sun, lie on a cone pointing at the sun with the observer at the tip. The base of the cone forms a circle at an angle of 40–42° to the line between the observer's head and their shadow but 50% or more of the circle is below the horizon, unless the observer is sufficiently far above the earth's surface to see it all, for example in an aeroplane (see above). [http://earthsky.org/earth/can-you-ever-see-the-whole-circle-of-a-rainbow Can you ever see the whole circle of a rainbow? \| Earth \| EarthSky] Alternatively, an observer with the right vantage point may see the full circle in a fountain or waterfall spray.[http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/science/wonderquest/2002-03-06-rainbow.htm USATODAY.com – Look down on the rainbow]\n\nMathematical derivation\n\nWe can determine the perceived angle which the rainbow subtends as follows. \n\nGiven a spherical raindrop, and defining the perceived angle of the rainbow as , and the angle of the total internal reflection as , then the angle of incidence of the sun's rays with respect to the drop's normal is , and therefore, from Snell's law, .\n\nSolving for , we get . \n\nThe rainbow will occur where the angle is maximum with respect to the angle . Therefore, from calculus, we can set , and solve for , which yields ≈ 40.2°. Substituting back into the earlier equation yields ≈ 42°.\n\nVariations\n\nMultiple rainbows\n\nSecondary rainbows are caused by a double reflection of sunlight inside the raindrops, and are centered on the sun itself. They are about 127° (violet) to 130° (red) wide. Since this is more than 90°, they are seen on the same side of the sky as the primary rainbow, about 10° above it at apparent angles of 50–53°. As a result of the \"inside\" of the secondary bow being \"up\" to the observer, the colours appear reversed compared to the primary bow. The secondary rainbow is fainter than the primary because more light escapes from two reflections compared to one and because the rainbow itself is spread over a greater area of the sky. Each rainbow reflects white light inside its coloured bands, but that is \"down\" for the primary and \"up\" for the secondary. The dark area of unlit sky lying between the primary and secondary bows is called Alexander's band, after Alexander of Aphrodisias who first described it. \n\nTwinned rainbow\n\nUnlike a double rainbow that consists of two separate and concentric rainbow arcs, the very rare twinned rainbow appears as two rainbow arcs that split from a single base. The colours in the second bow, rather than reversing as in a secondary rainbow, appear in the same order as the primary rainbow. A \"normal\" secondary rainbow may be present as well. Twinned rainbows can look similar to, but should not be confused with supernumerary bands. The two phenomena may be told apart by their difference in colour profile: supernumerary bands consist of subdued pastel hues (mainly pink, purple and green), while the twinned rainbow shows the same spectrum as a regular rainbow.\nThe cause of a twinned rainbow is the combination of different sizes of water drops falling from the sky. Due to air resistance, raindrops flatten as they fall, and flattening is more prominent in larger water drops. When two rain showers with different-sized raindrops combine, they each produce slightly different rainbows which may combine and form a twinned rainbow. \nA numerical ray tracing study showed that a twinned rainbow on a photo could be explained by a mixture of 0.40 and 0.45 mm droplets. That small difference in droplet size resulted in a small difference in flattening of the droplet shape, and a large difference in flattening of the rainbow top. \n\nMeanwhile, the even rarer case of a rainbow split into three branches was observed and photographed in nature. \n\nFull-circle rainbow\n\nIn theory, every rainbow is a circle, but from the ground, only its upper half can be seen. Since the rainbow's centre is diametrically opposed to the sun's position in the sky, more of the circle comes into view as the sun approaches the horizon, meaning that the largest section of the circle normally seen is about 50% during sunset or sunrise. Viewing the rainbow's lower half requires the presence of water droplets below the observer's horizon, as well as sunlight that is able to reach them. These requirements are not usually met when the viewer is at ground level, either because droplets are absent in the required position, or because the sunlight is obstructed by the landscape behind the observer. From a high viewpoint such as a high building or an aircraft, however, the requirements can be met and the full-circle rainbow can be seen. Like a partial rainbow, the circular rainbow can have a secondary bow or supernumerary bows as well. It is possible to produce the full circle when standing on the ground, for example by spraying a water mist from a garden hose while facing away from the sun. \n\nA circular rainbow should not be confused with the glory, which is much smaller in diameter and is created by different optical processes. In the right circumstances, a glory and a (circular) rainbow or fog bow can occur together. Another atmospheric phenomenon that may be mistaken for a \"circular rainbow\" is the 22° halo, which is caused by ice crystals rather than liquid water droplets, and is located around the sun (or moon), not opposite it.\n\nSupernumerary rainbows\n\nIn certain circumstances, one or several narrow, faintly coloured bands can be seen bordering the violet edge of a rainbow; i.e., inside the primary bow or, much more rarely, outside the secondary. These extra bands are called supernumerary rainbows or supernumerary bands; together with the rainbow itself the phenomenon is also known as a stacker rainbow. The supernumerary bows are slightly detached from the main bow, become successively fainter along with their distance from it, and have pastel colours (consisting mainly of pink, purple and green hues) rather than the usual spectrum pattern. The effect becomes apparent when water droplets are involved that have a diameter of about 1mm or less; the smaller the droplets are, the broader the supernumerary bands become, and the less saturated their colours. Due to their origin in small droplets, supernumerary bands tend to be particularly prominent in fogbows. \n\nSupernumerary rainbows cannot be explained using classical geometric optics. The alternating faint bands are caused by interference between rays of light following slightly different paths with slightly varying lengths within the raindrops. Some rays are in phase, reinforcing each other through constructive interference, creating a bright band; others are out of phase by up to half a wavelength, cancelling each other out through destructive interference, and creating a gap. Given the different angles of refraction for rays of different colours, the patterns of interference are slightly different for rays of different colours, so each bright band is differentiated in colour, creating a miniature rainbow. Supernumerary rainbows are clearest when raindrops are small and of uniform size. The very existence of supernumerary rainbows was historically a first indication of the wave nature of light, and the first explanation was provided by Thomas Young in 1804. \n\nReflected rainbow, reflection rainbow\n\nWhen a rainbow appears above a body of water, two complementary mirror bows may be seen below and above the horizon, originating from different light paths. Their names are slightly different.\n\nA reflected rainbow may appear in the water surface below the horizon. The sunlight is first deflected by the raindrops, and then reflected off the body of water, before reaching the observer. The reflected rainbow is frequently visible, at least partially, even in small puddles.\n\nA reflection rainbow may be produced where sunlight reflects off a body of water before reaching the raindrops (see [http://www.eo.ucar.edu/rainbows/rnbw8.gif diagram] and [http://www.atoptics.co.uk/rainbows/bowim6.htm] ), if the water body is large, quiet over its entire surface, and close to the rain curtain. The reflection rainbow appears above the horizon. It intersects the normal rainbow at the horizon, and its arc reaches higher in the sky, with its centre as high above the horizon as the normal rainbow's centre is below it. Due to the combination of requirements, a reflection rainbow is rarely visible.\n\nUp to eight separate bows may be distinguished if the reflected and reflection rainbows happen to occur simultaneously: The normal (non-reflection) primary and secondary bows above the horizon (1, 2) with their reflected counterparts below it (3, 4), and the reflection primary and secondary bows above the horizon (5, 6) with their reflected counterparts below it (7, 8). \n\nMonochrome rainbow\n\nOccasionally a shower may happen at sunrise or sunset, where the shorter wavelengths like blue and green have been scattered and essentially removed from the spectrum. Further scattering may occur due to the rain, and the result can be the rare and dramatic monochrome or red rainbow. \n\nHigher-order rainbows\n\nIn addition to the common primary and secondary rainbows, it is also possible for rainbows of higher orders to form. The order of a rainbow is determined by the number of light reflections inside the water droplets that create it: One reflection results in the first-order or primary rainbow; two reflections create the second-order or secondary rainbow. More internal reflections cause bows of higher orders—theoretically unto infinity. As more and more light is lost with each internal reflection, however, each subsequent bow becomes progressively dimmer and therefore increasingly harder to spot. An additional challenge in observing the third-order (or tertiary) and fourth-order (quaternary) rainbows is their location in the direction of the sun (about 40° and 45° from the sun, respectively), causing them to become drowned in its glare. \n\nFor these reasons, naturally occurring rainbows of an order higher than 2 are rarely visible to the naked eye. Nevertheless, sightings of the third-order bow in nature have been reported, and in 2011 it was photographed definitively for the first time. Shortly after, the fourth-order rainbow was photographed as well, and in 2014 the first ever pictures of the fifth-order (or quinary) rainbow, located in between the primary and secondary bows, were published. \n\nIn a laboratory setting, it is possible to create bows of much higher orders. Felix Billet (1808–1882) depicted angular positions up to the 19th-order rainbow, a pattern he called a \"rose of rainbows\". In the laboratory, it is possible to observe higher-order rainbows by using extremely bright and well collimated light produced by lasers. Up to the 200th-order rainbow was reported by Ng et al. in 1998 using a similar method but an argon ion laser beam. \n\nTertiary and quaternary rainbows should not be confused with \"triple\" and \"quadruple\" rainbows—terms sometimes erroneously used to refer to the—much more common—supernumerary bows and reflection rainbows.\n\nRainbows under moonlight\n\nMoonbows are often perceived as white and may be thought of as monochrome. The full spectrum is present, but human eyes are not normally sensitive enough to see the colours. Long exposure photographs will sometimes show the colour in this type of rainbow. \n\nFogbow\n\nFogbows form in the same way as rainbows, but they are formed by much smaller cloud and fog droplets that diffract light extensively. They are almost white with faint reds on the outside and blues inside; often one or more broad supernumerary bands can be discerned inside the inner edge. The colours are dim because the bow in each colour is very broad and the colours overlap. Fogbows are commonly seen over water when air in contact with the cooler water is chilled, but they can be found anywhere if the fog is thin enough for the sun to shine through and the sun is fairly bright. They are very large—almost as big as a rainbow and much broader. They sometimes appear with a glory at the bow's centre. \n\nFog bows should not be confused with ice halos, which are very common around the world and visible much more often than rainbows (of any order), yet are unrelated to rainbows.\n\nCircumhorizontal and circumzenithal arcs\n\n \n\nThe circumzenithal and circumhorizontal arcs are two related optical phenomena similar in appearance to a rainbow, but unlike the latter, their origin lies in light refraction through hexagonal ice crystals rather than liquid water droplets. This means that they are not rainbows, but members of the large family of halos.\n\nBoth arcs are brightly coloured ring segments centered on the zenith, but in different positions in the sky: The circumzenithal arc is notably curved and located high above the Sun (or Moon) with its convex side pointing downwards (creating the impression of an \"upside down rainbow\"); the circumhorizontal arc runs much closer to the horizon, is more straight and located at a significant distance below the Sun (or Moon). Both arcs have their red side pointing towards the sun and their violet part away from it, meaning the circumzenithal arc is red on the bottom, while the circumhorizontal arc is red on top. \n\nThe circumhorizontal arc is sometimes referred to by the misnomer \"fire rainbow\". In order to view it, the Sun or Moon must be at least 58° above the horizon, making it a rare occurrence at higher latitudes. The circumzenithal arc, visible only at a solar or lunar elevation of less than 32°, is much more common, but often missed since it occurs almost directly overhead.\n\nRainbows on Titan\n\nIt has been suggested that rainbows might exist on Saturn's moon Titan, as it has a wet surface and humid clouds. The radius of a Titan rainbow would be about 49° instead of 42°, because the fluid in that cold environment is methane instead of water. Although visible rainbows may be rare due to Titan's hazy skies, infrared rainbows may be more common, but an observer would need infrared night vision goggles to see them. \n\nScientific history\n\nThe classical Greek scholar Aristotle (384–322 BC) was first to devote serious attention to the rainbow. According to Raymond L. Lee and Alistair B. Fraser, \"Despite its many flaws and its appeal to Pythagorean numerology, Aristotle's qualitative explanation showed an inventiveness and relative consistency that was unmatched for centuries. After Aristotle's death, much rainbow theory consisted of reaction to his work, although not all of this was uncritical.\" \n\nIn Book I of Naturales Quaestiones (c. 65 AD), the Roman philosopher Seneca the Younger discusses various theories of the formation of rainbows extensively, including those of Aristotle. He notices that rainbows appear always opposite to the sun, that they appear in water sprayed by a rower, in the water spat by a fuller on clothes stretched on pegs or by water sprayed through a small hole in a burst pipe. He even speaks of rainbows produced by small rods (virgulae) of glass, anticipating Newton's experiences with prisms. He takes into account two theories: one, that the rainbow is produced by the sun reflecting in each water drop, the other, that it is produced by the sun reflected in a cloud shaped like a concave mirror; he favours the latter. He also discusses other phenomena related to rainbows: the mysterious \"virgae\" (rods), halos and parhelia. \n\nAccording to Hüseyin Gazi Topdemir, the Persian physicist and polymath Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen; 965–1039), attempted to provide a scientific explanation for the rainbow phenomenon. In his Maqala fi al-Hala wa Qaws Quzah (On the Rainbow and Halo), al-Haytham \"explained the formation of rainbow as an image, which forms at a concave mirror. If the rays of light coming from a farther light source reflect to any point on axis of the concave mirror, they form concentric circles in that point. When it is supposed that the sun as a farther light source, the eye of viewer as a point on the axis of mirror and a cloud as a reflecting surface, then it can be observed the concentric circles are forming on the axis.\" He was not able to verify this because his theory that \"light from the sun is reflected by a cloud before reaching the eye\" did not allow for a possible experimental verification. This explanation was later repeated by Averroes, and, though incorrect, provided the groundwork for the correct explanations later given by Kamāl al-Dīn al-Fārisī (1267–1319) and Theodoric of Freiberg (c.1250–1310). \n\nIbn al-Haytham's contemporary, the Persian philosopher and polymath Ibn Sīnā (Avicenna; 980–1037), provided an alternative explanation, writing \"that the bow is not formed in the dark cloud but rather in the very thin mist lying between the cloud and the sun or observer. The cloud, he thought, serves simply as the background of this thin substance, much as a quicksilver lining is placed upon the rear surface of the glass in a mirror. Ibn Sīnā would change the place not only of the bow, but also of the colour formation, holding the iridescence to be merely a subjective sensation in the eye.\" This explanation, however, was also incorrect. Ibn Sīnā's account accepts many of Aristotle's arguments on the rainbow.\n\nIn Song Dynasty China (960–1279), a polymathic scholar-official named Shen Kuo (1031–1095) hypothesized—as a certain Sun Sikong (1015–1076) did before him—that rainbows were formed by a phenomenon of sunlight encountering droplets of rain in the air. Paul Dong writes that Shen's explanation of the rainbow as a phenomenon of atmospheric refraction \"is basically in accord with modern scientific principles.\" \n\nAccording to Nader El-Bizri, the Persian astronomer, Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi (1236–1311), gave a fairly accurate explanation for the rainbow phenomenon. This was elaborated on by his student, Kamāl al-Dīn al-Fārisī (1267–1319), who gave a more mathematically satisfactory explanation of the rainbow. He \"proposed a model where the ray of light from the sun was refracted twice by a water droplet, one or more reflections occurring between the two refractions.\" An experiment with a water-filled glass sphere was conducted and al-Farisi showed the additional refractions due to the glass could be ignored in his model. As he noted in his Kitab Tanqih al-Manazir (The Revision of the Optics), al-Farisi used a large clear vessel of glass in the shape of a sphere, which was filled with water, in order to have an experimental large-scale model of a rain drop. He then placed this model within a camera obscura that has a controlled aperture for the introduction of light. He projected light unto the sphere and ultimately deduced through several trials and detailed observations of reflections and refractions of light that the colours of the rainbow are phenomena of the decomposition of light.\n\nIn Europe, Ibn al-Haytham's Book of Optics was translated into Latin and studied by Robert Grosseteste. His work on light was continued by Roger Bacon, who wrote in his Opus Majus of 1268 about experiments with light shining through crystals and water droplets showing the colours of the rainbow. In addition, Bacon was the first to calculate the angular size of the rainbow. He stated that the rainbow summit can not appear higher than 42° above the horizon. Theodoric of Freiberg is known to have given an accurate theoretical explanation of both the primary and secondary rainbows in 1307. He explained the primary rainbow, noting that \"when sunlight falls on individual drops of moisture, the rays undergo two refractions (upon ingress and egress) and one reflection (at the back of the drop) before transmission into the eye of the observer.\" He explained the secondary rainbow through a similar analysis involving two refractions and two reflections.\n\nDescartes' 1637 treatise, Discourse on Method, further advanced this explanation. Knowing that the size of raindrops did not appear to affect the observed rainbow, he experimented with passing rays of light through a large glass sphere filled with water. By measuring the angles that the rays emerged, he concluded that the primary bow was caused by a single internal reflection inside the raindrop and that a secondary bow could be caused by two internal reflections. He supported this conclusion with a derivation of the law of refraction (subsequently to, but independently of, Snell) and correctly calculated the angles for both bows. His explanation of the colours, however, was based on a mechanical version of the traditional theory that colours were produced by a modification of white light. \n\nIsaac Newton demonstrated that white light was composed of the light of all the colours of the rainbow, which a glass prism could separate into the full spectrum of colours, rejecting the theory that the colours were produced by a modification of white light. He also showed that red light is refracted less than blue light, which led to the first scientific explanation of the major features of the rainbow. Newton's corpuscular theory of light was unable to explain supernumerary rainbows, and a satisfactory explanation was not found until Thomas Young realised that light behaves as a wave under certain conditions, and can interfere with itself.\n\nYoung's work was refined in the 1820s by George Biddell Airy, who explained the dependence of the strength of the colours of the rainbow on the size of the water droplets. Modern physical descriptions of the rainbow are based on Mie scattering, work published by Gustav Mie in 1908. Advances in computational methods and optical theory continue to lead to a fuller understanding of rainbows. For example, Nussenzveig provides a modern overview. \n\nCulture\n\nRainbows occur frequently in mythology, and have been used in the arts. One of the earliest literary occurrences of a rainbow is in Genesis 9, as part of the flood story of Noah, where it is a sign of God's covenant to never destroy all life on earth with a global flood again. In Norse mythology, the rainbow bridge Bifröst connects the world of men (Midgard) and the realm of the gods (Asgard). Cuchavira was the god of the rainbow for the Muisca people in present-day Colombia and when the regular rains on the Bogotá savanna were over, the people thanked him offering gold, snails and small emeralds. The Irish leprechaun's secret hiding place for his pot of gold is usually said to be at the end of the rainbow. This place is appropriately impossible to reach, because the rainbow is an optical effect which cannot be approached.\n\nRainbows sometimes appear in heraldry too, even if its characteristic of multiple colours doesn't really fit in to the usual heraldic style.\n\nRainbow flags have been used for centuries. It was a symbol of the Cooperative movement in the German Peasants' War in the 16th century, of peace in Italy, and of gay pride and LGBT social movements since the 1970s. In 1994, Archbishop Desmond Tutu and President Nelson Mandela described newly democratic post-apartheid South Africa as the rainbow nation. The rainbow has even been used in technology product logos including the Apple computer logo. Many political alliances have called themselves Rainbow coalition.\n\nImage gallery\n\nFile:Rainbow Rising.jpg\|Rainbow rising over the Atacama Large Millimeter Array. \nFile:Rainbow from the air2.JPG\|A view of a rainbow from a helicopter\nFile:Steam Phase eruption of Castle geyser with double rainbow.jpg\|Eruption of Castle geyser, Yellowstone National Park, with double rainbow\nFile: Rainbow At Maraetai Beach New Zealand.jpg\|Rainbow after sunlight bursts through after an intense shower in Maraetai, New Zealand\nFile:Regenbogen über dem Lipno-Stausee.JPG\|Alexander's Band.", "In Greek mythology, Iris (; ) is the personification of the rainbow and messenger of the gods. She is also known as one of the goddesses of the sea and the sky. Iris links the gods to humanity. She travels with the speed of wind from one end of the world to the other, and into the depths of the sea and the underworld.\n\nIn classical literature\n\nAccording to Hesiod's Theogony, Iris is the daughter of Thaumas and the cloud nymph Electra, and the sister of the Harpies: Aello and Ocypete.\n\nDuring the Titanomachy, Iris was the messenger of the Olympian Gods, while her twin sister Arke betrayed the Olympians and became the messenger of the Titans.\n\nIris is frequently mentioned as a divine messenger in the Iliad which is attributed to Homer, but does not appear in his Odyssey, where Hermes fills that role. Like Hermes, Iris carries a caduceus or winged staff. By command of Zeus, the king of the gods, she carries an ewer of water from the River Styx, with which she puts to sleep all who perjure themselves.\nAccording to Apollonius Rhodius, Iris turned back the Argonauts Zetes and Calais who had pursued the Harpies to the Strophades ('Islands of Turning'). The brothers had driven off the monsters from their torment of the prophet Phineus, but did not kill them upon the request of Iris, who promised that Phineus would not be bothered by the Harpies again.\n\nIris is married to Zephyrus, who is the god of the west wind. Their son is Pothos (Nonnus, Dionysiaca). According to the Dionysiaca of Nonnos, Iris' brother is Hydaspes (book XXVI, lines 355-365).\n\nIn Euripides' play Heracles, Iris appears alongside Lyssa, cursing Heracles with the fit of madness in which he kills his three sons and his wife Megara.\nIn some records she is a sororal twin to the Titaness Arke (arch), who flew out of the company of Olympian gods to join the Titans as their messenger goddess during the Titanomachy, making the two sisters enemy messenger goddesses. Iris was said to have golden wings, whereas Arke had iridescent ones. She is also said to travel on the rainbow while carrying messages from the gods to mortals. During the Titan War, Zeus tore Arke's iridescent wings from her and gave them as a gift to the Nereid Thetis at her wedding, who in turn gave them to her son, Achilles, who wore them on his feet. Achilles was sometimes known as podarkes (feet like [the wings of] Arke.) Podarces was also the original name of Priam, king of Troy.\n\nIris also appears several times in Virgil's Aeneid, usually as an agent of Juno. In Book 4, Juno dispatches her to pluck a lock of hair from the head of Queen Dido, that she may die and enter Hades. In book 5, Iris, having taken on the form of a Trojan woman, stirs up the other Trojan mothers to set fire to four of Aeneas' ships in order to prevent them from leaving Sicily.\n\nEpithets \n\nIris had numerous poetic titles and epithets, including Chrysopteron (Golden Winged), Podas ôkea (swift footed) or Podênemos ôkea (wind-swift footed), Roscida (dewy), and Thaumantias or Thaumantos (Daughter of Thaumas, Wondrous One). Under the epithet Aellopus () she was described as swift-footed like a storm-wind. She also watered the clouds with her pitcher, obtaining the water from the sea.\n\nRepresentation\n\nIris is represented either as a rainbow, or as a beautiful young maiden with wings on her shoulders. As a goddess, Iris is associated with communication, messages, the rainbow and new endeavors.\n\nDerivations\n\nIn language \n\n* The word iridescence is derived in part from the name of this goddess.\n* The adjective for a rainbow is iridal.\n* \"Arco iris\" and \"arco-íris\" are the words for \"rainbow\" in Spanish and Portuguese, respectively, where \"Arco\" means \"bow\" in English.\n* The iris of the eye is named after her, to reflect the many colours of the eye.\n\nNamesake\n\n* The asteroid 7 Iris.\n* The element Iridium.\n* Iris (plant)\n* The hormone Irisin\n\nArtwork\n\n* Auguste Rodin, Iris, Messenger of the Gods, ca. 1890 \n* In 1946, Iris was depicted on a 50-franc airmail stamp in France. This was accompanied the same year by a 40-franc airmail stamp depicting a centaur shooting an arrow into the sky.\n\nFictional adaptations\n\n* Iris appears as a character in William Shakespeare's play The Tempest (1611).\n* Iris appears in the Disney movie Fantasia at the end of the segment featuring the Pastoral Symphony by Beethoven.\n* Iris is a character used in the Percy Jackson and The Olympians and Heroes of Olympus series by Rick Riordan. \n* Iris appears in \"Ransom\" by Australian author David Malouf. \n* Iris is the main character in Iris the colourful by Joan Holub" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Iris", "IRIS", "Iris (song)", "Iris (disambiguation)", "Iris (band)", "IRIS (band)", "IRIS (disambiguation)", "Iris (genus)" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "iris", "iris band", "iris song", "iris disambiguation", "iris genus" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "iris", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Iris" }
In ancient Athens, what tree was considered sacred -- with all its fruit belonging to the state, and death the penalty for anyone caught cutting one down?	tc_599	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "History_of_Athens.txt" ], "title": [ "History of Athens" ], "wiki_context": [ "Athens is one of the oldest named cities in the world, having been continuously inhabited for at least 5000 years. Situated in southern Europe, Athens became the leading city of Ancient Greece in the first millennium BC, and its cultural achievements during the 5th century BC laid the foundations of western civilization.\n\nDuring the early Middle Ages, the city experienced a decline, then recovered under the later Byzantine Empire and was relatively prosperous during the period of the Crusades (12th and 13th centuries), benefiting from Italian trade. Following a period of sharp decline under the rule of the Ottoman Empire, Athens re-emerged in the 19th century as the capital of the independent Greek state.\n\nHistory\n\nThe name of Athens, connected to the name of its patron goddess Athena, originates from an earlier random city-state, Greek Pre-Greek language. The etiological myth explaining how Athens acquired this name through the legendary contest between Poseidon and Athena was described by Herodotus,Herodotus, The Histories, [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc\nPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126%3Abook%3D8%3Achapter%3D55 8.55] Apollodorus, Ovid, Plutarch, Pausanias and others. It even became the theme of the sculpture on the West pediment of the Parthenon. Both Athena and Poseidon requested to be patrons of the city and to give their name to it, so they competed with one another for the honour, offering the city one gift each. Poseidon produced a spring by striking the ground with his trident, symbolizing naval power.\n\nAthena created the olive tree, symbolizing peace and prosperity. The Athenians, under their ruler Cecrops, accepted the olive tree and named the city after Athena. A sacred olive tree said to be the one created by the goddess was still kept on the Acropolis at the time of Pausanias (2nd century AD). It was located by the temple of Pandrosus, next to the Parthenon. According to Herodotus, the tree had been burnt down during the Persian Wars, but a shoot sprung from the stump. To the Greeks they saw this as a symbol that Athena still had her mark there on the city.\n\nPlato, in his dialogue Cratylus, offers his own etymology of Athena's name connecting it to the phrase ἁ θεονόα or hē theoû nóēsis (ἡ θεοῦ νόησις, 'the mind of god'). \n\nGeographical setting\n\nThe site on which Athens stands was first inhabited in the Neolithic period, perhaps as a defensible settlement on top of the Acropolis ('high city'), around the end of the fourth millennium BC or a little later. The Acropolis is a natural defensive position which commands the surrounding plains. The settlement was about 20 km inland from the Saronic Gulf, in the centre of the Cephisian Plain, a fertile valley surrounded by rivers. To the east lies Mount Hymettus, to the north Mount Pentelicus.\n\nAncient Athens, in the first millennium BC, occupied a very small area compared to the sprawling metropolis of modern Greece. The ancient walled city encompassed an area measuring about 2 km from east to west and slightly less than that from north to south, although at its peak the ancient city had suburbs extending well beyond these walls. The Acropolis was situated just south of the centre of this walled area.\n\nThe Agora, the commercial and social centre of the city, lay about 400 m north of the Acropolis, in what is now the Monastiraki district. The hill of the Pnyx, where the Athenian Assembly met, lay at the western end of the city. The Eridanus (Ηριδανός) river flowed through the city.\n\nOne of the most important religious sites in ancient Athens was the Temple of Athena, known today as the Parthenon, which stood on top of the Acropolis, where its evocative ruins still stand. Two other major religious sites, the Temple of Hephaestus (which is still largely intact) and the Temple of Olympian Zeus or Olympeion (once the largest temple in mainland Greece but now in ruins) also lay within the city walls.\n\nAccording to Thucydides, the Athenian citizens at the beginning of the Peloponnesian War (5th century BC) numbered 40,000, making with their families a total of 140,000 people in all. The metics, i.e. those who did not have citizen rights and paid for the right to reside in Athens, numbered a further 70,000, whilst slaves were estimated at between 150,000 and 400,000. Hence, approximately a tenth of the population were adult male citizens, eligible to meet and vote in the Assembly and be elected to office. After the conquests of Alexander the Great in the 4th century BC, the city's population began to decrease as Greeks migrated to the Hellenistic empires in the East.\n\nAntiquity \n\nOrigins and early history\n\nAthens has been inhabited from Neolithic times, possibly from the end of the 4th millennium BC, or nearly 5,000 years, according to books. By 1412 BC, the settlement had become an important center of the Mycenaean civilization and the Acropolis was the site of a major Mycenaean fortress whose remains can be recognised from sections of the characteristic Cyclopean walls. On the summit of the Acropolis, below the later Erechtheion, cuttings in the rock have been identified as the location of a Mycenaean palace.\n\nBetween 1250 and 1200 BC, a staircase was built down a cleft in the rock to reach a protected water supply, in a similar way to ones at Mycenae. These were used to feed the young water. Unlike other Mycenaean centers, such as Mycenae and Pylos (see Bronze Age collapse), it is unclear whether Athens suffered destruction in about 1200 BC, an event often attributed to a Dorian invasion, and the Athenians always maintained that they were \"pure\" Ionians with no Dorian element. However, Athens, like many other Bronze Age settlements, went into economic decline for around 150 years following this.\n\nIron Age burials, in the Kerameikos and other locations, are often richly provided for and demonstrate that from 900 BC onwards Athens was one of the leading centres of trade and prosperity in the region; as were Lefkandi in Euboea and Knossos in Crete. This position may well have resulted from its central location in the Greek world, its secure stronghold on the Acropolis and its access to the sea, which gave it a natural advantage over inland rivals such as Thebes and Sparta.\n\nAccording to legend, Athens was formerly ruled by kings (see Kings of Athens), a situation which may have continued up until the 9th century BC. From later accounts, it is believed that these kings stood at the head of a land-owning aristocracy known as the Eupatridae (the 'well-born'), whose instrument of government was a Council which met on the Hill of Ares, called the Areopagus and appointed the chief city officials, the archons and the polemarch (commander-in-chief).\n\nBefore the concept of the political state arose, four tribes based upon family relationships dominated the area. The members had certain rights, privileges, and obligations:\n\nCommon religious rights.\nA common burial place.\nMutual rights of succession to property of deceased members.\nReciprocal obligations of help, defense and redress of injuries.\nThe right to intermarry in the gens in the cases of orphan daughters and heiresses.\nThe possession of common property, an archon, and a treasurer.\nThe limitation of descent to the male line.\nThe obligation not to marry in the gens except in specified cases.\nThe right to adopt strangers into the gens.\nThe right to elect and depose its chiefs.\n\nDuring this period, Athens succeeded in bringing the other towns of Attica under its rule. This process of synoikismos – the bringing together into one home – created the largest and wealthiest state on the Greek mainland, but it also created a larger class of people excluded from political life by the nobility. By the 7th century BC, social unrest had become widespread, and the Areopagus appointed Draco to draft a strict new code of law (hence the word 'draconian'). When this failed, they appointed Solon, with a mandate to create a new constitution (in 594 BC).\n\nReform and Democracy\n\nThe reforms that Solon initiated dealt with both political and economic issues. The economic power of the Eupatridae was reduced by forbidding the enslavement of Athenian citizens as a punishment for debt, by breaking up large landed estates and freeing up trade and commerce, which allowed the emergence of a prosperous urban trading class. Politically, Solon divided the Athenians into four classes, based on their wealth and their ability to perform military service. The poorest class, the Thetai, (Ancient Greek Θήται) who formed the majority of the population, received political rights for the first time and were able to vote in the Ecclesia (Assembly). But only the upper classes could hold political office. The Areopagus continued to exist but its powers were reduced.\n\nThe new system laid the foundations for what eventually became Athenian democracy, but in the short-term it failed to quell class conflict and after twenty years of unrest the popular party, led by Peisistratus, a cousin of Solon, seized power (in 541 BC). Peisistratus is usually called a tyrant, but the Greek word tyrannos does not mean a cruel and despotic ruler, merely one who took power by force. Peisistratus was in fact a very popular ruler, who made Athens wealthy, powerful, and a centre of culture, and instituted Athenian naval supremacy in the Aegean Sea and beyond. He preserved the Solonian Constitution, but made sure that he and his family held all the offices of state.\n\nHe built the first aqueduct as an underground tunnel. Its sources were most likely on the slopes of Mount Hymettos and along the Ilissos river. It supplied, among other structures, the fountain house in the SE corner of the Agora, but it had a number of branches. In the 4th century BC it was replaced by a system of terracotta pipes in a stone-built underground channel, sometimes called the Hymettos aqueduct; many sections had round, oval or square access holes on top of about 10 x 10 cm.\nPipe segments of this system are displayed at the Evangelismos and Syntagma Metro stations. \n\nPeisistratus died in 527 BC and was succeeded by his sons Hippias and Hipparchus. They proved to be much less adept rulers and in 514 BC, Hipparchus was assassinated in a private dispute over a young man (see Harmodius and Aristogeiton). This led Hippias to establish a real dictatorship, which proved very unpopular. He was overthrown in 510 BC. A radical politician with an aristocratic background named Cleisthenes then took charge, and it was he who established democracy in Athens.\n\nThe reforms of Cleisthenes replaced the traditional four \"tribes\" (phyle) with ten new ones, named after legendary heroes and having no class basis; they were in fact electorates. Each 'tribe' was in turn divided into three 'trittyes' and each trittys had one or more demes, which became the basis of local government. The tribes each elected fifty members to the Boule, a council which governed Athens on a day-to-day basis. The Assembly was open to all citizens and was both a legislature and a supreme court, except in murder cases and religious matters, which became the only remaining functions of the Areopagus.\n\nMost public offices were filled by lot, although the ten strategoi (generals) were elected. This system remained remarkably stable and, with a few brief interruptions, it remained in place for 170 years, until Philip II of Macedon defeated Athens and Thebes at the Battle of Chaeronea in 338 BC.\n\nClassical Athens\n\nEarly Athenian military history and Persian era\n\nPrior to the rise of Athens, Sparta considered itself to be the leader of the Greeks, or hegemon. In 499 BC, Athens sent troops to aid the Ionian Greeks of Asia Minor, who were rebelling against the Persian Empire (the Ionian Revolt). This provoked two Persian invasions of Greece (see Persian Wars). In 490 BC, the Athenians, led by the soldier-statesman Miltiades, defeated the first invasion of the Persians under Darius I at the Battle of Marathon.\n\nIn 487 BC, the Persians returned under Darius's son Xerxes. When a small Greek force holding the pass of Thermopylae was defeated, the Athenians evacuated Athens, the city that was taken by the Persians. Athens got captured and sacked twice by the Persians within one year after Thermopylae. Subsequently the Athenians (led by Themistocles), with their allies, engaged the much larger Persian navy at sea in the Battle of Salamis. Xerxes built a throne on the coast in order to watch the Greek navy being defeated, but instead, the Persians were routed. This established a great turning point in the war.\n\nIn 479 BC, the Athenians and Spartans, with their allies, defeated the Persian army at the Battle of Plataea. However, it was Athens that took the war to Asia Minor. These victories enabled it to bring most of the Aegean and many other parts of Greece together in the Delian League, an Athenian-dominated alliance.\n\nArtists and philosophers\n\nThe period from the end of the Persian Wars to the Macedonian conquest marked the zenith of Athens as a center of literature, philosophy (Greek philosophy), and the arts (Greek theatre). In Athens at this time, the political satire of the Comic poets at the theatres had a remarkable influence on public opinion. \n\nSome of the most important figures of Western cultural and intellectual history lived in Athens during this period: the dramatists Aeschylus, Aristophanes, Euripides and Sophocles, the physician Hippocrates, the philosophers Aristotle, Plato and Socrates, the historians Herodotus, Thucydides and Xenophon, the poet Simonides, and the sculptor Phidias, The leading statesman of this period was Pericles, who used the tribute paid by the members of the Delian League to build the Parthenon and other great monuments of classical Athens. The city became, in Pericles's words, \"the school of Hellas [Greece].\"\n\nPeloponnesian War\n\nThe resentment felt by other cities at the hegemony of Athens led to the Peloponnesian War, which began in 431 BC and pitted Athens and its increasingly rebellious overseas empire against a coalition of land-based states led by Sparta. The conflict ended with a victory for Sparta and the end of Athenian command of the sea. This civil war in Greece left the Greeks weak and divided leading to Philip II and Alexander the Great taking over Greece.\n\nAthenian coup of 411 BC\n\nThe democracy in Athens was briefly overthrown by a coup in 411 BC, due to its poor handling of the war, but it was quickly restored. The war ended in 404 BC with the complete defeat of Athens. Since the loss of the war was largely blamed on democratic politicians such as Cleon and Cleophon, there was a brief reaction against democracy, aided by the Spartan army (the rule of the Thirty Tyrants). In 403 BC, however, democracy was restored by Thrasybulus and an amnesty was declared.\n\nCorinthian War and the Second Athenian League\n\nSparta's former allies soon turned against her, due to her imperialist policy, and soon Athens' former enemies Thebes and Corinth had become her allies; they fought with Athens and Argos against Sparta in the indecisive Corinthian War (395 – 387 BC). Opposition to Sparta enabled Athens to establish a Second Athenian League.\n\nFinally Thebes defeated Sparta in 371 BC in the Battle of Leuctra. But then the Greek cities (including Athens and Sparta) turned against Thebes, whose dominance was stopped at the Battle of Mantinea (362 BC) with the death of its military-genius leader Epaminondas.\n\nAthens under Macedon\n\nBy the mid-4th century BC, however, the northern Greek kingdom of Macedon was becoming dominant in Athenian affairs, despite the warnings of the last great statesman of independent Athens, Demosthenes. In 338 BC the armies of Philip II defeated an alliance of some of the Greek city-states including Athens and Thebes at the Battle of Chaeronea, effectively ending Athenian independence. Subsequently, the conquests of his son Alexander the Great widened Greek horizons and made the traditional Greek city state obsolete. Athens remained a wealthy city with a brilliant cultural life, but ceased to be a leading power.\n\nHellenistic Athens \n\nRoman Athens\n\nIn 88–85 BC, most Athenian buildings, both houses and fortifications, were leveled by the Roman general Sulla (138 BC – 78 BC), although many civic buildings and monuments were left intact. \nUnder Rome, Athens was given the status of a free city because of its widely admired schools. The Roman emperor Hadrian, in the 2nd century AD, constructed a library, a gymnasium, an aqueduct which is still in use, several temples and sanctuaries, a bridge and financed the completion of the Temple of Olympian Zeus. \n\nThe city was sacked by the Heruli in AD 267, resulting in the burning of all the public buildings, the plundering of the lower city and the damaging of the Agora and Acropolis. After this the city to the north of the Acropolis was hastily refortified on a smaller scale, with the Agora left outside the walls. Athens remained a centre of learning and philosophy during its 500 years of Roman rule, patronized by emperors such as Nero and Hadrian.\n\nThe sack of the city by the Heruls in 267 and Alaric in 396, however, dealt a heavy blow to the city's fabric and fortunes, and Athens was henceforth confined to a small fortified area that embraced a fraction of the ancient city. The city remained an important center of learning, especially of Neoplatonism—with notable pupils including Gregory of Nazianzus, Basil of Caesarea and emperor Julian—and consequently a center of paganism. Christian items do not appear in the archaeological record until the early 5th century. The Emperor Justinian I closed down the city's philosophical schools in 529, an event whose impact on the city is much debated, but is generally taken to mark the end of the ancient history of Athens.\n\nMiddle Ages \n\nByzantine Athens\n\nFrom very early on the imperial period, but accelerating in the third century AD, the centre of the Roman Empire moved towards the eastern half of the Mediterranean basin. The Empire became Christianized, and the use of Latin declined in favour of exclusive use of Greek: in the early Roman period, both languages had been used. The empire after this transition is known today as the Byzantine Empire due to its focus on the imperial capital at Constantinople, the old Greek city of Byzantion. The division is historically useful, but misleading, with an unbroken chain of emperors continuing up until the thirteenth century, and all citizens identifying themselves as fully Roman (\"Rhomaioi\"). The conversion of the empire from paganism to Christianity greatly affected Athens, resulting in reduced reverence for the city. Ancient monuments such as the Parthenon, Erechtheion and the Hephaisteion (Theseion) were converted into churches. As the empire became increasingly anti-pagan, Athens became a provincial town and experienced fluctuating fortunes. Many of its works of art were taken by the emperors to Constantinople.\n\nAthens was sacked by the Slavs in 582, but remained in imperial hands thereafter, as highlighted by the visit of Emperor Constans II in 662/3 and its inclusion in the Theme of Hellas. The city was threatened by Saracen raids in the 8th–9th centuries—in 896, Athens was raided and possibly occupied for a short period, an event which left some archaeological remains and elements of Arabic ornamentation in contemporary buildings —but there is also evidence of a mosque existing in the city at the time. In the great dispute over Byzantine Iconoclasm, Athens is commonly held to have supported the iconophile position, chiefly due to the role played by Empress Irene of Athens in the ending of the first period of Iconoclasm at the Second Council of Nicaea in 787. A few years later, another Athenian, Theophano, became empress as the wife of Staurakios (r. 811–812).\n\nInvasion of the empire by the Turks after the Battle of Manzikert in 1071, and the ensuing civil wars, largely passed the region by and Athens continued its provincial existence unharmed. When the Byzantine Empire was rescued by the resolute leadership of the three Komnenos emperors Alexios, John and Manuel, Attica and the rest of Greece prospered. Archaeological evidence tells us that the medieval town experienced a period of rapid and sustained growth, starting in the 11th century and continuing until the end of the 12th century.\n\nThe agora or marketplace, which had been deserted since late antiquity, began to be built over, and soon the town became an important centre for the production of soaps and dyes. The growth of the town attracted the Venetians, and various other traders who frequented the ports of the Aegean, to Athens. This interest in trade appears to have further increased the economic prosperity of the town.\n\nThe 11th and 12th centuries were the Golden Age of Byzantine art in Athens. Almost all of the most important Middle Byzantine churches in and around Athens were built during these two centuries, and this reflects the growth of the town in general. However, this medieval prosperity was not to last. In 1204, the Fourth Crusade conquered Athens and the city was not recovered from the Latins before it was taken by the Ottoman Turks. It did not become Greek in government again until the 19th century.\n\nLatin Athens\n\nFrom 1204 until 1458, Athens was ruled by Latins in three separate periods.\n\nBurgundian period\n\nAthens was initially the capital of the eponymous Duchy of Athens, a fief of the Latin Empire which replaced Byzantium. After Thebes became a possession of the Latin dukes, which were of the Burgundian family called De la Roche, it replaced Athens as the capital and seat of government, although Athens remained the most influential ecclesiastical centre in the duchy and site of a prime fortress.\n\nUnder the Burgundian dukes, a bell tower was added to the Parthenon. The Burgundians brought chivalry and tournaments to Athens; they also fortified the Acropolis. They were themselves influenced by Byzantine Greek culture.\n\nAragonese period\n\nIn 1311, Athens was conquered by the Catalan Company, a band of mercenaries called Almogavars. It was held by the Catalans until 1388. After 1379, when Thebes was lost, Athens became the capital of the duchy again.\n\nThe history of Aragonese Athens, called Cetines (rarely Athenes) by the conquerors, is obscure. Athens was a veguería with its own castellan, captain, and veguer. At some point during the Aragonese period, the Acropolis was further fortified and the Athenian archdiocese received an extra two suffragan sees.\n\nFlorentine period\n\nIn 1388, the Florentine Nerio I Acciajuoli took the city and made himself duke. The Florentines had to dispute the city with the Republic of Venice, but they ultimately emerged victorious after seven years of Venetian rule (1395–1402). The descendants of Nerio I Acciajuoli ruled the city (as their capital) until the Turkish conquest of 1458.\n\nModern history \n\nOttoman Athens\n\nThe first Ottoman attack on Athens, which involved a short-lived occupation of the town, came in 1397, under the Ottoman generals Yaqub Pasha and Timurtash. Finally, in 1458, Athens was captured by the Ottomans under the personal leadership of Sultan Mehmed II. As the Ottoman Sultan rode into the city, he was greatly struck by the beauty of its ancient monuments and issued a firman (imperial edict) forbidding their looting or destruction, on pain of death. The Parthenon was converted into Athens' main mosque.\n\nUnder Ottoman rule, the city was denuded of any importance and its population severely declined, leaving Athens as a \"small country town\" (Fr. Babinger). From the early 17th century, Athens came under the jurisdiction of the Kizlar Agha, the chief black eunuch of the Sultans' harem. The city had originally been granted by Sultan Ahmed I (r. 1603–1617) to Basilica, one of his favourite concubines, who hailed from the city, in response of complaints of maladministration by the local governors. After her death, Athens came under the purview of the Kizlar Agha. \n\nThe Turks began a practice of storing gunpowder and explosives in the Parthenon and Propylaea. In 1640, a lighting bolt struck the Propylaea, causing its destruction. \n\nIn 1687, during the Morean War, Athens was besieged by the Venetians under Francesco Morosini, and the temple of Athena Nike was dismantled by the Ottomans to fortify the Parthenon. A shot fired during the bombardment of the Acropolis caused a powder magazine in the Parthenon to explode (26 September), and the building was severely damaged, giving it the appearance we see today. The occupation of the Acropolis continued for six months and both the Venetians and the Ottomans participated in the looting of the Parthenon. One of its western pediments was removed, causing even more damage to the structure. The Venetians occupied the town, converting its two mosques into Catholic and Protestant churches, but on 9 April 1688 they abandoned it again to the Ottomans.\n\nAncient monuments were destroyed to provide material for a new wall which the Ottomans built around the city in 1777. Between 1801 and 1805 Lord Elgin, the British ambassador to the Ottoman Empire, arranged for the removal of many sculptures from the Parthenon (the Elgin marbles). Along with the Panathenaic frieze, one of the six caryatids of the Erechtheion was extracted and replaced with a plaster mold. All in all, fifty pieces of sculpture were carried away, including three fragments purchased by the French.\n\nAthens produced some notable intellectuals during this era, such as Demetrius Chalcondyles (1424–1511), who became a celebrated Renaissance teacher of Greek and of Platonic philosophy in Italy. Chalcondyles published the first printed editions of Homer (in 1488), of Isocrates (in 1493), and of the Suda lexicon (in 1499), and a Greek grammar (Erotemata). \n\nHis cousin Laonicus Chalcondyles (c. 1423–1490) was also a native of Athens, a notable scholar and Byzantine historian and one of the most valuable of the later Greek historians. He was the author of the valuable work Historiarum Demonstrationes (Demonstrations of History) and was a great admirer of the ancient writer Herodotus, encouraging the interest of contemporary Italian humanists in that ancient historian. In the 17th century, Athenian-born Leonardos Philaras (c. 1595–1673), was a Greek scholar, politician, diplomat, advisor and the Duke of Parma's ambassador to the French court, spending much of his career trying to persuade western European intellectuals to support Greek independence. \n\nIndependence from the Ottomans\n\nIn 1822, a Greek insurgency captured the city, but it fell to the Ottomans again in 1826 (though Acropolis held till June 1827). Again the ancient monuments suffered badly. The Ottoman forces remained in possession until March 1833, when they withdrew. At that time, the city (as throughout the Ottoman period) had a small population of an estimated 400 houses, mostly located around the Acropolis in the Plaka.\n\nModern Athens\n\nIn 1832, Otto, Prince of Bavaria, was proclaimed King of Greece. He adopted the Greek spelling of his name, King Othon, as well as Greek national dress, and made it one of his first tasks as king to conduct a detailed archaeological and topographical survey of Athens, his new capital. He assigned Gustav Eduard Schaubert and Stamatios Kleanthis to complete this task. At that time, Athens had a population of only 4,000 – 5,000 people, located in what today covers the district of Plaka in the city state Athens.\n\nAthens was chosen as the Greek capital for historical and sentimental reasons. There are few buildings dating from the period of the Byzantine Empire or the 18th century. Once the capital was established, a modern city plan was laid out and public buildings were erected.\n\nThe finest legacy of this period are the buildings of the University of Athens (1837), the Old Royal Palace (now the Greek Parliament Building) (1843), the National Gardens of Athens (1840), the National Library of Greece (1842), the Greek National Academy (1885), the Zappeion Exhibition Hall (1878), the Old Parliament Building (1858), the New Royal Palace (now the Presidential Palace) (1897) and the Athens Town Hall (1874).\n\nIn 1896 the city hosted the 1896 Summer Olympics.\n\nPopulation influx\n\nAthens experienced its second period of explosive growth following the disastrous war with Turkey in 1921, when more than a million Greek refugees from Asia Minor were resettled in Greece. Suburbs such as Nea Ionia and Nea Smyrni began as refugee settlements on the Athens outskirts.\n\nAthens during WWII\n\nAthens was occupied by the Germans during World War II and experienced terrible privations during the later years of the war. The Great Famine (Greece) was heavy in the city. Several resistance organizations were created. After the liberation, in 1944, there was heavy fighting in the city between the communist forces and the government forces backed by the British.\n\nPostwar Athens\n\nAfter World War II the city began to grow again as people migrated from the villages and islands to find work. Greek entry into the European Union in 1981 brought a flood of new investment to the city, but also increasing social and environmental problems. Athens had some of the worst traffic congestion and air pollution in the world at that time. This posed a new threat to the ancient monuments of Athens, as traffic vibration weakened foundations and air pollution corroded marble. The city's environmental and infrastructure problems were the main reason why Athens failed to secure the 1996 centenary Olympic Games.\n\nAthens today\n\nFollowing the failed attempt to secure the 1996 Summer Olympics, both the city of Athens and the Greek government, aided by European Union funds, undertook major infrastructure projects such as the new Athens Airport and a new metro system. The city also tackled air pollution by restricting the use of cars in the centre of the city. As a result, Athens was awarded the 2004 Olympic Games. Despite the skepticism of many observers, the games were a great success and brought renewed international prestige (and tourism revenue) to Athens. Athens was chosen as the reference city for the 14th dokumenta major international art Event in 2017 under the title Learning from Athens.\n\nRecent historical population\n\nThroughout its long history, Athens has had many different population levels. The table below shows the historical population of Athens in relatively recent times.\n\nNotable Athenians\n\nAeschylus\nAlcibiades\nAristophanes\nAspasia\nCimon\nCleisthenes\nCleon\nDemosthenes\nEphialtes\nEuripides\nHerodotus\nEmpress Irene\nMiltiades\n\nNicias\nPeisistratos\nPericles\nPheidias\nPlato\nSimonides\nSocrates\nSolon\nSophocles\nThemistocles\nTheseus\nThrasybulus\nThucydides\nXenophon\n\nAncient sites in Athens\n\nThe Acropolis, with the Parthenon\nAgora\nArch of Hadrian\nAreopagus\nKerameikos\nLysicrates monument\nPhilopappos monument\nPnyx\nTemple of Hephaestus\nTemple of Olympian Zeus\nTower of the Winds\n\nNotes" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Olives", "Olivey", "Green olives", "European Olive", "Olive trees", "Olive wood", "Olive groves", "Olive (fruit)", "Olive Tree", "Olivetrees", "Black olive", "The olive tree", "Olea europea", "Olive-tree", "Olive tree", "Olive (tree)", "Olive grove", "Olive-wood", "Back olive", "Olivetree", "Olive", "Colossal olive", "Black olives", "Olive-trees", "Olive growing", "Olea europaea", "Green olive", "Kalamon (olive)", "The Olive Tree" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "european olive", "olive fruit", "olive tree", "green olive", "back olive", "olive grove", "olivey", "olea europaea", "green olives", "olivetrees", "kalamon olive", "black olive", "olive", "olivetree", "black olives", "olive growing", "olives", "olive wood", "colossal olive", "olive trees", "olea europea", "olive groves" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "olive tree", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "The olive tree" }
What legendary fire-breathing female monster had a lion's head, a goat's body and a dragon's tail?	tc_600	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "Search", "Search" ], "filename": [ "Goat.txt", "Chimera_(mythology).txt", "Chimera_in_popular_culture.txt" ], "title": [ "Goat", "Chimera (mythology)", "Chimera in popular culture" ], "wiki_context": [ "The domestic goat (Capra aegagrus hircus) is a subspecies of goat domesticated from the wild goat of southwest Asia and Eastern Europe.\n\nThe goat is a member of the family Bovidae and is closely related to the sheep as both are in the goat-antelope subfamily Caprinae. There are over 300 distinct breeds of goat. Goats are one of the oldest domesticated species, and have been used for their milk, meat, hair, and skins over much of the world. In 2011, there were more than 924 million live goats around the globe, according to the UN Food and Agriculture Organization. \n\nFemale goats are referred to as \"does\" or \"nannies;\" intact males are called \"bucks\" or \"billies;\" and juveniles of both sexes are called \"kids\". Castrated males are called \"wethers\". Goat meat from younger animals is called \"kid\" or cabrito (Spanish), while meat from older animals is known simply as \"goat\" or sometimes called chevon (French), or in some areas \"mutton\" (which more often refers to adult sheep meat).\n\nEtymology \n\nThe Modern English word goat comes from Old English gāt \"she-goat, goat in general\", which in turn derives from Proto-Germanic gaitaz (cf. Dutch/Icelandic geit, German Geiß, and Gothic gaits), ultimately from Proto-Indo-European ǵʰaidos meaning \"young goat\" (cf. Latin haedus \"kid\"), itself perhaps from a root meaning \"jump\" (assuming that Old Church Slavonic zajęcǐ \"hare\", Sanskrit jihīte \"he moves\" are related). To refer to the male, Old English used bucca (giving modern buck) until ousted by hegote, hegoote in the late 12th century. Nanny goat (females) originated in the 18th century and billy goat (for males) in the 19th.\n\nHistory \n\nGoats are among the earliest animals domesticated by humans. The most recent genetic analysis confirms the archaeological evidence that the wild Bezoar ibex of the Zagros Mountains are the likely origin of almost all domestic goats today.\n\nNeolithic farmers began to herd wild goats primarily for easy access to milk and meat, as well as to their dung, which was used as fuel, and their bones, hair and sinew for clothing, building and tools. The earliest remnants of domesticated goats dating 10,000 years before present are found in Ganj Dareh in Iran. Goat remains have been found at archaeological sites in Jericho, Choga Mami Djeitun and Çayönü, dating the domestication of goats in Western Asia at between 8000 and 9000 years ago.\n\nStudies of DNA evidence suggests 10,000 years BP as the domestication date.\n\nHistorically, goat hide has been used for water and wine bottles in both traveling and transporting wine for sale. It has also been used to produce parchment.\n\nAnatomy and health \n\nGoats are considered small livestock animals, compared to bigger animals such as cattle, camels and horses, but larger than microlivestock such as poultry, rabbits, cavies, and bees. Each recognized breed of goats has specific weight ranges, which vary from over 300 lb for bucks of larger breeds such as the Boer, to 45 to for smaller goat does. Within each breed, different strains or bloodlines may have different recognized sizes. At the bottom of the size range are miniature breeds such as the African Pygmy, which stand 16 to at the shoulder as adults. \n\nMost goats naturally have two horns, of various shapes and sizes depending on the breed. Goats have horns unless they are \"polled\" (meaning, genetically hornless) or the horns have been removed, typically soon after birth. There have been incidents of polycerate goats (having as many as eight horns), although this is a genetic rarity thought to be inherited. The horns are most typically removed in commercial dairy goat herds, to reduce the injuries to humans and other goats. Unlike cattle, goats have not been successfully bred to be reliably polled, as the genes determining sex and those determining horns are closely linked. Breeding together two genetically polled goats results in a high number of intersex individuals among the offspring, which are typically sterile. Their horns are made of living bone surrounded by keratin and other proteins, and are used for defense, dominance, and territoriality. \n\nGoats are ruminants. They have a four-chambered stomach consisting of the rumen, the reticulum, the omasum, and the abomasum. As with other mammal ruminants, they are even-toed ungulates. The females have an udder consisting of two teats, in contrast to cattle, which have four teats. An exception to this is the Boer goat, which sometimes may have up to eight teats. \n\nGoats have horizontal, slit-shaped pupils. Because goats' irises are usually pale, their contrasting pupils are much more noticeable than in animals such as cattle, deer, most horses and many sheep, whose similarly horizontal pupils blend into a dark iris and sclera.\n\nBoth male and female goats have beards, and many types of goat (most commonly dairy goats, dairy-cross Boers, and pygmy goats) may have wattles, one dangling from each side of the neck. \n\nSome breeds of sheep and goats look similar, but they can usually be told apart because goat tails are short and usually point up, whereas sheep tails hang down and are usually longer and bigger – though some (like those of Northern European short-tailed sheep) are short, and longer ones are often docked.\n\nReproduction \n\nGoats reach puberty between three and 15 months of age, depending on breed and nutritional status. Many breeders prefer to postpone breeding until the doe has reached 70% of the adult weight. However, this separation is rarely possible in extensively managed, open-range herds. \n\nIn temperate climates and among the Swiss breeds, the breeding season commences as the day length shortens, and ends in early spring or before. In equatorial regions, goats are able to breed at any time of the year. Successful breeding in these regions depends more on available forage than on day length. Does of any breed or region come into estrus (heat) every 21 days for two to 48 hours. A doe in heat typically flags (vigorously wags) her tail often, stays near the buck if one is present, becomes more vocal, and may also show a decrease in appetite and milk production for the duration of the heat.\n\nBucks (intact males) of Swiss and northern breeds come into rut in the fall as with the does' heat cycles. Bucks of equatorial breeds may show seasonal reduced fertility, but as with the does, are capable of breeding at all times. Rut is characterized by a decrease in appetite and obsessive interest in the does. A buck in rut will display flehmen lip curling and will urinate on his forelegs and face. Sebaceous scent glands at the base of the horns add to the male goat's odor, which is important to make him attractive to the female. Some does will not mate with a buck which has been descented. \n\nIn addition to natural, traditional mating, artificial insemination has gained popularity among goat breeders, as it allows easy access to a wide variety of bloodlines.\n\nGestation length is approximately 150 days. Twins are the usual result, with single and triplet births also common. Less frequent are litters of quadruplet, quintuplet, and even sextuplet kids. Birthing, known as kidding, generally occurs uneventfully. Just before kidding, the doe will have a sunken area around the tail and hip, as well as heavy breathing. She may have a worried look, become restless and display great affection for her keeper. The mother often eats the placenta, which gives her much-needed nutrients, helps stanch her bleeding, and parallels the behavior of wild herbivores, such as deer, to reduce the lure of the birth scent for predators. \n\nFreshening (coming into milk production) occurs at kidding. Milk production varies with the breed, age, quality, and diet of the doe; dairy goats generally produce between of milk per 305-day lactation. On average, a good quality dairy doe will give at least 6 lb of milk per day while she is in milk. A first-time milker may produce less, or as much as 16 lb, or more of milk in exceptional cases. After the lactation, the doe will \"dry off\", typically after she has been bred. Occasionally, goats that have not been bred and are continuously milked will continue lactation beyond the typical 305 days. Meat, fiber, and pet breeds are not usually milked and simply produce enough for the kids until weaning.\n\nMale lactation is also known to occur in goats. \n\nDiet \n\nGoats are reputed to be willing to eat almost anything, including tin cans and cardboard boxes. While goats will not actually eat inedible material, they are browsing animals, not grazers like cattle and sheep, and (coupled with their highly curious nature) will chew on and taste just about anything remotely resembling plant matter to decide whether it is good to eat, including cardboard, clothing and paper (such as labels from tin cans). The unusual smells of leftover food in discarded cans or boxes may further stimulate their curiosity.\n\n Aside from sampling many things, goats are quite particular in what they actually consume, preferring to browse on the tips of woody shrubs and trees, as well as the occasional broad-leaved plant. However, it can fairly be said that their plant diet is extremely varied, and includes some species which are otherwise toxic. They will seldom consume soiled food or contaminated water unless facing starvation. This is one reason goat-rearing is most often free ranging, since stall-fed goat-rearing involves extensive upkeep and is seldom commercially viable.\n\nGoats prefer to browse on vines, such as kudzu, on shrubbery and on weeds, more like deer than sheep, preferring them to grasses. Nightshade is poisonous; wilted fruit tree leaves can also kill goats. Silage (fermented corn stalks) and haylage (fermented grass hay) can be used if consumed immediately after opening – goats are particularly sensitive to Listeria bacteria that can grow in fermented feeds. Alfalfa, a high-protein plant, is widely fed as hay; fescue is the least palatable and least nutritious hay. Mold in a goat's feed can make it sick and possibly kill it.\n\nThe digestive physiology of a very young kid (like the young of other ruminants) is essentially the same as that of a monogastric animal. Milk digestion begins in the abomasum, the milk having bypassed the rumen via closure of the reticuloesophageal groove during suckling. At birth, the rumen is undeveloped, but as the kid begins to consume solid feed, the rumen soon increases in size and in its capacity to absorb nutrients.\n\nThe adult size of a particular goat is a product of its breed (genetic potential) and its diet while growing (nutritional potential). As with all livestock, increased protein diets (10 to 14%) and sufficient calories during the prepuberty period yield higher growth rates and larger eventual size than lower protein rates and limited calories. Large-framed goats, with a greater skeletal size, reach mature weight at a later age (36 to 42 months) than small-framed goats (18 to 24 months) if both are fed to their full potential. Large-framed goats need more calories than small-framed goats for maintenance of daily functions. \n\nBehavior \n\nGoats are extremely curious and intelligent. They are also very coordinated and widely known for their ability to climb and hold their balance in the most precarious places. This makes them the only ruminant able to climb trees, although the tree generally has to be on somewhat of an angle. Due to their agility and inquisitiveness, they are notorious for escaping their pens by testing fences and enclosures, either intentionally or simply because they are handy to climb on. If any of the fencing can be spread, pushed over or down, or otherwise be overcome, the goats will almost inevitably escape. Due to their high intelligence, once a goat has discovered a weakness in the fence, it will exploit it repeatedly, and other goats will observe and quickly learn the same method.\n\nGoats have an intensely inquisitive and intelligent nature; they will explore anything new or unfamiliar in their surroundings. They do so primarily with their prehensile upper lip and tongue. This is why they investigate items such as buttons, camera cases or clothing (and many other things besides) by nibbling at them, occasionally even eating them.\n\nWhen handled as a group, goats tend to display less clumping behavior than sheep, and when grazing undisturbed, tend to spread across the field or range, rather than feed side-by-side as do sheep. When nursing young, goats will leave their kids separated (\"lying out\") rather than clumped as do sheep. They will generally turn and face an intruder and bucks are more likely to charge or butt at humans than are rams. \n\nA recent study conducted by Queen Mary University reports that goats will try to communicate with people in the same manner as domesticated animals such as dogs and horses. Goats were the first domesticated as livestock more than 10,000 years ago, and have proven they are smarter than they are reported to be. Research conducted to test communication skills found that the goats will look toward a human for assistance when faced with a challenge that had previously been mastered, but was then modified. Specifically, when presented with a box, the goat was able to remove the lid and retrieve the treat inside, but when the box was turned so the lid could not be removed, the goat would turn and gaze at the person and move toward them, before looking back toward the box. This was found to be the same type of complex communication observed by animals bred as domestic pets, such as dogs. Researchers believe that better understanding of human-goat interaction could offer overall improvement in the animals' welfare. The field of Anthrozoology has established that domesticated animals have the capacity for complex communication with humans when in 2015 a Japanese scientist determined that levels of oxytocin did increase in human subjects when dogs were exposed to a dose of the \"love hormone\", proving that the Human Animal Bond does exist. This is the same affinity that was proven with the London study above; goats are intelligent, capable of complex communication, and able to form bonds. Despite having the reputation of being slightly rebellious, more and more people today are choosing more exotic companion animals like goats. Goats are herd animals and typically prefer the company of other goats, but because of their herd mentality, they will follow their human around just the same. \n\nDiseases \n\nWhile goats are generally considered hardy animals and in many situations receive little medical care, they are subject to a number of diseases. Among the conditions affecting goats are respiratory diseases including pneumonia, foot rot, internal parasites, pregnancy toxosis and feed toxicity. Feed toxicity can vary based on breed and location. Certain foreign fruits and vegetables can be toxic to different breeds of goats.\n\nGoats can become infected with various viral and bacterial diseases, such as foot-and-mouth disease, caprine arthritis encephalitis, caseous lymphadenitis, pinkeye, mastitis, and pseudorabies. They can transmit a number of zoonotic diseases to people, such as tuberculosis, brucellosis, Q-fever, and rabies. \n\nLife expectancy \n\nLife expectancy for goats is between fifteen and eighteen years. An instance of a goat reaching the age of 24 has been reported.\n\nSeveral factors can reduce this average expectancy; problems during kidding can lower a doe's expected life span to ten or eleven, and stresses of going into rut can lower a buck's expected life span to eight to ten years.\n\nAgriculture \n\nA goat is useful to humans when it is living and when it is dead, first as a renewable provider of milk, manure, and fiber, and then as meat and hide. Some charities provide goats to impoverished people in poor countries, because goats are easier and cheaper to manage than cattle, and have multiple uses. In addition, goats are used for driving and packing purposes.\n\nThe intestine of goats is used to make \"catgut\", which is still in use as a material for internal human surgical sutures and strings for musical instruments. The horn of the goat, which signifies plenty and wellbeing (the cornucopia), is also used to make spoons. \n\nWorldwide goat population statistics \n\nAccording to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the top producers of goat milk in 2008 were India (4 million metric tons), Bangladesh (2.16 million metric tons) and the Sudan (1.47 million metric tons). \n\nHusbandry \n\nHusbandry, or animal care and use, varies by region and culture. The particular housing used for goats depends not only on the intended use of the goat, but also on the region of the world where they are raised. Historically, domestic goats were generally kept in herds that wandered on hills or other grazing areas, often tended by goatherds who were frequently children or adolescents, similar to the more widely known shepherd. These methods of herding are still used today.\n\nIn some parts of the world, especially Europe and North America, distinct breeds of goats are kept for dairy (milk) and for meat production. Excess male kids of dairy breeds are typically slaughtered for meat. Both does and bucks of meat breeds may be slaughtered for meat, as well as older animals of any breed. The meat of older bucks (more than one year old) is generally considered not desirable for meat for human consumption. Castration at a young age prevents the development of typical buck odor.\n\nDairy goats are generally pastured in summer and may be stabled during the winter. As dairy does are milked daily, they are generally kept close to the milking shed. Their grazing is typically supplemented with hay and concentrates. Stabled goats may be kept in stalls similar to horses, or in larger group pens. In the US system, does are generally rebred annually. In some European commercial dairy systems, the does are bred only twice, and are milked continuously for several years after the second kidding.\n\nMeat goats are more frequently pastured year-round, and may be kept many miles from barns. Angora and other fiber breeds are also kept on pasture or range. Range-kept and pastured goats may be supplemented with hay or concentrates, most frequently during the winter or dry seasons.\n\nIn India, Nepal, and much of Asia, goats are kept largely for milk production, both in commercial and household settings. The goats in this area may be kept closely housed or may be allowed to range for fodder. The Salem Black goat is herded to pasture in fields and along roads during the day, but is kept penned at night for safe-keeping. \n\nIn Africa and the Mideast, goats are typically run in flocks with sheep. This maximizes the production per acre, as goats and sheep prefer different food plants. Multiple types of goat-raising are found in Ethiopia, where four main types have been identified: pastured in annual crop systems, in perennial crop systems, with cattle, and in arid areas, under pastoral (nomadic) herding systems. In all four systems, however, goats were typically kept in extensive systems, with few purchased inputs. Household goats are traditionally kept in Nigeria. While many goats are allowed to wander the homestead or village, others are kept penned and fed in what is called a 'cut-and-carry' system. This type of husbandry is also used in parts of Latin America. Cut-and-carry, which refers to the practice of cutting down grasses, corn or cane for feed rather than allowing the animal access to the field, is particularly suited for types of feed, such as corn or cane, that are easily destroyed by trampling. \n\nPet goats may be found in many parts of the world when a family keeps one or more animals for emotional reasons rather than as production animals. It is becoming more common for goats to be kept exclusively as pets in North America and Europe.\n\nMeat \n\nThe taste of goat kid meat is similar to that of spring lamb meat; in fact, in the English-speaking islands of the Caribbean, and in some parts of Asia, particularly Bangladesh, Pakistan and India, the word “mutton” is used to describe both goat and lamb meat. However, some compare the taste of goat meat to veal or venison, depending on the age and condition of the goat. Its flavor is said to be primarily linked to the presence of 4-methyloctanoic and 4-methylnonanoic acid. It can be prepared in a variety of ways, including stewing, baking, grilling, barbecuing, canning, and frying; it can be minced, curried, or made into sausage. Due to its low fat content, the meat can toughen at high temperatures if cooked without additional moisture. One of the most popular goats grown for meat is the South African Boer, introduced into the United States in the early 1990s. The New Zealand Kiko is also considered a meat breed, as is the myotonic or \"fainting goat\", a breed originating in Tennessee.\n\nMilk, butter and cheese \n\nGoats produce about 2% of the world's total annual milk supply. Some goats are bred specifically for milk. If the strong-smelling buck is not separated from the does, his scent will affect the milk.\n\nGoat milk naturally has small, well-emulsified fat globules, which means the cream remains suspended in the milk, instead of rising to the top, as in raw cow milk; therefore, it does not need to be homogenized. Indeed, if the milk is to be used to make cheese, homogenization is not recommended, as this changes the structure of the milk, affecting the culture's ability to coagulate the milk and the final quality and yield of cheese. \n\nDairy goats in their prime (generally around the third or fourth lactation cycle) average—6 to—of milk production daily—roughly 3 to—during a ten-month lactation, producing more just after freshening and gradually dropping in production toward the end of their lactation. The milk generally averages 3.5% butterfat. \n\nGoat milk is commonly processed into cheese, butter, ice cream, yogurt, cajeta and other products. Goat cheese is known as fromage de chèvre (\"goat cheese\") in France. Some varieties include Rocamadour and Montrachet. Goat butter is white because goats produce milk with the yellow beta-carotene converted to a colorless form of vitamin A.\n\nNutrition \n\nThe American Academy of Pediatrics discourages feeding infants milk derived from goats. An April 2010 case report summarizes their recommendation and presents \"a comprehensive review of the consequences associated with this dangerous practice\", also stating, \"Many infants are exclusively fed unmodified goat's milk as a result of cultural beliefs as well as exposure to false online information. Anecdotal reports have described a host of morbidities associated with that practice, including severe electrolyte abnormalities, metabolic acidosis, megaloblastic anemia, allergic reactions including life-threatening anaphylactic shock, hemolytic uremic syndrome, and infections.\" Untreated caprine brucellosis results in a 2% case fatality rate. According to the USDA, doe milk is not recommended for human infants because it contains \"inadequate quantities of iron, folate, vitamins C and D, thiamine, niacin, vitamin B6, and pantothenic acid to meet an infant’s nutritional needs\" and may cause harm to an infant's kidneys and could cause metabolic damage. \n\nThe Department of Health in the United Kingdom has repeatedly released statements stating on various occasions that \"Goats' milk is not suitable for babies, and infant formulas and follow-on formulas based on goats' milk protein have not been approved for use in Europe\", and \"infant milks based on goats' milk protein are not suitable as a source of nutrition for infants.\" \n\nAlso according to the Canadian Federal Health Department – Health Canada, most of the dangers or counter-indication of feeding unmodified goat milk to infants, are similar to those incurring in the same practice with cow's milk, namely in the allergic reactions. \n\nOn the other hand, some farming groups promote the practice. For example, Small Farm Today in 2005 claimed beneficial use in invalid and convalescent diets, proposing that glycerol ethers, possibly important in nutrition for nursing infants, are much higher in doe milk than in cow milk. A 1970 book on animal breeding claimed doe milk differs from cow or human milk by having higher digestibility, distinct alkalinity, higher buffering capacity, and certain therapeutic values in human medicine and nutrition. George Mateljan suggested doe milk can replace ewe milk or cow milk in diets of those who are allergic to certain mammals' milk. However, like cow milk, doe milk has lactose (sugar), and may cause gastrointestinal problems for individuals with lactose intolerance. In fact, the level of lactose is similar to that of bovine milk.\n\nThese compositions vary by breed (especially in the Nigerian Dwarf breed), animal, and point in the lactation period.\n\nFiber \n\nThe Angora breed of goats produces long, curling, lustrous locks of mohair. The entire body of the goat is covered with mohair and there are no guard hairs. The locks constantly grow to four inches or more in length. Angora crossbreeds, such as the pygora and the nigora, have been created to produce mohair and/or cashgora on a smaller, easier-to-manage animal.\nThe wool is shorn twice a year, with an average yield of about 10 lb.\n\nMost goats have softer insulating hairs nearer the skin, and longer guard hairs on the surface. The desirable fiber for the textile industry is the former, and it goes by several names (down, cashmere and pashmina). The coarse guard hairs are of little value as they are too coarse, difficult to spin and difficult to dye. The cashmere goat produces a commercial quantity of cashmere wool, which is one of the most expensive natural fibers commercially produced; cashmere is very fine and soft. The cashmere goat fiber is harvested once a year, yielding around 9 oz of down.\n\nIn South Asia, cashmere is called \"pashmina\" (from Persian pashmina, \"fine wool\").\nIn the 18th and early 19th centuries, Kashmir (then called Cashmere by the British), had a thriving industry producing shawls from goat-hair imported from Tibet and Tartary through Ladakh. The shawls were introduced into Western Europe when the General in Chief of the French campaign in Egypt (1799–1802) sent one to Paris. Since these shawls were produced in the upper Kashmir and Ladakh region, the wool came to be known as \"cashmere\".\n\nLand clearing \n\nGoats have been used by humans to clear unwanted vegetation for centuries. They have been described as \"eating machines\" and \"biological control agents\". There has been a resurgence of this in North America since 1990, when herds were used to clear dry brush from California hillsides thought to be endangered by potential wildfires. This form of using goats to clear land is sometimes known as conservation grazing. Since then, numerous public and private agencies have hired private herds to perform similar tasks. This practice has become popular in the Pacific Northwest, where they are used to remove invasive species not easily removed by humans, including (thorned) blackberry vines and poison oak. \n\nUse for medical training \n\nAs a goat's anatomy and physiology is not too dissimilar from that of human, some countries' militaries use goats to train combat medics. In the United States, goats have become the main animal species used for this purpose after Pentagon phased out using dogs for medical training in the 1980s. While modern mannequins used in medical training are quite efficient in simulating the behavior of a human body, trainees feel that \"the goat exercise provide[s] a sense of urgency that only real life trauma can provide\".\n\nBreeds \n\nGoat breeds fall into overlapping, general categories. They are generally distributed in those used for dairy, fiber, meat, skins, and as companion animals. Some breeds are also particularly noted as pack goats.\n\nShowing \n\nGoat breeders' clubs frequently hold shows, where goats are judged on traits relating to conformation, udder quality, evidence of high production, longevity, build and muscling (meat goats and pet goats) and fiber production and the fiber itself (fiber goats). People who show their goats usually keep registered stock and the offspring of award-winning animals command a higher price. Registered goats, in general, are usually higher-priced if for no other reason than that records have been kept proving their ancestry and the production and other data of their sires, dams, and other ancestors. A registered doe is usually less of a gamble than buying a doe at random (as at an auction or sale barn) because of these records and the reputation of the breeder.\nChildren's clubs such as 4-H also allow goats to be shown. Children's shows often include a showmanship class, where the cleanliness and presentation of both the animal and the exhibitor as well as the handler's ability and skill in handling the goat are scored. In a showmanship class, conformation is irrelevant since this is not what is being judged.\n\nVarious \"Dairy Goat Scorecards\" (milking does) are systems used for judging shows in the US. The American Dairy Goat Association (ADGA) scorecard for an adult doe includes a point system of a hundred total with major categories that include general appearance, the dairy character of a doe (physical traits that aid and increase milk production), body capacity, and specifically for the mammary system. Young stock and bucks are judged by different scorecards which place more emphasis on the other three categories; general appearance, body capacity, and dairy character.\n\nThe American Goat Society (AGS) has a similar, but not identical scorecard that is used in their shows. The miniature dairy goats may be judged by either of the two scorecards. The \"Angora Goat scorecard\" used by the Colored Angora Goat Breeder's Association (CAGBA), which covers the white and the colored goats, includes evaluation of an animal's fleece color, density, uniformity, fineness, and general body confirmation. Disqualifications include: a deformed mouth, broken down pasterns, deformed feet, crooked legs, abnormalities of testicles, missing testicles, more than 3 inch split in scrotum, and close-set or distorted horns.\n\nReligion, mythology and folklore \n\nAccording to Norse mythology, the god of thunder, Thor, has a chariot that is pulled by the goats Tanngrisnir and Tanngnjóstr. At night when he sets up camp, Thor eats the meat of the goats, but takes care that all bones remain whole. Then he wraps the remains up, and in the morning, the goats always come back to life to pull the chariot. When a farmer's son who is invited to share the meal breaks one of the goats' leg bones to suck the marrow, the animal's leg remains broken in the morning, and the boy is forced to serve Thor as a servant to compensate for the damage.\n\nPossibly related, the Yule Goat is one of the oldest Scandinavian and Northern European Yule and Christmas symbols and traditions. Yule Goat originally denoted the goat that was slaughtered around Yule, but it may also indicate a goat figure made out of straw. It is also used about the custom of going door-to-door singing carols and getting food and drinks in return, often fruit, cakes and sweets. \"Going Yule Goat\" is similar to the British custom wassailing, both with roots. The Gävle Goat is a giant version of the Yule Goat, erected every year in the Swedish city of Gävle.\n\nThe Greek god Pan is said to have the upper body of a man and the horns and lower body of a goat. Pan was a very lustful god, nearly all of the myths involving him had to do with him chasing nymphs. He is also credited with creating the pan flute.\n\nThe goat is one of the twelve-year cycle of animals which appear in the Chinese zodiac related to the Chinese calendar. Each animal is associated with certain personality traits; those born in a year of the goat are predicted to be shy, introverted, creative, and perfectionist.\n\nSeveral mythological hybrid creatures are believed to consist of parts of the goat, including the Chimera. The Capricorn sign in the Western zodiac is usually depicted as a goat with a fish's tail. Fauns and satyrs are mythological creatures that are part goat and part human. The mineral bromine is named from the Greek word \"brόmos\", which means \"stench of he-goats\".\n\nGoats are mentioned many times in the Bible. A goat is considered a \"clean\" animal by Jewish dietary laws and was slaughtered for an honored guest. It was also acceptable for some kinds of sacrifices. Goat-hair curtains were used in the tent that contained the tabernacle (Exodus 25:4). Its horns can be used instead of sheep's horn to make a shofar. On Yom Kippur, the festival of the Day of Atonement, two goats were chosen and lots were drawn for them. One was sacrificed and the other allowed to escape into the wilderness, symbolically carrying with it the sins of the community. From this comes the word \"scapegoat\". A leader or king was sometimes compared to a male goat leading the flock. In the New Testament, Jesus told a parable of the Sheep and the Goats (Gospel of Matthew 25).\n\nPopular Christian folk tradition in Europe associated Satan with imagery of goats. A common superstition in the Middle Ages was that goats whispered lewd sentences in the ears of the saints. The origin of this belief was probably the behavior of the buck in rut, the very epitome of lust. The common medieval depiction of the Devil was that of a goat-like face with horns and small beard (a goatee). The Black Mass, a probably-mythological \"Satanic mass\", was said to involve a black goat, the form in which Satan supposedly manifested himself for worship.\n\nThe goat has had a lingering connection with Satanism and pagan religions, even into modern times. The inverted pentagram, a symbol used in Satanism, is said to be shaped like a goat's head. The \"Baphomet of Mendes\" refers to a satanic goat-like figure from 19th-century occultism.\n\nThe common Russian surname Kozlov (), means \"goat\". Goatee refers to a style of facial hair incorporating hair on a man’s chin, so named because of some similarity to a goat's facial feature.\n\nFeral goats \n\nGoats readily revert to the wild (become feral) if given the opportunity. The only domestic animal known to return to feral life as swiftly is the cat. Feral goats have established themselves in many areas: they occur in Australia, New Zealand, Great Britain, the Galapagos and in many other places. When feral goats reach large populations in habitats which provide unlimited water supply and which do not contain sufficient large predators or which are otherwise vulnerable to goats' aggressive grazing habits, they may have serious effects, such as removing native scrub, trees and other vegetation which is required by a wide range of other creatures, not just other grazing or browsing animals. Feral goats are common in Australia. However, in other circumstances where predator pressure is maintained, they may be accommodated into some balance in the local food web.", "The Chimera ( or, also Chimaera (Chimæra); Greek: , Chímaira) was, according to Greek mythology, a monstrous fire-breathing hybrid creature of Lycia in Asia Minor, composed of the parts of more than one animal. It is usually depicted as a lion, with the head of a goat arising from its back, and a tail that might end with a snake's head, and was one of the offspring of Typhon and Echidna and a sibling of such monsters as Cerberus and the Lernaean Hydra.\n\nThe term chimera has come to describe any mythical or fictional animal with parts taken from various animals, or to describe anything composed of very disparate parts, or perceived as wildly imaginative, implausible, or dazzling.\n\nDescription\n\nHomer's brief description in the Iliad is the earliest surviving literary reference: \"a thing of immortal make, not human, lion-fronted and snake behind, a goat in the middle, and snorting out the breath of the terrible flame of bright fire.\" Elsewhere in the Iliad, Homer attributes the rearing of Chimera to Amisodorus. Hesiod's Theogony follows the Homeric description: he makes the Chimera the issue of Echidna: \"She was the mother of Chimaera who breathed raging fire, a creature fearful, great, swift-footed and strong, who had three heads, one of a grim-eyed lion; in her hinderpart, a dragon; and in her middle, a goat, breathing forth a fearful blast of blazing fire. Her did Pegasus and noble Bellerophon slay.\"Hesiod Theogony [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hes.+Th.+319 319–325] in Hugh Evelyn-White's translation. The author of the Bibliotheca concurs: descriptions agree that she breathed fire. The Chimera is generally considered to have been female (see the quotation from Hesiod above) despite the mane adorning her head, the inclusion of a close mane often was depicted on lionesses, but the ears always were visible (that does not occur with depictions of male lions). Sighting the Chimera was an omen of storms, shipwrecks, and natural disasters (particularly volcanoes).\n\nWhile there are different genealogies, in one version the Chimera mated with her brother Orthrus and was the mother of the Sphinx and the Nemean lion (others have Orthrus and their mother, Echidna, mating; most attribute all to Typhon and Echidna).\n\nThe Chimera finally was defeated by Bellerophon, with the help of Pegasus, at the command of King Iobates of Lycia. Since Pegasus could fly, Bellerophon shot the Chimera from the air, safe from her heads and breath. A scholiast to Homer adds that he finished her off by equipping his spear with a lump of lead that melted when exposed to the Chimera's fiery breath and consequently killed her, an image drawn from metalworking. \n\nRobert Graves suggests, \"The Chimera was, apparently, a calendar-symbol of the tripartite year, of which the seasonal emblems were lion, goat, and serpent.\"\n\nThe Chimera was situated in foreign Lycia, but her representation in the arts was wholly Greek. An autonomous tradition, one that did not rely on the written word, was represented in the visual repertory of the Greek vase-painters. The Chimera first appears at an early stage in the repertory of the proto-Corinthian pottery-painters, providing some of the earliest identifiable mythological scenes that may be recognized in Greek art. The Corinthian type is fixed, after some early hesitation, in the 670s BC; the variations in the pictorial representations suggests multiple origins to Marilyn Low Schmitt. The fascination with the monstrous devolved by the end of the seventh century into a decorative Chimera-motif in Corinth, while the motif of Bellerophon on Pegasus took on a separate existence alone. A separate Attic tradition, where the goats breathe fire and the animal's rear is serpent-like, begins with such confidence that Marilyn Low Schmitt is convinced there must be unrecognized or undiscovered local precursors. Two vase-painters employed the motif so consistently they are given the pseudonyms the Bellerophon Painter and the Chimaera Painter.\n\nA fire-breathing lioness was one of the earliest of solar and war deities in Ancient Egypt (representations from 3000 years prior to the Greek) and influences are feasible. The lioness represented the war goddess and protector of both cultures that would unite as Ancient Egypt. Sekhmet was one of the dominant deities in upper Egypt and Bast in lower Egypt. As divine mother, and more especially as protector, for Lower Egypt, Bast became strongly associated with Wadjet, the patron goddess of Lower Egypt.\n\nIn Etruscan civilization, the Chimera appears in the Orientalizing period that precedes Etruscan Archaic art; that is to say, very early indeed. The Chimera appears in Etruscan wall-paintings of the fourth century BC.\n\nSimilar creatures \n\nIn Medieval art, although the Chimera of antiquity was forgotten, chimerical figures appear as embodiments of the deceptive, even satanic forces of raw nature. Provided with a human face and a scaly tail, as in Dante's vision of Geryon in Inferno xvii.7–17, 25–27, hybrid monsters, more akin to the Manticore of Pliny's Natural History (viii.90), provided iconic representations of hypocrisy and fraud well into the seventeenth century, through an emblemmatic representation in Cesare Ripa's Iconologia. \n\nClassical sources\n\nThe myths of the Chimera may be found in the Bibliotheca of Pseudo-Apollodorus (book 1), the Iliad (book 16) by Homer, the Fabulae 57 and 151 by Hyginus, the Metamorphoses (book VI 339 by Ovid; IX 648), and the Theogony 319ff by Hesiod.\n\nVirgil, in the Aeneid (book 5) employs Chimaera for the name of gigantic ship of Gyas in the ship-race, with possible allegorical significance in contemporary Roman politics. \n\nHypothesis about origin \n\nPliny the Elder cited Ctesias and quoted Photius identifying the Chimera with an area of permanent gas vents that still may be found by hikers on the Lycian Way in southwest Turkey. Called in Turkish, Yanartaş (flaming rock), the area contains some two dozen vents in the ground, grouped in two patches on the hillside above the Temple of Hephaestus approximately 3 km north of Çıralı, near ancient Olympos, in Lycia. The vents emit burning methane thought to be of metamorphic origin. The fires of these were landmarks in ancient times and used for navigation by sailors.\n\nThe Neo-Hittite Chimera from Carchemish, dated to 850–750 BC, which is now housed in the Museum of Anatolian Civilizations, is believed to be a basis for the Greek legend. It differs, however, from the Greek version in that a winged body of a lioness also has a human head rising from her shoulders.\n\nUse for Chinese mythological creatures\n\nSome western scholars of Chinese art, starting with Victor Segalen, use the word \"chimera\" generically to refer to winged leonine or mixed species quadrupeds, such as bixie, tianlu, and even qilin. \n\nPopular culture", "Chimera, originally found in Greek mythology, is a monstrous fire-breathing creature composed of the parts of multiple animals. The term, and often the general concept, has since been adopted by various works of popular culture, and chimeras of differing description can be found in contemporary works of fantasy and science fiction.\n\nTelevision\n\n* The Chimera was adapted as different monsters in the Super Sentai/Power Rangers franchise:\n Kyoryuu Sentai Zyuranger feature a Chimera-based monster named Dora Chimera with a lion head and torso, a goat head on the chest and goat legs, and a snake-like tail. In Mighty Morphin' Power Rangers, the monster was added into the series as Goatan.\n In Mahou Sentai Magiranger, Meemy creates a Chimera monster by fusing together the spirits of dead monsters. This act is repeated in the shows American counterpart Power Rangers: Mystic Force by Meemy's counterpart Imperious who uses a forbidden spell to fuse the spirots of the monsters that Daggeron has slain into the Chimera.\n* In Mon Colle Knights, the Chimera is depicted as having three heads (a lion head, a goat head, and a hawk head), the body of a lion, and the wings of a dragon.\n* There are different Chimeras in the Yu-Gi-Oh! franchise:\n The Bandai card of the Chimera depicted it as a lion with the wings and tail of a dragon.\n Little Chimera is a monster that enables all Fire Monsters to get 500 attack points while all Water Monsters lose 400 attack points. It is the counterpart of the fusion monster Fusionist (a fusion of Petite Angel and Mystical Sheep #2).\n Dark Chimera is a fire-breathing monster that lives in the Netherworld.\n Chimera the Flying Mythical Beast is a fusion of Berphomet and Gazelle the King of Mythical Beasts.\n Doll Chimera is a doll monster that gains 400 attack points for every Doll Part monsters in the graveyard.\n Scrap Chimera is a Scrap monster that has the head of a lion, the body of a pegasus, and a snake-headed tail. It is based on the Alchemical Chimera.\n Gladiator Beast Heraklinos is a humanoid Chimera who is the fusion of Gladiator Beast Laquari (a humanoid tiger) and any two Gladiator Beasts. Besides sporting the face, shoulders, and waist armor pieces of Gladiator Beast Laquari, Guardian Beast Heraklion sports the wings and hair of Guardian Beast Alexander (a humanoid winged lion), the lower body, tail, bone fragments, and halbred of Gladiator Beast Spartacus (a humanoid dinosaur), the upper waist armor pierce of Gladiator Beast Murmillo (a humanoid carp), the plates of Guardian Beast Hoplomus (a humanoid rhinoceros) for a shield, the upper body of Gladiator Beast Dimacari (a humanoid African buffalo) with his accessories as leg guards, the chest armor piece and winged armguards of Gladiator Beast Bestiari (a humanoid bird) with the spearhead attached to the halberd, the waist armor piece of Gladiator Beast Secutor (a humanoid lizard) with the cannons mounted on the shield, the upper legs of Gladiator Beast Darius (a humanoid horse), and the upper wings of Gladiator Beast Samnite (a humanoid smilodon).\n Chimaera, the Master of Beasts is more accurate to the mythical Chimera where it is a two-headed lion-like creature with different horns on its head, the wings of a bird, and the tail of a snake. It can only be summoned by sacrificing 3 beast-type monsters.\n* In Ben 10, besides inorganic matter, Kevin Levin's Osmosian ability allow him to modify his own genetic structure by absorbing the energy of other aliens (which allows him to simultaneously scan, absorb, and infuse himself their DNA) acquiring 1/10 of that creature's powers (this is the biological limit for Osmosians) as well as the mutations needed for him to gain that creature's powers. If he were to attempt to absorb the energy and DNA of several aliens at once, or the transformative, gene-altering energy of the Omnitrix/Ultimatrix, he will mutate into a chimeric fusion of most, if not all of the aliens he has absorbed. His human DNA restores itself over time and will eventually overwrite the alien DNA completely, thus allowing him to return to his human form.\n* In American Dragon: Jake Long, Jake and his friends battle a Chimera in a dreamrealm. It has three heads (all of the animals its parts are based on), the body of a humanoid lion, the legs of a goat, and the tail of a snake. The series creators list the Chimera as one of the 13 Greatest Threats of the magical world.\n* In Digimon Adventure 02, the DigiDestined face a Digimon called Kimeramon, which had the following body parts - Kabuterimon's head, Angemon and Airdramon's wings, Garurumon's legs, Monochromon's tail, Kuwagamon's, SkullGreymon's and Devimon's arms, Greymon's body, and MetalGreymon's hair.\n* The CSI: Crime Scene Investigation episode \"Bloodlines\" used a Chimera as an allegory for genetic chimerism, a condition from which one person may have two distinct DNA patterns.\n* In MÄR: Märchen Awakens Romance, Chimera was the name of a member of the Chess Pieces.\n* In the Japanese series Bleach, Harribel's Facciones Apache, Mila-Rose, and Sun-Sun can sacrifice their arms as a last resort to create a Chimera-like enforcer called Ayon (shown with a deer's head and legs, a long lion-like mane, and a classic tail with a snake at the end).\n* In The X-Files, there is an episode titled 'Chimera', which takes place in Vermont.\n* The NCIS season 5 episode 6 was titled \"Chimera\" and took place on the USNS Chimera, a top-secret naval research ship sailing in the middle of the ocean. On a related note, Ziva also mentions to Tony about what the mythical Chimera was.\n* In the television series Star Trek: Deep Space Nine \"Chimera\" was the name of episode 714 in which Odo meets one of \"The Hundred\" changelings sent abroad in the universe by The Founders to learn more about other cultures and eventually return home.\n* In Ultraman Taro Episode 40, the Ultra Brothers fought against a chimera monster named Tyrant, all the older brothers are overpowered until Ace managed to fire an Ultra Sign warning Taro and the earthlings of Tyrant. Taro would eventually defeat this monster with ease when the latter arrives on earth.\n* Chimera (TV series), a 1991 British science fiction miniseries (in the US it was released as Monkey Boy).\nIn The Godzilla Power Hour, Godzilla fought a chimera.\n In the Fullmetal Alchemist series, a chimera is any combination of animals, including humans, that have been alchemically transmuted to form one organism.\n* In Code Geass a chimera is in heraldic badge of Holy Empire of Britannia.\n* Although there were no affiliation to this creature,Kamen Rider OOO has chimera-like motif in the protagonist using \"combos\" with animal-themed \"O Medals\" and in hybrid Yummies.\n* In Once Upon a Time episode \"Lady of the Lake\", Snow White, Emma and Lancelot have a meal at which Chimera meat is served. The animal is described as \"one part lion, one part serpent, one part goat\".\n* In My Little Pony: Friendship is Magic, a chimera appears in the episode \"Somepony to Watch Over Me\" but it was part tiger with saberteeth, part goat and part snake. The character Discord is also a chimera-like creature, called a \"draconequus\" in the show, possessing a goat-like face, a lion paw, and a dragon-like body, among several other animal features.\n* In Beyblade G-Revolution, the blader, Brooklyn, owns a bey called Zeus. Despite the name, it has more relation to the chimera due to its bit-beast, as the beast resembles a centaur-shaped chimera with a horse's body and legs, a raven's wings, and the upper torso of a lion with a white mane.\n* In Hunter x Hunter there is a species of ant known as the Chimera Ant which can take on the many traits of other creatures through its reproductive eating process.\n* In Duel Masters (and it's reimaged counterpart Kaijudo), the Chimeras are Darkness Civilization creature that are the creations of the Dark Lords.\nIn Teen Wolf (season 5), the Dread Doctors 'make' Chimeras by combining existing supernatural creatures (like a werewolf/-coyote and werewolf-wendigo) in experiments to create their own lethal monsters.\n\nMovies\n\n Chimera is referenced when describing the shape shifting guardian creature that follows and protects John Smith in the movie I Am Number Four.\n* The character Beast from Disney's Beauty and the Beast is a Chimera-like creature, with the horns of a bison, brows of a gorilla, nose and mane of a lion, the back mane of a hyena, the tusks of a boar, the arms and chest of a bear and the hind legs and tail of a wolf.\n* In the second installment of the Mission: Impossible series, known as Mission: Impossible II (2000), a pharmaceutical company creates a virus called Chimera in order to generate a market demand for the antidote it also created called Bellerophon.\n* In the film The Relic, the Kothoga, the creature derived from the Brazilian relic statue is described to Sizemore's character as a Chimera. The Kothoga is a modern incarnation of the mythological Chimera.\n* In Synecdoche, New York (2008), the character Sammy Barnathan (Tom Noonan), while imitating the main character, Caden Cotard (Philip Seymour Hoffman), says to Hazel (Samantha Morton), \"I want to fuck you until we merge into a chimera, a mythical beast with penis and vagina eternally fused, two pairs of eyes that look only at each other, and lips — ever touching — and yet one voice that whispers to itself.\" \n* A Chimera appears in the 2012 film Wrath of the Titans as the first creature Perseus fights and is presented as a colossal double headed beast with huge bat wings. Although it still has the body of a lion and a serpent head on its tail, the creature's two main heads do not bear any particular resemblance to either a lion or a goat, although the left head does bear a single horn on its forehead. The creature uses its two heads together in order to breathe fire, with the horned head spewing a flammable liquid and the other head producing the spark to ignite the fuel.\n* In Skyfall (2012), the villain Silva's yacht is named \"Chimera\", reflecting his dualistic and fractured nature.\n\nVideo games\n\n* In the video game series Golden Sun, the Chimera appears numerous times. First as a pair of bosses on Crossbone Isle, then as a normal enemy under the names Chimera Mage. In Golden Sun: The Lost Age, the stronger Grand Chimera was a boss. All forms are Mars(Fire) creatures, and have a goat's body, a snake for a tail, and the head of a lion and an eagle instead of knees on their forelegs.\n* In Okami, Chimeras appear and turtle-like steam pot beasts who classify as level two out of three in difficulty to defeat.\n* In Rastan Saga there are some Chimerae during the levels.\n* In SaGa Frontier, Chimeras are enemies that can be randomly encountered throughout portions of the game. Their appearance consists of many creatures: the torso and head of a bear, a single head of a raptor on the end of each arm, the back legs of a raptor, and the front half of a bull for front legs.\n* In Gauntlet Legends, the player(s) must face a large Chimera as the boss of the second level, the Valkyrie's Castle.\n* In Castlevania: Legacy of Darkness when facing Ortega, he transforms into a chimera. shown as a winged creature with a lion head breathing fire, a snakehead spitting poison and a bird head using a sonic attack.\n* The Chimera is a monster in the works of Artix Entertainment:\n The Chimera is featured in AdventureQuest where it has the he head and front legs of a lion, the head and back legs of a goat, the head of a dragon, and a snake-headed tail. The Chimera is the creation of a deranged sorcerer.\n In AdventureQuest Worlds, the Chimera of Vadriel is a dragon-like pet with goat-like horns and a snake-headed tail. The Chimera Familiar is a pet that was associated with a bunch of witches according to its bio.\n* In the MMORPG game Wizard101 the Chimera is a winged creature and is a spell of the magic school Balance. Wizard players can use this on their foes. The dragon head uses Myth damage, the lion head Life damage and the Goat head gives Death damage.\n* Chimeras appear as random creatures in the Final Fantasy series with various descriptions for each one:\n In the original Final Fantasy, up to four could be encountered at once. It is shown to have three heads (a lion head, a goat head, a dragon head), the wings of a dragon, and the body of a goat.\n In Final Fantasy II, a Chimera serves as a boss and later appears as a random creature encounter. It is shown to have three heads (a lion head, a goat head, and a dragon head), the wings of a dragon, and the body of a lion.\n In Final Fantasy III, a Chimera appears as a random encounter in the skies of the surface world.\n In the game Final Fantasy IV, Chimera are also random creature encounters in the Tower of Babil. They have three heads (a lion head, a goat head, and a dragon head) and the body of a goat. It attacks with Blaze.\n In Final Fantasy V, the Dhorme Chimera is a randomly encountered enemy. Not only does it have the heads of a lion, goat, and dragon, it has the front legs of a lion, the wings of a dragon, the back legs of a goat, and a snake-headed tail.\n In Final Fantasy VI, the Chimera is shown to have 5 heads (a lion head, a goat head, a dragon head, an eagle head, a boar head), the wings of a dragon, the front legs of a lion, the back legs of a goat, and a snake-headed tail.\n In Final Fantasy VII, the Maximum Chimera is a randomly encountered enemy.\n In Final Fantasy VIII, the Chimera is a randomly encountered enemy with four heads (a lion head, a goat head, a hawk head, a lizard head), the body of a lion, the wings of a dragon, and a cobra-headed tail.\n In Final Fantasy IX, it is a three-headed demon that is tough to beat.\n In Final Fantasy X and Final Fantasy X-2, there are random creature encounters that are Chimera. They have a bull head, a wolf head, a griffin head, a snake-headed tail, and have what appears to be somewhat like a bull's upright body. To attack, they use a combination of elements (fire, water, lightning).\n** In Final Fantasy XI Khimaira (Similar sound to Chimera) is a High Notorious Monster. With a head of a lion and a tail of a serpent, it has the horns of a goat.\n* In Dragon Quest, a feather-shaped item allowing inter-city travel is called Chimera Wing.\n* In GrimGrimoire, one of the most powerful Alchemy-based units is a Chimera, which takes the form of an enormous spinning spider with a gaping lion's head at its center. It can be upgraded into consuming ally units in order to heal itself.\n* In Blue Dragon Plus, a Chimera appears as the Shadow creature of Nene, one of the game's playable characters and the main antagonist of the original Blue Dragon game.\n* In Tekken 3, the final boss, True Ogre, takes on the form of a Chimera-like demon, with the horns of a ram, the head of a lion, and his right arm is a snake.\n* In Resident Evil 4, when first entering the castle stage of the game, there is an obstacle that requires three ornaments to unlock it. After retrieving the three pieces, one of Lion, Goat, and Snake, the puzzle reveals itself as a Chimera.\n* The Chimera are the primary antagonists in Resistance: Fall of Man, Resistance 2 and Resistance: Retribution. They're an \"alien\" race that are trying to eliminate the human race and resembling pale, humanoid creatures with 2-6 yellow eyes and infect humans with the Chimeran Virus. They are finally defeated in Resistance 3 when the wormhole above New York is closed off after the New York tower is destroyed and they lost their cohesion, allowing humanity to finally defeat the Chimera and rebuild their shattered world.\n* In Mother 3, Chimeras are corrupted animals that were engineered by the main antagonist's \"Pigmask Army\" as a result of either combing them with other species or adding mechanical parts, which appear as bosses throughout the game. One of these Chimera, named The Ultimate Chimera, appears occasionally in the New Pork City stage in Super Smash Bros. Brawl.\n* In Shining Force, the chimera are very powerful and dangerous enemies near at the end of the game, lion torso and head, the wings of the dragon, goat's head and snake tail and the goat head have an ability to breathe the fire can inflict massive damage on their opponent there only weakness is the ice.\n* In Warcraft III and World of Warcraft The Chimaera is seen as a creature with a winged lion body, two dragon heads with goat horns and two tails that seem to have scorpion type stingers on them. In Warcraft III the Night Elves can train them as flying siege beasts from a late game structure. Examples: [http://thottbot.com/?s=Chimaera].\n* In World of Warcraft one of the bosses in the Blackwing Descent raid in the Cataclysm expansion is a 2-headed dragon called Chimaeron, named after this mythical creature.\n* In Altered Beast: Guardian of the Realms, in the two last levels, Dreamscape and Palace of the Gods, you play as the Chimera. It is shown to have a snake-like bottom, lion torso, dragon's wings and goat horns. It attacks using fists and sonic waves.\n* In Age of Mythology, the chimera is a trainable myth unit under the worship of Artemis.\n* In God of War III, Kratos (the game's protagonist) fights the Chimera as a boss on Mt. Olympus and later fights many more on the way to Tartarus. It is shown to bears a lion's face on its \"chest,\" with the three-horned, demonic-looking goat's head as the \"normal\" one on top of the lion head, and the snake in its usual position as the tail.\n* In S.T.A.L.K.E.R.: Call of Pripyat chimeras are large, orthrus-like dogs with no fur, large bodies, two heads and a broad tail. Chimeras are also known to possess the body and posture of a lion, the roar of a bear, and one face that somewhat bears a visage of a human head with the other one, a cat creature.\n* In Fallout New Vegas you encounter dog-like creatures called Night Stalkers that were created by splicing the DNA of dogs and Rattlesnakes together.\n* In Demon's Souls the second boss at the Tower Of Latria is a beast with the body of a humanoid lion and a tail with a snakes head on the end that bites the lion temporarily increasing its power.\n* You face Chimeras in the upcoming game \"Scarab\" you fight them four times first on the level \"Export\", second on the level \"Call For The God\", Third \"Resistance Over The Titans\", and last you face the Chimera while facing Apollo in the Titan Temple on the level \"Modern War\"\n* In the space MMO Eve Online the carrier class capital ship of the Caldari race is named after the Chimera.\n* In Dragon's Dogma, Chimeras are common boss creatures that the player can find throughout the world.\n* The Chimera appears in Bloody Roar series. As the Zoanthrope of the character, Uranus. Uranus appears and stays as a secret character since Bloody Roar 3 . Uranus is known as the strongest Zoanthrope because of her transformation.\n* In Borderlands, the Chimera is a legendary revolver manufactured by the Atlas Corporation that possesses all four elemental weapon effects. It fires explosive rounds by default, but has the chance to fire either incendiary, shock, or corrosive rounds instead.\n* Chimera appear in Chapter 12 inXenoblade Chronicles X as the Lifehold's internal defensive measure. They appear lizard-like with the ability to breathe fire. The final boss itself also falls into the game's Chimeroid category and is more of a visible hybrid than others in the same group and is a mixture of DNA from every lifeform on Earth, showing reptile, bird and human parts with a bear's roar.\n\nRole-playing\n\n* In the roleplaying game Dungeons & Dragons, the chimera is an evil-aligned creature which looks like a lion with leathery wings on its back. To either side of its lion's head is the head of a goat and the head of a dragon.\n* Exalted Uses the term to refer to people or creatures who have suffered numerous mutations from the Wyld (the uncontrolled chaos beyond the edge of reality). Most commonly; it refers to Lunar Exalted who never received an extensive array of moonsilver tattoos on their bodies, expressly meant to prevent Wyld mutations but also to stop the Lunar's own shapeshifting abilities from mutating them. Without the tattoos, they risk gaining a permanent mutation each time they change form and will eventually become an insane, ravening beast resembling an amalgam of about a dozen different creatures.\n\nBooks\n\n* Chimeras were mentioned in the Harry Potter books. In \"Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them,\" it is described to have a lion head, a goat body, and dragon tail. The Ministry of Magic classifies them as XXXXX (very dangerous). It is said that Bellerophon (not mentioned by name) was the only one who ever managed to kill a Chimera and shortly after fell to his death from the winged horse due to exhaustion. Also, in \"Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows\", Elphias Doge is said to have encountered Chimeras in Greece.\n* The Chimera was featured as a story element in \"Tomb Of Dracula\". Its first appearance was in issue 26, and it also appears two issues later. CHIMERA - magic power item in three pieces (serpent's tail, lion's head, goat's body), created ?30000? (20000 more likely) years ago in Atlantis by C'Thunda, used against Kull, involved in the times of the Black Plague, sought in recent times by Dracula + Dr. Sun + David Eschol, destroyed by Sheila Wittier to prevent Dracula or Dr. Sun from using it. Apparently, in Tomb of Dracula #26, King Kull appeared or was referenced in a flashback. The cosmic-powered Chimera and a Legion of Doom unlike any other item in creation, that causes havok for our heroes.\n* Conan encounters a Chimera like beast in the Marvel Comic adaption of The Flame Winds of Wan Tengri by Norvell Page.\n* In Alan Dean Foster's Mad Amos short story, \"Witchen Woes,\" Amos Malone defeats a \"kitchen witch\" in a cooking contest by making \"chimera chili.\" He later commented that the hardest part of the recipe was finding chimera meat.\n* In James Patterson's novel part of the Women's Murder Club series 2nd Chance, the murderer uses a chimera symbol.\n* In Laurell K. Hamilton's novel Narcissus in Chains, part of the Anita Blake series, the antagonist is known as Chimera, a panware capable of shifting into several were-animals. Those animals included lion, cobra, leopard, wolf and bear.\n* In Timothy Zahn's Thrawn trilogy, Grand Admiral Thrawn's flagship was called the Chimaera.\n* In Piers Anthony's Chthon, a chimera kills stragglers from a party of travellers. Quote: \"The chimera is the enemy you don't see\".\n* In Marjorie Liu's Dirk and Steele series, the book The Fire King the main male character Karr is a Chimera, being the offspring of two shape shifters of different animals. His mother was a dragon and his father was a lion.\n* Amazonean warrior women ride Chimea in Wonder Woman; Amazons Attack!.\n* In nthWORD, chimeras are regularly used to illustrate stories, including \"Me and Sally\" by David Henry Sterry in issue #5 and \"Being Jewish in a Small Town\" by Lyn Lifshin in issue #7.\n* In the first installment of the book series Percy Jackson & the Olympians: \"The Lightning Thief\", Percy Jackson battles the Chimera and his mother, Echidna, at the top of Gateway Arch in St. Louis, Missouri.\n* In the series by Laini Taylor \"Daughter of Smoke and Bone\" the chimera (spelled chimaera) being these creatures who raised the main protagonist, Karou, from birth.\n* Throughout the Lorien Legacies series, a chimæra named Bernie Kosar (after the football player) is the pet of the main character, John Smith/Number Four. However, chimæras are simply shape-shifters in this series.\n* See also Chimera (novel) for various books with this title" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "The Chimera", "Oceania (Smashing Pumpkins album)", "My Love is Winter", "Oceania (The Smashing Pumpkins album)", "Violet Rays (The Smashing Pumpkins song)" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "oceania smashing pumpkins album", "chimera", "my love is winter", "violet rays smashing pumpkins song" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "chimera", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "The Chimera" }
According to legend, who fired the arrow that hit Achilles in the heel, his only vulnerable spot?	tc_602	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "Search" ], "filename": [ "Achilles.txt", "Achilles'_heel.txt" ], "title": [ "Achilles", "Achilles' heel" ], "wiki_context": [ "In Greek mythology, Achilles (; , Akhilleus,) was a Greek hero of the Trojan War and the central character and greatest warrior of Homer's Iliad. His mother was the nymph Thetis, and his father, Peleus, was the king of the Myrmidons.\n\nAchilles’ most notable feat during the Trojan War was the slaying of the Trojan hero Hector outside the gates of Troy. Although the death of Achilles is not presented in the Iliad, other sources concur that he was killed near the end of the Trojan War by Paris, who shot him in the heel with an arrow. Later legends (beginning with a poem by Statius in the 1st century AD) state that Achilles was invulnerable in all of his body except for his heel. Because of his death from a small wound in the heel, the term Achilles' heel has come to mean a person's point of weakness.\n\nEtymology \n\nAchilles' name can be analyzed as a combination of (') \"grief\" and (') \"a people, tribe, nation.\" In other words, Achilles is an embodiment of the grief of the people, grief being a theme raised numerous times in the Iliad (frequently by Achilles). Achilles' role as the hero of grief forms an ironic juxtaposition with the conventional view of Achilles as the hero of ' (\"glory\", usually glory in war).\n\nLaos has been construed by Gregory Nagy, following Leonard Palmer, to mean \"a corps of soldiers\", a muster. With this derivation, the name would have a double meaning in the poem: when the hero is functioning rightly, his men bring grief to the enemy, but when wrongly, his men get the grief of war. The poem is in part about the misdirection of anger on the part of leadership.\n\nR. S. P. Beekes has suggested a Pre-Greek origin of the name. \n\nThe name Achilleus was a common and attested name among the Greeks soon after the 7th century BC. It was also turned into the female form Ἀχιλλεία (Achilleía) attested in Attica in the 4th century BC (IG II² 1617) and, in the form Achillia, on a stele in Halicarnassus as the name of a female gladiator fighting an \"Amazon\".\n\nBirth \n\nAchilles was the son of the Nereid Thetis and Peleus, the king of the Myrmidons. Zeus and Poseidon had been rivals for the hand of Thetis until Prometheus, the fore-thinker, warned Zeus of a prophecy that Thetis would bear a son greater than his father. For this reason, the two gods withdrew their pursuit, and had her wed Peleus. \n\nThere is a tale which offers an alternative version of these events: in Argonautica (iv.760) Zeus' sister and wife Hera alludes to Thetis' chaste resistance to the advances of Zeus, that Thetis was so loyal to Hera's marriage bond that she coolly rejected him. Thetis, although a daughter of the sea-god Nereus, was also brought up by Hera, further explaining her resistance to the advances of Zeus.\n\nAccording to the Achilleid, written by Statius in the 1st century AD, and to no surviving previous sources, when Achilles was born Thetis tried to make him immortal, by dipping him in the river Styx. However, he was left vulnerable at the part of the body by which she held him, his heel (see Achilles heel, Achilles' tendon). It is not clear if this version of events was known earlier. In another version of this story, Thetis anointed the boy in ambrosia and put him on top of a fire, to burn away the mortal parts of his body. She was interrupted by Peleus and abandoned both father and son in a rage. \n\nHowever, none of the sources before Statius makes any reference to this general invulnerability. To the contrary, in the Iliad Homer mentions Achilles being wounded: in Book 21 the Paeonian hero Asteropaeus, son of Pelagon, challenged Achilles by the river Scamander. He cast two spears at once, one grazed Achilles' elbow, \"drawing a spurt of blood\".\n\nAlso, in the fragmentary poems of the Epic Cycle in which we can find description of the hero's death, Cypria (unknown author), Aithiopis by Arctinus of Miletus, Little Iliad by Lesche of Mytilene, Iliou persis by Arctinus of Miletus, there is no trace of any reference to his general invulnerability or his famous weakness (heel); in the later vase paintings presenting Achilles' death, the arrow (or in many cases, arrows) hit his body.\n\nPeleus entrusted Achilles to Chiron the Centaur, on Mt. Pelion, to be reared. \n\nAchilles in the Trojan War \n\nThe first two lines of the Iliad read:\n:\n\nSing, Goddess, of the rage of Peleus' son Achilles,\nthe accursed rage that brought great suffering to the Achaeans.\n\nAchilles' consuming rage is at times wavering, but at other times he cannot be cooled.\n\nThetis foretold that her son's fate was either to gain glory and die young, or to live a long but uneventful life in obscurity. Achilles chose the former, and decided to take part in the Trojan war. According to the Iliad, Achilles arrived at Troy with 50 ships, each carrying 50 Myrmidons (Book 2). He appointed five leaders (each leader commanding 500 Myrmidons): Menesthius, Eudorus, Peisander, Phoenix and Alcimedon (Book 16).\n\nTelephus \n\nWhen the Greeks left for the Trojan War, they accidentally stopped in Mysia, ruled by King Telephus. In the resulting battle, Achilles gave Telephus a wound that would not heal; Telephus consulted an oracle, who stated that \"he that wounded shall heal\". Guided by the oracle, he arrived at Argos, where Achilles healed him in order that he might become their guide for the voyage to Troy. \n\nAccording to other reports in Euripides' lost play about Telephus, he went to Aulis pretending to be a beggar and asked Achilles to heal his wound. Achilles refused, claiming to have no medical knowledge. Alternatively, Telephus held Orestes for ransom, the ransom being Achilles' aid in healing the wound. Odysseus reasoned that the spear had inflicted the wound; therefore, the spear must be able to heal it. Pieces of the spear were scraped off onto the wound and Telephus was healed.\n\nTroilus \n\nAccording to the Cypria (the part of the Epic Cycle that tells the events of the Trojan War before Achilles' Wrath), when the Achaeans desired to return home, they were restrained by Achilles, who afterwards attacked the cattle of Aeneas, sacked neighboring cities and killed Troilus. \n\nIn Dares Phrygius' Account of the Destruction of Troy, the Latin summary through which the story of Achilles was transmitted to medieval Europe, Troilus was a young Trojan prince, the youngest of King Priam's (or sometimes Apollo) and Hecuba's five legitimate sons. Despite his youth, he was one of the main Trojan war leaders. Prophecies linked Troilus' fate to that of Troy and so he was ambushed in an attempt to capture him. Yet Achilles, struck by the beauty of both Troilus and his sister Polyxena, and overcome with lust, directed his sexual attentions on the youth – who, refusing to yield, instead found himself decapitated upon an altar-omphalos of Apollo. Later versions of the story suggested Troilus was accidentally killed by Achilles in an over-ardent lovers' embrace. In this version of the myth, Achilles' death therefore came in retribution for this sacrilege. Ancient writers treated Troilus as the epitome of a dead child mourned by his parents. Had Troilus lived to adulthood, the First Vatican Mythographer claimed, Troy would have been invincible.\n\nAchilles in the Iliad \n\nHomer's Iliad is the most famous narrative of Achilles' deeds in the Trojan War. Achilles' wrath is the central theme of the poem. The Homeric epic only covers a few weeks of the war, and does not narrate Achilles' death. It begins with Achilles' withdrawal from battle after he is dishonored by Agamemnon, the commander of the Achaean forces. Agamemnon had taken a woman named Chryseis as his slave. Her father Chryses, a priest of Apollo, begs Agamemnon to return her to him. Agamemnon refuses and Apollo sends a plague amongst the Greeks. The prophet Calchas correctly determines the source of the troubles but will not speak unless Achilles vows to protect him. Achilles does so and Calchas declares Chryseis must be returned to her father. Agamemnon consents, but then commands that Achilles' battle prize Briseis be brought to him to replace Chryseis. Angry at the dishonor of having his plunder and glory taken away (and as he says later, because he loved Briseis), with the urging of his mother Thetis, Achilles refuses to fight or lead his troops alongside the other Greek forces. At this same time, burning with rage over Agamemnon's theft, Achilles prays to Thetis to convince Zeus to help the Trojans gain ground in the war, so that he may regain his honor.\n\nAs the battle turns against the Greeks, thanks to the influence of Zeus, Nestor declares that the Trojans are winning because Agamemnon has angered Achilles, and urges the king to appease the warrior. Agamemnon agrees and sends Odysseus and two other chieftains, Ajax and Phoenix, to Achilles with the offer of the return of Briseis and other gifts. Achilles rejects all Agamemnon offers him, and simply urges the Greeks to sail home as he was planning to do.\n\nThe Trojans, led by Hector, subsequently push the Greek army back toward the beaches and assault the Greek ships. With the Greek forces on the verge of absolute destruction, Patroclus leads the Myrmidons into battle wearing Achilles' armor, though Achilles remains at his camp. Patroclus succeeds in pushing the Trojans back from the beaches, but is killed by Hector before he can lead a proper assault on the city of Troy.\n\nAfter receiving the news of the death of Patroclus from Antilochus, the son of Nestor, Achilles grieves over his beloved companion's death. His mother Thetis comes to comfort the distraught Achilles. She persuades Hephaestus to make new armor for him, in place of the armor that Patroclus had been wearing which was taken by Hector. The new armor includes the Shield of Achilles, described in great detail in the poem.\n\nEnraged over the death of Patroclus, Achilles ends his refusal to fight and takes the field killing many men in his rage but always seeking out Hector. Achilles even engages in battle with the river god Scamander who becomes angry that Achilles is choking his waters with all the men he has killed. The god tries to drown Achilles but is stopped by Hera and Hephaestus. Zeus himself takes note of Achilles' rage and sends the gods to restrain him so that he will not go on to sack Troy itself before the time allotted for its destruction, seeming to show that the unhindered rage of Achilles can defy fate itself. Finally, Achilles finds his prey. Achilles chases Hector around the wall of Troy three times before Athena, in the form of Hector's favorite and dearest brother, Deiphobus, persuades Hector to stop running and fight Achilles face to face. After Hector realizes the trick, he knows the battle is inevitable. Wanting to go down fighting, he charges at Achilles with his only weapon, his sword, but misses. Accepting his fate, Hector begs Achilles, not to spare his life, but to treat his body with respect after killing him. Achilles tells Hector it is hopeless to expect that of him, declaring that \"my rage, my fury would drive me now to hack your flesh away and eat you raw – such agonies you have caused me\". Achilles then kills Hector and drags his corpse by its heels behind his chariot. After having a dream where Patroclus begs Achilles hold his funeral, Achilles hosts a series of funeral games in his honor. \nWith the assistance of the god Hermes, Hector's father, Priam, goes to Achilles' tent to plead with Achilles for the return of Hector's body so that he can be buried. Achilles relents and promises a truce for the duration of the funeral. The poem ends with a description of Hector's funeral, with the doom of Troy and Achilles himself still to come.\n\nPenthesilea \n\nAchilles, after his temporary truce with Priam, fought and killed the Amazonian warrior queen Penthesilea, but later grieved over her death. At first, he was so distracted by her beauty, he did not fight as intensely as usual. Once he realized that his distraction was endangering his life, he refocused and killed her.\n\nMemnon, and the fall of Achilles \n\nFollowing the death of Patroclus, Achilles' closest companion was Nestor's son Antilochus. When Memnon, king of Ethiopia slew Antilochus, Achilles once more obtained revenge on the battlefield, killing Memnon. The fight between Achilles and Memnon over Antilochus echoes that of Achilles and Hector over Patroclus, except that Memnon (unlike Hector) was also the son of a goddess.\n\nMany Homeric scholars argued that episode inspired many details in the Iliads description of the death of Patroclus and Achilles' reaction to it. The episode then formed the basis of the cyclic epic Aethiopis, which was composed after the Iliad, possibly in the 7th century B.C. The Aethiopis is now lost, except for scattered fragments quoted by later authors.\n\nThe death of Achilles, as predicted by Hector with his dying breath, was brought about by Paris with an arrow (to the heel according to Statius). In some versions, the god Apollo guided Paris' arrow. Some retellings also state that Achilles was scaling the gates of Troy and was hit with a poisoned arrow.\n\nAll of these versions deny Paris any sort of valor, owing to the common conception that Paris was a coward and not the man his brother Hector was, and Achilles remained undefeated on the battlefield. His bones were mingled with those of Patroclus, and funeral games were held. He was represented in the Aethiopis as living after his death in the island of Leuke at the mouth of the river Danube.\n\nAnother version of Achilles' death is that he fell deeply in love with one of the Trojan princesses, Polyxena. Achilles asks Priam for Polyxena's hand in marriage. Priam is willing because it would mean the end of the war and an alliance with the world's greatest warrior. But while Priam is overseeing the private marriage of Polyxena and Achilles, Paris, who would have to give up Helen if Achilles married his sister, hides in the bushes and shoots Achilles with a divine arrow, killing him.\n\nIn the Odyssey, Agamemnon informs Achilles of his burial mound while they are receiving the dead suitors in Hades. He claims they built a massive burial mound on the beach of Ilion that could be seen by anyone approaching from the Ocean. Achilles was cremated and his ashes buried in the same urn as those of Patroclus. \n\nParis was later killed by Philoctetes using the enormous bow of Heracles.\n\nFate of Achilles' armor \n\nAchilles' armor was the object of a feud between Odysseus and Telamonian Ajax (Ajax the greater). They competed for it by giving speeches on why they were the bravest after Achilles to their Trojan prisoners, who after considering both men came to a consensus in favor of Odysseus. Furious, Ajax cursed Odysseus, which earned the ire of Athena. Athena temporarily made Ajax so mad with grief and anguish that he began killing sheep, thinking them his comrades. After a while, when Athena lifted his madness and Ajax realized that he had actually been killing sheep, Ajax was left so ashamed that he committed suicide. Odysseus eventually gave the armor to Neoptolemus, the son of Achilles.\n\nA relic claimed to be Achilles' bronze-headed spear was for centuries preserved in the temple of Athena on the acropolis of Phaselis, Lycia, a port on the Pamphylian Gulf. The city was visited in 333 BC by Alexander the Great, who envisioned himself as the new Achilles and carried the Iliad with him, but his court biographers do not mention the spear. However, it was shown in the time of Pausanias in the 2nd century AD. \n\nAchilles, Ajax and a game of petteia\n\nNumerous paintings on pottery have suggested a tale not mentioned in the literary traditions. At some point in the war, Achilles and Ajax were playing a board game (petteia). They were absorbed in the game and oblivious to the surrounding battle. The Trojans attacked and reached the heroes, who were saved only by an intervention of Athena. \n\nAchilles and Patroclus \n\nThe exact nature of Achilles' relationship with Patroclus has been a subject of dispute in both the classical period and modern times. In the Iliad, it appears to be the model of a deep and loyal friendship. Homer does not suggest that Achilles and his close friend Patroclus were lovers. Despite there being no direct evidence in the text of the Iliad that Achilles and Patroclus were lovers, this theory was expressed by some later authors. Commentators from classical antiquity to the present have often interpreted the relationship through the lens of their own cultures. In 5th-century BC Athens, the intense bond was often viewed in light of the Greek custom of paiderasteia. In Plato's Symposium, the participants in a dialogue about love assume that Achilles and Patroclus were a couple; Phaedrus argues that Achilles was the younger and more beautiful one so he was the beloved and Patroclus was the lover. But ancient Greek had no words to distinguish heterosexual and homosexual, and it was assumed that a man could both desire handsome young men and have sex with women.\n\nWorship of Achilles in antiquity \n\nThere was an archaic heroic cult of Achilles on the White Island, Leuce, in the Black Sea off the modern coasts of Romania and Ukraine, with a temple and an oracle which survived into the Roman period. \n\nIn the lost epic Aithiopis, a continuation of the Iliad attributed to Arktinus of Miletos, Achilles’ mother Thetis returned to mourn him and removed his ashes from the pyre and took them to Leuce at the mouths of the Danube. There the Achaeans raised a tumulus for him and celebrated funeral games.\n\nPliny's Natural History mentions a tumulus that is no longer evident (Insula Akchillis tumulo eius viri clara), on the island consecrated to him, located at a distance of fifty Roman miles from Peuce by the Danube Delta, and the temple there. Pausanias has been told that the island is \"covered with forests and full of animals, some wild, some tame. In this island there is also Achilles’ temple and his statue\". Ruins of a square temple 30 meters to a side, possibly that dedicated to Achilles, were discovered by Captain Kritzikly in 1823, but there has been no modern archeological work done on the island.\n\nPomponius Mela tells that Achilles is buried in the island named Achillea, between Boristhene and Ister. The Greek geographer Dionysius Periegetus of Bithynia, who lived at the time of Domitian, writes that the island was called Leuce \"because the wild animals which live there are white. It is said that there, in Leuce island, reside the souls of Achilles and other heroes, and that they wander through the uninhabited valleys of this island; this is how Jove rewarded the men who had distinguished themselves through their virtues, because through virtue they had acquired everlasting honor\". \n\nThe Periplus of the Euxine Sea gives the following details: \"It is said that the goddess Thetis raised this island from the sea, for her son Achilles, who dwells there. Here is his temple and his statue, an archaic work. This island is not inhabited, and goats graze on it, not many, which the people who happen to arrive here with their ships, sacrifice to Achilles. In this temple are also deposited a great many holy gifts, craters, rings and precious stones, offered to Achilles in gratitude. One can still read inscriptions in Greek and Latin, in which Achilles is praised and celebrated. Some of these are worded in Patroclus’ honor, because those who wish to be favored by Achilles, honor Patroclus at the same time. There are also in this island countless numbers of sea birds, which look after Achilles’ temple. Every morning they fly out to sea, wet their wings with water, and return quickly to the temple and sprinkle it. And after they finish the sprinkling, they clean the hearth of the temple with their wings. Other people say still more, that some of the men who reach this island, come here intentionally. They bring animals in their ships, destined to be sacrificed. Some of these animals they slaughter, others they set free on the island, in Achilles’ honor. But there are others, who are forced to come to this island by sea storms. As they have no sacrificial animals, but wish to get them from the god of the island himself, they consult Achilles’ oracle. They ask permission to slaughter the victims chosen from among the animals that graze freely on the island, and to deposit in exchange the price which they consider fair. But in case the oracle denies them permission, because there is an oracle here, they add something to the price offered, and if the oracle refuses again, they add something more, until at last, the oracle agrees that the price is sufficient. And then the victim doesn’t run away any more, but waits willingly to be caught. So, there is a great quantity of silver there, consecrated to the hero, as price for the sacrificial victims. To some of the people who come to this island, Achilles appears in dreams, to others he would appear even during their navigation, if they were not too far away, and would instruct them as to which part of the island they would better anchor their ships\". (quoted in Densuşianu)\n\nThe heroic cult of Achilles on Leuce island was widespread in antiquity, not only along the sea lanes of the Pontic Sea but also in maritime cities whose economic interests were tightly connected to the riches of the Black Sea.\n\nAchilles from Leuce island was venerated as Pontarches the lord and master of the Pontic Sea, the protector of sailors and navigation. Sailors went out of their way to offer sacrifice. To Achilles of Leuce were dedicated a number of important commercial port cities of the Greek waters: Achilleion in Messenia (Stephanus Byzantinus), Achilleios in Laconia (Pausanias, III.25,4) Nicolae Densuşianu (Densuşianu 1913) even though he recognized Achilles in the name of Aquileia and in the north arm of the Danube delta, the arm of Chilia (\"Achileii\"), though his conclusion, that Leuce had sovereign rights over Pontos, evokes modern rather than archaic sea-law.\"\n\nLeuce had also a reputation as a place of healing. Pausanias (III.19,13) reports that the Delphic Pythia sent a lord of Croton to be cured of a chest wound. Ammianus Marcellinus (XXII.8) attributes the healing to waters (aquae) on the island.\n\nWorship of Achilles in modern times: The Achilleion in Corfu \n\nIn the region of Gastouri (Γαστούρι) to the south of the city of Corfu Greece, Empress of Austria Elisabeth of Bavaria also known as Sissi built in 1890 a summer palace with Achilles as its central theme and it is a monument to platonic romanticism. The palace, naturally, was named after Achilles: Achilleion (Αχίλλειον). This elegant structure abounds with paintings and statues of Achilles both in the main hall and in the lavish gardens depicting the heroic and tragic scenes of the Trojan war.\n\nOther stories \n\nSome post-Homeric sources claim that in order to keep Achilles safe from the war, Thetis (or, in some versions, Peleus) hides the young man at the court of Lycomedes, king of Skyros. There, Achilles is disguised as a girl and lives among Lycomedes' daughters, perhaps under the name \"Pyrrha\" (the red-haired girl). With Lycomedes' daughter Deidamia, whom in the account of Statius he rapes, Achilles there fathers a son, Neoptolemus (also called Pyrrhus, after his father's possible alias). According to this story, Odysseus learns from the prophet Calchas that the Achaeans would be unable to capture Troy without Achilles' aid. Odysseus goes to Skyros in the guise of a peddler selling women's clothes and jewelry and places a shield and spear among his goods. When Achilles instantly takes up the spear, Odysseus sees through his disguise and convinces him to join the Greek campaign. In another version of the story, Odysseus arranges for a trumpet alarm to be sounded while he was with Lycomedes' women; while the women flee in panic, Achilles prepares to defend the court, thus giving his identity away. \n\nIn book 11 of Homer's Odyssey, Odysseus sails to the underworld and converses with the shades. One of these is Achilles, who when greeted as \"blessed in life, blessed in death\", responds that he would rather be a slave to the worst of masters than be king of all the dead. But Achilles then asks Odysseus of his son's exploits in the Trojan war, and when Odysseus tells of Neoptolemus' heroic actions, Achilles is filled with satisfaction. This leaves the reader with an ambiguous understanding of how Achilles felt about the heroic life. Achilles was worshipped as a sea-god in many of the Greek colonies on the Black Sea, the location of the mythical \"White Island\" which he was said to inhabit after his death, together with many other heroes.\n\nThe kings of the Epirus claimed to be descended from Achilles through his son, Neoptolemus. Alexander the Great, son of the Epirote princess Olympias, could therefore also claim this descent, and in many ways strove to be like his great ancestor. He is said to have visited the tomb of Achilles at Achilleion while passing Troy. In AD 216 the Roman Emperor Caracalla, while on his way to war against Parthia, emulated Alexander by holding games around Achilles' tumulus. \n\nAchilles fought and killed the Amazon Helene. Some also said he married Medea, and that after both their deaths they were united in the Elysian Fields of Hades – as Hera promised Thetis in Apollonius' Argonautica. In some versions of the myth, Achilles has a relationship with his captive Briseis.\n\nAchilles in Greek tragedy \n\nThe Greek tragedian Aeschylus wrote a trilogy of plays about Achilles, given the title Achilleis by modern scholars. The tragedies relate the deeds of Achilles during the Trojan War, including his defeat of Hector and eventual death when an arrow shot by Paris and guided by Apollo punctures his heel. Extant fragments of the Achilleis and other Aeschylean fragments have been assembled to produce a workable modern play. The first part of the Achilleis trilogy, The Myrmidons, focused on the relationship between Achilles and chorus, who represent the Achaean army and try to convince Achilles to give up his quarrel with Agamemnon; only a few lines survive today. In Plato's Symposium, Phaedrus points out that Aeschylus portrayed Achilles as the lover and Patroclus as the beloved; Phaedrus argues that this is incorrect because Achilles, being the younger and more beautiful of the two, was the beloved, who loved his lover so much that he chose to die to revenge him. \n\nThe tragedian Sophocles also wrote The Lovers of Achilles, a play with Achilles as the main character. Only a few fragments survive. \n\nTowards the end of the 5th century BC, a more negative view of Achilles emerges in Greek drama; Euripides refers to Achilles in a bitter or ironic tone in Hecuba, Electra, and Iphigenia in Aulis. \n\nAchilles in Greek philosophy \n\nThe philosopher Zeno of Elea centered one of his paradoxes on an imaginary footrace between \"swift-footed\" Achilles and a tortoise, by which he attempted to show that Achilles could not catch up to a tortoise with a head start, and therefore that motion and change were impossible. As a student of the monist Parmenides and a member of the Eleatic school, Zeno believed time and motion to be illusions.\n\nAchilles in Roman and medieval literature \n\nThe Romans, who traditionally traced their lineage to Troy, took a highly negative view of Achilles. Virgil refers to Achilles as a savage and a merciless butcher of men, while Horace portrays Achilles ruthlessly slaying women and children. Other writers, such as Catullus, Propertius, and Ovid, represent a second strand of disparagement, with an emphasis on Achilles' erotic career. This strand continues in Latin accounts of the Trojan War by writers such as Dictys Cretensis and Dares Phrygius and in Benoît de Sainte-Maure's Roman de Troie and Guido delle Colonne's Historia destructionis Troiae, which remained the most widely read and retold versions of the Matter of Troy until the 17th century.\n\nAchilles was described by the Byzantine chronicler Leo the Deacon, not as Hellene, but as Scythian, while according to the Byzantine author John Malalas, his army was made up of a tribe previously known as Myrmidons and later as Bulgars. \n\nPopular culture\n\n* Achilles is portrayed as a former hero who has become lazy and devoted to the love of Patroclus, in William Shakespeare's Troilus and Cressida.\n* Achilles appears in Dante's Inferno. He is seen in Hell's Circle of Lust.\n* Achilles is the subject of the poem Achilleïs, a fragment by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe.\n* Achilles is a major character in Madeline Miller's debut novel, The Song of Achilles (2011), which won the 2012 Orange Prize for Fiction. The novel explores the relationship between Patroclus and Achilles from boyhood to the fateful events of the Iliad.\n* Achilles is a central and playable character in KOEI's Warriors: Legends of Troy. He is later a special guest character in Warriors Orochi 3.\n* Achilles is mentioned in Tennyson's \"Ulysses\": \"...we shall touch the happy isles and meet there the great Achilles whom we knew.\"\n* Achilles (Akhilles) is killed by a poisoned Kentaur arrow shot by Kassandra in Marion Zimmer Bradley's novel The Firebrand (1987).\n* In Disney's Hercules, Achilles was mentioned to have been a student of Philoctetes and a reference to his heel being his weakness was made. Later in the film, some people of Thebes mock Philoctetes for his training of Achilles.\n** Achilles appears in Hercules episode \"Achilles and the Living Legend,\" voiced by Dom Irrera. He is shown as a washed-out has-been ever since he was defeated.\n* Achilles appears in the light novel Fate/Apocrypha as the Rider of Red.\n* Achilles is one of various 'narrators' in Colleen McCullough's novel The Song of Troy (1998).\n* Achilles is the main character in David Malouf's novel Ransom (2009).\n* The ghost of Achilles appears in Rick Riordan's The Last Olympian (2009). He warns Percy Jackson about the Curse of Achilles and its side effects.\n* Achilles is one of the main characters in Dan Simmons's novels Ilium (2003) and Olympos (2005).\n* Achilles' armor appears as downloadable content in the 2013 video game, God of War: Ascension.\n* In the web series, RWBY, the character Pyrrha Nikos alludes to Achilles. Like him, she is a very skilled warrior, wielding a javelin called Miló, which can also turn into a rifle and a xiphos, and a shield called Akoúo̱. Her name and gender is a reference to when Achilles was disguised as a girl named \"Pyrrha\" in Skyros. In the finale of Volume 3, before she is killed by the villain Cinder Fall, Pyrrha is crippled with an arrow at the right heel, alluding to Achilles' death.\n* In the video game, Halo 5: Guardians, The Achilles Armor and Helmet are the most challenging cosmetic items to obtain. The description for the armor \"Only Spartans who have mastered themselves, bound their wrath and passion within a shell of hyper-dense steel fueled by star-fire, are granted access to the Achilles. Lesser warriors will lose themselves in a storm of blood.\"\n\nThe role of Achilles has been played in film by:\n\n* Piero Lulli in Ulysses (1955)\n* Stanley Baker in Helen of Troy (1956)\n* Riley Ottenhof in Something about Zeus (1958)\n* Arturo Dominici in La Guerra di Troia (1962)\n* Gordon Mitchell in The Fury of Achilles (1962)\n* Steve Davislim in La Belle Hélène (TV, 1996)\n* Richard Trewett in the miniseries The Odyssey (TV, 1997)\n* Joe Montana in Helen of Troy (TV, 2003)\n* Brad Pitt in Troy (2004)\n\nAchilles has frequently been mentioned in music:\n\n* Achilles is a hardcore band.\n* \"Achilles\" is an oratorio by German composer Max Bruch (1885).\n* \"Achilles, Agony & Ecstasy In Eight Parts\", by Manowar (The Triumph of Steel, 1992).\n* \"Achilles Last Stand\" is a song by Led Zeppelin (Presence, 1976).\n* \"Achilles' Revenge\" is a song by Warlord.\n* \"Achilles' Wrath\" is a concert piece by Sean O'Loughlin.\n* Achilles is referred to in Bob Dylan's song \"Temporary Like Achilles\".\n* \"Cry of Achilles\" is the lead track off of Alter Bridge's fourth album, Fortress.\n\nNamesakes \n\n* The name of Achilles has been used for at least nine Royal Navy warships since 1744 - both as HMS Achilles and with the French spelling HMS Achille. A 60-gun ship of that name served at the Battle of Belleisle in 1761 while a 74-gun ship served at the Battle of Trafalgar. Other battle honours include Walcheren 1809. An armored cruiser of that name served in the Royal Navy during the First World War.\n* HMNZS Achilles was a Leander-class cruiser which served with the Royal New Zealand Navy in World War II. It became famous for its part in the Battle of the River Plate, alongside and . In addition to earning the battle honour 'River Plate', HMNZS Achilles also served at Guadalcanal 1942–43 and Okinawa in 1945. After returning to the Royal Navy, the ship was sold to the Indian Navy in 1948 but when she was scrapped parts of the ship were saved and preserved in New Zealand.\n* Capois La Mort, a slave who fought in the Haitian Revolution, was nicknamed the Black Achilles because of his heroic performance during the last battle against the French.\n* Prince Achileas-Andreas of Greece and Denmark was the grandson of the deposed Greek king, Constantine II.\n* The character Achilles in Ender's Shadow, by Orson Scott Card, shares his namesake's cunning mind and ruthless attitude.\n* In the Star Trek universe, the Achilles Class is an advanced type of Federation battleship brought into service at the outbreak of the Dominion War, though not seen in any of the canonical Star Trek TV series.\n* Achilles armor and valor are included in the video games Titan Quest and TQ Immortal Throne.\n* The 2005 video game Spartan Total Warrior features two campaign missions located in the fictional buried city of Troy, with the story arc for this segment of the game culminating in the discovery of the Tomb of Achilles and the acquisition of the Spear of Achilles.\n\nNotes", "An Achilles' heel is a weakness in spite of overall strength, which can actually or potentially lead to downfall. While the mythological origin refers to a physical vulnerability, idiomatic references to other attributes or qualities that can lead to downfall are common.\n\nOrigin \n\nIn Greek mythology, when Achilles was a baby, it was foretold that he would die young. To prevent his death, his mother Thetis took Achilles to the River Styx, which was supposed to offer powers of invulnerability, and dipped his body into the water; however, as Thetis held Achilles by the heel, his heel was not washed over by the water of the magical river. Achilles grew up to be a man of war who survived many great battles. One day, a poisonous arrow shot at him was lodged in his heel, killing him shortly afterwards.\n\nThe death of Achilles was not mentioned in Homer's Iliad, but appeared in later Greek and Roman poetry and drama concerning events after the Iliad, later in the Trojan War. In the myths surrounding the war, Achilles was said to have died from a heel wound which was the result of an arrow—possibly poisoned—shot by Paris. \n\nClassical myths attribute Achilles's invulnerability to his mother Thetis having treated him with ambrosia and burned away his mortality in the hearth fire except on the heel, by which she held him. Peleus, his father, discovered the treatment and was alarmed to see Thetis holding the baby in the flames, which offended her and made her leave the treatment incomplete. According to a myth arising later, his mother had dipped the infant Achilles in the river Styx, holding onto him by his heel, and he became invulnerable where the waters touched him—that is, everywhere except the areas of his heel that were covered by her thumb and forefinger. \n\nThe use of “Achilles heel” as an expression meaning “area of weakness, vulnerable spot” dates only to 1840, with implied use in Samuel Taylor Coleridge's \"Ireland, that vulnerable heel of the British Achilles!\" from 1810 (Oxford English Dictionary). \n\nAnatomy\n\nThe large and prominent tendon of the gastrocnemius and soleus muscles of the calf is called the tendo achilleus or Achilles tendon. It is often believed in popular culture that the hero was therefore killed by being shot through this structure. However, as tendons are notably avascular, such an injury is unlikely to be fatal. However, in the myth the arrow had been covered in the blood of the Hydra, which was supposedly toxic. \n\nThe anatomical basis of Achilles's death is more likely to have been injury to his posterior tibial artery behind the medial malleolus, in between the tendons of the flexor digitorum longus and the posterior tibial vein. This area would have been included in Thetis's grip." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Paříž", "FRPAR", "Paris", "Name of paris and its inhabitants", "Paname", "Paris France", "Ville Lumière", "Leucetia", "Rue de Ménilmontant", "Paris agglomeration", "France Paris", "Sports in Paris", "Departement de Paris", "Paris, Ile-De-France", "Rue de Menilmontant", "UN/LOCODE:FRPAR", "Paříži", "Ville Lumiere", "Paris, France", "Paris, Île-de-France", "Paris, Île-de-France, France", "Parijs", "Parisien", "Cuisine of Paris", "Suburbs of Paris", "Sport in Paris", "The weather in Paris", "Parisian (person)", "Parizi", "París", "Name of Paris and its inhabitants", "Paree", "Paris, Europe", "Paris, Banks of the Seine", "Paris (etymology)", "Paris (France)", "The City of Love (city)", "Département de Paris" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "parís", "paris europe", "paris etymology", "paname", "cuisine of paris", "paris", "departement de paris", "paříži", "ville lumière", "city of love city", "paris île de france", "paris ile de france", "paříž", "name of paris and its inhabitants", "parisian person", "sports in paris", "paris agglomeration", "département de paris", "sport in paris", "ville lumiere", "paris banks of seine", "suburbs of paris", "france paris", "rue de menilmontant", "rue de ménilmontant", "weather in paris", "paris france", "parizi", "leucetia", "paree", "paris île de france france", "frpar", "un locode frpar", "parisien", "parijs" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "paris", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Paris" }
In Greek mythology, who was the queen of the underworld and wife of Hades?	tc_605	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Greek_mythology.txt", "Hades.txt" ], "title": [ "Greek mythology", "Hades" ], "wiki_context": [ "Greek mythology is the body of myths and teachings that belong to the ancient Greeks, concerning their gods and heroes, the nature of the world, and the origins and significance of their own cult and ritual practices. It was a part of the religion in ancient Greece. Modern scholars refer to and study the myths in an attempt to shed light on the religious and political institutions of Ancient Greece and its civilization, and to gain understanding of the nature of myth-making itself. \n\nGreek mythology is explicitly embodied in a large collection of narratives, and implicitly in Greek representational arts, such as vase-paintings and votive gifts. Greek myth attempts to explain the origins of the world, and details the lives and adventures of a wide variety of gods, goddesses, heroes, heroines and mythological creatures. These accounts initially were disseminated in an oral-poetic tradition; today the Greek myths are known primarily from Greek literature.\nThe oldest known Greek literary sources, Homer's epic poems Iliad and Odyssey, focus on the Trojan War and its aftermath. Two poems by Homer's near contemporary Hesiod, the Theogony and the Works and Days, contain accounts of the genesis of the world, the succession of divine rulers, the succession of human ages, the origin of human woes, and the origin of sacrificial practices. Myths are also preserved in the Homeric Hymns, in fragments of epic poems of the Epic Cycle, in lyric poems, in the works of the tragedians and comedians of the fifth century BC, in writings of scholars and poets of the Hellenistic Age, and in texts from the time of the Roman Empire by writers such as Plutarch and Pausanias.\n\nArchaeological findings provide a principal source of detail about Greek mythology, with gods and heroes featured prominently in the decoration of many artifacts. Geometric designs on pottery of the eighth century BC depict scenes from the Trojan cycle as well as the adventures of Heracles. In the succeeding Archaic, Classical, and Hellenistic periods, Homeric and various other mythological scenes appear, supplementing the existing literary evidence. Greek mythology has had an extensive influence on the culture, arts, and literature of Western civilization and remains part of Western heritage and language. Poets and artists from ancient times to the present have derived inspiration from Greek mythology and have discovered contemporary significance and relevance in the themes. \n\nSources\n\nGreek mythology is known today primarily from Greek literature and representations on visual media dating from the Geometric period from c. 900–800 BC onward. In fact, literary and archaeological sources integrate, sometimes mutually supportive and sometimes in conflict; however, in many cases, the existence of this corpus of data is a strong indication that many elements of Greek mythology have strong factual and historical roots. \n\nLiterary sources\n\nMythical narration plays an important role in nearly every genre of Greek literature. Nevertheless, the only general mythographical handbook to survive from Greek antiquity was the Library of Pseudo-Apollodorus. This work attempts to reconcile the contradictory tales of the poets and provides a grand summary of traditional Greek mythology and heroic legends. Apollodorus of Athens lived from c. 180–125 BC and wrote on many of these topics. His writings may have formed the basis for the collection; however the \"Library\" discusses events that occurred long after his death, hence the name Pseudo-Apollodorus.\n\nAmong the earliest literary sources are Homer's two epic poems, the Iliad and the Odyssey. Other poets completed the \"epic cycle\", but these later and lesser poems now are lost almost entirely. Despite their traditional name, the \"Homeric Hymns\" have no direct connection with Homer. They are choral hymns from the earlier part of the so-called Lyric age. Hesiod, a possible contemporary with Homer, offers in his Theogony (Origin of the Gods) the fullest account of the earliest Greek myths, dealing with the creation of the world; the origin of the gods, Titans, and Giants; as well as elaborate genealogies, folktales, and etiological myths. Hesiod's Works and Days, a didactic poem about farming life, also includes the myths of Prometheus, Pandora, and the Five Ages. The poet gives advice on the best way to succeed in a dangerous world, rendered yet more dangerous by its gods.\n\nLyrical poets often took their subjects from myth, but their treatment became gradually less narrative and more allusive. Greek lyric poets, including Pindar, Bacchylides and Simonides, and bucolic poets such as Theocritus and Bion, relate individual mythological incidents. Additionally, myth was central to classical Athenian drama. The tragic playwrights Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides took most of their plots from myths of the age of heroes and the Trojan War. Many of the great tragic stories (e.g. Agamemnon and his children, Oedipus, Jason, Medea, etc.) took on their classic form in these tragedies. The comic playwright Aristophanes also used myths, in The Birds and The Frogs. \n\nHistorians Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus, and geographers Pausanias and Strabo, who traveled throughout the Greek world and noted the stories they heard, supplied numerous local myths and legends, often giving little-known alternative versions. Herodotus in particular, searched the various traditions presented him and found the historical or mythological roots in the confrontation between Greece and the East. Herodotus attempted to reconcile origins and the blending of differing cultural concepts.\n\nThe poetry of the Hellenistic and Roman ages was primarily composed as a literary rather than cultic exercise. Nevertheless, it contains many important details that would otherwise be lost. This category includes the works of:\n# The Roman poets Ovid, Statius, Valerius Flaccus, Seneca and Virgil with Servius's commentary.\n# The Greek poets of the Late Antique period: Nonnus, Antoninus Liberalis, and Quintus Smyrnaeus.\n# The Greek poets of the Hellenistic period: Apollonius of Rhodes, Callimachus, Pseudo-Eratosthenes, and Parthenius.\n\nProse writers from the same periods who make reference to myths include Apuleius, Petronius, Lollianus, and Heliodorus. Two other important non-poetical sources are the Fabulae and Astronomica of the Roman writer styled as Pseudo-Hyginus, the Imagines of Philostratus the Elder and Philostratus the Younger, and the Descriptions of Callistratus.\n\nFinally, a number of Byzantine Greek writers provide important details of myth, much derived from earlier now lost Greek works. These preservers of myth include Arnobius, Hesychius, the author of the Suda, John Tzetzes, and Eustathius. They often treat mythology from a Christian moralizing perspective. \n\nArchaeological sources\n\nThe discovery of the Mycenaean civilization by the German amateur archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann in the nineteenth century, and the discovery of the Minoan civilization in Crete by the British archaeologist Sir Arthur Evans in the twentieth century, helped to explain many existing questions about Homer's epics and provided archaeological evidence for many of the mythological details about gods and heroes. Unfortunately, the evidence about myths and rituals at Mycenaean and Minoan sites is entirely monumental, as the Linear B script (an ancient form of Greek found in both Crete and mainland Greece) was used mainly to record inventories, although certain names of gods and heroes have been tentatively identified.\n\nGeometric designs on pottery of the eighth century BC depict scenes from the Trojan cycle, as well as the adventures of Heracles. These visual representations of myths are important for two reasons. Firstly, many Greek myths are attested on vases earlier than in literary sources: of the twelve labors of Heracles, for example, only the Cerberus adventure occurs in a contemporary literary text. Secondly, visual sources sometimes represent myths or mythical scenes that are not attested in any extant literary source. In some cases, the first known representation of a myth in geometric art predates its first known representation in late archaic poetry, by several centuries. In the Archaic (c. 750–c. 500 BC), Classical (c. 480–323 BC), and Hellenistic (323–146 BC) periods, Homeric and various other mythological scenes appear, supplementing the existing literary evidence.\n\nSurvey of mythic history\n\nGreek mythology has changed over time to accommodate the evolution of their culture, of which mythology, both overtly and in its unspoken assumptions, is an index of the changes. In Greek mythology's surviving literary forms, as found mostly at the end of the progressive changes, it is inherently political, as Gilbert Cuthbertson has argued. \n\nThe earlier inhabitants of the Balkan Peninsula were an agricultural people who, using Animism, assigned a spirit to every aspect of nature. Eventually, these vague spirits assumed human forms and entered the local mythology as gods. When tribes from the north of the Balkan Peninsula invaded, they brought with them a new pantheon of gods, based on conquest, force, prowess in battle, and violent heroism. Other older gods of the agricultural world fused with those of the more powerful invaders or else faded into insignificance. \n\nAfter the middle of the Archaic period, myths about relationships between male gods and male heroes became more and more frequent, indicating the parallel development of pedagogic pederasty (eros paidikos, ), thought to have been introduced around 630 BC. By the end of the fifth century BC, poets had assigned at least one eromenos, an adolescent boy who was their sexual companion, to every important god except Ares and to many legendary figures. Previously existing myths, such as those of Achilles and Patroclus, also then were cast in a pederastic light. Alexandrian poets at first, then more generally literary mythographers in the early Roman Empire, often readapted stories of Greek mythological characters in this fashion.\n\nThe achievement of epic poetry was to create story-cycles and, as a result, to develop a new sense of mythological chronology. Thus Greek mythology unfolds as a phase in the development of the world and of humans. While self-contradictions in these stories make an absolute timeline impossible, an approximate chronology may be discerned. The resulting mythological \"history of the world\" may be divided into three or four broader periods:\n# The myths of origin or age of gods (Theogonies, \"births of gods\"): myths about the origins of the world, the gods, and the human race.\n# The age when gods and mortals mingled freely: stories of the early interactions between gods, demigods, and mortals.\n# The age of heroes (heroic age), where divine activity was more limited. The last and greatest of the heroic legends is the story of the Trojan War and after (which is regarded by some researchers as a separate fourth period). \n\nWhile the age of gods often has been of more interest to contemporary students of myth, the Greek authors of the archaic and classical eras had a clear preference for the age of heroes, establishing a chronology and record of human accomplishments after the questions of how the world came into being were explained. For example, the heroic Iliad and Odyssey dwarfed the divine-focused Theogony and Homeric Hymns in both size and popularity. Under the influence of Homer the \"hero cult\" leads to a restructuring in spiritual life, expressed in the separation of the realm of the gods from the realm of the dead (heroes), of the Chthonic from the Olympian. In the Works and Days, Hesiod makes use of a scheme of Four Ages of Man (or Races): Golden, Silver, Bronze, and Iron. These races or ages are separate creations of the gods, the Golden Age belonging to the reign of Cronos, the subsequent races the creation of Zeus. The presence of evil was explained by the myth of Pandora, when all of the best of human capabilities, save hope, had been spilled out of her overturned jar. In Metamorphoses, Ovid follows Hesiod's concept of the four ages. \n\nOrigins of the world and the gods\n\n\"Myths of origin\" or \"creation myths\" represent an attempt to explain the beginnings of the universe in human language. The most widely accepted version at the time, although a philosophical account of the beginning of things, is reported by Hesiod, in his Theogony. He begins with Chaos, a yawning nothingness. Out of the void emerged Gaia (the Earth) and some other primary divine beings: Eros (Love), the Abyss (the Tartarus), and the Erebus. Without male assistance, Gaia gave birth to Uranus (the Sky) who then fertilized her. From that union were born first the Titans—six males: Coeus, Crius, Cronus, Hyperion, Iapetus, and Oceanus; and six females: Mnemosyne, Phoebe, Rhea, Theia, Themis, and Tethys. After Cronus was born, Gaia and Uranus decreed no more Titans were to be born. They were followed by the one-eyed Cyclopes and the Hecatonchires or Hundred-Handed Ones, who were both thrown into Tartarus by Uranus. This made Gaia furious. Cronus (\"the wily, youngest and most terrible of Gaia's children\"), was convinced by Gaia to castrate his father. He did this, and became the ruler of the Titans with his sister-wife Rhea as his consort, and the other Titans became his court.\n\nA motif of father-against-son conflict was repeated when Cronus was confronted by his son, Zeus. Because Cronus had betrayed his father, he feared that his offspring would do the same, and so each time Rhea gave birth, he snatched up the child and ate it. Rhea hated this and tricked him by hiding Zeus and wrapping a stone in a baby's blanket, which Cronus ate. When Zeus was full grown, he fed Cronus a drugged drink which caused him to vomit, throwing up Rhea's other children and the stone, which had been sitting in Cronus's stomach all along. Zeus then challenged Cronus to war for the kingship of the gods. At last, with the help of the Cyclopes (whom Zeus freed from Tartarus), Zeus and his siblings were victorious, while Cronus and the Titans were hurled down to imprisonment in Tartarus. \n\nZeus was plagued by the same concern and, after a prophecy that the offspring of his first wife, Metis, would give birth to a god \"greater than he\"—Zeus swallowed her. She was already pregnant with Athena, however, and she burst forth from his head—fully-grown and dressed for war. \n\nThe earliest Greek thought about poetry considered the theogonies to be the prototypical poetic genre—the prototypical mythos—and imputed almost magical powers to it. Orpheus, the archetypal poet, also was the archetypal singer of theogonies, which he uses to calm seas and storms in Apollonius' Argonautica, and to move the stony hearts of the underworld gods in his descent to Hades. When Hermes invents the lyre in the Homeric Hymn to Hermes, the first thing he does is sing about the birth of the gods. Hesiod's Theogony is not only the fullest surviving account of the gods, but also the fullest surviving account of the archaic poet's function, with its long preliminary invocation to the Muses. Theogony also was the subject of many lost poems, including those attributed to Orpheus, Musaeus, Epimenides, Abaris, and other legendary seers, which were used in private ritual purifications and mystery-rites. There are indications that Plato was familiar with some version of the Orphic theogony. A silence would have been expected about religious rites and beliefs, however, and that nature of the culture would not have been reported by members of the society while the beliefs were held. After they ceased to become religious beliefs, few would have known the rites and rituals. Allusions often existed, however, to aspects that were quite public.\n\nImages existed on pottery and religious artwork that were interpreted and more likely, misinterpreted in many diverse myths and tales. A few fragments of these works survive in quotations by Neoplatonist philosophers and recently unearthed papyrus scraps. One of these scraps, the Derveni Papyrus now proves that at least in the fifth century BC a theogonic-cosmogonic poem of Orpheus was in existence.W. Burkert, Greek Religion, 236* G. Betegh, The Derveni Papyrus, 147\n\nThe first philosophical cosmologists reacted against, or sometimes built upon, popular mythical conceptions that had existed in the Greek world for some time. Some of these popular conceptions can be gleaned from the poetry of Homer and Hesiod. In Homer, the Earth was viewed as a flat disk afloat on the river of Oceanus and overlooked by a hemispherical sky with sun, moon, and stars. The Sun (Helios) traversed the heavens as a charioteer and sailed around the Earth in a golden bowl at night. Sun, earth, heaven, rivers, and winds could be addressed in prayers and called to witness oaths. Natural fissures were popularly regarded as entrances to the subterranean house of Hades and his predecessors, home of the dead.* K. Algra, The Beginnings of Cosmology, 45 Influences from other cultures always afforded new themes.\n\nGreek pantheon\n\nAccording to Classical-era mythology, after the overthrow of the Titans, the new pantheon of gods and goddesses was confirmed. Among the principal Greek gods were the Olympians, residing on Mount Olympus under the eye of Zeus. (The limitation of their number to twelve seems to have been a comparatively modern idea.) Besides the Olympians, the Greeks worshipped various gods of the countryside, the satyr-god Pan, Nymphs (spirits of rivers), Naiads (who dwelled in springs), Dryads (who were spirits of the trees), Nereids (who inhabited the sea), river gods, Satyrs, and others. In addition, there were the dark powers of the underworld, such as the Erinyes (or Furies), said to pursue those guilty of crimes against blood-relatives. In order to honor the Ancient Greek pantheon, poets composed the Homeric Hymns (a group of thirty-three songs). Gregory Nagy regards \"the larger Homeric Hymns as simple preludes (compared with Theogony), each of which invokes one god\". \n\nThe gods of Greek mythology are described as having essentially corporeal but ideal bodies. According to Walter Burkert, the defining characteristic of Greek anthropomorphism is that \"the Greek gods are persons, not abstractions, ideas or concepts\". Regardless of their underlying forms, the Ancient Greek gods have many fantastic abilities; most significantly, the gods are not affected by disease, and can be wounded only under highly unusual circumstances. The Greeks considered immortality as the distinctive characteristic of their gods; this immortality, as well as unfading youth, was insured by the constant use of nectar and ambrosia, by which the divine blood was renewed in their veins. \n\nEach god descends from his or her own genealogy, pursues differing interests, has a certain area of expertise, and is governed by a unique personality; however, these descriptions arise from a multiplicity of archaic local variants, which do not always agree with one another. When these gods are called upon in poetry, prayer or cult, they are referred to by a combination of their name and epithets, that identify them by these distinctions from other manifestations of themselves (e.g., Apollo Musagetes is \"Apollo, [as] leader of the Muses\"). Alternatively the epithet may identify a particular and localized aspect of the god, sometimes thought to be already ancient during the classical epoch of Greece.\n\nMost gods were associated with specific aspects of life. For example, Aphrodite was the goddess of love and beauty, Ares was the god of war, Hades the ruler of the underworld, and Athena the goddess of wisdom and courage. Some gods, such as Apollo and Dionysus, revealed complex personalities and mixtures of functions, while others, such as Hestia (literally \"hearth\") and Helios (literally \"sun\"), were little more than personifications. The most impressive temples tended to be dedicated to a limited number of gods, who were the focus of large pan-Hellenic cults. It was, however, common for individual regions and villages to devote their own cults to minor gods. Many cities also honored the more well-known gods with unusual local rites and associated strange myths with them that were unknown elsewhere. During the heroic age, the cult of heroes (or demi-gods) supplemented that of the gods.\n\nAge of gods and mortals\n\nBridging the age when gods lived alone and the age when divine interference in human affairs was limited was a transitional age in which gods and mortals moved together. These were the early days of the world when the groups mingled more freely than they did later. Most of these tales were later told by Ovid's Metamorphoses and they are often divided into two thematic groups: tales of love, and tales of punishment. \n\nTales of love often involve incest, or the seduction or rape of a mortal woman by a male god, resulting in heroic offspring. The stories generally suggest that relationships between gods and mortals are something to avoid; even consenting relationships rarely have happy endings. In a few cases, a female divinity mates with a mortal man, as in the Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite, where the goddess lies with Anchises to produce Aeneas. \n\nThe second type (tales of punishment) involves the appropriation or invention of some important cultural artifact, as when Prometheus steals fire from the gods, when Tantalus steals nectar and ambrosia from Zeus' table and gives it to his own subjects—revealing to them the secrets of the gods, when Prometheus or Lycaon invents sacrifice, when Demeter teaches agriculture and the Mysteries to Triptolemus, or when Marsyas invents the aulos and enters into a musical contest with Apollo. Ian Morris considers Prometheus' adventures as \"a place between the history of the gods and that of man\". An anonymous papyrus fragment, dated to the third century, vividly portrays Dionysus' punishment of the king of Thrace, Lycurgus, whose recognition of the new god came too late, resulting in horrific penalties that extended into the afterlife. The story of the arrival of Dionysus to establish his cult in Thrace was also the subject of an Aeschylean trilogy. In another tragedy, Euripides' The Bacchae, the king of Thebes, Pentheus, is punished by Dionysus, because he disrespected the god and spied on his Maenads, the female worshippers of the god. \n\nIn another story, based on an old folktale-motif, and echoing a similar theme, Demeter was searching for her daughter, Persephone, having taken the form of an old woman called Doso, and received a hospitable welcome from Celeus, the King of Eleusis in Attica. As a gift to Celeus, because of his hospitality, Demeter planned to make his son Demophon a god, but she was unable to complete the ritual because his mother Metanira walked in and saw her son in the fire and screamed in fright, which angered Demeter, who lamented that foolish mortals do not understand the concept and ritual. \n\nHeroic age\n\nThe age in which the heroes lived is known as the heroic age. The epic and genealogical poetry created cycles of stories clustered around particular heroes or events and established the family relationships between the heroes of different stories; they thus arranged the stories in sequence. According to Ken Dowden, \"There is even a saga effect: We can follow the fates of some families in successive generations\".\n\nAfter the rise of the hero cult, gods and heroes constitute the sacral sphere and are invoked together in oaths and prayers which are addressed to them. Burkert notes that \"the roster of heroes, again in contrast to the gods, is never given fixed and final form. Great gods are no longer born, but new heroes can always be raised up from the army of the dead.\" Another important difference between the hero cult and the cult of gods is that the hero becomes the centre of local group identity. \n\nThe monumental events of Heracles are regarded as the dawn of the age of heroes. To the Heroic Age are also ascribed three great events: the Argonautic expedition, the Theban Cycle and the Trojan War. \n\nHeracles and the Heracleidae\n\nSome scholars believe that behind Heracles' complicated mythology there was probably a real man, perhaps a chieftain-vassal of the kingdom of Argos. Some scholars suggest the story of Heracles is an allegory for the sun's yearly passage through the twelve constellations of the zodiac. Others point to earlier myths from other cultures, showing the story of Heracles as a local adaptation of hero myths already well established. Traditionally, Heracles was the son of Zeus and Alcmene, granddaughter of Perseus. His fantastic solitary exploits, with their many folk-tale themes, provided much material for popular legend. According to Burkert, \"He is portrayed as a sacrificer, mentioned as a founder of altars, and imagined as a voracious eater himself; it is in this role that he appears in comedy, while his tragic end provided much material for tragedy — Heracles is regarded by Thalia Papadopoulou as \"a play of great significance in examination of other Euripidean dramas\". In art and literature Heracles was represented as an enormously strong man of moderate height; his characteristic weapon was the bow but frequently also the club. Vase paintings demonstrate the unparalleled popularity of Heracles, his fight with the lion being depicted many hundreds of times. \n\nHeracles also entered Etruscan and Roman mythology and cult, and the exclamation \"mehercule\" became as familiar to the Romans as \"Herakleis\" was to the Greeks. In Italy he was worshipped as a god of merchants and traders, although others also prayed to him for his characteristic gifts of good luck or rescue from danger.\n\nHeracles attained the highest social prestige through his appointment as official ancestor of the Dorian kings. This probably served as a legitimation for the Dorian migrations into the Peloponnese. Hyllus, the eponymous hero of one Dorian phyle, became the son of Heracles and one of the Heracleidae or Heraclids (the numerous descendants of Heracles, especially the descendants of Hyllus — other Heracleidae included Macaria, Lamos, Manto, Bianor, Tlepolemus, and Telephus). These Heraclids conquered the Peloponnesian kingdoms of Mycenae, Sparta and Argos, claiming, according to legend, a right to rule them through their ancestor. Their rise to dominance is frequently called the \"Dorian invasion\". The Lydian and later the Macedonian kings, as rulers of the same rank, also became Heracleidae. \n\nOther members of this earliest generation of heroes such as Perseus, Deucalion, Theseus and Bellerophon, have many traits in common with Heracles. Like him, their exploits are solitary, fantastic and border on fairy tale, as they slay monsters such as the Chimera and Medusa. Bellerophon's adventures are commonplace types, similar to the adventures of Heracles and Theseus. Sending a hero to his presumed death is also a recurrent theme of this early heroic tradition, used in the cases of Perseus and Bellerophon. \n\nArgonauts\n\nThe only surviving Hellenistic epic, the Argonautica of Apollonius of Rhodes (epic poet, scholar, and director of the Library of Alexandria) tells the myth of the voyage of Jason and the Argonauts to retrieve the Golden Fleece from the mythical land of Colchis. In the Argonautica, Jason is impelled on his quest by king Pelias, who receives a prophecy that a man with one sandal would be his nemesis. Jason loses a sandal in a river, arrives at the court of Pelias, and the epic is set in motion. Nearly every member of the next generation of heroes, as well as Heracles, went with Jason in the ship Argo to fetch the Golden Fleece. This generation also included Theseus, who went to Crete to slay the Minotaur; Atalanta, the female heroine, and Meleager, who once had an epic cycle of his own to rival the Iliad and Odyssey. Pindar, Apollonius and the Bibliotheca endeavor to give full lists of the Argonauts. \n\nAlthough Apollonius wrote his poem in the 3rd century BC, the composition of the story of the Argonauts is earlier than Odyssey, which shows familiarity with the exploits of Jason (the wandering of Odysseus may have been partly founded on it). In ancient times the expedition was regarded as a historical fact, an incident in the opening up of the Black Sea to Greek commerce and colonization. It was also extremely popular, forming a cycle to which a number of local legends became attached. The story of Medea, in particular, caught the imagination of the tragic poets. \n\nHouse of Atreus and Theban Cycle\n\nIn between the Argo and the Trojan War, there was a generation known chiefly for its horrific crimes. This includes the doings of Atreus and Thyestes at Argos. Behind the myth of the house of Atreus (one of the two principal heroic dynasties with the house of Labdacus) lies the problem of the devolution of power and of the mode of accession to sovereignty. The twins Atreus and Thyestes with their descendants played the leading role in the tragedy of the devolution of power in Mycenae. \n\nThe Theban Cycle deals with events associated especially with Cadmus, the city's founder, and later with the doings of Laius and Oedipus at Thebes; a series of stories that lead to the eventual pillage of that city at the hands of the Seven Against Thebes and Epigoni. (It is not known whether the Seven Against Thebes figured in early epic.) As far as Oedipus is concerned, early epic accounts seem to have him continuing to rule at Thebes after the revelation that Iokaste was his mother, and subsequently marrying a second wife who becomes the mother of his children — markedly different from the tale known to us through tragedy (e.g. Sophocles' Oedipus the King) and later mythological accounts. \n\nTrojan War and aftermath\n\nGreek mythology culminates in the Trojan War, fought between Greece and Troy, and its aftermath. In Homer's works, such as the Iliad, the chief stories have already taken shape and substance, and individual themes were elaborated later, especially in Greek drama. The Trojan War also elicited great interest in the Roman culture because of the story of Aeneas, a Trojan hero whose journey from Troy led to the founding of the city that would one day become Rome, as recounted in Virgil's Aeneid (Book II of Virgil's Aeneid contains the best-known account of the sack of Troy). Finally there are two pseudo-chronicles written in Latin that passed under the names of Dictys Cretensis and Dares Phrygius. \n\nThe Trojan War cycle, a collection of epic poems, starts with the events leading up to the war: Eris and the golden apple of Kallisti, the Judgement of Paris, the abduction of Helen, the sacrifice of Iphigenia at Aulis. To recover Helen, the Greeks launched a great expedition under the overall command of Menelaus' brother, Agamemnon, king of Argos or Mycenae, but the Trojans refused to return Helen. The Iliad, which is set in the tenth year of the war, tells of the quarrel between Agamemnon and Achilles, who was the finest Greek warrior, and the consequent deaths in battle of Achilles' beloved comrade Patroclus and Priam's eldest son, Hector. After Hector's death the Trojans were joined by two exotic allies, Penthesilea, queen of the Amazons, and Memnon, king of the Ethiopians and son of the dawn-goddess Eos. Achilles killed both of these, but Paris then managed to kill Achilles with an arrow in the heel. Achilles' heel was the only part of his body which was not invulnerable to damage by human weaponry. Before they could take Troy, the Greeks had to steal from the citadel the wooden image of Pallas Athena (the Palladium). Finally, with Athena's help, they built the Trojan Horse. Despite the warnings of Priam's daughter Cassandra, the Trojans were persuaded by Sinon, a Greek who feigned desertion, to take the horse inside the walls of Troy as an offering to Athena; the priest Laocoon, who tried to have the horse destroyed, was killed by sea-serpents. At night the Greek fleet returned, and the Greeks from the horse opened the gates of Troy. In the total sack that followed, Priam and his remaining sons were slaughtered; the Trojan women passed into slavery in various cities of Greece. The adventurous homeward voyages of the Greek leaders (including the wanderings of Odysseus and Aeneas (the Aeneid), and the murder of Agamemnon) were told in two epics, the Returns (the lost Nostoi) and Homer's Odyssey. The Trojan cycle also includes the adventures of the children of the Trojan generation (e.g., Orestes and Telemachus).\n\nThe Trojan War provided a variety of themes and became a main source of inspiration for Ancient Greek artists (e.g. metopes on the Parthenon depicting the sack of Troy); this artistic preference for themes deriving from the Trojan Cycle indicates its importance to the Ancient Greek civilization. The same mythological cycle also inspired a series of posterior European literary writings. For instance, Trojan Medieval European writers, unacquainted with Homer at first hand, found in the Troy legend a rich source of heroic and romantic storytelling and a convenient framework into which to fit their own courtly and chivalric ideals. Twelfth-century authors, such as Benoît de Sainte-Maure (Roman de Troie [Romance of Troy, 1154–60]) and Joseph of Exeter (De Bello Troiano [On the Trojan War, 1183]) describe the war while rewriting the standard version they found in Dictys and Dares. They thus follow Horace's advice and Virgil's example: they rewrite a poem of Troy instead of telling something completely new. \n\nSome of the more famous heroes noted for their inclusion in the Trojan War were:\n\nOn the Trojan side:\n* Aeneas\n* Hector\n* Paris\nOn the Greek side:\n* Ajax (there were two Ajaxes)\n* Achilles\n* King Agamemnon\n* Menelaus\n* Odysseus\n\nGreek and Roman conceptions of myth\n\nMythology was at the heart of everyday life in Ancient Greece. Greeks regarded mythology as a part of their history. They used myth to explain natural phenomena, cultural variations, traditional enmities and friendships. It was a source of pride to be able to trace the descent of one's leaders from a mythological hero or a god. Few ever doubted that there was truth behind the account of the Trojan War in the Iliad and Odyssey. According to Victor Davis Hanson, a military historian, columnist, political essayist and former classics professor, and John Heath, a classics professor, the profound knowledge of the Homeric epos was deemed by the Greeks the basis of their acculturation. Homer was the \"education of Greece\" (Ἑλλάδος παίδευσις), and his poetry \"the Book\". \n\nPhilosophy and myth\n\nAfter the rise of philosophy, history, prose and rationalism in the late 5th century BC, the fate of myth became uncertain, and mythological genealogies gave place to a conception of history which tried to exclude the supernatural (such as the Thucydidean history). While poets and dramatists were reworking the myths, Greek historians and philosophers were beginning to criticize them.\n\nA few radical philosophers like Xenophanes of Colophon were already beginning to label the poets' tales as blasphemous lies in the 6th century BC; Xenophanes had complained that Homer and Hesiod attributed to the gods \"all that is shameful and disgraceful among men; they steal, commit adultery, and deceive one another\". This line of thought found its most sweeping expression in Plato's Republic and Laws. Plato created his own allegorical myths (such as the vision of Er in the Republic), attacked the traditional tales of the gods' tricks, thefts and adulteries as immoral, and objected to their central role in literature. Plato's criticism was the first serious challenge to the Homeric mythological tradition, referring to the myths as \"old wives' chatter\". For his part Aristotle criticized the Pre-socratic quasi-mythical philosophical approach and underscored that \"Hesiod and the theological writers were concerned only with what seemed plausible to themselves, and had no respect for us ... But it is not worth taking seriously writers who show off in the mythical style; as for those who do proceed by proving their assertions, we must cross-examine them\".\n\nNevertheless, even Plato did not manage to wean himself and his society from the influence of myth; his own characterization for Socrates is based on the traditional Homeric and tragic patterns, used by the philosopher to praise the righteous life of his teacher: \n\nHanson and Heath estimate that Plato's rejection of the Homeric tradition was not favorably received by the grassroots Greek civilization. The old myths were kept alive in local cults; they continued to influence poetry and to form the main subject of painting and sculpture.\n\nMore sportingly, the 5th century BC tragedian Euripides often played with the old traditions, mocking them, and through the voice of his characters injecting notes of doubt. Yet the subjects of his plays were taken, without exception, from myth. Many of these plays were written in answer to a predecessor's version of the same or similar myth. Euripides mainly impugns the myths about the gods and begins his critique with an objection similar to the one previously expressed by Xenocrates: the gods, as traditionally represented, are far too crassly anthropomorphic.\n\nHellenistic and Roman rationalism\n\nDuring the Hellenistic period, mythology took on the prestige of elite knowledge that marks its possessors as belonging to a certain class. At the same time, the skeptical turn of the Classical age became even more pronounced. Greek mythographer Euhemerus established the tradition of seeking an actual historical basis for mythical beings and events. Although his original work (Sacred Scriptures) is lost, much is known about it from what is recorded by Diodorus and Lactantius. \n\nRationalizing hermeneutics of myth became even more popular under the Roman Empire, thanks to the physicalist theories of Stoic and Epicurean philosophy. Stoics presented explanations of the gods and heroes as physical phenomena, while the Euhemerists rationalized them as historical figures. At the same time, the Stoics and the Neoplatonists promoted the moral significations of the mythological tradition, often based on Greek etymologies. Through his Epicurean message, Lucretius had sought to expel superstitious fears from the minds of his fellow-citizens. Livy, too, is skeptical about the mythological tradition and claims that he does not intend to pass judgement on such legends (fabulae). The challenge for Romans with a strong and apologetic sense of religious tradition was to defend that tradition while conceding that it was often a breeding-ground for superstition. The antiquarian Varro, who regarded religion as a human institution with great importance for the preservation of good in society, devoted rigorous study to the origins of religious cults. In his Antiquitates Rerum Divinarum (which has not survived, but Augustine's City of God indicates its general approach) Varro argues that whereas the superstitious man fears the gods, the truly religious person venerates them as parents. According to Varro, there have been three accounts of deities in the Roman society: the mythical account created by poets for theatre and entertainment, the civil account used by people for veneration as well as by the city, and the natural account created by the philosophers. The best state is, adds Varro, where the civil theology combines the poetic mythical account with the philosopher's. \n\nRoman Academic Cotta ridicules both literal and allegorical acceptance of myth, declaring roundly that myths have no place in philosophy. Cicero is also generally disdainful of myth, but, like Varro, he is emphatic in his support for the state religion and its institutions. It is difficult to know how far down the social scale this rationalism extended. Cicero asserts that no one (not even old women and boys) is so foolish as to believe in the terrors of Hades or the existence of Scyllas, centaurs or other composite creatures, but, on the other hand, the orator elsewhere complains of the superstitious and credulous character of the people. De Natura Deorum is the most comprehensive summary of Cicero's line of thought. \n\nSyncretizing trends\n\nIn Ancient Roman times, a new Roman mythology was born through syncretization of numerous Greek and other foreign gods. This occurred because the Romans had little mythology of their own and inheritance of the Greek mythological tradition caused the major Roman gods to adopt characteristics of their Greek equivalents. The gods Zeus and Jupiter are an example of this mythological overlap. In addition to the combination of the two mythological traditions, the association of the Romans with eastern religions led to further syncretizations. For instance, the cult of Sun was introduced in Rome after Aurelian's successful campaigns in Syria. The Asiatic divinities Mithras (that is to say, the Sun) and Ba'al were combined with Apollo and Helios into one Sol Invictus, with conglomerated rites and compound attributes. Apollo might be increasingly identified in religion with Helios or even Dionysus, but texts retelling his myths seldom reflected such developments. The traditional literary mythology was increasingly dissociated from actual religious practice. The worship of Sol as special protector of the emperors and of the empire remained the chief imperial religion until it was replaced by Christianity.\n\nThe surviving 2nd-century collection of Orphic Hymns (second century AD) and the Saturnalia of Macrobius Ambrosius Theodosius (fifth century) are influenced by the theories of rationalism and the syncretizing trends as well. The Orphic Hymns are a set of pre-classical poetic compositions, attributed to Orpheus, himself the subject of a renowned myth. In reality, these poems were probably composed by several different poets, and contain a rich set of clues about prehistoric European mythology. The stated purpose of the Saturnalia is to transmit the Hellenic culture Macrobius has derived from his reading, even though much of his treatment of gods is colored by Egyptian and North African mythology and theology (which also affect the interpretation of Virgil). In Saturnalia reappear mythographical comments influenced by the Euhemerists, the Stoics and the Neoplatonists.\n\nModern interpretations\n\nThe genesis of modern understanding of Greek mythology is regarded by some scholars as a double reaction at the end of the eighteenth century against \"the traditional attitude of Christian animosity\", in which the Christian reinterpretation of myth as a \"lie\" or fable had been retained. In Germany, by about 1795, there was a growing interest in Homer and Greek mythology. In Göttingen, Johann Matthias Gesner began to revive Greek studies, while his successor, Christian Gottlob Heyne, worked with Johann Joachim Winckelmann, and laid the foundations for mythological research both in Germany and elsewhere. \n\nComparative and psychoanalytic approaches\n\nThe development of comparative philology in the 19th century, together with ethnological discoveries in the 20th century, established the science of myth. Since the Romantics, all study of myth has been comparative. Wilhelm Mannhardt, James Frazer, and Stith Thompson employed the comparative approach to collect and classify the themes of folklore and mythology. In 1871 Edward Burnett Tylor published his Primitive Culture, in which he applied the comparative method and tried to explain the origin and evolution of religion.D. Allen, Structure and Creativity in Religion, 9* Robert A. Segal, Theorizing about Myth, 16 Tylor's procedure of drawing together material culture, ritual and myth of widely separated cultures influenced both Carl Jung and Joseph Campbell. Max Müller applied the new science of comparative mythology to the study of myth, in which he detected the distorted remains of Aryan nature worship. Bronisław Malinowski emphasized the ways myth fulfills common social functions. Claude Lévi-Strauss and other structuralists have compared the formal relations and patterns in myths throughout the world.\n\nSigmund Freud introduced a transhistorical and biological conception of man and a view of myth as an expression of repressed ideas. Dream interpretation is the basis of Freudian myth interpretation and Freud's concept of dreamwork recognizes the importance of contextual relationships for the interpretation of any individual element in a dream. This suggestion would find an important point of rapprochment between the structuralist and psychoanalytic approaches to myth in Freud's thought. Carl Jung extended the transhistorical, psychological approach with his theory of the \"collective unconscious\" and the archetypes (inherited \"archaic\" patterns), often encoded in myth, that arise out of it. According to Jung, \"myth-forming structural elements must be present in the unconscious psyche\". Comparing Jung's methodology with Joseph Campbell's theory, Robert A. Segal concludes that \"to interpret a myth Campbell simply identifies the archetypes in it. An interpretation of the Odyssey, for example, would show how Odysseus's life conforms to a heroic pattern. Jung, by contrast, considers the identification of archetypes merely the first step in the interpretation of a myth\". Karl Kerényi, one of the founders of modern studies in Greek mythology, gave up his early views of myth, in order to apply Jung's theories of archetypes to Greek myth. \n\nOrigin theories\n\nMax Müller attempted to understand an Indo-European religious form by tracing it back to its Indo-European (or, in Müller's time, \"Aryan\") \"original\" manifestation. In 1891, he claimed that \"the most important discovery which has been made during the nineteenth century with respect to the ancient history of mankind ... was this sample equation: Sanskrit Dyaus-pitar Greek Zeus \n Latin Jupiter = Old Norse Tyr\". The question of Greek mythology's place in Indo-European studies has generated much scholarship since Müller's time. For example, philologist Georges Dumézil draws a comparison between the Greek Uranus and the Sanskrit Varuna, although there is no hint that he believes them to be originally connected. In other cases, close parallels in character and function suggest a common heritage, yet lack of linguistic evidence makes it difficult to prove, as in the case of the Greek Moirai and the Norns of Norse mythology. \n\nArchaeology and mythography, on the other hand, have revealed that the Greeks were also inspired by some of the civilizations of Asia Minor and the Near East. Adonis seems to be the Greek counterpart — more clearly in cult than in myth — of a Near Eastern \"dying god\". Cybele is rooted in Anatolian culture while much of Aphrodite's iconography may spring from Semitic goddesses. There are also possible parallels between the earliest divine generations (Chaos and its children) and Tiamat in the Enuma Elish.L. Edmunds, Approaches to Greek Myth, 184* Robert A. Segal, A Greek Eternal Child, 64 According to Meyer Reinhold, \"near Eastern theogonic concepts, involving divine succession through violence and generational conflicts for power, found their way ... into Greek mythology\". In addition to Indo-European and Near Eastern origins, some scholars have speculated on the debts of Greek mythology to the pre-Hellenic societies: Crete, Mycenae, Pylos, Thebes and Orchomenus. Historians of religion were fascinated by a number of apparently ancient configurations of myth connected with Crete (the god as bull, Zeus and Europa, Pasiphaë who yields to the bull and gives birth to the Minotaur etc.) Martin P. Nilsson concluded that all great classical Greek myths were tied to Mycenaen centres and were anchored in prehistoric times. Nevertheless, according to Burkert, the iconography of the Cretan Palace Period has provided almost no confirmation for these theories. \n\nMotifs in Western art and literature\n\nThe widespread adoption of Christianity did not curb the popularity of the myths. With the rediscovery of classical antiquity in the Renaissance, the poetry of Ovid became a major influence on the imagination of poets, dramatists, musicians and artists.* L. Burn, Greek Myths, 75 From the early years of Renaissance, artists such as Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Raphael, portrayed the Pagan subjects of Greek mythology alongside more conventional Christian themes. Through the medium of Latin and the works of Ovid, Greek myth influenced medieval and Renaissance poets such as Petrarch, Boccaccio and Dante in Italy.\n\nIn Northern Europe, Greek mythology never took the same hold of the visual arts, but its effect was very obvious on literature. The English imagination was fired by Greek mythology starting with Chaucer and John Milton and continuing through Shakespeare to Robert Bridges in the 20th century. Racine in France and Goethe in Germany revived Greek drama, reworking the ancient myths. Although during the Enlightenment of the 18th century reaction against Greek myth spread throughout Europe, the myths continued to provide an important source of raw material for dramatists, including those who wrote the libretti for many of Handel's and Mozart's operas. By the end of the 18th century, Romanticism initiated a surge of enthusiasm for all things Greek, including Greek mythology. In Britain, new translations of Greek tragedies and Homer inspired contemporary poets (such as Alfred Lord Tennyson, Keats, Byron and Shelley) and painters (such as Lord Leighton and Lawrence Alma-Tadema). Christoph Gluck, Richard Strauss, Jacques Offenbach and many others set Greek mythological themes to music. American authors of the 19th century, such as Thomas Bulfinch and Nathaniel Hawthorne, held that the study of the classical myths was essential to the understanding of English and American literature. In more recent times, classical themes have been reinterpreted by dramatists Jean Anouilh, Jean Cocteau, and Jean Giraudoux in France, Eugene O'Neill in America, and T. S. Eliot in Britain and by novelists such as James Joyce and André Gide.", "Hades (; or , Háidēs) was the ancient Greek chthonic god of the underworld, which eventually took his name. \n\nIn Greek mythology, Hades was regarded as the oldest son of Cronus and Rhea, although the last son regurgitated by his father. He and his brothers Zeus and Poseidon defeated their father's generation of gods, the Titans, and claimed rulership over the cosmos. Hades received the underworld, Zeus the air, and Poseidon the sea, with the solid earth—long the province of Gaia—available to all three concurrently. Hades was often portrayed with his three-headed guard dog Cerberus and, in later mythological authors, associated with the Helm of Darkness and the bident.\n\nThe Etruscan god Aita and Roman gods Dis Pater and Orcus were eventually taken as equivalent to the Greek Hades and merged as Pluto, a Latinization of his euphemistic Greek name Plouton.\n\nName\n\nThe origin of Hades' name is uncertain, but has generally been seen as meaning \"The Unseen One\" since antiquity. An extensive section of Plato's dialogue Cratylus is devoted to the etymology of the god's name, in which Socrates is arguing for a folk etymology not from \"unseen\" but from \"his knowledge (eidenai) of all noble things\". Modern linguists have proposed the Proto-Greek form Awides (\"unseen\"). The earliest attested form is Aḯdēs (), which lacks the proposed digamma. West argues instead for an original meaning of \"the one who presides over meeting up\" from the universality of death. \n\nIn Ionic and epic Greek, he was known as Áïdēs. Other poetic variations of the name include Aïdōneús () and the inflected forms Áïdos (, gen.), Áïdi (, dat.), and Áïda (, acc.), whose reconstructed nominative case Áïs () is, however, not attested. The name as it came to be known in classical times was Háidēs (). Later the iota became silent, then a subscript marking (), and finally omitted entirely (). \n\nPerhaps from fear of pronouncing his name, around the 5th century BC, the Greeks started referring to Hades as Pluto (, Ploútōn), with a root meaning \"wealthy\", considering that from the abode below (i.e., the soil) come riches (e.g., fertile crops, metals and so on). Plouton became the Roman god who both rules the underworld and distributed riches from below. This deity was a mixture of the Greek god Hades and the Eleusinian icon Ploutos, and from this he also received a priestess, which was not previously practiced in Greece. More elaborate names of the same genre were Ploutodótēs () or Ploutodotḗr () meaning \"giver of wealth\". Epithets of Hades include Agesander () and Agesilaos (), both from ágō (, \"lead\", \"carry\" or \"fetch\") and anḗr (, \"man\") or laos (, \"men\" or \"people\"), describing Hades as the god who carries away all. Nicander uses the form Hegesilaus (). He was also referred to as Zeus Katachthonios (Ζευς καταχθονιος), meaning \"the Zeus of the Underworld\", by those avoiding his actual name, as he had complete control over the Underworld.\n\nGreek god of the underworld\n\nIn Greek mythology, Hades the god of the underworld, was a son of the Titans Cronus and Rhea. He had three sisters, Demeter, Hestia, and Hera, as well as two brothers, Zeus, the youngest of the three, and Poseidon.\nUpon reaching adulthood, Zeus managed to force his father to disgorge his siblings. After their release the six younger gods, along with allies they managed to gather, challenged the elder gods for power in the Titanomachy, a divine war. The war lasted for ten years and ended with the victory of the younger gods. Following their victory, according to a single famous passage in the Iliad (xv.187–93), Hades and his two brothers, Poseidon and Zeus, drew lots for realms to rule. Zeus received the sky, Poseidon received the seas, and Hades received the underworld, the unseen realm to which the souls of the dead go upon leaving the world as well as any and all things beneath the earth. Some myths suggest that Hades was dissatisfied with his turnout, but had no choice and moved to his new realm. The Underworld was Hades' eternal domain, meaning he would spend the majority of his time there . \n\nHades obtained his wife and queen, Persephone, through abduction at the behest of Zeus. This myth is the most important one Hades takes part in; it also connected the Eleusinian Mysteries with the Olympian pantheon, particularly as represented in the Homeric Hymn to Demeter, which is the oldest story of the abduction, most likely dating back to the beginning of the 6th Century BC. Helios told the grieving Demeter that Hades was not unworthy as a consort for Persephone:\n\n\"Aidoneus, the Ruler of Many, is no unfitting husband among the deathless gods for your child, being your own brother and born of the same stock: also, for honor, he has that third share which he received when division was made at the first, and is appointed lord of those among whom he dwells.\"\n— Homeric Hymn to Demeter\n\nDespite modern connotations of death as evil, Hades was actually more altruistically inclined in mythology. Hades was often portrayed as passive rather than evil; his role was often maintaining relative balance. However he was depicted as cold, stern, and gave all his subjects equal treatment in regards to his laws. Any other individual aspects of his personality are not given, as Greeks refrained from giving him much thought to avoid attracting his attention. \n\nHades ruled the dead, assisted by others over whom he had complete authority. The House of hades was described as full of \"guests,\" though he rarely left the Underworld. He cared little about what happened in the Upperworld, as his primary attention was ensuring none of his subjects ever left. When he did venture above ground, he generally wore his helmet of invisibility, which he obtained from the Cyclopes. He strictly forbade his subjects to leave his domain and would become quite enraged when anyone tried to leave, or if someone tried to steal the souls from his realm. His wrath was equally terrible for anyone who tried to cheat death or otherwise crossed him, as Sisyphus and Pirithous found out to their sorrow. While usually indifferent to his subjects, Hades was very focused on the punishment of these two people; particularly Pirithous, as he entered the underworld in an attempt to steal Persephone for himself, and consequently was forced onto the \"Chair of Forgetfulness\". Another myth is about the Roman god Asclepius was originally a demigod, fathered by Apollo and birthed by Coronis, a Thessalian princess. During his lifetime, he became a famous and talented physician, who eventually was able to bring the dead back to life. Feeling cheated, Plouton persuaded Jupiter to kill him with a thunderbolt. After his death, he was brought to Olympus where he became a god. Hades was only depicted outside of the Underworld once in myth, and even that is believed to have been an instance where he had just left the gates of the Underworld, which was when Heracles shot him with an arrow as Hades was attempting to defend the city of Plyus. After he was shot, however, he traveled to Olympus to heal. Besides Heracles, the only other living people who ventured to the Underworld were all heroes: Odysseus, Aeneas (accompanied by the Sibyl), Orpheus, who Hades showed uncharacteristic mercy towards at Persephone's persuasion, who was moved by Orpheus' music, Theseus with Pirithous, and, in a late romance, Psyche. None of them were pleased with what they witnessed in the realm of the dead. In particular, the Greek war hero Achilles, whom Odysseus conjured with a blood libation, said:\n\"O shining Odysseus, never try to console me for dying.\nI would rather follow the plow as thrall to another\nman, one with no land allotted to him and not much to live on,\nthan be a king over all the perished dead.\"\n— Achilles' soul to Odysseus. Homer, Odyssey' 11.488-491\n\nCult \n\nHades, as the god of the dead, was a fearsome figure to those still living; in no hurry to meet him, they were reluctant to swear oaths in his name, and averted their faces when sacrificing to him. Since to many, simply to say the word \"Hades\" was frightening, euphemisms were pressed into use. Since precious minerals come from under the earth (i.e., the \"underworld\" ruled by Hades), he was considered to have control of these as well, and was referred to as Πλούτων (Plouton, related to the word for \"wealth\"), Latinized as Pluto. Sophocles explained referring to Hades as \"the rich one\" with these words: \"the gloomy Hades enriches himself with our sighs and our tears.\" In addition, he was called Clymenus (\"notorious\"), Polydegmon (\"who receives many\"), and perhaps Eubuleus (\"good counsel\" or \"well-intentioned\"), all of them euphemisms for a name that was unsafe to pronounce, which evolved into epithets.\n\nHe spent most of the time in his dark realm. Formidable in battle, he proved his ferocity in the famous Titanomachy, the battle of the Olympians versus the Titans, which established the rule of Zeus.\n\nFeared and loathed, Hades embodied the inexorable finality of death: \"Why do we loathe Hades more than any god, if not because he is so adamantine and unyielding?\" The rhetorical question is Agamemnon's. He was not, however, an evil god, for although he was stern, cruel, and unpitying, he was still just. Hades ruled the Underworld and was therefore most often associated with death and feared by men, but he was not Death itself — the actual embodiment of Death was Thanatos.\n\nWhen the Greeks propitiated Hades, they banged their hands on the ground to be sure he would hear them. Black animals, such as sheep, were sacrificed to him, and the very vehemence of the rejection of human sacrifice expressed in myth suggests an unspoken memory of some distant past. The blood from all chthonic sacrifices including those to propitiate Hades dripped into a pit or cleft in the ground. The person who offered the sacrifice had to avert his face. \n\nOne ancient source says that he possessed the Cap of invisibility. His chariot, drawn by four black horses, made for a fearsome and impressive sight. His other ordinary attributes were the narcissus and cypress plants, the Key of Hades and Cerberus, the three-headed dog.\n\nThe philosopher Heraclitus, unifying opposites, declared that Hades and Dionysus, the very essence of indestructible life (zoë), are the same god. Among other evidence Kerényi notes that the grieving goddess Demeter refused to drink wine, which is the gift of Dionysus, after Persephone's abduction, because of this association, and suggests that Hades may in fact have been a \"cover name\" for the underworld Dionysus. He suggests that this dual identity may have been familiar to those who came into contact with the Mysteries. One of the epithets of Dionysus was \"Chthonios\", meaning \"the subterranean\". \n\nArtistic representations\n\n Hades was depicted so infrequently in artwork, as well as mythology, because the Greeks were so afraid of him. His artistic representations, which are generally found in Archaic pottery, are not even concretely thought of as the deity; however at this point in time it is heavily believed that the figures illustrated are indeed Hades. He was later presented in the classical arts in the depictions of the Rape of Persephone. Within these illustrations, Hades was often young, yet he was also shown as varying ages in other works. Due to this lack of depictions, there weren't very strict guidelines when representing the deity. On pottery, he has a dark beard and is presented as a stately figure on an \"ebony throne.\" He has a few symbolic icons, such as a \"bird-tipped scepter,\" and a key, which both represented his control over the underworld and acted as a reminder that the gates of the Underworld were always locked so that souls could not leave. Even if the doors were open, Cerberus, the three-headed guard dog of the Underworld, ensured that while all souls were allowed to enter into The Underworld freely, none could ever escape. The dog is often portrayed next to the god as a means of easy identification, since no other deity relates to it so directly. Sometimes, artists painted Hades as looking away from the other gods, as he was disliked by them as well as humans.\n\nAs Plouton, he was regarded in a more positive light. He holds a cornucopia, representing the gifts he bestows upon people as well as fertility, which he becomes connected to. \n\nPersephone\n\nThe consort of Hades was Persephone, represented by the Greeks as the beautiful daughter of Demeter. \n\nPersephone did not submit to Hades willingly, but was abducted by him while picking flowers in the fields of Nysa. In protest of his act, Demeter cast a curse on the land and there was a great famine; though, one by one, the gods came to request she lift it, lest mankind perish, she asserted that the earth would remain barren until she saw her daughter again. Finally, Zeus intervened; via Hermes, he requested that Hades return Persephone. Hades complied,\n\"But he on his part secretly gave her sweet pomegranate seed to eat, taking care for himself that she might not remain continually with grave, dark-robed Demeter.\" \n\nDemeter questioned Persephone on her return to light and air:\n\n\"...but if you have tasted food, you must go back\nagain beneath the secret places of the earth, there to dwell a\nthird part of the seasons every year: yet for the two parts you\nshall be with me and the other deathless gods.\"\n\nThis bound her to Hades and the Underworld, much to the dismay of Demeter. It is not clear whether Persephone was accomplice to the ploy. Zeus proposed a compromise, to which all parties agreed: of the year, Persephone would spend one third with her husband. \n\nIt is during this time that winter casts on the earth \"an aspect of sadness and mourning.\" \n\nTheseus and Pirithous\n\nTheseus and Pirithous pledged to kidnap and marry daughters of Zeus. Theseus chose Helen and together they kidnapped her and decided to hold onto her until she was old enough to marry. Pirithous chose Persephone. They left Helen with Theseus' mother, Aethra and traveled to the Underworld. Hades knew of their plan to capture his wife, so he pretended to offer them hospitality and set a feast; as soon as the pair sat down, snakes coiled around their feet and held them there. Theseus was eventually rescued by Heracles but Pirithous remained trapped as punishment for daring to seek the wife of a god for his own.\n\nHeracles\n\nHeracles' final labour was to capture Cerberus. First, Heracles went to Eleusis to be initiated into the Eleusinian Mysteries. He did this to absolve himself of guilt for killing the centaurs and to learn how to enter and exit the underworld alive. He found the entrance to the underworld at Taenarum. Athena and Hermes helped him through and back from Hades. Heracles asked Hades for permission to take Cerberus. Hades agreed as long as Heracles didn't harm Cerberus. When Heracles dragged the dog out of Hades, he passed through the cavern Acherusia.\n\nMinthe\n\nAccording to Ovid, Hades pursued and would have won the nymph Minthe, associated with the river Cocytus, had not Persephone turned Minthe into the plant called mint.\n\nRealm of Hades\n\nIn older Greek myths, the realm of Hades is the misty and gloomy abode of the dead (also called Erebus), where all mortals go. Very few mortals could leave Hades once they entered. The exceptions, Heracles and Theseus, are heroic. Even Odysseus in his Nekyia (Odyssey, xi) calls up the spirits of the departed, rather than descend to them. Later Greek philosophy introduced the idea that all mortals are judged after death and are either rewarded or cursed.\n\nThere were several sections of the realm of Hades, including Elysium, the Asphodel Meadows, and Tartarus. Greek mythographers were not perfectly consistent about the geography of the afterlife. A contrasting myth of the afterlife concerns the Garden of the Hesperides, often identified with the Isles of the Blessed, where the blessed heroes may dwell.\n\nIn Roman mythology, the entrance to the Underworld located at Avernus, a crater near Cumae, was the route Aeneas used to descend to the realm of the dead. By synecdoche, \"Avernus\" could be substituted for the underworld as a whole. The di inferi were a collective of underworld divinities.\n\nFor Hellenes, the deceased entered the underworld by crossing the Styx, ferried across by Charon kair'-on), who charged an obolus, a small coin for passage placed in the mouth of the deceased by pious relatives. Paupers and the friendless gathered for a hundred years on the near shore according to Book VI of Vergil's Aeneid. Greeks offered propitiatory libations to prevent the deceased from returning to the upper world to \"haunt\" those who had not given them a proper burial. The far side of the river was guarded by Cerberus, the three-headed dog defeated by Heracles (Roman Hercules). Passing beyond Cerberus, the shades of the departed entered the land of the dead to be judged.\n\nThe five rivers of the realm of Hades, and their symbolic meanings, are Acheron (the river of sorrow, or woe), Cocytus (lamentation), Phlegethon (fire), Lethe (oblivion), and Styx (hate), the river upon which even the gods swore and in which Achilles was dipped to render him invincible. The Styx forms the boundary between the upper and lower worlds. See also Eridanos.\n\nThe first region of Hades comprises the Fields of Asphodel, described in Odyssey xi, where the shades of heroes wander despondently among lesser spirits, who twitter around them like bats. Only libations of blood offered to them in the world of the living can reawaken in them for a time the sensations of humanity.\n\nBeyond lay Erebus, which could be taken for a euphonym of Hades, whose own name was dread. There were two pools, that of Lethe, where the common souls flocked to erase all memory, and the pool of Mnemosyne (\"memory\"), where the initiates of the Mysteries drank instead. In the forecourt of the palace of Hades and Persephone sit the three judges of the Underworld: Minos, Rhadamanthus, and Aeacus. There at the trivium sacred to Hecate, where three roads meet, souls are judged, returned to the Fields of Asphodel if they are neither virtuous nor evil, sent by the road to Tartarus if they are impious or evil, or sent to Elysium (Islands of the Blessed) with the \"blameless\" heroes.\n\nIn the Sibylline oracles, a curious hodgepodge of Greco-Roman and Judaeo-Christian elements, Hades again appears as the abode of the dead, and by way of folk etymology, it even derives Hades from the name Adam (the first man), saying it is because he was the first to enter there. Owing to its appearance in the New Testament of the Bible, Hades also has a distinct meaning in Christianity.\n\nGenealogy\n\nPopular culture" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Persephone (godess)", "Persephonie", "Perséphone", "Godess Persephone", "Persephone", "Perséphonê", "Kore (Greek religion)", "Persephoneia", "Phersipnei", "Persephone (goddess)", "Persephatta", "Persephony", "Persephassa", "Phersephassa", "Persephoney", "Persephone (mythology)", "Goddess Persephone", "Iron Queen" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "perséphonê", "kore greek religion", "perséphone", "goddess persephone", "godess persephone", "persephoneia", "persephone", "phersipnei", "persephonie", "persephone goddess", "persephatta", "phersephassa", "persephoney", "iron queen", "persephony", "persephone godess", "persephone mythology", "persephassa" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "persephone", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Persephone" }
"According to hippy guru Dr. Timothy Leary, what did you do before you ""drop out?"""	tc_616	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Hippie.txt", "Timothy_Leary.txt" ], "title": [ "Hippie", "Timothy Leary" ], "wiki_context": [ "A hippie (or Hippy) is a member of a liberal counterculture, originally a youth movement that started in the United States and the United Kingdom during the mid-1960s and spread to other countries around the world. The word hippie came from hipster and was initially used to describe beatniks who had moved into New York City's Greenwich Village and San Francisco's Haight-Ashbury district. The term hippie was first popularized in San Francisco by Herb Caen, who was a journalist for the San Francisco Chronicle. The origins of the terms hip and hep are uncertain, although by the 1940s both had become part of African American jive slang and meant \"sophisticated; currently fashionable; fully up-to-date\". The Beats adopted the term hip, and early hippies inherited the language and countercultural values of the Beat Generation. Hippies created their own communities, listened to psychedelic music, embraced the sexual revolution, and used drugs such as cannabis, LSD, peyote and psilocybin mushrooms to explore altered states of consciousness.\n\nIn January 1967, the Human Be-In in Golden Gate Park in San Francisco popularized hippie culture, leading to the Summer of Love on the West Coast of the United States, and the 1969 Woodstock Festival on the East Coast. Hippies in Mexico, known as jipitecas, formed La Onda and gathered at Avándaro, while in New Zealand, nomadic housetruckers practiced alternative lifestyles and promoted sustainable energy at Nambassa. In the United Kingdom in 1970, many gathered at the gigantic Isle of Wight Festival with a crowd of around 400,000 people. In later years, mobile \"peace convoys\" of New Age travelers made summer pilgrimages to free music festivals at Stonehenge and elsewhere. In Australia, hippies gathered at Nimbin for the 1973 Aquarius Festival and the annual Cannabis Law Reform Rally or MardiGrass. \"Piedra Roja Festival\", a major hippie event in Chile, was held in 1970. \n\nHippie fashion and values had a major effect on culture, influencing popular music, television, film, literature, and the arts. Since the 1960s, many aspects of hippie culture have been assimilated by mainstream society. The religious and cultural diversity espoused by the hippies has gained widespread acceptance, and Eastern philosophy and spiritual concepts have reached a larger audience.\n\nEtymology\n\nLexicographer Jesse Sheidlower, the principal American editor of the Oxford English Dictionary, argues that the terms hipster and hippie derive from the word hip, whose origins are unknown. The word hip in the sense of \"aware, in the know\" is first attested in a 1902 cartoon by Tad Dorgan, and first appeared in print in a 1904 novel by George Vere Hobart, Jim Hickey, A Story of the One-Night Stands, where an African-American character uses the slang phrase \"Are you hip?\"\n\nThe term hipster was coined by Harry Gibson in 1944. By the 1940s, the terms hip, hep and hepcat were popular in Harlem jazz slang, although hep eventually came to denote an inferior status to hip. \nIn Greenwich Village in the early 1960s, New York City, young counterculture advocates were named hips because they were considered \"in the know\" or \"cool\", as opposed to being square. In a 1961 essay, Kenneth Rexroth used both the terms hipster and hippies to refer to young people participating in black American or Beatnik nightlife. According to Malcolm X's 1964 autobiography, the word hippie in 1940s Harlem had been used to describe a specific type of white man who \"acted more Negro than Negroes\". Andrew Loog Oldham refers to \"all the Chicago hippies,\" seemingly in reference to black blues/R&B musicians, in his rear sleeve notes to the 1965 LP The Rolling Stones, Now!\n\nThe word hippie was also used in reference to Philadelphia in at least two popular songs in 1963: South Street by The Orlons, and You Can't Sit Down by The Dovells. In both songs, the term is applied to residents of Philadelphia's South Street.\n\nAlthough the word hippies made other isolated appearances in print during the early 1960s, the first use of the term on the West Coast appeared on September 5, 1965, in the article, \"A New Haven for Beatniks\", by San Francisco journalist Michael Fallon. In that article, Fallon wrote about the Blue Unicorn coffeehouse, using the term hippie to refer to the new generation of beatniks who had moved from North Beach into the Haight-Ashbury district. New York Times editor and usage writer Theodore M. Bernstein said the paper changed the spelling from hippy to hippie to avoid the ambiguous description of clothing as hippy fashions.\n\nHistory\n\nOrigins\n\nA July 1968 Time Magazine study on hippie philosophy credited the foundation of the hippie movement with historical precedent as far back as the Sadhu of India, the spiritual seekers who had renounced the world by taking \"Sannyas\". Even the counterculture of the Ancient Greeks, espoused by philosophers like Diogenes of Sinope and the Cynics were also early forms of hippie culture. It also named as notable influences the religious and spiritual teachings of Henry David Thoreau, Hillel the Elder, Jesus, Buddha, St. Francis of Assisi, Gandhi, and J.R.R. Tolkien.\n\nThe first signs of modern \"proto-hippies\" emerged in fin de siècle Europe. Between 1896 and 1908, a German youth movement arose as a countercultural reaction to the organized social and cultural clubs that centered around German folk music. Known as Der Wandervogel (\"wandering bird\"), the hippie movement opposed the formality of traditional German clubs, instead emphasizing amateur music and singing, creative dress, and communal outings involving hiking and camping. Inspired by the works of Friedrich Nietzsche, Goethe, Hermann Hesse, and Eduard Baltzer, Wandervogel attracted thousands of young Germans who rejected the rapid trend toward urbanization and yearned for the pagan, back-to-nature spiritual life of their ancestors. During the first several decades of the 20th century, Germans settled around the United States, bringing the values of the Wandervogel with them. Some opened the first health food stores, and many moved to southern California where they could practice an alternative lifestyle in a warm climate. Over time, young Americans adopted the beliefs and practices of the new immigrants. One group, called the \"Nature Boys\", took to the California desert and raised organic food, espousing a back-to-nature lifestyle like the Wandervogel.Elaine Woo, [http://articles.latimes.com/2004/aug/10/local/me-boots10 Gypsy Boots, 89; Colorful Promoter of Healthy Food and Lifestyles], Los Angeles Times, August 10, 2004, Accessed December 22, 2008. Songwriter eden ahbez wrote a hit song called Nature Boy inspired by Robert Bootzin (Gypsy Boots), who helped popularize health-consciousness, yoga, and organic food in the United States.\n\nLike Wandervogel, the hippie movement in the United States began as a youth movement. Composed mostly of white teenagers and young adults between 15 and 25 years old, hippies inherited a tradition of cultural dissent from bohemians and beatniks of the Beat Generation in the late 1950s. Beats like Allen Ginsberg crossed over from the beat movement and became fixtures of the burgeoning hippie and anti-war movements. By 1965, hippies had become an established social group in the U.S., and the movement eventually expanded to other countries, extending as far as the United Kingdom and Europe, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Japan, Mexico, and Brazil. The hippie ethos influenced The Beatles and others in the United Kingdom and other parts of Europe, and they in turn influenced their American counterparts. Hippie culture spread worldwide through a fusion of rock music, folk, blues, and psychedelic rock; it also found expression in literature, the dramatic arts, fashion, and the visual arts, including film, posters advertising rock concerts, and album covers. In 1968, self-described hippies represented just under 0.2% of the U.S. population and dwindled away by mid-1970s.\n\nAlong with the New Left and the Civil Rights Movement, the hippie movement was one of three dissenting groups of the 1960s counterculture. Hippies rejected established institutions, criticized middle class values, opposed nuclear weapons and the Vietnam War, embraced aspects of Eastern philosophy, championed sexual liberation, were often vegetarian and eco-friendly, promoted the use of psychedelic drugs which they believed expanded one's consciousness, and created intentional communities or communes. They used alternative arts, street theatre, folk music, and psychedelic rock as a part of their lifestyle and as a way of expressing their feelings, their protests and their vision of the world and life. Hippies opposed political and social orthodoxy, choosing a gentle and nondoctrinaire ideology that favored peace, love and personal freedom, expressed for example in The Beatles' song \"All You Need is Love\". Hippies perceived the dominant culture as a corrupt, monolithic entity that exercised undue power over their lives, calling this culture \"The Establishment\", \"Big Brother\", or \"The Man\". Noting that they were \"seekers of meaning and value\", scholars like Timothy Miller have described hippies as a new religious movement. \n\nEarly hippies (1958–1966)\n\nDuring the late 1950s and early 1960s, novelist Ken Kesey and the Merry Pranksters lived communally in California. Members included Beat Generation hero Neal Cassady, Ken Babbs, Carolyn Adams (aka Mountain Girl/Carolyn Garcia), Stewart Brand, Del Close, Paul Foster, George Walker, Sandy Lehmann-Haupt and others. Their early escapades were documented in Tom Wolfe's book The Electric Kool-Aid Acid Test. With Cassady at the wheel of a school bus named Further, the Merry Pranksters traveled across the United States to celebrate the publication of Kesey's novel Sometimes a Great Notion and to visit the 1964 World's Fair in New York City. The Merry Pranksters were known for using cannabis, amphetamine, and LSD, and during their journey they \"turned on\" many people to these drugs. The Merry Pranksters filmed and audio taped their bus trips, creating an immersive multimedia experience that would later be presented to the public in the form of festivals and concerts. The Grateful Dead wrote a song about the Merry Pranksters' bus trips called \"That's It for the Other One\".\n\nDuring this period Greenwich Village in New York City and Berkeley, California anchored the American folk music circuit. Berkeley's two coffee houses, the Cabale Creamery and the Jabberwock, sponsored performances by folk music artists in a beat setting. In April 1963, Chandler A. Laughlin III, co-founder of the Cabale Creamery, established a kind of tribal, family identity among approximately fifty people who attended a traditional, all-night Native American peyote ceremony in a rural setting. This ceremony combined a psychedelic experience with traditional Native American spiritual values; these people went on to sponsor a unique genre of musical expression and performance at the Red Dog Saloon in the isolated, old-time mining town of Virginia City, Nevada.\n\nDuring the summer of 1965, Laughlin recruited much of the original talent that led to a unique amalgam of traditional folk music and the developing psychedelic rock scene. He and his cohorts created what became known as \"The Red Dog Experience\", featuring previously unknown musical acts — Grateful Dead, Jefferson Airplane, Big Brother and the Holding Company, Quicksilver Messenger Service, The Charlatans, and others — who played in the completely refurbished, intimate setting of Virginia City's Red Dog Saloon. There was no clear delineation between \"performers\" and \"audience\" in \"The Red Dog Experience\", during which music, psychedelic experimentation, a unique sense of personal style and Bill Ham's first primitive light shows combined to create a new sense of community. Laughlin and George Hunter of the Charlatans were true \"proto-hippies\", with their long hair, boots and outrageous clothing of 19th-century American (and Native American) heritage. LSD manufacturer Owsley Stanley lived in Berkeley during 1965 and provided much of the LSD that became a seminal part of the \"Red Dog Experience\", the early evolution of psychedelic rock and budding hippie culture. At the Red Dog Saloon, The Charlatans were the first psychedelic rock band to play live (albeit unintentionally) loaded on LSD. \n\nWhen they returned to San Francisco, Red Dog participants Luria Castell, Ellen Harman and Alton Kelley created a collective called \"The Family Dog.\" Modeled on their Red Dog experiences, on October 16, 1965, the Family Dog hosted \"A Tribute to Dr. Strange\" at Longshoreman's Hall. Attended by approximately 1,000 of the Bay Area's original \"hippies\", this was San Francisco's first psychedelic rock performance, costumed dance and light show, featuring Jefferson Airplane, The Great Society and The Marbles. Two other events followed before year's end, one at California Hall and one at the Matrix. After the first three Family Dog events, a much larger psychedelic event occurred at San Francisco's Longshoreman's Hall. Called \"The Trips Festival\", it took place on January 21–January 23, 1966, and was organized by Stewart Brand, Ken Kesey, Owsley Stanley and others. Ten thousand people attended this sold-out event, with a thousand more turned away each night. On Saturday January 22, the Grateful Dead and Big Brother and the Holding Company came on stage, and 6,000 people arrived to imbibe punch spiked with LSD and to witness one of the first fully developed light shows of the era. \n\nBy February 1966, the Family Dog became Family Dog Productions under organizer Chet Helms, promoting happenings at the Avalon Ballroom and the Fillmore Auditorium in initial cooperation with Bill Graham. The Avalon Ballroom, the Fillmore Auditorium and other venues provided settings where participants could partake of the full psychedelic music experience. Bill Ham, who had pioneered the original Red Dog light shows, perfected his art of liquid light projection, which combined light shows and film projection and became synonymous with the San Francisco ballroom experience. The sense of style and costume that began at the Red Dog Saloon flourished when San Francisco's Fox Theater went out of business and hippies bought up its costume stock, reveling in the freedom to dress up for weekly musical performances at their favorite ballrooms. As San Francisco Chronicle music columnist Ralph J. Gleason put it, \"They danced all night long, orgiastic, spontaneous and completely free form.\"\n\nSome of the earliest San Francisco hippies were former students at San Francisco State College who became intrigued by the developing psychedelic hippie music scene. These students joined the bands they loved, living communally in the large, inexpensive Victorian apartments in the Haight-Ashbury. Young Americans around the country began moving to San Francisco, and by June 1966, around 15,000 hippies had moved into the Haight. The Charlatans, Jefferson Airplane, Big Brother and the Holding Company, and the Grateful Dead all moved to San Francisco's Haight-Ashbury neighborhood during this period. Activity centered around the Diggers, a guerrilla street theatre group that combined spontaneous street theatre, anarchistic action, and art happenings in their agenda to create a \"free city\". By late 1966, the Diggers opened free stores which simply gave away their stock, provided free food, distributed free drugs, gave away money, organized free music concerts, and performed works of political art. \n\nOn October 6, 1966, the state of California declared LSD a controlled substance, which made the drug illegal. In response to the criminalization of psychedelics, San Francisco hippies staged a gathering in the Golden Gate Park panhandle, called the Love Pageant Rally, attracting an estimated 700–800 people. As explained by Allan Cohen, co-founder of the San Francisco Oracle, the purpose of the rally was twofold: to draw attention to the fact that LSD had just been made illegal — and to demonstrate that people who used LSD were not criminals, nor were they mentally ill. The Grateful Dead played, and some sources claim that LSD was consumed at the rally. According to Cohen, those who took LSD \"were not guilty of using illegal substances...We were celebrating transcendental consciousness, the beauty of the universe, the beauty of being.\" \n\nSummer of Love (1967)\n\nOn January 14, 1967, the outdoor Human Be-In organized by Michael Bowen helped to popularize hippie culture across the United States, with 20,000 hippies gathering in San Francisco's Golden Gate Park. On March 26, Lou Reed, Edie Sedgwick and 10,000 hippies came together in Manhattan for the Central Park Be-In on Easter Sunday. The Monterey Pop Festival from June 16 to June 18 introduced the rock music of the counterculture to a wide audience and marked the start of the \"Summer of Love\". Scott McKenzie's rendition of John Phillips' song, \"San Francisco\", became a hit in the United States and Europe. The lyrics, \"If you're going to San Francisco, be sure to wear some flowers in your hair\", inspired thousands of young people from all over the world to travel to San Francisco, sometimes wearing flowers in their hair and distributing flowers to passersby, earning them the name, \"Flower Children\". Bands like the Grateful Dead, Big Brother and the Holding Company (with Janis Joplin), and Jefferson Airplane lived in the Haight.\n\nIn June 1967, Herb Caen was approached by \"a distinguished magazine\" to write about why hippies were attracted to San Francisco. He declined the assignment but interviewed hippies in the Haight for his own newspaper column in the San Francisco Chronicle. Caen determined that, \"Except in their music, they couldn't care less about the approval of the straight world.\" Caen himself felt that the city of San Francisco was so straight that it provided a visible contrast with hippie culture.SFGate.com. Archive. Herb Caen, June 25, 1967. [http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f\n/c/a/2009/05/31/PK6016S108.DTL Small thoughts at large]. Retrieved on June 4, 2009. On July 7, Time magazine featured a cover story entitled, \"The Hippies: The Philosophy of a Subculture.\" The article described the guidelines of the hippie code: \"Do your own thing, wherever you have to do it and whenever you want. Drop out. Leave society as you have known it. Leave it utterly. Blow the mind of every straight person you can reach. Turn them on, if not to drugs, then to beauty, love, honesty, fun.\" It is estimated that around 100,000 people traveled to San Francisco in the summer of 1967. The media was right behind them, casting a spotlight on the Haight-Ashbury district and popularizing the \"hippie\" label. With this increased attention, hippies found support for their ideals of love and peace but were also criticized for their anti-work, pro-drug, and permissive ethos.\n\nAt this point, The Beatles had released their groundbreaking album Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band which was quickly embraced by the hippie movement with its colorful psychedelic sonic imagery. \n\nBy the end of the summer, the Haight-Ashbury scene had deteriorated. The incessant media coverage led the Diggers to declare the \"death\" of the hippie with a parade. According to poet Susan 'Stormi' Chambless, the hippies buried an effigy of a hippie in the Panhandle to demonstrate the end of his/her reign. Haight-Ashbury could not accommodate the influx of crowds (mostly naive youngsters) with no place to live. Many took to living on the street, panhandling and drug-dealing. There were problems with malnourishment, disease, and drug addiction. Crime and violence skyrocketed. None of these trends reflected what the hippies had envisioned. By the end of 1967, many of the hippies and musicians who initiated the Summer of Love had moved on. Beatle George Harrison had once visited Haight-Ashbury and found it to be just a haven for dropouts, inspiring him to give up LSD. Misgivings about the hippie culture, particularly with regard to drug abuse and lenient morality, fueled the moral panics of the late 1960s. \n\nRevolution (1967–1969)\n\nBy 1968, hippie-influenced fashions were beginning to take off in the mainstream, especially for youths and younger adults of the populous \"Baby Boomer\" generation, many of whom may have aspired to emulate the hardcore movements now living in tribalistic communes, but had no overt connections to them. This was noticed not only in terms of clothes and also longer hair for men, but also in music, film, art, and literature, and not just in the US, but around the world. Eugene McCarthy's brief presidential campaign successfully persuaded a significant minority of young adults to \"get clean for Gene\" by shaving their beards or wearing longer skirts; however the \"Clean Genes\" had little impact on the popular image in the media spotlight, of the hirsute hippy adorned in beads, feathers, flowers and bells.\n\n A sign of this was the visibility that the hippie subculture gained in various mainstream and underground media. Hippie exploitation films are 1960s exploitation films about the hippie counterculture with stereotypical situations associated with the movement such as cannabis and LSD use, sex and wild psychedelic parties. Examples include The Love-ins, Psych-Out, The Trip, and Wild in the Streets. Other more serious and more critically acclaimed films about the hippie counterculture also appeared such as Easy Rider and Alice's Restaurant (for more information on hippie related films see List of films related to the hippie subculture). Documentaries and television programs have also been produced until today as well as fiction and nonfiction books. Also the popular broadway musical Hair was presented in 1967.\n\nPeople commonly label other cultural movements of that period as Hippie, however it is important to know the difference. For example, Hippies were often not directly engaged in politics, as opposed to their activist counterparts known as “Yippies” (Youth International Party). The Yippies came to national attention during their celebration of the 1968 spring equinox, when some 3,000 of them took over Grand Central Terminal in New York — eventually resulting in 61 arrests. The Yippies, especially their leaders Abbie Hoffman and Jerry Rubin, became notorious for their theatrics, such as trying to levitate the Pentagon at the October 1967 war protest, and such slogans as \"Rise up and abandon the creeping meatball!\" Their stated intention to protest the 1968 Democratic National Convention in Chicago in August, including nominating their own candidate, \"Lyndon Pigasus Pig\" (an actual pig), was also widely publicized in the media at this time. In Cambridge, hippies congregated each Sunday for a large \"be-in\" at Cambridge Park with swarms of drummers and those beginning the Women's Movement. In the US the Hippie movement started to be seen as part of the \"New Left\" which was associated with anti-war college campus protest movements. The New Left was a term used mainly in the United Kingdom and United States in reference to activists, educators, agitators and others in the 1960s and 1970s who sought to implement a broad range of reforms on issues such as gay rights, abortion, gender roles and drugs in contrast to earlier leftist or Marxist movements that had taken a more vanguardist approach to social justice and focused mostly on labor unionization and questions of social class. Todd Gitlin, \"The Left's Lost Universalism\". In Arthur M. Melzer, Jerry Weinberger and M. Richard Zinman, eds., Politics at the Turn of the Century, pp. 3–26 (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2001).\n\nIn April 1969, the building of People's Park in Berkeley, California received international attention. The University of California, Berkeley had demolished all the buildings on a parcel near campus, intending to use the land to build playing fields and a parking lot. After a long delay, during which the site became a dangerous eyesore, thousands of ordinary Berkeley citizens, merchants, students, and hippies took matters into their own hands, planting trees, shrubs, flowers and grass to convert the land into a park. A major confrontation ensued on May 15, 1969, when Governor Ronald Reagan ordered the park destroyed, which led to a two-week occupation of the city of Berkeley by the California National Guard. Flower power came into its own during this occupation as hippies engaged in acts of civil disobedience to plant flowers in empty lots all over Berkeley under the slogan \"Let a Thousand Parks Bloom\".\n\nIn August 1969, the Woodstock Music and Art Fair took place in Bethel, New York, which for many, exemplified the best of hippie counterculture. Over 500,000 people arrived to hear some of the most notable musicians and bands of the era, among them Canned Heat, Richie Havens, Joan Baez, Janis Joplin, The Grateful Dead, Creedence Clearwater Revival, Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young, Carlos Santana, Sly & The Family Stone, The Who, Jefferson Airplane, and Jimi Hendrix. Wavy Gravy's Hog Farm provided security and attended to practical needs, and the hippie ideals of love and human fellowship seemed to have gained real-world expression. Similar rock festivals occurred in other parts of the country, which played a significant role in spreading hippie ideals throughout America. \n\nIn December 1969, a rock festival took place in Altamont, California, about 30 miles (45 km) east of San Francisco. Initially billed as \"Woodstock West\", its official name was The Altamont Free Concert. About 300,000 people gathered to hear The Rolling Stones; Crosby, Stills, Nash and Young; Jefferson Airplane and other bands. The Hells Angels provided security that proved far less benevolent than the security provided at the Woodstock event: 18-year-old Meredith Hunter was stabbed and killed during The Rolling Stones' performance after he brandished a gun and waved it toward the stage. \n\nAftershocks (1970–present)\n\nBy the 1970s, the 1960s zeitgeist that had spawned hippie culture seemed to be on the wane. The events at Altamont Free Concert shocked many Americans, including those who had strongly identified with hippie culture. Another shock came in the form of the Sharon Tate and Leno and Rosemary LaBianca murders committed in August 1969 by Charles Manson and his \"family\" of followers. Nevertheless, the turbulent political atmosphere that featured the bombing of Cambodia and shootings by National Guardsmen at Jackson State University and Kent State University still brought people together. These shootings inspired the May 1970 song by Quicksilver Messenger Service \"What About Me?\", where they sang, \"You keep adding to my numbers as you shoot my people down\", as well as Neil Young's \"Ohio\", recorded by Crosby, Stills, Nash and Young.\n\nMuch of hippie style had been integrated into mainstream American society by the early 1970s. Large rock concerts that originated with the 1967 KFRC Fantasy Fair and Magic Mountain Music Festival and Monterey Pop Festival and the 1968 Isle of Wight Festival became the norm, evolving into stadium rock in the process. The anti-war movement reached its peak at the 1971 May Day Protests as over 12,000 protesters were arrested in Washington DC. President Nixon himself actually ventured out of the White House and chatted with a group of the 'hippie' protesters. The draft was ended soon thereafter, in 1973. During the mid 1970s, with the end of the draft and the Vietnam War, a renewal of patriotic sentiment associated with the approach of the United States Bicentennial and the emergence of punk in London, Manchester, New York and Los Angeles, the mainstream media lost interest in the hippie counterculture. At the same time there was a revival of the Mod subculture, skinheads, teddy boys and the emergence of new youth cultures, like the goths (an arty offshoot of punk) and football casuals. Acid rock gave way to prog rock, heavy metal, disco, and punk rock.\n\nStarting in the late 1960s, hippies began to come under attack by skinheads. Hippies were also vilified and sometimes attacked by punks, revivalist mods, greasers, football casuals, Teddy boys, and members of other youth subcultures of the 1970s and 1980s. The countercultural movement was also under covert assault by J. Edgar Hoover's infamous \"Counter Intelligence Program\" (COINTELPRO), but in some countries it was other youth groups that were a threat. Hippie ideals had a marked influence on anarcho-punk and some post-punk youth subcultures, especially during the Second Summer of Love.\n\nHippie communes, where members tried to live the ideals of the hippie movement continued to flourish. On the west coast, Oregon had quite a few. Some faded away. Some are still around.\n\nWhile many hippies made a long-term commitment to the lifestyle, some people argue that hippies \"sold out\" during the 1980s and became part of the materialist, consumer culture. Although not as visible as it once was, hippie culture has never died out completely: hippies and neo-hippies can still be found on college campuses, on communes, and at gatherings and festivals. Many embrace the hippie values of peace, love, and community, and hippies may still be found in bohemian enclaves around the world.\n\nTowards the end of the 20th century, a trend of \"cyber hippies\" emerged, that embraced some of the qualities of the 1960s psychedelic counterculture. The hippie subculture is also linked to the psychedelic trance or psytrance scene, born out of the Goa scene in India. \n\nEthos and characteristics\n\nHippies sought to free themselves from societal restrictions, choose their own way, and find new meaning in life. One expression of hippie independence from societal norms was found in their standard of dress and grooming, which made hippies instantly recognizable to one another, and served as a visual symbol of their respect for individual rights. Through their appearance, hippies declared their willingness to question authority, and distanced themselves from the \"straight\" and \"square\" (i.e., conformist) segments of society. Personality traits and values that hippies tend to be associated with are \"altruism and mysticism, honesty, joy and nonviolence\". \n\nAt the same time, many thoughtful hippies distanced themselves from the very idea that the way a person dresses could be a reliable signal of who he or she was — especially after outright criminals such as Charles Manson began to adopt superficial hippie characteristics, and also after plainclothes policemen started to \"dress like hippies\" to divide and conquer legitimate members of the counterculture. Frank Zappa, known for lampooning hippie ethos, particularly with songs like \"Who Needs the Peace Corps?\" (1968), admonished his audience that \"we all wear a uniform\". The San Francisco clown/hippie Wavy Gravy said in 1987 that he could still see fellow-feeling in the eyes of Market Street businessmen who had dressed conventionally to survive.\n\nArt and fashion\n\nLeading proponents of the 1960s Psychedelic Art movement were San Francisco poster artists such as: Rick Griffin, Victor Moscoso, Bonnie MacLean, Stanley Mouse & Alton Kelley, and Wes Wilson. Their Psychedelic Rock concert posters were inspired by Art Nouveau, Victoriana, Dada, and Pop Art. The \"Fillmore Posters\" were among the most notable of the time. Richly saturated colors in glaring contrast, elaborately ornate lettering, strongly symmetrical composition, collage elements, rubber-like distortions, and bizarre iconography are all hallmarks of the San Francisco psychedelic poster art style. The style flourished from roughly the years 1966 to 1972. Their work was immediately influential to album cover art, and indeed all of the aforementioned artists also created album covers. Psychedelic light-shows were a new art-form developed for rock concerts. Using oil and dye in an emulsion that was set between large convex lenses upon overhead projectors, the lightshow artists created bubbling liquid visuals that pulsed in rhythm to the music. This was mixed with slideshows and film loops to create an improvisational motion picture art form, and to give visual representation to the improvisational jams of the rock bands and create a completely \"trippy\" atmosphere for the audience. The Brotherhood of Light were responsible for many of the light-shows in San Francisco psychedelic rock concerts.\n\nOut of the psychedelic counterculture there also arose a new genre of comic books: underground comix. \"Zap Comix\" was among the original underground comics, and featured the work of Robert Crumb, S. Clay Wilson, Victor Moscoso, Rick Griffin, and Robert Williams among others. Underground Comix were ribald, intensely satirical, and seemed to pursue weirdness for the sake of weirdness. Gilbert Shelton created perhaps the most enduring of underground cartoon characters, \"The Fabulous Furry Freak Brothers\", whose drugged-out exploits held a hilarious mirror up to the hippy lifestyle of the 1960s.\n\nAs in the beat movement preceding them, and the punk movement that followed soon after, hippie symbols and iconography were purposely borrowed from either \"low\" or \"primitive\" cultures, with hippie fashion reflecting a disorderly, often vagrant style. As with other adolescent, white middle-class movements, deviant behavior of the hippies involved challenging the prevailing gender differences of their time: both men and women in the hippie movement wore jeans and maintained long hair, and both genders wore sandals, moccasins or went barefoot. Men often wore beards, while women wore little or no makeup, with many going braless. Hippies often chose brightly colored clothing and wore unusual styles, such as bell-bottom pants, vests, tie-dyed garments, dashikis, peasant blouses, and long, full skirts; non-Western inspired clothing with Native American, Asian, Indian, African and Latin American motifs were also popular. Much hippie clothing was self-made in defiance of corporate culture, and hippies often purchased their clothes from flea markets and second-hand shops. Favored accessories for both men and women included Native American jewelry, head scarves, headbands and long beaded necklaces. Hippie homes, vehicles and other possessions were often decorated with psychedelic art. The bold colors, hand-made clothing and loose fitting clothes opposed the tight and uniform clothing of the 1940s and 1950s. It also rejected consumerism in that the hand-production of clothing called for self-efficiency and individuality. \n\nLove and sex \n\nThe common stereotype on the issues of love and sex had it that the hippies were \"promiscuous, having wild sex orgies, seducing innocent teenagers and every manner of sexual perversion.\" The hippie movement appeared concurrently in the midst of a rising sexual revolution, in which many views of the status quo on this subject were being challenged.\n\nThe clinical study Human Sexual Response was published by Masters and Johnson in 1966, and the topic suddenly became more commonplace in America. The 1969 book Everything You Always Wanted to Know About Sex (But Were Afraid to Ask) by psychiatrist David Reuben was a more popular attempt at answering the public's curiosity regarding such matters. Then in 1972 appeared The Joy of Sex by Alex Comfort, reflecting an even more candid perception of love-making. By this time, the recreational or 'fun' aspects of sexual behavior were being discussed more openly than ever before, and this more 'enlightened' outlook resulted not just from the publication of such new books as these, but from a more pervasive sexual revolution that had already been well underway for some time.\n\nThe hippies inherited various countercultural views and practices regarding sex and love from the Beat Generation; \"their writings influenced the hippies to open up when it came to sex, and to experiment without guilt or jealousy.\" One popular hippie slogan that appeared was \"If it feels good, do it!\" which for many \"meant you were free to love whomever you pleased, whenever you pleased, however you pleased. This encouraged spontaneous sexual activity and experimentation. Group sex, public sex... homosexuality under the influence of drugs, all the taboos went out the window. This doesn't mean that straight sex... or monogamy were unknown, quite the contrary. Nevertheless, the open relationship became an accepted part of the hippy lifestyle. This meant that you might have a primary relationship with one person, but if another attracted you, you could explore that relationship without rancor or jealousy.\"\n\nHippies embraced the old slogan of free love of the radical social reformers of other eras; it was accordingly observed that \"Free love made the whole love, marriage, sex, baby package obsolete. Love was no longer limited to one person, you could love anyone you chose. In fact love was something you shared with everyone, not just your sex partners. Love exists to be shared freely. We also discovered the more you share, the more you get! So why reserve your love for a select few? This profound truth was one of the great hippie revelations.\" Sexual experimentation alongside psychedelics also occurred, due to the perception of their being uninhibitors. Others explored the spiritual aspects of sex. \n\nTravel\n\nHippies tended to travel light, and could pick up and go wherever the action was at any time. Whether at a \"love-in\" on Mount Tamalpais near San Francisco, a demonstration against the Vietnam War in Berkeley, or one of Ken Kesey's \"Acid Tests\", if the \"vibe\" wasn't right and a change of scene was desired, hippies were mobile at a moment's notice. Planning was eschewed, as hippies were happy to put a few clothes in a backpack, stick out their thumbs and hitchhike anywhere. Hippies seldom worried whether they had money, hotel reservations or any of the other standard accoutrements of travel. Hippie households welcomed overnight guests on an impromptu basis, and the reciprocal nature of the lifestyle permitted greater freedom of movement. People generally cooperated to meet each other's needs in ways that became less common after the early 1970s. This way of life is still seen among Rainbow Family groups, new age travellers and New Zealand's housetruckers. \n\nA derivative of this free-flow style of travel were the hippie trucks and buses, hand-crafted mobile houses built on a truck or bus chassis to facilitate a nomadic lifestyle, as documented in the 1974 book Roll Your Own. Some of these mobile gypsy houses were quite elaborate, with beds, toilets, showers and cooking facilities.\n\nOn the West Coast, a unique lifestyle developed around the Renaissance Faires that Phyllis and Ron Patterson first organized in 1963. During the summer and fall months, entire families traveled together in their trucks and buses, parked at Renaissance Pleasure Faire sites in Southern and Northern California, worked their crafts during the week, and donned Elizabethan costume for weekend performances, and to attend booths where handmade goods were sold to the public. The sheer number of young people living at the time made for unprecedented travel opportunities to special happenings. The peak experience of this type was the Woodstock Festival near Bethel, New York, from August 15 to 18, 1969, which drew between 400,000 and 500,000 people. \n\nHippie trail\n\nOne travel experience, undertaken by hundreds of thousands of hippies between 1969 and 1971, was the Hippie trail overland route to India. Carrying little or no luggage, and with small amounts of cash, almost all followed the same route, hitch-hiking across Europe to Athens and on to Istanbul, then by train through central Turkey via Erzurum, continuing by bus into Iran, via Tabriz and Tehran to Mashhad, across the Afghan border into Herat, through southern Afghanistan via Kandahar to Kabul, over the Khyber Pass into Pakistan, via Rawalpindi and Lahore to the Indian frontier. Once in India, hippies went to many different destinations, but gathered in large numbers on the beaches of Goa and Kovalam in Trivandrum (Kerala), or crossed the border into Nepal to spend months in Kathmandu. In Kathmandu, most of the hippies hung out in the tranquil surroundings of a place called Freak Street, (Nepal Bhasa: Jhoo Chhen) which still exists near Kathmandu Durbar Square.\n\nSpirituality and religion\n\nMany hippies rejected mainstream organized religion in favor of a more personal spiritual experience, often drawing on indigenous and folk beliefs. If they adhered to mainstream faiths, hippies were likely to embrace Buddhism, Unitarian Universalism, Hinduism and the restorationist Christianity of the Jesus Movement. Some hippies embraced neo-paganism, especially Wicca. \n\nIn his 1991 book, \"Punk and American Values\", Timothy Miller described the hippie ethos as essentially a \"religious movement\" whose goal was to transcend the limitations of mainstream religious institutions. \"Like many dissenting religions, the hippies were enormously hostile to the religious institutions of the dominant culture, and they tried to find new and adequate ways to do the tasks the dominant religions failed to perform.\" In his seminal, contemporaneous work, \"The Hippie Trip\", author Lewis Yablonsky notes that those who were most respected in hippie settings were the spiritual leaders, the so-called \"high priests\" who emerged during that era. \n\nOne such hippie \"high priest\" was San Francisco State University Professor Stephen Gaskin. Beginning in 1966, Gaskin's \"Monday Night Class\" eventually outgrew the lecture hall, and attracted 1,500 hippie followers in an open discussion of spiritual values, drawing from Christian, Buddhist, and Hindu teachings. In 1970 Gaskin founded a Tennessee community called The Farm, and he still lists his religion as \"Hippie.\" \n\nTimothy Leary was an American psychologist and writer, known for his advocacy of psychedelic drugs. On September 19, 1966, Leary founded the League for Spiritual Discovery, a religion declaring LSD as its holy sacrament, in part as an unsuccessful attempt to maintain legal status for the use of LSD and other psychedelics for the religion's adherents based on a \"freedom of religion\" argument. The Psychedelic Experience was the inspiration for John Lennon's song \"Tomorrow Never Knows\" in The Beatles' album Revolver. He published a pamphlet in 1967 called Start Your Own Religion to encourage just that and was invited to attend the January 14, 1967 Human Be-In a gathering of 30,000 hippies in San Francisco's Golden Gate Park In speaking to the group, he coined the famous phrase \"Turn on, tune in, drop out\". The English magician Aleister Crowley became an influential icon to the new alternative spiritual movements of the decade as well as for rock musicians. The Beatles included him as one of the many figures on the cover sleeve of their 1967 album Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band while Jimmy Page, the guitarist of The Yardbirds and co-founder of 1970s rock band Led Zeppelin was fascinated by Crowley, and owned some of his clothing, manuscripts and ritual objects, and during the 1970s bought Boleskine House, which also appears in the band's movie The Song Remains the Same. On the back cover of the Doors 13 album, Jim Morrison and the other members of the Doors are shown posing with a bust of Aleister Crowley. Timothy Leary also openly acknowledged Crowley's inspiration. \n\nAfter the hippie era, the Dudeist philosophy and lifestyle developed, its inspired by \"The Dude\", the neo-hippie protagonist of the Coen Brothers' 1998 film The Big Lebowski. Dudeism's stated primary objective is to promote a modern form of Chinese Taoism, outlined in Tao Te Ching by Laozi (6th century BC), blended with concepts by the Ancient Greek philosopher Epicurus (341-270 BC), and presented in a style as personified by the character of Jeffrey \"The Dude\" Lebowski, a fictional hippie character portrayed by Jeff Bridges in the film. Dudeism has sometimes been regarded as a mock religion, though its founder and many adherents regard it seriously. \n\nPolitics\n\nFor the historian of the anarchist movement Ronald Creagh, the hippie movement could be considered as the last spectacular resurgence of utopian socialism. For Creagh, a characteristic of this is the desire for the transformation of society not through political revolution, or through reformist action pushed forward by the state, but through the creation of a counter-society of a socialist character in the midst of the current system, which will be made up of ideal communities of a more or less libertarian social form.\n\nThe peace symbol was developed in the UK as a logo for the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament, and was embraced by U.S. anti-war protesters during the 1960s.\nHippies were often pacifists, and participated in non-violent political demonstrations, such as Civil Rights Movement, the marches on Washington D.C., and anti–Vietnam War demonstrations, including draft-card burnings and the 1968 Democratic National Convention protests. The degree of political involvement varied widely among hippies, from those who were active in peace demonstrations, to the more anti-authority street theater and demonstrations of the Yippies, the most politically active hippie sub-group. Bobby Seale discussed the differences between Yippies and hippies with Jerry Rubin, who told him that Yippies were the political wing of the hippie movement, as hippies have not \"necessarily become political yet\". Regarding the political activity of hippies, Rubin said, \"They mostly prefer to be stoned, but most of them want peace, and they want an end to this stuff.\" \n\nIn addition to non-violent political demonstrations, hippie opposition to the Vietnam War included organizing political action groups to oppose the war, refusal to serve in the military and conducting \"teach-ins\" on college campuses that covered Vietnamese history and the larger political context of the war. \n\nScott McKenzie's 1967 rendition of John Phillips' song \"San Francisco (Be Sure to Wear Flowers in Your Hair)\", which helped to inspire the hippie Summer of Love, became a homecoming song for all Vietnam veterans arriving in San Francisco from 1967 onward. McKenzie has dedicated every American performance of \"San Francisco\" to Vietnam veterans, and he sang in 2002 at the 20th anniversary of the dedication of the Vietnam Veterans Memorial. Hippie political expression often took the form of \"dropping out\" of society to implement the changes they sought.\n\nPolitically motivated movements aided by hippies include the back to the land movement of the 1960s, cooperative business enterprises, alternative energy, the free press movement, and organic farming. The San Francisco group known as the Diggers articulated an influential radical criticism of contemporary mass consumer society, and so they opened free stores which simply gave away their stock, provided free food, distributed free drugs, gave away money, organized free music concerts, and performed works of political art. The Diggers took their name from the original English Diggers (1649–50) led by Gerrard Winstanley, and they sought to create a mini-society free of money and capitalism. \n\nSuch activism was ideally carried through anti-authoritarian and non-violent means; thus it was observed that \"The way of the hippie is antithetical to all repressive hierarchical power structures since they are adverse to the hippie goals of peace, love and freedom... Hippies don't impose their beliefs on others. Instead, hippies seek to change the world through reason and by living what they believe.\" \n\nThe political ideals of hippies influenced other movements, such as anarcho-punk, rave culture, green politics, stoner culture and the New Age movement. Penny Rimbaud of the English anarcho-punk band Crass said in interviews, and in an essay called The Last Of The Hippies, that Crass was formed in memory of his friend, Wally Hope. Crass had its roots in Dial House, which was established in 1967 as a commune. Some punks were often critical of Crass for their involvement in the hippie movement. Like Crass, Jello Biafra was influenced by the hippie movement, and cited the yippies as a key influence on his political activism and thinking, though he also wrote songs critical of hippies. \n\nDrugs\n\nFollowing in the footsteps of the Beats, many hippies used cannabis (marijuana), considering it pleasurable and benign. They enlarged their spiritual pharmacopeia to include hallucinogens such as peyote, LSD, psilocybin mushrooms and DMT, while often renouncing the use of alcohol. On the East Coast of the United States, Harvard University professors Timothy Leary, Ralph Metzner and Richard Alpert (Ram Dass) advocated psychotropic drugs for psychotherapy, self-exploration, religious and spiritual use. Regarding LSD, Leary said, \"Expand your consciousness and find ecstasy and revelation within.\" \n\nOn the West Coast of the United States, Ken Kesey was an important figure in promoting the recreational use of psychotropic drugs, especially LSD, also known as \"acid.\" By holding what he called \"Acid Tests\", and touring the country with his band of Merry Pranksters, Kesey became a magnet for media attention that drew many young people to the fledgling movement. The Grateful Dead (originally billed as \"The Warlocks\") played some of their first shows at the Acid Tests, often as high on LSD as their audiences. Kesey and the Pranksters had a \"vision of turning on the world.\" Harder drugs, such as cocaine, amphetamines and heroin, were also sometimes used in hippie settings; however, these drugs were often disdained, even among those who used them, because they were recognized as harmful and addictive.\n\nThe stereotypical belief that in the 1960s, the hippies' heyday, drugs were running rampant and little was done to enforce drug laws, is not supported by the facts; by 1969 only 4% of Americans had tried marijuana.[http://www.gallup.com/poll/6331/decades-drug-use-data-from-60s-70s.aspx Decades of Drug Use: Data From the '60s and '70s]\n\nLegacy\n\nThe legacy of the hippie movement continues to permeate Western society. In general, unmarried couples of all ages feel free to travel and live together without societal disapproval. Frankness regarding sexual matters has become more common, and the rights of homosexual, bisexual and transsexual people, as well as people who choose not to categorize themselves at all, have expanded.\n\n Religious and cultural diversity has gained greater acceptance. Co-operative business enterprises and creative community living arrangements are more accepted than before. Some of the little hippie health food stores of the 1960s and 1970s are now large-scale, profitable businesses, due to greater interest in natural foods, herbal remedies, vitamins and other nutritional supplements. Authors Stewart Brand and John Markoff argue that the development and popularization of personal computers and the Internet find one of their primary roots in the anti-authoritarian ethos promoted by hippie culture. \n\nDistinct appearance and clothing was one of the immediate legacies of hippies worldwide. During the 1960s and 1970s, mustaches, beards and long hair became more commonplace and colorful, while multi-ethnic clothing dominated the fashion world. Since that time, a wide range of personal appearance options and clothing styles, including nudity, have become more widely acceptable, all of which was uncommon before the hippie era.Pendergast, Sara. (2004) Fashion, Costume, and Culture. Volume 5. Modern World Part II: 1946–2003. Thomson Gale. ISBN 0-7876-5417-5 Hippies also inspired the decline in popularity of the necktie and other business clothing, which had been unavoidable for men during the 1950s and early 1960s. Additionally, hippie fashion itself has been commonplace in the years since the 1960s in clothing and accessories, particularly the peace symbol. Astrology, including everything from serious study to whimsical amusement regarding personal traits, was integral to hippie culture. The generation of the 1970s became influenced by the hippie and the 60s countercultural legacy. As such in New York City musicians and audiences from the female, homosexual, black, and Latino communities adopted several traits from the hippies and psychedelia. They included overwhelming sound, free-form dancing, weird lighting, colorful costumes, and hallucinogens. Psychedelic soul groups like the Chambers Brothers and especially Sly and The Family Stone influenced proto-disco acts such as Isaac Hayes, Willie Hutch and the Philadelphia Sound. In addition, the perceived positivity, lack of irony, and earnestness of the hippies informed proto-disco music like M.F.S.B.'s album Love Is the Message. \n\nThe hippie legacy in literature includes the lasting popularity of books reflecting the hippie experience, such as The Electric Kool-Aid Acid Test. In music, the folk rock and psychedelic rock popular among hippies evolved into genres such as acid rock, world beat and heavy metal music. Psychedelic trance (also known as psytrance) is a type of electronic music influenced by 1960s psychedelic rock. The tradition of hippie music festivals began in the United States in 1965 with Ken Kesey's Acid Tests, where the Grateful Dead played tripping on LSD and initiated psychedelic jamming. For the next several decades, many hippies and neo-hippies became part of the Deadhead community, attending music and art festivals held around the country. The Grateful Dead toured continuously, with few interruptions between 1965 and 1995. Phish and their fans (called Phish Heads) operated in the same manner, with the band touring continuously between 1983 and 2004. Many contemporary bands performing at hippie festivals and their derivatives are called jam bands, since they play songs that contain long instrumentals similar to the original hippie bands of the 1960s. \n\nWith the demise of Grateful Dead and Phish, nomadic touring hippies attend a growing series of summer festivals, the largest of which is called the Bonnaroo Music & Arts Festival, which premiered in 2002. The Oregon Country Fair is a three-day festival featuring handmade crafts, educational displays and costumed entertainment. The annual Starwood Festival, founded in 1981, is a seven-day event indicative of the spiritual quest of hippies through an exploration of non-mainstream religions and world-views, and has offered performances and classes by a variety of hippie and counter-culture icons.\n\nThe Burning Man festival began in 1986 at a San Francisco beach party and is now held in the Black Rock Desert northeast of Reno, Nevada. Although few participants would accept the hippie label, Burning Man is a contemporary expression of alternative community in the same spirit as early hippie events. The gathering becomes a temporary city (36,500 occupants in 2005, 50,000+ in 2011), with elaborate encampments, displays, and many art cars. Other events that enjoy a large attendance include the Rainbow Family Gatherings, The Gathering of the Vibes, Community Peace Festivals, and the Woodstock Festivals.\n\nIn the UK, there are many new age travellers who are known as hippies to outsiders, but prefer to call themselves the Peace Convoy. They started the Stonehenge Free Festival in 1974, but English Heritage later banned the festival in 1985, resulting in the Battle of the Beanfield. With Stonehenge banned as a festival site, new age travellers gather at the annual Glastonbury Festival. Today, hippies in the UK can be found in parts of South West England, such as Bristol (particularly the neighborhoods of Montpelier, Stokes Croft, St Werburghs, Bishopston, Easton and Totterdown), Glastonbury in Somerset, Totnes in Devon, and Stroud in Gloucestershire, as well as in Hebden Bridge in West Yorkshire, and in areas of London and Brighton. In the summer, many hippies and those of similar subcultures gather at numerous outdoor festivals in the countryside.\n\nIn New Zealand between 1976 and 1981 tens of thousands of hippies gathered from around the world on large farms around Waihi and Waikino for music and alternatives festivals. Named Nambassa, the festivals focused on peace, love, and a balanced lifestyle. The events featured practical workshops and displays advocating alternative lifestyles, self sufficiency, clean and sustainable energy and sustainable living. \n\nIn the UK and Europe, the years 1987 to 1989 were marked by a large-scale revival of many characteristics of the hippie movement. This later movement, composed mostly of people aged 18 to 25, adopted much of the original hippie philosophy of love, peace and freedom. The summer of 1988 became known as the Second Summer of Love. Although the music favored by this movement was modern electronic music, especially house music and acid house, one could often hear songs from the original hippie era in the chill out rooms at raves. In the UK, many of the well-known figures of this movement first lived communally in Stroud Green, an area of north London located in Finsbury Park. In 1995, The Sekhmet Hypothesis attempted to link both hippie and rave culture together in relation to transactional analysis, suggesting that rave culture was a social archetype based on the mood of friendly strength, compared to the gentle hippie archetype, based on friendly weakness. The later electronic dance genres known as goa trance and psychedelic trance and its related events and culture have important hippie legacies and neo hippie elements. The popular DJ of the genre Goa Gil, like other hippies from the 1960s, decided to leave the US and Western Europe to travel on the hippie trail and later developing psychedelic parties and music in the Indian island of Goa in which the goa and psytrance genres were born and exported around the world in the 1990s and 2000s. \n\nPopular films depicting the hippie ethos and lifestyle include Woodstock, Easy Rider, Hair, The Doors, Across the Universe, Taking Woodstock, and Crumb.\n\nIn 2002, photojournalist John Bassett McCleary published a 650-page, 6,000-entry unabridged slang dictionary devoted to the language of the hippies titled The Hippie Dictionary: A Cultural Encyclopedia of the 1960s and 1970s. The book was revised and expanded to 700 pages in 2004. McCleary believes that the hippie counterculture added a significant number of words to the English language by borrowing from the lexicon of the Beat Generation, through the hippies' shortening of beatnik words and then popularizing their usage. \n\nIn 2005, journalist Oliver Benjamin founded [http://dudeism.com/ The Church of Latter-Day Dude], a website-philosophy and mock religion inspired by the character \"the Dude\", a former hippie, in the 1998 movie The Big Lebowski. Dudeism, as it is known, holds many connections to the hippie ethos, from its “take it easy” attitude and rebel shrug, to its come-as-you-are sense of individual freedom and expression. Dudeism is very much influenced by the hippie movement, maintaining that the \"revolution is not over\", that it actually began a very long time ago, and will continue far into the future. Dudeist literature even claims that Dudeism has provided a contemporary spiritual home for the hippie philosophy.", "Timothy Francis Leary (October 22, 1920 – May 31, 1996) was an American psychologist and writer known for advocating the exploration of the therapeutic potential of psychedelic drugs under controlled conditions. Leary conducted experiments under the Harvard Psilocybin Project during American legality of LSD and psilocybin, resulting in the Concord Prison Experiment and the Marsh Chapel Experiment. Leary's colleague, Richard Alpert, was fired from Harvard University on May 27, 1963 for giving psilocybin to an undergraduate student. Leary was planning to leave Harvard when his teaching contract expired in June, the following month. He was fired, for \"failure to keep classroom appointments\", with his pay docked on April 30. \n\nLeary believed that LSD showed potential for therapeutic use in psychiatry. He used LSD himself and developed a philosophy of mind expansion and personal truth through LSD. He popularized catchphrases that promoted his philosophy, such as \"turn on, tune in, drop out\", \"set and setting\", and \"think for yourself and question authority\". He also wrote and spoke frequently about transhumanist concepts involving space migration, intelligence increase, and life extension (SMI²LE), and developed the eight-circuit model of consciousness in his book Exo-Psychology (1977). He gave lectures, occasionally billing himself as a \"performing philosopher\". \n\nDuring the 1960s and 1970s, he was arrested often enough to see the inside of 36 different prisons worldwide. President Richard Nixon once described Leary as \"the most dangerous man in America\".\n\nEarly life and education \n\nLeary was born in Springfield, Massachusetts, the only child in an Irish Catholic household. His father, Timothy \"Tote\" Leary, was a dentist who left his wife Abigail Ferris when Leary was 14. He graduated from Classical High School in the western Massachusetts city. \n\nHe attended the College of the Holy Cross in Worcester, Massachusetts from September 1938 to June 1940. Under pressure from his father, he then accepted an appointment as a cadet in the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York. In the first months as a \"plebe\", he was given numerous demerits for rule infractions and then got into serious trouble for failing to report infractions by other cadets when on supervisory duty. He was alleged to have gone on a drinking binge and to have failed to \"come clean\" about it. He was asked by the Honor Committee to resign for violating the Academy's honor code. He refused and was \"silenced\"—that is, shunned and ignored by his fellow cadets as a tactic to pressure him to resign. He was acquitted by a court-martial, but the silencing measures continued in full force, as well as the onslaught of demerits for small rule infractions. The treatment continued in his sophomore year, and his mother appealed to a family friend, United States Senator David I. Walsh, head of the Senate Naval Affairs Committee, who conducted a personal investigation. Behind the scenes, the Honor Committee revised its position and announced that it would abide by the court-martial verdict. Leary then resigned and was honorably discharged by the Army. Almost 50 years later, he said that it was \"the only fair trial I've had in a court of law\". \n\nTo the chagrin of his family, Leary elected to transfer to the University of Alabama in late 1941 because of the institution's expeditious response to his application. He enrolled in the university's ROTC program, maintained top grades, and began to cultivate academic interests in psychology (under the aegis of the Middlebury and Harvard-educated Donald Ramsdell) and biology, but he was expelled a year later for spending a night in the female dormitory, losing his student deferment in the midst of World War II.\n\nLeary was drafted into the United States Army and reported for basic training at Fort Eustis in January 1943. He remained in the non-commissioned track while enrolled in the psychology subsection of the Army Specialized Training Program, including three months of study at Georgetown University and six months at Ohio State University. \n\nWith no exigent need for officers at the late juncture in the war, Leary was briefly assigned as a private first class to the Pacific War-bound 2d Combat Cargo Group (which he later characterized as \"a suicide command... whose main mission, as far as I could see, was to eliminate the entire civilian branch of American aviation from post-war rivalry\") at Syracuse Army Air Base in Mattydale, New York. After a fateful reunion with Ramsdell (who was assigned to Deshon General Hospital in Butler, Pennsylvania as chief psychologist) in Buffalo, New York, he was promptly promoted to corporal and reassigned to his mentor's command as a staff psychometrician. He remained in Deshon's deaf rehabilitation clinic for the remainder of the war. While stationed in Butler, Leary began to court Marianne Busch; they married in April 1945. Leary was formally discharged at the rank of sergeant in January 1946, having earned the Good Conduct Medal, the American Defense Service Medal, the American Campaign Medal, and the World War II Victory Medal. \n\nFollowing the resolution of the war, Leary decided to pursue an academic career. After retroactive suspension and eventual reinstatement at the University of Alabama, he ultimately completed his degree via correspondence courses and graduated in August 1945. The following year, he received an M.S. degree in psychology at Washington State University, where he studied under noted educational psychologist Lee Cronbach. His M.S. thesis was a study of the clinical applications of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale. \n\nIn 1947, Marianne gave birth to their first child, Susan. A son, Jack, was born two years later. In 1950, Leary received a Ph.D. degree in clinical psychology from the University of California, Berkeley. Like many social scientists of the postwar epoch, Leary was galvanized by the objectivity of modern physics; his doctoral dissertation (The Social Dimensions of Personality: Group Structure and Process) approached group therapy as a \"psychlotron\" from which behavioral characteristics could be derived and quantified in a manner analogous to the periodic table, presaging his later development of the interpersonal circumplex.\n\nThe new Ph.D. stayed on in the Bay Area as an assistant clinical professor of medical psychology at the University of California, San Francisco; concurrently, Leary co-founded Kaiser Hospital's psychology department in Oakland, California and maintained a private consultancy. In 1952, the Leary family spent a year in Spain, subsisting on a research grant. According to Berkeley colleague Marv Freedman, \"Something had been stirred in him in terms of breaking out of being another cog in society...\" \n\nDespite his nascent professional success, his marriage was strained by multiple infidelities and mutual alcohol abuse. Marianne eventually committed suicide in 1955, leaving him to raise their son and daughter alone. He described himself during this period as \"an anonymous institutional employee who drove to work each morning in a long line of commuter cars and drove home each night and drank martinis ... like several million middle-class, liberal, intellectual robots.\"\n\nFrom 1954 or 1955 to 1958, Leary was director of psychiatric research at the Kaiser Family Foundation. In 1957, Leary's The Interpersonal Diagnosis of Personality was published and was hailed as the 'most important book on psychotherapy of the year' by the Annual Review of Psychology. \n\nFollowing the termination of his commodious National Institute of Mental Health research grant (precipitated by his absence from a meeting with a NIMH investigator), Leary and his children relocated to Europe in 1958, where he attempted to write his next book on psychology while subsiding on small grants and insurance policies. He was overcome by indigence during an unproductive stay in Florence, and returned to academia in late 1959 as a lecturer in clinical psychology at Harvard University at the behest of Frank Barron (a colleague from Berkeley) and David McClelland. During this period, he resided with his children in nearby Newton, Massachusetts. In addition to his teaching duties, Leary was affiliated with the Harvard Center for Research in Personality under McClelland and oversaw the Harvard Psilocybin Project and concomitant experiments in conjunction with assistant professor Richard Alpert. In 1963, Leary was terminated for failing to give his scheduled class lectures, while he claimed that he had fulfilled his teaching obligations in full. The decision to dismiss him may have been influenced by his role in the popularity of psychedelic substances among Harvard students and faculty members, which were legal at the time. \n\nHis work in academic psychology expanded on the research of Harry Stack Sullivan and Karen Horney regarding the importance of interpersonal forces in mental health, focusing on how understanding interpersonal processes might facilitate diagnosing disorders and identifying human personality patterns. Leary's dissertation research culminated in the development of the complex and respected interpersonal circumplex model, published in The Interpersonal Diagnosis of Personality, demonstrating how psychologists could methodically use Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) scores to predict respondents' interpersonal response characteristics, or ways that they might respond to various interpersonal situations. Additionally, Laura Mansnerus has cited Leary's research as an important harbinger of transactional analysis, directly prefiguring the popular work of Eric Berne. \n\nPsychedelic experiments and experiences \n\nOn May 13, 1957, Life magazine published an article by R. Gordon Wasson that documented the use of psilocybin mushrooms in religious rites of the indigenous Mazatec people of Mexico. Anthony Russo, a colleague of Leary's, had experimented with psychedelic (or entheogenic) Psilocybe mexicana mushrooms on a trip to Mexico and told Leary about it. In August 1960, Leary traveled to Cuernavaca, Mexico with Russo and consumed psilocybin mushrooms for the first time, an experience that drastically altered the course of his life. In 1965, Leary commented that he had \"learned more about ... (his) brain and its possibilities ... [and] more about psychology in the five hours after taking these mushrooms than ... in the preceding 15 years of studying and doing research in psychology.\"\n\nLeary returned from Mexico to Harvard in 1960, and he and his associates (notably Richard Alpert, later known as Ram Dass) began a research program known as the Harvard Psilocybin Project. The goal was to analyze the effects of psilocybin on human subjects (first prisoners, and later Andover Newton Theological Seminary students) from a synthesized version of the drug (which was legal at the time), one of two active compounds found in a wide variety of hallucinogenic mushrooms, including Psilocybe mexicana. The compound in question was produced by a process developed by Albert Hofmann of Sandoz Pharmaceuticals, who was famous for synthesizing LSD. \n\nBeat poet Allen Ginsberg heard about the Harvard research project and asked to join the experiments. Leary was inspired by Ginsberg's enthusiasm, and the two shared an optimism in the benefit of psychedelic substances to help people \"turn on\" (i.e., discover a higher level of consciousness). Together they began a campaign of introducing intellectuals and artists to psychedelics. \n\nLeary argued that psychedelic substances—in proper doses, in a stable setting, and under the guidance of psychologists—could alter behavior in beneficial ways not easily attainable through regular therapy. His research focused on treating alcoholism and reforming criminals. Many of his research subjects told of profound mystical and spiritual experiences which they said permanently and positively altered their lives. \n\nThe Concord Prison Experiment was designed to evaluate the effects of psilocybin combined with psychotherapy on rehabilitation of released prisoners, after being guided through the psychedelic experience, or \"trips,\" by Leary and his associates. Thirty-six prisoners were reported to have repented and sworn to give up future criminal activity. The average recidivism rate was 60 percent for American prisoners in general, whereas the recidivism rate for those involved in Leary's project dropped to 20 percent. The experimenters concluded that long-term reduction in overall criminal recidivism rates could be effected with a combination of psilocybin-assisted group psychotherapy (inside the prison) along with a comprehensive post-release follow-up support program modeled on Alcoholics Anonymous. \n\nThese conclusions were later contested in a follow-up study on the basis of time differences monitoring the study group vs. the control group, and differences between subjects re-incarcerated for parole violations and those imprisoned for new crimes. The researchers concluded that statistically only a slight improvement could be attributed to psilocybin in contrast to the significant improvement reported by Leary and his colleagues. Rick Doblin suggested that Leary had fallen prey to the Halo Effect, skewing the results and clinical conclusions. Doblin further accused Leary of lacking \"a higher standard\" or \"highest ethical standards in order to regain the trust of regulators\". Ralph Metzner rebuked Doblin for these assertions: \"In my opinion, the existing accepted standards of honesty and truthfulness are perfectly adequate. We have those standards, not to curry favor with regulators, but because it is the agreement within the scientific community that observations should be reported accurately and completely. There is no proof in any of this re-analysis that Leary unethically manipulated his data.\" \n\nLeary and Alpert founded the International Foundation for Internal Freedom in 1962 in Cambridge, Massachusetts. This was run by Lisa Bieberman (now known as Licia Kuenning), a friend of Leary. The Harvard Crimson described her as a 'disciple'. Their research attracted so much public attention that many who wanted to participate in the experiments had to be turned away due to the high demand. To satisfy the curiosity of those who were turned away, a black market for psychedelics sprang up near the Harvard campus.\n\nAccording to Andrew Weil, Leary was fired for not giving his required lectures, while Alpert was fired for allegedly giving psilocybin to an undergraduate in an off-campus apartment. This version is supported by the words of Harvard University president Nathan Marsh Pusey, who released the following statement on May 27, 1963:\n\nOn May 6, 1963, the Harvard Corporation voted, because Timothy F. Leary, lecturer on clinical psychology, has failed to keep his classroom appointments and has absented himself from Cambridge without permission, to relieve him from further teaching duty and to terminate his salary as of April 30, 1963. \n\nIn 1967, Leary engaged in a televised debate with Jerry Lettvin of MIT. Leary's activities interested siblings Peggy, Billy, and Tommy Hitchcock, heirs to the Mellon fortune, who helped Leary and his associates acquire a rambling mansion in 1963 on an estate in Millbrook (near Poughkeepsie, the site of Vassar College), where they continued their experiments. Leary later wrote:\n\nWe saw ourselves as anthropologists from the 21st century inhabiting a time module set somewhere in the dark ages of the 1960s. On this space colony we were attempting to create a new paganism and a new dedication to life as art. \n\nThe Millbrook estate was later described by Luc Sante of The New York Times as:\n\nthe headquarters of Leary and gang for the better part of five years, a period filled with endless parties, epiphanies and breakdowns, emotional dramas of all sizes, and numerous raids and arrests, many of them on flimsy charges concocted by the local assistant district attorney, G. Gordon Liddy.\n\nOthers contest this characterization of the Millbrook estate. For instance, in The Electric Kool-Aid Acid Test, Tom Wolfe portrays Leary as interested only in research and not in using psychedelics merely for recreational purposes. According to \"The Crypt Trip\" chapter of Wolfe's book, Ken Kesey's Merry Pranksters visited the residence, and received a frosty reception. Leary himself had flu on their arrival and wasn't able to play host. He later met Ken Kesey and Ken Babbs quietly in his room and promised to remain allies in the years ahead. \n\nIn 1964, Leary coauthored a book with Alpert and Ralph Metzner called The Psychedelic Experience based on the Tibetan Book of the Dead. In it, they wrote:\n\nA psychedelic experience is a journey to new realms of consciousness. The scope and content of the experience is limitless, but its characteristic features are the transcendence of verbal concepts, of spacetime dimensions, and of the ego or identity. Such experiences of enlarged consciousness can occur in a variety of ways: sensory deprivation, yoga exercises, disciplined meditation, religious or aesthetic ecstasies, or spontaneously. Most recently they have become available to anyone through the ingestion of psychedelic drugs such as LSD, psilocybin, mescaline, DMT, etc. Of course, the drug does not produce the transcendent experience. It merely acts as a chemical key — it opens the mind, frees the nervous system of its ordinary patterns and structures. \n\nRepeated FBI raids ended the Millbrook era. Leary told author and Prankster Paul Krassner regarding a 1966 raid by Liddy, \"He was a government agent entering our bedroom at midnight. We had every right to shoot him. But I've never owned a weapon in my life. I have never had and never will have a gun around.\" \n\nIn September 1966, Leary gave an interview to Playboy magazine that became famous. In the interview, Leary claimed, among other things, that LSD could be used to cure homosexuality, telling a story about a lesbian who, according to him, became heterosexual after using the drug. He later changed this view to a more liberal stance suggesting that homosexuality was not an illness in need of a cure. \n\nBy 1966, recreational drug use, particularly of so-called psychedelic drugs, among America's youth had reached such proportions that serious concerns about the nature of these drugs and the impact their use was having on American culture were expressed in the national press and halls of government. In response to these concerns, Senator Thomas Dodd of Connecticut convened Senate subcommittee hearings in order to try to better understand the drug-use phenomenon, eventually with the intention of \"stamping out\" such usage through the criminalizing of these drugs. Leary was one of several expert witnesses called to testify at these hearings. In his testimony, Leary asserted that \"the challenge of the psychedelic chemicals is not just how to control them, but how to use them.\"\n He implored the subcommittee not to criminalize psychedelic drug use, which he felt would only serve to exponentially increase its usage among America's youth while removing the safeguards that controlled \"set and setting\" provided. When subcommittee member Senator Ted Kennedy of Massachusetts asked Leary if LSD usage was \"extremely dangerous,\" Leary replied, \"Sir, the motor car is dangerous if used improperly...Human stupidity and ignorance is the only danger human beings face in this world.\" To conclude his testimony, Leary suggested that legislation be enacted that would require LSD users to be adults who were competently trained and licensed, so that such individuals could use LSD \"for serious purposes, such as spiritual growth, pursuit of knowledge, or their own personal development.\" He presciently noted that without such licensing, the United States would be faced with \"another era of prohibition.\" Leary's testimony proved ineffective; on October 6, 1966, just months after the subcommittee hearings, LSD was banned in California, and by October 1968 LSD was banned in all states as a result of the passage of the Staggers-Dodd Bill. \n\nOn September 19, 1966, Leary founded the League for Spiritual Discovery, a religion declaring LSD as its holy sacrament, in part as an unsuccessful attempt to maintain legal status for the use of LSD and other psychedelics for the religion's adherents, based on a \"freedom of religion\" argument. (The Brotherhood of Eternal Love subsequently considered Leary their spiritual leader, but The Brotherhood did not develop out of International Foundation for Internal Freedom.)\n\nIn 1966, Folkways Records recorded Leary reading from his book The Psychedelic Experience, and released the album The Psychedelic Experience: Readings from the Book \"The Psychedelic Experience. A Manual Based on the Tibetan...\". \n\nDuring late 1966 and early 1967, Leary toured college campuses presenting a multimedia performance entitled \"The Death of the Mind\", attempting an artistic replication of the LSD experience. He said that the League for Spiritual Discovery was limited to 360 members and was already at its membership limit, but he encouraged others to form their own psychedelic religions. He published a pamphlet in 1967 called Start Your Own Religion to encourage just that (see below under \"writings\").\n\nLeary was invited to attend the January 14, 1967 Human Be-In by Michael Bowen, the primary organizer of the event, a gathering of 30,000 hippies in San Francisco's Golden Gate Park. In speaking to the group, Leary coined the famous phrase \"Turn on, tune in, drop out\". In a 1988 interview with Neil Strauss, he said that this slogan was \"given to him\" by Marshall McLuhan when the two had lunch in New York City, adding, \"Marshall was very much interested in ideas and marketing, and he started singing something like, 'Psychedelics hit the spot / Five hundred micrograms, that's a lot,' to the tune of [the well-known Pepsi 1950s singing commercial]. Then he started going, 'Tune in, turn on, and drop out.'\" \n\nAt some point in the late 1960s, Leary moved to California and made many new friends in Hollywood. \"When he married his third wife, Rosemary Woodruff, in 1967, the event was directed by Ted Markland of Bonanza. All the guests were on acid.\"\n\nIn the late 1960s and early 1970s, Leary formulated his eight-circuit model of consciousness in collaboration with writer Brian Barritt, in which he wrote that the human mind and nervous system consisted of seven circuits which produce seven levels of consciousness when activated. This model was first published in his short essay \"The Seven Tongues of God\". The system was soon expanded to include an eighth circuit in a revised version first published in the 1973 pamphlet \"Neurologic\", written with Joanna Leary while he was in prison. This eighth-circuit idea was not exhaustively formulated until the publication of Exo-Psychology by Leary and Robert Anton Wilson's Cosmic Trigger in 1977. Wilson contributed to the model after befriending Leary in the early 1970s, and used it as a framework for further exposition in his book Prometheus Rising, among other works. \n\nLeary believed that the first four of these circuits (\"the Larval Circuits\" or \"Terrestrial Circuits\") are naturally accessed by most people in their lifetimes, triggered at natural transition points in life such as puberty. The second four circuits (\"the Stellar Circuits\" or \"Extra-Terrestrial Circuits\"), Leary wrote, were \"evolutionary offshoots\" of the first four that would be triggered at transition points which humans might acquire if they evolve. These circuits, according to Leary, would equip humans to encompass life in space, as well as the expansion of consciousness that would be necessary to make further scientific and social progress. Leary suggested that some people may \"shift to the latter four gears\", i.e., trigger these circuits artificially via consciousness-altering techniques such as meditation and spiritual endeavors such as yoga, or by taking psychedelic drugs specific to each circuit. The feeling of floating and uninhibited motion experienced by users of marijuana is one thing that Leary cited as evidence for the purpose of the \"higher\" four circuits. In the eight-circuit model of consciousness, a primary theoretical function of the fifth circuit (the first of the four, according to Leary, developed for life in outer space) is to allow humans to become accustomed to life in a zero- or low-gravity environment.\n\nLegal troubles \n\nLeary's first run-in with the law came on December 20, 1965. Leary decided to take his two children, Jack and Susan, and his girlfriend Rosemary Woodruff to Mexico for an extended stay to write a book. On their return from Mexico to the United States, a US Customs Service official found marijuana in Susan's underwear. They had crossed into Nuevo Laredo, Mexico in the late afternoon and discovered that they would have to wait until morning for the appropriate visa for an extended stay. They decided to cross back into Texas to spend the night, and were on the US-Mexico bridge when Rosemary remembered that she had a small amount of marijuana in her possession. It was impossible to throw it out on the bridge, so Susan put it in her underwear. After taking responsibility for the controlled substance, Leary was convicted of possession under the Marihuana Tax Act of 1937 on March 11, 1966, sentenced to 30 years in prison, fined $30,000, and ordered to undergo psychiatric treatment. He appealed the case on the basis that the Marihuana Tax Act was, in fact, unconstitutional, as it required a degree of self-incrimination in blatant violation of the Fifth Amendment.\n\nOn December 26, 1968, Leary was arrested again in Laguna Beach, California, this time for the possession of two marijuana \"roaches\". Leary alleged that they were planted by the arresting officer, but was convicted of the crime. On May 19, 1969, The Supreme Court concurred with Leary in Leary v. United States, declared the Marihuana Tax Act unconstitutional, and overturned his 1965 conviction. \n\nOn that same day, Leary announced his candidacy for Governor of California against the Republican incumbent, Ronald Reagan. His campaign slogan was \"Come together, join the party.\" On June 1, 1969, Leary joined John Lennon and Yoko Ono at their Montreal Bed-In, and Lennon subsequently wrote Leary a campaign song called \"Come Together\". \n\nOn January 21, 1970, Leary received a 10-year sentence for his 1968 offense, with a further 10 added later while in custody for a prior arrest in 1965, for a total of 20 years to be served consecutively. On his arrival in prison, he was given psychological tests used to assign inmates to appropriate work details. Having designed some of these tests himself (including the \"Leary Interpersonal Behavior Test\"), Leary answered them in such a way that he seemed to be a very conforming, conventional person with a great interest in forestry and gardening. As a result, he was assigned to work as a gardener in a lower-security prison from which he escaped in September 1970, saying that his non-violent escape was a humorous prank and leaving a challenging note for the authorities to find after he was gone.\n\nFor a fee of $25,000, paid by The Brotherhood of Eternal Love, the Weathermen smuggled Leary and Rosemary out of the US (and eventually into Algeria) in a pickup truck driven by Clayton Van Lydegraf. He sought the patronage of Eldridge Cleaver and the remnants of the Black Panther Party's \"government in exile\" in Algeria, but after a short stay with them said that Cleaver had attempted to hold him and his wife hostage. \n\nIn 1971, the couple fled to Switzerland, where they were sheltered and effectively imprisoned by a high-living arms dealer, Michel Hauchard, who claimed he had an \"obligation as a gentleman to protect philosophers\"; Hauchard intended to broker a surreptitious film deal. In 1972, President Richard Nixon's attorney general, John Mitchell, persuaded the Swiss government to imprison Leary, which it did for a month but refused to extradite him to the United States.\n\nLeary and Rosemary separated later that year. Shortly thereafter, he became involved with Swiss-born British socialite Joanna Harcourt-Smith, a stepdaughter of financier Árpád Plesch. The couple \"married\" in a hotel under the influence of cocaine and LSD two weeks after they were first introduced, and Harcourt-Smith would use his surname until their breakup in early 1977. They traveled to Vienna, then Beirut, and finally ended up in Kabul, Afghanistan in 1972; according to Luc Sante, \"Afghanistan had no extradition treaty with the United States, but this stricture did not apply to American airliners.\" That interpretation of the law was used by American authorities to interdict the fugitive. \"Before Leary could deplane, he was arrested by an agent of the federal Bureau of Narcotics and Dangerous Drugs.\" Leary asserted a different story on appeal before the California Court of Appeal for the Second District, namely: \n\nAt a stopover in the UK, as Leary was being flown back to the US in custody, he requested political asylum from Her Majesty's government to no avail. Back in America, he was held on five million dollars bail ($21.5 mil. in 2006) since Nixon had earlier labeled him as \"the most dangerous man in America.\" The judge at his remand hearing stated, \"If he is allowed to travel freely, he will speak publicly and spread his ideas,\" Facing a total of 95 years in prison, Leary hired criminal defense attorney Bruce Margolin. He was sent to Folsom Prison in California, and put in solitary confinement. \n\nLeary feigned cooperation with the FBI's investigation of the Weathermen and its radical attorneys by giving them information they already had and/or of little consequence; in response, the FBI gave him the code name \"Charlie Thrush\". Leary would later claim, and members of the Weathermen would later support his claim, that no one was ever prosecuted based on any information he gave to the FBI.\n\nThe Weather Underground, the radical left organization responsible for his escape, was not impacted by his testimony. Histories written about the Weather Underground usually mention the Leary chapter in terms of the escape for which they proudly took credit. Leary sent information to the Weather Underground through a sympathetic prisoner that he was considering making a deal with the FBI and waited for their approval. The return message was, \"We understand.\" \n\nWhile in prison Leary was sued by the parents of Vernon Powell Cox who jumped from the third story window of a Berkeley apartment while under the influence of LSD. Cox had taken the drug after attending a lecture in favor of LSD use given by Leary. Unable to be present due to his incarceration and otherwise unable to arrange for representation, a default judgement was entered against Leary in the amount of $100,000. \n\nLeary remained a productive writer in prison, sowing the seeds for his incarnation as a futurist lecturer with the StarSeed Series. In Starseed (1973), Neurologic (1973), and Terra II: A Way Out (1974), Leary transitioned from Eastern philosophy and Aleister Crowley to a belief that outer space was a medium for spiritual transcendence as his principal frame of reference. Neurologic also added the idea of \"time dilation/contraction\" available to the activated brain through the cellular, DNA, or atomic level of reality. Terra II made a proposal for space colonization. Leary later wrote Exo-Psychology, Neuropolitics and Intelligence Agents.\n\nLast two decades \n\nLeary was released from prison on April 21, 1976 by Governor Jerry Brown. After briefly relocating to San Diego, he took up residence in Laurel Canyon and continued to write books and appear as a lecturer and (by his own terminology) \"stand-up philosopher\". In 1978 he married filmmaker Barbara Blum, also known as Barbara Chase, sister of actress Tanya Roberts. Leary adopted Blum's son Zachary and raised him as his own. During this period, Leary took on several godchildren, including actress Winona Ryder (the daughter of his archivist, Michael Horowitz) and current MIT Media Lab director Joi Ito. \n\nLeary began to foster an improbable friendship with former foe G. Gordon Liddy, the Watergate burglar and conservative radio talk-show host. They toured the lecture circuit in 1982 as ex-cons (Liddy having been imprisoned after high-level involvement in the Watergate scandal) debating different social and fiscal issues from gay rights and abortion to welfare and the environment, with Leary generally espousing left-wing views and Liddy continuing to conform to a right-wing stance. The tour generated massive publicity and considerable funds for both. The personal appearances, a successful documentary called Return Engagement chronicling the tour, and the concurrent release of the autobiography Flashbacks helped to return Leary to the spotlight. In 1988, Leary held a fundraiser for Libertarian presidential candidate Ron Paul. \n\nWhile his stated ambition was to cross over to the mainstream as a Hollywood personality through proposed adaptations of Flashbacks and other projects, reluctant studios and sponsors ensured that it would never occur. Nonetheless, his extensive touring on the lecture circuit ensured him a very comfortable lifestyle by the mid-1980s, while his colorful past made him a desirable guest at A-list parties throughout the decade. He also attracted a more intellectual crowd including old confederate Robert Anton Wilson, science fiction writers William Gibson and Norman Spinrad, and rock musicians David Byrne and John Frusciante. In addition, he appeared in Johnny Depp's and Gibby Haynes' 1994 film Stuff, which showed Frusciante's squalid living conditions at that time. \n\nWhile he continued his frequent drug use privately rather than evangelizing and proselytizing the use of psychedelics as he had in the 1960s, the latter-day Leary emphasized the importance of space colonization and an ensuing extension of the human lifespan while also providing a detailed explanation of the eight-circuit model of consciousness in books such as Info-Psychology, among several others. He adopted the acronym \"SMI²LE\" as a succinct summary of his pre-transhumanist agenda: SM (Space Migration) + I² (intelligence increase) + LE (Life extension), and credited the L5 Society co-founder Keith Henson with helping develop his interest in space migration.\n\nLeary's colonization plan varied greatly through the years. According to his initial plan to leave the planet, 5,000 of Earth's most virile and intelligent individuals would be launched on a vessel (Starseed 1) equipped with luxurious amenities. This idea was inspired by the plotline of Paul Kantner's concept album Blows Against The Empire, which in turn was derived from Robert A. Heinlein's Lazarus Long series. Whilst in Folsom Prison in the winter of 1975-76 Leary had become enamoured by Gerard O'Neill's egalitarian plans to construct giant Eden-like High Orbital Mini-Earths (documented in the Robert Anton Wilson lecture H.O.M.E.s on LaGrange) using existing technology and raw materials from the Moon, orbital rock and obsolete satellites. \n\nIn the 1980s, Leary became fascinated by computers, the Internet, and virtual reality. Leary proclaimed that \"the PC is the LSD of the 1990s\" and admonished bohemians to \"turn on, boot up, jack in\". He became a promoter of virtual reality systems, and sometimes demonstrated a prototype of the Mattel Power Glove as part of his lectures (as in From Psychedelics to Cybernetics). Around this time he befriended a number of notable people in the field including Brenda Laurel, a pioneering researcher in virtual environments and human–computer interaction. With the rise of cyberdelic counter-culture, he served as consultant to Billy Idol in the production of the latter's 1993 album Cyberpunk. \n\nIn 1990, his daughter Susan, aged 42, was arrested in Los Angeles for firing a bullet into her boyfriend's head as he slept. Twice she was ruled mentally unfit to stand trial. While in jail, after years of mental instability, she committed suicide by tying a shoelace around her neck and hanging herself. After his separation and subsequent divorce from Barbara in 1992, he ensconced himself in a circle of artists and cultural figures encompassing figures as diverse as actors Johnny Depp, Susan Sarandon and Dan Aykroyd; Zach Leary; his grandson Ashley Martino and his granddaughters Dieadra Martino and Sara Brown; author Douglas Rushkoff; publisher Bob Guccione, Jr.; and goddaughters Ryder and artist/music–photographer Hilary Hulteen. Despite declining health, he maintained a regular schedule of public appearances through 1994. \n\nFrom 1989 on, Leary had begun to re-establish his connection to unconventional religious movements with an interest in altered states of consciousness. In 1989, he appeared with friend and book collaborator Robert Anton Wilson in a dialog entitled The Inner Frontier for the Association for Consciousness Exploration, a Cleveland-based group that had been responsible for his first Cleveland, Ohio appearance in 1979. After that, he appeared at the Starwood Festival, a major Neo-Pagan event run by ACE, in 1992 and 1993[http://www.rosencomet.com/starwood/CircleofAsh/CircleofAsh.htm The Cleveland Free Times :: Archives :: Circle Of Ash] (although his planned 1994 WinterStar Symposium appearance was cancelled due to his declining health). In front of hundreds of Neo-Pagans in 1992 he declared, \"I have always considered myself, when I learned what the word meant, I've always considered myself a Pagan.\" He also collaborated with Eric Gullichsen on Load and Run High-tech Paganism: Digital Polytheism. Shortly before his death on May 31, 1996, he recorded the Right to Fly album with Simon Stokes which was released in July 1996. \n\nDeath \n\nIn January 1995, Leary was diagnosed with inoperable prostate cancer. He did not reveal the condition to the press at that time, but did so after the death of Jerry Garcia in August.\n\nLeary authored an outline for a book called Design for Dying which tried to give a new perspective on death and dying. His entourage (as mentioned above) updated his website on a daily basis as a sort of proto-blog, noting his daily intake of various illicit and legal chemical substances with a predilection for nitrous oxide, LSD and other psychedelic drugs. He was noted for his strong views against the use of drugs which \"dull the mind\" such as heroin, morphine and (more than occasional) alcohol, and also for his trademark \"Leary Biscuits\" (a snack cracker with cheese and a small marijuana bud, briefly microwaved). His sterile house was completely redecorated by the staff, who had more or less moved in, with an array of surreal ornamentation. In his final months, thousands of visitors, well-wishers and old friends visited him in his California home. Until his last weeks, he gave many interviews discussing his new philosophy of embracing death.\n\nLeary was reportedly excited for a number of years by the possibility of freezing his body in cryonic suspension, and he publicly announced in September 1988 that he had signed up with Alcor for such treatment after having appeared at Alcor's grand opening the year before. He did not believe he would be resurrected in the future, but did believe that cryonics had important possibilities even though he thought it had only \"one chance in a thousand\". He called it his \"duty as a futurist\", and helped publicize the process and hoped it would work for his children and grandchildren if not for him, although he said he was \"lighthearted\" about it. He was connected with two cryonic organizations, first Alcor and then CryoCare, one of which delivered a cryonic tank to his house in the months before his death, but subsequently requested that his body be cremated, which it was, and distributed among his friends and family.\n\nHe died at 75 on May 31, 1996. His death was videotaped for posterity at his request, capturing his final words. According to his son Zachary, during his final moments, he clenched his fist and said, \"Why?\", and then unclenching his fist, he said, \"Why not?\". He uttered the phrase repeatedly, in different intonations, and died soon after. His last word, according to Zach, was \"beautiful.\" \n\nThe film Timothy Leary's Dead (1996) contains a simulated sequence in which he allows his bodily functions to be suspended for the purposes of cryonic preservation. His head is removed, and placed on ice. The film ends with a sequence showing the creation of the artificial head used in the film.\n\nSeven grams of Leary's ashes were arranged by his friend at Celestis to be buried in space aboard a rocket carrying the remains of 24 others, including Gene Roddenberry (creator of Star Trek), Gerard O'Neill (space physicist), and Krafft Ehricke (rocket scientist). A Pegasus rocket containing their remains was launched on April 21, 1997 and remained in orbit for six years until it burned up in the atmosphere. \n\nIn 2015, Susan Sarandon, a good friend of Timothy Leary's, brought some of his ashes and put them into an art installation at the Burning Man festival in Black Rock City, Nevada.\nThey were burned, along with the installation, on September 6, 2015. \n\nInfluence \n\nTimothy Leary was an early influence on Game Theory applied to psychology having introduced the concept to the International Association of Applied Psychology in 1961, at their annual conference in Copenhagen. \n\nHe was also an early influence on Transactional Analysis. His concept of the four Life Scripts, dating back to 1951, became an influence on TA by the late 1960s, popularised by Thomas Harris in his book, I'm OK, You're OK. The same concept was later used by Iain Spence in The Sekhmet Hypothesis, in which the Life Scripts were corresponded to the atavistic qualities of various youth trends. \n\nMany consider Leary one of the most prominent figures during the counterculture of the 1960s, and since those times has remained influential on pop culture, literature, television, film and, especially, music.\n\nLeary coined the influential term Reality Tunnel, by which he means a kind of representative realism. The theory states that, with a subconscious set of mental filters formed from their beliefs and experiences, every individual interprets the same world differently, hence \"Truth is in the eye of the beholder\". \n\nHis ideas influenced the work of his friend Robert Anton Wilson. This influence went both ways, and Leary admittedly took just as much from Wilson. Wilson's book Prometheus Rising was an in-depth, highly detailed and inclusive work documenting Leary's eight-circuit model of consciousness. Although the theory originated in discussions between Leary and a Hindu holy man at Millbrook, Wilson was one of the most ardent proponents of it and introduced the theory to a mainstream audience in 1977's bestselling Cosmic Trigger. In 1989, they appeared together on stage in a dialog entitled The Inner Frontier hosted the Association for Consciousness Exploration, (the same group that had hosted Leary's first Cleveland appearance in 1979). \n\nWorld religion scholar Huston Smith was \"turned on\" by Leary after being introduced to him by Aldous Huxley in the early 1960s. The experience was interpreted as a deeply religious one by Smith, and is described in detailed religious terms in Smith's later work Cleansing of the Doors of Perception. Smith asked Leary, to paraphrase, whether he knew the power and danger of what he was conducting research with. In Mother Jones Magazine, 1997, Smith commented:\n\nFirst, I have to say that during the three years I was involved with that Harvard study, LSD was not only legal but respectable. Before Tim went on his unfortunate careening course, it was a legitimate research project. Though I did find evidence that, when recounted, the experiences of the Harvard group and those of mystics were impossible to tell apart — descriptively indistinguishable — that's not the last word. There is still a question about the truth of the disclosure. \n\nIn popular culture\n\nIn film\n\nThe movie Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas (1998), adapted from a 1971 novel of Hunter S. Thompson, portrays heavy psychedelic drug use and mentions Leary when the protagonist ponders the meaning of the acid wave of the sixties:\n\n'We are all wired into a survival trip now. No more of the speed that fueled that '60s. That was the fatal flaw in Tim Leary's trip. He crashed around America selling \"consciousness expansion\" without ever giving a thought to the grim meat-hook realities that were lying in wait for all the people who took him seriously... All those pathetically eager acid freaks who thought they could buy Peace and Understanding for three bucks a hit. But their loss and failure is ours too. What Leary took down with him was the central illusion of a whole life-style that he helped create... a generation of permanent cripples, failed seekers, who never understood the essential old-mystic fallacy of the Acid Culture: the desperate assumption that somebody... or at least some force - is tending the light at the end of the tunnel'. \n\nIn music\n\nThe Psychedelic Experience (1964) was the inspiration for John Lennon's song \"Tomorrow Never Knows\", on The Beatles' album Revolver (1966). \n The Moody Blues recorded a track about Leary, \"Legend of a Mind\", on their album In Search of the Lost Chord (1968), which includes the refrain: \"Timothy Leary's dead. No, no, no, no, he's outside looking in\".\n* The Who's 1970 single \"The Seeker\" mentions Leary in a sequence where the song's protagonist claims Leary (among other high-profile people) was unable to help them with their search for answers. \nLeary recruited Lennon to write a theme song for his California gubernatorial campaign against Ronald Reagan (which was interrupted by Leary's prison sentence for cannabis possession), inspiring Lennon to come up with \"Come Together\" (1969), based on Leary's campaign theme and catchphrase. \nLeary was also present when Lennon and his wife, Yoko Ono, recorded \"Give Peace a Chance\" (1969) during one of their bed-ins in Montreal and is mentioned in the lyrics of the song. \n*While in exile in Switzerland, Leary and British writer Brian Barrett collaborated with the German band Ash Ra Tempel, and recorded the album Seven Up (1973). He is credited as a songwriter, and his lyrics and vocals can be heard throughout the album. Commenting on the work of his friend H. R. Giger, a surrealist artist from Switzerland who won an Academy Award for his work on the film Alien, Leary noted:\n\nWorks \n\nLeary authored and co-authored more than twenty books and was featured on more than a dozen audio recordings. His acting career included over a dozen appearances in movies and television shows in various roles, over thirty appearances as himself. He also produced and/or collaborated with others in the creation of multimedia presentations and computer games.\n\nIn June 2011, The New York Times reported that the New York Public Library had acquired Leary's personal archives, including papers, videotapes, photographs and other archival material from the Leary estate, including correspondence and documents relating to Allen Ginsberg, Aldous Huxley, William Burroughs, Jack Kerouac, Ken Kesey, Arthur Koestler, G. Gordon Liddy and other prominent cultural figures. The collection became available in September 2013." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Turn on, tune in" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "turn on tune in" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "turn on tune in", "type": "FreeForm", "value": "Turn on, tune in" }
What is Nelson Mandela's middle name?	tc_617	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Nelson_Mandela.txt" ], "title": [ "Nelson Mandela" ], "wiki_context": [ "Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela (; 18 July 1918 – 5 December 2013) was a South African anti-apartheid revolutionary, politician, and philanthropist, who served as President of South Africa from 1994 to 1999. He was the country's first black chief executive, and the first elected in a fully representative democratic election. His government focused on dismantling the legacy of apartheid through tackling institutionalised racism and fostering racial reconciliation. Politically an African nationalist and democratic socialist, he served as President of the African National Congress (ANC) party from 1991 to 1997.\n\n \nA Xhosa born to the Thembu royal family, Mandela attended the University of Fort Hare and the University of the Witwatersrand, where he studied law. Living in Johannesburg, he became involved in anti-colonial politics, joining the ANC and becoming a founding member of its Youth League. After the Afrikaner minority government of the National Party established apartheid – a system of racial segregation that privileged whites – in 1948 he rose to prominence in the ANC's 1952 anti-apartheid Defiance Campaign, was appointed President of the organisation's Transvaal branch, and co-organised the 1955 Congress of the People. Working as a lawyer, he was repeatedly arrested for seditious activities and, with the ANC leadership, was unsuccessfully prosecuted in the Treason Trial from 1956 to 1961. Influenced by Marxism, he secretly joined the South African Communist Party (SACP). Although initially committed to non-violent protest, in association with the SACP he co-founded the militant Umkhonto we Sizwe in 1961, leading a sabotage campaign against the government. In 1962, he was arrested, convicted of conspiracy to overthrow the state, and sentenced to life imprisonment in the Rivonia Trial.\n\nMandela served 27 years in prison, initially on Robben Island, and later in Pollsmoor Prison and Victor Verster Prison. Amid international pressure and growing fear of a racial civil war, President F. W. de Klerk released him in 1990. Mandela and de Klerk negotiated an end to apartheid and organised the 1994 multiracial elections, in which Mandela led the ANC to victory and became president. Leading a broad coalition government, which promulgated a new constitution, Mandela emphasised reconciliation between the country's racial groups and created the Truth and Reconciliation Commission to investigate past human rights abuses. While continuing with the former government's economic liberalism, his administration introduced measures to encourage land reform, combat poverty, and expand healthcare services. Internationally, he acted as mediator in the Pan Am Flight 103 bombing trial and served as Secretary-General of the Non-Aligned Movement from 1998–99. Declining a second presidential term, he was succeeded by his deputy, Thabo Mbeki. Mandela became an elder statesman, focusing on charitable work in combating poverty and HIV/AIDS through the Nelson Mandela Foundation.\n\n \nMandela was a controversial figure for much of his life. Critics on the right denounced him as a communist terrorist, while those on the radical left deemed him too eager to negotiate and reconcile with apartheid's supporters. Conversely, he gained international acclaim for his activism, having received more than 250 honours, including the Nobel Peace Prize, the U.S. Presidential Medal of Freedom, and the Soviet Lenin Peace Prize. He is held in deep respect within South Africa, where he is often referred to by his Xhosa clan name, Madiba, or as Tata (\"Father\"), and described as the \"Father of the Nation\".\n\nEarly life\n\nChildhood: 1918–34\n\nMandela was born on 18 July 1918 in the village of Mvezo in Umtata, then a part of South Africa's Cape Province. Given the forename Rolihlahla, a Xhosa term colloquially meaning \"troublemaker\", in later years he became known by his clan name, Madiba. His patrilineal great-grandfather, Ngubengcuka, was king of the Thembu people in the Transkeian Territories of South Africa's modern Eastern Cape province. One of Ngubengcuka's sons, named Mandela, became Nelson's grandfather and the source of his surname. Because Mandela was only the king's child by a wife of the Ixhiba clan, a so-called \"Left-Hand House\", the descendants of his cadet branch of the royal family were morganatic, ineligible to inherit the throne but recognised as hereditary royal councillors. His father, Gadla Henry Mphakanyiswa, was a local chief and councillor to the monarch; he was appointed to the position in 1915, after his predecessor was accused of corruption by a governing white magistrate. In 1926, Gadla was also sacked for corruption, but Nelson was told that his father had lost his job for standing up to the magistrate's unreasonable demands. A devotee of the god Qamata, Gadla was a polygamist, having four wives, four sons and nine daughters, who lived in different villages. Nelson's mother was Gadla's third wife, Nosekeni Fanny, who was daughter of Nkedama of the Right Hand House and a member of the amaMpemvu clan of Xhosa.\n\nLater stating that his early life was dominated by traditional Thembu custom and taboo, Mandela grew up with two sisters in his mother's kraal in the village of Qunu, where he tended herds as a cattle-boy, spending much time outside with other boys. Both his parents were illiterate, but being a devout Christian, his mother sent him to a local Methodist school when he was about seven. Baptised a Methodist, Mandela was given the English forename of \"Nelson\" by his teacher. When Mandela was about nine, his father came to stay at Qunu, where he died of an undiagnosed ailment which Mandela believed to be lung disease. Feeling \"cut adrift\", he later said that he inherited his father's \"proud rebelliousness\" and \"stubborn sense of fairness\".\n\nMandela's mother took him to the \"Great Place\" palace at Mqhekezweni, where he was entrusted under the guardianship of Thembu regent, Chief Jongintaba Dalindyebo. Although he did not see his mother again for many years, Mandela felt that Jongintaba and his wife Noengland treated him as their own child, raising him alongside their son, Justice, and daughter, Nomafu. As Mandela attended church services every Sunday with his guardians, Christianity became a significant part of his life. He attended a Methodist mission school located next to the palace, studying English, Xhosa, history and geography. He developed a love of African history, listening to the tales told by elderly visitors to the palace, and became influenced by the anti-imperialist rhetoric of the visiting Chief Joyi. At the time he nevertheless considered the European colonialists not as oppressors but as benefactors who had brought education and other benefits to southern Africa. Aged 16, he, Justice and several other boys travelled to Tyhalarha to undergo the circumcision ritual that symbolically marked their transition from boys to men; the rite over, he was given the name Dalibunga.\n\nClarkebury, Healdtown, and Fort Hare: 1934–40\n\nIntending to gain skills needed to become a privy councillor for the Thembu royal house, Mandela began his secondary education at Clarkebury Methodist High School, Engcobo, a Western-style institution that was the largest school for black Africans in Thembuland. Made to socialise with other students on an equal basis, he claimed that he lost his \"stuck up\" attitude, becoming best friends with a girl for the first time; he began playing sports and developed his lifelong love of gardening. Completing his Junior Certificate in two years, in 1937 he moved to Healdtown, the Methodist college in Fort Beaufort attended by most Thembu royalty, including Justice. The headmaster emphasised the superiority of English culture and government, but Mandela became increasingly interested in native African culture, making his first non-Xhosa friend, a Sotho language-speaker, and coming under the influence of one of his favourite teachers, a Xhosa who broke taboo by marrying a Sotho. Spending much of his spare time long-distance running and boxing, in his second year Mandela became a prefect.\n\nWith Jongintaba's backing, Mandela began work on a Bachelor of Arts (BA) degree at the University of Fort Hare, an elite black institution in Alice, Eastern Cape, with around 150 students. There he studied English, anthropology, politics, native administration, and Roman Dutch law in his first year, desiring to become an interpreter or clerk in the Native Affairs Department. Mandela stayed in the Wesley House dormitory, befriending his own kinsman, K. D. Matanzima, as well as Oliver Tambo, who became a close friend and comrade for decades to come. Continuing his interest in sport, Mandela took up ballroom dancing, performed in a drama society play about Abraham Lincoln, and gave Bible classes in the local community as part of the Student Christian Association. Although having friends connected to the African National Congress (ANC) and the anti-imperialist movement who wanted South Africa to be independent of the British Empire, Mandela avoided any involvement, and became a vocal supporter of the British war effort when the Second World War broke out. Helping found a first-year students' house committee which challenged the dominance of the second-years, at the end of his first year he became involved in a Students' Representative Council (SRC) boycott against the quality of food, for which he was temporarily suspended from the university; he left without receiving a degree.\n\nArriving in Johannesburg: 1941–43\n\nReturning to Mqhekezweni in December 1940, Mandela found that Jongintaba had arranged marriages for him and Justice; dismayed, they fled to Johannesburg via Queenstown, arriving in April 1941. Mandela found work as a night watchman at Crown Mines, his \"first sight of South African capitalism in action\", but was fired when the induna (headman) discovered that he was a runaway. Staying with a cousin in George Goch Township, Mandela was introduced to realtor and ANC activist Walter Sisulu, who secured him a job as an articled clerk at law firm Witkin, Sidelsky and Eidelman. The company was run by a liberal Jew, Lazar Sidelsky, who was sympathetic to the ANC's cause. At the firm, Mandela befriended Gaur Radebe, a Xhosa member of the ANC and Communist Party, as well as Nat Bregman, a Jewish communist who became his first white friend. Attending communist talks and parties, Mandela was impressed that Europeans, Africans, Indians and Coloureds were mixing as equals. He later stated that he did not join the Party because its atheism conflicted with his Christian faith, and because he saw the South African struggle as being racially-based rather than class warfare. Continuing his higher education, Mandela signed up to a University of South Africa correspondence course, working on his bachelor's degree at night.\n\nEarning a small wage, Mandela rented a room in the house of the Xhoma family in the Alexandra township; despite being rife with poverty, crime and pollution, Alexandra always remained a special place for him. Although embarrassed by his poverty, he briefly courted a Swazi woman before unsuccessfully courting his landlord's daughter. In order to save money and be closer to downtown Johannesburg, Mandela moved into the compound of the Witwatersrand Native Labour Association, living among miners of various tribes; as the compound was visited by various chiefs, he once met the Queen Regent of Basutoland. In late 1941, Jongintaba visited, forgiving Mandela for running away. On returning to Thembuland, the regent died in winter 1942; Mandela and Justice arrived a day late for the funeral. After passing his BA exams in early 1943, Mandela returned to Johannesburg to follow a political path as a lawyer rather than become a privy councillor in Thembuland. He later stated that he experienced no epiphany, but that he \"simply found [himself] doing so, and could not do otherwise.\"\n\nRevolutionary activity\n\nLaw studies and the ANC Youth League: 1943–49\n\nMandela began studying law at the University of the Witwatersrand, where he was the only black African student in the faculty. Although facing racism from some, he befriended liberal and communist European, Jewish, and Indian students, among them Joe Slovo and Ruth First. Becoming increasingly politicised, in August 1943 Mandela marched in support of a successful bus boycott to reverse fare rises. Joining the ANC, he was increasingly influenced by Sisulu, spending much time with other activists at Sisulu's Orlando house, including old friend Oliver Tambo. In 1943, Mandela met Anton Lembede, an ANC member affiliated with the Africanist branch of African nationalism, which was virulently opposed to a racially united front against colonialism and imperialism or to an alliance with the communists. Despite his friendships with non-blacks and communists, Mandela embraced Lembede's views, believing that black Africans should be entirely independent in their struggle for political self-determination. Deciding on the need for a youth wing to mass-mobilise Africans in opposition to their subjugation, Mandela was among a delegation that approached ANC President Alfred Bitini Xuma on the subject at his home in Sophiatown; the African National Congress Youth League (ANCYL) was founded on Easter Sunday 1944 in the Bantu Men's Social Centre, with Lembede as President and Mandela as a member of its executive committee.\n\nAt Sisulu's house, Mandela met Evelyn Mase, a trainee nurse and ANC activist from Engcobo, Transkei. Entering a relationship and marrying in October 1944, they initially lived with her relatives until moving in to a rented house in the township of Orlando in early 1946. Their first child, Madiba \"Thembi\" Thembekile, was born in February 1945; a daughter, Makaziwe, was born in 1947 but died of meningitis nine months later. Mandela enjoyed home life, welcoming his mother and his sister, Leabie, to stay with him. In early 1947, his three years of articles ended at Witkin, Sidelsky and Eidelman, and he decided to become a full-time student, subsisting on loans from the Bantu Welfare Trust.\n\nIn July 1947, Mandela rushed Lembede, who was ill, to hospital, where he died; he was succeeded as ANCYL president by the more moderate Peter Mda, who agreed to co-operate with communists and non-blacks, appointing Mandela ANCYL secretary. Mandela disagreed with Mda's approach, in December 1947 supporting an unsuccessful measure to expel communists from the ANCYL, considering their ideology un-African. In 1947, Mandela was elected to the executive committee of the ANC's Transvaal Province branch, serving under regional president C. S. Ramohanoe. When Ramohanoe acted against the wishes of the committee by co-operating with Indians and communists, Mandela was one of those who forced his resignation.\n\nIn the South African general election, 1948, in which only whites were permitted to vote, the Afrikaner-dominated Herenigde Nasionale Party under Daniel François Malan took power, soon uniting with the Afrikaner Party to form the National Party. Openly racialist, the party codified and expanded racial segregation with the new apartheid legislation. Gaining increasing influence in the ANC, Mandela and his cadres began advocating direct action against apartheid, such as boycotts and strikes, influenced by the tactics already employed by South Africa's Indian community. Xuma did not support these measures and was removed from the presidency in a vote of no confidence, replaced by James Moroka and a more militant executive containing Sisulu, Mda, Tambo, and Godfrey Pitje. Mandela later related that \"[he and his colleagues] had [...] guided the ANC to a more radical and revolutionary path.\" Having devoted his time to politics, Mandela failed his final year at Witwatersrand three times; he was ultimately denied his degree in December 1949.\n\nDefiance Campaign and Transvaal ANC Presidency: 1950–54\n\nMandela took Xuma's place on the ANC national executive in March 1950, and that same year was elected national president of the ANCYL. In March, the Defend Free Speech Convention was held in Johannesburg, bringing together African, Indian, and communist activists to call a May Day general strike in protest against apartheid and white minority rule. Mandela opposed the strike because it was multi-racial and not ANC-led, but a majority of black workers took part, resulting in increased police repression and the introduction of the Suppression of Communism Act, 1950, affecting the actions of all protest groups. At the ANC national conference of December 1951, he continued arguing against a racially united front, but was outvoted.\n\nThenceforth, Mandela rejected Lembede's Africanist beliefs and embraced the idea of a multi-racial front against apartheid. Influenced by friends like Moses Kotane and by the Soviet Union's support for wars of independence, his mistrust of communism broke down and he began reading literature by Marxists like Karl Marx, Vladimir Lenin, and Mao Zedong, eventually embracing the Marxist philosophy of dialectical materialism. Commenting on communism, he later stated that he \"found [himself] strongly drawn to the idea of a classless society which, to [his] mind, was similar to traditional African culture where life was shared and communal.\" In April 1952, Mandela began work at the H.M. Basner law firm, which was owned by a communist, although his increasing commitment to work and activism meant he spent less time with his family.\n\nIn 1952, the ANC began preparation for a joint Defiance Campaign against apartheid with Indian and communist groups, founding a National Voluntary Board to recruit volunteers. The campaign was designed to follow the path of nonviolent resistance influenced by Mahatma Gandhi; some supported this for ethical reasons, but Mandela instead considered it pragmatic. At a Durban rally on 22 June, Mandela addressed an assembled crowd of 10,000, initiating the campaign protests, for which he was arrested and briefly interned in Marshall Square prison. The events of the campaign resulted in Mandela establishing himself as one of the best-known black political figures in South Africa. With further protests, the ANC's membership grew from 20,000 to 100,000; the government responded with mass arrests and introduced the Public Safety Act, 1953 to permit martial law. In May, authorities banned Transvaal ANC President J. B. Marks from making public appearances; unable to maintain his position, he recommended Mandela as his successor. Although Africanists opposed his candidacy, Mandela was elected regional president in October.\n\nIn July 1952, Mandela was arrested under the Suppression of Communism Act and stood trial as one of the 21 accused – among them Moroka, Sisulu, and Yusuf Dadoo – in Johannesburg. Found guilty of \"statutory communism\", a term that the government used to describe most opposition to apartheid, their sentence of nine months' hard labour was suspended for two years. In December, Mandela was given a six-month ban from attending meetings or talking to more than one individual at a time, making his Transvaal ANC presidency impractical, and during this period the Defiance Campaign petered out. In September 1953, Andrew Kunene read out Mandela's \"No Easy Walk to Freedom\" speech at a Transvaal ANC meeting; the title was taken from a quote by Indian independence leader Jawaharlal Nehru, a seminal influence on Mandela's thought. The speech laid out a contingency plan for a scenario in which the ANC was banned. This Mandela Plan, or M-Plan, involved dividing the organisation into a cell structure with a more centralised leadership.\n\nMandela obtained work as an attorney for the firm Terblanche and Briggish, before moving to the liberal-run Helman and Michel, passing qualification exams to become a full-fledged attorney. In August 1953, Mandela and Tambo opened their own law firm, Mandela and Tambo, operating in downtown Johannesburg. The only African-run law firm in the country, it was popular with aggrieved blacks, often dealing with cases of police brutality. Disliked by the authorities, the firm was forced to relocate to a remote location after their office permit was removed under the Group Areas Act; as a result, their custom dwindled. As a lawyer of aristocratic heritage, Mandela was part of Johannesburg's elite black middle-class, and accorded much respect as a result from the black community. Although a second daughter, Makaziwe Phumia, was born in May 1954, Mandela's relationship with Evelyn became strained, and she accused him of adultery. Claims have emerged that he was having affairs with ANC member Lillian Ngoyi and secretary Ruth Mompati; various individuals close to Mandela in this period have stated that the latter bore him a child. Disgusted by her son's behaviour, Nosekeni returned to Transkei, while Evelyn embraced the Jehovah's Witnesses and rejected Mandela's preoccupation with politics.\n\nCongress of the People and the Treason Trial: 1955–61\n\nAfter taking part in the unsuccessful protest to prevent the forced relocation of all black people from the Sophiatown suburb of Johannesburg in February 1955, Mandela concluded that violent action would prove necessary to end apartheid and white minority rule. He advised Sisulu to request weaponry from the People's Republic of China, but though the Chinese government supported the anti-apartheid struggle, they believed the movement insufficiently prepared for guerilla warfare. With the involvement of the South African Indian Congress, the Coloured People's Congress, the South African Congress of Trade Unions and the Congress of Democrats, the ANC planned a Congress of the People, calling on all South Africans to send in proposals for a post-apartheid era. Based on the responses, a Freedom Charter was drafted by Rusty Bernstein, calling for the creation of a democratic, non-racialist state with the nationalisation of major industry. When the charter was adopted at a June 1955 conference in Kliptown, attended by 3,000 delegates, police cracked down on the event, but it remained a key part of Mandela's ideology.\n\nFollowing the end of a second ban in September 1955, Mandela went on a working holiday to Transkei to discuss the implications of the Bantu Authorities Act, 1951 with local tribal leaders, also visiting his mother and Noengland before proceeding to Cape Town. In March 1956 he received his third ban on public appearances, restricting him to Johannesburg for five years, but he often defied it. Mandela's marriage broke down as Evelyn left him, taking their children to live with her brother. Initiating divorce proceedings in May 1956, she claimed that Mandela had physically abused her; he denied the allegations, and fought for custody of their children. She withdrew her petition of separation in November, but Mandela filed for divorce in January 1958; the divorce was finalised in March, with the children placed in Evelyn's care. During the divorce proceedings, he began courting and politicising a social worker, Winnie Madikizela, whom he married in Bizana in June 1958. She later became involved in ANC activities, spending several weeks in prison. Together they had two children: Zenani, born in February 1959, and Zindziswa, born in December 1960.\n\nIn December 1956, Mandela was arrested alongside most of the ANC national executive, accused of \"high treason\" against the state. Held in Johannesburg Prison amid mass protests, they underwent a preparatory examination before being granted bail. The defence's refutation began in January 1957, overseen by defence lawyer Vernon Berrangé, and continued until adjourning in September. In January 1958, Oswald Pirow was appointed to prosecute the case, and in February the judge ruled that there was \"sufficient reason\" for the defendants to go on trial in the Transvaal Supreme Court. The formal Treason Trial began in Pretoria in August 1958, with the defendants successfully applying to have the three judges – all linked to the governing National Party – replaced. In August, one charge was dropped, and in October the prosecution withdrew its indictment, submitting a reformulated version in November which argued that the ANC leadership committed high treason by advocating violent revolution, a charge the defendants denied.\n\nIn April 1959, Africanists dissatisfied with the ANC's united front approach founded the Pan-Africanist Congress (PAC); Mandela disagreed with the group's racially exclusionary views, describing them as \"immature\" and \"naïve\". Both parties took part in an anti-pass campaign in early 1960, in which Africans burned the passes that they were legally obliged to carry. One of the PAC-organised demonstrations was fired upon by police, resulting in the deaths of 69 protesters in the Sharpeville massacre. The incident brought international condemnation of the government and resulted in rioting throughout South Africa, with Mandela publicly burning his pass in solidarity.\n\nResponding to the unrest, the government implemented state of emergency measures, declaring martial law and banning the ANC and PAC, while in March they arrested Mandela and other activists, imprisoning them for five months without charge in the unsanitary conditions of the Pretoria Local prison. Imprisonment caused problems for Mandela and his co-defendants in the Treason Trial; their lawyers could not reach them, and so it was decided that the lawyers would withdraw in protest until the accused were freed from prison when the state of emergency was lifted in late August 1960. Over the following months, Mandela used his free time to organise an All-In African Conference near Pietermaritzburg, Natal, in March 1961, at which 1,400 anti-apartheid delegates met, agreeing on a stay-at-home strike to mark 31 May, the day South Africa became a republic. On 29 March 1961, six years after the Treason Trial began, the judges produced a verdict of not guilty, claiming that there was insufficient evidence to convict the accused of \"high treason\", for they had advocated neither communism nor violent revolution; the outcome embarrassed the government.\n\nMK, the SACP, and African tour: 1961–62\n\nDisguised as a chauffeur, Mandela travelled the country incognito, organising the ANC's new cell structure and the planned mass stay-at-home strike. Referred to as the \"Black Pimpernel\" in the press – a reference to Emma Orczy's 1905 novel The Scarlet Pimpernel – a warrant for his arrest was put out by the police. Mandela held secret meetings with reporters, and after the government failed to prevent the strike, he warned them that many anti-apartheid activists would soon resort to violence through groups like the PAC's Poqo. He believed that the ANC should form an armed group to channel some of this violence in a controlled direction, convincing both ANC leader Albert Luthuli – who was morally opposed to violence – and allied activist groups of its necessity.\n\nInspired by the actions of Fidel Castro's 26th of July Movement in the Cuban Revolution, in 1961 Mandela, Sisulu, and Slovo co-founded Umkhonto we Sizwe (\"Spear of the Nation\", abbreviated MK). Becoming chairman of the militant group, Mandela gained ideas from Marxist literature on guerilla warfare by Mao and Che Guevara as well as from the military theorist Carl von Clausewitz. Although initially declared officially separate from the ANC so as not to taint the latter's reputation, it later became widely recognised that MK was the party's armed wing. Most early MK members were white communists who were able to hide Mandela in their homes; after hiding in communist Wolfie Kodesh's flat in Berea, Mandela moved to the communist-owned Liliesleaf Farm in Rivonia, there joined by Raymond Mhlaba, Slovo, and Bernstein, who put together the MK constitution. Although in later life Mandela denied ever being a member of the Communist Party, historical research published in 2011 strongly suggested that he had joined in the late 1950s or early 1960s. This was confirmed by both the SACP and the ANC after Mandela's death. According to the SACP, he was not only a member of the party, but also served on its Central Committee, but later denied it for political reasons. \n\nOperating through a cell structure, MK planned to carry out acts of sabotage that would exert maximum pressure on the government with minimum casualties; they sought to bomb military installations, power plants, telephone lines, and transport links at night, when civilians were not present. Mandela stated that they chose sabotage because it was the least harmful action, did not involve killing, and offered the best hope for racial reconciliation afterwards; he nevertheless acknowledged that should this have failed then guerrilla warfare might have been necessary. Soon after ANC leader Luthuli was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, MK publicly announced its existence with 57 bombings on Dingane's Day (16 December) 1961, followed by further attacks on New Year's Eve.\n\nThe ANC decided to send Mandela as a delegate to the February 1962 Pan-African Freedom Movement for East, Central and Southern Africa (PAFMECSA) meeting in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Leaving South Africa in secret via Bechuanaland, on his way Mandela visited Tanganyika and met with its president, Julius Nyerere. Arriving in Ethiopia, Mandela met with Emperor Haile Selassie I, and gave his speech after Selassie's at the conference. After the symposium, he travelled to Cairo, Egypt, admiring the political reforms of President Gamal Abdel Nasser, and then went to Tunis, Tunisia, where President Habib Bourguiba gave him £5,000 for weaponry. He proceeded to Morocco, Mali, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, and Senegal, receiving funds from Liberian President William Tubman and Guinean President Ahmed Sékou Touré. Leaving Africa for London, England, he met anti-apartheid activists, reporters, and prominent politicians. Returning to Ethiopia, he began a six-month course in guerrilla warfare, but completed only two months before being recalled to South Africa.\n\nImprisonment\n\nArrest and Rivonia trial: 1962–64\n\nOn 5 August 1962, police captured Mandela along with fellow activist Cecil Williams near Howick. Various rumours have circulated suggesting that the authorities were tipped off with regard to Mandela's whereabouts, although Mandela himself gave these little credence. One idea was that his location had been revealed to South African police by the United States' Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), which feared that Mandela was a communist; this claim later received support from an ex-U.S. diplomat who claimed involvement in the operation. Jailed in Johannesburg's Marshall Square prison, Mandela was charged with inciting workers' strikes and leaving the country without permission. Representing himself with Slovo as legal advisor, Mandela intended to use the trial to showcase \"the ANC's moral opposition to racism\" while supporters demonstrated outside the court. Moved to Pretoria, where Winnie could visit him, in his cell he began correspondence studies for a Bachelor of Laws (LLB) degree from the University of London. His hearing began in October, but he disrupted proceedings by wearing a traditional kaross, refusing to call any witnesses, and turning his plea of mitigation into a political speech. Found guilty, he was sentenced to five years' imprisonment; as he left the courtroom, supporters sang \"Nkosi Sikelel iAfrika\".\n\nIn July 1963, police raided Liliesleaf Farm, arresting those they found there and uncovering paperwork documenting MK's activities, some of which mentioned Mandela. The Rivonia Trial began at Pretoria Supreme Court in October, with Mandela and his comrades charged with four counts of sabotage and conspiracy to violently overthrow the government; their chief prosecutor was Percy Yutar. Judge Quartus de Wet soon threw out the prosecution's case for insufficient evidence, but Yutar reformulated the charges, presenting his new case from December until February 1964, calling 173 witnesses and bringing thousands of documents and photographs to the trial.\n\nAlthough four of the accused denied involvement with MK, Mandela and the five other accused admitted sabotage but denied that they had ever agreed to initiate guerrilla war against the government. They used the trial to highlight their political cause; at the opening of the defence's proceedings, Mandela gave his three-hour \"I Am Prepared to Die\" speech. That speech – which was inspired by Castro's \"History Will Absolve Me\" – was widely reported in the press despite official censorship. The trial gained international attention; there were global calls for the release of the accused from the United Nations and World Peace Council, while the University of London Union voted Mandela to its presidency. On 12 June 1964, justice De Wet found Mandela and two of his co-accused guilty on all four charges; although the prosecution had called for the death sentence to be applied, the judge instead condemned them to life imprisonment.\n\nRobben Island: 1964–82\n\nMandela and his co-accused were transferred from Pretoria to the prison on Robben Island, remaining there for the next 18 years. Isolated from non-political prisoners in Section B, Mandela was imprisoned in a damp concrete cell measuring 8 ft by 7 ft, with a straw mat on which to sleep. Verbally and physically harassed by several white prison wardens, the Rivonia Trial prisoners spent their days breaking rocks into gravel, until being reassigned in January 1965 to work in a lime quarry. Mandela was initially forbidden to wear sunglasses, and the glare from the lime permanently damaged his eyesight. At night, he worked on his LLB degree which he was obtaining from University of London through a correspondence course with Wolsey Hall, Oxford, but newspapers were forbidden, and he was locked in solitary confinement on several occasions for possessing smuggled news clippings. Initially classified as the lowest grade of prisoner, Class D, he was permitted one visit and one letter every six months, although all mail was heavily censored.\n\nThe political prisoners took part in work and hunger strikes – the latter considered largely ineffective by Mandela – to improve prison conditions, viewing this as a microcosm of the anti-apartheid struggle. ANC prisoners elected him to their four-man \"High Organ\" along with Sisulu, Govan Mbeki, and Raymond Mhlaba, and he involved himself in a group representing all political prisoners on the island, Ulundi, through which he forged links with PAC and Yu Chi Chan Club members. Initiating the \"University of Robben Island\", whereby prisoners lectured on their own areas of expertise, he debated socio-political topics with his comrades.\n\nThough attending Christian Sunday services, Mandela studied Islam. He also studied Afrikaans, hoping to build a mutual respect with the warders and convert them to his cause. Various official visitors met with Mandela, most significantly the liberal parliamentary representative Helen Suzman of the Progressive Party, who championed Mandela's cause outside of prison. In September 1970, he met British Labour Party MP Dennis Healey. South African Minister of Justice Jimmy Kruger visited in December 1974, but he and Mandela did not get on. His mother visited in 1968, dying shortly after, and his firstborn son Thembi died in a car accident the following year; Mandela was forbidden from attending either funeral. His wife was rarely able to visit, being regularly imprisoned for political activity, and his daughters first visited in December 1975; Winnie got out of prison in 1977 but was forcibly settled in Brandfort, still unable to visit him.\n\nFrom 1967, prison conditions improved; black prisoners were given trousers rather than shorts, games were permitted, and the standard of their food was raised. In 1969, an escape plan for Mandela was developed by Gordon Bruce, but it was abandoned after the conspiracy was infiltrated by an agent of the South African Bureau of State Security (BOSS), who hoped to see Mandela shot during the escape. In 1970, Commander Piet Badenhorst became commanding officer. Mandela, seeing an increase in the physical and mental abuse of prisoners, complained to visiting judges, who had Badenhorst reassigned. He was replaced by Commander Willie Willemse, who developed a co-operative relationship with Mandela and was keen to improve prison standards.\n\nBy 1975, Mandela had become a Class A prisoner, allowing greater numbers of visits and letters; he corresponded with anti-apartheid activists like Mangosuthu Buthelezi and Desmond Tutu. That year, he began his autobiography, which was smuggled to London, but remained unpublished at the time; prison authorities discovered several pages, and his study privileges were revoked for four years. Instead, he devoted his spare time to gardening and reading until he resumed his LLB degree studies in 1980.\n\nBy the late 1960s, Mandela's fame had been eclipsed by Steve Biko and the Black Consciousness Movement (BCM). Seeing the ANC as ineffectual, the BCM called for militant action, but following the Soweto uprising of 1976, many BCM activists were imprisoned on Robben Island. Mandela tried to build a relationship with these young radicals, although he was critical of their racialism and contempt for white anti-apartheid activists. Renewed international interest in his plight came in July 1978, when he celebrated his 60th birthday. He was awarded an honorary doctorate in Lesotho, the Jawaharlal Nehru Award for International Understanding in India in 1979, and the Freedom of the City of Glasgow, Scotland in 1981. In March 1980, the slogan \"Free Mandela!\" was developed by journalist Percy Qoboza, sparking an international campaign that led the UN Security Council to call for his release. Despite increasing foreign pressure, the government refused, relying on its Cold War allies US President Ronald Reagan and UK Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher; both considered Mandela's ANC a terrorist organisation sympathetic to communism and supported its suppression.\n\nPollsmoor Prison: 1982–88\n\nIn April 1982, Mandela was transferred to Pollsmoor Prison in Tokai, Cape Town along with senior ANC leaders Walter Sisulu, Andrew Mlangeni, Ahmed Kathrada, and Raymond Mhlaba; they believed that they were being isolated to remove their influence on younger activists at Robben Island. Conditions at Pollsmoor were better than at Robben Island, although Mandela missed the camaraderie and scenery of the island. Getting on well with Pollsmoor's commanding officer, Brigadier Munro, Mandela was permitted to create a roof garden, and also read voraciously and corresponded widely, now permitted 52 letters a year. He was appointed patron of the multi-racial United Democratic Front (UDF), founded to combat reforms implemented by South African President P. W. Botha. Botha's National Party government had permitted Coloured and Indian citizens to vote for their own parliaments, which had control over education, health, and housing, but black Africans were excluded from the system; like Mandela, the UDF saw this as an attempt to divide the anti-apartheid movement on racial lines.\n\nViolence across the country escalated, with many fearing civil war. Under pressure from an international lobby, multinational banks stopped investing in South Africa, resulting in economic stagnation. Numerous banks and Thatcher asked Botha to release Mandela – then at the height of his international fame – to defuse the volatile situation. Although considering Mandela a dangerous \"arch-Marxist\", in February 1985 Botha offered him a release from prison on condition that he \"unconditionally rejected violence as a political weapon\". Mandela spurned the offer, releasing a statement through his daughter Zindzi stating, \"What freedom am I being offered while the organisation of the people [ANC] remains banned? Only free men can negotiate. A prisoner cannot enter into contracts.\"\n\nIn 1985, Mandela underwent surgery on an enlarged prostate gland, before being given new solitary quarters on the ground floor. He was met by \"seven eminent persons\", an international delegation sent to negotiate a settlement, but Botha's government refused to co-operate, in June calling a state of emergency and initiating a police crackdown on unrest. The anti-apartheid resistance fought back, with the ANC committing 231 attacks in 1986 and 235 in 1987. The violence escalated as the government used the army and police to combat the resistance, and provided covert support for vigilante groups and the Zulu nationalist movement Inkatha, which was involved in an increasingly violent struggle with the ANC. Mandela requested talks with Botha but was denied, instead secretly meeting with Minister of Justice Kobie Coetsee in 1987, having a further 11 meetings over the next three years. Coetsee organised negotiations between Mandela and a team of four government figures starting in May 1988; the team agreed to the release of political prisoners and the legalisation of the ANC on the condition that they permanently renounce violence, break links with the Communist Party, and not insist on majority rule. Mandela rejected these conditions, insisting that the ANC would only end its armed activities when the government renounced violence.\n\nMandela's 70th birthday in July 1988 attracted international attention, notably with a tribute concert at London's Wembley Stadium that was televised and watched by an estimated 200 million viewers. Although presented globally as a heroic figure, he faced personal problems when ANC leaders informed him that Winnie had set herself up as head of a criminal gang, the \"Mandela United Football Club\", who had been responsible for torturing and killing opponents – including children – in Soweto. Though some encouraged him to divorce her, he decided to remain loyal until she was found guilty by trial.\n\nVictor Verster Prison and release: 1988–90\n\nRecovering from tuberculosis exacerbated by the dank conditions in his cell, in December 1988 Mandela was moved to Victor Verster Prison near Paarl. He was housed in the relative comfort of a warder's house with a personal cook, and used the time to complete his LLB degree. While there, he was permitted many visitors and organised secret communications with exiled ANC leader Oliver Tambo. \n\nIn 1989, Botha suffered a stroke, retaining the state presidency but stepping down as leader of the National Party, to be replaced by F. W. de Klerk. In a surprise move, Botha invited Mandela to a meeting over tea in July 1989, an invitation Mandela considered genial. Botha was replaced as state president by de Klerk six weeks later; the new president believed that apartheid was unsustainable and released a number of ANC prisoners. Following the fall of the Berlin Wall in November 1989, de Klerk called his cabinet together to debate legalising the ANC and freeing Mandela. Although some were deeply opposed to his plans, de Klerk met with Mandela in December to discuss the situation, a meeting both men considered friendly, before legalising all formerly banned political parties in February 1990 and announcing Mandela's unconditional release. Shortly thereafter, for the first time in 20 years, photographs of Mandela were allowed to be published in South Africa.\n\nLeaving Victor Verster Prison on 11 February, Mandela held Winnie's hand in front of amassed crowds and press; the event was broadcast live across the world. Driven to Cape Town's City Hall through crowds, he gave a speech declaring his commitment to peace and reconciliation with the white minority, but made it clear that the ANC's armed struggle was not over, and would continue as \"a purely defensive action against the violence of apartheid\". He expressed hope that the government would agree to negotiations, so that \"there may no longer be the need for the armed struggle\", and insisted that his main focus was to bring peace to the black majority and give them the right to vote in national and local elections.The text of Mandela's speech can be found at Staying at the home of Desmond Tutu, in the following days Mandela met with friends, activists, and press, giving a speech to an estimated 100,000 people at Johannesburg's Soccer City.\n\nEnd of apartheid\n\nEarly negotiations: 1990–91\n\nMandela proceeded on an African tour, meeting supporters and politicians in Zambia, Zimbabwe, Namibia, Libya and Algeria, continuing to Sweden, where he was reunited with Tambo, and then London, where he appeared at the Nelson Mandela: An International Tribute for a Free South Africa concert at Wembley Stadium. Encouraging foreign countries to support sanctions against the apartheid government, in France he was welcomed by President François Mitterrand, in Vatican City by Pope John Paul II, and in the United Kingdom by Thatcher. In the United States, he met President George H.W. Bush, addressed both Houses of Congress and visited eight cities, being particularly popular among the African-American community. In Cuba, he met President Castro, whom he had long admired, with the two becoming friends. He met President R. Venkataraman in India, President Suharto in Indonesia, Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad in Malaysia, Prime Minister Bob Hawke in Australia, and visited Japan; he did not visit the Soviet Union, a longtime ANC supporter.\n\nIn May 1990, Mandela led a multiracial ANC delegation into preliminary negotiations with a government delegation of 11 Afrikaner men. Mandela impressed them with his discussions of Afrikaner history, and the negotiations led to the Groot Schuur Minute, in which the government lifted the state of emergency. In August, Mandela – recognising the ANC's severe military disadvantage – offered a ceasefire, the Pretoria Minute, for which he was widely criticised by MK activists. He spent much time trying to unify and build the ANC, appearing at a Johannesburg conference in December attended by 1600 delegates, many of whom found him more moderate than expected. At the ANC's July 1991 national conference in Durban, Mandela admitted the party's faults and announced his aim to build a \"strong and well-oiled task force\" for securing majority rule. At the conference, he was elected ANC President, replacing the ailing Tambo, and a 50-strong multiracial, mixed gendered national executive was elected.\n\nMandela was given an office in the newly purchased ANC headquarters at Shell House, Johannesburg, and moved into Winnie's large Soweto home. Their marriage was increasingly strained as he learned of her affair with Dali Mpofu, but he supported her during her trial for kidnapping and assault. He gained funding for her defence from the International Defence and Aid Fund for Southern Africa and from Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi, but in June 1991 she was found guilty and sentenced to six years in prison, reduced to two on appeal. On 13 April 1992, Mandela publicly announced his separation from Winnie. The ANC forced her to step down from the national executive for misappropriating ANC funds; Mandela moved into the mostly white Johannesburg suburb of Houghton. Mandela's prospects for a peaceful transition were further damaged by an increase in \"black-on-black\" violence, particularly between ANC and Inkatha supporters in KwaZulu-Natal, which resulted in thousands of deaths. Mandela met with Inkatha leader Buthelezi, but the ANC prevented further negotiations on the issue. Mandela argued that there was a \"third force\" within the state intelligence services fuelling the \"slaughter of the people\" and openly blamed de Klerk – whom he increasingly distrusted – for the Sebokeng massacre. In September 1991, a national peace conference was held in Johannesburg at which Mandela, Buthelezi and de Klerk signed a peace accord, though the violence continued.\n\nCODESA talks: 1991–92\n\nThe Convention for a Democratic South Africa (CODESA) began in December 1991 at the Johannesburg World Trade Center, attended by 228 delegates from 19 political parties. Although Cyril Ramaphosa led the ANC's delegation, Mandela remained a key figure, and after de Klerk used the closing speech to condemn the ANC's violence, he took to the stage to denounce de Klerk as the \"head of an illegitimate, discredited minority regime\". Dominated by the National Party and ANC, little negotiation was achieved. CODESA 2 was held in May 1992, at which de Klerk insisted that post-apartheid South Africa must use a federal system with a rotating presidency to ensure the protection of ethnic minorities; Mandela opposed this, demanding a unitary system governed by majority rule. Following the Boipatong massacre of ANC activists by government-aided Inkatha militants, Mandela called off the negotiations, before attending a meeting of the Organisation of African Unity in Senegal, at which he called for a special session of the UN Security Council and proposed that a UN peacekeeping force be stationed in South Africa to prevent \"state terrorism\". Calling for domestic mass action, in August the ANC organised the largest-ever strike in South African history, and supporters marched on Pretoria. \n\nFollowing the Bisho massacre, in which 28 ANC supporters and one soldier were shot dead by the Ciskei Defence Force during a protest march, Mandela realised that mass action was leading to further violence and resumed negotiations in September. He agreed to do so on the conditions that all political prisoners be released, that Zulu traditional weapons be banned, and that Zulu hostels would be fenced off, the latter two measures intended to prevent further Inkatha attacks; de Klerk reluctantly agreed. The negotiations agreed that a multiracial general election would be held, resulting in a five-year coalition government of national unity and a constitutional assembly that gave the National Party continuing influence. The ANC also conceded to safeguarding the jobs of white civil servants; such concessions brought fierce internal criticism. The duo agreed on an interim constitution based on a liberal democratic model, guaranteeing separation of powers, creating a constitutional court, and including a U.S.-style bill of rights; it also divided the country into nine provinces, each with its own premier and civil service, a concession between de Klerk's desire for federalism and Mandela's for unitary government.\n\nThe democratic process was threatened by the Concerned South Africans Group (COSAG), an alliance of far-right Afrikaner parties and black ethnic-secessionist groups like Inkatha; in June 1993, the white supremacist Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging (AWB) attacked the Kempton Park World Trade Centre. Following the murder of ANC activist Chris Hani, Mandela made a publicised speech to calm rioting, soon after appearing at a mass funeral in Soweto for Tambo, who had died of a stroke. In July 1993, both Mandela and de Klerk visited the US, independently meeting President Bill Clinton and each receiving the Liberty Medal. Soon after, Mandela and de Klerk were jointly awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in Norway. Influenced by Thabo Mbeki, Mandela began meeting with big business figures, and played down his support for nationalisation, fearing that he would scare away much-needed foreign investment. Although criticised by socialist ANC members, he was encouraged to embrace private enterprise by members of the Chinese and Vietnamese Communist parties at the January 1992 World Economic Forum in Switzerland.\n\nGeneral election: 1994\n\nWith the election set for 27 April 1994, the ANC began campaigning, opening 100 election offices and orchestrating People's Forums across the country, at which Mandela could appear, as a popular figure with great status among black South Africans. The ANC campaigned on a Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP) to build a million houses in five years, introduce universal free education and extend access to water and electricity. The party's slogan was \"a better life for all\", although it was not explained how this development would be funded. With the exception of the Weekly Mail and the New Nation, South Africa's press opposed Mandela's election, fearing continued ethnic strife, instead supporting the National or Democratic Party. Mandela devoted much time to fundraising for the ANC, touring North America, Europe and Asia to meet wealthy donors, including former supporters of the apartheid regime. He also urged a reduction in the voting age from 18 to 14; rejected by the ANC, this policy became the subject of ridicule.\n\nConcerned that COSAG would undermine the election, particularly in the wake of the conflict in Bophuthatswana and the Shell House Massacre – incidents of violence involving the AWB and Inkatha, respectively – Mandela met with Afrikaner politicians and generals, including P. W. Botha, Pik Botha and Constand Viljoen, persuading many to work within the democratic system, and with de Klerk convinced Inkatha's Buthelezi to enter the elections rather than launch a war of secession. As leaders of the two major parties, de Klerk and Mandela appeared on a televised debate; although de Klerk was widely considered the better speaker at the event, Mandela's offer to shake his hand surprised him, leading some commentators to consider it a victory for Mandela. The election went ahead with little violence, although an AWB cell killed 20 with car bombs. As widely expected, the ANC won a sweeping victory, taking 63% of the vote, just short of the two-thirds majority needed to unilaterally change the constitution. The ANC was also victorious in seven provinces, with Inkatha and the National Party each taking another. Mandela voted at the Ohlange High School in Durban, and though the ANC's victory assured his election as President, he publicly accepted that the election had been marred by instances of fraud and sabotage. \n\nPresidency of South Africa: 1994–99\n\nThe newly elected National Assembly's first act was to formally elect Mandela as South Africa's first black chief executive. His inauguration took place in Pretoria on 10 May 1994, televised to a billion viewers globally. The event was attended by 4,000 guests, including world leaders from disparate backgrounds. Mandela headed a Government of National Unity dominated by the ANC – which alone had no experience of governance – but containing representatives from the National Party and Inkatha. Under the Interim Constitution, Inkatha and the National Party were entitled to seats in the government by virtue of winning at least 20 seats. In keeping with earlier agreements, both de Klerk and Thabo Mbeki were given the position of Deputy President. Although Mbeki had not been his first choice for the job, Mandela grew to rely heavily on him throughout his presidency, allowing him to organise policy details. Moving into the presidential office at Tuynhuys in Cape Town, Mandela allowed de Klerk to retain the presidential residence in the Groote Schuur estate, instead settling into the nearby Westbrooke manor, which he renamed \"Genadendal\", meaning \"Valley of Mercy\" in Afrikaans. Retaining his Houghton home, he also had a house built in his home village of Qunu, which he visited regularly, walking around the area, meeting with locals, and judging tribal disputes.\n\nAged 76, he faced various ailments, and although exhibiting continued energy, he felt isolated and lonely. He often entertained celebrities, such as Michael Jackson, Whoopi Goldberg, and the Spice Girls, and befriended ultra-rich businessmen, like Harry Oppenheimer of Anglo-American as well as Queen Elizabeth II on her March 1995 state visit to South Africa, resulting in strong criticism from ANC anti-capitalists. Despite his opulent surroundings, Mandela lived simply, donating a third of his R 552,000 annual income to the Nelson Mandela Children's Fund, which he had founded in 1995. Although dismantling press censorship, speaking out in favour of freedom of the press, and befriending many journalists, Mandela was critical of much of the country's media, noting that it was overwhelmingly owned and run by middle-class whites and believing that it focused too much on scaremongering around crime. Mandela was known to change his clothes several times a day and after assuming the presidency he became so associated with Batik shirts that they came to be known as \"Madiba shirts\". \n\nIn December 1994, Mandela published Long Walk to Freedom, an autobiography based around a manuscript he had written in prison, augmented by interviews conducted with American journalist Richard Stengel. In late 1994, he attended the 49th conference of the ANC in Bloemfontein, at which a more militant national executive was elected, among them Winnie Mandela; although she expressed an interest in reconciling, Nelson initiated divorce proceedings in August 1995. By 1995, he had entered into a relationship with Graça Machel, a Mozambican political activist 27 years his junior who was the widow of former president Samora Machel. They had first met in July 1990 when she was still in mourning, but their friendship grew into a partnership, with Machel accompanying him on many of his foreign visits. She turned down Mandela's first marriage proposal, wanting to retain some independence and dividing her time between Mozambique and Johannesburg.\n\nNational reconciliation\n\nPresiding over the transition from apartheid minority rule to a multicultural democracy, Mandela saw national reconciliation as the primary task of his presidency. Having seen other post-colonial African economies damaged by the departure of white elites, Mandela worked to reassure South Africa's white population that they were protected and represented in \"the Rainbow Nation\". Although his Government of National Unity would be dominated by the ANC, he attempted to create a broad coalition by appointing de Klerk as Deputy President and appointing other National Party officials as ministers for Agriculture, Energy, Environment, and Minerals and Energy, as well as naming Buthelezi as Minister for Home Affairs. The other cabinet positions were taken by ANC members, many of whom – like Joe Modise, Alfred Nzo, Joe Slovo, Mac Maharaj and Dullah Omar – had long been comrades, although others, such as Tito Mboweni and Jeff Radebe, were much younger. Mandela's relationship with de Klerk was strained; Mandela thought that de Klerk was intentionally provocative, and de Klerk felt that he was being intentionally humiliated by the president. In January 1995, Mandela heavily chastised him for awarding amnesty to 3,500 police officers just before the election, and later criticised him for defending former Minister of Defence Magnus Malan when the latter was charged with murder.\n\nMandela personally met with senior figures of the apartheid regime, including Hendrik Verwoerd's widow, Betsie Schoombie, and lawyer Percy Yutar, also laying a wreath by the statue of Afrikaner hero Daniel Theron. Emphasising personal forgiveness and reconciliation, he announced that \"courageous people do not fear forgiving, for the sake of peace.\" He encouraged black South Africans to get behind the previously hated national rugby team, the Springboks, as South Africa hosted the 1995 Rugby World Cup. After the Springboks won a celebrated final against New Zealand, Mandela presented the trophy to captain Francois Pienaar, an Afrikaner, wearing a Springbok shirt with Pienaar's own number 6 on the back. This was widely seen as a major step in the reconciliation of white and black South Africans; as de Klerk later put it, \"Mandela won the hearts of millions of white rugby fans.\" Mandela's efforts at reconciliation assuaged the fears of whites, but also drew criticism from more militant blacks. Among the latter was his estranged wife, Winnie, who accused the ANC of being more interested in appeasing the white community than in helping the black majority.\n\nMandela oversaw the formation of a Truth and Reconciliation Commission to investigate crimes committed under apartheid by both the government and the ANC, appointing Desmond Tutu as its chair. To prevent the creation of martyrs, the Commission granted individual amnesties in exchange for testimony of crimes committed during the apartheid era. Dedicated in February 1996, it held two years of hearings detailing rapes, torture, bombings, and assassinations, before issuing its final report in October 1998. Both de Klerk and Mbeki appealed to have parts of the report suppressed, though only de Klerk's appeal was successful. Mandela praised the Commission's work, stating that it \"had helped us move away from the past to concentrate on the present and the future\".\n\nDomestic programmes\n\nMandela's administration inherited a country with a huge disparity in wealth and services between white and black communities. Of a population of 40 million, around 23 million lacked electricity or adequate sanitation, and 12 million lacked clean water supplies, with 2 million children not in school and a third of the population illiterate. There was 33% unemployment, and just under half of the population lived below the poverty line. Government financial reserves were nearly depleted, with a fifth of the national budget being spent on debt repayment, meaning that the extent of the promised Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP) was scaled back, with none of the proposed nationalisation or job creation. In 1996, the RDP was replaced with a new policy, Growth, Employment and Redistribution (GEAR), which maintained South Africa's mixed economy but placed an emphasis on economic growth through a framework of market economics and the encouragement of foreign investment; many in the ANC derided it as a neo-liberal policy that did not undermine social inequality, no matter how Mandela defended it. In adopting this approach, Mandela's government adhered to the \"Washington consensus\" advocated by the World Bank and International Monetary Fund.\n\nUnder Mandela's presidency, welfare spending increased by 13% in 1996/97, 13% in 1997/98, and 7% in 1998/99. The government introduced parity in grants for communities, including disability grants, child maintenance grants, and old-age pensions, which had previously been set at different levels for South Africa's different racial groups. In 1994, free healthcare was introduced for children under six and pregnant women, a provision extended to all those using primary level public sector health care services in 1996. By the 1999 election, the ANC could boast that due to their policies, 3 million people were connected to telephone lines, 1.5 million children were brought into the education system, 500 clinics were upgraded or constructed, 2 million people were connected to the electricity grid, water access was extended to 3 million people, and 750,000 houses were constructed, housing nearly 3 million people.\n\nThe Land Restitution Act of 1994 enabled people who had lost their property as a result of the Natives Land Act, 1913 to claim back their land, leading to the settlement of tens of thousands of land claims. The Land Reform Act 3 of 1996 safeguarded the rights of labour tenants who live and grow crops or graze livestock on farms. This legislation ensured that such tenants could not be evicted without a court order or if they were over the age of 65. Recognising that arms manufacturing was a key industry in South Africa, Mandela endorsed the trade in weapons but brought in tighter regulations surrounding Armscor to ensure that South African weaponry was not sold to authoritarian regimes. Under Mandela's administration, tourism was increasingly promoted, becoming a major sector of the South African economy.\n\nCritics like Edwin Cameron accused Mandela's government of doing little to stem the HIV/AIDS pandemic in the country; by 1999, 10% of South Africa's population were HIV positive. Mandela later admitted that he had personally neglected the issue, in part due to public reticence in discussing issues surrounding sex in South Africa, and that he had instead left the issue for Mbeki to deal with. Mandela also received criticism for failing to sufficiently combat crime, with South Africa having one of the world's highest crime rates, and the activities of international crime syndicates in the country growing significantly throughout the decade. Mandela's administration was also perceived as having failed to deal with the problem of corruption. \n\nFurther problems were caused by the exodus of thousands of skilled white South Africans from the country, who were escaping the increasing crime rates, higher taxes, and the impact of positive discrimination toward blacks in employment. This exodus resulted in a brain drain, with Mandela criticising those who left. At the same time, South Africa experienced an influx of millions of illegal migrants from poorer parts of Africa; although public opinion toward these illegal immigrants was generally unfavourable, characterising them as disease-spreading criminals who were a drain on resources, Mandela called on South Africans to embrace them as \"brothers and sisters\".\n\nForeign affairs\n\nMandela expressed the view that \"South Africa's future foreign relations [should] be based on our belief that human rights should be the core of international relations\". Following the South African example, Mandela encouraged other nations to resolve conflicts through diplomacy and reconciliation. In September 1998, Mandela was appointed Secretary-General of the Non-Aligned Movement, who held their annual conference in Durban. He used the event to criticise the \"narrow, chauvinistic interests\" of the Israeli government in stalling negotiations to end the Israeli-Palestinian conflict and urged India and Pakistan to negotiate to end the Kashmir conflict, for which he was criticised by both Israel and India. Inspired by the region's economic boom, Mandela sought greater economic relations with East Asia, in particular with Malaysia, although this was scuppered by the 1997 Asian financial crisis. He attempted to overcome the 'Two China Problem' by extending diplomatic recognition to both the People's Republic of China (PRC), who were growing as an economic force, and Taiwan, who were already longstanding investors in the South African economy. However, under pressure from the PRC, in November 1996 he cut recognition of Taiwan, and in May 1999 paid an official visit to Beijing.\n\nMandela attracted controversy for his close relationship with Indonesian President Suharto, whose regime was responsible for mass human rights abuses, although on a July 1997 visit to Indonesia he privately urged him to withdraw from the occupation of East Timor. He also faced similar criticism from the West for his government's trade links to Syria, Cuba, and Libya, and for his personal friendships with Fidel Castro and Muammar Gaddafi. Castro visited in 1998 to widespread popular acclaim, and Mandela met Gaddafi in Libya to award him the Order of Good Hope. When Western governments and media criticised these visits, Mandela lambasted such criticism as having racist undertones, and stated that \"the enemies of countries in the West are not our enemies.\" Mandela hoped to resolve the long-running dispute between Libya, and the US and Britain, over bringing to trial the two Libyans, Abdelbaset al-Megrahi and Lamin Khalifah Fhimah, who were indicted in November 1991 and accused of sabotaging Pan Am Flight 103. Mandela proposed that they be tried in a third country, which was agreed to by all parties; governed by Scots law, the trial was held at Camp Zeist in the Netherlands in April 1999, and found one of the two men guilty. \n\nMandela echoed Mbeki's calls for an \"African Renaissance\", and was greatly concerned with issues on the continent. He took a soft diplomatic approach to removing Sani Abacha's military junta in Nigeria but later became a leading figure in calling for sanctions when Abacha's regime increased human rights violations. In 1996, he was appointed Chairman of the Southern African Development Community (SADC) and initiated unsuccessful negotiations to end the First Congo War in Zaire. He also played a key role as a mediator in the ethnic conflict between Tutsi and Hutu political groups in the Burundian Civil War, helping to initiate a settlement which brought increased stability to the country but did not end the ethnic violence. In South Africa's first post-apartheid military operation, in September 1998 it ordered troops into Lesotho in order to protect the government of Prime Minister Pakalitha Mosisili after a disputed election prompted opposition uprisings. The action was not authorised by Mandela himself, who was out of the country at the time, but by Buthelezi, who was serving as acting president during Mandela's absence.\n\nWithdrawing from politics\n\nThe new Constitution of South Africa was agreed upon by parliament in May 1996, enshrining a series of institutions to check political and administrative authority within a constitutional democracy. De Klerk opposed the implementation of this constitution, and that month he and the National Party withdrew from the coalition government in protest, claiming that the ANC were not treating them as equals. The ANC took over the cabinet positions formerly held by the Nationalists, with Mbeki becoming sole Deputy President. Inkatha remained part of the coalition, and when both Mandela and Mbeki were out of the country in September 1998, Buthelezi was appointed \"Acting President\", marking an improvement in his relationship with Mandela. Although Mandela had often governed decisively in his first two years as President, he had subsequently increasingly delegated duties to Mbeki, retaining only a close personal supervision of intelligence and security measures. During a 1997 visit to London, he said that \"the ruler of South Africa, the de facto ruler, is Thabo Mbeki\" and that he was \"shifting everything to him\".\n\nMandela stepped down as ANC President at the party's December 1997 conference. He hoped that Ramaphosa would succeed him, believing Mbeki to be too inflexible and intolerant of criticism, but the ANC elected Mbeki regardless. Replacing Mbeki as Deputy President, Mandela and the Executive supported the candidacy of Jacob Zuma, a Zulu who had been imprisoned on Robben Island, but he was challenged by Winnie, whose populist rhetoric had gained her a strong following within the party; Zuma defeated her in a landslide victory vote at the election.\n\nMandela's relationship with Machel had intensified; in February 1998, he publicly stated that he was \"in love with a remarkable lady\", and under pressure from his friend Desmond Tutu, who urged him to set an example for young people, he organised a wedding for his 80th birthday, in July that year. The following day, he held a grand party with many foreign dignitaries. Although the 1996 constitution allowed the president to serve two consecutive five-year terms, Mandela had never planned to stand for a second term in office. He gave his farewell speech to Parliament on 29 March 1999 when it adjourned prior the 1999 general elections, after which he retired. Although opinion polls in South Africa showed wavering support for both the ANC and the government, Mandela himself remained highly popular, with 80% of South Africans polled in 1999 expressing satisfaction with his performance as president.\n\nRetirement\n\nContinued activism and philanthropy: 1999–2004\n\nRetiring in June 1999, Mandela sought a quiet family life, to be divided between Johannesburg and Qunu. He set about authoring a sequel to his first autobiography, to be titled The Presidential Years, but it was abandoned before publication. Finding such seclusion difficult, he reverted to a busy public life with a daily programme of tasks, met with world leaders and celebrities, and, when in Johannesburg, worked with the Nelson Mandela Foundation, founded in 1999 to focus on rural development, school construction, and combating HIV/AIDS. Although he had been heavily criticised for failing to do enough to fight the HIV/AIDS pandemic during his presidency, he devoted much of his time to the issue following his retirement, describing it as \"a war\" that had killed more than \"all previous wars\"; affiliating himself with the Treatment Action Campaign, he urged Mbeki's government to ensure that HIV-positive South Africans had access to anti-retrovirals. Mandela was successfully treated for prostate cancer in July 2001. \n\nIn 2002, Mandela inaugurated the Nelson Mandela Annual Lecture, and in 2003 the Mandela Rhodes Foundation was created at Rhodes House, University of Oxford, to provide postgraduate scholarships to African students. These projects were followed by the Nelson Mandela Centre of Memory and the 46664 campaign against HIV/AIDS. He gave the closing address at the XIII International AIDS Conference in Durban in 2000, and in 2004, spoke at the XV International AIDS Conference in Bangkok, Thailand, there urging for greater measures to tackle tuberculosis as well as HIV/AIDS. \n\nPublicly, Mandela became more vocal in criticising Western powers. He strongly opposed the 1999 NATO intervention in Kosovo and called it an attempt by the world's powerful nations to police the entire world. In 2003, he spoke out against the plans for the US and UK to launch a war in Iraq, describing it as \"a tragedy\" and lambasting US President George W. Bush and UK Prime Minister Tony Blair for undermining the UN, saying, \"All that (Mr. Bush) wants is Iraqi oil\". He attacked the US more generally, asserting that it had committed more \"unspeakable atrocities\" across the world than any other nation, citing the atomic bombing of Japan; this attracted international controversy, although he later reconciled his relationship with Blair. Retaining an interest in Libyan-UK relations, he visited Megrahi in Barlinnie prison and spoke out against the conditions of his treatment, referring to them as \"psychological persecution\". \n\n\"Retiring from retirement\": 2004–13\n\nIn June 2004, aged 85 and amid failing health, Mandela announced that he was \"retiring from retirement\" and retreating from public life, remarking, \"Don't call me, I will call you.\" Although continuing to meet with close friends and family, the Foundation discouraged invitations for him to appear at public events and denied most interview requests.\n\nHe retained some involvement in international affairs. In 2005, he founded the Nelson Mandela Legacy Trust, travelling to the U.S. to speak before the Brookings Institution and the NAACP on the need for economic assistance to Africa. He spoke with U.S. Senator Hillary Clinton and President George W. Bush and first met then-U.S. Senator Barack Obama. Mandela also encouraged Zimbabwean President Robert Mugabe to resign over growing human rights abuses in the country. When this proved ineffective, he spoke out publicly against Mugabe in 2007, asking him to step down \"with residual respect and a modicum of dignity.\" That year, Mandela, Machel, and Desmond Tutu convened a group of world leaders in Johannesburg to contribute their wisdom and independent leadership to some of the world's toughest problems. Mandela announced the formation of this new group, The Elders, in a speech delivered on his 89th birthday. \n\nMandela's 90th birthday was marked across the country on 18 July 2008, with the main celebrations held at Qunu, and a concert in his honour in Hyde Park, London. In a speech marking the event, Mandela called for the rich to help the poor across the world. Throughout Mbeki's presidency, Mandela continued to support the ANC, usually overshadowing Mbeki at any public events that the two attended. Mandela was more at ease with Mbeki's successor Jacob Zuma, although the Nelson Mandela Foundation were upset when his grandson, Mandla Mandela, flew him out to the Eastern Cape to attend a pro-Zuma rally in the midst of a storm in 2009.\n\nIn 2004, Mandela successfully campaigned for South Africa to host the 2010 FIFA World Cup, declaring that there would be \"few better gifts for us\" in the year marking a decade since the fall of apartheid. Mandela emotionally raised the FIFA World Cup Trophy after South Africa was awarded host status. Despite maintaining a low profile during the event due to ill-health, Mandela made his final public appearance during the World Cup closing ceremony, where he received a \"rapturous reception\". Between 2005 and 2013, Mandela, and later his family, were embroiled in a series of legal disputes regarding money held in family trusts for the benefit of his descendants. In mid-2013, as Mandela was hospitalised for a lung infection in Pretoria, his descendants were involved in an intra-family legal dispute relating to the burial place of Mandela's children, and ultimately Mandela himself. \n\nIllness and death: 2011–2013\n\nIn February 2011, Mandela was briefly hospitalised with a respiratory infection, attracting international attention, before being re-hospitalised for a lung infection and gallstone removal in December 2012. After a successful medical procedure in early March 2013, his lung infection recurred and he was briefly hospitalised in Pretoria. In June 2013, his lung infection worsened and he was rehospitalised in Pretoria in a serious condition. Cape Town Archbishop Thabo Makgoba visited Mandela at the hospital and prayed with Machel, while Zuma cancelled a trip to Mozambique to visit him the following day. In September 2013, Mandela was discharged from hospital, although his condition remained unstable. \n\nAfter suffering from a prolonged respiratory infection, Mandela died on 5 December 2013 at the age of 95, at around 20:50 local time (UTC+2) at his home in Houghton, surrounded by his family. Zuma publicly announced his death on television, proclaiming ten days of national mourning, a memorial service held at Johannesburg's FNB Stadium on 10 December 2013, and 8 December as a national day of prayer and reflection. Mandela's body lay in state from 11 to 13 December at the Union Buildings in Pretoria and a state funeral was held on 15 December in Qunu. Approximately 90 representatives of foreign states travelled to South Africa to attend memorial events. Images of and tributes to Mandela proliferated across social media. His $4.1 million estate was left to his widow, other family members, staff, and educational institutions. \n\nPolitical ideology\n\nMandela was a practical politician, rather than an intellectual scholar or political theorist. According to biographer Tom Lodge, \"for Mandela, politics has always been primarily about enacting stories, about making narratives, primarily about morally exemplary conduct, and only secondarily about ideological vision, more about means rather than ends.\" Mandela identified as both an African nationalist, an ideological position he held since joining the ANC, and a democratic socialist. He advocated the ultimate establishment of a classless society, with Sampson describing him as \"openly opposed to capitalism, private land-ownership and the power of big money\".\n\nMandela was influenced by Marxism, and during the revolution he advocated scientific socialism. During the Treason Trial, he denied being a communist, maintaining this stance when later talking to journalists. Conversely, biographer David Jones Smith stated that Mandela \"embraced communism and communists\" in the late 1950s and early 1960s, while historian Stephen Ellis found evidence that Mandela had been an active member of the South African Communist Party (SACP). This was confirmed after his death by the SACP and the ANC. According to the SACP, he was not only a member of the party, but also served on the party's Central Committee.\n\nThe 1955 Freedom Charter, which Mandela had helped create, called for the nationalisation of banks, gold mines and land, believing this necessary to ensure equal distribution of wealth. Despite these beliefs, Mandela initiated a programme of privatisation during his presidency in line with trends in other countries of the time. It has been repeatedly suggested that Mandela would have preferred to develop a social democratic economy in South Africa but that this was not feasible as a result of the international political and economic situation during the early 1990s. This decision was in part influenced by the fall of the socialist states in the Soviet Union and Eastern Bloc during the early 1990s. In contrast, China was developing rapidly within a \"socialist market economy\" and Mandela began to quote Deng Xiaoping's aphorism, \"It doesn't matter whether a cat is black or white, so long as it catches mice.\" \n\nOver the course of his life, he began by advocating a path of non-violence, later embracing violence, and then adopting a non-violent approach to negotiation and reconciliation. When endorsing violence, he did so because he saw no alternative, and was always pragmatic about it, perceiving it as a means to get his opponent to the negotiating table.\n\nMandela took political ideas from other thinkers, among them Indian independence leaders like Gandhi and Nehru, African-American activists, and African nationalists like Nkrumah, and fitted them into the South African situation. At the same time he rejected other aspects of their thought, such as the anti-white sentiment of many African nationalists. He also synthesized both counter-cultural and hegemonic views, for instance by drawing upon ideas from Afrikaner nationalism. Although he presented himself in an autocratic manner in several speeches, he was a devout believer in democracy and abided by majority decisions even when deeply disagreeing with them. His political thought nevertheless exhibited tensions between his support for liberal democracy and pre-colonial African forms of consensus decision making. He held a conviction that \"inclusivity, accountability and freedom of speech\" were the fundamentals of democracy, and was driven by a belief in natural and human rights, pursuing not only racial equality but also promoting gay rights as part of the post-apartheid reforms. His political development was strongly influenced by his legal training and practice, in particular his hope to achieve change not through violence but through \"legal revolution\".\n\nPersonality and personal life\n\nMandela was widely considered a charismatic leader, with biographer Mary Benson describing him as having been \"a born mass leader who could not help magnetizing people\". He was highly image conscious and throughout his life always sought out fine quality clothes, with many commentators believing that he carried himself in a regal manner. His aristocratic heritage was repeatedly emphasised by supporters, thus contributing to his \"charismatic power\". While living in Johannesburg in the 1950s, he cultivated the image of the \"African gentleman\", having \"the pressed clothes, correct manners, and modulated public speech\" associated with such a position. In doing so, Lodge argued that Mandela became \"one of the first media politicians [...] embodying a glamour and a style that projected visually a brave new African world of modernity and freedom\". In the 1990s, he came to be associated closely with the highly coloured \"Madiba shirts\" that he began wearing. \n\nHis official biographer, Anthony Sampson, commented that he was a \"master of imagery and performance\", excelling at presenting himself well in press photographs and producing sound bites. His public speeches were presented in a formal, stiff manner, and often consisted of clichéd set phrases. Although not considered a great orator, his speeches conveyed \"his personal commitment, charm and humour\". In describing his life, Mandela stated, \"I was not a messiah, but an ordinary man who had become a leader because of extraordinary circumstances.\"\n\nMandela was a private person who often concealed his emotions and confided in very few people. Privately, he lived an austere life, refusing to drink alcohol or smoke, and even as President made his own bed. Renowned for his mischievous sense of humour, he was known for being both stubborn and loyal, and at times exhibited a quick temper. He was typically friendly and welcoming, and appeared relaxed in conversation with everyone, including his opponents. Constantly polite and courteous, he was attentive to all, irrespective of their age or status, and often talked to children or servants. He was known for his ability to find common ground with very different communities. In later life, he always looked for the best in people, even defending political opponents to his allies, who sometimes thought him too trusting of others. He was raised in the Methodist denomination of Christianity, with the Methodist Church of Southern Africa claiming that he retained his allegiance to them throughout his life. An analysis of his writings have led to him being described by theologian Dion Forster as a Christian humanist, who relied more upon Ubuntu than Christian theology. According to Sampson, Mandela however never had \"a strong religious faith\", while Boehmer stated that Mandela's religious belief was \"never robust\". He was fond of Indian cuisine, and had a lifelong interest in archaeology and boxing.\n\nMandela was heterosexual, with biographer Fatima Meer stating that he was \"easily tempted\" by women. Another biographer, Martin Meredith, characterised him as being \"by nature a romantic\", highlighting that he had relationships with various women. Mandela was married three times, fathered six children, and had seventeen grandchildren and at least seventeen great-grandchildren. He could be stern and demanding of his children, although he was more affectionate with his grandchildren. His first marriage was to Evelyn Ntoko Mase in October 1944; they divorced after 13 years in 1957 under the multiple strains of his adultery and constant absences, devotion to revolutionary agitation, and the fact that she was a Jehovah's Witness, a religion requiring political neutrality. The couple had two sons whom Mandela survived, Madiba \"Thembi\" Thembekile (1945–1969) and Makgatho Mandela (1950–2005); his first son died in a car crash and his second son died of AIDS. The couple had two daughters, both named Makaziwe Mandela (born 1947 and 1954); the first died at the age of nine months, the second, known as \"Maki\", survived Mandela. Makgatho's son, Mandla Mandela, became chief of the Mvezo tribal council in 2007. Mandela's second wife, Winnie Madikizela-Mandela, also came from the Transkei area, although they too met in Johannesburg, where she was the city's first black social worker. They had two daughters, Zenani and Zindzi. In 1995, he divorced Winnie, and married Graça Machel on his 80th birthday in 1998.\n\nReception and legacy\n\nBy the time of his death, within South Africa Mandela was widely considered both \"the father of the nation\" and \"the founding father of democracy\". Outside of South Africa, he was a \"global icon\", with the scholar of South African studies Rita Barnard describing him as \"one of the most revered figures of our time\". One biographer considered him \"a modern democratic hero\", while his popularity had resulted in a cult of personality building up around him. He is often cited alongside Gandhi and Martin Luther King, Jr. as one of the 20th century's exemplary anti-racist and anti-colonial leaders. Boehmer described him as \"a totem of the totemic values of our age: toleration and liberal democracy\" and \"a universal symbol of social justice\".\n\nMandela's international fame had emerged during his incarceration in the 1980s, when he became the world's most famous prisoner, a symbol of the anti-apartheid cause, and an icon for millions who embraced the ideal of human equality. In 1986, Mandela biographer Mary Benson characterised him as \"the embodiment of the struggle for liberation\" in South Africa. Meredith stated that in becoming \"a potent symbol of resistance\" to apartheid during the 1980s, he had gained \"mythical status\" internationally. Sampson commented that even during his life, this myth had become \"so powerful that it blurs the realities\", converting Mandela into \"a secular saint\". Within a decade of the end of his Presidency, Mandela's era was being widely thought of as \"a golden age of hope and harmony\", with much nostalgia being expressed for it. Across the world, Mandela earned international acclaim for his activism in overcoming apartheid and fostering racial reconciliation, coming to be viewed as \"a moral authority\" with a great \"concern for truth\".\n\nMandela generated controversy throughout his career as an activist and politician, having detractors on both the radical left and right. Some voices in the ANC accused him of selling out for agreeing to enter negotiations with the apartheid government. Concerns were raised that the personal respect and authority he accrued were in contrast to the ideals of democracy that he promoted. His government would be criticised for its failure to deal with the HIV/AIDS pandemic, and to promote an economic model that benefited South Africa's poor. During the 1980s, Mandela was widely labelled a terrorist by prominent political figures in the Western world for his embrace of political violence. Thatcher attracted international attention for describing the ANC as \"a typical terrorist organisation\" in 1987, although she later called on Botha to release Mandela. Mandela has also been criticised for his friendship with political leaders such as Castro, Gaddafi, and Suharto – deemed dictators by critics – as well as his refusal to condemn their human rights violations. \n\nOrders, decorations, and monuments\n\nOn 16 December 2013, the Day of Reconciliation, a nine-metre-high, bronze statue of Mandela was unveiled at the Union Buildings by President Jacob Zuma. In 2004, Johannesburg granted Mandela the Freedom of the City, and the Sandton Square shopping centre was renamed Nelson Mandela Square, after a Mandela statue was installed there. In 2008, another Mandela statue was unveiled at Drakenstein Correctional Centre, formerly Victor Verster Prison, near Cape Town, standing on the spot where Mandela was released from the prison. \n\nIn 1993, he received the joint Nobel Peace Prize with de Klerk. In November 2009, the United Nations General Assembly proclaimed Mandela's birthday, 18 July, as \"Mandela Day\", marking his contribution to the anti-apartheid struggle. It called on individuals to donate 67 minutes to doing something for others, commemorating the 67 years that Mandela had been a part of the movement. \n\nAwarded the US Presidential Medal of Freedom and appointment to the Order of Canada, he was also the first living person to be made an honorary Canadian citizen. Mandela was the last recipient of the Soviet Union's Lenin Peace Prize and the first recipient of the Al-Gaddafi International Prize for Human Rights. In 1990, he received the Bharat Ratna Award from the Government of India, and in 1992 received Pakistan's Nishan-e-Pakistan. The same year, he was awarded the Atatürk Peace Award by Turkey; he at first refused the award, citing human rights violations committed by Turkey at the time, but later accepted the award in 1999. Queen Elizabeth II appointed him as a Bailiff Grand Cross of the Order of St. John (upon the recommendation of the order's Honours and Awards Committee) and granted him membership in the Order of Merit (a personal gift of the monarch). \n\nBiographies and popular media\n\nThe first biography of Mandela was authored by Mary Benson, based on brief interviews with him that she had conducted in the 1960s. Two authorised biographies were later produced by friends of Mandela. The first was Fatima Meer's Higher Than Hope, which was heavily influenced by Winnie and thus placed great emphasis on Mandela's family. The second was Anthony Sampson's Mandela, published in 1999. Other biographies included Martin Meredith's Mandela, first published in 1997, and Tom Lodge's Mandela, brought out in 2006.\n\nSince the late 1980s, Mandela's image began to appear on a proliferation of items, among them \"photographs, paintings, drawings, statues, public murals, buttons, t-shirts, refrigerator magnets, and more\", items that have been characterised as \"Mandela kitsch\". Following his death, there appeared many internet memes featuring images of Mandela with his inspirational quotes superimposed onto them.\n\nMany artists have dedicated songs to Mandela. One of the most popular was from The Special AKA who recorded the song \"Free Nelson Mandela\" in 1983, which Elvis Costello also recorded and had a hit with. Stevie Wonder dedicated his 1985 Oscar for the song \"I Just Called to Say I Love You\" to Mandela, resulting in his music being banned by the South African Broadcasting Corporation.\n\nMandela has been depicted in cinema and television on multiple occasions. He was portrayed by Danny Glover in the 1987 HBO television film Mandela. The 1997 film Mandela and de Klerk starred Sidney Poitier as Mandela, and Dennis Haysbert played him in Goodbye Bafana (2007). In the 2009 BBC telefilm Mrs Mandela, Mandela was portrayed by David Harewood, and Morgan Freeman portrayed him in Invictus (2009). Terrence Howard portrayed him in the 2011 film Winnie Mandela. 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How old would James Dean have been had he lived to the end of the 20th century?	tc_618	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "James_Dean.txt" ], "title": [ "James Dean" ], "wiki_context": [ "James Byron Dean (February 8, 1931 – September 30, 1955) was an American actor. He is a cultural icon of teenage disillusionment and social estrangement, as expressed in the title of his most celebrated film, Rebel Without a Cause (1955), in which he starred as troubled teenager Jim Stark. The other two roles that defined his stardom were loner Cal Trask in East of Eden (1955) and surly ranch hand Jett Rink in Giant (1956).\n\nDean's premature death in a car crash cemented his legendary status. He became the first actor to receive a posthumous Academy Award nomination for Best Actor, and remains the only actor to have had two posthumous acting nominations. In 1999, the American Film Institute ranked him the 18th best male movie star of Golden Age Hollywood in AFI's 100 Years...100 Stars list. \n\nEarly life\n\nJames Dean was born at the Seven Gables apartment house at the corner of 4th Street and McClure Street in Marion, Indiana, the son of Winton Dean (January 17, 1907 – February 21, 1995) and Mildred Marie Wilson (September 15, 1910 – July 14, 1940). His parents were of mostly English ancestry, with smaller amounts of Scottish, German, Irish and Welsh. Six years after his father had left farming to become a dental technician, Dean and his family moved to Santa Monica, California. He was enrolled at Brentwood Public School in the Brentwood neighborhood of Los Angeles, but transferred soon afterward to the McKinley Elementary school. The family spent several years there, and by all accounts, young Dean was very close to his mother. According to Michael DeAngelis, she was \"the only person capable of understanding him.\" In 1938, she was suddenly struck with acute stomach pains and began to lose weight quickly. She died of uterine cancer when Dean was nine years old.\n\nUnable to care for his son, Dean's father sent him to live with his sister Ortense and her husband, Marcus Winslow, on a farm in Fairmount, Indiana, where he was raised in their Quaker household. Winton served in World War II and later remarried. In his adolescence, Dean sought the counsel and friendship of a local Methodist pastor, the Rev. James DeWeerd. DeWeerd seemed to have had a formative influence upon Dean, especially upon his future interests in bullfighting, car racing, and theater. According to Billy J. Harbin, Dean had \"an intimate relationship with his pastor, which began in his senior year of high school and endured for many years.\" Their alleged sexual relationship was earlier suggested in the 1994 book Boulevard of Broken Dreams: The Life, Times, and Legend of James Dean by Paul Alexander. In 2011, it was reported that he once confided in Elizabeth Taylor that he was sexually abused by a minister approximately two years after his mother's death. Other reports on Dean's life also suggest that he was either sexually abused by DeWeerd as a child or had a sexual relationship with him as a late teenager.\n\nHis overall performance in school was exceptional and he was also considered to be a popular student. He played on the baseball and varsity basketball teams, studied drama, and competed in public speaking through the Indiana High School Forensic Association. After graduating from Fairmount High School in May 1949, Dean moved back to California with his dog, Max, to live with his father and stepmother. He enrolled in Santa Monica College (SMC) and majored in pre-law. He transferred to UCLA for one semester, and changed his major to drama, which resulted in estrangement from his father. He pledged the Sigma Nu fraternity but was never initiated. While at UCLA, Dean was picked from a group of 350 actors to portray Malcolm in Macbeth. At that time, he also began acting in James Whitmore's workshop. In January 1951, he dropped out of UCLA to pursue a full-time career as an actor. \n\nActing career\n\nDean's first television appearance was in a Pepsi Cola television commercial. He quit college to act full-time and was cast in his first speaking part, as John the Beloved Disciple in Hill Number One, an Easter television special dramatizing the resurrection of Jesus. Dean worked at the widely filmed Iverson Movie Ranch in Chatsworth, Calif during production of the program, for which a replica of the tomb of Jesus was built on location at the ranch.\n\nDean subsequently obtained three walk-on roles in movies: as a soldier in Fixed Bayonets!, as a boxing cornerman in Sailor Beware, a Paramount comedy starring Dean Martin and Jerry Lewis, and as a youth in Has Anybody Seen My Gal? While struggling to get jobs in Hollywood, Dean also worked as a parking lot attendant at CBS Studios, during which time he met Rogers Brackett, a radio director for an advertising agency, who offered him professional help and guidance in his chosen career, as well as a place to stay. \n\nIn October 1951, following the encouragement of actor James Whitmore and the advice of his mentor Rogers Brackett, Dean moved to New York City. There he worked as a stunt tester for the game show Beat the Clock, but was subsequently fired for allegedly performing the tasks too quickly. He also appeared in episodes of several CBS television series, The Web, Studio One, and Lux Video Theatre, before gaining admission to the legendary Actors Studio to study method acting under Lee Strasberg. Proud of this accomplishment, Dean referred to the Studio in a 1952 letter to his family as \"The greatest school of the theater. It houses great people like Marlon Brando, Julie Harris, Arthur Kennedy, Mildred Dunnock. ... Very few get into it ... It is the best thing that can happen to an actor. I am one of the youngest to belong.\" There, he was classmates and close friends with Carroll Baker, with whom he would eventually star in Giant (1956).\n\nDean's career picked up and he performed in further episodes of such early 1950s television shows as Kraft Television Theatre, Robert Montgomery Presents, The United States Steel Hour, Danger, and General Electric Theater. One early role, for the CBS series Omnibus in the episode \"Glory in the Flower\", saw Dean portraying the type of disaffected youth he would later portray in Rebel Without a Cause. (This summer 1953 program was also notable for featuring the song \"Crazy Man, Crazy\", one of the first dramatic TV programs to feature rock and roll.) Positive reviews for Dean's 1954 theatrical role as \"Bachir\", a pandering North African houseboy, in an adaptation of André Gide's book The Immoralist, led to calls from Hollywood. \n\nEast of Eden\n\nIn 1953, director Elia Kazan was looking for a substantive actor to play the emotionally complex role of 'Cal Trask', for screenwriter Paul Osborn's adaptation of John Steinbeck's 1952 novel East of Eden. The lengthy novel deals with the story of the Trask and Hamilton families over the course of three generations, focusing especially on the lives of the latter two generations in Salinas Valley, California, from the mid-19th century through the 1910s. In contrast to the book, the film script focused on the last portion of the story, predominantly with the character of Cal. Though he initially seems more aloof and emotionally troubled than his twin brother Aron, Cal is soon seen to be more worldly, business savvy, and even sagacious than their pious and constantly disapproving father (played by Raymond Massey) who seeks to invent a vegetable refrigeration process. Cal is bothered by the mystery of their supposedly dead mother, and discovers she is still alive and a brothel-keeping 'madam'; the part was played by actress Jo Van Fleet. \n\nBefore casting Cal, Elia Kazan said that he wanted \"a Brando\" for the role and Osborn suggested the relatively unknown young actor, James Dean. Dean met with Steinbeck, who did not like the moody, complex young man personally, but thought him to be perfect for the part. Dean was cast in the role and on April 8, 1954, left New York City and headed for Los Angeles to begin shooting. \n\nMuch of Dean's performance in the film is unscripted, including his dance in the bean field and his fetal-like posturing while riding on top of a train boxcar (after searching out his mother in nearby Monterey). The most famous improvisation of the film occurs when Cal's father rejects his gift of $5,000, money Cal earned by speculating in beans before the US became involved in World War I. Instead of running away from his father as the script called for, Dean instinctively turned to Massey and in a gesture of extreme emotion, lunged forward and grabbed him in a full embrace, crying. Kazan kept this and Massey's shocked reaction in the film. Dean's performance in the film foreshadowed his role as Jim Stark in Rebel Without A Cause. Both characters are angst-ridden protagonists and misunderstood outcasts, desperately craving approval from a father figure.\n\nIn recognition of his performance in East of Eden, Dean was nominated posthumously for the 1956 Academy Awards as Best Actor in a Leading Role of 1955, the first official posthumous acting nomination in Academy Awards history. (Jeanne Eagels was nominated for Best Actress in 1929, when the rules for selection of the winner were different.) East of Eden was the only film starring Dean that he would see released in his lifetime.\n\nRebel Without a Cause\n\nDean quickly followed up his role in Eden with a starring role as Jim Stark in Rebel Without a Cause, a film that would prove to be hugely popular among teenagers. The film has been cited as an accurate representation of teenage angst. It co-starred teen actors Natalie Wood, Sal Mineo, and Dennis Hopper and was directed by Nicholas Ray.\n\nGiant\n\nGiant, which was posthumously released in 1956, saw Dean play a supporting role to Elizabeth Taylor and Rock Hudson. This was due to his desire to avoid being typecast as a rebellious teenager like Cal Trask or Jim Stark. In the film, he plays Jett Rink, a Texan ranch hand who strikes oil and becomes wealthy. His role was notable in that, in order to portray an older version of his character in the film's later scenes, Dean dyed his hair gray and shaved some of it off to give himself a receding hairline.\n\nGiant would prove to be Dean's last film. At the end of the film, Dean was supposed to make a drunken speech at a banquet; this is nicknamed the 'Last Supper' because it was the last scene before his sudden death. Dean mumbled so much due to his desire to make the scene more realistic by actually being inebriated for the take that director George Stevens decided the scene had to be overdubbed by Nick Adams, who had a small role in the film, because Dean had died before the film was edited.\n\nDean received his second posthumous Best Actor Academy Award nomination for his role in Giant at the 29th Academy Awards in 1957 for films released in 1956.\n\nPersonal life\n\nScreenwriter William Bast was one of Dean's closest friends, a fact acknowledged by Dean's family. According to Bast, who was also Dean's first biographer, (1956), he was Dean's roommate at UCLA and later in New York, and knew Dean throughout the last five years of his life. Fifty years after Dean's death, he stated that their friendship had included some sexual intimacy. \n\nWhile at UCLA, Dean dated Beverly Wills, an actress with CBS, and Jeanette Lewis, a classmate. Bast and Dean often double-dated with them. Wills began dating Dean alone, later telling Bast, \"Bill, there's something we have to tell you. It's Jimmy and me. I mean, we're in love.\"Dalton, David. James Dean: The Mutant King: A Biography, Chicago Review Press (1974) p. 151 They broke up after Dean \"exploded\" when another man asked her to dance while they were at a function: \"Jimmy saw red. He grabbed the fellow by the collar and threatened to blacken both of his eyes,\" she said. Dean had also remained in contact with his girlfriend in New York, Barbara Glenn, whom he dated for two years. Their love letters sold at auction in 2011 for $36,000. \n\nEarly in Dean's career, after Dean signed his contract with Warner Brothers, the studio's public relations department began generating stories about Dean's liaisons with a variety of young actresses who were mostly drawn from the clientele of Dean's Hollywood agent, Dick Clayton. Studio press releases also grouped Dean together with two other actors, Rock Hudson and Tab Hunter, identifying each of the men as an 'eligible bachelor' who has not yet found the time to commit to a single woman: \"They say their film rehearsals are in conflict with their marriage rehearsals.\" \n\nDean's best-remembered relationship was with young Italian actress Pier Angeli, whom he met while Angeli was shooting The Silver Chalice (released in 1955) on an adjoining Warner lot, and with whom he exchanged items of jewelry as love tokens. Angeli, during an interview fourteen years after their relationship ended, described their times together:\n\nIn his autobiography, East of Eden, director Elia Kazan dismissed the notion that Dean could possibly have had any success with women, although he remembered hearing Dean and Angeli loudly making love in Dean's dressing room. Kazan has been quoted saying about Dean, \"He always had uncertain relations with girlfriends.\" \n\nThose who believed Dean and Angeli were deeply in love claim a number of forces led them apart. Angeli's mother disapproved of Dean's casual dress and what were, for her at least, radical behavior traits: his T-shirt attire, late dates, fast cars, and the fact that he was not a Catholic. Her mother said that such behavior was not acceptable in Italy. In addition, Warner Bros., where he worked, tried to talk him out of marrying and he himself told Angeli that he didn't want to get married. Richard Davalos, Dean's East of Eden co-star, claimed that Dean wanted to marry Angeli and was willing to allow their children to be brought up Catholic. \n\nAfter finishing his role for East of Eden, he took a brief trip to New York in October 1954. While he was away, Angeli unexpectedly announced her engagement to Italian-American singer Vic Damone. The press was shocked and Dean expressed his irritation. Angeli married Damone the following month. Gossip columnists reported that Dean watched the wedding from across the road on his motorcycle, even gunning the engine during the ceremony, although Dean later denied doing anything so \"dumb.\"\n\nSome, like Bast and Paul Alexander, believe the relationship was a mere publicity stunt. Esme Chandlee, the publicist at Angeli's home studio Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer who had kept news of her love affair with Kirk Douglas under wraps, believed that Angeli had been more smitten with Kirk than Jimmy Dean.\n\nPier Angeli talked only once about the relationship in her later life in an interview, giving vivid descriptions of romantic meetings at the beach. Dean biographer John Howlett said these read like wishful fantasies, as Bast claims them to be. Hyams, in his 1992 biography of Dean, claims that he visited Dean just as Angeli, then married to Damone, was leaving his home. Dean was crying and allegedly told Hyams she was pregnant, with Hyams concluding that Dean believed the child might be his.\n\nAngeli, who divorced Damone and then her second husband, the Italian film composer Armando Trovajoli, was said by friends in the last years of her life to claim that Dean was the love of her life. She died from an overdose of barbiturates in 1971, at the age of 39. In 1997, the television movie Race with Destiny was produced, a true-story account of the love affair between Dean and Pier Angeli. It was shot on location \"where he lived and loved\" until his death.Brris, George. Barris TV and Movie Cars, MotorBooks International (1996) p. 112\n\nActress Liz Sheridan details her relationship with Dean in New York in 1952. Speaking of the relationship in 1996, she said that it was \"just kind of magical. It was the first love for both of us.\" Sheridan published her memoir, Dizzy & Jimmy: My Life with James Dean; A Love Story in 2000.\n\nDean also dated Swiss actress Ursula Andress. \"She was seen riding around Hollywood on the back of James's motorcycle,\" writes biographer Darwin Porter. She was also seen with Dean in his sports cars, and was with him on the day he bought the car that he died in.Porter, Darwin. Brando Unzipped, Blood Moon Productions, Ltd, (2006) p. 484 At the time, Andress was also dating Marlon Brando.\n\nDeath\n\nAuto racing hobby\n\nIn 1954, Dean became interested in developing an auto racing career. He purchased various vehicles after filming for East of Eden had concluded, including a Triumph Tiger T110 and a Porsche 356.Wasef and Leno (2007) pp. 13–19. Just before filming began on Rebel Without a Cause, he competed in his first professional event at the Palm Springs Road Races, which was held in Palm Springs, California on March 26–27, 1955. Dean achieved first place in the novice class, and second place at the main event. His racing continued in Bakersfield a month later, where he finished first in his class and third overall. Dean hoped to compete in the Indianapolis 500, but his busy schedule made this vision impossible. \n\nDean's final race occurred in Santa Barbara on Memorial Day, May 30, 1955. He was unable to finish the competition due to a blown piston.Raskin (2005) pp. 47–48; 68–71; 73–74; 78–81; 83–86 His brief career was put on hold when Warner Brothers barred him from all racing during the production of Giant. Dean had finished shooting his scenes and the movie was in post-production when he decided to race again.\n\nAccident and aftermath\n\nLonging to return to the \"liberating prospects\" of motor racing, Dean was scheduled to compete at a racing event in Salinas, California on September 30, 1955. Accompanying the actor to the occasion was stunt coordinator Bill Hickman, Collier's photographer Sanford Roth, and Rolf Wütherich, the German mechanic from the Porsche factory who maintained Dean's Porsche 550 Spyder \"Little Bastard\" car.Perry (2012) pp. 11–12. Wütherich, who had encouraged Dean to drive the car from Los Angeles to Salinas to break it in, accompanied Dean in the Porsche. At 3:30 p.m. Dean was ticketed for speeding, as was Hickman who was following behind in another car. \n\nAs the group traveled to the event via U.S. Route 466, (currently SR 33) at approximately 5:15 p.m. a 1950 Ford Tudor was passing through an intersection while turning, ahead of the Porsche. Dean, unable to stop in time, slammed into the driver's side of the Ford resulting in Dean's car bouncing across the pavement onto the side of the highway. Dean's passenger, Wütherich, was thrown from the Porsche, while Dean was trapped in the car and sustained numerous fatal injuries, including a broken neck.Perry (2012) pp. 14–15. The driver of the Ford, Donald Turnupseed, exited his damaged vehicle with minor injuries. The accident was witnessed by a number of passersby who stopped to help. A woman with nursing experience attended to Dean and detected a weak pulse, but \"death appeared to have been instantaneous\". Dean was pronounced dead on arrival shortly after he arrived by ambulance at the Paso Robles War Memorial Hospital at 6:20 p.m. \n\nThough initially slow to reach newspapers in the Eastern United States, details of Dean's death rapidly spread via radio and television. By October 2, his death had received significant coverage from domestic and foreign media outlets.Perry (2012) pp. 194–95 Dean's funeral was held on October 8, 1955 at the Fairmount Friends Church in Fairmount, Indiana. The coffin remained closed to conceal his severe injuries. An estimated 600 mourners were in attendance, while another 2400 fans gathered outside of the building during the procession.\n\nAn inquest into Dean's death occurred three days later at the Paso Robles City Hall, where a coroner's jury delivered a verdict that he was entirely at fault due to speeding, and that Turnupseed was innocent of any criminal act. However, according to an article in the Los Angeles Times of October 1, 2005, a former California Highway Patrol officer who had been called to the scene, Ron Nelson, said the \"wreckage and the position of Dean's body indicated his speed at the time of the accident was more like 55 mph\".\n\nLegacy and iconic status\n\nIn culture and media\n\nAmerican teenagers of the mid-1950s, when James Dean's major films were made, identified with Dean and the roles he played, especially that of Jim Stark in Rebel Without a Cause. The film depicts the dilemma of a typical teenager of the time, who feels that no one, not even his peers, can understand him. Humphrey Bogart commented after Dean's death about his public image and legacy: \"Dean died at just the right time. He left behind a legend. If he had lived, he'd never have been able to live up to his publicity.\" \n\nJoe Hyams says that Dean was \"one of the rare stars, like Rock Hudson and Montgomery Clift, whom both men and women find sexy\". According to Marjorie Garber, this quality is \"the undefinable extra something that makes a star.\" Dean's iconic appeal has been attributed to the public's need for someone to stand up for the disenfranchised young of the era, and to the air of androgyny that he projected onscreen. Dean's \"loving tenderness towards the besotted Sal Mineo in Rebel Without a Cause continues to touch and excite gay audiences by its honesty. The Gay Times Readers' Awards cited him as the male gay icon of all time.\"Garry Wotherspoon and Robert F. Aldrich, Who's Who in Gay and Lesbian History: from Antiquity to World War II (Routledge, 2001), p.105. His estate still earns about $5,000,000 per year, according to Forbes Magazine. \n\nDean is mentioned or featured in various songs. The Eagles paid tribute to him with their song \"James Dean\", which states the actor was \"too fast to live, too young to die\". The American band Skid Row mention him in their song \"Forever\": \"While lightin' cigarettes, like James Dean.\" The chorus of David Essex's original \"Rock On\" includes the refrain \"Jimmy Dean. James Dean.\" Dean is mentioned in Rob Zarro's song Infamous Route 66: \"I'm seeing really cool things, pictures of Marilyn and James Dean.\" The band X Ambassadors also mentioned Dean in their song Gorgeous: \"like renegades, like James Dean. The Eagles song named after Dean explores his fast and dangerous lifestyle. There is a Sleeping With Sirens song entitled \"If I'm James Dean, You're Audrey Hepburn\". John Mellencamp mentions James Dean in the lyrics of \"Jack & Diane\". Lana del Rey repeatedly stated that she was into \"James Dean kind of guys\" and devoted one of her most acclaimed songs \"Blue Jeans\" to a former boyfriend who reminded her of the actor. Phil Ochs has a song titled Jim Dean of Indiana. In Hunter Hayes's song Storyline, a line in the first verse says \"we got a fast car, a James Dean spirit, and a Norma Jean heart\". He is also mentioned by Madonna in her song 'Vogue': \"Greta Garbo and Monroe, Dietrich and DiMaggio, Marlon Brando, Jimmy Dean -- on the cover of a magazine.\" Also, Madonna's song 'Jimmy Jimmy' from her third studio album True Blue, 1986, has an early sixties pop influence and the lyrics are a tribute to James Dean. More recently, Scouting for Girls used the chorus \"We all want, we wanna be famous/We all want to be like James Dean\" in their song Famous. The singer Halsey mentions James Dean with the lyrics \"Young James Dean, some say he looks just like his father, But he could never love somebody's daughter\" in her song New Americana. \n* He is mentioned in the Bruce Springsteen song Cadillac Ranch \"James Dean in his Merc'ry '49...\"\n\nIn addition, Dean has often been noted within television shows, films, books and novels. The film September 30, 1955 depicts the ways various characters in a small town react to Dean's death. The play Come Back to the Five and Dime, Jimmy Dean, Jimmy Dean (and its subsequent film adaptation) depicts a reunion of Dean fans on the 20th anniversary of his death. In an episode of Degrassi: The Next Generation, the character Liberty likens the rebellious, antisocial Sean Cameron to James Dean. On the sitcom Happy Days, Fonzie has a picture of Dean in his closet next to his mirror. A picture of Dean also appears on Rizzo's wall in the film Grease. On the American version of the TV series Queer as Folk, the main character Brian Kinney mentions James Dean together with Kurt Cobain and Jimi Hendrix, saying, \"They're all legends. They'll always be young, and they will always be beautiful\". In the alternative history book Homeward Bound by Harry Turtledove, Dean is stated to have not died in a car crash and to have made several more films, including Rescuing Private Ranfall, based on Saving Private Ryan. Dean is referenced in Lady Gaga's 2009 song \"Speechless\", off her album The Fame Monster, in the first verse: \"I can't believe how you looked at me with your James Dean glossy eyes\". Beyoncé 's song \"Rather Die Young\" off her album 4 James Dean is mentioned \"You're my James Dean, you make me feel like I'm seventeen\". \"Style\", a Taylor Swift song, also references the actor, using the line \"You got that James Dean daydream look in your eye..\". Folk-punk artist Frank Turner also mentions Dean in his song \"Josephine\", saying \"Come on now Josephine, let's pretend it's Halloween- you come as a car crash, I'll come as James Dean\". \"Ghost Town\", by Adam Lambert also references Dean, using the line \"I tried to believe in God and James Dean, but Hollywood sold out\".\n\nOn April 20, 2010, a long \"lost\" live episode of the General Electric Theater called \"The Dark, Dark Hours\" featuring James Dean in a performance with Ronald Reagan was uncovered by NBC writer Wayne Federman while working on a Ronald Reagan television retrospective. The episode, originally broadcast December 12, 1954, drew international attention and highlights were featured on numerous national media outlets including: CBS Evening News, NBC Nightly News, and Good Morning America. It was later revealed that some footage from the episode was first featured in the 2005 documentary, James Dean: Forever Young. \n\nDebated sexual orientation\n\nToday, Dean is often considered an icon because of his \"experimental\" take on life, which included his ambivalent sexuality. There have been several claims that Dean had sexual relationships with both men and women. When questioned about his sexual orientation, he is reported to have said, \"No, I am not a homosexual. But I'm also not going to go through life with one hand tied behind my back.\" \n\nBy the 21st century, Dean was considered by many to have been bisexual. In 2005, Germaine Greer wrote, \"Looking back over half a century to the meteoric career of James Dean, the one thing that now seems obvious is that the boy was as queer as a coot.\" She based her opinion partly on the then-new revelations of William Bast, one of Dean's closest friends.\n\nBast, Dean's first biographer with James Dean: A Biography (1956), subsequently published a revealing update of his first book, in which, after years of successfully dodging the question as to whether he and Dean were sexually involved, he finally stated that they experimented. In this second book, Surviving James Dean (2006), Bast describes the difficult circumstances of their involvement and also deals frankly with some of Dean's other reported gay relationships, notably the actor's friendship with Rogers Brackett, the influential producer of radio dramas who encouraged Dean in his career and provided him with useful professional contacts. Bast also documents knowledge Dean had of gay bars and customs. \n\nRobert Aldrich and Garry Wotherspoon include an entry on James Dean in their book on gay and lesbian history, while journalist Joe Hyams suggests that any gay activity Dean might have been involved in appears to have been strictly \"for trade\", as a means of advancing his career. Val Holley notes that, according to Hollywood biographer Lawrence J. Quirk, gay Hollywood columnist Mike Connolly \"would put the make on the most prominent young actors, including Robert Francis, Guy Madison, Anthony Perkins, Nick Adams and James Dean.\" However, the \"trade only\" notion is debated by Bast and other Dean biographers. Aside from Bast's account of his own relationship with Dean, Dean's fellow biker and \"Night Watch\" member John Gilmore claims he and Dean \"experimented\" with gay acts on one occasion in New York, and it is difficult to see how Dean, then already in his twenties, would have viewed this as a \"trade\" means of advancing his career. James Bellah, the son of James Warner Bellah who was a friend of Dean's at UCLA said \"Dean was a user. I don't think he was homosexual. But if he could get something by performing an act....\" \n\nScreenwriter Gavin Lambert, himself gay and part of the Hollywood gay circles of the 1950s and 1960s, described Dean as being gay. Rebel director Nicholas Ray is on record as saying that Dean was gay, while author John Howlett believes that Dean was \"certainly bisexual\". George Perry's biography reduces these reported aspects of Dean's sexuality to \"experimentation\". \n\nStage\n\nBroadway\n\n* See the Jaguar (1952)\n* The Immoralist (1954) – based on the book by André Gide\n\nOff-Broadway\n\n* The Metamorphosis (1952) – based on the short story by Franz Kafka\n* The Scarecrow (1954)\n* Women of Trachis (1954) – translation by Ezra Pound\n\nFilmography\n\nFilm\n\nTelevision\n\nBiographical films\n\n* James Dean also known as James Dean: Portrait of a Friend (1976) with Stephen McHattie as James Dean \n* James Dean: The First American Teenager (1976), a television biography that includes interviews with Sal Mineo, Natalie Wood and Nicholas Ray. \n* Sense Memories (PBS American Masters television biography) (2005) \n* Forever James Dean (1988), Warner Home Video (1995) \n* James Dean (fictionalized TV biographical film) (2001) with James Franco as James Dean \n* James Dean – Kleiner Prinz, Little Bastard aka James Dean – Little Prince, Little Bastard, German television biography, includes interviews with William Bast, Marcus Winslow Jr, Robert Heller (2005)\n* James Dean: The Final Day features interviews with William Bast, Liz Sheridan and Maila Nurmi. Dean's bisexuality is openly discussed. Episode of Naked Hollywood television miniseries produced by The Oxford Film Company in association the BBC, aired in the US on the A&E Network, 1991. \n* James Dean: Race with Destiny (1997) directed by Mardi Rustam, starring Casper Van Dien as James Dean.\n* Living Famously: James Dean, Australian television biography includes interviews with Martin Landau, Betsy Palmer, William Bast, and Bob Hinkle (2003, 2006). \n* James Dean – Mit Vollgas durchs Leben, Austrian television biography includes interviews with Rolf Weutherich and William Bast (2005).\n* James Dean – Outside the Lines (2002), episode of Biography, US television documentary includes interviews with Rod Steiger, William Bast, and Martin Landau (2002). \n* Joshua Tree, 1951: a Portrait of James Dean (2012).\n* Two Friendly Ghosts (2012) \n* Life (2015). Directed by Anton Corbijn, starring Dane DeHaan as James Dean." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "68", "sixty-eight" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "68", "sixty eight" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "68", "type": "Numerical", "value": "68" }
What was Christopher Reeve's first movie?	tc_620	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Christopher_Reeve.txt" ], "title": [ "Christopher Reeve" ], "wiki_context": [ "Christopher D'Olier Reeve (September 25, 1952 – October 10, 2004) was an American actor, film director, producer, screenwriter, author, and activist. He achieved stardom for his acting achievements, in particular his motion picture portrayal of the comic book superhero Superman.\n\nReeve appeared in other critically acclaimed films such as Street Smart (1987) and The Remains of the Day (1993). He received a Golden Globe nomination for his performance in the television remake of Rear Window (1998).\n\nOn May 27, 1995, Reeve became a quadriplegic after being thrown from a horse during an equestrian competition in Culpeper, Virginia. He was confined to a wheelchair and required a portable ventilator for the rest of his life. He lobbied on behalf of people with spinal-cord injuries and for human embryonic stem cell research, founding the Christopher Reeve Foundation and co-founding the Reeve-Irvine Research Center.[http://www.cnn.com/2004/SHOWBIZ/Movies/10/11/obit.reeve/ Christopher Reeve dies at 52.] CNN, October 11, 2004, accessed November 3, 2006\n\nLife and career\n\nEarly life\n\nChristopher Reeve was born on September 25, 1952 in New York City, the son of Barbara Pitney (Lamb), a journalist, and Franklin D'Olier Reeve, a teacher, novelist, poet, and scholar. Reeve was of almost entirely English ancestry, with many family lines that had been in America since the early 1600s. His paternal grandfather, Colonel Richard Henry Reeve, had been the CEO of Prudential Financial for over twenty-five years, and his great-grandfather, Franklin D'Olier, was a prominent businessman, veteran of World War I, and the first national commander of the American Legion. Reeve's mother was the granddaughter of Mahlon Pitney, a U.S. Supreme Court Justice, and a descendant of William Bradford, a Mayflower passenger. Reeve was also descended from a sister of statesman Elias Boudinot, as well as from Massachusetts governors Thomas Dudley and John Winthrop, Pennsylvania deputy governor Thomas Lloyd, and Henry Baldwin, another U.S. Supreme Court Justice.\n\nReeve's father was a Princeton University graduate studying for a master's degree in Russian at Columbia University prior to the birth of his son, Christopher. Despite being born wealthy, Franklin Reeve spent summers working at the docks with longshoremen. Reeve's mother had been a student at Vassar College, but transferred to Barnard College to be closer to Franklin, whom she had met through a family connection. They had another son, Benjamin, born on October 6, 1953. \n\nFranklin and Barbara divorced in 1956, and she moved with her two sons to Princeton, New Jersey, where they attended Nassau Street School. Later that year, Franklin Reeve married Helen Schmidinger, a Columbia University graduate student. Barbara Pitney Lamb married Tristam B. Johnson, a stockbroker, in 1959. Johnson enrolled Christopher and his brother, Benjamin, in Princeton Country Day School, which later merged with Miss Fine's School for Girls to become the co-educational Princeton Day School. Reeve excelled academically, athletically, and onstage; he was on the honor roll and played soccer, baseball, tennis and hockey. The sportsmanship award at Princeton Day School's invitational hockey tournament was named in Reeve's honor. Reeve admitted that he put pressure on himself to act older than he actually was in order to gain his father's approval. \n\nReeve found his passion in 1962 at age nine when he was cast in an amateur version of the play The Yeomen of the Guard; it was the first of many student plays. In mid-1968, at age fifteen, Reeve was accepted as an apprentice at the Williamstown Theatre Festival in Williamstown, Massachusetts. The other apprentices were mostly college students, but Reeve's older appearance and maturity helped him fit in with the others. In a workshop, he played a scene from A View from the Bridge that was chosen to be presented in front of an audience. After the performance, actress Olympia Dukakis said to him, \"I'm surprised. You've got a lot of talent. Don't mess it up.\" The next summer, Reeve was hired at the Harvard Summer Repertory Theater Company in Cambridge for $44 per week. He played a Russian sailor in The Hostage and Belyayev in A Month in the Country. Famed theater critic Elliot Norton called his performance as Belyayev \"startlingly effective.\" The 23-year-old lead actress in the play, a Carnegie Mellon graduate, turned out to be Reeve's first romance. She was engaged to a fellow Carnegie Mellon graduate at the time; they mutually ended the relationship when he made a surprise visit to her dorm room at seven in the morning and found Reeve with her. Reeve's romance with the actress fizzled a few months later when the age difference became an issue. Reeve was briefly involved with Scientology, but opted out of becoming a member. He subsequently voiced criticism of the organization. \n\nCornell\n\nAfter graduating from Princeton Day School in June 1970, Reeve acted in plays in Boothbay, Maine and planned to go to New York City to find a career in theater. Instead, at the advice of his mother, he applied for college. He was accepted into Brown, Carnegie Mellon, Columbia, Cornell, Northwestern, and Princeton. Reeve claimed that he chose Cornell primarily because it is a three-and-a-half-hour drive from New York City, where he planned to start his career as an actor, despite the fact that Columbia is in New York City, just a few miles uptown from the theater district.\n\nReeve joined the theater department in Cornell and played Pozzo in Waiting for Godot, Segismundo in Life Is a Dream, Hamlet in Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead, and Polixenes in The Winter's Tale. Late in his freshman year, Reeve received a letter from Stark Hesseltine, a high-powered agent who had discovered Robert Redford and represented actors such as Richard Chamberlain, Michael Douglas, and Susan Sarandon. Hesseltine had seen Reeve in A Month in the Country and wanted to represent him. The two met and decided that instead of dropping out of school, Reeve could come to New York once a month to meet casting agents and producers to find work for the summer vacation. That summer, he toured in a production of Forty Carats with Eleanor Parker. \n\nThe next year, Reeve received a full-season contract with the San Diego Shakespeare Festival, with roles as Edward IV in Richard III, Fenton in The Merry Wive of Windsor, and Dumaine in Love's Labour's Lost at the Old Globe Theatre. \n\nBefore his third year of college, Reeve took a three-month leave of absence. He flew to Glasgow and saw theatrical productions throughout Scotland and England. He was inspired by the actors and often had conversations with them in bars after the performances. He helped actors at the Old Vic with their American accents by reading the newspaper aloud for them. He then flew to Paris, where he spoke fluent French for his entire stay; he had studied it from third grade until his secnd year in Cornell. He watched many performances and immersed himself in the culture before finally returning to New York to reunite with his girlfriend. \n\nJuilliard\n\nAfter returning to the U.S. from Europe, Reeve chose to focus solely on acting, although Cornell University had several general education requirements for graduation that he had yet to complete. He managed to convince theater director Jim Clause and the dean of the College of Arts and Sciences that, as a theater major, he would achieve more at Juilliard than at Cornell. They agreed that his first year at Juilliard would be counted as his senior year at Cornell. \n\nIn 1973, approximately 2000 students auditioned for 20 places in the freshman class at Juilliard. Reeve's audition was in front of 10 faculty members, including John Houseman, who had just won an Academy Award for The Paper Chase. Reeve and Robin Williams were the only students selected for Juilliard's Advanced Program. They had several classes together in which they were the only students. In their dialects class with Edith Skinner, Williams had no trouble mastering all dialects naturally, whereas Reeve was more meticulous about it. Williams and Reeve developed a close friendship. \n\nIn a meeting with John Houseman, Reeve was told, \"Mr. Reeve. It is terribly important that you become a serious classical actor. Unless, of course, they offer you a shitload of money to do something else.\"Holt, Patricia. [http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file\n/chronicle/archive/1998/05/11/DD55495.DTL Reeve is 'Superman' For Real: Actor's memoir filled with humor and courage.] San Francisco Chronicle, May 11, 1998, accessed November 20, 2006 Houseman then offered him the chance to leave school and join the Acting Company, among performers such as Kevin Kline, Patti LuPone and David Ogden Stiers. Reeve declined, as he had not yet received his bachelor's degree from Juilliard. \n\nIn early 1974, Reeve and other Juilliard students toured the New York City middle school system and performed The Love Cure. In one performance, Reeve, who played the hero, drew his sword out too high and accidentally destroyed a row of lights above him. The students applauded and cheered. Reeve later said that this was the greatest ovation of his career. After completing his first year at Juilliard, Reeve graduated from Cornell in the Class of '74.\n\nIn late 1975, he auditioned for the Broadway play A Matter of Gravity. Katharine Hepburn watched his audition and cast him as her character's grandson in the play. With Hepburn's influence over the CBS network, Reeve worked out the schedules of Love of Life and the play so that he would be able to do both. Because of his busy schedule, he ate candy bars and drank coffee in place of meals, and suffered from exhaustion and malnutrition. On the first night of the play's run, Reeve entered the stage, said his first line, and then promptly fainted. Hepburn turned to the audience and said, \"This boy's a goddamn fool. He doesn't eat enough red meat.\" The understudy finished the play for him, and Reeve was treated by a doctor who advised him to eat a more healthy diet. He stayed with the play throughout its year-long run and was given very favorable reviews. He and Hepburn became very close. She said, \"You're going to be a big star, Christopher, and support me in my old age.\" He replied, \"I can't wait that long.\" A romance between the two was rumored in some gossip columns. Reeve said, \"She was sixty-seven and I was twenty-two, but I thought that was quite an honor...I believe I was fairly close to what a child or grandchild might have been to her.\" Reeve said that his father, who was a professor of literature and came to many of the performances, was the man who most captivated Hepburn. When the play moved to Los Angeles in 1976, Reeve — to Hepburn's disappointment — dropped out. They stayed in touch for years after the play's run. Reeve later regretted not staying closer instead of just sending messages back and forth. \n\nReeve's first role in a Hollywood film was a small part as a submarine officer in the 1978 naval disaster movie Gray Lady Down. He then acted in the play My Life at the Circle Repertory Company with friend William Hurt. \n\nSuperman\n\nDuring My Life, Stark Hesseltine told Reeve that he had been asked to audition for the leading role as Clark Kent/Superman in the big budget film, Superman (1978). Lynn Stalmaster, the casting director, put Reeve's picture and résumé on the top of the pile three separate times, only to have the producers throw it out each time. Through Stalmaster's persistent pleading, a meeting between director Richard Donner, producer Ilya Salkind and Reeve was set in January 1977 at the Sherry Netherland Hotel on Fifth Avenue. The morning after the meeting, Reeve was sent a 300-page script. He was thrilled that the script took the subject matter seriously, and that Richard Donner's motto was verisimilitude. Reeve immediately flew to London for a screen test, and on the way was told that Marlon Brando was going to play Jor-El and Gene Hackman was going to play Lex Luthor. Reeve still did not think he had much of a chance. Though standing 6'4\" (193 cm), he was a self-described \"skinny WASP.\" On the plane ride to London, he imagined how his approach to the role would be. He later said, \"By the late 1970s the masculine image had changed... Now it was acceptable for a man to show gentleness and vulnerability. I felt that the new Superman ought to reflect that contemporary male image.\" He based his portrayal of Clark Kent on Cary Grant in his role in Bringing Up Baby. After the screen test, his driver said, \"I'm not supposed to tell you this, but you've got the part.\" \n\nReeve was a talented all-around athlete. Portraying the role of Superman would be a stretch for the young actor, but he was tall enough for the role and had the necessary blue eyes and handsome features. However, his physique was slim. He refused to wear fake muscles under the suit, and instead went through an intense two-month training regimen supervised by former British weightlifting champion David Prowse, who played Darth Vader in the suit in the original Star Wars films. The training regimen consisted of running in the morning, followed by two hours of weightlifting and ninety minutes on the trampoline. In addition, Reeve doubled his food intake and adopted a high protein diet. He added thirty pounds (14 kg) of muscle to his thin 189 pound (86 kg) frame. He later made even higher gains for Superman III (1983), though for Superman IV: The Quest for Peace (1987), he decided it would be healthier to focus more on cardiovascular workouts. \n\nReeve was never a Superman or comic book fan, though he had watched Adventures of Superman starring George Reeves. Reeve found the role offered a suitable challenge because it was a dual role. He said, \"there must be some difference stylistically between Clark and Superman. Otherwise, you just have a pair of glasses standing in for a character.\" \n\nOn the commentary track for the director's edition of Superman II: The Richard Donner Cut, creative consultant Tom Mankiewicz spoke of how Reeve had talked to him about playing Superman and then playing Clark Kent. Mankiewicz then corrected Reeve, telling him that he was always, always playing Superman, and that when he was Clark Kent, he was \"playing Superman who was playing Clark Kent.\" Mankiewicz described it to Reeve as a role within the role.\n\nThe film grossed $300,218,018 worldwide (unadjusted for inflation). Reeve received positive reviews for his performance:\n* \"Christopher Reeve's entire performance is a delight. Ridiculously good-looking, with a face as sharp and strong as an ax blade, his bumbling, fumbling Clark Kent and omnipotent Superman are simply two styles of gallantry and innocence.\" – Newsweek\n* \"Christopher Reeve has become an instant international star on the basis of his first major movie role, that of Clark Kent/Superman. Film reviewers — regardless of their opinion of the film — have been almost unanimous in their praise of Reeve's dual portrayal. He is utterly convincing as he switches back and forth between personae.\" – Starlog\n* Won a BAFTA Film Award for Most Promising Newcomer to Leading Film Roles.\n\nChristopher Reeve also guest starred in Smallville, the successful American television show about Clark Kent/Superman's childhood. He appeared as Doctor Virgil Swann, helping Clark Kent understand his heritage, in Seasons 2 and 3, until the character was ultimately \"killed off\". He appeared in two episodes titled \"Rosetta\" and \"Legacy\", while his death was made known in the fourth season episode \"Sacred\".\n\nReeve used his celebrity status for several philanthropic causes. Through the Make-A-Wish Foundation, he visited terminally ill children. He joined the Board of Directors for the worldwide charity Save the Children. In 1979, he served as a track and field coach at the Special Olympics, alongside O. J. Simpson. \n\nSequels\n\nMuch of Superman II was filmed at the same time as the first film. After most of the footage had been shot, the producers had a disagreement with director Richard Donner over various matters, including money and special effects, and they mutually parted ways. He was replaced by director Richard Lester, who had the script changed and reshot some footage. The cast was unhappy, but Reeve later said that he liked Lester and considered Superman II to be his favorite of the series.Reeve, Christopher (1898), pp 201–203 Due to fan encouragement, Richard Donner's version of Superman II, titled Superman II: The Richard Donner Cut, was released on DVD in 2006 and dedicated to Reeve.\n\nSuperman III, released in 1983, was filmed entirely by Lester. Reeve believed that the producers ruined it by turning it into a Richard Pryor comedy. He missed Richard Donner and believed that Superman IIIs only saving grace was the junkyard scene in which evil Superman fights Clark Kent in an internal battle. Reeve's portrayal of the evil Superman was highly praised, though the film was critically panned.\n\nSuperman IV: The Quest for Peace was released in 1987. After Superman III, Reeve vowed that he was done with Superman. However, he accepted the role on the condition that he would have partial creative control over the script. The nuclear disarmament plot was his idea. The production rights were given to Cannon Films, which cut the budget in half to $17 million. The film was both a critical failure and a box office disappointment, becoming the lowest-grossing Superman film to date. Reeve later said, \"the less said about Superman IV the better.\" Both of Reeve's children had an uncredited appearance in a deleted scene in which Superman rescues a girl and reunites her with her brother after Nuclear Man creates a tornado.\n\nCareer, family, and political involvement\n\n1980–1986\n\nReeve's first role after 1978's Superman was as Richard Collier in the 1980 romantic fantasy Somewhere in Time. Jane Seymour played Elise McKenna, his love interest. The film was shot on Mackinac Island in mid-1979 and was Reeve's favorite film ever to shoot. After the film was completed, the plan was for a limited release and to build word of mouth, but early test screenings were favorable and the studio decided on a wide release, which ultimately proved to be the wrong strategy. Early reviews savaged the film as overly sentimental and melodramatic and an actors' strike prevented Reeve and Seymour from doing publicity. The film quickly closed, although Jean-Pierre Dorléac was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Costume Design in 1980. The film, commercially unsuccessful, was Reeve's first public disappointment. Almost 10 years after Somewhere in Time was released it became a cult film, thanks to screenings on cable networks and video rentals; its popularity began to grow, vindicating the belief of the creative team. INSITE, the International Network of Somewhere in Time Enthusiasts, did fundraising to sponsor a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 1997 for Reeve. Jane Seymour became a personal friend of Reeve and in 1996 named her twin son Kristopher in his honor. \n\nIn that same year, he made a guest appearance on The Muppet Show, where he performed \"East of the Sun (and West of the Moon)\" on a piano for Miss Piggy, who had a crush on him. Reeve denied being Superman, but displayed the superpowers throughout that entire episode. He then returned to continue filming on the not yet finished production of Superman II.\n\nGae Exton, Reeve's partner at the time, gave birth to their son, Matthew Exton Reeve, on December 20, 1979, at Welbeck Hospital in London, England. After finishing Superman II, the family left London and rented a house in Hollywood Hills. Soon after, Reeve grew tired of Hollywood and took the family to Williamstown, Massachusetts, where he played the lead in the successful play The Front Page, directed by Robert Allan Ackerman. Later in the year, Reeve played a disabled Vietnam veteran in the Broadway play Fifth of July. In his research for the role, he was coached by an amputee on how to walk on artificial legs.Reeve, Christopher (1998), pp 207–212\n\nAfter The Fifth of July, Reeve stretched his acting range further and played a homicidal novice playwright trying to kill his lover and mentor Michael Caine in Sidney Lumet's dark comedy film Deathtrap based on the play by Ira Levin. The film was well received. After Superman II, Reeve portrayed partially corrupt Catholic priest John Flaherty in Monsignor. Reeve felt this gave him the opportunity to play \"a morally ambiguous character who was neither clearly good nor clearly bad, someone to whom life is much more complex than the characters I've played previously\". Reeve blamed the failure of the film on poor editing. He said \"the movie is sort of a series of outrageous incidents that you find hard to believe. Since they don't have a focus, and since they aren't justified and explained, they become laughable\"\n\nReeve was then offered the role of Basil Ransom in The Bostonians alongside Vanessa Redgrave. Though Reeve ordinarily commanded over one million dollars per film, the producers could only afford to pay him one-tenth of that. Reeve had no complaints, as he was happy to be doing a role that he could be proud of. The film exceeded expectations and did very well at the box office for what was considered to be an art house film. The New York Times called it \"the best adaptation of a literary work yet made for the screen.\" Katharine Hepburn called Reeve to tell him that he was \"absolutely marvelous\" and \"captivating\" in the film. When told that he was currently shooting Anna Karenina, she said, \"Oh, that's a terrible mistake.\" \n\nReeve was a licensed pilot and flew solo across the Atlantic twice. During the filming of Superman III, he raced his sailplane in his free time. He joined The Tiger Club, a group of aviators who had served in the Royal Air Force in the Battle of Britain. They let him participate in mock dogfights in vintage World War I combat planes. The producers of the film The Aviator approached him without knowing that he was a pilot and that he knew how to fly a Stearman, the plane used in the film. Reeve readily accepted the role. The film was shot in Kranjska Gora, and Reeve did all of his stunts. At this time, Gae Exton gave birth to their second child, Alexandra Exton Reeve, in December 1983 at Welbeck Hospital in London, England. \n\nIn 1984, Reeve appeared in The Aspern Papers with Vanessa Redgrave. He then played Tony in The Royal Family and the Count in Marriage of Figaro.\n\nIn 1985, Reeve hosted the television documentary Dinosaur! Fascinated with dinosaurs since he was a kid (as he says in the documentary) he flew himself to New York in his own plane to shoot on location at the American Museum of Natural History. Also in 1985, DC Comics named Reeve as one of the honorees in the company's 50th anniversary publication Fifty Who Made DC Great for his work on the Superman film series. \n\nIn 1986, he was still struggling to find scripts that he liked. A script named Street Smart had been lying in his house for years, and after re-reading it, he had it green-lit at Cannon Films. He starred opposite Morgan Freeman, who was nominated for his first Academy Award for the film. The film received excellent reviews but performed poorly at the box office, possibly because Cannon Films had failed to properly advertise it. \n\n1987–1989\n\nAfter Superman IV in 1987, Reeve's relationship with Exton fell apart, and they separated. He moved to New York without his children. He became depressed and decided that doing a comedy might be good for him. He was given a lead in Switching Channels. Burt Reynolds and Kathleen Turner had a feud during filming, which made the time even more unbearable for Reeve. Reeve later stated that he made a fool of himself in the film and that most of his time was spent refereeing between Reynolds and Turner. The film did poorly, and Reeve believed that it marked the end of his movie star career. He spent the next years mostly doing plays. He tried out for the Richard Gere role in Pretty Woman, but walked out on the audition because they had a half-hearted casting director fill in for Julia Roberts. \n\nFive months after separating from Gae Exton and after filming Switching Channels, he went back to Williamstown with his children, Matthew and Alexandra, who were seven and three respectively. Reeve watched a group of singers called the Cabaret Corps perform, and took notice of one of the singers, Dana Morosini. The two began dating and were married in Williamstown in April 1992. \n\nIn the late 1980s, Reeve became more active. He was taking horse-riding lessons, and trained five to six days a week for competition in combined training events. He built a sailboat, The Sea Angel, and sailed from the Chesapeake to Nova Scotia. He campaigned for Senator Patrick Leahy and made speeches throughout the state. He served as a board member for the Charles Lindbergh Fund, which promotes environmentally safe technologies. He lent support to causes such as Amnesty International, the Natural Resources Defense Council, and People for the American Way. He joined the Environmental Air Force, and used his Cheyenne II turboprop plane to take government officials and journalists over areas of environmental damage. In late 1987, 77 actors in Santiago, Chile were threatened with execution by the dictator Augusto Pinochet. Reeve was asked by Ariel Dorfman to help save their lives. Reeve flew to Chile and helped lead a protest march. A cartoon then ran in a newspaper showing him carrying Pinochet by the collar with the caption, \"Where will you take him, Superman?\" For his heroics, he was awarded the Grand Cross of the Bernardo O'Higgins Order, the highest Chilean distinction for foreigners. He also received the Obie Prize and the Annual Walter Brielh Human Rights Foundation award. Reeve's friend Ron Silver later started the Creative Coalition, an organization designed to teach celebrities how to speak knowledgeably about political issues. Reeve was an early member of the group, along with Susan Sarandon, Alec Baldwin, and Blythe Danner. \n\n1990–1994\n\nIn 1990, Reeve starred in the Civil War film, The Rose and the Jackal, in which he played Allan Pinkerton, the head of President Lincoln's new Secret Service. Dana gave birth to William Elliot \"Will\" Reeve on June 7, 1992 at North Adams Regional Hospital in North Adams, Massachusetts. In October, Reeve was offered the part of Lewis in The Remains of the Day. The script was one of the best he had read, and he unhesitatingly took the part. The film was deemed an instant classic and was nominated for eight Academy Awards. \n\nIn the early 1990s, Reeve was in three roles for television in which he was cast as a villain. The most notable of these was Bump in the Night based on the novel by Isabelle Holland in which Reeve played a child molester who abducts a young boy in New York City. The movie got fair to positive reviews. Reeve felt it was important for parents of young children to see the film. It is on home video in the UK, but not in the US.\n\nIn another television movie, Mortal Sins (1992), Reeve for the second time played a Catholic priest, this time hearing the confessions of a serial murderer in a role reminiscent of that of Montgomery Clift in Hitchcock's I Confess.\n\nIn 1994, Reeve was elected as a co-president of the Creative Coalition. The organization's work was noticed nationwide, and Reeve was asked by the Democratic Party to run for the United States Congress. He replied, \"Run for Congress? And lose my influence in Washington?\" At this time, he had received scripts for Picket Fences and Chicago Hope and was asked by CBS if he wanted to start his own television series. This meant moving to Los Angeles, which would place him even further from Matthew and Alexandra, who lived in London. In Massachusetts, Reeve could take a Concorde and see them any time. He declined the offers. Reeve did not mind making trips, however; he went to New Mexico to shoot Speechless (co-starring Michael Keaton who, like Reeve, also portrayed a famous DC Comics superhero on film; Batman) and went to Point Reyes to shoot Village of the Damned.\n\nShortly before his accident, Reeve played a paralyzed police officer in the HBO special Above Suspicion. He did research at a rehabilitation hospital in Van Nuys, and learned how to use a wheelchair to get in and out of cars. Reeve was then offered the lead in Kidnapped, to be shot in Ireland. He was excited to be going to Ireland, and he and Dana decided that they would conceive their second child there. Reeve also planned to direct his first big screen film, a romantic comedy entitled Tell Me True. Not long after making these plans, the family went to Culpeper, Virginia, for an equestrian competition. \n\nRoles turned down by Reeve\n\n1978–1984\n\nFollowing the first Superman movie, Reeve found that Hollywood producers wanted him to be an action star. He later said, \"I found most of the scripts of that genre poorly constructed, and I felt the starring roles could easily be played by anyone with a strong physique.\" In addition, he did not feel that he was right for the other films he was offered, and turned down the lead roles in American Gigolo, The World According to Garp, Splash, Fatal Attraction, Pretty Woman, Romancing the Stone, Lethal Weapon and Body Heat. Katharine Hepburn recommended Reeve to David Lean for the role of Fletcher Christian in The Bounty, a film version of the mutiny on the Bounty starring Anthony Hopkins. After considering it, Reeve decided that he would be miscast, and Lean went with his second choice, Mel Gibson. \n\n2001\n\nPrior to the filming of Hannibal, Reeve was offered the part of primary antagonist Mason Verger, based on his work as a wheelchair-bound police officer in Above Suspicion. Not having read the novel, Reeve was delighted with the opportunity to return to acting. However, upon realizing that Verger was a quadriplegic, facially disfigured child rapist, Reeve withdrew from the project in disgust. The role was later accepted by secondary choice Gary Oldman. \n\nInjury\n\nReeve began his involvement in horse riding in 1985 after learning to ride for the film Anna Karenina. He was initially allergic to horses, so he took antihistamines. He trained on Martha's Vineyard, and by 1989 he began eventing. His allergies soon disappeared. \n\nReeve bought a 12-year-old American thoroughbred horse named Eastern Express, nicknamed \"Buck\", while filming Village of the Damned. He trained with Buck in 1994, and planned to do Training Level events in 1995 and move up to Preliminary in 1996. Though Reeve had originally signed up to compete at an event in Vermont, his coach invited him to go to the Commonwealth Dressage and Combined Training Association finals at the Commonwealth Park equestrian center in Culpeper, Virginia. Reeve finished at fourth place out of 27 in the dressage, before walking his cross-country course. He was concerned about jumps 16 and 17, but paid little attention to the third jump, which was a routine three-foot-three fence shaped like the letter 'W'. \n\nOn May 27, 1995, Reeve's horse made a refusal. Witnesses said that the horse began into the third fence jump and suddenly stopped. Reeve fell forward off the horse, holding on to the reins. His hands somehow became tangled in the reins, and the bridle and bit were pulled off the horse. He landed headfirst on the far side of the fence, shattering his first and second vertebrae. This cervical spinal injury, which paralyzed him from the neck down, also halted his breathing. Paramedics arrived three minutes later and immediately took measures to get air into his lungs. He was taken first to the local hospital, before being flown on by helicopter to the University of Virginia Medical Center. Afterwards he had no recollection of the accident. Due to this injury, Armand Assante replaced Reeve for the role of Alan Breck Stewart in Kidnapped.\n\nRecovery\n\nFor the first few days after the accident, Reeve suffered from delirium, woke up sporadically and would mouth words to Dana such as \"Get the gun\" and \"They're after us.\" After five days, he regained full consciousness, and his doctor explained to him that he had destroyed his first and second cervical vertebrae, which meant that his skull and spine were not connected. His lungs were filling with fluid and were suctioned by entry through the throat; this was said to be the most painful part of Reeve's recovery. \n\nAfter considering his situation, believing that not only would he never walk again, but that he might never move a body part again, Reeve considered suicide. He mouthed to Dana, \"Maybe we should let me go.\" She tearfully replied, \"I am only going to say this once: I will support whatever you want to do, because this is your life, and your decision. But I want you to know that I'll be with you for the long haul, no matter what. You're still you. And I love you.\" Reeve never considered euthanasia as an option again. \n\nReeve went through inner anguish in the ICU, particularly when he was alone during the night. His approaching operation to reattach his skull to his spine (June 1995) \"was frightening to contemplate. ... I already knew that I had only a fifty-fifty chance of surviving the surgery. ... Then, at an especially bleak moment, the door flew open and in hurried a squat fellow with a blue scrub hat and a yellow surgical gown and glasses, speaking in a Russian accent.\" The man announced that he was a proctologist and was going to perform a rectal exam on Reeve. It was Robin Williams, reprising his character from the film Nine Months. Reeve wrote: \"For the first time since the accident, I laughed. My old friend had helped me know that somehow I was going to be okay.\" \n\nDr. John A. Jane performed surgery to repair Reeve's neck vertebrae. He put wires underneath both laminae and used bone from Reeve's hip to fit between the C1 and C2 vertebrae. He inserted a titanium pin and fused the wires with the vertebrae, then drilled holes in Reeve's skull and fitted the wires through to secure the skull to the spinal column. \n\nRehabilitation\n\nOn June 28, 1995, Reeve was taken to the Kessler Rehabilitation Center in West Orange, New Jersey. He was given several blood transfusions in the first few weeks because of very low hemoglobin and protein levels. Many times his breathing tube would become disconnected and he would be at the mercy of nurses to come in and save his life.\n\nAt the Institute, one of his aides was a Jamaican man named Glenn Miller, nicknamed Juice, who helped him learn how to get into the shower and how to use a powered wheelchair, which was activated by blowing air through a straw. Miller and Reeve would watch the film Cool Runnings and joke about Reeve directing the sequel, Bobsled Two. \n\nResearch in Israel\n\nIn July 2003, Christopher Reeve's continuing frustration with the pace of stem cell research in the U.S. led him to Israel, a country that was then, according to him, at the center of research in spinal cord injury. He was invited by Israel’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs to seek out the best treatment for his condition. During his visit, Reeve called the experience “a privilege” and said, “Israel has very proactive rehab facilities, excellent medical schools and teaching hospitals, and an absolutely first-rate research infrastructure.” \n\nThroughout his intensive tour, Reeve visited ALYN Hospital, Weizmann Institute of Science, and Technion – Israel Institute of Technology, among many other places. After meeting dozens of Israeli patients who had undergone groundbreaking recovery processes and made remarkable progress, Reeve was in awe and described the feeling as “almost overwhelming.” He explained, “The research progresses more rapidly in Israel than almost anywhere else I can think of. The decision they made about stem cells, where they had a debate and decided that secular law must prevail over religious teachings, is something that we need to learn in the United States.” \n\nReeve discussed his trip to Israel on CNN's Larry King Live while he was in Tel Aviv. When asked what Israel is doing that other countries are not, Reeve responded, “They have a very progressive atmosphere here. They have socialized medicine so that doctors and patients do not have the problem of profit or trying to get insurance companies to pay for treatment. They also work very well together. They share their knowledge. This is a country of six million people about the size of Long Island, and everyone works together very tremendously. The people of the country benefit from that.” \n\nIsraelis were very receptive to Reeve's visit, calling him an inspiration to all and urging him never to give up hope.\n\nActivism\n\nReeve left Kessler feeling inspired by the other patients he had met. Because he was constantly being covered by the media, he decided to use his name to put focus on spinal cord injuries. In 1996, he appeared at the Academy Awards to a long standing ovation and gave a speech about Hollywood's duty to make movies that face the world's most important issues head-on. He also hosted the Paralympics in Atlanta and spoke at the Democratic National Convention. He traveled across the country to make speeches, never needing a teleprompter or a script. For these efforts, he was placed on the cover of TIME on August 26, 1996. In the same year, he narrated the HBO film Without Pity: A Film About Abilities. The film won the Emmy Award for \"Outstanding Informational Special.\" He then acted in a small role in the film A Step Towards Tomorrow. \n\nReeve was elected Chairman of the American Paralysis Association and Vice Chairman of the National Organization on Disability. He co-founded the Reeve-Irvine Research Center, which is now one of the leading spinal cord research centers in the world. He created the Christopher Reeve Foundation (currently known as the Christopher and Dana Reeve Foundation) to speed up research through funding, and to use grants to improve the quality of the lives of people with disabilities. The Foundation to date has given more than $65 million for research, and more than $8.5 million in quality-of-life grants. The Foundation has funded a new technology called \"Locomotor Training\" that uses a treadmill to mimic the movements of walking to help develop neural connections, in effect re-teaching the spinal cord how to send signals to the legs to walk. This technology has helped several paralyzed patients walk again. Of Christopher Reeve, UC Irvine said, \"in the years following his injury, Christopher did more to promote research on spinal cord injury and other neurological disorders than any other person before or since.\" \n\nIn 1997, Reeve made his directorial debut with the HBO film In the Gloaming with Robert Sean Leonard, Glenn Close, Whoopi Goldberg, Bridget Fonda and David Strathairn. The film won four Cable Ace Awards and was nominated for five Emmy Awards including \"Outstanding Director for a Miniseries or Special.\" Dana Reeve said, \"There's such a difference in his outlook, his health, his overall sense of well-being when he's working at what he loves, which is creative work.\" In 1998, Reeve produced and starred in Rear Window, a remake of Alfred Hitchcock's 1954 film. He was nominated for a Golden Globe and won a Screen Actors Guild Award for his performance. On April 25, 1998, Random House published Reeve's autobiography, Still Me. The book spent eleven weeks on the New York Times Best Seller list and Reeve won a Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album. \n\nThroughout this time, Reeve kept his body as physically strong as possible by using specialized exercise machines. He did this both because he believed that the nervous system could be regenerated through intense physical therapy, and because he wanted his body to be strong enough to support itself if a cure was found. In 2000, he began to regain some motor function, and was able to sense hot and cold temperatures on his body. His doctor, John McDonald of Washington University in St. Louis, asked him if anything was new with his recovery. Reeve then moved his left index finger on command. \"I don't think Dr. McDonald would have been more surprised if I had just walked on water,\" said Reeve in an interview. Also during that year, he made guest appearances on the long-running PBS series Sesame Street.\n\nIn 2001, Reeve was elected to serve on the board of directors for the company TechHealth, headquartered in Tampa, Florida, which provided products and services for severely injured patients. While serving on the TechHealth board, Reeve participated in board meetings and advised the company on strategic direction. He refused compensation. He made phone calls to the company's catastrophically injured patients to cheer them up. Reeve served on TechHealth's board until his death in 2004. After his death, Dana Reeve took his board seat with TechHealth until her death in March 2006.\n\nIn 2002, the Christopher and Dana Reeve Paralysis Resource Center, a federal government facility created through a Centers for Disease Control and Prevention non-compete grant, was opened in Short Hills, New Jersey. Its mission is to teach paralyzed people to live more independently. Reeve said, \"When somebody is first injured or as a disease progresses into paralysis, people don't know where to turn. Dana and I wanted a facility that could give support and information to people. With this new Center, we're off to an amazing start.\"\n\nReeve lobbied for expanded federal funding on embryonic stem cell research to include all embryonic stem cell lines in existence and for open-ended scientific inquiry of the research by self-governance. President George W. Bush limited the federal funding to research only on human embryonic stem cell lines created on or before August 9, 2001, the day he announced his policy, and allotted approximately $100 million for it. Reeve initially called this \"a step in the right direction,\" admitting that he did not know about the existing lines and would look into them further. He fought against the limit when scientists revealed that most of the old lines were contaminated by an early research technique that involved mixing the human stem cells with mouse cells. In 2002, Reeve lobbied for the Human Cloning Prohibition Act of 2001, which would allow somatic cell nuclear transfer research, but would ban reproductive cloning. He argued that stem cell implantation is unsafe unless the stem cells contain the patient's own DNA, and that because somatic cell nuclear transfer is done without fertilizing an egg, it can be fully regulated. In June 2004, Reeve provided a videotaped message on behalf of the Genetics Policy Institute to the delegates of the United Nations in defense of somatic cell nuclear transfer, which was under consideration to be banned by world treaty. In the final days of his life, Reeve urged California voters to vote yes on Proposition 71, which would establish the California Institute for Regenerative Medicine, and allot $3 billion of state funds to stem cell research. Proposition 71 was approved less than one month after Reeve's death.\n\nOn February 25, 2003, Reeve appeared in the television series Smallville as Dr. Swann in the episode \"Rosetta.\" In that episode, Dr. Swann brings to Clark Kent (Tom Welling) information about where he comes from and how to use his powers for the good of mankind. The scenes of Reeve and Welling feature music cues from the 1978 Superman movie, composed by John Williams and arranged by Mark Snow. At the end of this episode, Reeve and Welling appeared in a short spot inviting people to support the Christopher Reeve Paralysis Foundation. \"Rosetta\" set ratings history for The WB network. The fan community met the episode with rave reviews and praise it as being among the series' best to this day. \n\nReeve also appeared in the Smallville episode \"Legacy\", in which he met again with fellow stage actor John Glover, who played Lionel Luthor in the show.\n\nIn April 2004, Random House published Reeve's second book, Nothing Is Impossible. This book is shorter than Still Me and focuses on Reeve's world views and the life experiences that helped him shape them.\n\nAlso in 2004, Reeve directed the A&E film The Brooke Ellison Story. The film is based on the true story of Brooke Ellison, the first quadriplegic to graduate from Harvard University. Reeve during this time was directing the animated film Everyone's Hero. It was one of his dream projects and he died during the middle of production for the film. His wife, Dana helped out and his son, Will was a cast member in the film.\n\nHealth issues and death\n\nReeve suffered from asthma and allergies since childhood. At age 16, he began to suffer from alopecia areata, a condition that causes patches of hair to fall out from an otherwise healthy head of hair. Generally he was able to comb over it and often the problem disappeared for long periods. Later in life, the condition became more noticeable after he became paralyzed, and he would have his head shaved. \n\nMore than once he had a severe reaction to a drug. In Kessler, he tried a drug named Sygen which was theorized to help reduce damage to the spinal cord. The drug caused him to go into anaphylactic shock and his heart stopped. He claimed to have had an out-of-body experience and remembered saying, \"I'm sorry, but I have to go now\" during the event. In his autobiography, he wrote, \"and then I left my body. I was up on the ceiling...I looked down and saw my body stretched out on the bed, not moving, while everybody—there were 15 or 20 people, the doctors, the EMTs, the nurses—was working on me. The noise and commotion grew quieter as though someone were gradually turning down the volume.\" After receiving a large dose of epinephrine, he woke up and stabilized later that night. \n\nIn 2002 and 2004, Reeve fought off several serious infections believed to have originated from the bone marrow. He recovered from three that could have been fatal.\n\nIn early October 2004, he was being treated for an infected pressure ulcer that was causing sepsis, a complication that he had experienced many times before. On October 5, he spoke at the Rehabilitation Institute of Chicago on behalf of the Institute's work. This was to be his last reported public appearance. On October 9, Reeve felt well and attended his son Will's hockey game. That night, he went into cardiac arrest after receiving an antibiotic for the infection. He fell into a coma and was taken to Northern Westchester Hospital in Mount Kisco, New York. Eighteen hours later, on October 10, 2004, Reeve died at the age of 52. His doctor, John McDonald, believed that it was an adverse reaction to the antibiotic that caused his death. \n\nA memorial service for Reeve was held at the Unitarian Church in Westport, Connecticut, which his wife attended. \n\nHis wife, Dana Reeve, headed the Christopher Reeve Foundation after his death. She was diagnosed with lung cancer on August 9, 2005, and died at age 44 on March 6, 2006.[http://www.cnn.com/2006/SHOWBIZ/03/07/reeve.obit/ Dana Reeve dies of lung cancer at 44.] CNN, March 8, 2006, accessed October 28, 2006\n\nThey were survived by their son, William, and Reeve's son Matthew and daughter Alexandra, both from his relationship with Gae Exton. Christopher was also survived by his parents and Dana was survived by her father. Matthew and Alexandra now serve on the board of directors for the Christopher and Dana Reeve Foundation. \n\nFilmography" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Grey Lady Down", "Gray Lady Down" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "gray lady down", "grey lady down" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "gray lady down", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Gray Lady Down" }
The Porcaro Brothers featured in which group?	tc_621	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "Search" ], "filename": [ "Jeff_Porcaro.txt" ], "title": [ "Jeff Porcaro" ], "wiki_context": [ "Jeffrey Thomas \"Jeff\" Porcaro (April 1, 1954 – August 5, 1992) was an American drummer, songwriter, and record producer. In a career that spanned more than 20 years, Porcaro was best known for his work with the rock band Toto. Porcaro is one of the most recorded session musicians in history, working on hundreds of albums and thousands of sessions. While already an established studio player in the 1970s, he came to prominence in the United States as the drummer on the Steely Dan album Katy Lied. AllMusic has characterized him as \"arguably the most highly regarded studio drummer in rock from the mid-'70s to the early '90s\", further stating that \"It is no exaggeration to say that the sound of mainstream pop/rock drumming in the 1980s was, to a large extent, the sound of Jeff Porcaro.\" He was posthumously inducted into the Modern Drummer Hall of Fame in 1993. \n\nBiography\n\nPersonal life\n\nJeffrey Thomas Porcaro was born on April 1, 1954, in Hartford, Connecticut, the eldest son of Los Angeles session percussionist Joe Porcaro and his wife, Eileen. His brothers Mike and Steve were also successful studio musicians and members of the band Toto. Porcaro was raised in the San Fernando Valley area of Los Angeles and attended Ulysses S. Grant High School.\n\nOn October 22, 1983, Porcaro married Susan Norris, a Los Angeles television broadcaster. Together, they had three sons, Christopher Joseph (1984), Miles Edwin Crawford (1986), and Nico Hendrix (1991).\n\nCareer\n\nPorcaro began playing drums at the age of seven. Lessons came from his father Joe Porcaro, followed by further studies with Bob Zimmitti and Richie Lepore.\n\nWhen he was seventeen, Porcaro got his first professional gig playing in Sonny & Cher's touring band. He later on called Jim Keltner and Jim Gordon his idols at that time. During his 20s, he played on hundreds of albums, including several for Steely Dan. He toured with Boz Scaggs before co-founding Toto with his brother Steve and childhood friends Steve Lukather and David Paich. Jeff Porcaro is renowned among drummers for the drum pattern he used on the Grammy Award winning Toto song \"Rosanna\", from the album Toto IV. The drum pattern called the Half-Time Shuffle Groove, was originally created by the legendary drummer Bernard Purdie who called it the \"Purdie Shuffle.\" Porcaro created his own version of this groove by blending the aforementioned shuffle with the one heard in the Led Zeppelin song Fool in the Rain. Porcaro describes this groove in detail on a Star Licks video (now DVD) he created shortly after Rosanna became popular.\n\nBesides his work with Toto, he was also a highly sought after session musician. He had collaborated with many of the biggest names in music, including Boz Scaggs, Paul McCartney, Dire Straits, Donald Fagen, Steely Dan, Rickie Lee Jones, Michael Jackson, Al Jarreau, George Benson, Joe Walsh, Joe Cocker, Stan Getz, Sérgio Mendes, Lee Ritenour, Christopher Cross, James Newton Howard, Jim Messina, Barbra Streisand, Donna Summer, Diana Ross, Eric Carmen, Eric Clapton, Miles Davis, Bruce Springsteen, Elton John, Larry Carlton, Michael McDonald, Seals and Crofts, and David Gilmour. Porcaro had contributed drums to four tracks on Michael Jackson's Thriller, as well as played on the Dangerous album hit \"Heal the World\". He also played on 10cc's ...Meanwhile (1992). On the 1993 10cc Alive album, recorded after his death, the band dedicated \"The Night That the Stars Didn't Show\" to him.\n\nRichard Marx dedicated the song \"One Man\" to him and said Porcaro was the best drummer he had ever worked with. Michael Jackson made a dedication to Porcaro in the liner notes for his 1995 album HIStory: Past, Present and Future, Book I.\n\nDeath\n\nPorcaro died on August 5, 1992, at the age of 38. He had fallen ill after spraying insecticide in the yard of his Hidden Hills home and died that evening at Humana Hospital-West Hills. According to one Los Angeles Times report, The Los Angeles County Coroner's office listed the cause of death to be a heart attack from atherosclerosis induced by cocaine use, not from an allergic reaction to the pesticides as presumed immediately after his death and stated by Toto in the band's official history. The official cause of death reported by the coroner has long been the subject of intense debate, with Porcaro's family, friends, and Toto band members claiming that while he did occasionally use cocaine, he was by no means a heavy drug user nor was he an addict. Most of the people who knew him state that the coroner's report is wrong, and that he died of a combination of undiagnosed heart disease and organophosphate poisoning caused by the insecticide he was spraying on the day that he died. \n\nIn a podcast recorded with I'd Hit That in late 2013, Steve Lukather spoke about Jeff Porcaro's death: \n\nSteve Lukather: I spoke to him the day he passed... he said, 'yeah, man I'll see you this weekend and we'll have a BBQ at the house and we'll go clean up the yard'... and that's when he got poison on himself and it turns out he had a bad heart anyway. He had two uncles that died when they were 40 years old from heart disease so it was genetic... this whole drug thing that came out, it's so insidious, and I hate the fucking fact cause he was never the bad drug guy... he'd be the guy going \"what are you guys doing staying up all night, you idiots\"... in the late '70s and early '80s it was crazy man, we're not gonna deny any of it, but by the time he passed it was never, I don't know, people just love to roam the dirty laundry as Henley wrote you know... and you read this Wikipedia shit, that's right there, it's like does anybody ever do homework on these facts... he just had a genetic predisposition... this whole thing with his arms hurting and all this, he was always, 'my arms, my muscles', it wasn't his muscles, it was the fact that the blood was not getting to the extremities, he had hardening of the arteries at 38 years old.\n\nInterviewer: How long was he complaining of the pain in the arms?\n\nSteve Lukather: Years, it was debilitating to the point where touring became difficult for him.\n\nPorcaro's funeral was held on August 10 in the Forest Lawn – Hollywood Hills Cemetery, where he was buried on the Lincoln Terrace, lot 120. The Jeff Porcaro Memorial Fund was established to benefit the music and art departments of Grant High School in Los Angeles, California, where he was a student in the early 1970s. A memorial concert took place at the Universal Amphitheater in Los Angeles on December 14, 1992, with an all-star line-up that included George Harrison, Boz Scaggs, Donald Fagen, Don Henley, Michael McDonald, David Crosby, Eddie Van Halen, and the members of Toto. The proceeds of the concert were used to establish an education trust fund for Porcaro's sons.\n\nPorcaro's tombstone was inscribed with the following epitaph, comprising lyrics from Kingdom of Desire track \"Wings of Time\": \"Our love doesn't end here; it lives forever, on the Wings of Time.\"\n\nEquipment\n\nPorcaro was an endorser of Pearl drums, pedals, racks and hardware, Paiste cymbals, Remo drumheads and Regaltip drumsticks. He had his own Regaltip Jeff Porcaro signature drumsticks, which are still made by the company . He used other brands of drums until joining Pearl in 1982, notably Ludwig-Musser, Gretsch and Camco.\n\nDiscography\n\nWith Toto\n\n* Toto (1978)\n* Hydra (1979)\n* Turn Back (1981)\n* Toto IV (1982)\n* Isolation (1984)\n* Dune (1984)\n* Olympic Games 1984 (1984)\n* Fahrenheit (1986)\n* The Seventh One (1988)\n* Past to Present 1977 - 1990 (1990)\n* Kingdom of Desire (1992, released posthumously and dedicated to Jeff's memory)\n* Toto XX (1998)\n* Greatest Hits Live...and More (DVD with behind the scenes footage and interviews)\n\nOther artists\n\nSeals & Crofts – Diamond Girl (1973), Unborn Child (1974), Get Closer (1976)\nJoe Cocker – I Can Stand a Little Rain (1974), Civilized Man (1984)\nSteely Dan – Pretzel Logic (1974), Katy Lied (1975), FM (No Static at All) (1978), Gaucho (1980)\nTommy Bolin – Teaser (1975) – \"The Grind\", \"Homeward Strut\", \"Dreamer\", \"Teaser\"\nLes Dudek – Les Dudek Debut (1976), Say No More (1977), Ghost Town Parade (1978), Deeper Shades of Blues, (1995), Freestyle! (2000)\nLeo Sayer – Endless Flight (1976) – \"When I Need You\", Thunder in My Heart (1977), Leo Sayer (1978), World Radio (1982), Have You Ever Been in Love (1983)\nBoz Scaggs – Silk Degrees (1976), Down Two Then Left (1977), Middle Man (1980), Other Roads (1988)\nFlyer-Send a Little Love My Way (1979)\nPeter Frampton – Breaking All the Rules (1981)\nEric Carmen – Boats Against the Current (1977) – \"She Did It\"\nFlyer – Send a Little Love My Way (1979) \nValerie Carter – Just a Stone's Throw Away (1977), Wild Child (1978)\nLisa Dal Bello – Lisa Dal Bello (1977)\nHall & Oates – Beauty on a Back Street (1977)\nDiana Ross – Baby It's Me (1977), Ross (1983)\nColin Blunstone – Never Even Thought (1978)\nLarry Carlton – Larry Carlton (1978), Sleepwalk (1981), Friends (1983)\nAllen Toussaint – Motion (1978)\nDave Mason – Mariposa De Oro (1978) – \"Will You Still Love Me Tomorrow\" \nWarren Zevon – Excitable Boy (1978) – \"Nighttime in the Switching Yard\", Mr. Bad Example (1991)\nRubén Blades – Nothing but the Truth (1988)\nBim – Thistles (1978) \nJanne Schaffer – Earmeal (1979)\nLowell George – Thanks, I'll Eat It Here (1979)\nChicago – Chicago 17 (1984) – \"Stay the Night\"\nJackson Browne – The Pretender (1976)\nPink Floyd – The Wall (1979) – \"Mother\"\nAretha Franklin – Aretha (1980), Love All the Hurt Away (1981)\nBee Gees – Living Eyes (1981)\nRandy Crawford – Secret Combination (1981), Windsong (1982)\nAl Jarreau – Breakin' Away (1981) – \"Breakin' Away\", Jarreau (1983) – \"Mornin'\", \"Step by Step\", \"Black and Blues\"\nAmii Ozaki – Hot Baby (1981)\nGreg Lake – Greg Lake (1981)\nCrosby, Stills & Nash – Daylight Again (1982), Allies (1983)\nEye to Eye – Eye to Eye (1982)\nMichael Jackson – Thriller (1982) – \"Beat It\", \"Human Nature\", \"The Girl is Mine\", \"The Lady in my Life\", Dangerous (1991) – \"Heal the World\"\nElton John – Jump Up! (1982)\nMelissa Manchester – You Should Hear How She Talks About You (1982)\nDonald Fagen – The Nightfly (1982)\nHerbie Hancock – Lite Me Up (1982)\nDon Henley – I Can't Stand Still (1982) – \"Dirty Laundry\", \"New York Minute\" on The End of the Innocence (1989)\nMichael McDonald – If That's What It Takes (1982) – \"I Keep Forgettin'\", No Lookin' Back (1985), Take It to Heart (1990)\nGeorge Benson – In Your Eyes (1983) – \"Lady Love Me (One More Time)\"\nChristopher Cross – Another Page (1983) – Rendezvous (1992)\nJames Newton Howard – James Newton Howard and Friends (1983) \nLionel Richie – Can't Slow Down (1983) – \"Running with the Night\", – Louder Than Words (1996) – \"The Climbing\"\nPaul Simon – Hearts and Bones (1983) – \"Train in the Distance\"\nRandy Newman – Trouble in Paradise (1983) – \"I Love L.A.\". \nDavid Gilmour – About Face (1984)\nThe Jacksons – Victory (1984) – \"Torture\", \"Wait\"\nPaul McCartney – Give My Regards to Broad Street (1984)\nJoe Walsh – The Confessor (1985)\nEric Clapton – Behind the Sun (1985) – \"Forever Man\"\nRoger Hodgson – Hai Hai (1987)\nJon Anderson – In the City of Angels (1988)\nLuis Miguel – Busca Una Mujer (1988)\nLove and Money – Strange Kind of Love (1988)\nDr. John – In a Sentimental Mood (1989)\nClair Marlo – Let It Go (1989)\nMadonna – Like a Prayer (1989), I'm Breathless (1990)\nTwenty Mondays – The Twist Inside (1990)\nMichael Bolton – Time, Love & Tenderness (1991)\nCher – Love Hurts (1991)\nDire Straits – On Every Street (1991)\nRichard Marx – Rush Street (1991), Paid Vacation (1993) – \"One Man\"\nB-52s – Good Stuff (1992)\nBruce Springsteen – \"Viva Las Vegas\" (1990), Human Touch (1992)\n10cc – ...Meanwhile (1992)\nRoger Waters – Amused to Death (1992) – \"It's a Miracle\"\nJude Cole – A View from 3rd Street (1990) – \"Time for Letting Go\", \"Compared to Nothing\" – Start the Car (1992) – \"Open Road\", \"Tell The Truth\". \n*Paul Young – The Crossing (1993)" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Toto (disambiguation)", "Toto" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "toto disambiguation", "toto" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "toto", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Toto" }
Which city was called Leninakan until 1990?	tc_623	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Gyumri.txt" ], "title": [ "Gyumri" ], "wiki_context": [ "Gyumri (Eastern Armenian: Գյումրի; Western Armenian: Կիւմրի), is the second largest city in Armenia and the capital of the Shirak Province in the northwestern part of the country. As of the 2011 census, the city had a population of 121,976, down from 150,917 reported at the 2001 census. Its name has been changed several times. It was originally founded as Kumayri, later re-founded as Alexandropol (; ) between 1837 and 1924 during the Russian rule, then Leninakan (; ) between 1924–90, then as Gyumri.\n\nHistory\n\nClassical antiquity and the ancient Armenian Kingdom\n\nArchaeological excavations conducted throughout the Soviet period have shown that the area of modern-day Gyumri has been populated since at least the third millennium BC. The area was mentioned as Kumayri in the historic Urartian inscriptions dating back to the 8th century BC. In 720 BC, the Cimmerians conquered the region and probably founded the Kumayri settlement, which bears phonetic resemblance to the word used by ancient Armenian in reference to Cimmerians. Historians believe that Xenophon passed through Kumayri during his return to the Black Sea, a journey immortalized in his Anabasis. \n\nAt the decline of the Urartu Kingdom by the second half of the 6th century BC, Kumayri became part of the Achaemenid Empire. The remains of a royal settlement found just to the south of Gyumri near the village of Beniamin dating back to the 5th to 2nd centuries BC, are a great example of the Achemenid influence in the region. However, at the beginning of the 5th century BC, Kumayri became part of the Satrapy of Armenia under the rule of the Orontids. An alternative theory suggests that Kumayri has been formed as an urban settlement in the late 5th century BC, ca. 401 BC, by Greek colonists. \n\nLater in 331 BC, the entire territory was included in the Ayrarat province of Ancient Armenian Kingdom as part of the Shirak canton. Between 190 BC and 1 AD Kumayri was under the rule of the Artaxiad dynasty of Armenia. During the 1st century AD, Shirak was granted to the Kamsarakan family, who ruled over Kumayri during the Arsacid Kingdom of Armenia.\n\nMedieval period\n\nFollowing the partition of Armenia in 387 between the Byzantines and the Persians, and as a result of the fall of the Arsacid Kingdom of Armenia in 428, Shirak including Kumayri became part of the Sasanian Empire of Persia. In 658 AD, at the height of the Arab Islamic invasions, Kumayri was conquered during the Muslim conquest of Persia to become part of the Emirate of Armenia under the Umayyad Caliphate.\n\nKumayri was a significant and quite-developed urban settlement during the Middle Ages. According to the Armenian scholar Ghevond the Historian, the town was a centre of the Armenian rebellion led by Artavazd Mamikonian against the Islamic Arab Caliphate, between 733 and 755. After 2 centuries of Islamic rule over Armenia, the Bagratids declared independence in 885 establishing the Bagratid Kingdom of Armenia. Kumayri entered e new era of growth and progress, particularly when the nearby city of Ani became the capital of the kingdom in 961. By the second half of the 10th century, Kumayri was under the influence of the Armenian Pahlavuni family, who were descendents of the Kamsarakans. The Pahlavunis had a great contribution in the progress of Shirak with the foundation of many fortresses, monastic complexes, educational institutions, etc.\n\nAfter the fall of Armenia to the Byzantine Empire in 1045 and later to the Seljuk invaders in 1064. Under the foreign rulers, the town had gradullay lost its significance during the following centuries, until the establishment of the Zakarid Principality of Armenia in 1201 under the Georgian protectorate. During the Zakarid rule, the Eaastern Armenian territories, mainly Lori and Shirak, entered into a new period of growth and stability, becoming a trade centre between the east and the west. After the Mongols captured Ani in 1236, Armenia turned into a Mongol protectorate as part of the Ilkhanate, and the Zakarids became vassals to the Mongols. After the fall of the Ilkhanate in the mid-14th century, the Zakarid princes ruled over Lori, Shirak and Ararat plain until 1360 when they fell to the invading Turkic tribes.\n\nBy the last quarter of the 14th century, the Ag Qoyunlu Sunni Oghuz Turkic tribe took over Armenia, including Shirak. In 1400, Timur invaded Armenia and Georgia, and captured more than 60,000 of the survived local people as slaves. Many districts including Shirak were depopulated. In 1410, Armenia fell under the control of the Kara Koyunlu Shia Oghuz Turkic tribe. According to the Armeian historian Thomas of Metsoph, although the Kara Koyunlu levied heavy taxes against the Armenians, the early years of their rule were relatively peaceful and some reconstruction of towns took place. \n\nUnder the rule of the Turkic tribes, Kumayri was known to the Turks as Gümrü.\n\nIranian rule\n\nIn 1501, most of the Eastern Armenian territories including Kumayri were swiftly conquered by the emerging Safavid dynasty of Iran led by Shah Ismail I. Soon after in 1502, Kumayri became part of the newly formed Erivan Beglarbegi, a new administrative territory of Iran formed by the Safavids.\n\nDuring the first half of the 18th century, Kumayri became part of the Erivan Khanate under the rule of the Afsharid dynasty and later under the Qajar dynasty of Persia. It remained under the Persian rule until June 1804, when the northern part of Eastern Armenia was ceded by the Russian Empire as a result of the Russo-Persian War between 1804 and 1813 and the signing of the Treaty of Gulistan.\n\nRussian rule\n\nIn June 1804, the Russian forces controlled over Shirak region at the beginning of the Russo-Persian War of 1804 and 1813. Kumayri became officially part of the Russian Empire at the Treaty of Gulistan signed on 1 January 1813 between Imperial Russia and Qajar Persia.\n\nGyumri and the surrounding territories became part of the Russian Empire during the Russo-Persian War between 1804 and 1813 and the resulting Treaty of Gulistan of 1813. The Russians controlled over the town on 12 June 1804, around 25 years earlier than the rest of Eastern Armenia. During the period of the Russian rule, Gyumri became one of the developing cities in the Transcaucasus. In 1829, in the aftermath of the Russo-Turkish War, there was a big influx of Armenian population, as around 3,000 families who had migrated from territories in the Ottoman Empire -in particular from the towns of Kars, Erzurum, and Doğubeyazıt- settled in and around Gyumri. The Russian poet Alexander Pushkin visited Gyumri during his journey to Erzurum in 1829.\n\nIn 1837 Russian Tsar Nicholas I arrived in Gyumri and changed the name into Alexandropol. The name was chosen in honour of Tsar Nicholas I's wife, Princess Charlotte of Prussia, who had changed her name to Alexandra Fyodorovna after converting to Orthodox Christianity.\n\nA major Russian fortress was built on the site in 1837. Alexandropol was finally formed as a town in 1840 to become the centre of the newly established Alexandropol Uyezd, experiencing rapid growth during its first decade. In 1849, the Alexandropol Uyezd became part of the Erivan Governorate. The town was an important outpost for the Imperial Russian armed forces in the Transcaucasus where their military barracks were established (e.g., at Poligons, Severski, Kazachi Post). The Russians built the Sev Berd fortress at the western edge of the city during the 1830s in response to the Russo-Turkish War of 1828–1829.\n\nAlexandropol had been quickly transformed to become one of the major centres of the Russian troops during the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–78. After the establishment of the railway station in 1899, Alexandropol witnessed a significant growth and became the largest city in Eastern Armenia. By the end of the 19th century, Alexandropol was home to 430 shopping stores as well as several workshops and cultural institutions.\n\n20th century and beyond\n\nIn 1902, the first bank in the city was opened. Until the sovietization of Armenia in 1920, Alexandropol had 31 manufacturing centres including beer, soap, textile, etc. After the October Revolution of 1917 and the Russian withdrawal from the South Caucasus, the Ottoman forces launched a new offensive capturing the city of Alexandropol on 11 May 1918, during the Caucasus Campaign in World War I. However, the Ottomans withdrew from the city on 24 December 1918, as a result of the Armistice of Mudros.\n\nOn 10 May 1920, the local Bolshevik Armenians aided by the Muslim population, attempted a coup d'état in Alexandropol against the Dashnak government of Armenia. The uprising was suppressed by the Armenian government on May 14 and its leaders were executed. However, during the Turkish-Armenian War, Turkey attacked Alexandropol and occupied the city on 7 November 1920, as a result of the Battle of Alexandropol. After the battle, the Turkish forces were headquartered in Alexandropol. Turks presented the Republic of Armenia with an ultimatum that Armenians were forced to accept, otherwise Turkey would have invaded the capital Yerevan from their headquarters in Alexandropol. Armenia was forced to sign the Treaty of Alexandropol to stop the Turkish advance towards Yerevan, to put an end to the Turkish-Armenian War. However, the Turkish forces withdrew from Alexandropol after the Treaty of Kars in October 1921. \n\nBeing under the Soviet rule, the name of the city was changed in 1924 to Leninakan after the deceased Soviet leader Vladimir Lenin. The city suffered an earthquake in 1926, when many of its significant buildings were destroyed including the Greek church of Saint George. Leninakan became a major industrial centre in the Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic and its second-largest city, after the capital Yerevan. The city suffered major damage during the 1988 Spitak earthquake, which devastated many parts of the country. The earthquake occurred along a known thrust fault with a length of 60 km. Its strike was parallel to the Caucasus range and dipped to the north-northeast. Bruce Bolt, a seismologist and a professor of earth and planetary science at the University of California, Berkeley, walked the fault scarp in 1992 and found that the vertical displacement measured 1 m along most of the length with the southwest end reaching .\n\nThe earthquake had a disastrous impact on the city, as many buildings are still not recovered. According to Armenian government sources, around 3,500 residents of Gyumri remain homeless.\n\nAt the time of the breakup of the Soviet Union, the city was renamed Kumayri between in 1990 until 1992 when it was finally given the name Gyumri. The Russian 102nd Military Base is located in the city. \n\nGyumri was celebrated as the Capital of Culture of the Commonwealth of Independent States for 2013. Major events took place in the city on 30 June 2013.\n\nOn 12 January 2015, Valery Permyakov, a serviceman from the Russian 102nd Military Base, murdered seven members of an Armenian family in Gyumri. \n\nOn 25 June 2016, Pope Francis delivered a Holy Mass at Gyumri's Vartanants Square. His Holiness Catholicos of All Armenians Garegin II also took part in the ceremony. \n\nGeography and climate\n\nGyumri is 126 km north of the capital Yerevan at the central part of the Shirak plateau. It has an approximate height of 1550 metres above sea level. The Akhurian River passes through the western suburbs. The Shirak plateau is surrounded with the Pambak Mountains from the east and Aragats volcanic range from the south. The city of Gyumri is 196 km away from the Black Sea. The surrounding lands of the city are reach with tuff, basalt and clay. Gyumri has a semi-arid continental climate, characterized with cold and snowy winter where the minimum temperature could fall down to . On the other hand, summer in Gyumri is relatively hot with temperatures could reach up to 36 °C. The annual precipitation averages 500 mm.\n\nDemographics\n\nPopulation\n\nThe population of Gyumri has gradually grown since 1840 after gaining the status of town. A huge decline of the population was due to the disastrous earthquake of 1988. The residents here have a distinct look and style, and a boundless pride in their city. Their own dialect is very close to Western Armenian.\n\nPopulation and ethnic groups chart of Gyumri throughout history:\n\nReligion\n\nThe majority of the population in Gyumri belongs to the Armenian Apostolic Church. The Cathedral of the Holy Mother of God of Gyumri -also known as the Cathedral of the Seven Wounds of the Holy Mother of God- is the seat of the Diocese of Shirak of the Armenian Church. \n\nThe Armenian Catholic Church is a minority in Armenia and is under the jurisdiction of the Ordinariate of Armenia, Georgia, Russia, and Eastern Europe, based in Gyumri. There are around 16,000 Armenian Catholics in the Shirak Province. The seat of the Ordinariate for Armenia, Georgia, Russia, and Eastern Europe for the Armenian Catholic Church is the Cathedral of the Holy Martyrs in Gyumri. \n \nThe presence of the small Russian Orthodox community along with the Russian military base personnel is marked with the church of Saint Nikolai the Wonderworker and the church of Saint Arsenije. \n\nCurrently 9 churches are found in Gyumri:\n* Marmashen Monastery of the 10th century: located 6 km northwest of Gyumri.\n* Church of the Holy Saviour or Surp Amenaprkich, constructed between 1859-1873: designed to resemble the Cathedral of Ani. The church was heavily damaged by the 1988 Spitak earthquake and is currently under reconstruction.\n* Cathedral of the Holy Mother of God: also known as Seven Wounds of the Holy Mother of God, constructed between 1873-1884. Currently, it is the seat of the Diocese of Shirak of the Armenian Apostolic Church.\n* Surp Nshan or Holy Sign Church: built in 1870.\n* Saint Nikolai the Wonderworker Russian Orthodox Church, also known as Plplan Zham (the Shimmering Chapel), built between 1875 and 1880.\n* Saint Arsenije Russian Church of 1910, commonly known as the church of Kazachi Post.\n* Saint Gregory the Illuminator's Church of Gyumri.\n* Saint Jacob of Nisibis Church: or Surp Hakob Mtsbinetsi Church, opened in 2005.\n* Cathedral of the Holy Martyrs of the Catholic Armenians, opened in 2015.\n\nCulture\n\nMuseums\n\nGyumri is home to many prominent museums of Armenia, including:\nAslamazyan Sisters House-Museum built in the 1880s: home to more than 700 drawings, paintings and other works of the Soviet-era artists \"Aslamazyan sisters\".\nDzitoghtsyan Museum of Social Life and National Architecture of Gyumri: an old mansion, housing collections related to both history and the everyday-life of Gyumri, as well as paintings and other works of art.\nSergey Merkurov House-Museum.\nHouse-Museum of Avetik Isahakyan.\nHouse-Museum of Hovhannes Shiraz.\nHouse-Museum of Mher Mkrtchyan.\n\nArt\n\nThroughout centuries, Kumayri-Gyumri was labelled as the \"city of crafts and arts\", being famous for its schools, theaters and gusans.\n\nIn 1865, an amateur theatre group in Gyumri performed H. Karinyan's \"Shushanik\". In 1912, Gyumri was home to the first opera show ever staged in Armenia, when composer Armen Tigranian presented Anoush to the public in Alexandropol. In 1923, the first Armenian opera theatre was opened in Gyumri (where the first ballet performance in Armenia took place in 1924 ), while the Vardan Ajemian State Drama Theatre was founded in 1928. Prominent directors Ruben Simonov and Vardan Ajemian, actors Mher Mkrtchyan, Azat Sherents and Varduhi Varderesyan worked in theatre. The theatre's new building was opened in 1972. The artistic director is Nikolay Tsaturyan. Gyumri is known for its 19th-century architecture and urban constructions.\n\nThe first printing house of Gyumri was founded in 1876 by G. Sanoyan and operated until 1918. It published literary works (including Avetik Isahakyan's first book), calendars, textbooks. Another printing house, Ayg (founded 1892), published historical books and the first periodical of Gyumri, Akhuryan. \n\nGyumri is home to the Gyumri Biennial, organized by the artist Azat Sargsyan and the Gyumri Centre of Contemporary Art (GCCA). Gyumri was officially declared Commonwealth of Independent States cultural capital in 2013. \n\nMonuments\n\nKumayri historic district: is the old part of Gyumri with its unique architectural style. It has more than a thousand buildings dating back to the 18th and 19th centuries. The district is one of few places in the Republic of Armenia, and the world, with authentic urban Armenian architecture. Almost all the structures of the Kumayri district have survived two major earthquakes, in 1926 and 1988. The historic district of Kumayri occupies the central part of modern-day Gyumri.\nSev Berd or the Black Fortress (; , Chornaya Krepost): is an abandoned Russian imperial fortress in Gyumri built between 1834 and 1847, located 8 km east of the Turkish border. It was erected in response to the Russo-Turkish War of 1828–1829. Currently, it is a national cultural heritage monument of Armenia. \nThe monumental statue of Mother Armenia erected in 1975.\nVartanants Square, the central town square of Gyumri.\nIndependence Square.\nCharles Aznavour Square.\nGaregin Nzhdeh Square.\nGyumri Railway Station square.\nGyumri Central Park, founded during the 1920s on the site of the old cemetery of the city.\n\nThe restoration process of the damaged buildings of Gyumri has been spearheaded by Earthwatch to preserve the city's unique architecture. \n\nAlthough suffering severe damages during the disastrous earthquake in December 1988, Gyumri is still preserving its own architectural characteristics.\n\nTransportation\n\nAir transportation\n\nGyumri is served by the international Shirak Airport, about 5 km to the southeast of the city centre. It was inaugurated in 1961 and is the second largest airport in Armenia. It has scheduled flights to Moscow and Saint Petersburg.\n\nAt the beginning of 2006, the government of Armenia felt the importance of having a second international airport, when adverse weather conditions meant that many flights had to be diverted from Yerevan's Zvartnots International Airport into Gyumri's Shirak Airport. New air traffic control equipment allowed airport workers to identify planes in a 400 km radius. \n\nRailway\n\nThe railway junction of Gyumri is the oldest and the largest one in Armenia. It was formed in 1897 and the first railway link to Alexandropol that connected the city with Tiflis was completed in 1899. The rail line was then extended from Alexandropol to Yerevan (in 1902), Kars (in 1902), Jolfa (in 1906), and Tabriz. As a result, Alexandropol became an important rail hub.\n\n, the Gyumri Railway Station operates regular trips to Yerevan, Tbilisi and (in the summer season) Batumi. The South Caucasus Railway CJSC, is the current operator of the railway sector in Armenia.\n\nEconomy\n\nDuring the pre-Soviet era, Alexandropol was considered the third-largest trade and cultural centre in Transcaucasia after Tiflis and Baku (Yerevan would not rise to prominence until being proclaimed as the capital of independent Armenia in 1918 and Armenian SSR in 1920). At the end of the 19th century, the population of Alexandropol has grown up to 32,100 inhabitants, with a majority of Armenians.\n\nThe economy of Gyumri is mainly based on industry and construction. However, tourism and banking services are also among the developed sectors in the city. \n\nThe industrial sector in the city includes the production of building materials (tufa and basalt), hosiery and textile manufacturing, food processing and dairy products, alcoholic drinks, chemicals, electronic machines, etc. The largest industrial plant in Gyumri is the Gyumri-Beer Brewery. The factory produces a variety of lager beer under the brands Gyumri, Ararat and Aleksandrapol. \n\nThe city is also home to a large hosiery manufacturing enterprise from the Soviet period. The nearby village of Akhuryan is home to the largest sugar factory in the Southern Cucasus region.\n\nEducation\n\nGyumri has a large number of educational institutions. It is considered the main cultural and educational centre of northern Armenia. The city has the following higher educational centers: \n Gyumri State Pedagogical Institute named after Mikael Nalbandian\n* Progress University of Gyumri\n* Imastaser Anania Shirakatsi University\n* Gyumri campus of National Polytechnic University of Armenia\n* Gyumri campus of Armenian State University of Economics\n* Gyumri campus of Komitas State Conservatory of Yerevan\n* Gyumri campus of Yerevan State Academy of Fine Arts\n* Gyumri campus of Yerevan State Institute of Theatre and Cinematography\n* Gyumri campus of European Regional Academy\n* Gyumri campus of Haybusak University of Yerevan\n\nIn 2014, the Gyumri Technology Center was opened in the city in an attempt to turn Gyumri into a regional and international center of information and high technologies. \n\n, the city is home to 47 public education schools, 23 nursery schools and 7 special schools for music regularly operating in the city.\n\nSport\n\nGyumri has a major contribution in the sports life of Armenia. Many Olympic and world champion wrestlers, weightlifters and boxers are from Gyumri. The city is notable for its worldwide champions in individual sports, such as Robert Emmiyan in long jump, Yurik Vardanyan and Nazik Avdalyan in weightlifting and Ara Abrahamian in Greco-Roman wrestling.\n\nThe city is home to the Armenian football club FC Shirak. They play their home games at the Gyumri City Stadium, the oldest football stadium in Armenia, dating to 1924. Shirak are one of the most popular football teams in Armenia, having won the championship of the Armenian Premier League four times, with the most recent one in the 2012-13 season. Shirak have also won the Armenian Independence Cup once. The native of Gyumri and former Shirak player Artur Petrosyan is the all-time leading scorer for the Armenia national football team.\n\nAragats FC was the second football club that represented the city. However, the club was dissolved in 2002 due to financial difficulties. The Gyumri Football Academy of the Football Federation of Armenia was opened on 13 September 2014. It is home to four natural-grass and two artificial turf regular-sized football training pitches. \n\nMany special sport schools are serving the young generation of Gyumri such as the school of gymnastics, the school of athletics named after Robert Emmiyan, the school of football named after Levon Ishtoyan and other special schools for boxing, weightlifting, wrestling, martial arts, fencing and chess. The Gyumri school of winter sports renovated in 2015-16, is named after Ludvig Mnatsakanyan.\n\nGyumri is home to many former and current World, Olympic and European champions in several types of sports, including:\n* Yurik Vardanyan, the seven-times world and the 1980 Olympic weightlifting champion in the -82.5 kg category. \n* Robert Emmiyan, the 1986 European champion in long jump. \n* Levon Julfalakyan, the 1986 world and 1988 Olympic Greco-Roman Wrestling champion (74 kg).\n* Mnatsakan Iskandaryan, the 1990 and 1991 world and 1992 Olympic Greco-Roman Wrestling champion (68 kg).\n* Israel Militosyan, the 1989 world and 1992 Olympic weigntlifting champion in the men's -67.5 kg category.\n* Mkhitar Manukyan, the 1998 and 1999 World Greco-Roman Wrestling champion (62 kg).\n* Meline Daluzyan, the 2007 and 2008 European weightlifting champion in the women's -63 kg category.\n* Tigran Vardan Martirosyan, the 2008 European weightlifting champion in the -85 kg category.\n* Nazik Avdalyan, the 2008 European and 2009 world weightlifting champion in the women's -69 kg category.\n* Arsen Julfalakyan, the 2009 European and 2014 World Greco-Roman Wrestling champion (74 kg).\n* Tigran Gevorg Martirosyan, the 2010 world weightlifting champion in the men's -77 kg category.\n* Artur Aleksanyan, the 2012 and 2013 European and 2014 World Greco-Roman Wrestling champion (96 kg).\n\nInternational relations\n\nTwin towns – sister cities\n\nGyumri is twinned with \n* Alexandria, Virginia, United States of America (since 1990)\n* Ashfield, United Kingdom (since 1998)\n* Białystok, Poland (since 2013)\n* Córdoba, Argentina (since 2002)\n* Créteil, France (since 2009)\n* Domodedovo, Russia (since 2014)\n* Glendale, California, United States of America (since 2015)\n* Mozdok, North Ossetia-Alania, Russia (since 2011)\n* Nardò, Italy (since 2009)\n* Osasco, Brazil (since 2006)\n* Pitești, Romania (since 2012)\n* Plovdiv, Bulgaria (since 2004)\n* Thessaloniki, Greece (since 2000)\n* Xi'an, China (since 2013).\n\nFamous natives\n\n* Mkrtich Armen, novelist\n* Mariam Aslamazian, artist\n* Khachatur Avetisyan, composer\n* Olga Chekhova, actress\n* Robert Emmiyan, European long jump record holder\n* George Gurdjieff, mystic and philosopher\n* Tigran Hamasyan, jazz pianist and composer\n* Avetik Isahakyan, poet\n* Mnatsakan Iskandaryan, wrestling Olympic champion (1992)\n* Levon Ishtoyan, footballer, Soviet champion with FC Ararat (1973)\n* Levon Julfalakyan, wrestling Olympic champion (1988)\n* Edmond Keosayan, film director\n* Vazgen Manukyan, former Prime Minister of Armenia\n\n* Sergey Merkurov, sculptor\n* Israel Militosyan, weightlifting Olympic champion (1992)\n* Ashot Mkhitaryan, distinguished weightlifting trainer\n* Levon Mkrtchyan, film director\n* Mher Mkrtchyan, actor\n* Artur Petrosyan, footballer\n* Sheram, gusan, poet and composer\n* Hovhannes Shiraz, poet\n* Svetlana Svetlichnaya, film actress\n* Armen Tigranian, opera composer\n* Gennady Timchenko, businessman\n* Seda Tutkhalyan, Russian gymnast\n* Yurik Vardanian, weightlifting Olympic champion (1980)" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Aleksandrapol", "Giumri", "A: Kumayri", "Battle of Aleksandropol", "Gumri", "Kyumri", "Aleksandropol", "Leninakan", "Kumri", "Kumayri", "Alexandrobol", "Gyumri", "Alek’pol", "Gumry", "Alexandropol’", "Alekpol", "Gumru", "Alexandropol", "Guemrue", "Treaty of Gyumri", "Aleksandropol’", "Gümrü", "Kyumayri", "Alexandrapol", "Alek’sandrapol", "Alexandropol, Armenia", "Gjumri", "Alek’sandrobol", "Kümri", "Aleksandrobol" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "kyumayri", "alexandrapol", "gyumri", "gümrü", "kumayri", "alek sandrobol", "kumri", "gumru", "kyumri", "alek pol", "alexandrobol", "alekpol", "kümri", "gjumri", "aleksandrapol", "aleksandropol", "treaty of gyumri", "alexandropol", "alek sandrapol", "gumri", "alexandropol armenia", "gumry", "leninakan", "guemrue", "battle of aleksandropol", "aleksandrobol", "giumri" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "kumayri", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "A: Kumayri" }
What is Iggy Pop's real name?	tc_624	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Iggy_Pop.txt" ], "title": [ "Iggy Pop" ], "wiki_context": [ "James Newell Osterberg, Jr., known professionally as Iggy Pop (; born April 21, 1947), is an American singer-songwriter, musician and actor. He was the vocalist of influential proto-punk band The Stooges, who reunited in 2003, and is well known for his outrageous and unpredictable stage antics. \n\nPop's music has encompassed a number of styles over the course of his career, including garage rock, punk rock, hard rock, art rock, new wave, jazz and blues. Though his popularity has fluctuated through the years, many of Pop's songs have become well-known, including \"Lust for Life\", \"The Passenger\", \"Real Wild Child (Wild One)\", \"Candy\" (a duet with Kate Pierson of The B-52's), \"China Girl\", \"Nightclubbing\", \"Search and Destroy\" and \"I Wanna Be Your Dog\".\n\nIn 2010, The Stooges were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame.\n\nEarly life \n\nJames Newell Osterberg, Jr. was born in Muskegon, Michigan, the son of Louella (née Christensen; 1917–1996) and James Newell Osterberg, Sr. (1921–2007), a former high school English teacher and baseball coach at Fordson High School in Dearborn, Michigan. Osterberg was raised in a trailer park in Ypsilanti, Michigan. He is of English and Irish descent on his father's side, and Norwegian and Danish ancestry on his mother's side. His father was adopted by a Swedish American family and took on their surname (Österberg). In a 2007 Rolling Stone interview, Pop explained his relationship with his parents and their contribution to his music:\n\nMusic career \n\nEarly days: 1960–1967 \n\nOsterberg began his music career as a drummer in various high school bands in Ann Arbor, Michigan, including the Iguanas, who cut several records such as Bo Diddley's \"Mona\" in 1965. His later stage name, Iggy, is derived from the Iguanas. After exploring local blues-style bands such as the Prime Movers (with brothers Dan and Michael Erlewine), he eventually dropped out of the University of Michigan and moved to Chicago to learn more about blues. While in Chicago, he played drums in blues clubs, helped by Sam Lay (formerly of the Paul Butterfield Blues Band) who shared his connections with Iggy. Inspired by Chicago blues as well as bands like The Sonics, MC5 and The Doors, he formed the Psychedelic Stooges and began calling himself Iggy. The band was composed of Iggy on vocals, Ron Asheton on guitar, Asheton's brother Scott on drums, and Dave Alexander on bass. Their first show was played at a Halloween party at a house in Detroit, Michigan. Members of the MC5 were also in attendance.\n\nThe Stooges era: 1968–1974 \n\nThe seeds of Pop's stage persona were sown when he saw The Doors perform in 1967 at the University of Michigan and was amazed by the stage antics and antagonism displayed by singer Jim Morrison. Morrison's extreme behavior, while performing in a popular band, inspired the young Pop to push the boundaries of stage performance. Other influences on Pop's vocals and persona were Mick Jagger and James Brown. Pop was the first performer to do a stage-dive, which he started at a concert in Detroit. Pop, who traditionally performs bare-chested, also performed such stage theatrics as rolling around in broken glass, exposing himself to the crowd, and vomiting on stage.\n\nIn 1968, one year after their live debut and now dubbed The Stooges, the band signed with Elektra Records, again following in the footsteps of The Doors, who were Elektra's biggest act at the time (reportedly, Pop called Moe Howard to see if it was alright to call his band \"The Stooges,\" to which Howard responded by merely saying \"I don't care what they call themselves, as long as they're not the Three Stooges!\" and hung up the phone). The Stooges' first album The Stooges, (on which Pop was credited as \"Iggy Stooge\"), was produced by John Cale in New York in 1969. Both it and the follow-up, Fun House produced by Don Gallucci in Los Angeles in 1970, sold poorly. Though the release of Fun House did not receive the recognition it expected, it was later ranked #191 in Rolling Stone's '500 Greatest Albums of All Time' in 2003. Shortly after the new members joined, the group disbanded because of Pop's worsening heroin addiction.\n\nIn 1971, without a record deal, The Stooges kept performing in small clubs with a 5-piece line-up that included both Ron Asheton and James Williamson on guitars and Jimmy Recca on bass, Dave Alexander having been sacked by Pop the previous year when he turned up for a gig unable to play because of his chronic alcoholism (he died in 1975). That year Pop and David Bowie met at Max's Kansas City, a nightclub and restaurant in New York City. Pop's career received a boost from his relationship with Bowie when Bowie decided in 1972 to produce an album with Pop in England. With James Williamson signed on as guitarist, the search began for a rhythm section. However, since neither Pop nor Williamson were satisfied with any players in England, they decided to re-unite The Stooges. Ron Asheton grudgingly moved from guitar to bass. The recording sessions produced the rock landmark Raw Power. After its release Scott Thurston was added to the band on keyboards/electric piano and Bowie continued his support, but Pop's drug problem persisted. The Stooges' last show in 1974 ended in a fight between the band and a group of bikers, documented on the album Metallic K.O. Drug abuse stalled his career again for several years.\n\nBowie and Berlin: 1976–1978 \n\nAfter the second breakup of The Stooges, Pop made some recordings with James Williamson, but these were not released until 1977 (as Kill City, credited jointly to Pop and Williamson). Pop was unable to control his drug use and checked himself into a mental institution, UCLA’s neuropsychiatric institute, to try to clean up. Bowie was one of his few visitors there, and he continued to support his friend and collaborator. In 1976, Bowie took him along as his companion on the Station to Station tour. This was Pop's first exposure to large-scale professional touring and he was impressed, particularly with Bowie's work ethic. On March 21, 1976, Bowie and Pop were arrested together for marijuana possession in Rochester, New York, although charges were later dropped.\n\nBowie and Pop relocated to West Berlin to wean themselves off their respective drug addictions. In 1977, Pop signed with RCA Records and Bowie helped write and produce The Idiot and Lust for Life, Pop's two most acclaimed albums as a solo artist, the latter featuring one of Pop's best-known songs \"The Passenger\". Lust for Life also featured another team of brothers, Hunt and Tony Fox Sales, sons of comedian Soupy Sales. Among the songs Bowie and Pop wrote together were \"China Girl\", \"Tonight\", and \"Sister Midnight\", all of which Bowie performed on his own albums later on (the last being recorded with different lyrics as \"Red Money\" on the album Lodger). Bowie also played keyboards in Pop's live performances, some of which are featured on the album TV Eye Live in 1978. In return, Pop contributed backing vocals on Bowie's Low.\n\nArista albums: 1979–1981 \n\nPop had grown dissatisfied with RCA, later admitting that he had made TV Eye Live as a quick way of fulfilling his three-album RCA contract. He moved to Arista Records, under whose banner he released New Values in 1979. This album was something of a Stooges reunion, with James Williamson producing and latter-day Stooge Scott Thurston playing guitar and keyboards. Not surprisingly, the album's style harkened back to the guitar sound of the Stooges. Although highly regarded by many Iggy fans (some preferring it to the Bowie collaborations), New Values was not a popular success.\n\nThe album was moderately successful in Australia and New Zealand, however, and this led to Pop's first visit there to promote it. While in Melbourne, he made a memorable appearance on the Australian Broadcasting Corporation's nationwide pop show Countdown. During his anarchic performance of \"I'm Bored\", Pop made no attempt to conceal the fact that he was lip-synching (shoving the microphone down his pants at one point), and he even tried to grab the teenage girls in the audience. He was also interviewed by host Ian \"Molly\" Meldrum, an exchange which was frequently punctuated by the singer jumping up and down on his chair and making loud exclamations of \"G'day mate\" in a mock Australian accent. His Countdown appearance is generally considered one of the highlights of the show's history and it cemented his popularity with Australian punk fans; since then he has often toured there. While visiting New Zealand, Pop recorded a music video for \"I'm Bored\", and attended a record company function where he appeared to slap a woman and throw wine over a photographer. While in Australia, Pop was also the guest on a live late-night commercial TV interview show on the Ten Network. It is not known whether a recording of this interview exists, but the famous Countdown appearance has often been re-screened in Australia.\n\nDuring the recording of Soldier (1980), Pop and Williamson quarreled over production (the latter apparently wanted a big, Phil Spector-type sound) and Williamson was fired. Bowie appeared on the song \"Play it Safe\", performing backing vocals with the group Simple Minds. The album and its follow-up Party (1981) were both commercial failures, and Pop was dropped from Arista. His drug habit varied in intensity, but persisted.\n\n1980s \n\nIn 1980, Pop published his autobiography I Need More, co-written with Anne Weher, an Ann Arbor arts patron. The book, which includes a selection of black and white photographs, featured a foreword by Andy Warhol. Warhol wrote that he met Iggy when he was Jim Osterberg, at the Ann Arbor Film Festival in 1966. \"I don't know why he hasn't made it really big,\" Warhol wrote. \"He is so good.\"\n\nThe 1982 album Zombie Birdhouse on Chris Stein's Animal label, with Stein himself producing, was no more commercially successful than his Arista works, but again, in 1983, Pop's fortunes changed when David Bowie recorded a cover of the song \"China Girl\". The song had originally appeared on The Idiot, and was a major hit on Bowie's blockbuster Let's Dance album. As co-writer of the song, Pop received substantial royalties. On Tonight in 1984, Bowie recorded five more of their co-written songs (2 from Lust for Life, 1 from New Values, and 2 new songs), assuring Pop financial security, at least for the short term. The support from Bowie enabled Pop to take a three-year break, during which he overcame his resurgent heroin addiction and took acting classes.\n\nAdditionally, Pop contributed the title song to the 1984 film Repo Man (with Steve Jones, previously of the Sex Pistols, on guitar, and Nigel Harrison and Clem Burke, both of Blondie on bass and drums) as well as an instrumental called \"Repo Man Theme\" that was played during the opening credits.\n\nIn 1985, Pop recorded some demos with Jones. He played these demos for Bowie, who was sufficiently impressed to offer to produce an album for Pop: 1986's new wave-influenced Blah Blah Blah, featuring the single\n\"Real Wild Child\", a cover of \"The Wild One\", originally written and recorded by Australian rock 'n' roll musician Johnny O'Keefe in 1958. The single was a Top 10 hit in the UK and was successful around the world, especially in Australia, where for 20 years it has been used as the theme music for the ABC's late-night music video show Rage. Blah Blah Blah was Pop's highest-charting album in the U.S. since The Idiot in 1977, peaking at No. 75 on the Billboard Top 200 albums chart.\n\nAlso in 1985, Pop and Lou Reed contributed their singing voices to the animated film Rock & Rule. Pop performed the song \"Pain & Suffering\" in the final sequence of the film. \n\nIn 1987, Pop appeared (along with Bootsy Collins) on a mostly instrumental album, Neo Geo, by Japanese composer Ryuichi Sakamoto. The music video for \"Risky\", written and directed by Meiert Avis, won the first ever MTV Breakthrough Video Award. The groundbreaking video explores transhumanist philosopher FM-2030's ideas of Nostalgia for the Future in the form of an imagined love affair between a robot and one of Man Ray's models in Paris in the late 1930s. Additional inspiration was drawn from Jean Baudrillard, Edvard Munch's 1894 painting Puberty, and Roland Barthes Death of the Author. The surrealist black-and-white video uses stop motion, light painting, and other retro in-camera effects techniques. Meiert Avis recorded Sakamoto while at work on the score for The Last Emperor in London. Sakamoto also appears in the video painting words and messages to an open shutter camera. Iggy Pop, who performs the vocals on \"Risky\", chose not to appear in the video, allowing his performance space to be occupied by the surrealist era robot.\n\nPop's follow-up to Blah Blah Blah, Instinct (1988), was a turnaround in musical direction. Its stripped-back, guitar-based sound leaned further towards the sound of the Stooges than any of his solo albums to date. His record label dropped him, but the King Biscuit radio show recorded the Instinct tour (featuring guitarist Andy McCoy and Alvin Gibbs on bass) in Boston on July 19, 1988. Working with rock attorney Stann Findelle, Pop scored more movie soundtrack inclusions in 1989: \"Living on the Edge of the Night\" in the Ridley Scott thriller Black Rain; and \"Love Transfusion\", a song originally written by Alice Cooper (who does backing vocals) and Desmond Child, in Wes Craven's Shocker.\n\n1990s and early 2000s \n\nIn 1990, Pop recorded Brick by Brick, produced by Don Was, with members of Guns N' Roses and The B-52's as guests, as well as backup vocals by many local Hollywood groups, two of whom (Whitey Kirst and Craig Pike) would create his band to tour and perform on his Kiss My Blood video (1991), directed by Tim Pope and filmed at the Olympia in Paris. The video attracted much controversy, as it featured much footage of Pop performing with his penis exposed to the audience. The album was his first Gold-certified album in the U.S. (denoting sales of over 500,000 copies) and featured his first Top 40 U.S. hit, \"Candy\", a duet with B-52's singer Kate Pierson.\n\nAlso in 1990, Pop starred in the controversial opera The Manson Family by composer John Moran, released on Point Music/Phillip Classics, where he sang the role of prosecutor Vincent Bugliosi. That year he also contributed to the Red Hot Organization's AIDS benefit album Red Hot + Blue project, singing a version of \"Well Did You Evah!\" in a duet with Deborah Harry.\n\nIn the early to middle 1990s, Pop would make several guest appearances on the Nickelodeon show The Adventures of Pete and Pete. He played James Mecklenberg, Nona Mecklenberg's father.\n\nIn 1991, Pop and Kirst contributed the song \"Why Was I Born (Freddy's Dead)\" to the soundtrack of the film Freddy's Dead: The Final Nightmare. The song also plays over the end credits of the film, with a compilation of clips from the A Nightmare on Elm Street series running alongside the end credits. In the same year, Pop sang a leading role in the John Moran opera The Manson Family.\n\nIn 1992, he collaborated with Goran Bregović on the soundtrack for the movie Arizona Dream by Emir Kusturica. Pop sang four of the songs: In the Deathcar, TV Screen, Get the Money, and This is a Film. Also in 1992, he collaborated with the New York City band White Zombie. He recorded spoken word vocals on the intro and outro of the song \"Black Sunshine\" as well as playing the character of a writer in the video shot for the song. He is singled out for special thanks in the liner notes of the band's album La Sexorcisto: Devil Music Volume One.\n\nIn 1993, Pop released American Caesar, including two successful singles, \"Wild America\" and \"Beside You\". The following year Pop contributed to Buckethead's album Giant Robot, including the songs \"Buckethead's Toy Store\" and \"Post Office Buddy\". He appears also on the Les Rita Mitsouko album Système D where he sings the duet \"My Love is Bad\" with Catherine Ringer.\n\nIn 1996, Pop again found mainstream fame when his 1977 song \"Lust for Life\" was featured in the film Trainspotting. A new video was recorded for the song, with clips from the film and studio footage of Pop dancing with one of the film's stars, Ewen Bremner. An Iggy Pop concert also served as a plot point in the film. The song has also been used in TV commercials for Royal Caribbean and as the theme music to The Jim Rome Show, a nationally syndicated American sports talk show.\n\nIn 1996, Pop released Naughty Little Doggie, with Whitey Kirst returning on guitar, and the single \"I Wanna Live\". In 1997, he remixed Raw Power to give it a rougher, more hard-edged sound; fans had complained for years that Bowie's official \"rescue effort\" mix was muddy and lacking in bass. Pop testified in the reissue's liner notes that on the new mix, \"everything's still in the red\". He co-produced his 1999 album Avenue B with Don Was, releasing the single \"Corruption\".\n\nIn 1997, Pop was credited with the soundtrack to the film The Brave.\n\nOn January 1, 1998, Pop made a guest appearance on Paramount Television's science fiction series Star Trek: Deep Space Nine. Pop played a Vorta in an episode based upon the movie The Magnificent Seven, entitled \"The Magnificent Ferengi\". Pop also contributed the theme song for \"Space Goofs\".\n\nPop supplied vocals for the 1999 Death in Vegas UK Top-10 single Aisha. The same year he appeared on Hashisheen, The End Of Law, a collaborative effort by Bill Laswell, reading on the tracks The Western Lands and A Quick Trip to Alamut. He also sang on the tracks \"Rolodex Propaganda\" and \"Enfilade\" by At the Drive-In in 2000.\n\nFor New Year's Eve 1997, Pop was the headliner for the annual Australian three-day concert the Falls Festival. He gave one of the most memorable performances in the history of the festival. A member of the audience got to do the countdown for the new year with Pop as part of a competition to guess Pop's new year's resolution (it was \"To do nothing and make a lot of money!\").\n\nPop produced 2001's Beat 'Em Up, which gave birth to The Trolls, releasing the single \"Football\" featuring Trolls alumni Whitey Kirst and brother Alex.\n\nThe Stooges reunion: 2003–present \n\nPop's 2003 album Skull Ring featured collaborators Sum 41, Green Day, Peaches, and The Trolls, as well as Ron and Scott Asheton, reuniting the three surviving founding members of The Stooges for the first time since 1974. Pop made a guest appearance on Peaches's song Kick It as well as the video. Also in 2003, his first full-length biography was published. Gimme Danger – The Story of Iggy Pop was written by Joe Ambrose; Pop did not collaborate on the biography or publicly endorse it. Having enjoyed working with the Ashetons on Skull Ring, Pop reformed The Stooges with bassist Mike Watt (formerly of the Minutemen) filling in for the late Dave Alexander, and Fun House saxophonist Steve Mackay rejoining the lineup. They have toured regularly since 2004. That year, Pop opened Madonna's Reinvention World Tour in Dublin.\n\nIggy and The Stooges played the Glastonbury Festival in June 2007. Their set included material from the 2007 album The Weirdness and classics such as \"No Fun and \"I Wanna Be Your Dog.\" Pop also caused controversy in June 2007 when he was interviewed on the BBC's coverage of the Glastonbury Festival. He used the phrase \"paki shop\", apparently unaware of its racist connotations, prompting three complaints and an apology from the BBC. \n\nOn March 10, 2008 Pop appeared at Madonna's induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame at the Waldorf Astoria Hotel in New York. Together with The Stooges he sang raucous versions of two Madonna hits, \"Burning Up\" and \"Ray of Light.\" Before leaving the stage he looked directly at Madonna, quoting \"You make me feel shiny and new, like a virgin, touched for the very first time.\", from Madonna's hit song \"Like a Virgin\". According to guitarist Ron Asheton, Madonna asked The Stooges to perform in her place, as a protest to the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame for not inducting The Stooges despite six appearances on the nomination ballot. Pop also sang on the \"No Fun\" cover by Asian Dub Foundation on their 2008 album Punkara.\n\nOn January 6, 2009, original Stooges guitarist and Pop's self-described best friend Ron Asheton was found dead from an apparent heart attack. He was 60 years old.\n\nIn 2009 James Williamson rejoined the band after 29 years. \n\nOn December 15, 2009 it was announced that The Stooges would be inducted into The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame on March 15, 2010. Pop had \"about two hours of a strong emotional reaction\" to the news.Andy Green. [http://liveweb.archive.org/http://www.rollingstone.com/music/news/iggy-pop-on-his-emotional-reaction-to-the-stooges-hall-of-fame-induction-20091215 Iggy Pop on His \"Emotional Reaction\" to the Stooges' Hall of Fame Induction]. Rolling Stone. December 15, 2009\n\n2000s and 2010s \n\nIn 2005, Pop appeared, along with Madonna, Little Richard, Bootsy Collins, and The Roots' Questlove, in an American TV commercial for the Motorola ROKR phone. In early 2006, Iggy and the Stooges played in Australia and New Zealand for the Big Day Out. They also began work on a new album, The Weirdness, which was recorded by Steve Albini and released in March 2007. In August 2006 Iggy and the Stooges performed at the Lowlands pop festival in the Netherlands, Hodokvas in Slovakia and in the Sziget Festival in Budapest.\n\nAuthor Paul Trynka completed a biography of Pop (with his blessing) called Open Up and Bleed, published in early 2007. More recently, Iggy and the Stooges played at Bam Margera's wedding and Pop appeared on the single \"Punkrocker\" with the Teddybears in a Cadillac television commercial. Pop was also the voice of Lil' Rummy on the Comedy Central cartoon Lil' Bush and confirmed that he has done voices for American Dad! and Grand Theft Auto IV, which also included The Stooges song \"I Wanna Be Your Dog\" (though the game's manual credited Pop as the artist).\n\nPop guested on Profanation (Preparation for a Coming Darkness), the new album by the Bill Laswell-helmed group Praxis, which was released on January 1, 2008.\n\nHe fronts (from January 2009) a £25 million TV ad campaign for Swiftcover, using the strapline \"Get a Life\". \n\nPop collaborated with Danger Mouse and Sparklehorse on the album \"Dark Night of the Soul\", singing the track \"Pain.\"\n\nPop's fifteenth solo album, Préliminaires, was released on June 2, 2009. Inspired by a novel by French author Michel Houellebecq called La Possibilité d'une île (2005; Trans. as The Possibility of an Island by Gavin Bowd, 2006), Pop was approached to provide the soundtrack for a documentary film on Houellebcq and his attempts to make a film from his novel. He describes this new release as a \"quieter album with some jazz overtones\", the first single off the album, \"King of the Dogs\", bearing a sound strongly influenced by New Orleans jazz musicians such as Louis Armstrong and Jelly Roll Morton. Pop said that the song was his response to being \"sick of listening to idiot thugs with guitars banging out crappy music\". The album is available on legal download sites, CD, and a Deluxe Boxset is available at only 6000 units worldwide. This box set contains the Préliminaires album, a collector \"Les Feuilles Mortes\" b/w \"King Of The Dogs\" 7 inch, the cover of which is Pop's portrait by Marjane Satrapi, and a 38-page booklet of drawings also by Marjane Satrapi.\n\nIn January 2009, Pop was signed up as the face of Swiftcover, the UK-based online insurance company. The advert was then banned by the Advertising Standards Authority on April 28, 2009 for being misleading – it implied that Pop himself had an insurance policy with Swiftcover when at the time the company did not insure musicians. \n\nPop also sings on \"We're All Gonna Die\" on Slash's first solo album Slash, which was released in April 2010. He appeared as a character in the video game Lego Rock Band to sing his song \"The Passenger\" and also lent his voice for the in game tutorial. With reference to the song \"The Passenger\", Pop has appeared on NZ television advertising phone networks to show how he can get a band to play together by conference call.\n\nAfter a March 2010 stage diving accident, Pop claimed he would no longer stage dive. However, he did so on three occasions at a concert in Madrid, Spain on April 30, 2010. And it was much the same in London at the Hammersmith Apollo on May 2, 2010. On July 9, 2010 he again stage dived in Zottegem, Belgium, causing Iggy to bleed from the face. In June 2010, Pop appeared at Yonge and Dundas Square in Toronto with the reformed Stooges on the NXNE main stage. In 2011 he teamed up with The Lilies, a collaboration between Sergio Dias of Os Mutantes and French group Tahiti Boy & The Palmtree Family, to record the single \"Why?\".\n\nPop lent his image to PETA's campaign against the annual Canada seal hunt. \n\nOn April 7, 2011, at age 63, Pop performed \"Real Wild Child\" on the tenth season of American Idol; the Los Angeles Times music blog \"Pop & Hiss\" described Pop as being \"still magnetic, still disturbing\". He is also featured on Kesha's song \"Dirty Love\" on her second album Warrior. On August 25, 2013, Iggy and the Stooges co-headlined RiotFest 2013's Day 2, performing in Toronto and Denver along with The Replacements. \n\nOn October 14, 2014, Pop gave the fourth annual BBC Music John Peel Lecture in Salford, on the topic of \"Free Music in a Capitalist Society\". He used the lecture to discuss his experiences of the music industry, and his reflections on the effect of the internet on the consumption of music and the broader media. Pop hosts a weekly radio show on BBC Radio 6.\n\nIn January 2015, it was announced that Pop contributed the theme song to Alex Cox's latest film, Bill, the Galactic Hero. He also collaborated with New Order on the song \"Stray Dog\" of their album Music Complete released in September of that year. Pop also collaborated with Tomoyasu Hotei on the songs \"How The Cookie Crumbles\" and \"Walking Through The Night\" from the album Strangers, also released that same year. \n\nIn 2016, Pop recorded an album with Josh Homme titled Post Pop Depression. The album was released on March 18, with a tour to follow. \n\nFilm, television and radio career \n\nAs an actor Pop has appeared in a number of movies, including Sid and Nancy (a non-speaking cameo role), The Color of Money, Hardware (voice only), The Crow: City of Angels, The Rugrats Movie, Snow Day, Coffee and Cigarettes (opposite Tom Waits, in the third segment of the film, \"Somewhere in California\"), Cry-Baby, Dead Man, Tank Girl and Atolladero, a Spanish science fiction Western. In February 2009, he played the character Victor in the movie Suck. Pop was featured alongside indie starlet Greta Gerwig in the film Art House, which premiered at the Nashville Film Festival in April 2010.\n\nPop has been featured in five television series, including Tales from the Crypt, The Adventures of Pete & Pete, where he played Nona's dad in the second and third season, and Star Trek: Deep Space Nine, in which he played Yelgrun in the episode \"The Magnificent Ferengi\". With The Stooges, he was featured in an episode of MTV's Bam's Unholy Union as the main band performing at Bam Margera's wedding. Additionally, a portion of the music video for Pop's \"Butt Town\" was featured on an episode of Beavis and Butthead. Pop voiced Lil' Rummy on the Comedy Central show Lil' Bush, and also provided the voice for a character in the English-language version of the 2007 animated film Persepolis.\n\nPop has been profiled in four rockumentaries and has had songs on 18 soundtracks, including Crocodile Dundee II; Trainspotting; Lock, Stock and Two Smoking Barrels; Haggard; Arizona Dream; Repo Man; Black Rain; Freddy's Dead: The Final Nightmare; Shocker; and Kurt Cobain: About a Son.\n\nPop worked with Johnny Depp on several films: they appeared together in Cry-Baby and Dead Man. Pop provided the soundtrack for The Brave, which was directed by and starred Depp, and music for Depp's 1993 film Arizona Dream.\n\nPop also voiced a cameo in the American Dad! episode \"American Dream Factory\" as Jerry, the drummer, in Steve Smith's band. He makes an appearance in FLicKeR, a 2008 feature documentary by Nik Sheehan about Brion Gysin and the Dreamachine. Pop played himself as the DJ of the fictional rock station Liberty Rock Radio 97. 8 in the video game Grand Theft Auto IV. The Stooges song \"I Wanna Be Your Dog\" was featured on the same station. Pop also featured as a voice talent in the 2004 ATARI video game DRIV3R, which was produced by Reflections Interactive. Pop appears as a character in the Adult Swim animated comedy/adventure series The Venture Bros.. He is one of the bodyguards, along with Klaus Nomi, of David Bowie, who is \"The Sovereign\" of the Guild of Calamitous Intent. Pop has some unclear super-powers, which he uses when he and Nomi turn against Bowie.\n\nIn 2013, Pop appeared shortly in the French film Les Gamins then he voiced The Caterpillar in the television series Once Upon a Time in Wonderland.\n\nIn 2014, Pop presented (narrated) the BBC documentary \"Burroughs at 100.\" William Burroughs profoundly affected Pop's writing, inspiring lyrics in the famous \"Lust for Life.\" It was aired in the US on This American Life on January 30, 2015 in the episode \"Burroughs 101,\" commemorating his 101st birthday.\n\nPop hosts a weekly radio show and podcast titled \"Iggy Confidential\" on BBC 6 Music every Friday at 19.00 UK time. \n\nBased on 's German translation of Walt Whitman's poetry cycle in 2005, a radio drama and bilingual double-CD audio book \"Kinder Adams/Children of Adam\" was released by Hörbuch Hamburg in 2014, including a complete reading by Iggy Pop.\n\nIn 2015, Pop had a starring role as Vicious in the Björn Tagemose-directed silent film Gutterdämmerung opposite Grace Jones, Henry Rollins and Lemmy. \nPop was featured in the Rammstein DVD Rammstein in Amerika\n\nHe starred in the movie \"[http://www.imdb.com/title/tt4145108/ Blood Orange]\" released in April, 2016.\n\nIn 2016, Pop was featured as a main subject in the documentary Danny Says starring alongside Danny Fields, Alice Cooper, Judy Collins, Wayne Kramer, Jac Holzman and more. \n\nDuring 2016, Jim Jarmusch directed Gimme Danger, a documentary movie about the band. \n\nOn June 22nd, 2016, Stooges guitarist James Williamson made an official statement saying that The Stooges are no more.\"The Stooges is over. Basically, everybody's dead except Iggy and I. So it would be sort-of ludicrous to try and tour as Iggy And The Stooges when there's only one Stooge in the band and then you have side guys. That doesn't make any sense to me.\"Williamson also added that touring had become boring, and trying to balance the band's career as well as Pop's was a difficult task. \n\nBiopic \n\nThe Passenger was the putative name for a biographical film about Pop's early career with the Stooges. The film was to be directed by Nick Gomez, and Elijah Wood was to play Pop. , the project appears to be shelved. \n\nPop liked the script but refused to take part in the film. He said:\n\nHe also called Wood \"a very poised and talented actor\". \n\nClassical scholarship \n\nIn 1995, an established journal of classical scholarship, Classics Ireland, published Pop's reflections on the applicability of Edward Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire to the modern world in a short article, Caesar Lives, (Vol. 2, 1995). Pop also relates how reading Gibbon while on tour in the Southern United States inspired him to a spontaneous soliloquy he called \"Caesar\".\n\nPersonal life \n\nPop lives near the Atlantic coast, south of Miami, Florida. He has been married three times: to Wendy Weissberg (for several weeks in 1968, the marriage was annulled shortly thereafter), to Suchi Asano (1984–1999), and most recently, he wed longtime partner Nina Alu. He has a son, Eric Benson, born in 1970 to Paulette Benson. \n\nIn the 1990s, Pop developed a friendship with Johnny Depp, Jim Jarmusch and tattoo artist Jonathan Shaw. According to Shaw, the four wore matching rings depicting a skull, and all but Pop received a similar skull-and-crossbones tattoo. \n\nLegacy \n\nIn the movie Velvet Goldmine, Ewan McGregor portrays Curt Wilde, a character loosely based on Pop. McGregor performs the Stooges songs \"TV Eye\" and \"Gimme Danger\" in the film. In the 2013 film CBGB Foo Fighters drummer Taylor Hawkins portrays Pop in the late 1970s. In the Super Mario Bros. video game series, the character Iggy Koopa was named after him. In the game Yoshi's New Island, for the Nintendo 3DS, the minigame \"Eggy Pop\" is also named after him. The late 1970s punk and Pop influenced Dunedin band The Enemy recorded Iggy Told Me. The character Iggy from the Japanese manga and anime series JoJo's Bizarre Adventure is named after him.\n* Goth band the Sisters of Mercy covered the Stooges song \"1969\" in early live shows and released it as a B-side. \n1969 was used as a timepiece in a documentary of the sixties and the Vietnam war.\nMusic journalist Lester Bangs was one of the first writers to champion the Stooges in a national forum, with his piece \"Of Pop and Pies and Fun\" for Creem Magazine which was published around the time of Funhouse. Legs McNeil was especially fond of Iggy and the Stooges, and championed them in many of his writings.\nSydney band Radio Birdman was formed in 1974, taking their name from a misheard lyric from the Stooges' song \"1970\" and including Stooges covers in their live set. Their 1977 album Radios Appear includes a version of \"TV Eye\". \nThe Sex Pistols recorded the first high profile Stooges cover, \"No Fun\", in 1976, introducing the Stooges to a new generation of audiences, particularly in the United Kingdom, where Pop was then based. Sid Vicious also regularly performed \"I Wanna Be Your Dog\", \"Search and Destroy\" and \"Shake Appeal (Tight Pants)\" in his post-Pistols solo shows, and the first two feature on his Sid Sings album.\n* \"Search and Destroy\" has also been covered, with a studio version by Red Hot Chili Peppers, and live by Blue Öyster Cult and The Dictators.\nThe first album by a British punk band the Damned, Damned Damned Damned, concluded with \"I Feel Alright\", a cover of the Stooges' \"1970\" under its accepted alternate title.\nIn 1982, the Birthday Party released Drunk on the Pope's Blood, a live EP with a version of \"Loose\". On multiple occasions, the Birthday Party performed entire sets of Stooges covers. Their live version of \"Fun House\" can be found on their live album, Live 1981-82.\n* Sonic Youth covered \"I Wanna Be Your Dog\" on 1983's Confusion is Sex.\n* English space rock group Spacemen 3 covered \"Little Doll\" on their 1986's album \"Sound of Confusion\".\n* Uncle Tupelo covered \"I Wanna Be Your Dog\" although they did not release it while they were active.\nKurt Cobain consistently listed Raw Power as his No. 1 favorite album of all time in his \"Favorite Albums\" lists from his Journals.\nIn August 1995, all three Stooges albums were included in British music magazine Mojos influential \"100 Greatest Albums of All Time\" feature. Fun House was placed the highest, at 16.\n* Thrash Metal band Slayer cover I Wanna Be Your Dog on their 1996 cover album Undisputed Attitude (naming it \"I'm Gonna Be Your God\").\nThe Stooges' \"Search and Destroy\" was featured in Harmonix's Guitar Hero II for the PlayStation 2.\n Guns N' Roses recorded a cover of \"Raw Power\" on their covers LP, \"The Spaghetti Incident?\". \nThe Red Hot Chili Peppers recorded a cover of \"Search and Destroy\" during the sessions for Blood Sugar Sex Magik; the song appeared on the B-side of the \"Give It Away\" single, and later on the Iggy Pop tribute CD We Will Fall, the compilation CD Under the Covers, and the compilation CD The Beavis and Butt-Head Experience. They also played \"I Wanna Be Your Dog\" live.\nIn 2004, Rolling Stone ranked the Stooges No. 78 on their list of 100 of the most influential artists of the past 50 years. \nIn 2007, R.E.M. performed \"I Wanna Be Your Dog\" with Patti Smith in their induction to the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame.\nRage Against the Machine covered the song \"Down on the Street\" on their 2000 album, Renegades.\nEmanuel covered \"Search and Destroy\" on Tony Hawk's American Wasteland soundtrack.\nIn 2009, Cage The Elephant gave away a free cover version of \"I Wanna Be Your Dog\" on their website, if users signed up to their mailing list service.\n\nDiscography \n\n; Studio albums\n;; with The Stooges\n\n* The Stooges (1969)\n* Fun House (1970)\n* Raw Power (1973)\n* The Weirdness (2007)\n* Ready to Die (2013)\n\n;; with James Williamson\n\n* Kill City (1977)\n\n;; Solo\n\n* The Idiot (1977)\n* Lust for Life (1977)\n* New Values (1979)\n* Soldier (1980)\n* Party (1981)\n* Zombie Birdhouse (1982)\n* Blah Blah Blah (1986)\n* Instinct (1988)\n* Brick by Brick (1990)\n* American Caesar (1993)\n* Naughty Little Doggie (1996)\n* Avenue B (1999)\n* Beat 'Em Up (2001)\n* Skull Ring (2003)\n* Préliminaires (2009)\n* Après (2012)\n* Post Pop Depression (2016)" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "James Osterberg", "Iggy Pop", "Iggy Stooge", "The Passenger (2007)", "The Passenger (2007 film)", "The Passenger (2008 film)", "James Newell Osterberg", "Iggy Pop Biography", "The Godfather of Punk", "Iggy pop" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "iggy stooge", "godfather of punk", "passenger 2007 film", "iggy pop biography", "iggy pop", "passenger 2008 film", "james osterberg", "passenger 2007", "james newell osterberg" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "james osterberg", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "James Osterberg" }
What did Franz Kafka do for a day job?	tc_625	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Franz_Kafka.txt" ], "title": [ "Franz Kafka" ], "wiki_context": [ "Franz Kafka (3 July 1883 – 3 June 1924) was a German-language writer of novels and short stories who is widely regarded as one of the major figures of 20th-century literature. His work, which fuses elements of realism and the fantastic, typically features isolated protagonists faced by bizarre or surrealistic predicaments and incomprehensible social-bureaucratic powers, and has been interpreted as exploring themes of alienation, existential anxiety, guilt, and absurdity. His best known works include \"\" (\"The Metamorphosis\"), ' (The Trial), and ' (The Castle). The term Kafkaesque has entered the English language to describe situations like those in his writing.\n\nKafka was born into a middle-class, German-speaking Jewish family in Prague, the capital of the Kingdom of Bohemia, then part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. He trained as a lawyer, and after completing his legal education he was employed with an insurance company, forcing him to relegate writing to his spare time. Over the course of his life, Kafka wrote hundreds of letters to family and close friends, including his father, with whom he had a strained and formal relationship. He died in 1924 at the age of 40 from tuberculosis.\n\nFew of Kafka's works were published during his lifetime: the story collections ' (Contemplation) and ' (A Country Doctor), and individual stories (such as \"\") were published in literary magazines but received little public attention. Kafka's unfinished works, including his novels ', ' and ' (also known as ', The Man Who Disappeared), were ordered by Kafka to be destroyed by his friend Max Brod, who nonetheless ignored his friend's direction and published them after Kafka's death.\n\nLife \n\nFamily \n\nKafka was born near the Old Town Square in Prague, then part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. His family were middle-class Ashkenazi Jews. His father, Hermann Kafka (1852–1931), was the fourth child of Jakob Kafka, a ' or ritual slaughterer in Osek, a Czech village with a large Jewish population located near Strakonice in southern Bohemia. Hermann brought the Kafka family to Prague. After working as a travelling sales representative, he eventually became a fancy goods and clothing retailer who employed up to 15 people and used the image of a jackdaw (' in Czech, pronounced and colloquially written as kafka) as his business logo. Kafka's mother, Julie (1856–1934), was the daughter of Jakob Löwy, a prosperous retail merchant in Poděbrady, and was better educated than her husband.\n\nKafka's parents probably spoke a German influenced by Yiddish that was sometimes pejoratively called Mauscheldeutsch, but, as the German language was considered the vehicle of social mobility, they probably encouraged their children to speak High German. Hermann and Julie had six children, of whom Franz was the eldest. Franz's two brothers, Georg and Heinrich, died in infancy before Franz was seven; his three sisters were Gabriele (\"Ellie\") (1889–1944), Valerie (\"Valli\") (1890–1942) and Ottilie (\"Ottla\") (1892–1943). They all died during the Holocaust of World War II. Valli was deported to the Łódź Ghetto in Poland in 1942, but that is the last documentation of her.\n\nHermann is described by the biographer Stanley Corngold as a \"huge, selfish, overbearing businessman\" and by Franz Kafka as \"a true Kafka in strength, health, appetite, loudness of voice, eloquence, self-satisfaction, worldly dominance, endurance, presence of mind, [and] knowledge of human nature\". On business days, both parents were absent from the home, with Julie Kafka working as many as 12 hours each day helping to manage the family business. Consequently, Kafka's childhood was somewhat lonely, and the children were reared largely by a series of governesses and servants. Kafka's troubled relationship with his father is evident in his ' (Letter to His Father) of more than 100 pages, in which he complains of being profoundly affected by his father's authoritarian and demanding character; his mother, in contrast, was quiet and shy. The dominating figure of Kafka's father had a significant influence on Kafka's writing.\n\nThe Kafka family had a servant girl living with them in a cramped apartment. Franz's room was often cold. In November 1913 the family moved into a bigger apartment, although Ellie and Valli had married and moved out of the first apartment. In early August 1914, just after World War I began, the sisters did not know where their husbands were in the military and moved back in with the family in this larger apartment. Both Ellie and Valli also had children. Franz at age 31 moved into Valli's former apartment, quiet by contrast, and lived by himself for the first time.\n\nEducation \n\nFrom 1889 to 1893, Kafka attended the ' German boys' elementary school at the ' (meat market), now known as Masná Street. His Jewish education ended with his Bar Mitzvah celebration at the age of 13. Kafka never enjoyed attending the synagogue and went with his father only on four high holidays a year.\n\nAfter leaving elementary school in 1893, Kafka was admitted to the rigorous classics-oriented state gymnasium, ', an academic secondary school at Old Town Square, within the Kinský Palace. German was the language of instruction, but Kafka also spoke and wrote in Czech. He studied the latter at the gymnasium for eight years, achieving good grades. Although Kafka received compliments for his Czech, he never considered himself fluent in Czech, though he spoke German with a Czech accent. He completed his Matura exams in 1901.\n\nAdmitted to the ' of Prague in 1901, Kafka began studying chemistry, but switched to law after two weeks. Although this field did not excite him, it offered a range of career possibilities which pleased his father. In addition, law required a longer course of study, giving Kafka time to take classes in German studies and art history. He also joined a student club, ' (Reading and Lecture Hall of the German students), which organized literary events, readings and other activities. Among Kafka's friends were the journalist Felix Weltsch, who studied philosophy, the actor Yitzchak Lowy who came from an orthodox Hasidic Warsaw family, and the writers Oskar Baum and Franz Werfel.\n\nAt the end of his first year of studies, Kafka met Max Brod, a fellow law student who became a close friend for life. Brod soon noticed that, although Kafka was shy and seldom spoke, what he said was usually profound. Kafka was an avid reader throughout his life; together he and Brod read Plato's Protagoras in the original Greek, on Brod's initiative, and Flaubert's ' and ' (The Temptation of Saint Anthony) in French, at his own suggestion. Kafka considered Fyodor Dostoyevsky, Flaubert, Nikolai Gogol, Franz Grillparzer, and Heinrich von Kleist to be his \"true blood brothers\". Besides these, he took an interest in Czech literature and was also very fond of the works of Goethe. Kafka was awarded the degree of Doctor of Law on 18 July 1906 and performed an obligatory year of unpaid service as law clerk for the civil and criminal courts.\n\nEmployment \n\nOn 1 November 1907, Kafka was hired at the ', an Italian insurance company, where he worked for nearly a year. His correspondence during that period indicates that he was unhappy with a working time schedule—from 08:00 until 18:00—making it extremely difficult to concentrate on writing, which was assuming increasing importance to him. On 15 July 1908, he resigned. Two weeks later he found employment more amenable to writing when he joined the Worker's Accident Insurance Institute for the Kingdom of Bohemia. The job involved investigating and assessing compensation for personal injury to industrial workers; accidents such as lost fingers or limbs were commonplace at this time. The management professor Peter Drucker credits Kafka with developing the first civilian hard hat while employed at the Worker's Accident Insurance Institute, but this is not supported by any document from his employer. His father often referred to his son's job as an insurance officer as a ', literally \"bread job\", a job done only to pay the bills; Kafka often claimed to despise it. Kafka was rapidly promoted and his duties included processing and investigating compensation claims, writing reports, and handling appeals from businessmen who thought their firms had been placed in too high a risk category, which cost them more in insurance premiums. He would compile and compose the annual report on the insurance institute for the several years he worked there. The reports were received well by his superiors. Kafka usually got off work at 2 p.m., so that he had time to spend on his literary work, to which he was committed. Kafka's father also expected him to help out at and take over the family fancy goods store. In his later years, Kafka's illness often prevented him from working at the insurance bureau and at his writing. Years later, Brod coined the term ' (\"The Close Prague Circle\") to describe the group of writers, which included Kafka, Felix Weltsch and him.\n\nIn late 1911, Elli's husband Karl Hermann and Kafka became partners in the first asbestos factory in Prague, known as Prager Asbestwerke Hermann & Co., having used dowry money from Hermann Kafka. Kafka showed a positive attitude at first, dedicating much of his free time to the business, but he later resented the encroachment of this work on his writing time. During that period, he also found interest and entertainment in the performances of Yiddish theatre. After seeing a Yiddish theater troupe perform in October 1911, for the next six months Kafka \"immersed himself in Yiddish language and in Yiddish literature\". This interest also served as a starting point for his growing exploration of Judaism. It was at about this time that Kafka became a vegetarian. Around 1915 Kafka received his draft notice for military service in World WarI, but his employers at the insurance institute arranged for a deferment because his work was considered essential government service. Later he attempted to join the military but was prevented from doing so by medical problems associated with tuberculosis, with which he was diagnosed in 1917. In 1918 the Worker's Accident Insurance Institute put Kafka on a pension due to his illness, for which there was no cure at the time, and he spent most of the rest of his life in sanatoriums.\n\nPrivate life \n\nKafka was never married. According to Brod, Kafka was \"tortured\" by sexual desire and Kafka's biographer Reiner Stach states that his life was full of \"incessant womanising\" and that he was filled with a fear of \"sexual failure\". He visited brothels for most of his adult life and was interested in pornography. In addition, he had close relationships with several women during his life. On 13 August 1912, Kafka met Felice Bauer, a relative of Brod, who worked in Berlin as a representative of a dictaphone company. A week after the meeting at Brod's home, Kafka wrote in his diary:\n\nShortly after this, Kafka wrote the story \"\" (\"The Judgment\") in only one night and worked in a productive period on ' (The Man Who Disappeared) and \"Die Verwandlung\" (\"The Metamorphosis\"). Kafka and Felice Bauer communicated mostly through letters over the next five years, met occasionally, and were engaged twice. Kafka's extant letters to her were published as ' (Letters to Felice); her letters do not survive. According to biographers Stach and James Hawes, around 1920 Kafka was engaged a third time, to Julie Wohryzek, a poor and uneducated hotel chambermaid. Although the two rented a flat and set a wedding date, the marriage never took place. During this time Kafka began a draft of the Letter to His Father, who objected to Julie because of her Zionist beliefs. Before the date of the intended marriage, he took up with yet another woman. While he needed women and sex in his life, he had low self-confidence, felt sex was dirty, and was shy—especially about his body.\n\nStach and Brod state that during the time that Kafka knew Felice Bauer, he had an affair with a friend of hers, Margarethe \"Grete\" Bloch, a Jewish woman from Berlin. Brod says that Bloch gave birth to Kafka's son, although Kafka never knew about the child. The boy, whose name is not known, was born in 1914 or 1915 and died in Munich in 1921. However, Kafka's biographer Peter-André Alt claims that, while Bloch had a son, Kafka was not the father as the pair were never intimate. Stach states that Bloch had a son, but there is not solid proof but contradictory evidence that Kafka was the father.\n\nKafka was diagnosed with tuberculosis in August 1917 and moved for a few months to the Bohemian village of Zürau (Siřem in the Czech language), where his sister Ottla worked on the farm of her brother-in-law Hermann. He felt comfortable there and later described this time as perhaps the best time in his life, probably because he had no responsibilities. He kept diaries and ' (octavo). From the notes in these books, Kafka extracted 109 numbered pieces of text on Zettel, single pieces of paper in no given order. They were later published as ' (The Zürau Aphorisms or Reflections on Sin, Hope, Suffering, and the True Way).\n\nIn 1920 Kafka began an intense relationship with Milena Jesenská, a Czech journalist and writer. His letters to her were later published as '. During a vacation in July 1923 to Graal-Müritz on the Baltic Sea, Kafka met Dora Diamant, a 25-year-old kindergarten teacher from an orthodox Jewish family. Kafka, hoping to escape the influence of his family to concentrate on his writing, moved briefly to Berlin and lived with Diamant. She became his lover and caused him to become interested in the Talmud. He worked on four stories, which he prepared to be published as ' (A Hunger Artist).\n\nPersonality \n\nKafka feared that people would find him mentally and physically repulsive. However, those who met him found him to possess a quiet and cool demeanor, obvious intelligence, and a dry sense of humour; they also found him boyishly handsome, although of austere appearance. Brod compared Kafka to Heinrich von Kleist, noting that both writers had the ability to describe a situation realistically with precise details. Brod thought Kafka was one of the most entertaining people he had met; Kafka enjoyed sharing humour with his friends, but also helped them in difficult situations with good advice. According to Brod, he was a passionate reciter, who was able to phrase his speaking as if it were music. Brod felt that two of Kafka's most distinguishing traits were \"absolute truthfulness\" (') and \"precise conscientiousness\" ('). He explored details, the inconspicuous, in depth and with such love and precision that things surfaced that were unforeseen, seemingly strange, but absolutely true (').\n\nAlthough Kafka showed little interest in exercise as a child, he later showed interest in games and physical activity, as a good rider, swimmer, and rower. On weekends he and his friends embarked on long hikes, often planned by Kafka himself. His other interests included alternative medicine, modern education systems such as Montessori, and technical novelties such as airplanes and film. Writing was important to Kafka; he considered it a \"form of prayer\". He was highly sensitive to noise and preferred quiet when writing.\n\nPérez-Álvarez has claimed that Kafka may have possessed a schizoid personality disorder. His style, it is claimed, not only in \"Die Verwandlung\" (\"The Metamorphosis\"), but in various other writings, appears to show low to medium-level schizoid traits, which explain much of his work. His anguish can be seen in this diary entry from 21 June 1913:\n\nand in Zürau Aphorism number 50:\n\nThough Kafka never married, he held marriage and children in high esteem. He had several girlfriends. He may have suffered from an eating disorder. Doctor Manfred M. Fichter of the Psychiatric Clinic, University of Munich, presented \"evidence for the hypothesis that the writer Franz Kafka had suffered from an atypical anorexia nervosa\", and that Kafka was not just lonely and depressed but also \"occasionally suicidal\". In his 1995 book Franz Kafka, the Jewish Patient, Sander Gilman investigated \"why a Jew might have been considered 'hypochondriac' or 'homosexual' and how Kafka incorporates aspects of these ways of understanding the Jewish male into his own self-image and writing\". Kafka considered committing suicide at least once, in late 1912.\n\nPolitical views \n\nPrior to World War I, Kafka attended several meetings of the Klub Mladých, a Czech anarchist, anti-militarist, and anti-clerical organization. Hugo Bergmann, who attended the same elementary and high schools as Kafka, fell out with Kafka during their last academic year (1900–1901) because \"[Kafka's] socialism and my Zionism were much too strident\". \"Franz became a socialist, I became a Zionist in 1898. The synthesis of Zionism and socialism did not yet exist\". Bergmann claims that Kafka wore a red carnation to school to show his support for socialism. In one diary entry, Kafka made reference to the influential anarchist philosopher Peter Kropotkin: \"Don't forget Kropotkin!\"\n\nDuring the communist era, the legacy of Kafka's work for Eastern bloc socialism was hotly debated. Opinions ranged from the notion that he satirised the bureaucratic bungling of a crumbling Austria-Hungarian Empire, to the belief that he embodied the rise of socialism. A further key point was Marx's theory of alienation. While the orthodox position was that Kafka's depictions of alienation were no longer relevant for a society that had supposedly eliminated alienation, a 1963 conference held in Liblice, Czechoslovakia, on the eightieth anniversary of his birth, reassessed the importance of Kafka's portrayal of bureaucracy. Whether or not Kafka was a political writer is still an issue of debate.\n\nJudaism and Zionism \n\nKafka grew up in Prague as a German-speaking Jew. He was deeply fascinated by the Jews of Eastern Europe, who he thought possessed an intensity of spiritual life that was absent from Jews in the West. His diary is full of references to Yiddish writers. Yet he was at times alienated from Judaism and Jewish life: \"What have I in common with Jews? I have hardly anything in common with myself and should stand very quietly in a corner, content that I can breathe\". In his adolescent years, Kafka had declared himself an atheist.\n\nHawes suggests that Kafka, though very aware of his own Jewishness, did not incorporate it into his work, which, according to Hawes, lacks Jewish characters, scenes or themes. In the opinion of literary critic Harold Bloom, although Kafka was uneasy with his Jewish heritage, he was the quintessential Jewish writer. Lothar Kahn is likewise unequivocal: \"The presence of Jewishness in Kafka's ' is no longer subject to doubt\". Pavel Eisner, one of Kafka's first translators, interprets ' (The Trial) as the embodiment of the \"triple dimension of Jewish existence in Prague... his protagonist Josef K. is (symbolically) arrested by a German (Rabensteiner), a Czech (Kullich), and a Jew (Kaminer). He stands for the 'guiltless guilt' that imbues the Jew in the modern world, although there is no evidence that he himself is a Jew\".\n\nIn his essay Sadness in Palestine?!, Dan Miron explores Kafka's connection to Zionism: \"It seems that those who claim that there was such a connection and that Zionism played a central role in his life and literary work, and those who deny the connection altogether or dismiss its importance, are both wrong. The truth lies in some very elusive place between these two simplistic poles\". Kafka considered moving to Palestine with Felice Bauer, and later with Dora Diamant. He studied Hebrew while living in Berlin, hiring a friend of Brod's from Palestine, Pua Bat-Tovim, to tutor him and attending Rabbi Julius Grünthal's and Rabbi Julius Guttmann's classes in the Berlin ' (College for the Study of Judaism).\n\nLivia Rothkirchen calls Kafka the \"symbolic figure of his era\". His contemporaries included numerous Jewish, Czech, and German writers who were sensitive to Jewish, Czech, and German culture. According to Rothkirchen, \"This situation lent their writings a broad cosmopolitan outlook and a quality of exaltation bordering on transcendental metaphysical contemplation. An illustrious example is Franz Kafka\".\n\nTowards the end of his life Kafka sent a postcard to his friend Hugo Bergman in Tel Aviv, announcing his intention to emigrate to Palestine. Bergman refused to host Kafka because he had young children and was afraid that Kafka would infect them with tuberculosis.\n\nDeath \n\nKafka's laryngeal tuberculosis worsened and in March 1924 he returned from Berlin to Prague, where members of his family, principally his sister Ottla, took care of him. He went to Dr. Hoffmann's sanatorium in Kierling near Vienna for treatment on 10 April, and died there on 3 June 1924. The cause of death seemed to be starvation: the condition of Kafka's throat made eating too painful for him, and since parenteral nutrition had not yet been developed, there was no way to feed him. Kafka was editing \"A Hunger Artist\" on his deathbed, a story whose composition he had begun before his throat closed to the point that he could not take any nourishment. His body was brought back to Prague where he was buried on 11 June 1924, in the New Jewish Cemetery in Prague-Žižkov. Kafka was unknown during his own lifetime, but he did not consider fame important. He became famous soon after his death. The Kafka tombstone was designed by architect Leopold Ehrmann. \n\nWorks \n\nAll of Kafka's published works, except some letters he wrote in Czech to Milena Jesenská, were written in German. What little was published during his lifetime attracted scant public attention.\n\nKafka finished none of his full-length novels and burned around 90 percent of his work, much of it during the period he lived in Berlin with Diamant, who helped him burn the drafts. In his early years as a writer, he was influenced by von Kleist, whose work he described in a letter to Bauer as frightening, and whom he considered closer than his own family.\n\nStories \n\nKafka's earliest published works were eight stories which appeared in 1908 in the first issue of the literary journal Hyperion under the title ' (Contemplation). He wrote the story \"\" (\"Description of a Struggle\") in 1904; he showed it to Brod in 1905 who advised him to continue writing and convinced him to submit it to Hyperion. Kafka published a fragment in 1908 and two sections in the spring of 1909, all in Munich.\n\nIn a creative outburst on the night of 22 September 1912, Kafka wrote the story \"Das Urteil\" (\"The Judgment\", literally: \"The Verdict\") and dedicated it to Felice Bauer. Brod noted the similarity in names of the main character and his fictional fiancée, Georg Bendemann and Frieda Brandenfeld, to Franz Kafka and Felice Bauer. The story is often considered Kafka's breakthrough work. It deals with the troubled relationship of a son and his dominant father, facing a new situation after the son's engagement. Kafka later described writing it as \"a complete opening of body and soul\", a story that \"evolved as a true birth, covered with filth and slime\". The story was first published in Leipzig in 1912 and dedicated \"to Miss Felice Bauer\", and in subsequent editions \"for F.\"\n\nIn 1912, Kafka wrote \"Die Verwandlung\" (\"The Metamorphosis\", or \"The Transformation\"), published in 1915 in Leipzig. The story begins with a travelling salesman waking to find himself transformed into a ', a monstrous vermin, ' being a general term for unwanted and unclean animals. Critics regard the work as one of the seminal works of fiction of the 20th century. The story \"In der Strafkolonie\" (\"In the Penal Colony\"), dealing with an elaborate torture and execution device, was written in October 1914, revised in 1918, and published in Leipzig during October 1919. The story \"Ein Hungerkünstler\" (\"A Hunger Artist\"), published in the periodical ' in 1924, describes a victimized protagonist who experiences a decline in the appreciation of his strange craft of starving himself for extended periods. His last story, \"Josefine, die Sängerin oder Das Volk der Mäuse\" (\"Josephine the Singer, or the Mouse Folk\"), also deals with the relationship between an artist and his audience.\n\nNovels \n\nHe began his first novel in 1912; its first chapter is the story \"Der Heizer\" (\"The Stoker\"). Kafka called the work, which remained unfinished, ' (The Man Who Disappeared or The Missing Man), but when Brod published it after Kafka's death he named it Amerika. The inspiration for the novel was the time spent in the audience of Yiddish theatre the previous year, bringing him to a new awareness of his heritage, which led to the thought that an innate appreciation for one's heritage lives deep within each person. More explicitly humorous and slightly more realistic than most of Kafka's works, the novel shares the motif of an oppressive and intangible system putting the protagonist repeatedly in bizarre situations. It uses many details of experiences of his relatives who had emigrated to America and is the only work for which Kafka considered an optimistic ending.\n\nDuring 1914, Kafka began the novel ' (The Trial), the story of a man arrested and prosecuted by a remote, inaccessible authority, with the nature of his crime revealed neither to him nor to the reader. Kafka did not complete the novel, although he finished the final chapter. According to Nobel Prize winner and Kafka scholar Elias Canetti, Felice is central to the plot of Der Process and Kafka said it was \"her story\". Canetti titled his book on Kafka's letters to Felice Kafka's Other Trial, in recognition of the relationship between the letters and the novel. Michiko Kakutani notes in a review for The New York Times that Kafka's letters have the \"earmarks of his fiction: the same nervous attention to minute particulars; the same paranoid awareness of shifting balances of power; the same atmosphere of emotional suffocation—combined, surprisingly enough, with moments of boyish ardor and delight.\"\n\nAccording to his diary, Kafka was already planning his novel ' (The Castle), by 11 June 1914; however, he did not begin writing it until 27 January 1922. The protagonist is the ' (land surveyor) named K., who struggles for unknown reasons to gain access to the mysterious authorities of a castle who govern the village. Kafka's intent was that the castle's authorities notify K. on his deathbed that his \"legal claim to live in the village was not valid, yet, taking certain auxiliary circumstances into account, he was to be permitted to live and work there\". Dark and at times surreal, the novel is focused on alienation, bureaucracy, the seemingly endless frustrations of man's attempts to stand against the system, and the futile and hopeless pursuit of an unobtainable goal. Hartmut M. Rastalsky noted in his thesis: \"Like dreams, his texts combine precise \"realistic\" detail with absurdity, careful observation and reasoning on the part of the protagonists with inexplicable obliviousness and carelessness.\"\n\nPublishing history \n\nKafka's stories were initially published in literary periodicals. His first eight were printed in 1908 in the first issue of the bi-monthly Hyperion. Franz Blei published two dialogues in 1909 which became part of \"Beschreibung eines Kampfes\" (\"Description of a Struggle\"). A fragment of the story \"Die Aeroplane in Brescia\" (\"The Aeroplanes at Brescia\"), written on a trip to Italy with Brod, appeared in the daily Bohemia on 28 September 1909. On 27 March 1910, several stories that later became part of the book ' were published in the Easter edition of Bohemia. In Leipzig during 1913, Brod and publisher Kurt Wolff included \"\" (\"The Judgment. A Story by Franz Kafka.\") in their literary yearbook for the art poetry Arkadia. The story \"\" (\"Before the Law\") was published in the 1915 New Year's edition of the independent Jewish weekly '; it was reprinted in 1919 as part of the story collection ' (A Country Doctor) and became part of the novel '. Other stories were published in various publications, including Martin Buber's Der Jude, the paper ', and the periodicals ', Genius, and Prager Presse.\n\nKafka's first published book, ' (Contemplation, or Meditation), was a collection of 18stories written between 1904 and 1912. On a summer trip to Weimar, Brod initiated a meeting between Kafka and Kurt Wolff; Wolff published ' in the at the end of 1912 (with the year given as 1913). Kafka dedicated it to Brod, \"\", and added in the personal copy given to his friend \"\" (\"As it is already printed here, for my dearest Max\").\n\nKafka's story \"Die Verwandlung\" (\"The Metamorphosis\") was first printed in the October 1915 issue of ', a monthly edition of expressionist literature, edited by René Schickele. Another story collection, ' (A Country Doctor), was published by Kurt Wolff in 1919, dedicated to Kafka's father. Kafka prepared a final collection of four stories for print, ' (A Hunger Artist), which appeared in 1924 after his death, in '. On 20 April 1924, the ' published Kafka's essay on Adalbert Stifter.\n\nMax Brod \n\nKafka left his work, both published and unpublished, to his friend and literary executor Max Brod with explicit instructions that it should be destroyed on Kafka's death; Kafka wrote: \"Dearest Max, my last request: Everything I leave behind me... in the way of diaries, manuscripts, letters (my own and others'), sketches, and so on, [is] to be burned unread\". Brod ignored this request and published the novels and collected works between 1925 and 1935. He took many papers, which remain unpublished, with him in suitcases to Palestine when he fled there in 1939. Kafka's last lover, Dora Diamant (later, Dymant-Lask), also ignored his wishes, secretly keeping 20notebooks and 35letters. These were confiscated by the Gestapo in 1933, but scholars continue to search for them.\n\nAs Brod published the bulk of the writings in his possession, Kafka's work began to attract wider attention and critical acclaim. Brod found it difficult to arrange Kafka's notebooks in chronological order. One problem was that Kafka often began writing in different parts of the book; sometimes in the middle, sometimes working backwards from the end. Brod finished many of Kafka's incomplete works for publication. For example, Kafka left ' with unnumbered and incomplete chapters and ' with incomplete sentences and ambiguous content; Brod rearranged chapters, copy edited the text, and changed the punctuation. ' appeared in 1925 in '. Kurt Wolff published two other novels, ' in 1926 and Amerika in 1927. In 1931, Brod edited a collection of prose and unpublished stories as ' (The Great Wall of China), including the story of the same name. The book appeared in the '. Brod's sets are usually called the \"Definitive Editions\".\n\nModern editions \n\nIn 1961, Malcolm Pasley acquired most of Kafka's original handwritten work for the Oxford Bodleian Library. The text for ' was later purchased through auction and is stored at the German Literary Archives in Marbach am Neckar, Germany. Subsequently, Pasley headed a team (including Gerhard Neumann, Jost Schillemeit and Jürgen Born) which reconstructed the German novels; republished them. Pasley was the editor for ', published in 1982, and ', published in 1990. Jost Schillemeit was the editor of published in 1983. These are called the \"Critical Editions\" or the \"Fischer Editions\".\n\nUnpublished papers \n\nWhen Brod died in 1968, he left Kafka's unpublished papers, which are believed to number in the thousands, to his secretary Esther Hoffe. She released or sold some, but left most to her daughters, Eva and Ruth, who also refused to release the papers. A court battle began in 2008 between the sisters and the National Library of Israel, which claimed these works became the property of the nation of Israel when Brod emigrated to British Palestine in 1939. Esther Hoffe sold the original manuscript of ' for US$2 million in 1988 to the German Literary Archive Museum of Modern Literature in Marbach am Neckar. Only Eva was still alive as of 2012. A ruling by a Tel Aviv family court in 2010 held that the papers must be released and a few were, including a previously unknown story, but the legal battle continued. The Hoffes claim the papers are their personal property, while the National Library argues they are \"cultural assets belonging to the Jewish people\". The National Library also suggests that Brod bequeathed the papers to them in his will. The Tel Aviv Family Court ruled in October 2012 that the papers were the property of the National Library.\n\nCritical interpretations \n\nThe poet W. H. Auden called Kafka \"the Dante of the twentieth century\"; the novelist Vladimir Nabokov placed him among the greatest writers of the 20th century. Gabriel García Márquez noted the reading of Kafka's \"The Metamorphosis\" showed him \"that it was possible to write in a different way\". A prominent theme of Kafka's work, first established in the short story \"Das Urteil\", is father–son conflict: the guilt induced in the son is resolved through suffering and atonement. Other prominent themes and archetypes include alienation, physical and psychological brutality, characters on a terrifying quest, and mystical transformation.\n\nKafka's style has been compared to that of Kleist as early as 1916, in a review of \"Die Verwandlung\" and \"Der Heizer\" by Oscar Walzel in Berliner Beiträge. The nature of Kafka's prose allows for varied interpretations and critics have placed his writing into a variety of literary schools. Marxists, for example, have sharply disagreed over how to interpret Kafka's works. Some accused him of distorting reality whereas others claimed he was critiquing capitalism. The hopelessness and absurdity common to his works are seen as emblematic of existentialism. Some of Kafka's books are influenced by the expressionist movement, though the majority of his literary output was associated with the experimental modernist genre. Kafka also touches on the theme of human conflict with bureaucracy. William Burroughs claims that such work is centred on the concepts of struggle, pain, solitude, and the need for relationships. Others, such as Thomas Mann, see Kafka's work as allegorical: a quest, metaphysical in nature, for God.\n\nAccording to Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari, the themes of alienation and persecution, although present in Kafka's work, have been over-emphasised by critics. They argue Kafka's work is more deliberate and subversive—and more joyful—than may first appear. They point out that reading his work while focusing on the futility of his characters' struggles reveals Kafka's play of humour; he is not necessarily commenting on his own problems, but rather pointing out how people tend to invent problems. In his work, Kafka often created malevolent, absurd worlds. Kafka read drafts of his works to his friends, typically concentrating on his humorous prose. The writer Milan Kundera suggests that Kafka's surrealist humour may have been an inversion of Dostoyevsky's presentation of characters who are punished for a crime. In Kafka's work a character is punished although a crime has not been committed. Kundera believes that Kafka's inspirations for his characteristic situations came both from growing up in a patriarchal family and living in a totalitarian state.\n\nAttempts have been made to identify the influence of Kafka's legal background and the role of law in his fiction. Most interpretations identify aspects of law and legality as important in his work, in which the legal system is often oppressive. The law in Kafka's works, rather than being representative of any particular legal or political entity, is usually interpreted to represent a collection of anonymous, incomprehensible forces. These are hidden from the individual but control the lives of the people, who are innocent victims of systems beyond their control. Critics who support this absurdist interpretation cite instances where Kafka describes himself in conflict with an absurd universe, such as the following entry from his diary:\n\nHowever, James Hawes argues many of Kafka's descriptions of the legal proceedings in '—metaphysical, absurd, bewildering and nightmarish as they might appear—are based on accurate and informed descriptions of German and Austrian criminal proceedings of the time, which were inquisitorial rather than adversarial. Although he worked in insurance, as a trained lawyer Kafka was \"keenly aware of the legal debates of his day\". In an early 21st-century publication that uses Kafka's office writings as its point of departure, Pothik Ghosh states that with Kafka, law \"has no meaning outside its fact of being a pure force of domination and determination\".\n\nTranslations \n\nThe earliest English translations of Kafka's works were by Edwin and Willa Muir, who in 1930 translated the first German edition of '. This was published as The Castle by Secker & Warburg in England and Alfred A. Knopf in the United States. A 1941 edition, including a homage by Thomas Mann, spurred a surge in Kafka's popularity in the United States the late 1940s. The Muirs translated all shorter works that Kafka had seen fit to print; they were published by Schocken Books in 1948 as The Penal Colony: Stories and Short Pieces, including additionally The First Long Train Journey, written by Kafka and Brod, Kafka's \"A Novel about Youth\", a review of Felix Sternheim's Die Geschichte des jungen Oswald, his essay on Kleist's \"Anecdotes\", his review of the literary magazine Hyperion, and an epilogue by Brod.\n\nLater editions, notably those of 1954 (Dearest Father. Stories and Other Writings), included text, translated by Eithne Wilkins and Ernst Kaiser, which had been deleted by earlier publishers. Known as \"Definitive Editions\", they include translations of The Trial, Definitive, The Castle, Definitive, and other writings. These translations are generally accepted to have a number of biases and are considered to be dated in interpretation. Published in 1961 by Schocken Books, Parables and Paradoxes presented in a bilingual edition by Nahum N. Glatzer selected writings, drawn from notebooks, diaries, letters, short fictional works and the novel Der Process.\n\nNew translations were completed and published based on the recompiled German text of Pasley and SchillemeitThe Castle, Critical by Mark Harman (Schocken Books, 1998), The Trial, Critical by Breon Mitchell (Schocken Books, 1998), and Amerika: The Man Who Disappeared by Michael Hofmann (New Directions Publishing, 2004).\n\nTranslation problems to English \n\nKafka often made extensive use of a characteristic particular to the German language which permits long sentences that sometimes can span an entire page. Kafka's sentences then deliver an unexpected impact just before the full stop—this being the finalizing meaning and focus. This is due to the construction of subordinate clauses in German which require that the verb be positioned at the end of the sentence. Such constructions are difficult to duplicate in English, so it is up to the translator to provide the reader with the same (or at least equivalent) effect found in the original text. German's more flexible word order and syntactical differences provide for multiple ways in which the same German writing can be translated into English. An example is the first sentence of Kafka's \"The Metamorphosis\", which is crucial to the setting and understanding of the entire story:\n\nAnother virtually insurmountable problem facing translators is how to deal with the author's intentional use of ambiguous idioms and words that have several meanings which result in phrasing difficult to precisely translate. One such instance is found in the first sentence of \"The Metamorphosis\". English translators often render the word ' as \"insect\"; in Middle German, however, ' literally means \"an animal unclean for sacrifice\"; in today's German it means vermin. It is sometimes used colloquially to mean \"bug\" —a very general term, unlike the scientific \"insect\". Kafka had no intention of labeling Gregor, the protagonist of the story, as any specific thing, but instead wanted to convey Gregor's disgust at his transformation. Another example is Kafka's use of the German noun ' in the final sentence of \"Das Urteil\". Literally, ' means intercourse and, as in English, can have either a sexual or non-sexual meaning; in addition, it is used to mean transport or traffic. The sentence can be translated as: \"At that moment an unending stream of traffic crossed over the bridge\". The double meaning of Verkehr is given added weight by Kafka's confession to Brod that when he wrote that final line, he was thinking of \"a violent ejaculation\".\n\nLegacy \n\nLiterary and cultural influence \n\nUnlike many famous writers, Kafka is rarely quoted by others. Instead, he is noted more for his visions and perspective. Shimon Sandbank, a professor, literary critic, and writer, identifies Kafka as having influenced Jorge Luis Borges, Albert Camus, Eugène Ionesco, J. M. Coetzee and Jean-Paul Sartre. A Financial Times literary critic credits Kafka with influencing José Saramago, and Al Silverman, a writer and editor, states that J. D. Salinger loved to read Kafka's works. In 1999 a committee of 99 authors, scholars, and literary critics ranked ' and ' the second and ninth most significant German-language novels of the 20th century. Sandbank argues that despite Kafka's pervasiveness, his enigmatic style has yet to be emulated. Neil Christian Pages, a professor of German Studies and Comparative Literature at Binghamton University who specialises in Kafka's works, says Kafka's influence transcends literature and literary scholarship; it impacts visual arts, music, and popular culture. Harry Steinhauer, a professor of German and Jewish literature, says that Kafka \"has made a more powerful impact on literate society than any other writer of the twentieth century\". Brod said that the 20th century will one day be known as the \"century of Kafka\".\n\nMichel-André Bossy writes that Kafka created a rigidly inflexible and sterile bureaucratic universe. Kafka wrote in an aloof manner full of legal and scientific terms. Yet his serious universe also had insightful humour, all highlighting the \"irrationality at the roots of a supposedly rational world\". His characters are trapped, confused, full of guilt, frustrated, and lacking understanding of their surreal world. Much of the post-Kafka fiction, especially science fiction, follow the themes and precepts of Kafka's universe. This can be seen in the works of authors such as George Orwell and Ray Bradbury.\n\nThe following are examples of works across a range of literary, musical, and dramatic genres which demonstrate the extent of cultural influence:\n\n\"Kafkaesque\" \n\nKafka's writing has inspired the term \"Kafkaesque\", used to describe concepts and situations reminiscent of his work, particularly ' (The Trial) and \"Die Verwandlung\" (The Metamorphosis). Examples include instances in which bureaucracies overpower people, often in a surreal, nightmarish milieu which evokes feelings of senselessness, disorientation, and helplessness. Characters in a Kafkaesque setting often lack a clear course of action to escape a labyrinthine situation. Kafkaesque elements often appear in existential works, but the term has transcended the literary realm to apply to real-life occurrences and situations that are incomprehensibly complex, bizarre, or illogical.\n\nNumerous films and television works have been described as Kafkaesque, and the style is particularly prominent in dystopian science fiction. Works in this genre that have been thus described include Patrick Bokanowski's 1982 film The Angel, Terry Gilliam's 1985 film Brazil, and the 1998 science fiction film noir, Dark City. Films from other genres which have been similarly described include The Tenant (1976) and Barton Fink (1991). The television series The Prisoner and The Twilight Zone are also frequently described as Kafkaesque.\n\nHowever, with common usage, the term has become so ubiquitous that Kafka scholars note it's often misused. More accurately then, according to author Ben Marcus, paraphrased in \"What it Means to be Kafkaesque\" by Joe Fassler in The Atlantic, \"Kafka’s quintessential qualities are affecting use of language, a setting that straddles fantasy and reality, and a sense of striving even in the face of bleakness—hopelessly and full of hope.\" \n\nCommemoration \n\nThe Franz Kafka Museum in Prague is dedicated to Kafka and his work. A major component of the museum is an exhibit The City of K. Franz Kafka and Prague, which was first shown in Barcelona in 1999, moved to the Jewish Museum in New York City, and was finally established in 2005 in Prague in Malá Strana (Lesser Town), along the Moldau. The museum calls its display of original photos and documents Město K. Franz Kafka a Praha (City K. Kafka and Prague) and aims to immerse the visitor into the world in which Kafka lived and about which he wrote.\n\nThe Franz Kafka Prize is an annual literary award of the Franz Kafka Society and the City of Prague established in 2001. It recognizes the merits of literature as \"humanistic character and contribution to cultural, national, language and religious tolerance, its existential, timeless character, its generally human validity, and its ability to hand over a testimony about our times\". The selection committee and recipients come from all over the world, but are limited to living authors who have had at least one work published in the Czech language. The recipient receives $10,000, a diploma, and a bronze statuette at a presentation in Prague's Old Town Hall on the Czech State Holiday in late October.\n\nSan Diego State University (SDSU) operates the Kafka Project, which began in 1998 as the official international search for Kafka's last writings." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Worked in insurance" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "worked in insurance" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "worked in insurance", "type": "FreeForm", "value": "Worked in insurance" }
Dorval International airport is in which country?	tc_627	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Montréal–Pierre_Elliott_Trudeau_International_Airport.txt" ], "title": [ "Montréal–Pierre Elliott Trudeau International Airport" ], "wiki_context": [ "Montréal–Pierre Elliott Trudeau International Airport () or Montréal–Trudeau, formerly known as Montréal–Dorval International Airport (Aéroport international Montréal-Dorval), is a Canadian airport located on the Island of Montreal, from Downtown Montreal. The airport terminals are located entirely in the suburb of Dorval, while the Air Canada headquarters complex and one runway is located in the Montreal borough of Saint-Laurent. It is an international airport serving Greater Montreal and adjacent regions in Ontario, Vermont, and New York. The airport is named in honour of Pierre Elliott Trudeau, the 15th Prime Minister of Canada.\n\nThe airport is one of two managed and operated by Aéroports de Montréal (ADM), a not-for-profit corporation without share capital; the other airport is Montréal–Mirabel northwest of Montreal, which was initially intended to replace the one in Dorval but now deals almost solely with cargo. Montréal–Trudeau is owned by Transport Canada which has a 60-year lease with Aéroports de Montréal, as per Canada's National Airport Policy of 1994. \n\nTrudeau is the busiest airport in the province of Quebec, the third-busiest airport in Canada by passenger traffic with 15.5 million passengers in 2015 and fourth by aircraft movements, with 219,326 movements in 2014. It is one of eight Canadian airports with United States border preclearance and is one of the main gateways into Canada with 9.64 million or 62% of its passengers being on non-domestic flights, the highest proportion amongst Canada's airports during 2015. It is one of four Air Canada hubs and, in that capacity, serves mainly Quebec, the Atlantic Provinces and Eastern Ontario. The air route between Montreal and Paris (CDG and ORY airports) is the busiest international route from Canada. On an average day, nearly 42,000 passengers transit through Montréal-Trudeau.\n\nAirlines servicing Trudeau offer non-stop flights to five continents, namely Africa, Asia, Europe, North America and South America. It is one of only two airports in Canada with direct flights to five continents or more, the other being Toronto Pearson International Airport. Trudeau airport is the headquarters of and a large hub for Air Canada, the country's largest airline. It is also an operating base for Air Inuit, Air Transat and Sunwing Airlines. It also plays a role in general aviation as home to the headquarters of Innotech-Execair, Starlink, ACASS and Maintenance Repair & Overhaul (MRO) facilities of Air Transat and Air Inuit. Transport Canada operates a Civil Aviation Maintenance, Repair and Overhaul facility on site, with a fleet of Government owned and operated civil aircraft. Bombardier Aerospace has an assembly facility on site where they build regional jets and Challenger business jets.\n\nHistory\n\nEarly years\n\nTrudeau was first established in the 1940s. It was becoming clear that Montreal's original airport, Saint-Hubert Airport, in operation since 1927, was no longer adequate for the city's needs. The Minister of Transport purchased land at the Dorval Race Track, which was considered the best location for the new airport because of its good weather conditions and few foggy days. Trudeau opened on September 1, 1941, as Dorval Airport with three paved runways. By 1946 the airport was hosting more than a quarter of a million passengers a year, growing to more than a million in the mid-1950s. During World War II thousands of Allied aircraft passed through Dorval on the way to England. At one time Dorval was the major transatlantic hub for commercial aviation and the busiest airport in Canada with flights from airlines such as British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC).\n\nUntil 1959, it also doubled as RCAF Station Lachine.\n\nAirport diagram for [https://secure.flickr.com/photos/12530375@N08/8129601833/sizes/h 1954]\n\nGrowth\n\nIn November 1960 the airport was renamed Montreal–Dorval International Airport/Aéroport international Dorval de Montréal. On December 15 of that year the Minister of Transport inaugurated a new $30 million terminal. The structure was built by Illsley, Templeton, Archibald, and Larose. At its height, it was the largest terminal in Canada and one of the biggest in the world. It was the gateway to Canada for all European air traffic and served more than two million passengers per year. Eight years later, Montréal–Dorval International Airport underwent a major expansion program. Despite this, the Government of Canada predicted that Dorval would be completely saturated by 1985 and also projected that 20 million passengers would be passing through Montreal's airports annually. They decided to construct a new airport in Sainte-Scholastique (Montréal–Mirabel International Airport). As the first phase in the transition that would eventually have seen Dorval closed, all international flights (except those to and from the United States) were to be transferred to the new airport in 1975.\n\nThe opening and closing of Mirabel Airport\n\nOn November 29, 1975, Mirabel International Airport went into service. With an operations zone of 70 km2 and a buffer zone of 290 km2, it became the largest airport in the world. Many connecting flights to Canadian centres were transferred to Mirabel and 23 international airlines moved their overseas activities there. As a consequence, the mission of Montréal–Dorval was redefined to service domestic flights and transborder flights to the United States. Mirabel's traffic decreased due to the advent in the 1980s of longer-range jets that did not need to refuel in Montreal before crossing the Atlantic Ocean. Montreal's economic decline in the late 1970s and 1980s had a significant effect on the airport's traffic, as international flights bypassed Montreal altogether in favour of Toronto Pearson International Airport. The Trudeau government had developed Mirabel Airport to handle an expected growth in international traffic and eventually, to replace Dorval. The extra traffic never materialized and due to its closer proximity to downtown Montreal all scheduled air services have now returned to Dorval/Trudeau, while Mirabel ceased passenger operations in 2004. In May 2007 it was reported that the International Centre of Advanced Racing had signed a 25-year lease with Aéroports de Montréal to use part of the airport as a racetrack, the Circuit ICAR. At the same time the fixed-base operator Hélibellule opened a facility there which caters to private planes. The company also provides a helicopter passenger service from Mirabel to destinations in Canada and the United States. They operate two different types of helicopters; the Bell 222 and the Aérospatiale Gazelle.\n\nBack to Montréal–Dorval, renaissance\n\nWith all international scheduled flights returning to Montréal–Dorval in 1997, as well as charter flights in 2004, Montréal–Dorval International Airport finally became a true hub as passengers would no longer have to travel to different airports depending on the destination of their flight. The consolidation of flights to Montréal–Dorval resulted in an increase in passenger traffic, not only due to the transfer of flights but because it became easier to connect through Montreal.\n\nStarting as Dorval Airport, then Montréal–Dorval International Airport, the airport was renamed Montréal–Pierre Elliott Trudeau International Airport in honour of former Canadian Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau on January 1, 2004, by the federal government. The renaming had been announced in September 2003 by then Minister of Transport David Collenette. This move provoked some opposition, especially Quebec sovereigntists opposed to some of the policies of the former prime minister, as well as opposition from many aviation historians and enthusiasts who recalled Trudeau's role as an opponent of the airport, planning to close it in favour of the much larger and modern Mirabel Airport of which he was the greatest instigator of his construction. Many Montrealers still refer to Trudeau airport as \"Dorval,\" or \"Dorval Airport.\" \n\nOperation Yellow Ribbon\n\nAfter the September 11, 2001 attacks, Dorval Airport participated in Operation Yellow Ribbon, taking in seven diverted flights that had been bound for the closed airspace over the United States, even though pilots were asked to avoid the airport as a security measure. Mirabel International Airport also took in 10 other diverted flights totaling 17 diverted flight in the Montreal area bound for American cities. \n\nExpansion\n\nTerminal expansion (2000–2007)\n\nMontréal–Trudeau underwent a major expansion and modernization designed to increase the terminal's capacity and substantially enhance the level of passenger service. In February 2000, with a budget of CAD716 million, ADM announced plans for an extensive expansion plan that would bring Montréal–Trudeau up to standard with other North American airports its size. The airport terminal had for the most part remained the same, with the exception of minor renovations, since its opening in the 1960s. With increased passenger volume resulting from the transfer of international scheduled passengers from Mirabel Airport in 1997, as well as Air Canada's intentions to make Montréal–Trudeau its Eastern Canada hub, there was a strong need to greatly expand the terminal, whose capacity of roughly 7 million passengers per year had been exceeded.\n\nThe expansion program included the construction of several brand-new facilities, including a jetty for flights to the United States (US Preclearance Terminal), another for other international destinations (International Terminal) and a huge international arrivals complex. An 18-gate Transborder Concourse opened in 2003, an 11-gate International Concourse opened in 2004, new customs hall and baggage claim area for non-domestic flights and an expanded parking garage opened in 2005. Additionally, sections of the domestic area were renovated and expanded in 2007, accompanied with additional retail space. The International part of the Aeroquay satellite was demolished in 2008, leaving the domestic part for regional carriers. The completion of the CAD716 million expansion gives Montréal–Trudeau the ability to serve 15 million passengers a year. This ironically accomplished one of the goals that was to be met with the construction of Mirabel. (In the 1970s, the federal government projected that 20 million passengers would be passing through Montreal's airports annually by 1985, with 17 million through Mirabel). Aéroports de Montréal financed all of these improvements itself, with no government grants. By the end of 2007, CAD1.5 billion had been spent to upgrade Montréal–Trudeau. \n\nThe last round of construction in this phase was to allow the airport to accommodate the Airbus A380. Gate 55, part of the international jetty, has been conceived for handling the A380. It is equipped with two air bridges to load and unload passengers on both decks of the A380 simultaneously. With Phase II of the international jetty expansion now completed, the airport have two additional A380 gates, although there is currently no airlines operating this type of aircraft at the airport.\n\nAir France became the first operator of the type in Montreal on April 22, 2011, when they officially launched their daily A380 service from Paris. A380 service during summer 2012 was reduced to 4 weekly flights and was canceled in October 2012, due to low demand for Business Class and high competition by 3 different airlines on the same route. \n\nNew hotel, transborder terminal expansion and modernization (2006–2009)\n\nOn June 15, 2006, construction began on a new four-star Marriott hotel at the airport, above the transborder terminal. Originally scheduled to be completed by September 2008, the 279 first-class room hotel opened its doors on August 19, 2009. Construction was slowed down because of the recession and a collapse in the Transborder market. It contains an underground train station that will eventually connect the airport with downtown Montreal as well as ADM's corporate headquarters.\n\nOn the same day, Montreal–Trudeau airport opened the doors to the refurbished, expanded, modernized and user-friendly transborder terminal, meeting the industry's highest standards. This increased the total area of the terminal from 9320 to. Furthermore, the terminal is equipped with a new baggage sorting room which allows U.S. customs officers to retrieve luggage for secondary inspection.\n\nInternational terminal expansion (2011–2016)\n\nIn July 2011, James Cherry, the CEO of Aéroports de Montréal, announced the construction of a two-phase expansion of Montréal–Trudeau’s international terminal. The total cost of the project, now completed, has been around $620 million. \n\nPhase I of this project, which was completed on December 20, 2012, opened a new boarding lounge which can accommodate as many as 420 passengers, along with a new gate, numbered 62. It was officially completed at a cost of $270 million. The new gate can accommodate three Passenger Transfer Vehicles, allowing passengers to be transferred from the terminal to an aircraft parked on a remote stand nearby. When phase II of the expansion began in 2014, this gate was closed to passengers. It was reopened with the inauguration of the extension two years later.\n\nPhase II of the project, which was officially inaugurated on May 10, 2016 and put into service two days after, added six new contact gates for wide-body jets, including two for the Airbus A380, increasing the total number of contact gates from 10 to 16. This expansion holds gates 63 through 68. The area has 20,000 m² of open spaces, restaurants, shops and a children’s playground area. It took two years to complete and opened four months ahead of the original schedule for a total cost of $350 million. It was conceived by Humà Design and integrates three massive art installations and four vitrines showcasing Montreal's museums. The extension of the international jetty was built to alleviate the high level of congestion on the tarmac and in the terminal. \n\nApart from these expansions, ADM inaugurated in April 2016, a commercial area between gate 52 and 53. This area is called Haltes gourmandes (English: gourmet stops) referring to the large number of restaurants located there. The new restaurants are all owned by SSP Canada Food Service Inc. Before the end of the summer 2016, SSP Canada will operate 10 locations in the terminal, managing a total of 4000 m² of terminal area. SSP plans to invest over $200 million before the end of 2016 in its airport locations. \n\nFuture projects\n\nIn January 2016, ADM published a call for tenders on their website regarding the restoration and upgrade of the curtain wall of the main façade on the terminal. This part of the airport is one of the oldest remaining part of the original terminal.\n\nAlso, according to the 2013-2033 Master plan from ADM, they have planned those interventions in the future:\n\nIncreasing of the capacity of the passenger curbside areas;\nDevelopment of a network of taxiways in the centre-west portion of the airport to support the development of a new air cargo handling area and an industrial development zone; \nReconfiguration of the international arrivals hall and of the domestic and international departures luggage’s room;\nExtension of the transborder jetty and addition of a remote parking \n\nInfrastructure\n\nRunways\n\nThere are currently three runways in operation at Montréal-Trudeau, two parallel runways aligned both in a North-South direction and one single runway in an East-West direction.\n\nTerminal\n\nMontréal-Trudeau airport consists of one two-storied terminal, divided into four different zones: the public area (departures and arrivals level), the domestic jetty, the international jetty and the transborder jetty. There are two distinct areas in the public part of the airport (departure level); one is dedicated for the check-in of flights within or outside Canada (except U.S.) and the other one is for flights departing for the U.S. Both public areas are equipped with self-service check-in kiosks, a prayer area, shops and cafés. There is free Wi-Fi throughout the airport, luggage trolleys, ATMs and nursing rooms. When passengers arrive at Montréal-Trudeau from an international destination, they are welcomed into a huge and bright arrival complex, before passing through primary customs inspection, then go down one level to the baggage claim area and finally the international arrivals public area. The Aérogalerie program places artworks throughout the airport to showcase the city's artistic and cultural history. Works throughout the airport include showcases, illuminated columns, temporary exhibitions in the international arrival complex and permanent collection from various artists from the city.\n\nThe domestic jetty, which is accessible via security checkpoint A, is divided into two parts: a satellite jetty connected by an underground tunnel to the main terminal and a wing attached to the main terminal building. The main jetty holds 16 gates: 1 through 12, 15, and 47 through 49. The satellite jetty holds another 10 gates: 17, 19, 21, 23, 25, 27, 28, 30, 32 and 34. There are only two boarding bridges located inside the satellite (17 and 21) as the other gates are mostly used for prop aircraft like the Bombardier Dash 8 family. These parts of the airport are the only departure areas remaining that were part of the original terminal. Although they update them to fit the other two jetties, the space is limited and the boarding lounges are generally smaller than the rest of the airport. Despite that, a new commercial area was opened for passengers near gate 1 on April 2016.\n\nThe International jetty, also accessible via the security checkpoint A, is dedicated to flights with destinations outside Canada and United States. This jetty holds 18 gates: 50 through 53 and 55 through 68. Gates 53 and 62 are used exclusively for Passenger Transfer Vehicles. In this area, travellers can shop, eat and relax with a wide varieties of boutiques, restaurants, cafés and one of the biggest airport duty free shops in Canada. There is also a Balnea SPA branch which offers travelers various spa facilities. At the far end of the jetty, there is a wide open space with a lot of natural lights through floor to ceilings windows and a big skylight in the rooftop. The masterpiece of the jetty is a work of art, called Veil of Glass, composed of different coloured glass triangles illuminated by spotlights, created by local artist ATOMIC3. Several murals and other works of art are also located in this jetty, including four from various Montréal museums. \n\nIn the international jetty, there is a large area where passengers can relax before their flight. Travelers are able to download to their smartphone or e-reader the first chapter of any books available on the platform Lire vous transporte. After that, they can choose to buy the entire book through the Wi-Fi network in the airport. A rest area has been constructed near gate 57 in order to read these books in a calm environment, with cushions and dimmed lights. There are over 1000 chairs with charging stations and USB ports throughout the jetty as well as three water bottle-filling stations.\n\nFinally, there's a jetty dedicated to all U.S. bound flights. This one holds 18 gates: 72 through 89. For access to gate 87, 88 or 89, passengers must go down one level via an escalator. Gate 56, 58 and 60 (part of the international jetty) can also be used for a U.S. bound flight. They can be isolated from the other gates by moving glass walls known as swing gates. Unlike other jetties, the transborder jetty requires passengers to go through security checkpoint C and then the U.S. Customs and Border Protection and lastly through the duty-free shop before accessing their gates. The gate area contains the same services as the other parts of the airport such as shops, restaurants, rest zones and cafés. If needed, some gates can be isolated in order to offer additional security checkpoints if an aircraft flies to a potential risk zone like Washington–National.\n\nAirport lounges\n\nTwo major airline alliances (Star Alliance and SkyTeam) have a large presence at Montréal-Trudeau, and therefore all maintain frequent flyer lounges within the airport. There is also a \"Pay-In\" lounge open for use by all passengers, regardless of airline, frequent flyer status, or class of travel.\n\nAir Canada Maple Leaf Lounge (Star Alliance) \nDomestic (Between gates 3 and 5)\nInternational (Gate 52)\nUSA Transborder (Between gates 73 and 74)\nAir France/KLM Lounge (SkyTeam) (Near gate 57)\nNational Bank World MasterCard Lounge – VIP Lounge (Near gate 53)\nNational Bank World and World Elite MasterCard cardholders can enjoy free access to the VIP Lounge with a guest by presenting their credit card. \nWestJet passengers with a valid boarding pass may use this lounge for a fee. \n\nStatistics\n\nAnnual traffic\n\nAt Montréal–Trudeau and at other airports in Canada with United States border preclearance, a distinction is made between \"transborder\" and \"international\" flights for operational and statistical purposes. A \"transborder\" flight is a flight between Canada and a destination in the United States, while an \"international\" flight is a flight between Canada and a destination that is not within the United States or Canada. A \"domestic\" flight is a flight within Canada only.\n\nAirlines and destinations\n\nPassenger\n\nCargo\n\nGround transportation\n\nPublic transport\n\nThe Société de transport de Montréal (STM) currently has four regular bus routes serving Trudeau International Airport, including route \"204 Cardinal\" seven days a week, route \"209 Sources\" Monday to Friday, and route \"356 Lachine /Montreal–Trudeau /Des Sources\" and 378 Sauvé /Côte-Vertu /Montreal–Trudeau night buses. Three of the four routes can take passengers to and from the Dorval bus terminus and train station, within walking distance of the Via's Dorval station. A shuttle bus runs between the airport and Via's Dorval station.\n\nOn March 29, 2010, the STM introduced the 747 Montreal-Trudeau/Downtown route. Operating 7 days a week, 24 hours a day and 365 days a year, this route connects the airport to eight downtown stops, including transfer stops at Lionel-Groulx metro station, Central Station and Berri-UQAM metro station. The service runs every 10–12 minutes from 8:30 a.m. to 8 p.m, every 30 minutes from 5:30 a.m. to 8:30 a.m. and 8 p.m. to 1 a.m., and every hour from 2 a.m. to 5 a.m. Regular bus fare is not accepted; the minimum tariff is a day pass (10$) but STM and AMT pass-type fares with a longer duration (3-day, weekly, monthly and Unlimited Weekend) are also accepted.\n\nPrior to the introduction of this public transportation service, Groupe La Québécoise operated a coach service known as L'Aerobus between the airport and Central Station, connecting with several hotels downtown. \n\nCar\n\nThe airport is accessible from Highway 20 or from Highway 520, a spur off Highway 40 that leads directly towards the airport. Both highways lead to the Dorval interchange, which drivers must take the exit for the airport. Côte-Vertu road that runs parallel to runways 24L/R provides access to the Air Canada Base and hangars, Air Transat hangars, Air Inuit hangars and Bombardier Aerospace assembly facility.\n\nWhen drivers pick up or drop off guests at Trudeau, they are permitted to stop momentarily outside the Arrivals and Departure areas at both the Canada and International departures as well as the Transborder Jetty.\n\nAéroports de Montréal, the City of Montreal, Transports Québec and Transport Canada are planning to improve the Dorval interchange and build direct road links between the airport and highways 20 and 520. Once the certificate of authorization was obtained, work began in June 2009 with a potential end date of 2017. The project will entail redesigning the roads network within the airport site. \n\nFuture connections\n\nOn April 22, 2016, the CEO of the Caisse de Dépot et de Placement du Québec and Montreal mayor Denis Coderre announced a massive transit development called Réseau électrique métropolitain, slated to open in late 2020. This planned rapid transit network will connect the Trudeau Airport to the Central station in Downtown Montréal, the North Shore, the South Shore and the West Island. It will run from 5am to 1am, 7 days a week.\n\nIncidents and accidents\n\n November 29, 1963 – Trans-Canada Air Lines flight 831 crashed shortly after departure for Toronto, killing all 118 people on board the Douglas DC-8 jet. \n* June 2, 1982 – A Douglas DC-9 jet burned in the hangar during a maintenance period in Montreal. No deaths.\n* July 23, 1983 – Air Canada Flight 143, a Boeing 767 flight originating in Montreal, made an emergency landing in Gimli, Manitoba after running out of fuel. No one was injured and the incident became known as the Gimli Glider. \n* June 5, 2015 – WestJet flight 588 from Toronto Pearson International Airport, operated by a Boeing 737–600 (Registration C GWCT) slid off the runway while landing. There were no fatalities or injures among the passengers and crew." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Canada", "Canadá", "The Dominion of Canada", "Commonwealth of Canada", "Dominion of canada", "ISO 3166-1:CA", "Etymology of Canada", "CANADA", "Canadiophile", "Canada's", "ᑲᓇᑕ", "Canada/References", "America's top hat", "Canada.", "Cnada", "Čanada", "Canadian Federation", "Kenadian", "Canadialand", "Xanada", "Dominion of Canada", "Canadaa" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "canada s", "canadá", "ᑲᓇᑕ", "čanada", "canadaa", "america s top hat", "cnada", "kenadian", "xanada", "canadian federation", "iso 3166 1 ca", "canadialand", "canada", "canada references", "dominion of canada", "commonwealth of canada", "etymology of canada", "canadiophile" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "canada", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Canada" }
Who wrote the song Momma Told Me Not To Come?	tc_629	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Mama_Told_Me_Not_to_Come.txt" ], "title": [ "Mama Told Me Not to Come" ], "wiki_context": [ "\"Mama Told Me (Not to Come)\" is a song by American singer-songwriter Randy Newman written for Eric Burdon's first solo album in 1966. Three Dog Night's 1970 cover of the song topped the U.S. pop singles charts. Tom Jones and the Stereophonics's cover version also hit number four on the U.K. Singles Chart in 2000.\n\nNewman original and first recordings\n\nNewman says that the song was inspired by his own lighthearted reflection on the Los Angeles music scene of the late 1960s. As with most Newman songs, he assumes a character - in \"Mama...\" the narrator is a sheltered and extraordinarily straight-laced young man, who recounts what is presumably his first \"wild\" party in the big city, is shocked and appalled by cigarette-smoking, whiskey-drinking, and loud music and — in the chorus of the song — recalls his \"mama told [him] not to come.\"\n\nThe first recording of \"Mama Told Me Not to Come\" was cut by Eric Burdon & The Animals. A scheduled single-release of September 1966 was withdrawn, but the song was eventually included on their 1967 album Eric Is Here.\n\nNewman's own version of his song was released on the 1970 album 12 Songs, and was characterized by Newman's midtempo, rollicking piano accompaniment, as well as Ry Cooder's understated slide guitar part, both of which give the song the feel of a bluesy Ray Charles-style rhythm and blues number.\n\nThree Dog Night version\n\nAlso in 1970, Three Dog Night released a longer, rock 'n roll and funk-inspired version (titled \"Mama Told Me (Not to Come)\") on It Ain't Easy.\n\nThree Dog Night's version had the same 3/4 by 2/4 time change as Eric Burdon's version and featured Cory Wells singing lead in an almost humorous vocal-style, Jimmy Greenspoon playing a Wurlitzer electric piano, and Michael Allsup playing guitar.\n\nAccording to Casey Kasem on the American Top 40 Special Show, dated October 5, 1974: \"Top 10 Producers Of the 70s,\" producer Richard Podolor wanted to \"take advantage of the current technology\" available at the time and recorded each word of just the line, 'Mama told me not to come' in the chorus separately. In that particular AT40 episode, the 10 biggest producers in pop music were profiled and 3 to 5 songs of each producer were played. \n\nCharts and certifications\n\nBillboard ranked the record as the No. 11 song of 1970. The single was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America on July 14, 1970, the same day that It Ain't Easy was certified gold.\n\nThis was the very first #1 song played on the July 4, 1970 broadcast of American Top 40 with Casey Kasem.\n\nTom Jones and Stereophonics version\n\nThe recording of the song by Tom Jones and the Stereophonics' reached number four on the U.K. Singles Chart in 2000. This version was produced by Steve Bush and Marshall Bird (AKA \"Bird & Bush\"). Singer Kelly Jones shared in the vocals with Jones, with the song featuring a somewhat livelier, punchier sound than the Three Dog Night version. The video featured an appearance by Welsh actor Rhys Ifans. \n\nOther versions\n\nP. J. Proby recorded one of the earliest versions of the song in 1967, followed by Three Dog Night's 1970 hit. It has also been recorded by a diverse range of artists, including Wilson Pickett, Lou Rawls, The Wolfgang Press, Yo La Tengo, The Slackers, and Paul Frees (as W.C. Fields) accompanied by The Animals. Lazlo Bane. Jazz singer Roseanna Vitro included it in her 2011 collection The Music of Randy Newman. A 1970 cover by The Jackson 5 was released on Come and Get It: The Rare Pearls.\n\nTea Leaf Green and Widespread Panic have performed this song live. In 1971, the comic singer Patrick Topaloff released a French version named Maman, viens me chercher.\n\nSoundtrack appearances\n\nThree Dog Night's version would later appear in Terry Gilliam's 1998 movie adaptation of Hunter S. Thompson's 1972 gonzo novel Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas. Due to the song's upbeat, paranoid mood, it was used for the scene of obsessively drug-using protagonists Raoul Duke and Dr. Gonzo escaping a \"District Attorneys convention on narcotics and dangerous drugs\". It also appears as the last song in the movie's G-rated trailer, mainly accompanying Duke's wild car ride to have Dr. Gonzo catch a plane in time, a scene where in the R-rated trailer and in the actual film, Viva Las Vegas by Dead Kennedys was used instead.\n\nThe Three Dog Night version was also used in the 1997 films GI Jane (played over a montage of scenes showing Jordan O'Neill (Demi Moore) conditioning herself for the extreme physical demands of SEAL training) and Boogie Nights.\n\nAlso used in the movie The Sweetest Thing (2002), when Cameron Diaz is walking up the street." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Randy Numan", "Randy newman", "Randy Newman", "Wandy Newman" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "randy newman", "randy numan", "wandy newman" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "randy newman", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Randy Newman" }
Who founded the Organization of Afro American Unity?	tc_631	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Organization_of_Afro-American_Unity.txt" ], "title": [ "Organization of Afro-American Unity" ], "wiki_context": [ "The Organization of Afro-American Unity (OAAU) was a Pan-Africanist organization founded by Malcolm X in 1964. The OAAU was modeled on the Organisation of African Unity, which had impressed Malcolm X during his visit to Africa in April and May 1964. The purpose of the OAAU was to fight for the human rights of African Americans and promote cooperation among Africans and people of African descent in the Americas.\n\nMalcolm X announced the establishment of the OAAU at a public meeting in New York's Audubon Ballroom on June 28, 1964. He had written the group's charter with John Henrik Clarke, Albert Cleage, Jesse Gray, and Gloria Richardson, among others. In a memo dated July 2, 1964, FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover described the nascent OAAU as a threat to the national security of the United States. \n\nMalcolm X, along with John Henrik Clarke, wrote the following into the Organization of Afro-American Unity (OAAU) Basic Unity Program:\n\n# Restoration: \"In order to release ourselves from the oppression of our enslavers then, it is absolutely necessary for the Afro-American to restore communication with Africa.\"\n# Reorientation: \"We can learn much about Africa by reading informative books.\"\n# Education: \"The Organization of Afro-American Unity will devise original educational methods and procedures which will liberate the minds of our children. We will ... encourage qualified Afro-Americans to write and publish the textbooks needed to liberate our minds ... educating them [our children] at home.\"\n# Economic Security: \"After the Emancipation Proclamation ... it was realized that the Afro-American constituted the largest homogeneous ethnic group with a common origin and common group experience in the United States and, if allowed to exercise economic or political freedom, would in a short period of time own this country. We must establish a technician bank. We must do this so that the newly independent nations of Africa can turn to us who are their brothers for the technicians they will need now and in the future.\"\n\nThe OAAU pushed for black control of every aspect of the black community. At the founding rally, Malcolm X stated that the organization's principal concern was the human rights of blacks, but that it would also focus on voter registration, school boycotts, rent strikes, housing rehabilitation, and social programs for addicts, unwed mothers, and troubled children. Malcolm X saw the OAAU as a way of \"un-brainwashing\" black people, ridding them of the lies they had been told about themselves and their culture.\n\nOn July 17, 1964, Malcolm X was welcomed to the second meeting of the Organization of African Unity in Cairo as a representative of the OAAU. \n\nWhen a reporter asked whether white people could join the OAAU, Malcolm X said, \"Definitely not.\" Then he added, \"If John Brown were still alive, we might accept him.\" \n\nCollapse \n\nMalcolm X did not have sufficient time to invest in the OAAU to help it flourish. After his death, Malcolm X's half-sister, Ella Little-Collins, took over the leadership of the OAAU, but dwindling membership and Malcolm X's absence eventually led to the collapse of the organization." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Muhammad Abdul Aziz", "Malcolm ex", "Hajj Malik El Shabazz", "Detroit Red", "Norman 3X Butler", "El-Hajj Malik Shabazz", "Al-Hajj Malik El-Shabazz", "Malcom x", "Malik al-Shabazz", "Attillah Shabazz", "El-Hajj Malik El-Shabazz", "Malcolm Little", "Malcom X", "El Hajj Malik El-Shabazz", "Malcomx", "Malik Shabbaz", "El-Hajj Malik", "Malcolm x", "Malik El-Shabazz", "Malcolm the Tenth", "El-Hajj Malik el-Shabazz", "Thomas 15X Johnson", "Atallah Shabazz", "Malcolm X Shabazz", "Khalil Islam", "Malcom X Little", "Omowale", "Malcolm X", "El Hajj Malik El Shabazz", "Malik Shabazz", "M Alcolm X", "Al Hajj Malik al-Shabazz", "Malcolm-x", "Malcolmx", "الحاجّ مالك الشباز" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "malcomx", "malik shabazz", "malik el shabazz", "khalil islam", "al hajj malik al shabazz", "al hajj malik el shabazz", "malcom x", "malcolmx", "omowale", "malcolm x", "el hajj malik shabazz", "detroit red", "malcolm x shabazz", "thomas 15x johnson", "malcom x little", "malcolm tenth", "norman 3x butler", "atallah shabazz", "el hajj malik el shabazz", "malik shabbaz", "el hajj malik", "malcolm little", "hajj malik el shabazz", "m alcolm x", "الحاجّ مالك الشباز", "attillah shabazz", "malik al shabazz", "muhammad abdul aziz", "malcolm ex" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "malcolm x", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Malcolm X" }
Which NASA space probe was launched to Venus in 1989?	tc_632	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Venus.txt" ], "title": [ "Venus" ], "wiki_context": [ "Venus is the second planet from the Sun, orbiting it every 224.7 Earth days. It has the longest rotation period (243 days) of any planet in the Solar System and rotates in the opposite direction to most other planets. It has no natural satellite. It is named after the Roman goddess of love and beauty. It is the second-brightest natural object in the night sky after the Moon, reaching an apparent magnitude of −4.6, bright enough to cast shadows. Because Venus is an inferior planet from Earth, it never appears to venture far from the Sun; its elongation reaches a maximum of 47.8°.\n\nVenus is a terrestrial planet and is sometimes called Earth's \"sister planet\" because of their similar size, mass, proximity to the Sun, and bulk composition. It is radically different from Earth in other respects. It has the densest atmosphere of the four terrestrial planets, consisting of more than 96% carbon dioxide. The atmospheric pressure at the planet's surface is 92 times that of Earth. Venus is by far the hottest planet in the Solar System, with a mean surface temperature of 735 K, even though Mercury is closer to the Sun. Venus is shrouded by an opaque layer of highly reflective clouds of sulfuric acid, preventing its surface from being seen from space in visible light. It may have had water oceans in the past, but these would have vaporized as the temperature rose due to a runaway greenhouse effect. The water has probably photodissociated, and the free hydrogen has been swept into interplanetary space by the solar wind because of the lack of a planetary magnetic field. Venus's surface is a dry desertscape interspersed with slab-like rocks and is periodically resurfaced by volcanism.\n\nAs one of the brightest objects in the sky, Venus has been a major fixture in human culture for as long as records have existed. It has been made sacred to gods of many cultures, and has been a prime inspiration for writers and poets as the \"morning star\" and \"evening star\". Venus was the first planet to have its motions plotted across the sky, as early as the second millennium BC, and was a prime target for early interplanetary exploration as the closest planet to Earth. It was the first planet beyond Earth visited by a spacecraft (Mariner 2) in 1962, and the first to be successfully landed on (by Venera 7) in 1970. Venus's thick clouds render observation of its surface impossible in visible light, and the first detailed maps did not emerge until the arrival of the Magellan orbiter in 1991. Plans have been proposed for rovers or more complex missions, but they are hindered by Venus's hostile surface conditions.\n\nPhysical characteristics \n\nVenus is one of the four terrestrial planets in the Solar System, meaning that it is a rocky body like Earth. It is similar to Earth in size and mass, and is often described as Earth's \"sister\" or \"twin\". The diameter of Venus is 12,092 km (only 650 km less than Earth's) and its mass is 81.5% of Earth's. Conditions on the Venusian surface differ radically from those on Earth because of its dense carbon dioxide atmosphere. The mass of the atmosphere of Venus is 96.5% carbon dioxide, with most of the remaining 3.5% being nitrogen. \n\nGeography \n\nThe Venusian surface was a subject of speculation until some of its secrets were revealed by planetary science in the 20th century. Venera landers in 1975 and 1982 returned images of a surface covered in sediment and relatively angular rocks. The surface was mapped in detail by Magellan in 1990–91. The ground shows evidence of extensive volcanism, and the sulfur in the atmosphere may indicate that there have been some recent eruptions. \n\nAbout 80% of the Venusian surface is covered by smooth, volcanic plains, consisting of 70% plains with wrinkle ridges and 10% smooth or lobate plains. Two highland \"continents\" make up the rest of its surface area, one lying in the planet's northern hemisphere and the other just south of the equator. The northern continent is called Ishtar Terra, after Ishtar the Babylonian goddess of love, and is about the size of Australia. Maxwell Montes, the highest mountain on Venus, lies on Ishtar Terra. Its peak is 11 km above the Venusian average surface elevation. The southern continent is called Aphrodite Terra, after the Greek goddess of love, and is the larger of the two highland regions at roughly the size of South America. A network of fractures and faults covers much of this area. \n\nThe absence of evidence of lava flow accompanying any of the visible caldera remains an enigma. The planet has few impact craters, demonstrating that the surface is relatively young, approximately 300–600 million years old. Venus has some unique surface features in addition to the impact craters, mountains, and valleys commonly found on rocky planets. Among these are flat-topped volcanic features called \"farra\", which look somewhat like pancakes and range in size from 20 to 50 km across, and from 100 to 1,000 m high; radial, star-like fracture systems called \"novae\"; features with both radial and concentric fractures resembling spider webs, known as \"arachnoids\"; and \"coronae\", circular rings of fractures sometimes surrounded by a depression. These features are volcanic in origin. \n\nMost Venusian surface features are named after historical and mythological women. Exceptions are Maxwell Montes, named after James Clerk Maxwell, and highland regions Alpha Regio, Beta Regio, and Ovda Regio. The latter three features were named before the current system was adopted by the International Astronomical Union, the body which oversees planetary nomenclature. \n\nThe longitudes of physical features on Venus are expressed relative to its prime meridian. The original prime meridian passed through the radar-bright spot at the centre of the oval feature Eve, located south of Alpha Regio. After the Venera missions were completed, the prime meridian was redefined to pass through the central peak in the crater Ariadne. \n\nSurface geology \n\nMuch of the Venusian surface appears to have been shaped by volcanic activity. Venus has several times as many volcanoes as Earth, and it has 167 large volcanoes that are over 100 km across. The only volcanic complex of this size on Earth is the Big Island of Hawaii. This is not because Venus is more volcanically active than Earth, but because its crust is older. Earth's oceanic crust is continually recycled by subduction at the boundaries of tectonic plates, and has an average age of about 100 million years, whereas the Venusian surface is estimated to be 300–600 million years old.\n\nSeveral lines of evidence point to ongoing volcanic activity on Venus. During the Soviet Venera program, the Venera 9 orbiter obtained spectroscopic evidence of lightning on Venus, and the Venera 12 descent probe obtained additional evidence of lightning and thunder. The European Space Agency's Venus Express in 2007 detected whistler waves further confirming the occurrence of lightning on Venus. Although rainfall drives thunderstorms on Earth, there is no rainfall on the surface of Venus (though sulfuric acid rain falls in the upper atmosphere, then evaporates around 25 km above the surface). One possibility is that ash from a volcanic eruption was generating the lightning. Another piece of evidence comes from measurements of sulfur dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere, which dropped by a factor of 10 between 1978 and 1986, jumped in 2006, and again declined 10-fold. This may mean that levels had been boosted several times by large volcanic eruptions. \n\nIn 2008 and 2009, the first direct evidence for ongoing volcanism was observed by Venus Express, in the form of four transient localized infrared hot spots within the rift zone Ganis Chasma, near the shield volcano Maat Mons. Three of the spots were observed in more than one successive orbit. These spots are thought to represent lava freshly released by volcanic eruptions. The actual temperatures are not known, because the size of the hot spots could not be measured, but are likely to have been in the 800–1100 K range, relative to a normal temperature of 740 K. \n\nAlmost a thousand impact craters on Venus are evenly distributed across its surface. On other cratered bodies, such as Earth and the Moon, craters show a range of states of degradation. On the Moon, degradation is caused by subsequent impacts, whereas on Earth it is caused by wind and rain erosion. On Venus, about 85% of the craters are in pristine condition. The number of craters, together with their well-preserved condition, indicates the planet underwent a global resurfacing event about 300–600 million years ago, followed by a decay in volcanism. Whereas Earth's crust is in continuous motion, Venus is thought to be unable to sustain such a process. Without plate tectonics to dissipate heat from its mantle, Venus instead undergoes a cyclical process in which mantle temperatures rise until they reach a critical level that weakens the crust. Then, over a period of about 100 million years, subduction occurs on an enormous scale, completely recycling the crust.\n\nVenusian craters range from 3 km to 280 km in diameter. No craters are smaller than 3 km, because of the effects of the dense atmosphere on incoming objects. Objects with less than a certain kinetic energy are slowed down so much by the atmosphere that they do not create an impact crater. Incoming projectiles less than 50 metres in diameter will fragment and burn up in the atmosphere before reaching the ground. \n\nInternal structure \n\nWithout seismic data or knowledge of its moment of inertia, little direct information is available about the internal structure and geochemistry of Venus. The similarity in size and density between Venus and Earth suggests they share a similar internal structure: a core, mantle, and crust. Like that of Earth, the Venusian core is at least partially liquid because the two planets have been cooling at about the same rate. The slightly smaller size of Venus means pressures are 24% lower in its deep interior than Earth's. The principal difference between the two planets is the lack of evidence for plate tectonics on Venus, possibly because its crust is too strong to subduct without water to make it less viscous. This results in reduced heat loss from the planet, preventing it from cooling and providing a likely explanation for its lack of an internally generated magnetic field.\nInstead, Venus may lose its internal heat in periodic major resurfacing events. \n\nAtmosphere and climate \n\nVenus has an extremely dense atmosphere composed of 96.5% carbon dioxide, 3.5% nitrogen, and traces of other gases, most notably sulfur dioxide. The mass of its atmosphere is 93 times that of Earth's, whereas the pressure at its surface is about 92 times that at Earth's—a pressure equivalent to that at a depth of nearly 1 kilometre under Earth's oceans. The density at the surface is 65 kg/m3, 6.5% that of water or 50 times as dense as Earth's atmosphere at 20 °C at sea level. The -rich atmosphere generates the strongest greenhouse effect in the Solar System, creating surface temperatures of at least 462 C. This makes Venus's surface hotter than Mercury's, which has a minimum surface temperature of and maximum surface temperature of 420 C, even though Venus is nearly twice Mercury's distance from the Sun and thus receives only 25% of Mercury's solar irradiance. This temperature is higher than that used for sterilization. The surface of Venus is often said to resemble traditional accounts of Hell. \n\nStudies have suggested that billions of years ago Venus's atmosphere was much more like Earth's than it is now, and that there may have been substantial quantities of liquid water on the surface, but after a period of 600 million to several billion years, a runaway greenhouse effect was caused by the evaporation of that original water, which generated a critical level of greenhouse gases in its atmosphere. Although the surface conditions on Venus are no longer hospitable to any Earthlike life that may have formed before this event, there is speculation on the possibility that life exists in the upper cloud layers of Venus, 50 km up from the surface, where the temperature ranges between 30 and 80 °C but the environment is acidic. \n\nThermal inertia and the transfer of heat by winds in the lower atmosphere mean that the temperature of Venus's surface does not vary significantly between the night and day sides, despite Venus's extremely slow rotation. Winds at the surface are slow, moving at a few kilometres per hour, but because of the high density of the atmosphere at the surface, they exert a significant amount of force against obstructions, and transport dust and small stones across the surface. This alone would make it difficult for a human to walk through, even if the heat, pressure, and lack of oxygen were not a problem. \n\nAbove the dense layer are thick clouds consisting mainly of sulfuric acid droplets. The clouds also contain sulfur aerosol, about 1% ferric chloride and some water. Other possible constituents of the cloud particles are ferric sulfate, aluminium chloride and phosphoric anhydride. Clouds at different levels have different compositions and particle size distributions. These clouds reflect and scatter about 90% of the sunlight that falls on them back into space, and prevent visual observation of Venus's surface. The permanent cloud cover means that although Venus is closer than Earth to the Sun, it receives less sunlight on the ground. Strong 300 km/h winds at the cloud tops go around Venus about every four to five Earth days. Winds on Venus move at up to 60 times the speed of its rotation, whereas Earth's fastest winds are only 10–20% rotation speed. \n\nThe surface of Venus is effectively isothermal; it retains a constant temperature not only between day and night but between the equator and the poles. Venus's minute axial tilt—less than 3°, compared to 23° on Earth—also minimises seasonal temperature variation. The only appreciable variation in temperature occurs with altitude. The highest point on Venus, Maxwell Montes, is therefore the coolest point on Venus, with a temperature of about 380 C and an atmospheric pressure of about 45 bar. In 1995, the Magellan spacecraft imaged a highly reflective substance at the tops of the highest mountain peaks that bore a strong resemblance to terrestrial snow. This substance likely formed from a similar process to snow, albeit at a far higher temperature. Too volatile to condense on the surface, it rose in gaseous form to higher elevations, where it is cooler and could precipitate. The identity of this substance is not known with certainty, but speculation has ranged from elemental tellurium to lead sulfide (galena). \n\nThe clouds of Venus are capable of producing lightning much like the clouds on Earth. The existence of lightning had been controversial since the first suspected bursts were detected by the Soviet Venera probes. In 2006–07, Venus Express clearly detected whistler mode waves, the signatures of lightning. Their intermittent appearance indicates a pattern associated with weather activity. The lightning rate is at least half of that on Earth. In 2007, Venus Express discovered that a huge double atmospheric vortex exists at the south pole. \n\nVenus Express also discovered, in 2011, that an ozone layer exists high in the atmosphere of Venus. On 29 January 2013, ESA scientists reported that the ionosphere of Venus streams outwards in a manner similar to \"the ion tail seen streaming from a comet under similar conditions.\" \n\nMagnetic field and core \n\nIn 1967, Venera 4 found Venus's magnetic field to be much weaker than that of Earth. This magnetic field is induced by an interaction between the ionosphere and the solar wind, rather than by an internal dynamo in the core like the one inside Earth. Venus's small induced magnetosphere provides negligible protection to the atmosphere against cosmic radiation. This radiation may result in cloud-to-cloud lightning discharges. \n\nThe lack of an intrinsic magnetic field at Venus was surprising, given that it is similar to Earth in size, and was expected also to contain a dynamo at its core. A dynamo requires three things: a conducting liquid, rotation, and convection. The core is thought to be electrically conductive and, although its rotation is often thought to be too slow, simulations show it is adequate to produce a dynamo. This implies that the dynamo is missing because of a lack of convection in Venus's core. On Earth, convection occurs in the liquid outer layer of the core because the bottom of the liquid layer is much hotter than the top. On Venus, a global resurfacing event may have shut down plate tectonics and led to a reduced heat flux through the crust. This caused the mantle temperature to increase, thereby reducing the heat flux out of the core. As a result, no internal geodynamo is available to drive a magnetic field. Instead, the heat from the core is being used to reheat the crust.\n\nOne possibility is that Venus has no solid inner core, or that its core is not cooling, so that the entire liquid part of the core is at approximately the same temperature. Another possibility is that its core has already completely solidified. The state of the core is highly dependent on the concentration of sulfur, which is unknown at present.\n\nThe weak magnetosphere around Venus means that the solar wind is interacting directly with its outer atmosphere. Here, ions of hydrogen and oxygen are being created by the dissociation of neutral molecules from ultraviolet radiation. The solar wind then supplies energy that gives some of these ions sufficient velocity to escape Venus's gravity field. This erosion process results in a steady loss of low-mass hydrogen, helium, and oxygen ions, whereas higher-mass molecules, such as carbon dioxide, are more likely to be retained. Atmospheric erosion by the solar wind probably led to the loss of most of Venus's water during the first billion years after it formed. The erosion has increased the ratio of higher-mass deuterium to lower-mass hydrogen in the atmosphere 100 times compared to the rest of the solar system. \n\nOrbit and rotation \n\nVenus orbits the Sun at an average distance of about , and completes an orbit every 224.7 days. Although all planetary orbits are elliptical, Venus's orbit is the closest to circular, with an eccentricity of less than 0.01. When Venus lies between Earth and the Sun in inferior conjunction, it makes the closest approach to Earth of any planet at an average distance of 41 million km. The planet reaches inferior conjunction every 584 days, on average. Because of the decreasing eccentricity of Earth's orbit, the minimum distances will become greater over tens of thousands of years. From the year 1 to 5383, there are 526 approaches less than 40 million km; then there are none for about 60,158 years. \n\nAll the planets in the Solar System orbit the Sun in an anti-clockwise direction as viewed from above Earth's north pole. Most planets also rotate on their axes in an anti-clockwise direction, but Venus rotates clockwise in retrograde rotation once every 243 Earth days—the slowest rotation of any planet. Because its rotation is so slow, Venus is very close to spherical. A Venusian sidereal day thus lasts longer than a Venusian year (243 versus 224.7 Earth days). Venus's equator rotates at , whereas Earth's is approximately 1670 km/h. Venus's rotation has slowed down by per Venusian sidereal day in the between the Magellan spacecraft and Venus Express visits. Because of the retrograde rotation, the length of a solar day on Venus is significantly shorter than the sidereal day, at 116.75 Earth days (making the Venusian solar day shorter than Mercury's 176 Earth days). One Venusian year is about 1.92 Venusian solar days. To an observer on the surface of Venus, the Sun would rise in the west and set in the east, although Venus's opaque clouds prevent observing the Sun from the planet's surface. \n\nVenus may have formed from the solar nebula with a different rotation period and obliquity, reaching its current state because of chaotic spin changes caused by planetary perturbations and tidal effects on its dense atmosphere, a change that would have occurred over the course of billions of years. The rotation period of Venus may represent an equilibrium state between tidal locking to the Sun's gravitation, which tends to slow rotation, and an atmospheric tide created by solar heating of the thick Venusian atmosphere. \nThe 584-day average interval between successive close approaches to Earth is almost exactly equal to 5 Venusian solar days, but the hypothesis of a spin–orbit resonance with Earth has been discounted.\n\nVenus has no natural satellites. It has several trojan asteroids: the quasi-satellite and two other temporary trojans, and . In the 17th century, Giovanni Cassini reported a moon orbiting Venus, which was named Neith and numerous sightings were reported over the following , but most were determined to be stars in the vicinity. Alex Alemi's and David Stevenson's 2006 study of models of the early Solar System at the California Institute of Technology shows Venus likely had at least one moon created by a huge impact event billions of years ago. About 10 million years later, according to the study, another impact reversed the planet's spin direction and caused the Venusian moon gradually to spiral inward until it collided with Venus. If later impacts created moons, these were removed in the same way. An alternative explanation for the lack of satellites is the effect of strong solar tides, which can destabilize large satellites orbiting the inner terrestrial planets.\n\nObservation \n\nTo the naked eye, Venus appears as a white point of light brighter than any other planet or star (apart from the Sun). The greatest luminosity, apparent magnitude −4.9, occurs during crescent phase when it is near Earth. Venus fades to about magnitude −3 when it is backlit by the Sun. The planet is bright enough to be seen in a midday clear sky, and it can be easy to see when the Sun is low on the horizon. As an inferior planet, it always lies within about 47° of the Sun. \n\nVenus \"overtakes\" Earth every 584 days as it orbits the Sun. As it does so, it changes from the \"Evening Star\", visible after sunset, to the \"Morning Star\", visible before sunrise. Although Mercury, the other inferior planet, reaches a maximum elongation of only 28° and is often difficult to discern in twilight, Venus is hard to miss when it is at its brightest. Its greater maximum elongation means it is visible in dark skies long after sunset. As the brightest point-like object in the sky, Venus is a commonly misreported \"unidentified flying object\". U.S. President Jimmy Carter reported having seen a UFO in 1969, which later analysis suggested was probably Venus.\n\nAs it moves around its orbit, Venus displays phases like those of the Moon in a telescopic view. The planet presents a small \"full\" image when it is on the opposite side of the Sun. It shows a larger \"quarter phase\" when it is at its maximum elongations from the Sun, and is at its brightest in the night sky, and presents a much larger \"thin crescent\" in telescopic views as it comes around to the near side between Earth and the Sun. Venus is at its largest and presents its \"new phase\" when it is between Earth and the Sun. Its atmosphere can be seen in a telescope by the halo of light refracted around it.\n\nTransits\n\nThe Venusian orbit is slightly inclined relative to Earth's orbit; thus, when the planet passes between Earth and the Sun, it usually does not cross the face of the Sun. Transits of Venus occur when the planet's inferior conjunction coincides with its presence in the plane of Earth's orbit. Transits of Venus occur in cycles of with the current pattern of transits being pairs of transits separated by eight years, at intervals of about or —a pattern first discovered in 1639 by the English astronomer Jeremiah Horrocks. \n\nThe latest pair was June 8, 2004 and June 5–6, 2012. The transit could be watched live from many online outlets or observed locally with the right equipment and conditions. \n\nThe preceding pair of transits occurred in December 1874 and December 1882; the following pair will occur in December 2117 and December 2125. Historically, transits of Venus were important, because they allowed astronomers to determine the size of the astronomical unit, and hence the size of the Solar System as shown by Horrocks in 1639. Captain Cook's exploration of the east coast of Australia came after he had sailed to Tahiti in 1768 to observe a transit of Venus. \n\nPentagram of Venus\n\nThe pentagram of Venus is the path that Venus makes as observed from Earth. Successive inferior conjunctions of Venus repeat very near a 13:8 orbital resonance (Earth orbits 8 times for every 13 orbits of Venus), shifting 144° upon sequential inferior conjunctions. The resonance 13:8 ratio is approximate. 8/13 is approximately 0.615385 while Venus orbits the Sun in 0.615187 years. \n\nAshen light\n\nA long-standing mystery of Venus observations is the so-called ashen light—an apparent weak illumination of its dark side, seen when the planet is in the crescent phase. The first claimed observation of ashen light was made in 1643, but the existence of the illumination has never been reliably confirmed. Observers have speculated it may result from electrical activity in the Venusian atmosphere, but it could be illusory, resulting from the physiological effect of observing a bright, crescent-shaped object. \n\nHabitability \n\nThe speculation of the existence of life on Venus decreased significantly since the early 1960s, when spacecraft began studying Venus and it became clear that the conditions on Venus are extreme compared to those on Earth.\n\nThe fact that Venus is located closer to the Sun than Earth, raising temperatures on the surface to nearly 735 K, the atmospheric pressure is 90 times that of Earth, and the extreme impact of the greenhouse effect, make water-based life as we know it unlikely. However, a few scientists have speculated that thermoacidophilic extremophile microorganisms might exist in the lower-temperature, acidic upper layers of the Venusian atmosphere. \n\nStudies \n\nEarly studies \n\nVenus was known to ancient civilizations both as the \"morning star\" and as the \"evening star\", names that reflect the early assumption that these were two separate objects. The Venus tablet of Ammisaduqa, believed to have been compiled around the mid-seventeenth century BCE, shows the Babylonians understood the two were a single object, referred to in the tablet as the \"bright queen of the sky\", and could support this view with detailed observations. The Ancient Greeks thought of the two as separate stars, Phosphorus and Hesperus. Pliny the Elder credited the realization that they were a single object to Pythagoras in the sixth century BCE, while Diogenes Laertius argued that Parmenides was probably responsible. The ancient Chinese referred to the morning Venus as \"the Great White\" (Tai-bai ) or \"the Opener of Brightness\" (Qi-ming ), and the evening Venus as \"the Excellent West One\" (Chang-geng ). The Romans designated the morning aspect of Venus as Lucifer, literally \"Light-Bringer\", and the evening aspect as Vesper, both literal translations of the respective Greek names.\n\nIn the second century, in his astronomical treatise Almagest, Ptolemy theorized that both Mercury and Venus are located between the Sun and the Earth. The 11th century Persian astronomer Avicenna claimed to have observed the transit of Venus, which later astronomers took as confirmation of Ptolemy's theory. In the 12th century, the Andalusian astronomer Ibn Bajjah observed \"two planets as black spots on the face of the Sun\", which were later identified as the transits of Venus and Mercury by the Maragha astronomer Qotb al-Din Shirazi in the 13th century. \n\nWhen the Italian physicist Galileo Galilei first observed the planet in the early 17th century, he found it showed phases like the Moon, varying from crescent to gibbous to full and vice versa. When Venus is furthest from the Sun in the sky, it shows a half-lit phase, and when it is closest to the Sun in the sky, it shows as a crescent or full phase. This could be possible only if Venus orbited the Sun, and this was among the first observations to clearly contradict the Ptolemaic geocentric model that the Solar System was concentric and centred on Earth.\n\nThe 1639 transit of Venus was accurately predicted by Jeremiah Horrocks and observed by him and his friend, William Crabtree, at each of their respective homes, on 4 December 1639 (24 November under the Julian calendar in use at that time). \n\nThe atmosphere of Venus was discovered in 1761 by Russian polymath Mikhail Lomonosov. Venus's atmosphere was observed in 1790 by German astronomer Johann Schröter. Schröter found when the planet was a thin crescent, the cusps extended through more than 180°. He correctly surmised this was due to scattering of sunlight in a dense atmosphere. Later, American astronomer Chester Smith Lyman observed a complete ring around the dark side of the planet when it was at inferior conjunction, providing further evidence for an atmosphere. The atmosphere complicated efforts to determine a rotation period for the planet, and observers such as Italian-born astronomer Giovanni Cassini and Schröter incorrectly estimated periods of about from the motions of markings on the planet's apparent surface. \n\nGround-based research \n\nLittle more was discovered about Venus until the 20th century. Its almost featureless disc gave no hint what its surface might be like, and it was only with the development of spectroscopic, radar and ultraviolet observations that more of its secrets were revealed. The first ultraviolet observations were carried out in the 1920s, when Frank E. Ross found that ultraviolet photographs revealed considerable detail that was absent in visible and infrared radiation. He suggested this was due to a dense, yellow lower atmosphere with high cirrus clouds above it. \n\nSpectroscopic observations in the 1900s gave the first clues about the Venusian rotation. Vesto Slipher tried to measure the Doppler shift of light from Venus, but found he could not detect any rotation. He surmised the planet must have a much longer rotation period than had previously been thought. Later work in the 1950s showed the rotation was retrograde. Radar observations of Venus were first carried out in the 1960s, and provided the first measurements of the rotation period, which were close to the modern value. \n\nRadar observations in the 1970s revealed details of the Venusian surface for the first time. Pulses of radio waves were beamed at the planet using the 300 m radio telescope at Arecibo Observatory, and the echoes revealed two highly reflective regions, designated the Alpha and Beta regions. The observations also revealed a bright region attributed to mountains, which was called Maxwell Montes. These three features are now the only ones on Venus that do not have female names.\n\nExploration \n\nThe first robotic space probe mission to Venus, and the first to any planet, began with the Soviet Venera program in 1961. The United States' exploration of Venus had its first success with the Mariner 2 mission on 14 December 1962, becoming the world's first successful interplanetary mission, passing 34833 km above the surface of Venus, and gathering data on the planet's atmosphere. \n\nOn 18 October 1967, the Soviet Venera 4 successfully entered the atmosphere and deployed science experiments. Venera 4 showed the surface temperature was hotter than Mariner 2 had calculated, at almost 500 °C, determined that the atmosphere is 95% carbon dioxide (), and discovered that Venus's atmosphere was considerably denser than Venera 4 designers had anticipated. The joint Venera 4–Mariner 5 data was analysed by a combined Soviet–American science team in a series of colloquia over the following year, in an early example of space cooperation. \n\nIn 1975 the Soviet Venera 9 and 10 landers transmitted the first images from the surface of Venus, which were in black and white. In 1982 the first colour images of the surface were obtained with the Soviet Venera 13 and 14 landers.\n\nNASA obtained additional data in 1978 with the Pioneer Venus project that consisted of two separate missions: Pioneer Venus Orbiter and Pioneer Venus Multiprobe. The successful Soviet Venera program came to a close in October 1983, when Venera 15 and 16 were placed in orbit to conduct detailed mapping of 25% of Venus's terrain (from the north pole to 30°N latitude) \n\nSeveral other Venus flybys took place in the 1980s and 1990s that increased the understanding of Venus, including Vega 1 (1985), Vega 2 (1985), Galileo (1990), Magellan (1994), Cassini–Huygens (1998), and MESSENGER (2006). Then, Venus Express by the European Space Agency (ESA) entered orbit around Venus in April 2006. Equipped with seven scientific instruments, Venus Express provided unprecedented long-term observation of Venus's atmosphere. ESA concluded that mission in December 2014.\n\nAs of 2016, Japan's Akatsuki is in a highly elliptical orbit around Venus since 7 December 2015, and there are several probing proposals under study by Roscosmos, NASA, and India's ISRO.\n\nIn culture \n\nSymbol\n\nThe astronomical symbol for Venus is the same as that used in biology for the female sex: a circle with a small cross beneath. The Venus symbol also represents femininity, and in Western alchemy stood for the metal copper. Polished copper has been used for mirrors from antiquity, and the symbol for Venus has sometimes been understood to stand for the mirror of the goddess.\n\nIn fiction\n\nVenus is a primary feature of the night sky, and so has been of remarkable importance in mythology, astrology and fiction throughout history and in different cultures. Classical poets such as Homer, Sappho, Ovid and Virgil spoke of the star and its light. Romantic poets such as William Blake, Robert Frost, Alfred Lord Tennyson and William Wordsworth wrote odes to it. With the invention of the telescope, the idea that Venus was a physical world and possible destination began to take form.\n\nThe impenetrable Venusian cloud cover gave science fiction writers free rein to speculate on conditions at its surface; all the more so when early observations showed that not only was it similar in size to Earth, it possessed a substantial atmosphere. Closer to the Sun than Earth, the planet was frequently depicted as warmer, but still habitable by humans. The genre reached its peak between the 1930s and 1950s, at a time when science had revealed some aspects of Venus, but not yet the harsh reality of its surface conditions. Findings from the first missions to Venus showed the reality to be quite different, and brought this particular genre to an end. As scientific knowledge of Venus advanced, so science fiction authors tried to keep pace, particularly by conjecturing human attempts to terraform Venus. \n\nColonization and terraforming\n\nDue to its extremely hostile conditions, a surface colony on Venus is not possible with current technology. The atmospheric pressure and temperature approximately fifty kilometres above the surface are similar to those at Earth's surface. In Venus's mostly carbon dioxide atmosphere, Earth's air (nitrogen and oxygen) would act as a lifting gas. This has led to proposals for \"floating cities\" in the Venusian atmosphere. Aerostats (lighter-than-air balloons) could be used for initial exploration and ultimately for permanent settlements. Among the many engineering challenges are the dangerous amounts of sulfuric acid at these heights." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Magellan", "Magellan (disambiguation)", "List of things named after Ferdinand Magellan", "List of things named for Ferdinand Magellan", "Magellen", "List of places named for Fedinand Magellan", "List of places named for Ferdinand Magellan" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "list of places named for fedinand magellan", "magellen", "list of things named for ferdinand magellan", "magellan disambiguation", "magellan", "list of things named after ferdinand magellan", "list of places named for ferdinand magellan" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "magellan", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Magellan" }
Who directed Good Morning Vietnam?	tc_637	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "Search" ], "filename": [ "Barry_Levinson.txt" ], "title": [ "Barry Levinson" ], "wiki_context": [ "Barry Levinson (born April 6, 1942) is an American filmmaker, screenwriter, and actor. Levinson's best-known works are comedy-drama and drama films such as, Diner (1982), The Natural (1984), Good Morning, Vietnam (1987), Rain Man (1988), Bugsy (1991), and Wag the Dog (1997). He won the Academy Award for Best Director for his work on Rain Man, which also won the Academy Award for Best Picture.\n\nEarly life\n\nLevinson was born in Baltimore, Maryland, the son of Violet \"Vi\" (née Krichinsky) and Irvin Levinson, who worked in the furniture and appliance business. His family was of Russian Jewish descent. \n\nCareer\n\nLevinson's first writing work was for variety shows such as The Marty Feldman Comedy Machine, The Lohman and Barkley Show, The Tim Conway Show, and The Carol Burnett Show. After some success as a screenwriter – notably the Mel Brooks comedies Silent Movie (1976) and High Anxiety (1977) (in which he played a bellboy) and the Oscar-nominated script (co-written by then-wife Valerie Curtin) ...And Justice for All (1979) – Levinson began his career as a director with Diner (1982), for which he had also written the script and which earned him an Oscar nomination for Best Screenplay.\n\nDiner was the first of a series of films set in the Baltimore of Levinson's youth. The others were Tin Men (1987), a story of aluminum-siding salesmen in the 1960s starring Richard Dreyfuss and Danny DeVito; the immigrant family saga Avalon (which featured Elijah Wood in one of his earliest screen appearances), and Liberty Heights (1999).\n\nHis biggest hit, both critically and financially, was Rain Man (1988), a sibling drama starring Dustin Hoffman and Tom Cruise (Levinson appeared in a cameo as a doctor). The film won four Academy Awards, including Best Picture and Best Director. It also won the Golden Bear at the 39th Berlin International Film Festival. \n\nAnother of his notable films is the popular period baseball drama The Natural (1984), starring Robert Redford. Redford would later direct Quiz Show (1994) and cast Levinson as television personality Dave Garroway. Levinson also directed the classic war comedy Good Morning, Vietnam (1987), starring Robin Williams, with whom he later collaborated on the fantasy Toys (1992) and the political comedy Man of the Year (2006). Levinson also directed the critically acclaimed historical crime drama Bugsy (1991), which starred Warren Beatty and was nominated for ten Academy Awards.\n\nHe directed Dustin Hoffman again in Wag the Dog (1997), a political comedy co-starring Robert De Niro about a war staged in a film studio (Levinson had been an uncredited co-writer on Hoffman's 1982 hit comedy Tootsie). The film won the Silver Bear – Special Jury Prize at the 48th Berlin International Film Festival. \n\nLevinson partnered with producer Mark Johnson to form the film production company Baltimore Pictures. The two parted ways in 1994. Levinson has been a producer or executive producer for such major productions as The Perfect Storm (2000), directed by Wolfgang Petersen; Analyze That (2002), starring De Niro as a neurotic mob boss and Billy Crystal as his therapist, and Possession (2002), based on the best-selling novel by A. S. Byatt.\n\nHe has a television production company with Tom Fontana (The Levinson/Fontana Company) and served as executive producer for a number of series, including Homicide: Life on the Street (which ran on NBC from 1993 to 1999) and the HBO prison drama Oz. Levinson also played an uncredited main role as a judge in the short-lived TV series The Jury.\n\nLevinson published his first novel, Sixty-Six (ISBN 0-7679-1533-X), in 2003. Like several of his films, it is semi-autobiographical and set in Baltimore in the 1960s. He directed two webisodes of the American Express ads \"The Adventures of Seinfeld and Superman\". In 2004, Levinson was the recipient of the Austin Film Festival's Distinguished Screenwriter Award. Levinson directed a documentary PoliWood about the 2008 Democratic and Republican National Conventions. The documentary, produced by Tim Daly, Robin Bronk and Robert E. Baruc, had its premiere at the 2009 Tribeca Film Festival.\n\nLevinson is in production on a film based on Whitey Bulger, the Boston crime boss. The film Black Mass (script by Jim Sheridan, Jez Butterworth, and Russell Gewirtz) is based on the book by Dick Lehr and Gerard O'Neill, and is said to be the \"true story of Billy Bulger, Whitey Bulger, FBI agent John Connelly and the FBI's witness protection program that was created by J. Edgar Hoover.\" \n\nIn September 2013, Levinson was set to direct the film titled Rock the Kasbah, written by Mitch Glazer. Bruce Willis, Shia LaBeouf, Bill Murray and Kate Hudson will star in the film. He has also finished production on The Humbling (2015), starring Al Pacino.\n\nIn 2010 Levinson received the Laurel Award for Screenwriting Achievement, which is the lifetime achievement award from the Writers Guild of America.\n\nFilmography\n\nFilm\n\nTelevision" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Barry Levinson", "Baltimore Pictures", "Levinson, Barry" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "levinson barry", "baltimore pictures", "barry levinson" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "barry levinson", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Barry Levinson" }
What was Bette Davis's real first name?	tc_638	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Bette_Davis.txt" ], "title": [ "Bette Davis" ], "wiki_context": [ "Ruth Elizabeth \"Bette\" Davis (April 5, 1908 – October 6, 1989) was an American actress of film, television and theater. Regarded as one of the greatest actresses in Hollywood history, she was noted for her willingness to play unsympathetic, sardonic characters and was reputed for her performances in a range of film genres, from contemporary crime melodramas to historical and period films and occasional comedies, although her greatest successes were her roles in romantic dramas. \n\nAfter appearing in Broadway plays, Davis moved to Hollywood in 1930, but her early films for Universal Studios (and as a loanout to other studios) were unsuccessful. She joined Warner Bros. in 1932 and established her career with several critically acclaimed performances. In 1937, she attempted to free herself from her contract, and although she lost a well-publicized legal case, it marked the beginning of the most successful period of her career. Until the late 1940s, she was one of American cinema's most celebrated leading ladies, known for her forceful and intense style. Davis gained a reputation as a perfectionist who could be highly combative, and confrontations with studio executives, film directors and costars were often reported. Her forthright manner, clipped vocal style and ubiquitous cigarette contributed to a public persona, which has often been imitated and parodied.\n\nDavis was the co-founder of the Hollywood Canteen, and was the first female president of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. She won the Academy Award for Best Actress twice, was the first person to accrue ten Academy Award nominations for acting, and was the first woman to receive a Lifetime Achievement Award from the American Film Institute. Her career went through several periods of eclipse, and she admitted that her success had often been at the expense of her personal relationships. Married four times, she was once widowed and three times divorced, and raised her children as a single parent. Her final years were marred by a long period of ill health, but she continued acting until shortly before her death from breast cancer, with more than 100 films, television and theater roles to her credit.\nIn 1999, Davis was placed second on the American Film Institute's list of the greatest female stars of classic Hollywood cinema.\n\nLife and career\n\nBackground and early acting career (1908–1929)\n\nRuth Elizabeth Davis, known from early childhood as \"Betty,\" was born on April 5, 1908, at 22 Chester Street, Lowell, Massachusetts, the daughter of Harlow Morrell Davis, a law student from Augusta, Maine, and Ruth Augusta \"Ruthie\" (née Favór), from Tyngsboro, Massachusetts. Betty's younger sister, Barbara Harriet \"Bobby\", was born October 25, 1909, at 55 Ward Street in Somerville, Massachusetts, by which time their father was a patent attorney. In 1915, Davis's parents separated and Betty and Bobby attended a Spartan boarding school called Crestalban in Lanesborough, which is located in the Berkshires. In 1921, Ruth Davis moved to New York City with her daughters, where she worked as a portrait photographer. Betty was inspired to become an actress after seeing Rudolph Valentino in The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse (1921) and Mary Pickford in Little Lord Fauntleroy (1921), and changed the spelling of her name to \"Bette\" after Honoré de Balzac's La Cousine Bette. \n\nShe attended Cushing Academy, a boarding school in Ashburnham, Massachusetts, where she met her future husband, Harmon O. Nelson, known as \"Ham.\" In 1926, she saw a production of Henrik Ibsen's The Wild Duck with Blanche Yurka and Peg Entwistle, a well-known Broadway actress who killed herself in 1932 by jumping off the H of the Hollywood Sign. Davis later recalled that Entwistle inspired her full commitment to her chosen career, and said, \"Before that Entwistle.\" She auditioned for admission to Eva LeGallienne's Manhattan Civic Repertory, but was rejected by LeGallienne who described her attitude as \"insincere\" and \"frivolous.\" Upon graduating Cushing Academy, Bette enrolled in John Murray Anderson's Dramatic School.\n\nShe auditioned for George Cukor's stock theater company, and although he was not very impressed, he gave Davis her first paid acting assignment anyway—a one-week stint playing the part of a chorus girl in the play Broadway. She was later chosen to play Hedwig, the character she had seen Entwistle play, in The Wild Duck. After performing in Philadelphia, Washington and Boston, she made her Broadway debut in 1929 in Broken Dishes, and followed it with Solid South.\n\nEarly years in Hollywood (1930–1936)\n\nIn 1930, Davis moved to Hollywood to screen test for Universal. Accompanied by her mother, she traveled by train to Hollywood, arriving on December 13, 1930. She later recounted her surprise that nobody from the studio was there to meet her; a studio employee had waited for her, but left because he saw nobody who \"looked like an actress.\" She failed her first screen test but was used in several screen tests for other actors. In a 1971 interview with Dick Cavett, she related the experience with the observation, \"I was the most Yankee-est, most modest virgin who ever walked the earth. They laid me on a couch, and I tested fifteen men ... They all had to lie on top of me and give me a passionate kiss. Oh, I thought I would die. Just thought I would die.\" A second test was arranged for Davis, for the 1931 film A House Divided. Hastily dressed in an ill-fitting costume with a low neckline, she was rebuffed by the director William Wyler, who loudly commented to the assembled crew, \"What do you think of these dames who show their chests and think they can get jobs?\" \n\nCarl Laemmle, the head of Universal Studios, considered terminating Davis's employment, but cinematographer Karl Freund told him she had \"lovely eyes\" and would be suitable for Bad Sister (1931), in which she subsequently made her film debut. Her nervousness was compounded when she overheard the Chief of Production, Carl Laemmle, Jr., comment to another executive that she had \"about as much sex appeal as Slim Summerville,\" one of the film's co-stars. The film was not a success, and her next role in Seed (1931) was too brief to attract attention.\n\nUniversal Studios renewed her contract for three months, and she appeared in a small role in Waterloo Bridge (1931) before being lent to Columbia Pictures for The Menace and to Capital Films for Hell's House (all 1932). After nine months, and six unsuccessful films, Laemmle elected not to renew her contract.\n\nDavis was preparing to return to New York when actor George Arliss chose Davis for the lead female role in the Warner Brothers picture The Man Who Played God (1932), and for the rest of her life, Davis credited him with helping her achieve her \"break\" in Hollywood. The Saturday Evening Post wrote, \"she is not only beautiful, but she bubbles with charm,\" and compared her to Constance Bennett and Olive Borden. Warner Bros. signed her to a five-year contract, and she remained with the studio for the next eighteen years, garnering great acclaim for herself as well as making a fortune for her employers.\n\nIn 1932 she married Harmon \"Ham\" Nelson, who was scrutinized by the press; his $100 a week earnings compared unfavorably with Davis's reported $1,000 a week income. Davis addressed the issue in an interview, pointing out that many Hollywood wives earned more than their husbands, but the situation proved difficult for Nelson, who refused to allow Davis to purchase a house until he could afford to pay for it himself. Davis had several abortions during the marriage. \n\nAfter more than 20 film roles, the role of the vicious and slatternly Mildred Rogers in the RKO Radio production of Of Human Bondage (1934), a film adaptation of W. Somerset Maugham's novel, earned Davis her first major critical acclaim. Many actresses feared playing unsympathetic characters and several had refused the role, but Davis viewed it as an opportunity to show the range of her acting skills. Her co-star, Leslie Howard, was initially dismissive of her, but as filming progressed his attitude changed and he subsequently spoke highly of her abilities. The director, John Cromwell, allowed her relative freedom, and commented, \"I let Bette have her head. I trusted her instincts.\" She insisted that she be portrayed realistically in her death scene, and said, \"the last stages of consumption, poverty and neglect are not pretty and I intended to be convincing-looking.\" \n\nThe film was a success, and Davis's confronting characterization won praise from critics, with Life magazine writing that she gave \"probably the best performance ever recorded on the screen by a U.S. actress.\" Davis anticipated that her reception would encourage Warner Bros. to cast her in more important roles, and was disappointed when Jack L. Warner refused to lend her to Columbia Studios to appear in It Happened One Night, and instead cast her in the melodrama Housewife. When Davis was not nominated for an Academy Award for Of Human Bondage, The Hollywood Citizen News questioned the omission and Norma Shearer, herself a nominee, joined a campaign to have Davis nominated. This prompted an announcement from the Academy president, Howard Estabrook, who said that under the circumstances \"any voter ... may write on the ballot his or her personal choice for the winners,\" thus allowing, for the only time in the Academy's history, the consideration of a candidate not officially nominated for an award. Claudette Colbert won the award for It Happened One Night but the uproar led to a change in Academy voting procedures the following year, whereby nominations were determined by votes from all eligible members of a particular branch, rather than by a smaller committee, with results independently tabulated by the accounting firm Price Waterhouse. \n\nDavis appeared in Dangerous (1935) as a troubled actress and received very good reviews. E. Arnot Robertson wrote in Picture Post, \"I think Bette Davis would probably have been burned as a witch if she had lived two or three hundred years ago. She gives the curious feeling of being charged with power which can find no ordinary outlet.\" The New York Times hailed her as \"becoming one of the most interesting of our screen actresses.\" She won the Academy Award for Best Actress for the role, but commented that it was belated recognition for Of Human Bondage, calling the award a \"consolation prize.\" For the rest of her life, Davis maintained that she gave the statue its familiar name of \"Oscar\" because its posterior resembled that of her husband, whose middle name was Oscar, although her claim has been disputed by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, among others.\n\nIn her next film, The Petrified Forest (1936), Davis co-starred with Leslie Howard and Humphrey Bogart, but Bogart, in his first important role, received most of the critics' praise. Davis appeared in several films over the next two years but most were poorly received.\n\nLegal case\n\nConvinced that her career was being damaged by a succession of mediocre films, Davis accepted an offer in 1936 to appear in two films in Britain. Knowing that she was breaching her contract with Warner Bros., she fled to Canada to avoid legal papers being served upon her. Eventually, Davis brought her case to court in Britain, hoping to get out of her contract with Warner Bros. She later recalled the opening statement of the barrister, Sir Patrick Hastings, who represented Warner Bros. Hastings urged the court to \"come to the conclusion that this is rather a naughty young lady and that what she wants is more money.\" He mocked Davis's description of her contract as \"slavery\" by stating, incorrectly, that she was being paid $1,350 per week. He remarked, \"if anybody wants to put me into perpetual servitude on the basis of that remuneration, I shall prepare to consider it.\" The British press offered little support to Davis, and portrayed her as overpaid and ungrateful. \n\nDavis explained her viewpoint to a journalist, saying \"I knew that, if I continued to appear in any more mediocre pictures, I would have no career left worth fighting for.\" Davis's counsel presented her complaints—that she could be suspended without pay for refusing a part, with the period of suspension added to her contract, that she could be called upon to play any part within her abilities regardless of her personal beliefs, that she could be required to support a political party against her beliefs, and that her image and likeness could be displayed in any manner deemed applicable by the studio. Jack Warner testified, and was asked, \"Whatever part you choose to call upon her to play, if she thinks she can play it, whether it is distasteful and cheap, she has to play it?\" Warner replied, \"Yes, she must play it.\" The case, decided by Branson J. in the English High Court, was reported as Warner Bros. Studios Incorporated v. Nelson in [1937] 1 KB 209. Davis lost the case and returned to Hollywood, in debt and without income, to resume her career. Olivia de Havilland mounted a similar case in 1943 and won.\n\nSuccess with Warner Bros. (1937–1941)\n\nDavis began work on Marked Woman (1937), as a prostitute in a contemporary gangster drama inspired by the case of Lucky Luciano. For her performance in the film she was awarded the Volpi Cup at the 1937 Venice Film Festival. Her next picture was Jezebel (1938), and during production Davis entered a relationship with director William Wyler. She later described him as the \"love of my life,\" and said that making the film with him was \"the time in my life of my most perfect happiness.\" The film was a success, and Davis' performance as a spoiled Southern belle earned her a second Academy Award, which led to speculation in the press that she would be chosen to play a similar character, Scarlett O'Hara, in Gone with the Wind. Davis expressed her desire to play Scarlett, and while David O. Selznick was conducting a search for the actress to play the role, a radio poll named her as the audience favorite. Warners offered her services to Selznick as part of a deal that also included Errol Flynn and Olivia de Havilland, but Selznick did not consider Davis as suitable, and rejected the offer, while Davis did not want Flynn cast as Rhett Butler. Newcomer Vivien Leigh was eventually cast as Scarlett O'Hara, while de Havilland landed a role as Melanie, and both of them would be nominated for the Oscars, with Leigh winning.\n\nJezebel marked the beginning of the most successful phase of Davis' career, and over the next few years she was listed in the annual \"Quigley Poll of the Top Ten Money Making Stars,\" which was compiled from the votes of movie exhibitors throughout the U.S. for the stars that had generated the most revenue in their theaters over the previous year. In contrast to Davis' success, her husband, Ham Nelson, had failed to establish a career for himself, and their relationship faltered. In 1938, Nelson obtained evidence that Davis was engaged in a sexual relationship with Howard Hughes and subsequently filed for divorce citing Davis' \"cruel and inhuman manner.\" \n\nShe was emotional during the making of her next film, Dark Victory (1939), and considered abandoning it until the producer Hal B. Wallis convinced her to channel her despair into her acting. The film became one of the highest-grossing films of the year, and the role of Judith Traherne brought her an Academy Award nomination. In later years, Davis cited this performance as her personal favorite. She appeared in three other box office hits in 1939, The Old Maid with Miriam Hopkins, Juarez with Paul Muni and The Private Lives of Elizabeth and Essex with Errol Flynn. The latter was her first color film and her only color film made during the height of her career. To play the elderly Elizabeth I of England, Davis shaved her hairline and eyebrows. During filming she was visited on the set by the actor Charles Laughton. She commented that she had a \"nerve\" playing a woman in her sixties, to which Laughton replied, \"Never not dare to hang yourself. That's the only way you grow in your profession. You must continually attempt things that you think are beyond you, or you get into a complete rut.\" Recalling the episode many years later, Davis remarked that Laughton's advice had influenced her throughout her career. \n\nBy this time, Davis was Warner Bros.' most profitable star, and she was given the most important of their female leading roles. Her image was considered with more care; although she continued to play character roles, she was often filmed in close-ups that emphasized her distinctive eyes. All This and Heaven Too (1940) was the most financially successful film of Davis' career to that point, while The Letter (1940) was considered \"one of the best pictures of the year\" by The Hollywood Reporter, and Davis won admiration for her portrayal of an adulterous killer, a role originated by famed actress Katharine Cornell. During this time, she was in a relationship with her former costar George Brent, who proposed marriage. Davis refused, as she had met Arthur Farnsworth, a New England innkeeper. Davis and Farnsworth were married at Home Ranch, in Rimrock, Arizona, in December 1940. \n\nIn January 1941, Davis became the first female president of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences but antagonized the committee members with her brash manner and radical proposals. Faced with the disapproval and resistance of the committee, Davis resigned, and was succeeded by her predecessor Walter Wanger. Davis starred in three movies in 1941, the first being The Great Lie, opposite George Brent. It was a refreshingly different role for Davis, as she played a kind, sympathetic character. Brent tickled Davis during many of the film's scenes, which allowed the audience, used to Davis' strong-willed character, a rare glimpse of her succumbing to giggles and squirms.\n\nWilliam Wyler directed Davis for the third time in Lillian Hellman's The Little Foxes (RKO, 1941), but they clashed over the character of Regina Giddens, a role originally played on Broadway by Tallulah Bankhead (coincidentally, Davis had portrayed in film roles initiated by Bankhead on the stage twice before, in Dark Victory and Jezebel). Wyler encouraged Davis to emulate Bankhead's interpretation of the role, but Davis wanted to make the role her own. She received another Academy Award nomination for her performance, and never worked with Wyler again.\n\nWar effort and personal tragedy (1942–1944)\n\nFollowing the attack on Pearl Harbor, Davis spent the early months of 1942 selling war bonds. After Jack Warner criticized her tendency to cajole crowds into buying, she reminded him that her audiences responded most strongly to her \"bitch\" performances. She sold two million dollars worth of bonds in two days, as well as a picture of herself in Jezebel for $250,000. She also performed for black regiments as the only white member of an acting troupe formed by Hattie McDaniel, which included Lena Horne and Ethel Waters. \n\nAt John Garfield's suggestion of opening a servicemen's club in Hollywood, Davis—with the aid of Warner, Cary Grant and Jule Styne—transformed an old nightclub into the Hollywood Canteen, which opened on October 3, 1942. Hollywood's most important stars volunteered to entertain servicemen. Davis ensured that every night there would be a few important \"names\" for the visiting soldiers to meet. She appeared as herself in the film Hollywood Canteen (1944), which used the canteen as the setting for a fictional story. Davis later commented, \"There are few accomplishments in my life that I am sincerely proud of. The Hollywood Canteen is one of them.\" In 1980, she was awarded the Distinguished Civilian Service Medal, the United States Department of Defense's highest civilian award, for her work with the Hollywood Canteen.\n\nDavis showed little interest in the film Now, Voyager (1942) until Hal Wallis advised her that female audiences needed romantic dramas to distract them from the reality of their lives. It became one of the best known of her \"women's pictures.\" In one of the film's most imitated scenes, Paul Henreid lights two cigarettes as he stares into Davis' eyes and passes one to her. Film reviewers complimented Davis on her performance, the National Board of Review commenting that she gave the film \"a dignity not fully warranted by the script.\" \n\nDuring the early 1940s, several of Davis' film choices were influenced by the war, such as Watch on the Rhine (1943), by Lillian Hellman, and Thank Your Lucky Stars (1943), a lighthearted all-star musical cavalcade, with each of the featured stars donating their fee to the Hollywood Canteen. Davis performed a novelty song, \"They're Either Too Young or Too Old,\" which became a hit record after the film's release. Old Acquaintance (1943) reunited her with Miriam Hopkins in a story of two old friends who deal with the tensions created when one of them becomes a successful novelist. Davis felt that Hopkins tried to upstage her throughout the film. Director Vincent Sherman recalled the intense competitiveness and animosity between the two actresses, and Davis often joked that she held back nothing in a scene in which she was required to shake Hopkins in a fit of anger. \n\nIn August 1943, Davis' husband, Arthur Farnsworth, collapsed while walking along a Hollywood street and died two days later. An autopsy revealed that his fall had been caused by a skull fracture he had suffered two weeks earlier. Davis testified before an inquest that she knew of no event that might have caused the injury. A finding of accidental death was reached. Highly distraught, Davis attempted to withdraw from her next film Mr. Skeffington (1944); but Jack Warner, who had halted production following Farnsworth's death, convinced her to continue. Although she had gained a reputation for being forthright and demanding, her behavior during filming of Mr. Skeffington was erratic and out of character. She alienated Vincent Sherman by refusing to film certain scenes and insisting that some sets be rebuilt. She improvised dialogue, causing confusion among other actors, and infuriated the writer, Julius Epstein, who was called upon to rewrite scenes at her whim. Davis later explained her actions with the observation, \"when I was most unhappy I lashed out rather than whined.\" Some reviewers criticized Davis for the excess of her performance; James Agee wrote that she \"demonstrates the horrors of egocentricity on a marathonic scale;\" but despite the mixed reviews, she received another Academy Award nomination.\n\nProfessional setbacks (1945–1949)\n\nIn 1945, Davis married artist William Grant Sherry, who also, when necessary, worked as a masseur. She had been drawn to him because he claimed he had never heard of her and was, therefore, not intimidated by her. The same year, Davis refused the title role in Mildred Pierce (1945), a role for which Joan Crawford won an Academy Award, and instead made The Corn Is Green (1945) based on a play by Emlyn Williams. Davis played Miss Moffat, an English teacher who saves a young Welsh miner (John Dall) from a life in the coal pits, by offering him education. The part had been played in the theatre by Ethel Barrymore, but Warner Bros. felt that the film version should depict the character as a younger woman. Davis disagreed and insisted on playing the part as written and wore a gray wig and padding under her clothes, to create a dowdy appearance. The film was well received by critics and made a profit of $2.2 million. The critic E. Arnot Robertson observed that \"only Bette Davis . . . could have combated so successfully the obvious intention of the adaptors of the play to make frustrated sex the mainspring of the chief character's interest in the young miner.\" She concluded that \"the subtle interpretation she insisted on giving\" kept the focus on the teacher's \"sheer joy in imparting knowledge.\" \n\nHer next film, A Stolen Life (1946), was the first and only film that Davis made with her own production company, BD Productions. Davis played dual roles, as twins. The film received poor reviews and was described by Bosley Crowther as \"a distressingly empty piece;\" but, with a profit of $2.5 million, it was one of her biggest box-office successes. In 1947, the U.S. Treasury named Davis as the highest paid woman in the country, with her share of the film's profit accounting for most of her earnings. Her next film was Deception (1946), the first of her films to lose money. \n\nPossessed (1947) had been tailor-made for Davis and was to have been her next project after Deception. However, she was pregnant and went on maternity leave. Joan Crawford played her role in Possessed and was nominated for an Academy Award as Best Actress. In 1947, at the age of 39, Davis gave birth to a daughter, Barbara Davis Sherry (known as B.D.) and later wrote in her memoir that she became absorbed in motherhood and considered ending her career. As she continued making films, however, her relationship with her daughter B.D. began to deteriorate and her popularity with audiences was steadily declining. \n\nAmong the film roles offered to Davis following her return to film making was Rose Sayer in The African Queen (1951). When informed that the film was to be shot in Africa, Davis refused the part, telling Jack Warner, \"If you can't shoot the picture in a boat on the back lot, then I'm not interested.\" Katharine Hepburn played the role and was nominated for an Academy Award as Best Actress. Davis was also offered a role in a film version of the Virginia Kellogg prison drama Women Without Men. Originally intended to pair Davis with Joan Crawford, Davis made it clear that she would not appear in any \"dyke movie.\" It was filmed as Caged (1950), and the lead roles were played by Eleanor Parker (who was nominated for an Academy Award as Best Actress) and Agnes Moorehead. She lobbied Jack Warner to make two films, Ethan Frome and a biography of Mary Todd Lincoln; however, Warner vetoed each proposal.\n\nIn 1948 Davis was cast in the melodrama Winter Meeting; and, although she was initially enthusiastic, she soon learned that Warner had arranged for \"softer\" lighting to be used to disguise her age. She recalled that she had seen the same lighting technique \"on the sets of Ruth Chatterton and Kay Francis, and I knew what they meant.\" She began to regret accepting the role; and, to add to her disappointment, she was not confident in the abilities of her leading man, James Davis in his first major screen role. She disagreed with amendments made to the script because of censorship restrictions and found that many of the aspects of the role that had initially appealed to her had been cut. The film was later described by Bosley Crowther as \"interminable;\" and he noted that \"of all the miserable dilemmas in which Miss Davis has been involved ... this one is probably the worst\". It failed at the box office, and the studio lost nearly one million dollars. \n\nWhile making June Bride (1948), Davis clashed with co-star Robert Montgomery, later describing him as \"a male Miriam Hopkins... an excellent actor, but addicted to scene-stealing.\" The film marked her first comedy in several years and earned her some positive reviews; but it was not particularly popular with audiences and returned only a small profit. Despite the lackluster box office receipts from her more recent films, in 1949, she negotiated a four-film contract with Warner Bros., which paid $10,285 per week and made her the highest-paid woman in the United States. Jack Warner refused to allow her script approval, however, and cast her in Beyond the Forest (1949). Davis reportedly loathed the script and begged Warner to recast the role, but he refused. After the film was completed, Warner released Davis from her contract, at her request. The reviews that followed were scathing; Dorothy Manners writing for the Los Angeles Examiner described the film as \"an unfortunate finale to her brilliant career.\" Hedda Hopper wrote, \"If Bette had deliberately set out to wreck her career, she could not have picked a more appropriate vehicle.\" The film contained the line, \"What a dump!,\" which became closely associated with Davis after it was referenced in Edward Albee's Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf?, and impersonators began to use it in their acts. In later years, Davis often used it as her opening line at speaking engagements.\n\nStarting a freelance career (1949–1960)\n\nBy 1949, Davis and Sherry were estranged and Hollywood columnists were writing that Davis' career was at an end. She filmed The Story of a Divorce (released by RKO Radio Pictures in 1951 as Payment on Demand) but had received no other offers. Shortly before filming was completed, the producer Darryl F. Zanuck offered her the role of the aging theatrical actress Margo Channing in All About Eve (1950). Claudette Colbert, for whom the part had been written, had severely injured her back, and she was unable to continue. Davis read the script, described it as the best she had ever read, and accepted the role. Within days she joined the cast in San Francisco to begin filming. During production, she established what would become a lifelong friendship with her co-star, Anne Baxter, and a romantic relationship with her leading man, Gary Merrill, which led to marriage. The film's director Joseph L. Mankiewicz later remarked, \"Bette was letter perfect. She was syllable-perfect. The director's dream: the prepared actress.\" \n\nCritics responded positively to Davis' performance and several of her lines became well-known, particularly, \"Fasten your seatbelts, it's going to be a bumpy night.\" She was again nominated for an Academy Award and critics such as Gene Ringgold described her Margo as her \"all-time best performance.\" Pauline Kael wrote that much of Mankiewicz' vision of \"the theater\" was \"nonsense\" but commended Davis, writing \"[the film is] saved by one performance that is the real thing: Bette Davis is at her most instinctive and assured. Her actress—vain, scared, a woman who goes too far in her reactions and emotions—makes the whole thing come alive.\" Davis won a Best Actress award from the Cannes Film Festival, and the New York Film Critics Circle Award. She also received the San Francisco Film Critics Circle Award as \"Best Actress\", having been named by them as the \"Worst Actress\" of 1949 for Beyond the Forest. During this time she was invited to leave her handprints in the forecourt of Grauman's Chinese Theatre.\n\nOn July 3, 1950, Davis' divorce from William Sherry was finalized, and on July 28 she married Gary Merrill. With Sherry's consent, Merrill adopted B.D., Davis' daughter (Barbara) with Sherry. In January 1951 Davis and Merrill adopted a 5-day-old baby girl they named Margot, named after the character Margo Channing. The family traveled to England, where Davis and Merrill starred in a murder-mystery film, Another Man's Poison (1951). When it received lukewarm reviews and failed at the box office, Hollywood columnists wrote that Davis' comeback had petered out, and an Academy Award nomination for The Star (1952) did not halt her decline.\n\nDavis and Merrill adopted a baby boy, Michael, in 1952, and Davis appeared in a Broadway revue, Two's Company directed by Jules Dassin. She was uncomfortable working outside of her area of expertise; she had never been a musical performer and her limited theater experience had been more than 20 years earlier. She was also severely ill and was operated on for osteomyelitis of the jaw. Margot was diagnosed as severely brain damaged due to an injury sustained during or shortly after her birth, and was eventually placed in an institution after age ~3years. Davis and Merrill began arguing frequently, with B.D. later recalling episodes of alcohol abuse and domestic violence. \n\nFew of Davis' films of the 1950s were successful and many of her performances were condemned by critics. The Hollywood Reporter wrote of mannerisms \"that you'd expect to find in a nightclub impersonation of [Davis],\" while the London critic, Richard Winninger, wrote, \"Miss Davis, with more say than most stars as to what films she makes, seems to have lapsed into egoism. The criterion for her choice of film would appear to be that nothing must compete with the full display of each facet of the Davis art. Only bad films are good enough for her.\" Her films of this period included The Virgin Queen (1955), Storm Center (1956), and The Catered Affair (1956). As her career declined, her marriage continued to deteriorate until she filed for divorce in 1960. The following year, her mother died. During the same time, she tried television, appearing in three episodes of the popular NBC western Wagon Train as three different characters in 1959 and 1961; her first appearance on TV had been February 25, 1956, on General Electric Theatre. \n\nIn 1960, Davis, a registered Democrat, appeared at the 1960 Democratic National Convention in Los Angeles, California, where she met future President John F. Kennedy, whom she greatly admired. \n\nRenewed success (1961–1970)\n\nIn 1961 Davis opened in the Broadway production The Night of the Iguana to mostly mediocre reviews, and left the production after four months due to \"chronic illness.\" She then joined Glenn Ford and Ann-Margret for the Frank Capra film A Pocketful of Miracles (1961) (a remake of Capra's 1933 film, Lady for a Day), based on a story by Damon Runyon. She accepted her next role, in the Grand Guignol horror film What Ever Happened to Baby Jane? (1962) after reading the script and believing it could appeal to the same audience that had recently made Alfred Hitchcock's Psycho (1960) a success. She negotiated a deal that would pay her 10 percent of the worldwide gross profits, in addition to her salary. The film became one of the year's biggest successes. \n\nDavis and Joan Crawford played two aging sisters, former actresses forced by circumstance to share a decaying Hollywood mansion. The director, Robert Aldrich, explained that Davis and Crawford were each aware of how important the film was to their respective careers and commented, \"It's proper to say that they really detested each other, but they behaved absolutely perfectly.\" After filming was completed, their public comments against each other allowed the tension to develop into a lifelong feud. When Davis was nominated for an Academy Award, Crawford contacted the other Best Actress nominees (who were unable to attend the ceremonies) and offered to accept the award on their behalf should they win, which was exactly what happened when Anne Bancroft was announced as winner. Crawford accepted the award on Bancroft's behalf. Davis also received her only BAFTA Award nomination for this performance. Daughter Barbara (credited as B. D. Merrill) played a small role in the film and when she and Davis visited the Cannes Film Festival to promote it, she met Jeremy Hyman, an executive for Seven Arts Productions. After a short courtship, she married Hyman at the age of 16, with Davis' permission.\n\nIn early 1963 while Raymond Burr was recovering from surgery, Davis guest starred in the first of four episodes of Perry Mason, with Burr doing only cameo roles. She portrayed a recently widowed attorney who defended Cal Leonard accused of murdering his cousin in \"The Case of Constant Doyle.\" In court she exposed her personal secretary, Miss Givney, played by Frances Reid, as the murderer. Davis portrayed the title character in that episode.\n\nIn September 1962, Davis placed an advertisement in Variety under the heading of \"Situations wanted—women artists,\" which read, \"Mother of three—10, 11 & 15—divorcee. American. Thirty years experience as an actress in Motion Pictures. Mobile still and more affable than rumor would have it. Wants steady employment in Hollywood. (Has had Broadway).\" Davis said that she intended it as a joke, and she sustained her comeback over the course of several years. Dead Ringer (1964) was a crime drama in which she played twin sisters. The film was based in a plot previously filmed in Mexico by Dolores del Rio\". Where Love Has Gone (1964) was a romantic drama based on a Harold Robbins novel. Davis played the mother of Susan Hayward but filming was hampered by heated arguments between Davis and Hayward. Hush… Hush, Sweet Charlotte (1964) was Robert Aldrich's follow-up to What Ever Happened to Baby Jane?, in which he planned to reunite Davis and Crawford, but when Crawford withdrew allegedly due to illness soon after filming began, she was replaced by Olivia de Havilland. The film was a considerable success and brought renewed attention to its veteran cast, which also included Joseph Cotten, Mary Astor and Agnes Moorehead. The following year, Davis was cast as the lead in an Aaron Spelling sitcom, The Decorator. A pilot episode was filmed, but was not shown, and the project was terminated. By the end of the decade, Davis had appeared in the British films The Nanny (1965), The Anniversary (1968), and Connecting Rooms (1970), but her career again stalled.\n\nLater career (1971–1983)\n\nIn the early 1970s, Davis was invited to appear in New York, in a stage presentation, Great Ladies of the American Cinema. Over five successive nights, a different female star discussed her career and answered questions from the audience; Myrna Loy, Rosalind Russell, Lana Turner, Sylvia Sidney, and Joan Crawford were the other participants. Davis was well received and was invited to tour Australia with the similarly themed, Bette Davis in Person and on Film, and its success allowed her to take the production to the United Kingdom. \n\nIn 1972 she played the lead role in two television films that were each intended as pilots for upcoming series for NBC, Madame Sin with Robert Wagner, and The Judge and Jake Wyler, with Joan Van Ark, but in each case, NBC decided against producing a series. She appeared in the stage production, Miss Moffat, a musical adaptation of her film The Corn is Green, but after the show was panned by the Philadelphia critics during its pre-Broadway run, she cited a back injury and abandoned the show, which closed immediately. She played supporting roles in Burnt Offerings (1976), and The Disappearance of Aimee (1976), but clashed with Karen Black and Faye Dunaway, the stars of the two respective productions, because she felt that neither extended her an appropriate degree of respect, and that their behavior on the film sets was unprofessional. \n\nIn 1977 Davis became the first woman to receive the American Film Institute's Lifetime Achievement Award. The televised event included comments from several of Davis's colleagues including William Wyler who joked that given the chance Davis would still like to refilm a scene from The Letter to which Davis nodded. Jane Fonda, Henry Fonda, Natalie Wood and Olivia de Havilland were among the performers who paid tribute, with de Havilland commenting that Davis \"got the roles I always wanted\". Following the telecast she found herself in demand again, often having to choose between several offers. She accepted roles in the television miniseries The Dark Secret of Harvest Home (1978) and the theatrical film Death on the Nile (1978), an Agatha Christie murder mystery. The bulk of her remaining work was for television. She won an Emmy Award for Strangers: The Story of a Mother and Daughter (1979) with Gena Rowlands, and was nominated for her performances in White Mama (1980) and Little Gloria... Happy at Last (1982). She also played supporting roles in two Disney films, Return from Witch Mountain (1978) and The Watcher in the Woods (1980).\n\nDavis' name became well-known to a younger audience when Kim Carnes' song \"Bette Davis Eyes\" (written by Jackie DeShannon) became a worldwide hit and the best-selling record of 1981 in the U.S., where it stayed at number one on the music charts for more than two months. Davis's grandson was impressed that she was the subject of a hit song and Davis considered it a compliment, writing to both Carnes and the songwriters, and accepting the gift of gold and platinum records from Carnes, and hanging them on her wall. She continued acting for television, appearing in Family Reunion (1981) opposite her grandson J. Ashley Hyman, A Piano for Mrs. Cimino (1982) and Right of Way (1983) with James Stewart. In 1983, she was awarded the Women in Film Crystal Award.\n\nIllness, conflict and death (1983–1989)\n\nIn 1983, after filming the pilot episode for the television series Hotel, Davis was diagnosed with breast cancer and underwent a mastectomy. Within two weeks of her surgery she suffered four strokes which caused paralysis in the left side of her face and in her left arm, and left her with slurred speech. She commenced a lengthy period of physical therapy and, aided by her personal assistant, Kathryn Sermak, gained partial recovery from the paralysis. Even late in life, Bette smoked 100 cigarettes a day. \n\nDuring this time, her relationship with her daughter, B. D. Hyman, deteriorated when Hyman became a born-again Christian and attempted to persuade Davis to follow suit. With her health stable, she traveled to England to film the Agatha Christie mystery Murder with Mirrors (1985). Upon her return, she learned that Hyman had published a memoir, My Mother's Keeper, in which she chronicled a difficult mother-daughter relationship and depicted scenes of Davis' overbearing and drunken behavior. Several of Davis' friends commented that Hyman's depictions of events were not accurate; one said, \"so much of the book is out of context.\" Mike Wallace rebroadcast a 60 Minutes interview he had filmed with Hyman a few years earlier in which she commended Davis on her skills as a mother, and said that she had adopted many of Davis' principles in raising her own children. Critics of Hyman noted that Davis had financially supported the Hyman family for several years and had recently saved them from losing their house. Despite the acrimony of their divorce years earlier, Gary Merrill also defended Davis. Interviewed by CNN, Merrill said that Hyman was motivated by \"cruelty and greed.\" Davis' adopted son, Michael Merrill, ended contact with Hyman and refused to speak to her again, as did Davis, who also disinherited her. \n\nIn her second memoir, This 'N That (1987), Davis wrote, \"I am still recovering from the fact that a child of mine would write about me behind my back, to say nothing about the kind of book it is. I will never recover as completely from B.D.'s book as I have from the stroke. Both were shattering experiences.\" Her memoir concluded with a letter to her daughter, in which she addressed her several times as \"Hyman,\" and described her actions as \"a glaring lack of loyalty and thanks for the very privileged life I feel you have been given\". She concluded with a reference to the title of Hyman's book, \"If it refers to money, if my memory serves me right, I've been your keeper all these many years. I am continuing to do so, as my name has made your book about me a success.\" \n\nDavis appeared in the television film As Summers Die (1986) and Lindsay Anderson's film The Whales of August (1987), in which she played the blind sister of Lillian Gish. Though in poor health at the time, Davis memorized her own and everyone else's lines as she always had. The film earned good reviews, with one critic writing, \"Bette crawls across the screen like a testy old hornet on a windowpane, snarling, staggering, twitching—a symphony of misfired synapses.\" Her last performance was the title role in Larry Cohen's Wicked Stepmother (1989). By this time her health was failing, and after disagreements with Cohen she walked off the set. The script was rewritten to place more emphasis on Barbara Carrera's character, and the reworked version was released after Davis' death.\n\nAfter abandoning Wicked Stepmother and with no further film offers (though she was keen to play the centenarian in Craig Calman's The Turn Of The Century and worked with him on adapting the stage play to a feature-length screenplay), Davis appeared on several talk shows and was interviewed by Johnny Carson, Joan Rivers, Larry King and David Letterman, discussing her career but refusing to discuss her daughter. Her appearances were popular; Lindsay Anderson observed that the public enjoyed seeing her behaving \"so bitchy.\" He commented, \"I always disliked that because she was encouraged to behave badly. And I'd always hear her described by that awful word, feisty.\" \n\nDuring 1988 and 1989, Davis was fêted for her career achievements, receiving the Kennedy Center Honor, the Legion of Honor from France, the Campione d'Italia from Italy and the Film Society of Lincoln Center Lifetime Achievement Award. She appeared on British television in a special broadcast from the South Bank Centre, discussing film and her career, the other guest being the renowned Russian director, Andrei Tarkovsky. She collapsed during the American Cinema Awards in 1989 and later discovered that her cancer had returned. She recovered sufficiently to travel to Spain where she was honored at the Donostia-San Sebastián International Film Festival, but during her visit her health rapidly deteriorated. Too weak to make the long journey back to the U.S., she traveled to France where she died on October 6, 1989, at 11:20 pm, at the American Hospital in Neuilly-sur-Seine. Davis was 81 years old. She was interred in Forest Lawn—Hollywood Hills Cemetery in Los Angeles, alongside her mother, Ruthie, and sister, Bobby, with her name in larger type size. On her tombstone is written: \"She did it the hard way,\" an epitaph that she mentioned in her memoir Mother Goddam as having been suggested to her by Joseph L. Mankiewicz shortly after they had filmed All About Eve. \n\nReception and legacy\n\nAs early as 1936, Graham Greene summed Davis up: \"Even the most inconsiderable film ... seemed temporarily better than they were because of that precise, nervy voice, the pale ash-blond hair, the popping, neurotic eyes, a kind of corrupt and phosphorescent prettiness .... I would rather watch Miss Davis than any number of competent pictures.\"\n\nIn 1964 Jack Warner spoke of the \"magic quality that transformed this sometimes bland and not beautiful little girl into a great artist,\" and in a 1988 interview, Davis remarked that, unlike many of her contemporaries, she had forged a career without the benefit of beauty. She admitted she was terrified during the making of her earliest films and that she became tough by necessity. \"Until you're known in my profession as a monster, you are not a star,\" she said, \"[but] I've never fought for anything in a treacherous way. I've never fought for anything but the good of the film.\" During the making of All About Eve, (1950) Joseph L. Mankiewicz told her of the perception in Hollywood that she was difficult, and she explained that when the audience saw her on screen, they did not consider that her appearance was the result of numerous people working behind the scenes. If she was presented as \"a horse's ass ... forty feet wide, and thirty feet high,\" that is all the audience \"would see or care about.\" \n\nWhile lauded for her achievements, Davis and her films were sometimes derided; Pauline Kael described Now, Voyager (1942) as a \"shlock classic,\" and by the mid-1940s her sometimes mannered and histrionic performances had become the subject of caricature. Edwin Schallert for the Los Angeles Times praised Davis's performance in Mr. Skeffington (1944), while observing, \"the mimics will have more fun than a box of monkeys imitating Miss Davis,\" and Dorothy Manners at the Los Angeles Examiner said of her performance in the poorly received Beyond the Forest (1949), \"no night club caricaturist has ever turned in such a cruel imitation of the Davis mannerisms as Bette turns on herself in this one.\" Time magazine noted that Davis was compulsively watchable even while criticizing her acting technique, summarizing her performance in Dead Ringer (1964) with the observation, \"her acting, as always, isn't really acting: it's shameless showing off. But just try to look away!\" \n\nShe attracted a following in the gay subculture and was frequently imitated by female impersonators such as Tracey Lee and Charles Pierce. Attempting to explain her popularity with gay audiences, the journalist Jim Emerson wrote, \"Was she just a camp figurehead because her brittle, melodramatic style of acting hadn't aged well? Or was it that she was 'Larger Than Life,' a tough broad who had survived? Probably some of both.\"\n\nDavis's film choices were often unconventional; she sought roles as manipulators and killers in an era when actresses usually preferred to play sympathetic characters, and she excelled in them. She favored authenticity over glamour and was willing to change her own appearance if it suited the character. Claudette Colbert commented that Davis was the first actress to play roles older than herself, and therefore did not have to make the difficult transition to character parts as she aged.\n\nAs she entered old age, Davis was acknowledged for her achievements. John Springer, who had arranged her speaking tours of the early 1970s, wrote that despite the accomplishments of many of her contemporaries, Davis was \"the star of the thirties and into the forties,\" achieving notability for the variety of her characterizations and her ability to assert herself, even when her material was mediocre. Individual performances continued to receive praise; in 1987, Bill Collins analyzed The Letter (1940), and described her performance as \"a brilliant, subtle achievement,\" and wrote, \"Bette Davis makes Leslie Crosbie one of the most extraordinary females in movies.\" In a 2000 review for All About Eve, (1950) Roger Ebert noted, \"Davis was a character, an icon with a grand style, so even her excesses are realistic.\" In 2006, Premiere magazine ranked her portrayal of Margo Channing in the film as fifth on their list of \"100 Greatest Performances of All Time,\" commenting, \"There is something deliciously audacious about her gleeful willingness to play such unattractive emotions as jealousy, bitterness, and neediness.\" While reviewing What Ever Happened to Baby Jane? (1962) in 2008, Ebert asserted that \"no one who has seen the film will ever forget her.\" \n\nA few months before her death in 1989, Davis was one of several actors featured on the cover of Life magazine. In a film retrospective that celebrated the films and stars of 1939, Life concluded that Davis was the most significant actress of her era, and highlighted Dark Victory (1939) as one of the most-important films of the year. Her death made front-page news throughout the world as the \"close of yet another chapter of the Golden Age of Hollywood.\" Angela Lansbury summed up the feeling of those of the Hollywood community who attended her memorial service, commenting after a sample from Davis's films were screened, that they had witnessed \"an extraordinary legacy of acting in the twentieth century by a real master of the craft,\" that should provide \"encouragement and illustration to future generations of aspiring actors.\" \n\nIn 1977 Davis became the first woman to be honored with the AFI Life Achievement Award. In 1999, the American Film Institute published its list of the \"AFI's 100 Years... 100 Stars,\" which was the result of a film-industry poll to determine the \"50 Greatest American Screen Legends\" in order to raise public awareness and appreciation of classic film. Of the 25 actresses listed, Davis was ranked at number two, behind Katharine Hepburn. \n\nThe United States Postal Service honored Davis with a commemorative postage stamp in 2008, marking the 100th anniversary of her birth. The stamp features an image of her in the role of Margo Channing in All About Eve (1950). The First Day of Issue celebration took place September 18, 2008, at Boston University, which houses an extensive Bette Davis archive. Featured speakers included her son Michael Merrill and Lauren Bacall. In 1997 the executors of her estate, Michael Merrill, her son, and Kathryn Sermak, her former assistant, established \"The Bette Davis Foundation\" which awards college scholarships to promising actors and actresses.\n\nAcademy Awards milestones\n\nIn 1962 Bette Davis became the first person to secure ten Academy Award nominations for acting. Since then only four people have equalled or surpassed this figure, Meryl Streep (with nineteen nominations and three wins), Katharine Hepburn (twelve nominations and four wins), Jack Nicholson (twelve nominations and three wins) and Laurence Olivier (ten nominations and one win). \n\nSteven Spielberg purchased Davis's Oscars for Dangerous (1935) and Jezebel (1938) when they were offered for auction for $207,500 and $578,000, respectively, and returned them to the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. \n* 1934: Davis's performance in Of Human Bondage (1934) was widely acclaimed and when she was not nominated for an Academy Award, several influential people mounted a campaign to have her name included. The Academy relaxed its rules for that year (and the following year also) to allow for the consideration of any performer nominated in a write-in vote; therefore, any performance of the year was technically eligible for consideration. Given the well-publicized hoopla, some sources still consider this as a nomination for Davis; however, the Academy does not officially record this as a nomination.\n\nSelected filmography" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Ruth (crater)", "Ruth", "Ruth (disambiguation)", "Ruthian", "Ruthie" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "ruth crater", "ruth", "ruth disambiguation", "ruthian", "ruthie" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "ruth", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Ruth" }
In which sport did Hollywood star Sonja Henie win Olympic Gold?	tc_639	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Sonja_Henie.txt" ], "title": [ "Sonja Henie" ], "wiki_context": [ "Sonja Henie (8 April 1912 – 12 October 1969) was a Norwegian figure skater and film star. She was a three-time Olympic Champion (1928, 1932, 1936) in Ladies' Singles, a ten-time World Champion (1927–1936) and a six-time European Champion (1931–1936). Henie won more Olympic and World titles than any other ladies' figure skater. At the height of her acting career she was one of the highest paid stars in Hollywood. \n\nBiography\n\nEarly life\n\nHenie was born in Kristiania, current Oslo, the only daughter of Wilhelm Henie (1872–1937), a prosperous Norwegian furrier, and his wife Selma Lochmann-Nielsen (1888–1961). In addition to the income from the fur business, both of Henie's parents had inherited wealth. Wilhelm Henie had been a one-time World Cycling Champion and the Henie children were encouraged to take up a variety of sports at a young age. Henie initially showed talent at skiing, and then followed her older brother Leif to take up figure skating. As a girl, Henie was also a nationally ranked tennis player and a skilled swimmer and equestrienne. Once Henie began serious training as a figure skater, her formal schooling ended. She was educated by tutors, and her father hired the best experts in the world, including the famous Russian ballerina Tamara Karsavina, to transform his daughter into a sporting celebrity. \n\nCompetitive career\n\nHenie won her first major competition, the senior Norwegian championships, at the age of 10. She then placed eighth in a field of eight at the 1924 Winter Olympics, at the age of eleven.[http://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/he/sonja-henie-1.html Sonja Heni]. sports-reference.com During the 1924 program, she skated over to the side of the rink several times to ask her coach for directions, but by the next Olympiad, she needed no such assistance.\n\nHenie won the first of an unprecedented ten consecutive World Figure Skating Championships in 1927 at the age of fourteen. The results of 1927 World Championships, where Henie won in 3–2 decision (or 7 vs. 8 ordinal points) over the defending Olympic and World Champion Herma Szabo of Austria, was controversial, as three of the five judges that gave Henie first-place ordinals were Norwegian (1 + 1 + 1 + 2 + 2 7 points) while Szabo received first-place ordinals from an Austrian and a German Judge (1 + 1 + 2 + 2 + 2 \n 8 points). Henie went on to win first of her three Olympic gold medals the following year. She defended her Olympic titles in 1932 and in 1936, and her world titles annually until 1936. She also won six consecutive European championships from 1931 to 1936. Henie's unprecedented three Olympic gold medals haven't been matched by any ladies' single skater since; neither are her achievements as ten-time consecutive World Champion. While Irina Slutskaya of Russia won her seventh European Championship in 2006 to become the most successful ladies' skater in European Championships, Henie retains record of most consecutive titles, sharing it with Katarina Witt of Eastern Germany/Germany (1983–1988).\n\nTowards the end of her career, she began to be strongly challenged by younger skaters including Cecilia Colledge, Megan Taylor and Hedy Stenuf. However, she held off these competitors and went on to win her third Olympic title at the 1936 Winter Olympics, albeit in very controversial circumstances with Cecilia Colledge finishing a very close second. Indeed, after the school figures section at the 1936 Olympic competition, Colledge and Henie were virtually neck and neck with Colledge trailing by just a few points. As Sandra Stevenson recounted in her article in The Independent of 21 April 2008, \"the closeness [of the competition] infuriated Henie, who, when the result for that section was posted on a wall in the competitors' lounge, swiped the piece of paper and tore it into little pieces. The draw for the free skating [then] came under suspicion after Henie landed the plum position of skating last, while Colledge had to perform second of the 26 competitors. The early start was seen as a disadvantage, with the audience not yet whipped into a clapping frenzy and the judges known to become freer with their higher marks as the event proceeded. Years later, a fairer, staggered draw was adopted to counteract this situation\".\n\nDuring her competitive career, Henie traveled widely and worked with a variety of foreign coaches. At home in Oslo, she trained at Frogner Stadium, where her coaches included Hjørdis Olsen and Oscar Holte. During the latter part of her competitive career she was coached primarily by the American Howard Nicholson in London. In addition to traveling to train and compete, she was much in demand as a performer at figure skating exhibitions in both Europe and North America. Henie became so popular with the public that police had to be called out for crowd control on her appearances in various disparate cities such as Prague and New York City. It was an open secret that, in spite of the strict amateurism requirements of the time, Wilhelm Henie demanded \"expense money\" for his daughter's skating appearances. Both of Henie's parents had given up their own pursuits in Norway—leaving Leif to run the fur business—in order to accompany Sonja on her travels and act as her managers.\n\nHenie is credited with being the first figure skater to adopt the short skirt costume in figure skating, wear white boots, and make use of dance choreography. Her innovative skating techniques and glamorous demeanor transformed the sport permanently and confirmed its acceptance as a legitimate sport in the Winter Olympics. \n\nProfessional and film career\n\nAfter the 1936 World Figure Skating Championships, Henie gave up her amateur status and took up a career as a professional performer in acting and live shows. While still a girl, Henie had decided that she wanted to move to Hollywood and become a movie star when her competitive days were over, without considering that her thick accent might hinder her acting ambitions.\n\nIn 1936, following a successful ice show in Los Angeles orchestrated by her father to launch her film career, Hollywood studio chief Darryl Zanuck signed her to a long term contract at Twentieth Century Fox, which made her one of the highest-paid actresses of the time. After the success of her first film, One in a Million, Henie's position was assured and she became increasingly demanding in her business dealings with Zanuck. Henie also insisted on having total control of the skating numbers in her films such as Second Fiddle (1939).\n\nIn addition to her film career at Fox, Henie formed a business arrangement with Arthur Wirtz, who produced her touring ice shows under the name of \"Hollywood Ice Revue\". Wirtz also acted as Henie's financial advisor. At the time, figure skating and ice shows were not yet an established form of entertainment in the United States. Henie's popularity as a film actress attracted many new fans and instituted skating shows as a popular new entertainment. Throughout the 1940s, Henie and Wirtz produced lavish musical ice skating extravaganzas at Rockefeller Center's Center Theatre attracting millions of ticket buyers.\n\nAt the height of her fame, her shows and touring activities brought Henie as much as $2 million per year. She also had numerous lucrative endorsement contracts, and deals to market skates, clothing, jewelry, dolls, and other merchandise branded with her name. These activities made her one of the wealthiest women in the world in her time.\n\nHenie broke off her arrangement with Wirtz in 1950 and for the next three seasons produced her own tours under the name \"Sonja Henie Ice Revue\". It was an ill-advised decision to set herself up in competition with Wirtz, whose shows now featured the new Olympic champion Barbara Ann Scott. Since Wirtz controlled the best arenas and dates, Henie was left playing smaller venues and markets already saturated by other touring ice shows such as Ice Capades. The collapse of a section of bleachers during a show in Baltimore, Maryland in 1952 compounded the tour's legal and financial woes.\n\nIn 1953 Henie formed a new partnership with Morris Chalfen to appear in his European Holiday On Ice tour. This was a great success. She produced her own show at New York's Roxy Theatre in January 1956. However, a subsequent South American tour in 1956 was a disaster. Henie was drinking heavily at that time and could no longer keep up with the demands of touring, and this marked her retirement from skating.\n\nIn 1938, she published her autobiography Mitt livs eventyr, which was translated and released as Wings on My Feet in 1940, which was republished in a revised edition in 1954. At the time of her death, Henie was planning a comeback for a television special that would have aired in January 1970.\n\nNazi controversy\n\nHenie's connections with Adolf Hitler and other high-ranking Nazi officials made her the subject of controversy before, during, and after World War II. During her amateur skating career, she performed often in Germany and was a favorite of German audiences and of Hitler personally. As a wealthy celebrity, she moved in the same social circles as royalty and heads of state and made Hitler's acquaintance as a matter of course.\n\nControversy appeared first when Henie greeted Hitler with a Nazi salute during an exhibition in Berlin some time before the 1936 Winter Olympics; she was strongly denounced by the Norwegian press. She did not repeat the salute at the Olympics in Garmisch-Partenkirchen, but after the Games she accepted an invitation to lunch with Hitler at his resort home in nearby Berchtesgaden, where Hitler presented Henie with an autographed photo with a lengthy inscription. After beginning her film career, Henie kept up her Nazi connections, for example personally arranging with Joseph Goebbels for the release of her first film, One in a Million, in Germany.\n\nDuring the occupation of Norway by Nazi Germany, German troops saw Hitler's autographed photo prominently displayed at the piano in the Henie family home in Landøya, Asker. As a result, none of Henie's properties in Norway were confiscated or damaged by the Germans. Henie became a naturalized citizen of the United States in 1941. Like many Hollywood stars, she supported the U.S. war effort through USO and similar activities, but she was careful to avoid supporting the Norwegian resistance movement, or making public statements against the Nazis. For this, she was condemned by many Norwegians and Norwegian-Americans. After the war, Henie was mindful that many of her countrymen considered her to be a quisling. However, she made a triumphant return to Norway with the Holiday on Ice tour in 1953 and 1955.\n\nPersonal life\n\nHenie was married three times, to Dan Topping (1940-1946), Winthrop Gardiner Jr. (1949-1956), and the Norwegian shipping magnate and art patron Niels Onstad (1956-1969) (her death). After her retirement in 1956, Henie and Onstad settled in Oslo and accumulated a large collection of modern art that formed the basis for the Henie Onstad Kunstsenter at Høvikodden in Bærum near Oslo.\n\nIn addition to her marriages, Henie had a variety of love interests, including her skating partners Jack Dunn and Stewart Reburn, celebrated boxing legend Joe Louis, a much-publicized affair with Tyrone Power, and a later romance with actor Van Johnson and a very high profile relationship with Liberace.\n\nDeath\n\nHenie was diagnosed with leukemia in the mid-1960s. She died of the disease at age 57 in 1969 during a flight from Paris to Oslo. Generally regarded as one of the greatest figure skaters in history, she is buried with Onstad in Oslo on the hilltop overlooking the Henie-Onstad Art Centre.\n\nResults\n\nLadies singles\n\nPairs\n\n(with Arne Lie)\n\nAwards\n\n* Inducted into the World Figure Skating Hall of Fame (1976). \n* Inducted into the International Women's Sports Hall of Fame (1982). \n* She has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.\n* In 1938, at age 25, she became the youngest person made a knight first class of The Royal Norwegian Order of St. Olav.\n\nFilmography\n\nOther appearances\n\n* Sonja Henie's picture previously adorned a tail of a Boeing 737-300 of the airline Norwegian Air Shuttle. As the Boeing 737–300 was being phased out, her picture was placed on the tail of a Boeing 737-800 of the same airline and in 2013 to the tail of Norwegian Air Shuttle's first Boeing 787 Dreamliner. One of that airline's trademarks is having portraits of famous deceased Norwegians on the tails of its aircraft. \n* In 2012, the Posten Norge (Norwegian postal service) made two stamps featuring Sonja Henie." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Ice skater", "Iceskating", "Ice Skating", "Ice skating", "Ice skateing", "Ice-skating" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "ice skating", "ice skateing", "iceskating", "ice skater" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "ice skating", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Ice Skating" }
Who won Super Bowl XXV?	tc_643	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "Search" ], "filename": [ "Super_Bowl_XXV.txt", "Super_Bowl_XXVI.txt" ], "title": [ "Super Bowl XXV", "Super Bowl XXVI" ], "wiki_context": [ "Super Bowl XXV was an American football game between the American Football Conference (AFC) champion Buffalo Bills and the National Football Conference (NFC) champion New York Giants to decide the National Football League (NFL) champion for the 1990 season. The Giants defeated the Bills by the score of 20–19, winning their second Super Bowl. It is the only Super Bowl decided by one point.\n\nThe game was held at Tampa Stadium in Tampa, Florida, on January 27, 1991, during the height of the Gulf War. It was thus played under much patriotic fervor, highlighted by a rousing rendition of \"The Star-Spangled Banner\" by Whitney Houston during the pre-game ceremonies. ABC, who broadcast the game in the U.S., did not show the Super Bowl XXV halftime show (headlined by the American boy band New Kids on the Block) live. Instead, they televised a special ABC News report anchored by Peter Jennings on the progress of the war, and then aired the halftime show on tape delay after the game.\n\nThe Bills and their explosive no-huddle offense were making their first Super Bowl appearance after finishing the regular season with a 13–3 record, and leading the league in total points scored with 428. In advancing to their second Super Bowl, the Giants also posted a 13–3 regular season record, but with a ball-control offense and a defense that allowed a league-low 211 points.\n\nThe game is best remembered for Bills placekicker Scott Norwood's last-second field goal attempt which went wide right of the uprights, leading to a Giants victory, and starting a four-game losing streak in the Super Bowl for the Bills. The Giants set a Super Bowl record holding possession of the ball for 40 minutes and 33 seconds. New York also overcame a 12–3 second-quarter deficit, and made a 75-yard touchdown drive that consumed a Super Bowl-record 9:29 off the clock. Giants running back Ottis Anderson, who carried the ball 21 times for 102 yards and one touchdown, was named Super Bowl MVP. He was the first awardee to receive the newly named \"Pete Rozelle Trophy\" (named for the former commissioner). Anderson also recorded one reception for seven yards. This is the first Super Bowl to feature two teams representing the same state. It was also the first Super Bowl in which neither team committed a turnover.\n\nBackground\n\nNFL owners voted to award Super Bowl XXV to Tampa during a May 20, 1987 meeting held at Coronado, California. This was the second time that Tampa hosted the game; the city previously hosted Super Bowl XVIII on January 22, 1984.\n\nThe Bills and the Giants entered the game using contrasting styles: While the Bills led the league in total points scored (428), the Giants led the league in fewest points allowed (211).\n\nThe teams had met earlier in the season as well. On December 15, in another nationally-televised game, the Bills completed a season sweep at Giants Stadium, beating the Giants 17–13, a game which was close, but would prove to be not as close as this one.\n\nNew York Giants\n\nThe 1990 New York Giants were built to head coach Bill Parcells' specifications of \"power football\": a powerful defense and an offense that sustained extremely long drives. The Giants' defense ranked second in the league in fewest total yards allowed (4,392) and first in fewest points allowed, and boasted three Pro Bowl selections: defensive tackle Erik Howard, and linebackers Pepper Johnson and Lawrence Taylor. The secondary was led by defensive back Everson Walls, an offseason acquisition from the Dallas Cowboys, who recorded 6 interceptions, and safety Greg Jackson, who recorded 5 interceptions and 4 sacks. The Giants' offense was unspectacular, ranking just 17th in the league in yards gained and 13th in points scored. But they wore down opposing teams' defenses with extremely long drives, thus keeping their opponents' offense on the sidelines and preventing them from scoring. More importantly, the Giants set an NFL record by losing only 14 turnovers in a 16-game regular season. A big reason for the team's offensive success was the blocking of linemen Bart Oates and William Roberts, the only Pro Bowlers on the offense. Kick returner Dave Meggett led the NFL in punt return yards (467), while also gaining 492 yards on kickoff returns, rushing for 164 yards, and catching 39 passes for 410 yards.\n\nNew York began the regular season by winning their first 10 games, and then went into a tailspin and lost three of their next four. One week after losing to the division rival Philadelphia Eagles, 31–13, the 10–1 Giants were defeated on Monday Night Football in a 7–3 defensive battle with the 10–1 San Francisco 49ers, who had won the previous two Super Bowls and ultimately finished the regular season with an NFL best 14–2 record. Then, in their 17–13 loss to the Bills, New York suffered a major setback when starting quarterback Phil Simms went down for the season with a broken bone in his foot.\n\nSimms' replacement, Jeff Hostetler, had started only two games in his seven years as a backup with the Giants. However, Hostetler displayed fine passing and scrambling ability in his limited playing time during the season, and threw only one interception and committed no fumbles. With Hostetler at the helm, the Giants responded by winning their final two games to finish the regular season 13–3, good enough to win the NFC East and earn the second seed in the NFC playoffs.\n\nBuffalo Bills\n\nThe Bills had a very talented team with nine Pro Bowl selections on their roster. Their defense was led by defensive end Bruce Smith, who recorded 19 sacks and won the NFL Defensive Player of the Year Award. Behind him, three of the Bills' starting linebackers, Darryl Talley, Shane Conlan, and Cornelius Bennett, were selected to the Pro Bowl. And on special teams, Pro Bowler Steve Tasker was a major threat, forcing fumbles, delivering jarring tackles, and blocking kicks.\n\nBut as good as their defense was, it was the Bills' flashy, high-powered offense that gained the most attention. Unlike the Giants, the Bills routinely used the no-huddle offense to storm down the field and score points very quickly. Instead of going into a huddle after each play, quarterback Jim Kelly would immediately send his offense back to the line of scrimmage and call the play there after reading the defense. This strategy prevented opposing defenses from properly reading the Bills' formation, making substitutions, or even catching their breath.\n\nThe Bills' no-huddle K-Gun offense worked well enough for Kelly to finish the regular season as the top rated quarterback in the NFL (101.2), throwing for 2,829 yards, 24 touchdowns, and only 9 interceptions. One reason for his success was that he had two outstanding wide receivers: future Hall of Famer Andre Reed, who made his specialty going across the middle on slants and crossing routes, recorded 71 receptions, 945 yards, and 8 touchdowns, and future Hall of Famer James Lofton, who was the deep threat with 35 receptions for 712 yards (a 20.3 yards per catch average). Tight end Keith McKeller contributed 34 receptions for 464 yards and 5 touchdowns. Pro Bowl running back Thurman Thomas had an AFC-best 1,297 rushing yards, caught 49 passes for 532 yards, and scored 13 touchdowns. Thomas also led the NFL in yards from scrimmage for the second consecutive season. A key to the Bills' prolific offense was the blocking of its superb offensive line, led by All-Pro center Kent Hull and Pro Bowl left tackle Will Wolford.\n\nEven though Kelly missed the last 2 games of the season with a knee injury, suffered in the same game in which the Giants lost Simms, the Bills finished with a 13–3 regular season record.\n\nPlayoffs\n\nThe Giants began their championship postseason run by easily eliminating the Chicago Bears, 31–3. In leading the Giants' \"power football\" offense, Hostetler threw only 17 passes, but two went for touchdowns and he threw no interceptions. He also directed a rushing attack that gained 194 yards, including 43 (and a touchdown) from Hostetler himself. This game offered a preview of what lay in store for Super Bowl XXV, as the Giants scored on drives of 75, 80, 49 and 51 yards, which lasted nine, 11, 11 and 16 plays. Overall, New York held the ball for 38:22, compared to Chicago's 21:38. But New York lost another key player for the season when rookie running back Rodney Hampton, the team's second-leading rusher during the regular season with 455 yards, suffered a broken leg.\n\nThe following Sunday, the Giants upset the San Francisco 49ers 15–13 in the NFC Championship Game. The 49ers, an NFL-best 14–2 in the regular season and winners of the last two Super Bowls, were 6½-point favorites at kickoff. Their outstanding defense was led by future Hall of Fame defensive back Ronnie Lott and linebacker Charles Haley, who led the NFC in sacks. San Francisco's offense was considered the best in the NFC, led by future Hall of Fame quarterback Joe Montana and wide receiver Jerry Rice. However, with the exception of a 61-yard touchdown pass from Montana to wide receiver John Taylor, the Giants contained the 49ers' offense extremely well. A sack by Giants defensive end Leonard Marshall early in the fourth quarter knocked Montana out of the game. Despite their great defensive effort, the Giants still trailed 13–9 midway through the fourth quarter, but a 30-yard run from linebacker Gary Reasons on a fake punt set up kicker Matt Bahr's fourth field goal, cutting their deficit to 13–12. The 49ers (now led by Steve Young) tried to run out the clock on their ensuing possession, but running back Roger Craig had the ball dislodged by nose tackle Erik Howard, and Lawrence Taylor recovered the fumble in mid-air with 2:36 remaining. Five plays later, Bahr kicked his 5th field goal, a 41-yarder, as time expired to give New York the win.\n\nAs for the Bills, Jim Kelly returned from his injury to lead Buffalo to a 44–34 playoff victory over the Miami Dolphins. The Bills jumped to an early 20–3 lead, but Miami quarterback Dan Marino rallied his team back and cut Buffalo's lead to 30–27 going into the fourth quarter. However, Buffalo scored a touchdown on their first drive of the period with a 5-yard run by Thurman Thomas. Kicker Scott Norwood then recovered a fumble from Miami on the ensuing kickoff, allowing the Bills to put the game away with Kelly's 26-yard touchdown pass to Andre Reed. Kelly finished the game with 336 passing yards, three touchdowns, and 37 rushing yards. Reed was also a big factor, recording 123 receiving yards and a pair of touchdown catches. James Lofton caught 7 passes for 149 yards and a touchdown. Thomas led the Bills' ground attack with 32 carries for 117 rushing yards and 2 touchdowns, while also catching 3 passes for 38 yards.\n\nBuffalo then crushed the Los Angeles Raiders 51–3, the most lopsided score in AFC Championship Game history. The Bills' defense dominated the Raiders' offense, which was without running back Bo Jackson, who suffered a career-ending injury against the Cincinnati Bengals the week before, limiting them to an early field goal and intercepting five passes from quarterback Jay Schroeder. Meanwhile, the Bills' offense racked up 502 yards, piling up yards and points so fast the game was out of reach by the end of the first half. Kelly was 17 of 23 for 300 yards passing, and two touchdowns to Lofton. Thomas had 138 yards rushing, 61 yards receiving, and his backup, Kenneth Davis, tied a playoff record with three touchdowns.\n\nSuper Bowl pregame news\n\nThe Bills were heavily favored to win Super Bowl XXV. Most experts expected that the Giants' defense would not be able to contain the Bills' turbo-charged no-huddle offense, which had scored 95 points in 2 playoff games. Many also questioned how effective the Giants' offense would be after failing to score a single touchdown in the NFC Championship Game. Also, in Week 15 of the regular season, the two teams met at Giants Stadium, where the Bills defeated the Giants 17–13.\n\nFor the first time, each player wore a Super Bowl logo patch on his jersey. This would not become a regular practice in Super Bowls until Super Bowl XXXII. The Super Bowl XXV logo was painted at midfield, and the NFL logo was placed at each of the two 35-yard lines. For the past Super Bowl games since Super Bowl VI, the NFL logo was painted on the 50-yard line.\n\nTelevision and entertainment\n\nThe game was broadcast in the United States by the American Broadcasting Company (ABC), with play-by-play announcer Al Michaels and color commentators Frank Gifford and Dan Dierdorf. Brent Musburger hosted all the events with the help of then-ABC Sports analysts Bob Griese and Dick Vermeil, Musburger's regular color commentator on ABC's college football telecasts. Also, sponsors Coca-Cola and Diet Pepsi had to withdraw planned contest promotions or advertisements, due to the Gulf War situation. The game was broadcast in the United Kingdom on Channel 4, in Mexico on the Canal de las Estrellas, Canada on CTV and on Venezuela on venevision. Because of the Gulf War situation, this marked the first time the Super Bowl would be telecast in most countries around the world. Outside of North America and England, this Super Bowl was broadcast for the first time in countries such as Australia and Russia.\n\nIn the teams' local markets, the game was also broadcast by the local ABC stations in the New York City and Buffalo markets (WABC-TV 7 in New York City and WKBW-TV 7 in Buffalo).\n\nPregame ceremonies\n\nWhitney Houston performed \"The Star-Spangled Banner\" for Super Bowl XXV, backed by The Florida Orchestra under the direction of Maestro Jahja Ling. With America involved in the Gulf War, the positive response to the rousing performance was overwhelming, and it was released as a single and a video. It reached number 20 on the Billboard Hot 100 – making her the only act to turn the national anthem into a pop hit of that magnitude. \n\nHouston's rendition was critically acclaimed and largely regarded as one of the best renditions of the U.S. national anthem in history. The track was included on the album Whitney: The Greatest Hits. Following 9/11, the single was re-released by Arista Records, peaking at number 6 on the Hot 100 and was certified platinum by the RIAA. \n\nFormer NFL commissioner Pete Rozelle joined the coin toss ceremony.\n\nHalftime show\n\nThe halftime show was titled \"A Small World Salute to 25 Years of the Super Bowl\". It was produced by Disney and featured over 3,500 local children from different ethnic backgrounds and a performance by boy band New Kids on the Block, with special guest Warren Moon.\n\nABC did not broadcast the halftime show live. Instead, they televised a special ABC News report anchored by Peter Jennings on the progress of the Gulf War. The halftime show was later shown on tape delay after the game at around 10:40 EST, although most ABC affiliates ran the first episode of Davis Rules following the Super Bowl, and may have televised the remaining parts of the halftime show later.\n\nRadio\n\nNationally, the game was carried over CBS. Jack Buck served as play-by-play with Hank Stram his color commentator. In the teams' local markets, the game was carried on WNEW-AM in New York City, New York with Jim Gordon, Dick Lynch and Karl Nelson and WGR in Buffalo, New York with Van Miller, Ed Rutkowski and Pete Weber.\n\nGame summary\n\nTo counteract the Bills' no-huddle offense, the Giants' used a tough-nosed, conservative plan on both sides of the ball. On offense, the plan was to use a power running game utilizing O.J. Anderson, aided by quarterback rollouts, bootlegs, and play-action fakes. As tight end Mark Bavaro later recalled, \"we came out with three tight ends, fat slobs picking you up and moving you and letting you tackle O.J., if you could.\" This enabled them to take time off the clock and limit Buffalo's possessions. The Giants set a Super Bowl record for time of possession with 40 minutes and 33 seconds, including 22 minutes in the second half.\n\nOn defense, New York wanted to be physical with Buffalo's wideouts, and play with extra defensive backs to concentrate on stopping the Bills' passing game, while shifting focus away from trying to stop Buffalo's running game. In his book \"The Education of a Coach\", David Halberstam wrote that one of defensive coordinator Bill Belichick's specific plans to combat the Bills involved convincing his defense (who had been the best unit against the run in the NFL that season) that they would win the game if Thurman Thomas ran for more than 100 yards. Belichick also felt that Jim Kelly was not as good at reading defenses as some other elite quarterbacks were (for example, Joe Montana), and that Kelly tended to \"freeze\" what he was seeing from a series and then use that information on the next one, which meant the Giants could be a step ahead of him all game if they alternated their cover plans from drive to drive.\n\nThe contrast in strategies was evident during the 1st quarter. After forcing the Bills to punt on the opening drive of the game, the Giants consumed 6:15 off the clock by marching 58 yards in 10 plays to score on a 28-yard field goal from Matt Bahr. In that drive, New York ran five rushing plays and five passing plays. But the Bills struck right back on their ensuing possession with a five-play, 66-yard drive that took 1:23 off the clock, including a tipped 61-yard completion from Kelly to receiver James Lofton that set up Scott Norwood's 23-yard field goal to tie the game at 3–3.\n\nAfter forcing the Giants to punt on their ensuing possession, the Bills' offensive strategy started to work to perfection. Kelly led the Bills on a 12-play, 80-yard scoring drive that consumed 4:27 and moved the ball so effectively that the team never faced a third down. Kelly completed six consecutive passes (four to Andre Reed) for 62 yards, and running back Don Smith capped it off with a 1-yard touchdown run to give Buffalo a 10–3 lead early in the 2nd quarter. Smith's touchdown run was his only carry of the game and the last carry of his career. Reed's 5 1st-quarter receptions were a Super Bowl record.\n\nAfter trading punts, the Giants were pinned at their own 7-yard line. On second down, defensive end Bruce Smith sacked quarterback Jeff Hostetler in the end zone for a safety, increasing the Bills' lead to 12–3. On the play, Smith had a chance to force a fumble, since Hostetler was holding the football with only his throwing hand. But to his credit, Hostetler held the ball away from Smith, helping to ensure that only two points would be surrendered.\n\nLater on, the Giants got the ball at their own 13-yard line with 3:43 left in the 2nd quarter. New York abandoned their long-drive strategy and employed a quick-strike attack of their own. It worked, as Hostetler led the Giants 87 yards and scored on a 14-yard touchdown pass to wide receiver Stephen Baker with just 25 seconds left in the half to cut New York's deficit to 12–10.\n\nThe Giants opened the 3rd quarter and resumed their original game strategy by driving 75 yards in 14 plays to score on Ottis Anderson's 1-yard touchdown run, giving the Giants a 17-12 lead. The drive consumed a then-Super Bowl record 9:29 (since surpassed by the Giants in Super Bowl XLII), and included four successful third down conversions. The highlight was a 14-yard pass to wide receiver Mark Ingram on 3rd down and 13 yards to go. Ingram caught a short pass and broke five Buffalo tackles to get the first down and keep the drive alive.\n\nAfter forcing Buffalo to punt on its ensuing possession, New York drove to the Bills' 35-yard line. But on fourth and two, Smith tackled Anderson for a 2-yard loss. Buffalo then took over and stormed down the field, advancing 63 yards in just four plays and scoring on a 31-yard burst from running back Thurman Thomas on the first play of the 4th quarter, regaining the lead for Buffalo at 19–17. Thomas' touchdown run marked 1,000 points scored in Super Bowl history (1,001 with the extra point).\n\nHowever, before the Bills' defenders had a chance to catch their breath, they found themselves back on the field trying to contain another long Giants drive. This one went for 14 plays and 74 yards, half of which came off passes from Hostetler to tight end Mark Bavaro, and took another 7:32 off the clock. The Bills managed to halt the drive at their own 3-yard line when linebacker Cornelius Bennett broke up Hostetler's third down pass, but Bahr kicked his second field goal to give New York a 20–19 lead. On the Bills' ensuing possession, they could only advance to their own 41-yard line before having to punt, enabling the Giants to take more time off the clock. The Bills finally forced New York to punt and took the ball at their own 10-yard line with 2:16 remaining.\n\nOn the Bills' final possession, Kelly led the team down the field with a mix of scrambles, short passes, and Thomas runs, of which the last was for a healthy, and very critical, seven yards, managing to get the Bills to the Giants 29-yard line, just within field goal range with eight seconds to play. Norwood attempted a 47-yard game-winning field goal. Norwood's kick sailed wide right, less than a yard outside of the goalpost upright. To this day, this is the only potential Super Bowl winning field goal attempt in which the kicker's team would lose if the kick were missed. After Norwood's miss, the Giants ran out the clock.\n\nThere were many impressive performances in the game by players from both teams. Jim Kelly completed 18 of 30 passes for 212 yards with no interceptions, while adding another 23 yards on six rushing attempts. Jeff Hostetler completed 20 of 32 passes for 222 yards and a touchdown, and rushed for 10 yards. Dave Meggett recorded 129 combined net yards (48 rushing, 18 receiving, 37 on punt returns, 26 on kickoff returns). But the best performances came from both teams' starting running backs. Ottis Anderson rushed for 102 yards, caught a pass for seven yards, and scored a touchdown. Thurman Thomas scored a touchdown, rushed for 135 yards, and caught five passes for 55 yards, giving him 190 total yards from scrimmage. Thomas' 135 yards are the most yards rushing for a member of a losing team. This was also only the second Super Bowl to have two 100-yard rushers. \n\nThe defensive game plan for the Giants, written by defensive coordinator Bill Belichick, has been included in the Pro Football Hall of Fame. The Giants' triumph helped Belichick and wide receivers coach Tom Coughlin make their names and eventually land head-coaching jobs with the Cleveland Browns and Boston College, respectively. Currently, Belichick is head coach of the New England Patriots, while Coughlin went from Boston College to be the first-ever head coach for the Jacksonville Jaguars, and spent 12 seasons as the head coach of the New York Giants before resigning in 2016. Giants head coach Bill Parcells retired shortly after winning his second Super Bowl with the Giants. However, he went on to coach three other teams since then: the New England Patriots (whom he helped bring to Super Bowl XXXI) from 1993–1996, the New York Jets from 1997–1999, and the Dallas Cowboys from 2003–2006. Both Coughlin and Belichick have gone on to win Super Bowls as head coaches: Belichick with the Patriots in Super Bowls XXXVI, XXXVIII, XXXIX and XLIX; Coughlin with the Giants in Super Bowls XLII and XLVI, coincidentally, both against Belichick's Patriots.\n\nThis was the first Super Bowl in which neither team committed a turnover. The only other Super Bowl to date without a turnover is Super Bowl XXXIV, in which the St. Louis Rams defeated the Tennessee Titans 23–16. Because of Thomas' high production, some sports writers, such as Sports Illustrateds Paul Zimmerman, felt that he should have won the game MVP even though his team lost, just as Chuck Howley had done in Super Bowl V. \n\nBox score\n\nFinal statistics\n\nSource: [http://www.nfl.com/superbowl/history/boxscore/sbxxv NFL.com Super Bowl XXV]\n\nStatistical comparison\n\nIndividual statistics\n\n1Completions/attempts\n2Carries\n3Long gain\n4Receptions\n\nStarting lineups\n\nSource: \n\nOfficials\n\n* Referee: Jerry Seeman #70 second Super Bowl (XXIII); alternate for XIV\n* Umpire: Art Demmas #78 third Super Bowl (XIII, XVII)\n* Head Linesman: Sid Semon #109 first Super Bowl\n* Line Judge: Dick McKenzie #41 first Super Bowl\n* Field Judge: Jack Vaughan #93 second Super Bowl (XX)\n* Side Judge: Larry Nemmers #20 first Super Bowl \n* Back Judge: Banks Williams #99 first Super Bowl\nAlternate Referee: Red Cashion #43 referee for Super Bowl XX\nAlternate Umpire: Al Conway #27 umpire for Super Bowls IX, XIV, XVI\n* This would be Jerry Seeman's final game as an on-field referee; as the following season he would replace longtime Director of Officiating Art McNally upon the latter's retirement.", "Super Bowl XXVI was an American football game between the National Football Conference (NFC) champion Washington Redskins and the American Football Conference (AFC) champion Buffalo Bills to decide the National Football League (NFL) champion for the 1991 season. The Redskins defeated the Bills by the score of 37–24, becoming the fourth team after the Pittsburgh Steelers, the Oakland Raiders, and the San Francisco 49ers to win three Super Bowls. The Bills became the third team, after the Minnesota Vikings (Super Bowls VIII and IX) and the Denver Broncos (Super Bowls XXI and XXII), to lose back-to-back Super Bowls. The game was played on January 26, 1992, at the Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome in Minneapolis, Minnesota, the first time the city has played host to a Super Bowl (the city will host Super Bowl LII at U.S. Bank Stadium).\n\nBoth teams finished the regular season with the best record in their respective conference. The Redskins posted a 14–2 regular season record, and led the league during the regular season with 485 points. Washington head coach Joe Gibbs entered the game seeking his third Super Bowl victory with the team, but with his third starting Super Bowl quarterback, Mark Rypien. The Bills finished the regular season with a 13–3 record and advanced to their second consecutive Super Bowl, largely through the play of quarterback Jim Kelly and their \"K-Gun\" no-huddle offense. However, their defense ranked second to last in the league in total yards allowed.\n\nThe Redskins jumped to a 24–0 lead early in the third quarter, from which the Bills could not recover. Washington also sacked Kelly four times and intercepted him four times. Rypien, who completed 18 of 33 passes for 292 yards and two touchdowns, with one interception, was named Super Bowl MVP.\n\nThe telecast of the game on CBS was seen by an estimated 79.6 million viewers. This was the first time that a major television network successfully scheduled Super Bowl counterprogramming: Fox aired a special live football-themed episode of its popular sketch comedy show In Living Color during the halftime show.\n\nBackground\n\nNFL owners voted to award Super Bowl XXVI to Minneapolis during their May 24, 1989 meeting in New Orleans. Indianapolis, Pontiac and Seattle also made bids for the game. Super Bowl XXVI became the second Super Bowl to be played in a cold, winter climate city. The first one was Super Bowl XVI on January 24, 1982 at the Silverdome in Pontiac, Michigan, a suburb of Detroit.\n\nThe Metrodome also hosted the 1992 NCAA Men's Basketball Final Four, making it the only stadium to host both events in the same calendar year. It also hosted the 1991 World Series as the Minnesota Twins defeated the Atlanta Braves. Minneapolis is the only city and the Metrodome is the only arena to host all three events in a 12-month span (all three of these events aired on CBS, who would go on to purchase their Twin Cities affiliate, WCCO-TV, later in the year). The attendance mark of 63,130 was second lowest only to the first Super Bowl's attendance of 61,946, and the Metrodome was the smallest stadium to ever host the Super Bowl. To date, this is the northernmost Super Bowl ever played.\n\nWashington Redskins\n\nWashington entered Super Bowl XXVI leading the league during the regular season in scoring with 485 points, while allowing the second-fewest points (224). The team was led by Mark Rypien, head coach Joe Gibbs' third different starting Super Bowl quarterback. Rypien led the NFC during the regular season in passing yards (3,564) and touchdown passes (28). With 249 out of 421 completions and only 11 interceptions, he earned the second-highest passer rating in the league (97.9).\n\nRypien had several great targets to whom he could throw. Wide receiver Gary Clark was the main deep threat on the team, catching 70 passes for 1,340 yards and 10 touchdowns. On the other side of the field, wide receiver Art Monk, playing in his 12th NFL season, was just as reliable, catching 71 passes for 1,049 yards and 8 touchdowns. Monk's 71 receptions in 1991 gave him a career total of 801, just 18 behind the all-time record held by Steve Largent. Wide receiver Ricky Sanders was also a big element of the passing game, catching 45 passes for 580 yards and 5 touchdowns.\n\nThe Redskins' primary weapon in the backfield was running back Earnest Byner, who ranked 5th in the NFL with 1,048 rushing yards, while also catching 34 passes for 308 yards and scoring 5 touchdowns. Rookie running back Ricky Ervins was also a major asset to the running attack, rushing 145 times for 680 yards for an average of 4.7 yards per carry, while also catching 16 passes for 181 yards. And when Washington was near the goal line, they usually relied on fullback Gerald Riggs, who rushed for 248 yards and scored 11 touchdowns. The Redskins' offensive line, known as \"The Hogs\", was led by Pro Bowl tackle Jim Lachey and guard Mark Schlereth, along with four-time Pro Bowl veteran Russ Grimm. The Hogs allowed the fewest sacks in the league with just 9, 10 sacks less than the team that allowed the second-fewest. Even Washington's special teams unit was a big threat. Running back Brian Mitchell led the NFL in punt return yards (600) and punt return touchdowns (2) with a 13.3 yards per return average, while also gaining 583 yards returning kickoffs.\n\nWashington's defense, which ranked third in the NFL in fewest yards allowed (4,638), was led by All-Pro defensive back Darrell Green, who was one of the fastest players in the NFL, and Pro Bowl linebacker Wilber Marshall. Green and Marshall recorded 5 interceptions each, with Marshall recording 75 return yards and a touchdown, while also compiling 5.5 sacks and forcing 4 fumbles. Safety Brad Edwards was also a big factor in the secondary, recording four interceptions. Up front, their line was anchored by defensive end Charles Mann, who recorded 11 of Washington's 50 sacks, and recovered a fumble. Defensive end Fred Stokes also made a big impact with 6.5 sacks, 2 fumble recoveries, and an interception.\n\nThe Redskins stormed to a league-best 14–2 regular season record. After crushing the Detroit Lions 45-0 on opening day, they recorded 11 consecutive wins before suffering their first loss to the Dallas Cowboys, 24–21. Their only other defeat was a meaningless loss to the Philadelphia Eagles in the final game of the regular season in which they rested most of their starters because they had already clinched the #1 NFC playoff seed.\n\nBuffalo Bills\n\nThe Bills' no-huddle \"K-Gun\" offense once again dominated the league by gaining an NFL-leading 6,525 yards and scoring 458 points, second only to Washington. The leaders of the offense, quarterback Jim Kelly and running back Thurman Thomas, both had the best seasons of their careers. Kelly completed 64.1 percent of his passes for 3,844 yards and a league-leading 33 touchdowns, with only 17 interceptions, to give him a 97.6 passer rating. Thomas rushed for 1,407 yards, caught 62 passes for 620 yards, and scored 12 touchdowns to earn him both the NFL Offensive Player of the Year Award and the NFL Most Valuable Player Award. With 2,067 yards from scrimmage, Thomas led the league in that category for the third consecutive season. Just like Washington, Buffalo had more than one threat in their backfield. Running back Kenneth Davis emerged as a big threat, rushing for 624 yards, catching 20 passes for 118 yards, and scoring 5 touchdowns.\n\nThe Bills also had several major weapons in their passing game. Wide receiver Andre Reed led the team with 81 receptions for 1,113 yards and 10 touchdowns, and also rushed 12 times for 136 yards. On the other side of the field, veteran wide receiver James Lofton recorded 57 receptions for 1,072 yards and 8 touchdowns to earn his 8th Pro Bowl appearance and finished the year just 55 yards short of the all-time receiving yardage record, held by Steve Largent (13,089 yards). Pro Bowl tight end Keith McKeller was also a big contributor with 44 receptions for 434 yards, while receiver Don Beebe had 32 catches, 414 yards, and 6 touchdowns. Once again, the Bills' offensive line was led by center Kent Hull, along with left tackle Will Wolford and Pro Bowl left guard Jim Ritcher.\n\nBut the Bills had big problems on their defense. Buffalo ranked just 27th (out of 28 teams) in yards allowed, 19th in points allowed, and recorded only 31 sacks. A reason for this was that defensive linemen Bruce Smith and Jeff Wright had missed most of the season with injuries. One of the few bright spots on the Bills' defense was Pro Bowl linebacker Cornelius Bennett, who recorded 78 tackles, 9 sacks, and 2 fumble recoveries. Another Pro Bowl linebacker, Darryl Talley, led the team with 90 tackles and 5 interceptions, while also recovering 2 fumbles. Cornerback Nate Odomes was the leader of the secondary with 5 interceptions, which he returned for 120 yards and a touchdown, along with 66 tackles and a fumble recovery.\n\nDespite their defensive problems, the Bills finished the season with an AFC-best 13–3 regular season record.\n\nPlayoffs\n\nThe Redskins first defeated the Atlanta Falcons, 24–7, in a rain-soaked playoff game that was closer than their 56–17 regular season win over Atlanta. Rypien had 442 passing yards and 6 touchdowns in the earlier game, but could only complete 14 out of 28 passes for 170 yards and 0 touchdowns in the rematch. Still, Washington dominated the Falcons again by forcing 6 turnovers and rushing for 162 yards. The Redskins held the ball for over 36 minutes while running back Ricky Ervins recorded 104 rushing yards and a touchdown.\n\nThen Washington crushed the Detroit Lions 41–10 in the NFC Championship Game. The Lions posted a 12–4 regular season record and were coming off a 38–6 playoff blowout over the Dallas Cowboys. Many sports writers predicted that the NFC Championship Game would be much closer than the Redskins' win over the Lions in the season opening game because Detroit's future Hall of Fame running back, Barry Sanders, did not play in it due to injury. He had recorded 1,548 rushing yards and 16 touchdowns in the remaining 15 games of the season, and 99 combined rushing and receiving yards against Dallas in the playoffs. However, the Redskins crushed Detroit in this game as well, quickly forcing two Lions turnovers and building up a 10–0 lead before the game was five minutes old. The Redskins scored 41 points off of two touchdown runs by Riggs, two field goals from kicker Chip Lohmiller, a pair of touchdown passes from Rypien to Monk and Clark, and Green's 32-yard 4th-quarter interception return for a touchdown. Sanders was held to just 59 total yards, and linebacker Wilber Marshall sacked Lions quarterback Erik Kramer three times.\n\nMeanwhile, the Bills first defeated the Kansas City Chiefs 37–14, avenging a 33–6 Monday night loss during the regular season, in which the Chiefs recorded six sacks, recovered five fumbles, and gained 239 rushing yards, with running backs Harvey Williams and Christian Okoye recording over 100 rushing yards each. During this playoff game, the Bills jumped to a 24–0 lead in the 3rd quarter, with Kelly throwing three touchdown passes, the first two to Reed and the third to Lofton. The Bills also got a big performance out of Thomas, who rushed for over 100 yards, and kicker Scott Norwood, who made three field goals. Meanwhile, unconcerned with Kansas City's weak passing game, Buffalo played Bennett and Talley close to the line of scrimmage on nearly every play to stuff the run. Both players combined for 13 tackles, while the Bills' defense held Kansas City to 77 yards on the ground. Chiefs running back Barry Word, who became their primary rusher since the Monday Night game and rushed for over 100 yards in each of Kansas City's previous three games, was limited to just 50 yards. In addition, Buffalo's defense knocked Chiefs quarterback Steve DeBerg out of the game and intercepted backup quarterback Mark Vlasic four times.\n\nBuffalo then played against the Denver Broncos, who were coming off a 26–24 win over the Houston Oilers, in which quarterback John Elway led them on an 87-yard drive to set up kicker David Treadwell's game-winning field goal with only 16 seconds left. It was predicted that this AFC Championship Game would be a shootout between the Bills' powerful offense and the superb postseason play of Elway. But neither Elway nor the Bills' offense had much success in the 10–7 Bills victory in a game totally dominated by defense. Bennett, who spent almost as much time in the Denver backfield as Elway, had another great game, constantly pressuring Elway, sharing one sack, and tackling Denver rushers behind the line of scrimmage three times. Bills linebacker Carlton Bailey also made a big impact late in the 3rd quarter, intercepting a screen pass from Elway and returning it 11 yards for Buffalo's only touchdown of the game. After backup quarterback Gary Kubiak scored Denver's only touchdown with less than two minutes to go, the Bills then clinched the victory when defensive back Kirby Jackson forced and recovered a fumble from running back Steve Sewell on Denver's final drive of the game. Treadwell's three missed field goals were a large factor in the final outcome of the defensive struggle.\n\nSuper Bowl pregame news\n\nDuring the week leading to Super Bowl XXVI, it seemed most of the pressure was on the Bills. The AFC Championship Game appeared to be the best defensive effort by Buffalo all season, as they held the Broncos to only a touchdown, while also limiting Elway to just 11 of 21 completions for 121 yards and no touchdowns, with 1 interception. But the Bills' high-powered offense was completely shut down, limited to just a single field goal for the entire game. In addition, the Bills could have easily been eliminated by the Broncos, had Treadwell not missed three field goal attempts, two of which hit the uprights. The performance also gave an opportunity for Gibbs and the Redskins' coaches to devise a strong game plan to exploit their Super Bowl opponent's weaknesses.\n\n\"Denver was successful being aggressive. That may have aided us a little bit in our thinking,\" said Redskins defensive coordinator Richie Petitibon. \"Looking at them before they had played Denver, we kind of thought you had to put pressure on this guy (Jim Kelly). We attacked the line of scrimmage more than usual. We wanted to blitz to stop the run early in the game. It's sometimes tough to pick up blitzes against the running game.\"[http://www.billsbackers.com/SB26REDSKINS.htm]\n\nRedskins linebacker Matt Millen was bidding to become the first player to play in a Super Bowl victory for three different franchises (he played in Super Bowl XV and Super Bowl XVIII with the Raiders, and Super Bowl XXIV with the 49ers). However, Millen was deactivated for the game and watched from the Redskins sideline. He retired from the NFL shortly after the game to pursue a career in broadcasting (and later as a team executive). \n\nDuring the CBS telecast, it was mentioned that Leonard Smith (the Bills' regular starting strong safety) couldn't play as a result of an infection in his knee.\n\nBills defensive line coach Chuck Dickerson mocked the Washington Redskins' famed offensive line, \"The Hogs\" in a television interview. Dickerson said Redskins tackle Joe Jacoby was \"a Neanderthal – he slobbers a lot, he probably kicks dogs in his neighborhood.\" He also said tackle Jim Lachey \"has bad breath. Players will fall down without him even touching them.\" Redskins coach Joe Gibbs got his hands on some tapes of Dickerson and played them at a team meeting on the night before the game. (Levy fired Dickerson three days after the game.)\n\nTelevision and entertainment\n\nThe game was broadcast in the United States by CBS and featured the broadcast team of play-by-play announcer Pat Summerall and color commentator John Madden for the fifth time. This would also prove to be their last for CBS until 9 years later (XXXV), when CBS took over the AFC package from NBC in 1998. Lesley Visser and Pat O'Brien reported on the sidelines; Visser would later preside over the presentation of the Lombardi Trophy to the Redskins, becoming the first woman to do so. The Super Bowl Today was hosted by Greg Gumbel and Terry Bradshaw with Randy Cross and Dan Fouts contributing team reports and Visser, Madden, Bernard Goldberg, and Mike Francesa (among others) contributing feature segments.\n\nThis would be the last Super Bowl to air on CBS until Super Bowl XXXV at the end of the 2000 season. CBS lost the NFC package to Fox following the 1993 season, leaving the network without the NFL until it acquired the AFC package from NBC for the 1998 season. Super Bowl XXVI was not originally in CBS' rotation; since it had just broadcast Super Bowl XXIV two years earlier. CBS would have received Super Bowl XXVII as part of the rotation while NBC would have aired Super Bowl XXVI. Instead, the NFL made an exception for CBS, which had acquired the rights to the 1992 Winter Olympics, and allowed the network to air the Super Bowl as a lead-in program for its Olympics coverage.\n\nFor this game, as they had done for Super Bowl XXIV, CBS debuted a new theme and opening for its NFL coverage. Composed by Frankie Vinci, the theme was used for the next two seasons on television and on CBS Radio after that; several remixes of the song were used from the time CBS resumed covering NFL games in 1998 until the end of the 2002 season; after that, CBS began using an E.S. Posthumus composition and has used it ever since.\n\nIn addition to the new theme, CBS also rolled out a new network-wide graphics package for its sports coverage. With a few minor tweaks, the red, white, and blue graphic displays stayed in place until 1996 when CBS rolled out a new orange and yellow package.\n\nSuper Bowl XXVI was telecast in over 100 countries around the world, including Australia (Network Ten), Canada (CTV), Mexico (Canal 5) and the United Kingdom (Channel 4).\n\nFollowing the game was a 60 Minutes interview with future President Bill and Hillary Rodham Clinton and an episode of 48 Hours. Super Bowl XXVI was featured in the episode of The Simpsons entitled \"Lisa the Greek\", which aired three days prior to the game and correctly predicted that Washington would win.\n\nAlso, this game was part of a broadcasting service test commissioned by the U.S. Navy. The ships participating were the USS America; USS Concord; USS Eisenhower; USS Inchon; USS Monterey; USS Normandy and the USS Sierra.\n\nPregame ceremonies\n\nThe pregame show featured local Minnesota youth including the Metropolitan Boys Choir, the Minnesota Youth Symphonies, and local marching bands.\n\nSinger Harry Connick, Jr. later sang the national anthem. The coin toss ceremony featured Pro Football Hall of Fame head coach Chuck Noll. Noll, former Steelers Hall of Fame head coach who had retired a month earlier after 23 seasons, conducted the coin toss. Noll's Steelers had lost to both of these teams earlier in the season by large margins (52–34 to Buffalo and 41–14 to Washington).\n\nSTS-42, a space shuttle mission, was in orbit during the game. A live downlink between the Metrodome and Discovery happened during the pregame show. Three of the mission's seven crew members demonstrated a 'human coin toss' in space.\n\nBuffalo head coach Marv Levy stated his famous phrase \"Where else would you rather be?\" to his players moments before kickoff, as shown on NFL Films highlights.\n\nHalftime show\n\nThe halftime show was titled \"Winter Magic\" and featured a celebration to the winter season and the Winter Olympics. In addition to dancers and performers, former Olympic champions Brian Boitano and Dorothy Hamill skated on sheets of Teflon that were embedded on the tops of large platforms that were placed on the field for the show. Singer Gloria Estefan performed during the show's finale.\n\nTo compete with the halftime show, Fox decided to broadcast a special live episode of In Living Color and was able to attract and keep Super Bowl viewers. It was decided that Michael Jackson would perform at halftime during Super Bowl XXVII, followed by more big-name talent during subsequent Super Bowl halftimes in order to maintain Super Bowl viewership.\n\nGame summary\n\nBoth teams entered the game as the two highest scoring teams in the league, but after the end of an extremely sloppy first quarter, both of them would be scoreless.\n\nThe miscues began right from the start. First, the opening kickoff had to be redone because Bills kicker Brad Daluiso kicked the ball before referee Jerry Markbreit signaled to begin play. Then after Washington was forced to punt, Bills running back Thurman Thomas missed the first two plays of Buffalo's first drive because he misplaced his helmet.\n\nLater in the period, Washington drove 89 yards and appeared to score a touchdown on a third-down pass from Mark Rypien to wide receiver Art Monk (who had already caught 3 passes for 67 yards on the drive). But it was overruled by instant replay: the officials ruled that Monk's foot was out of bounds when he caught the ball (the first time a touchdown was overruled by instant replay in a Super Bowl). The Redskins tried to salvage the drive with a field goal attempt, but holder Jeff Rutledge fumbled the snap.\n\nOn Buffalo's first play after the botched field goal attempt, Bills quarterback Jim Kelly gave Washington another chance to score by throwing an interception to Redskins safety Brad Edwards, who returned it 21 yards to the Bills 12-yard line. But Rypien promptly gave it back to the Bills by throwing an interception to Bills defensive back Kirby Jackson on the third play of the Redskins' next drive.\n\nIn the second quarter, the Redskins began to take over the game. First, a 41-yard completion from Rypien to wide receiver Ricky Sanders and a 19-yard run by Earnest Byner set up Chip Lohmiller's 34-yard field goal to give Washington a 3–0 lead. The Redskins' defense then forced Buffalo to a three-and-out on the ensuing possession, and punter Chris Mohr's 23-yard punt sailed out of bounds at the Washington 49-yard line. The Redskins then drove 51 yards in 5 plays capped by Byner's 10-yard touchdown reception. Then, on the Bills next drive, Washington defensive back Darrell Green intercepted a pass from Kelly at the Redskins 45-yard line. Three plays later, Rypien completed a 34-yard pass to wide receiver Gary Clark to the Buffalo 15-yard line. A 14-yard run by Ricky Ervins then set up fullback Gerald Riggs' 1-yard touchdown run to expand the Redskins' lead to 17–0.\n\nThe Bills had a chance to drive for a score late in the second quarter. With 1:46 left in the half, Bills special teams expert Steve Tasker downed Mohr's 48-yard punt at the Redskins 1-yard line. Washington gained zero net yards during the possession, and Buffalo got the ball back after Cliff Hicks returned Kelly Goodburn's 42-yard punt 2 yards to the Redskins 41-yard line. From there, Kelly completed a 21-yard pass to tight end Keith McKeller to the 20-yard line. But after an incomplete pass and an 8-yard sack by linebacker Wilber Marshall, Edwards broke up a third-down pass intended for Andre Reed in which Edwards hit Reed before the ball got to him; however, no flag for pass interference was thrown. In disgust, Reed threw his helmet to the ground, drawing a 15-yard unsportsmanlike conduct penalty that took the Bills out of field goal range and forced them to punt. As the teams ran off the field at halftime, Marv Levy confronted field judge Ed Merrifield, who missed the pass interference call and then threw the unsportsmanlike conduct flag against Reed.\n\nThe Bills became the 9th team to go scoreless in the 1st half of a Super Bowl, after the Baltimore Colts in Super Bowl III; the Minnesota Vikings in Super Bowls IV, VIII, IX, and XI; the Redskins in Super Bowl VII, the Denver Broncos in Super Bowl XII; and the Cincinnati Bengals in Super Bowl XVI. All 8 of the previous teams ended up losing the game.\n\nThe Redskins then increased their lead to 24–0 just 16 seconds into the second half after linebacker Kurt Gouveia intercepted Kelly's pass on the first play of the third quarter and returned it 23 yards to the Bills' 2-yard line. One play later, Riggs scored his second touchdown of the game. The Redskins' 24–0 lead midway through the 3rd quarter tied the Miami Dolphins in Super Bowl VIII for the largest shutout lead in Super Bowl history. It was broken by the Seattle Seahawks' 36-0 lead in Super Bowl XLVIII.\n\nThe Bills finally got some momentum going with their next few drives. First, they drove 77 yards to the Redskins 3-yard line, aided by a 43-yard completion from Kelly to receiver Don Beebe. Washington kept Buffalo out of the end zone, but kicker Scott Norwood kicked a 21-yard field goal to cut the deficit to 24–3. Then, aided by a 29-yard pass interference penalty on Redskins cornerback Martin Mayhew in the end zone, the Bills drove 56 yards in 6 plays and finally scored a touchdown on their next drive with a 1-yard run by Thomas to make the score 24–10.\n\nHowever, Buffalo's hopes of a comeback faded when Washington advanced 79 yards in 11 plays on the ensuing drive, scoring on Clark's 30-yard touchdown reception to give the Redskins a 31–10 lead with 1:24 left in the third quarter. Three plays after receiving the ensuing kickoff, Kelly fumbled the ball while being sacked by defensive back Alvoid Mays, and it was recovered by defensive end Fred Stokes. After the turnover, Washington drove to the Bills 7-yard line and increased their lead to 34–10 with Lohmiller's 25-yard field goal on the second play of the fourth quarter.\n\nOn the Bills' ensuing drive, Kelly was sacked for a 9-yard loss by Stokes, threw an incomplete pass, and then threw his second interception of the game to Edwards, who returned it 35 yards to Buffalo's 33-yard line. Five plays later, Lohmiller kicked his third field goal with 11:36 left in the game to increase Washington's lead to 37–10. With the game almost completely out of reach, the Bills managed to respond with a 15-play, 79-yard drive to cut the score to 37–17 on a 2-yard touchdown pass from Kelly to tight end Pete Metzelaars. Then, after recovering an onside kick, the Bills drove 50 yards and scored another touchdown with Beebe's 4-yard reception to make the score 37–24. But the Bills' second onside kick attempt was unsuccessful, and the Redskins were able to run out the clock. From there, the Bills attempted one final pass play before time expired.\n\nKelly completed 28 of a Super Bowl–record 58 passes for 275 yards and two touchdowns, but was sacked four times, intercepted four times, and lost a fumble. Thomas ran for only 13 yards on 10 carries and was limited to 27 yards on four receptions. James Lofton was the top receiver for the Bills with 7 catches for 92 yards, but Reed was limited to just 5 catches for 31 yards. Clark had seven catches for 114 yards and a touchdown and Monk added seven for 113 yards (Clark and Monk became the third pair of teammates to each have 100 yards receiving in a Super Bowl; they joined the Steelers' John Stallworth and Lynn Swann, who did it in Super Bowl XIII and the Bengals' Cris Collinsworth and Dan Ross, who did it in Super Bowl XVI).\n\nErvins was the top rusher of the game with 79 yards. Byner recorded 49 rushing yards, and 3 receptions for 24 yards and a touchdown. On defense, Edwards recorded four tackles, broke up five passes, and returned two interceptions for 56 yards. The Redskins amassed 417 yards of total offense while limiting the explosive Bills to 283, with just 43 rushing yards.\n\nThe two teams combined for the most points in a 3rd quarter in Super Bowl history (24 total points: 14 for Washington and 10 for Buffalo) and the most combined in a second half (44 total points: 24 for Buffalo and 20 for Washington).\n\nWith the win, the Redskins became the first team, and Joe Gibbs the first coach, to win a Super Bowl with three different quarterbacks. Two other teams have since duplicated this feat: the New York Giants (Phil Simms in Super Bowl XXI, Jeff Hostetler in Super Bowl XXV, and Eli Manning in Super Bowls XLII and XLVI) and the Green Bay Packers (Bart Starr in the first two Super Bowls, Brett Favre in Super Bowl XXXI, and Aaron Rodgers in Super Bowl XLV).\n\nBox score\n\nFinal statistics\n\nSource: [http://www.nfl.com/superbowl/history/boxscore/sbxxvi NFL.com Super Bowl XXVI]\n\nStatistical comparison\n\nIndividual leaders\n\n1Completions/attempts\n2Carries\n3Long gain\n4Receptions\n\nStarting lineups\n\nSource: \n\nOfficials\n\n* Referee: Jerry Markbreit #9 third Super Bowl (XVII, XXI)\n* Umpire: Bob Boylston #101 second Super Bowl (XXI)\n* Head Linesman: Dale Williams #8 second Super Bowl (XX)\n* Line Judge: Ron Blum #83 second Super Bowl (XXIV)\n* Back Judge: Paul Baetz #22 second Super Bowl (XXIII)\n* Side Judge: Dick Creed #61 first Super Bowl\n* Field Judge: Ed Merrifield #76 first Super Bowl\n\nNote: Back Judge and Field Judge swapped titles prior to the 1998 season." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "New York Giants Depth Chart", "NY Jints", "NY Giants", "N Y Giants", "New York Giants", "New York Giants (American football)", "N.Y. 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Robert Mueller Municipal Airport is in which US state?	tc_646	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Robert_Mueller_Municipal_Airport.txt", "U.S._state.txt" ], "title": [ "Robert Mueller Municipal Airport", "U.S. state" ], "wiki_context": [ "Robert Mueller Municipal Airport ( ) was the first civilian airport built in Austin, Texas, operating from 1930 to 1999. It was replaced as Greater Austin's main airport by the Austin Bergstrom International Airport. Located a few miles northeast of downtown Austin, the airport was named after Robert Mueller, a city commissioner who had died while in office in January 1927. Mueller was identified with the three letter \"AUS\" airport code and this \"AUS\" code was then assigned to the Austin Bergstrom International Airport in 1999.\n\nHistory\n\nAs the need for commercial air service became clear in the 1920s, Austin voters supported a bond election to build a municipal airport for the city in 1928. The airport was constructed a few miles northeast of downtown, on what was then the edge of the city. The airport began operation on 14 October 1930, although commercial service would not begin until 1936.\n\nIn the 1950s, developers began building residential areas beneath the flight paths of Mueller and, in parallel, the number of arrivals and departures at the airport increased dramatically as the city's population grew. The April 1957 OAG lists a total of 33 weekday departures operated by three airlines: fifteen on Braniff International Airways, ten on Trans-Texas Airways (TTa) and eight on Continental Airlines. No nonstop flights were operated beyond San Antonio, San Angelo, Dallas Love Field (DAL) or Houston Hobby Airport (HOU) at this time. The first scheduled nonstop beyond Texas was flown from Mueller with a Boeing 727 operated by Braniff to Washington Dulles Airport (IAD) in 1968; that flight lasted until 1980. It was the only nonstop out of the state until Braniff attempted to serve Chicago O'Hare Airport (ORD) nonstop in 1978.\n\nIn 1963, Continental was operating British-manufactured Vickers Viscount four-engine turboprops on a daily round trip routing of Houston Hobby Airport - Austin - San Angelo - Midland/Odessa - El Paso - Tucson - Phoenix - Los Angeles as well as flying Viscount propjet service direct to Lubbock and Amarillo. By 1964, Continental had ceased serving Austin; however, by 1970 the airline was once again operating flights into Mueller. \n\nThe jet age arrived in Austin in 1965 when Braniff introduced British Aircraft Corporation BAC One-Eleven twin jets with nonstop service to Dallas Love Field and San Antonio as well as direct, no change of plane jet service to Chicago O'Hare, Kansas City, Oklahoma City, Wichita, Amarillo, Lubbock and Corpus Christi. According to the airline's September 7, 1965 system timetable, Braniff was also operating Lockheed L-188 Electra propjets at this time nonstop to Dallas Love Field, Fort Worth (via Greater Southwest International Airport) and San Antonio with direct Electra service being flown from Austin to Washington D.C. National Airport (DCA), Denver, Colorado Springs, Oklahoma City and Corpus Christi.\n\nBy 1968, Trans-Texas Airways was operating Douglas DC-9-10 twin jets into Mueller with nonstops to Dallas Love Field, Houston Hobby and San Antonio as well as direct, no change of plane jet service being flown to New Orleans, Memphis, Little Rock and Corpus Christi. \n\nIn early 1976, the same three airlines were operating scheduled passenger service into the airport although Trans-Texas Airways had changed its name to Texas International Airlines. According to the Official Airline Guide (OAG), Braniff was operating up to eight nonstops a day to Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport (DFW) with Boeing 727-100 and 727-200 jetliners and was also operating the aforementioned nonstop service to Washington Dulles Airport with a 727-200 as well as nonstop 727-200 service to San Antonio. In addition, Braniff was operating one stop, no change of plane 727 jet service to Chicago O'Hare Airport, New York JFK Airport, Kansas City, Memphis and Amarillo and also direct, multi-stop 727 flights to Detroit, Newark and Washington National Airport (which would become Ronald Reagan Airport). All of the Continental service at this time was being operated with Boeing 727-200 jetliners with nonstop service three times a day to both Houston Intercontinental Airport (IAH) and Midland/Odessa with one stop, no change of plane jet service being flown to Miami and El Paso. Continental was also operating direct, multi-stop service several times a day to Los Angeles (LAX), Phoenix and Tucson, and subsequently operated Boeing 720B jetliners into Mueller on the multi-stop route between IAH and LAX which included AUS. Texas International was flying nonstop Douglas DC-9-10 jet service to Dallas/Ft. Worth International Airport, Houston Intercontinental, Lubbock and San Antonio with one stop, no change of plane jet flights being operated to Albuquerque, Amarillo, Corpus Christi, Laredo and Little Rock. Texas International was also operating direct, multi-stop DC-9 flights to Denver and Los Angeles as well as flying nonstop Convair 600 turboprop flights to Houston in addition to its DC-9 service on the route. By 1979, Texas International was flying McDonnell Douglas DC-9-30 jetliners in addition to DC-9-10s and was operating all flights with jets from Mueller. \n\nOn February 13, 1978, Southwest Airlines operating as an intrastate air carrier began Boeing 737-200 jet service into Mueller. In July 1978, Southwest was flying nonstop from Austin to Dallas Love Field (DAL), Houston Hobby (HOU), Corpus Christi and Harlingen. By 1979, Delta Air Lines and Eastern Air Lines had begun serving Austin with both airlines flying nonstop to Atlanta with Eastern also operating nonstop to Houston Intercontinental (IAH) with direct, one stop service to Boston. Delta was operating Boeing 727-200 jetliners while Eastern was flying Boeing 727-100 and McDonnell Douglas DC-9-30 jets into the airport at this time. In 1981, American Airlines began service into Mueller, followed in 1983 by United Airlines and USAir (which was renamed US Airways and has now been merged into American Airlines). American was flying nonstop to Dallas/Ft. Worth (DFW), Chicago O'Hare and Corpus Christi during the early 1980s and was operating Boeing 727-100s and 727-200s as well as McDonnell Douglas MD-80 and wide body McDonnell Douglas DC-10 jets into the airport. American introduced Austin's first widebody service with nonstop DC-10 flights to Dallas/Ft. Worth and would later operate the Boeing 767 to DFW from Mueller as well. Also at this time, United was operating nonstop Boeing 727-100 service to Chicago O'Hare, Denver, Dallas/Ft. Worth and San Antonio while USAir was flying nonstop to Houston Intercontinental with one flight a day operated with a Boeing 737-200 with direct, one stop service to Pittsburgh. Other airlines operating jet service into Austin during the 1980s included America West Airlines, Emerald Air (which was based in Austin and operated not only independently but also as Pan Am Express), Muse Air and its successor TranStar Airlines, Northwest Airlines, Pan Am, Trans World Airlines (TWA) and Western Airlines. By the late 1980s, every major U.S. air carrier in existence at that time was serving Robert Mueller Municipal Airport with mainline jet aircraft.\n\nExpansions\n\nA new passenger terminal and control tower were built in 1961. The control tower was known for its alternating light blue and dark blue porcelain panels. The terminal and control tower were dedicated in a ceremony attended by Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson and Austin Mayor Lester Palmer.\n\nA major expansion at Mueller took place in the 1970s, including improvements to the runways and the terminal. Before the expansion, the departure area consisted of 4 to 5 gates, not enclosed but covered by a large awning; no jetways were present at the time. Mueller's longest runway was 7000 ft long, and by the late 1990s the passenger terminal was operating at full capacity with 16 gates.\n\nFor a number of years, the Texas Army National Guard also had facilities at the airport.\n\nClosure and replacement\n\nWhether the aging Mueller should be relocated to Manor, Texas, was a perennial issue in Austin politics, until the closure of Bergstrom Air Force Base opened another possibility. \n\nNearby Bergstrom Air Force Base to the southeast of downtown Austin closed as an active military base in 1993, and it was decommissioned as a reserve base in 1996. The primary runways, designed for military cargo and high-performance jets, were left intact and required little work to return to serviceable condition. Smaller military-era buildings at the site were demolished, and a new terminal building and traffic/parking infrastructure was built in their place, creating an international-capable civilian airport to replace Mueller Airport.\n\nMueller Airport's commercial service ended on 21 May 1999, replaced by this new Austin Bergstrom International Airport; while general aviation activities at Mueller continued through 22 June 1999. \n\nRedevelopment as Mueller Community\n\nThe 711 acres of land that once housed the airport sat vacant and unused for more than half a decade until the city approved a development plan. The new Mueller Community broke ground in 2007 and is expected to take at least ten years to be fully developed.\n\nThe airport's control tower has been preserved and restored in response to the local community's desire to keep the iconic 1961 structure \n\nIt is the current location for Robert Rodriguez's production company, Troublemaker Studios.", "A state of the United States of America is one of the 50 constituent political entities that shares its sovereignty with the United States federal government. Due to the shared sovereignty between each state and the federal government, Americans are citizens of both the federal republic and of the state in which they reside. State citizenship and residency are flexible, and no government approval is required to move between states, except for persons covered by certain types of court orders (e.g., paroled convicts and children of divorced spouses who are sharing custody).\n\nStates range in population from just under 600,000 (Wyoming) to over 38 million (California), and in area from (Rhode Island) to (Alaska). Four states use the term commonwealth rather than state in their full official names.\n\nStates are divided into counties or county-equivalents, which may be assigned some local governmental authority but are not sovereign. County or county-equivalent structure varies widely by state. State governments are allocated power by the people (of each respective state) through their individual constitutions. All are grounded in republican principles, and each provides for a government, consisting of three branches: executive, legislative, and judicial. \n\nStates possess a number of powers and rights under the United States Constitution; among them ratifying constitutional amendments. Historically, the tasks of local law enforcement, public education, public health, regulating intrastate commerce, and local transportation and infrastructure have generally been considered primarily state responsibilities, although all of these now have significant federal funding and regulation as well. Over time, the U.S. Constitution has been amended, and the interpretation and application of its provisions have changed. The general tendency has been toward centralization and incorporation, with the federal government playing a much larger role than it once did. There is a continuing debate over states' rights, which concerns the extent and nature of the states' powers and sovereignty in relation to the federal government and the rights of individuals.\n\nStates and their residents are represented in the federal Congress, a bicameral legislature consisting of the Senate and the House of Representatives. Each state is represented by two Senators, and at least one Representative, while additional representatives are distributed among the states in proportion to the most recent constitutionally mandated decennial census. Each state is also entitled to select a number of electors to vote in the Electoral College, the body that elects the President of the United States, equal to the total of Representatives and Senators from that state. \n\nThe Constitution grants to Congress the authority to admit new states into the Union. Since the establishment of the United States in 1776, the number of states has expanded from the original 13 to 50. Alaska and Hawaii are the most recent states admitted, both in 1959.\n\nThe Constitution is silent on the question of whether states have the power to secede (withdraw from) from the Union. Shortly after the Civil War, the U.S. Supreme Court, in Texas v. White, held that a state cannot unilaterally do so. \n\nStates of the United States\n\nThe 50 U.S. states (in alphabetical order), along with state flag and date each joined the union:\n\nGovernments\n\nAs each state is itself a sovereign entity, it reserves the right to organize its individual government in any way (within the broad parameters set by the U.S. Constitution) deemed appropriate by its people. As a result, while the governments of the various states share many similar features, they often vary greatly with regard to form and substance. No two state governments are identical.\n\nConstitutions\n\nThe government of each state is structured in accordance with its individual constitution. Many of these documents are more detailed and more elaborate than their federal counterpart. The Constitution of Alabama, for example, contains 310,296 words — more than 40 times as many as the U.S. Constitution. In practice, each state has adopted a three-branch system of government, modeled after the federal government, and consisting of three branches (although the three-branch structure is not required): executive, legislative, and judicial. \n\nExecutive\n\nIn each state, the chief executive is called the governor, who serves as both head of state and head of government. The governor may approve or veto bills passed by the state legislature, as well as push for the passage of bills supported by the party of the Governor. In 43 states, governors have line item veto power. \n\nMost states have a \"plural executive\" in which two or more members of the executive branch are elected directly by the people. Such additional elected officials serve as members of the executive branch, but are not beholden to the governor and the governor cannot dismiss them. For example, the attorney general is elected, rather than appointed, in 43 of the 50 U.S. states.\n\nLegislative\n\nThe legislatures of 49 of the 50 states are made up of two chambers: a lower house (termed the House of Representatives, State Assembly, General Assembly or House of Delegates) and a smaller upper house, always termed the Senate. The exception is the unicameral Nebraska Legislature, which is composed of only a single chamber.\n\nMost states have part-time legislatures, while six of the most populated states have full-time legislatures. However, several states with high population have short legislative sessions, including Texas and Florida. \n\nIn Baker v. Carr (1962) and Reynolds v. Sims (1964), the U.S. Supreme Court held that all states are required to elect their legislatures in such a way as to afford each citizen the same degree of representation (the one person, one vote standard). In practice, most states choose to elect legislators from single-member districts, each of which has approximately the same population. Some states, such as Maryland and Vermont, divide the state into single- and multi-member districts, in which case multi-member districts must have proportionately larger populations, e.g., a district electing two representatives must have approximately twice the population of a district electing just one. If the governor vetoes legislation, all legislatures may override it, usually, but not always, requiring a two-thirds majority.\n\nIn 2013, there were a total of 7,383 legislators in the 50 state legislative bodies. They earned from $0 annually (New Mexico) to $90,526 (California). There were various per diem and mileage compensation. \n\nJudicial\n\nStates can also organize their judicial systems differently from the federal judiciary, as long as they protect the federal constitutional right of their citizens to procedural due process. Most have a trial level court, generally called a District Court or Superior Court, a first-level appellate court, generally called a Court of Appeal (or Appeals), and a Supreme Court. However, Oklahoma and Texas have separate highest courts for criminal appeals. In New York State the trial court is called the Supreme Court; appeals are then taken to the Supreme Court's Appellate Division, and from there to the Court of Appeals.\n\nMost states base their legal system on English common law (with substantial indigenous changes and incorporation of certain civil law innovations), with the notable exception of Louisiana, a former French colony, which draws large parts of its legal system from French civil law.\n\nOnly a few states choose to have the judges on the state's courts serve for life terms. In most of the states the judges, including the justices of the highest court in the state, are either elected or appointed for terms of a limited number of years, and are usually eligible for re-election or reappointment.\n\nRelationships\n\nAmong states\n\nEach state admitted to the Union by Congress since 1789 has entered it on an equal footing with the original States in all respects. With the growth of states' rights advocacy during the antebellum period, the Supreme Court asserted, in Lessee of Pollard v. Hagan (1845), that the Constitution mandated admission of new states on the basis of equality.\n\nUnder Article Four of the United States Constitution, which outlines the relationship between the states, each state is required to give full faith and credit to the acts of each other's legislatures and courts, which is generally held to include the recognition of legal contracts and criminal judgments, and before 1865, slavery status. Regardless of the Full Faith and Credit Clause, some legal arrangements, such as professional licensure and marriages, may be state-specific, and until recently states have not been found by the courts to be required to honor such arrangements from other states. \n\nSuch legal acts are nevertheless often recognized state-to-state according to the common practice of comity. States are prohibited from discriminating against citizens of other states with respect to their basic rights, under the Privileges and Immunities Clause. Under the Extradition Clause, a state must extradite people located there who have fled charges of \"treason, felony, or other crimes\" in another state if the other state so demands. The principle of hot pursuit of a presumed felon and arrest by the law officers of one state in another state are often permitted by a state. \n\nWith the consent of Congress, states may enter into interstate compacts, agreements between two or more states. Compacts are frequently used to manage a shared resource, such as transportation infrastructure or water rights. \n\nWith the federal government\n\nEvery state is guaranteed a form of government that is grounded in republican principles, such as the consent of the governed. This guarantee has long been at the fore-front of the debate about the rights of citizens vis-à-vis the government. States are also guaranteed protection from invasion, and, upon the application of the state legislature (or executive, if the legislature cannot be convened), from domestic violence. This provision was discussed during the 1967 Detroit riot, but was not invoked.\n\nSince the early 20th century, the Supreme Court has interpreted the Commerce Clause of the Constitution of the United States to allow greatly expanded scope of federal power over time, at the expense of powers formerly considered purely states' matters. The Cambridge Economic History of the United States says, \"On the whole, especially after the mid-1880s, the Court construed the Commerce Clause in favor of increased federal power.\" In Wickard v. Filburn , the court expanded federal power to regulate the economy by holding that federal authority under the commerce clause extends to activities which may appear to be local in nature but in reality effect the entire national economy and are therefore of national concern. \n\nFor example, Congress can regulate railway traffic across state lines, but it may also regulate rail traffic solely within a state, based on the reality that intrastate traffic still affects interstate commerce. In recent years, the Court has tried to place limits on the Commerce Clause in such cases as United States v. Lopez and United States v. Morrison.\n\nAnother example of congressional power is its spending power—the ability of Congress to impose taxes and distribute the resulting revenue back to the states (subject to conditions set by Congress). An example of this is the system of federal aid for highways, which include the Interstate Highway System. The system is mandated and largely funded by the federal government, and also serves the interests of the states. By threatening to withhold federal highway funds, Congress has been able to pressure state legislatures to pass a variety of laws. An example is the nationwide legal drinking age of 21, enacted by each state, brought about by the National Minimum Drinking Age Act. Although some objected that this infringes on states' rights, the Supreme Court upheld the practice as a permissible use of the Constitution's Spending Clause in South Dakota v. Dole .\n\nAdmission into the Union\n\nArticle IV, Section 3, Clause 1 of the U.S. Constitution grants to Congress the authority to admit new states into the Union. Since the establishment of the United States in 1776, the number of states has expanded from the original 13 to 50. Each new state has been admitted on an equal footing with the existing states. It also forbids the creation of new states from parts of existing states without the consent of both the affected states and Congress. This caveat was designed to give Eastern states that still had Western land claims (there were 4 in 1787), to have a veto over whether their western counties could become states, and has served this same function since, whenever a proposal to partition an existing state or states in order that a region within might either join another state or to create a new state has come before Congress.\n\nMost of the states admitted to the Union after the original 13 have been created from organized territories established and governed by Congress in accord with its plenary power under Article IV, Section 3, Clause 2. The outline for this process was established by the Northwest Ordinance (1787), which predates the ratification of the Constitution. In some cases, an entire territory has become a state; in others some part of a territory has.\n\nWhen the people of a territory make their desire for statehood known to the federal government, Congress may pass an enabling act authorizing the people of that territory to organize a constitutional convention to write a state constitution as a step towards admission to the Union. Each act details the mechanism by which the territory will be admitted as a state following ratification of their constitution and election of state officers. Although the use of an enabling act is a traditional historic practice, a number of territories have drafted constitutions for submission to Congress absent an enabling act and were subsequently admitted. Upon acceptance of that constitution, and upon meeting any additional Congressional stipulations, Congress has always admitted that territory as a state.\n\nIn addition to the original 13, six subsequent states were never an organized territory of the federal government, or part of one, before being admitted to the Union. Three were set off from an already existing state, two entered the Union after having been sovereign states, and one was established from unorganized territory:\nCalifornia, 1850, from land ceded to the United States by Mexico in 1848 under the terms of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. \nKentucky, 1792, from Virginia (District of Kentucky: Fayette, Jefferson, and Lincoln counties)Michael P. Riccards, \"Lincoln and the Political Question: The Creation of the State of West Virginia\" Presidential Studies Quarterly, Vol. 27, 1997 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a\no&d=5000522904 online edition]\nMaine, 1820, from Massachusetts (District of Maine)\nTexas, 1845, previously the Republic of Texas \nVermont, 1791, previously the Vermont Republic (also known as the New Hampshire Grants and claimed by New York) \nWest Virginia, 1863, from Virginia (Trans-Allegheny region counties) during the Civil War \n\nCongress is under no obligation to admit states, even in those areas whose population expresses a desire for statehood. Such has been the case numerous times during the nation's history. In one instance, Mormon pioneers in Salt Lake City sought to establish the state of Deseret in 1849. It existed for slightly over two years and was never approved by the United States Congress. In another, leaders of the Five Civilized Tribes (Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, and Seminole) in Indian Territory proposed to establish the state of Sequoyah in 1905, as a means to retain control of their lands. The proposed constitution ultimately failed in the U.S. Congress. Instead, the Indian Territory, along with Oklahoma Territory were both incorporated into the new state of Oklahoma in 1907. The first instance occurred while the nation still operated under the Articles of Confederation. The State of Franklin existed for several years, not long after the end of the American Revolution, but was never recognized by the Confederation Congress, which ultimately recognized North Carolina's claim of sovereignty over the area. The territory comprising Franklin later became part of the Southwest Territory, and ultimately the state of Tennessee.\n\nAdditionally, the entry of several states into the Union was delayed due to distinctive complicating factors. Among them, Michigan Territory, which petitioned Congress for statehood in 1835, was not admitted to the Union until 1837, due to a boundary dispute the adjoining state of Ohio. The Republic of Texas requested annexation to the United States in 1837, but fears about potential conflict with Mexico delayed the admission of Texas for nine years. Also, statehood for Kansas Territory was held up for several years (1854–61) due to a series of internal violent conflicts involving anti-slavery and pro-slavery factions.\n\nPossible new states\n\nPuerto Rico\n\nPuerto Rico referred to itself as the \"Commonwealth of Puerto Rico\" in the English version of its constitution, and as \"Estado Libre Asociado\" (literally, Associated Free State) in the Spanish version.\n\nAs with any non-state territory of the United States, its residents do not have voting representation in the federal government. Puerto Rico has limited representation in the U.S. Congress in the form of a Resident Commissioner, a delegate with limited voting rights in the Committee of the Whole House on the State of the Union, and no voting rights otherwise. \n\nA non-binding referendum on statehood, independence, or a new option for an associated territory (different from the current status) was held on November 6, 2012. Sixty one percent (61%) of voters chose the statehood option, while one third of the ballots were submitted blank. \n\nOn December 11, 2012, the Legislative Assembly of Puerto Rico enacted a concurrent resolution requesting the President and the Congress of the United States to respond to the referendum of the people of Puerto Rico, held on November 6, 2012, to end its current form of territorial status and to begin the process to admit Puerto Rico as a State. \n\nWashington, D.C.\n\nThe intention of the Founding Fathers was that the United States capital should be at a neutral site, not giving favor to any existing state; as a result, the District of Columbia was created in 1800 to serve as the seat of government. The inhabitants of the District do not have full representation in Congress or a sovereign elected government (they were allotted presidential electors by the 23rd amendment, and have a non-voting delegate in Congress).\n\nSome residents of the District support statehood of some form for that jurisdiction—either statehood for the whole district or for the inhabited part, with the remainder remaining under federal jurisdiction.\n\nOthers\n\nVarious proposals to divide California, usually involving splitting the south half from the north or the urban coastline from the rest of the state, have been advanced since the 1850s. Similarly, numerous proposals to divide New York, all of which involve to some degree the separation of New York City from the rest of the state, have been promoted over the past several decades. The partitioning of either state is, at the present, highly unlikely.\n\nOther even less likely possible new states are Guam and the Virgin Islands, both of which are unincorporated organized territories of the United States. Also, either the Northern Mariana Islands or American Samoa, an unorganized, unincorporated territory, could seek statehood.\n\nSecession from the Union\n\nThe Constitution is silent on the issue of the secession of a state from the union. However, its predecessor document, the Articles of Confederation, stated that the United States \"shall be perpetual.\" The question of whether or not individual states held the right to unilateral secession remained a difficult and divisive one until the American Civil War. In 1860 and 1861, eleven southern states seceded, but following their defeat in the American Civil War were brought back into the Union during the Reconstruction Era. The federal government never recognized the secession of any of the rebellious states. \n\nFollowing the Civil War, the United States Supreme Court, in Texas v. White, held that states did not have the right to secede and that any act of secession was legally void. Drawing on the Preamble to the Constitution, which states that the Constitution was intended to \"form a more perfect union\" and speaks of the people of the United States in effect as a single body politic, as well as the language of the Articles of Confederation, the Supreme Court maintained that states did not have a right to secede. However, the court's reference in the same decision to the possibility of such changes occurring \"through revolution, or through consent of the States,\" essentially means that this decision holds that no state has a right to unilaterally decide to leave the Union.\n\nCommonwealths\n\nFour states—Kentucky, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and Virginia —adopted Constitutions early in their post-colonial existence identifying themselves as commonwealths, rather than states. These commonwealths are states, but legally, each is a commonwealth because the term is contained in its constitution. As a result, \"commonwealth\" is used in all public and other state writings, actions or activities within their bounds.\n\nThe term, which refers to a state in which the supreme power is vested in the people, was first used in Virginia during the Interregnum, the 1649–60 period between the reigns of Charles I and Charles II during which parliament's Oliver Cromwell as Lord Protector established a republican government known as the Commonwealth of England. Virginia became a royal colony again in 1660, and the word was dropped from the full title. When Virginia adopted its first constitution on June 29, 1776, it was reintroduced. Pennsylvania followed suit when it drew up a constitution later that year, as did Massachusetts, in 1780, and Kentucky, in 1792.\n\nThe U.S. territories of the Northern Marianas and Puerto Rico are also referred to as commonwealths. This designation does have a legal status different from that of the 50 states. Both of these commonwealths are unincorporated territories of the United States.\n\nOrigins of states' names\n\nThe 50 states have taken their names from a wide variety of languages. Twenty-four state names originate from Native American languages. Of these, eight are from Algonquian languages, seven are from Siouan languages, three are from Iroquoian languages, one is from Uto-Aztecan languages and five others are from other indigenous languages. Hawaii's name is derived from the Polynesian Hawaiian language.\n\nOf the remaining names, 22 are from European languages: Seven from Latin (mainly Latinized forms of English names), the rest are from English, Spanish and French. Eleven states are named after individual people, including seven named for royalty and one named after an American president. The origins of six state names are unknown or disputed. Several of the states that derive their names from (corrupted) names used for Native peoples, have retained the plural ending of \"s\".\n\nGeography\n\nBorders\n\nThe borders of the 13 original states were largely determined by colonial charters. Their western boundaries were subsequently modified as the states ceded their western land claims to the Federal government during the 1780s and 1790s. Many state borders beyond those of the original 13 were set by Congress as it created territories, divided them, and over time, created states within them. Territorial and new state lines often followed various geographic features (such as rivers or mountain range peaks), and were influenced by settlement or transportation patterns. At various times, national borders with territories formerly controlled by other countries (British North America, New France, New Spain including Spanish Florida, and Russian America) became institutionalized as the borders of U.S. states. In the West, relatively arbitrary straight lines following latitude and longitude often prevail, due to the sparseness of settlement west of the Mississippi River.\n\nOnce established, most state borders have, with few exceptions, been generally stable. Only two states, Missouri (Platte Purchase) and Nevada, grew appreciably after statehood. Several of the original states ceded land, over a several year period, to the Federal government, which in turn became the Northwest Territory, Southwest Territory, and Mississippi Territory. In 1791 Maryland and Virginia ceded land to create the District of Columbia (Virginia's portion was returned in 1847). In 1850, Texas ceded a large swath of land to the federal government. Additionally, Massachusetts and Virginia (on two occasions), have lost land, in each instance to form a new state.\n\nThere have been numerous other minor adjustments to state boundaries over the years due to improved surveys, resolution of ambiguous or disputed boundary definitions, or minor mutually agreed boundary adjustments for administrative convenience or other purposes. Occasionally the United States Congress or the United States Supreme Court have settled state border disputes. One notable example is the case New Jersey v. New York, in which New Jersey won roughly 90% of Ellis Island from New York in 1998. \n\nRegional grouping\n\nStates may be grouped in regions; there are endless variations and possible groupings. Many are defined in law or regulations by the federal government. For example, the United States Census Bureau defines four statistical regions, with nine divisions. The Census Bureau region definition is \"widely used … for data collection and analysis,\"\"The National Energy Modeling System: An Overview 2003\" (Report #:DOE/EIA-0581, October 2009). United States Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration. and is the most commonly used classification system. Other multi-state regions are unofficial, and defined by geography or cultural affinity rather than by state lines." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Texas (U.S. State)", "US-TX", "Texos", "Texas", "Lone Star State", "Texas, USA", "Religion in Texas", "Texas (state)", "Lake Ozark, Texas", "Christianity in Texas", "The State of Texas", "Twenty-eighth State", "Texas-sized", "Texas (State)", "28th State", "The Lone Star State", "Twenty-Eighth State", "Texas, United States", "Texas (U.S. state)", "Texass", "State of Texas", "Everything is bigger in Texas", "28th state" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "texas", "religion in texas", "texos", "christianity in texas", "texass", "texas u s state", "us tx", "lake ozark texas", "twenty eighth state", "state of texas", "lone star state", "texas state", "texas sized", "28th state", "texas usa", "texas united states", "everything is bigger in texas" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "texas", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Texas" }
In what year were women first admitted to Harvard?	tc_647	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "What_a_Year.txt" ], "title": [ "What a Year" ], "wiki_context": [ "What a Year was an Australian television documentary series, hosted by former ACA host Mike Munro and supermodel Megan Gale in 2006 and Bert Newton and Julia Zemiro in 2007. What a Year looked at the news, events, sporting achievements, entertainment and fads of a selected year in each episode. The hosts spoke to people who witnessed and experienced the particular events first-hand.\n\nHistory\n\nMike Munro and Megan Gale presented the 2006 series. They successfully hosted nine episodes and it attracted a lot of viewers. In 2007, Gale and Munro's show contracts expired, so Newton and Zemiro replaced them as presenters. However, it was cancelled by the Nine Network after coming last place in the nightly ratings on 6 August 2007 due to the big win for Channel Seven..\n\nIn a November issue of a TV Week magazine in 2007, Munro claimed he and Gale left the show because the programmers wanted to lighten up the show and make it more fun. Munro explained that he disliked wearing fashionable clothes for that era. But Newton loved wearing them, so he was hired instead of Munro.\n\nThe episodes that remained unaired after the show's axing were broadcast by Channel Nine over the summer non-ratings period, beginning the unaired episodes on 27 December 2007. The new episodes replaced plans to screen repeats of Australian travel series, Things To Try Before You Die.\n\nDuring March 2011, the Nine Network replayed the 1980 and 1999 themed episodes, on a Wednesday night at 7:30pm on their HD digital multi channel GEM after being abruptly cancelled and replaced with filler shows.\n\nAfter \"What A Year\"\n\n# Gale continued her modelling career and has also done some acting.\n# Munro hosted Missing Persons Unit from 2006 to 2008 and is now working on Sunday Night for Channel Seven.\n# Newton hosted 20 to 1 from 2006 to 2011.\n# Zemiro went to host Rockwiz on SBS.\n\nList of episodes\n\n2006\n\n# What a Year - 1975 - 2 October 2006\n# What a Year - 1983 - 9 October 2006\n# What a Year - 1997 - 16 October 2006\n# What a Year - 1969 - 23 October 2006\n# What a Year - 1986 - 30 October 2006\n# What a Year - 2001 - 6 November 2006\n# What a Year - 1991 - 13 November 2006\n# What a Year - 1977 - 20 November 2006\n# What a Year - 1989 - 27 November 2006\n\n2007\n\n# What a Year - 1980 - 30 July 2007\n# What a Year - 1999 - 6 August 2007" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "one thousand, nine hundred and sixty-nine", "1969" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "1969", "one thousand nine hundred and sixty nine" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "1969", "type": "Numerical", "value": "1969" }
Who had 70s No 1 hit with Show and Tell?	tc_648	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Show_and_Tell_(song).txt" ], "title": [ "Show and Tell (song)" ], "wiki_context": [ "\"Show and Tell\" is a popular song written by Jerry Fuller and first recorded by Johnny Mathis in 1972. This original version made it to #36 on the Easy Listening chart. \n\nAl Wilson version\n\nA 1973 recording of the song by Al Wilson reached No. 1 on the Billboard Hot 100 for one week on January 19, 1974; it sold over two million copies and was named a Cash Box Number One Single of the Year. Billboard ranked it as the No. 15 song for 1974. Wilson's version also made No. 10 on the Hot Soul Singles chart.\n\nChart performance\n\nWeekly singles charts\n\nYear-end charts\n\nOther cover versions\n\nPeabo Bryson had a No. 1 R&B hit with his version of the song in 1989. Bryson's version did not chart on the Hot 100. \nAmerican singer/actress Vanessa Williams covered the song for her 2005 studio album Everlasting Love.\n\nIn popular culture\n\nThe song was often played by Paul Schaffer and The CBS Orchestra on the Late Show with David Letterman for the segment \"Show & Tell\".\n*Wilson's version can be heard on TV show Malcolm in the Middle's episode Forbidden Girlfriend." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Al Wilson" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "al wilson" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "al wilson", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Al Wilson" }
Balice international airport is in which country?	tc_649	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "John_Paul_II_International_Airport_Kraków–Balice.txt" ], "title": [ "John Paul II International Airport Kraków–Balice" ], "wiki_context": [ "Saint John Paul II International Airport Kraków–Balice ( since 4 September 2007; earlier in ) is an international airport located near Kraków, in the village of Balice, 11 km west of the city centre, in southern Poland.\n\nHistory\n\nEarly years\n\nThe airport opened for civil aviation in 1964. The Balice airport was a military site until 28 February 1968. Four years later the first passenger terminal was built there.\n\nIn 1988 the authorities decided to build a new terminal that was opened for public use in 1993. In 1995, the entire apron was modernized.\n\nIn 1995 the airport's name was changed from Kraków–Balice Airport to John Paul II International Airport Kraków–Balice, to honor Pope John Paul II, who spent many years of his life in Kraków and had served as Archbishop of Kraków from 1963 until his elevation to the Papacy in 1978. For marketing reasons, the official name was further \"streamlined\" on 4 September 2007 as Kraków Airport im. Jana Pawła II.\n\nDevelopment since the 2000s\n\nThe airport was modernized once more in 2002, and since then new international connections have been established.\n\nIn 2003, when Irish low-cost carrier Ryanair became interested in starting a service from the John Paul II International Airport, the airport authorities refused to reduce the landing fees. In response, the regional authorities of Kraków and Lesser Poland Voivodeship decided to build a new airport near the existing one, using the infrastructure of the military airbase adjacent to the shared runway. Finally an agreement was reached, and the existing airport was opened to Ryanair and other low-cost carriers such as Germanwings, EasyJet, and Centralwings.\n\nOn 1 March 2007, a separate domestic terminal (T2) was opened. At that time, plans were underway to begin construction of a new terminal.\n\nA seven story parking garage opposite T1 became fully operational in May 2010. \n\nOn 12 December 2012, Irish low cost carrier Ryanair announced they would be opening their second Polish base in Kraków basing two Boeing 737-800 aircraft at the airport from 31 March 2013, which allows the carrier to increase the number of the routes from Kraków to 31. As of September 2013, a new hotel is being built in the nearest area of the airport terminal. \n\nKraków Airport is the second busiest airport in the country after Warsaw Frederic Chopin Airport. The airport has good growth prospects, as almost 8 million people live within 100 km of it. The airport also has a favorable location on the network of existing and planned motorways in this region of Poland, but it faces stiff competition from the nearby Katowice International Airport in Pyrzowice, as well as other Polish airports.\n\nFacilities\n\nTerminal\n\n11 April 2013 saw the beginning of construction works of a new airport terminal, which is adjacent to the existing old terminal building. The new terminal was finished in September 2015. The terminal serves all-year-round, 24 hours a day, both domestic as well as international flights. The expected maximum capacity of the terminal is up to 8 million passengers handled in a year (over twice as much as the airport served in 2012). It is also possible to handle transfer passengers irrespective of the routes (Schengen/Non-Schengen destinations). The old terminal is being reconstructed as of September 2015 and after the completion of the works it will serve as one big terminal together with the new building.\n\nRunway\n\nThe airport has one concrete runway, number 07/25, 2550 x.\n\nApart from the main terminal building, other elements of the airport infrastructure are planned to be built or rebuilt, such as a new luggage handling system or a roofed footbridge connecting the terminal building to a new hotel (opened November 2014), multi-level parking lot and the rail station, with direct railway link to Kraków Główny by Koleje Małopolskie from September 2015.\n\nAirlines and destinations\n\nStatistics\n\nTop destinations\n\nAnnual traffic\n\nGround transportation\n\nIn addition to road access by private car or taxi, other options are:\n\nTrain\n\nThe \"Balice Express\" which operated between Wieliczka, Kraków Główny (Main railway station) and the Kraków–Balice Airport railway station was temporarily suspended. The service resumed in September 2015. It takes about 20 minutes to get to the city centre., and further 20 minutes to Wieliczka (for Salt Mine). The railway line ultimately reaches the terminal building, rather than the previous temporary stop located 250 m from the terminal. In February 2014 the train connection was closed due to the construction of the new station (connected to the new terminal by a footbridge) but reopened on 29 September 2015.\n\nBus\n\nPublic buses link the airport during the day (lines 208, hourly, and 292, every 20 minutes) and during the night (line 902) with the main railway station in Kraków (Kraków Główny) and the central bus station (Kraków Główny RDA). Normal city tariffs apply (2 zones) thus making it by far the cheapest public transport connection to the city centre, at 4.00 PLN. Public buses can be used after purchasing tickets from a ticket machine located at the bus stop (with cash or credit card) or from ticket machines that can be found in some of the buses (with coins only). All tickets have to be validated after getting on a bus. It is also possible to use private-owned bus and minibus services connecting the airport with the city center or other cities in Poland. Tickets require bookings in advance." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Etymology of Poland", "Polish state", "Poleand", "Rzeczpospolita Polska", "Polland", "ISO 3166-1:PL", "Polskor", "Republic of Poland", "POLAND", "Fourth Poland", "Country- Poland", "Poleland", "Polska", "Poland", "Poland.", "Pols Land", "Polnd", "Po land", "Lenkija", "Bastarnia", "Pologne", "PolanD", "Polija", "Pole land", "Architecture of Poland", "Ploand" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "lenkija", "poleland", "iso 3166 1 pl", "po land", "pologne", "country poland", "polska", "pole land", "ploand", "polland", "fourth poland", "polskor", "rzeczpospolita polska", "polish state", "pols land", "bastarnia", "etymology of poland", "poland", "polnd", "architecture of poland", "polija", "republic of poland", "poleand" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "poland", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Poland" }
Panama proclaimed independence in 1903 from which country?	tc_651	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "Search" ], "filename": [ "Panama.txt", "Colombia.txt" ], "title": [ "Panama", "Colombia" ], "wiki_context": [ "Panama ( ; ), officially called the Republic of Panama (), is a transcontinental country situated between North and South America. It is bordered by Costa Rica to the west, Colombia to the southeast, the Caribbean to the north and the Pacific Ocean to the south. The capital and largest city is Panama City, whose metropolitan area is home to nearly half of the country's 3.9 million people.\n\nPanama was inhabited by several indigenous tribes prior to settlement by the Spanish in the 16th century. Panama broke away from Spain in 1821 and joined a union of Nueva Granada, Ecuador, and Venezuela named the Republic of Gran Colombia. When Gran Colombia dissolved in 1831, Panama and Nueva Granada remained joined, eventually becoming the Republic of Colombia. With the backing of the United States, Panama seceded from Colombia in 1903, allowing the Panama Canal to be built by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers between 1904 and 1914. In 1977, an agreement was signed for the total transfer of the Canal from the United States to Panama by the end of the 20th century, which culminated on 31 December 1999. \n\nRevenue from canal tolls continues to represent a significant portion of Panama's GDP, although commerce, banking, and tourism are major and growing sectors. In 2015, Panama ranked 60th in the world in terms of the Human Development Index. Since 2010, Panama remains the second most competitive economy in Latin America, according to the World Economic Forum's Global Competitiveness Index. Covering around 40 percent of its land area, Panama's jungles are home to an abundance of tropical plants and animals – some of them to be found nowhere else on the planet. \n\nEtymology\n\nThere are several theories about the origin of the name \"Panama\". Some believe that the country was named after a commonly found species of tree (Sterculia apetala, the Panama tree). Others believe that the first settlers arrived in Panama in August, when butterflies abound, and that the name means \"many butterflies\" in an indigenous language.\n\nThe best-known version is that a fishing village and its nearby beach bore the name \"Panamá\", which meant \"an abundance of fish\". Captain Antonio Tello de Guzmán, while exploring the Pacific side in 1515, stopped in the small indigenous fishing town. In 1517 Don Gaspar De Espinosa, a Spanish lieutenant, decided to settle a post there. In 1519, Pedrarias Dávila decided to establish the Empire's Pacific city in this site. The new settlement replaced Santa María La Antigua del Darién, which had lost its function within the Crown's global plan after the beginning of the Spanish exploitation of the riches in the Pacific.\n\nBlending all of the above together, Panamanians believe in general that the word Panama means \"abundance of fish, trees and butterflies\". This is the official definition given in social studies textbooks approved by the Ministry of Education in Panama. However, others believe the word Panama comes from the Kuna word \"bannaba\" which means \"distant\" or \"far away\".\n\nHistory\n\nAt the time of the arrival of the Spanish in the 16th century, the known inhabitants of Panama included the Cuevas and the Coclé tribes. These people have nearly disappeared, as they had no immunity from European infectious diseases. \n\nPre-Columbian period \n\nThe Isthmus of Panama was formed about 3 million years ago when the land bridge between North and South America finally closed and plants and animals gradually crossed it in both directions. The existence of the isthmus affected the dispersal of people, agriculture and technology throughout the American continent from the appearance of the first hunters and collectors to the era of villages and cities. \n\nThe earliest discovered artifacts of indigenous peoples in Panama include Paleo-Indians projectile points. Later central Panama was home to some of the first pottery-making in the Americas, for example the cultures at Monagrillo, which date back to 2500–1700 BC. These evolved into significant populations best known through their spectacular burials (dating to c. 500–900 AD) at the Monagrillo archaeological site, and their beautiful Gran Coclé style polychrome pottery. The monumental monolithic sculptures at the Barriles (Chiriqui) site are also important traces of these ancient isthmian cultures.\n\nBefore Europeans arrived Panama was widely settled by Chibchan, Chocoan, and Cueva peoples. The largest group were the Cueva (whose specific language affiliation is poorly documented). The size of the indigenous population of the isthmus at the time of European colonization is uncertain. Estimates range as high as two million people, but more recent studies place that number closer to 200,000. Archaeological finds and testimonials by early European explorers describe diverse native isthmian groups exhibiting cultural variety and suggesting people with developedned by regular regional routes of commerce.\n\nWhen Panama was colonized, the indigenous peoples fled into the forest and nearby islands. Scholars believe that infectious disease was the primary cause of the population decline of American natives. The indigenous peoples had no acquired immunity to diseases which had been chronic in Eurasian populations for centuries. \n\nConquest to 1799\n\nRodrigo de Bastidas, sailed westward from Venezuela in 1501 in search of gold, and became the first European to explore the isthmus of Panama. A year later, Christopher Columbus visited the isthmus and established a short-lived settlement in the Darien. Vasco Núñez de Balboa's tortuous trek from the Atlantic to the Pacific in 1513 demonstrated that the isthmus was, indeed, the path between the seas, and Panama quickly became the crossroads and marketplace of Spain's empire in the New World. Gold and silver were brought by ship from South America, hauled across the isthmus, and loaded aboard ships for Spain. The route became known as the Camino Real, or Royal Road, although it was more commonly known as Camino de Cruces (Road of Crosses) because of the number of gravesites along the way.\n\nPanama was under Spanish rule for almost 300 years (1538–1821) and became part of the Viceroyalty of Peru, along with all other Spanish possessions in South America. From the outset, Panamanian identity was based on a sense of \"geographic destiny\", and Panamanian fortunes fluctuated with the geopolitical importance of the isthmus. The colonial experience also spawned Panamanian nationalism as well as a racially complex and highly stratified society, the source of internal conflicts that ran counter to the unifying force of nationalism.\n\nIn 1538, the Real Audiencia de Panama was established, initially with jurisdiction from Nicaragua to Cape Horn before the conquest of Peru. A Real Audiencia (royal audiency) was a judicial district that functioned as an appeals court. Each audiencia had an oidores (Spanish: hearer, a judge).\n\nSpanish authorities had little control over much of the territory of Panama. Large sections managed to resist conquest and missionization until very late in the colonial era. Because of this, indigenous people of the area were often referred to as \"indios de guerra\" (war Indians) and resisted Spanish attempts to conquer them or missionize them. However, Panama was enormously important to Spain strategically because it was the easiest way to transship silver mined in Peru to Europe. Silver cargos were landed at Panama and then taken overland to Portobello or Nombre de Dios on the Caribbean side of the isthmus for further shipment.\n\nBecause of the incomplete Spanish control, the Panama route was vulnerable to attack from pirates (mostly Dutch and English) and from 'new world' Africans called cimarrons who had freed themselves from enslavement and lived in communes or palenques around the Camino Real in Panama's Interior, and on some of the islands off Panama's Pacific coast. One such famous community amounted to a small kingdom under Bayano, which emerged in the 1552 to 1558. Sir Francis Drake's famous raids on Panama in 1572–73 were aided by Panama cimarrons, and Spanish authorities were only able to bring them under control by making an alliance with them that guaranteed their freedom in exchange for military support in 1582. \n\nThe prosperity enjoyed during the first two centuries (1540–1740) while contributing to colonial growth; the placing of extensive regional judicial authority (Real Audiencia) as part of its jurisdiction; and the pivotal role it played at the height of the Spanish Empire – the first modern global empire – helped define a distinctive sense of autonomy and of regional or national identity within Panama well before the rest of the colonies.\n\nThe end of the encomienda system in Azuero, however, sparked the conquest of Veraguas in that same year. Under the leadership of Francisco Vázquez, the region of Veraguas passed into Castillan rule in 1558. In the newly conquered region, the old system of encomienda was imposed. On the other hand, the Panamanian movement for independence can be indirectly attributed to the abolishment of the encomienda system in the Azuero Peninsula, set forth by the Spanish Crown, in 1558 because of repeated protests by locals against the mistreatment of the native population. In its stead, a system of medium and smaller-sized landownership was promoted, thus taking away the power from the large landowners and into the hands of medium and small sized proprietors.\n\nPanama was the site of the ill-fated Darien scheme, which set up a Scottish colony in the region in 1698. This failed for a number of reasons, and the ensuing debt contributed to the union of England and Scotland in 1707. \n\nIn 1671, the privateer Henry Morgan, licensed by the English government, sacked and burned the city of Panama – the second most important city in the Spanish New World at the time. In 1717, the viceroyalty of New Granada (northern South America) was created in response to other Europeans trying to take Spanish territory in the Caribbean region. The Isthmus of Panama was placed under its jurisdiction. However, the remoteness of New Granada's capital, Santa Fe de Bogotá (the modern capital of Colombia) proved a greater obstacle than the Spanish crown anticipated as the authority of New Granada was contested by the seniority, closer proximity, and previous ties to the viceroyalty of Lima and even by Panama's own initiative. This uneasy relationship between Panama and Bogotá would persist for centuries.\n\nIn 1744, Bishop Francisco Javier de Luna Victoria DeCastro established the College of San Ignacio de Loyola and on June 3, 1749, founded La Real y Pontificia Universidad de San Javier. By this time, however, Panama's importance and influence had become insignificant as Spain's power dwindled in Europe and advances in navigation technique increasingly permitted to round Cape Horn in order to reach the Pacific. While the Panama route was short it was also labor-intensive and expensive because of the loading and unloading and laden-down trek required to get from the one coast to the other.\n\nDuring the last half of the 18th century and the first half of the 19th century, migrations to the countryside decreased Panama City's population and the isthmus' economy shifted from the tertiary to the primary sector.\n\n1800s\n\nAs the Spanish American wars of independence were heating up all across Latin America, Panama City was preparing for independence; however, their plans were accelerated by the unilateral Grito de La Villa de Los Santos (Cry From the Town of Saints), issued on November 10, 1821 by the residents of Azuero without backing from Panama City to declare their separation from the Spanish Empire. In both Veraguas and the capital this act was met with disdain, although on differing levels. To Veraguas, it was the ultimate act of treason, while to the capital, it was seen as inefficient and irregular, and furthermore forced them to accelerate their plans.\n\nNevertheless, the Grito was an event that shook the isthmus to its very core. It was a sign, on the part of the residents of Azuero, of their antagonism toward the independence movement in the capital.Those in the capital region in turn regarded the Azueran movement with contempt, since the separatists in Panama City believed that their counterparts in Azuero were fighting not only for independence from Spain, but also for their right to self-rule apart from Panama City once the Spaniards were gone.\n\nIt was an incredibly brave move on the part of Azuero, which lived in fear of Colonel José Pedro Antonio de Fábrega y de las Cuevas (1774–1841), and with good reason. The Colonel was a staunch loyalist and had all of the isthmus' military supplies in his hands.They feared quick retaliation and swift retribution against the separatists.\n\nWhat they had counted on, however, was the influence of the separatists in the capital. Ever since October 1821, when the former Governor General, Juan de la Cruz Murgeón, left the isthmus on a campaign in Quito and left the Veraguan colonel in charge, the separatists had been slowly converting Fábrega to the separatist side. So, by November 10, Fábrega was now a supporter of the independence movement. Soon after the separatist declaration of Los Santos, Fábrega convened every organization in the capital with separatist interests and formally declared the city's support for independence. No military repercussions occurred because of the skillful bribing of royalist troops.\n\nPost-colonial Panama\n\nIn the first eighty years following independence from Spain, Panama was a department of Colombia, after voluntarily joining it at the end of 1821. The people of the isthmus made several attempts to secede and came close to success in 1831, and again during the Thousand Days' War of 1899–1902. When the Senate of Colombia rejected the Hay–Herrán Treaty, the United States decided to support the Panamanian independence movement. \n\nIn November 1903 Panama proclaimed its independence and concluded the Hay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty with the United States. The treaty granted rights to the United States \"as if it were sovereign\" in a zone roughly 10 mi wide and 50 mi long. In that zone, the U.S. would build a canal, then administer, fortify, and defend it \"in perpetuity\". In 1914, the United States completed the existing 83 km (52 mi) canal. The early 1960s saw the beginning of sustained pressure in Panama for the renegotiation of this treaty.\n\nThe US intention to influence the area, especially the Panama Canal's construction and control, led to the separation of Panama from Colombia in 1903 and its establishment as a nation. The United States intensively encouraged the Panamanian separatist movement. From 1903 to 1968, Panama was a constitutional democracy dominated by a commercially oriented oligarchy. During the 1950s, the Panamanian military began to challenge the oligarchy's political hegemony.\n\nAmid negotiations for the Robles–Johnson treaty, Panama held elections in 1968. The candidates were \nDr. Arnulfo Arias Madrid,Unión Nacional (\"National Union\")\nAntonio González Revilla,Democracia Cristiana (\"Christian Democrats\")\nengineer David Samudio, Alianza del Pueblo (\"People's Alliance\") who had the government's support.\n(see Pizzurno Gelós and Araúz, Estudios sobre el Panamá republicano 508). \n\nArias Madrid was declared the winner of elections that were marked by violence and accusations of fraud against Alianza del Pueblo. On October 1, 1968, Arias Madrid took office as president of Panama, promising to lead a government of \"national union\" that would end the reigning corruption and pave the way for a new Panama. A week and a half later, on October 11, 1968, the National Guard (Guardia Nacional) ousted Arias and initiated the downward spiral that would culminate with the United States' invasion in 1989. Arias, who had promised to respect the hierarchy of the National Guard, broke the pact and started a large restructuring of the Guard. To preserve the Guard's interests, Lieutenant Colonel Omar Torrijos Herrera and Major Boris Martínez commanded the first military coup against a civilian government in Panamanian republican history.\n\nThe military justified itself by declaring that Arias Madrid was trying to install a dictatorship, and promised a return to constitutional rule. In the meantime, the Guard began a series of populist measures that would gain support for the coup. Among them were:\nPrice freezing on food, medicine and other goods until January 31, 1969\nrent level freeze\nlegalization of the permanence of squatting families in boroughs surrounding the historic site of Panama Viejo. \nParallel to this, the military began a policy of repression against the opposition, who were labeled communists. The military appointed a Provisional Government Junta that was to arrange new elections. However, the National Guard would prove to be very reluctant to abandon power and soon began calling itself El Gobierno Revolucionario (\"The Revolutionary Government\").\n\nPost-1970\n\nDuring Omar Torrijos's control, the military regime transformed the political and economic structure of the country by initiating massive coverage of social security services and expanding public education. The constitution was changed in 1972. For the reform to the constitution, the military created a new organization, the Assembly of Corregimiento Representatives, which replaced the National Assembly. The new assembly, also known as the Poder Popular (\"Power of the People\"), was composed of 505 members selected by the military with no participation from political parties, which the military had eliminated. The new constitution proclaimed Omar Torrijos the \"Maximum Leader of the Panamanian Revolution\", and conceded him unlimited power for six years, although, to keep a façade of constitutionality, Demetrio B. Lakas was appointed president for the same period (Pizzurno Gelós and Araúz, Estudios sobre el Panamá republicano 541).\n\nIn 1981 Torrijos died in a plane crash. Torrijos' death altered the tone of Panama's political evolution. Despite the 1983 constitutional amendments, which proscribed a political role for the military, the Panama Defense Forces (PDF), as they were then known, continued to dominate Panamanian political life. By this time, General Manuel Noriega was firmly in control of both the PDF and the civilian government.\n\nIn the 1984 elections, the candidates were \nNicolás Ardito Barletta Vallarino, supported by the military in a union called UNADE\nDr. Arnulfo Arias Madrid, for the opposition union ADO\nex-General Rubén Darío Paredes, who had been forced to an early retirement by Noriega, running for Partido Nacionalista Popular PNP (\"Popular Nationalist Party\")\nCarlos Iván Zúñiga, running for Partido Acción Popular (PAPO) meaning \"Popular Action Party\"\nBarletta was declared the winner of elections that had been clearly won by Madrid. Ardito Barletta inherited a country in economic ruin and hugely indebted to the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank. Amid the economic crisis and Barletta's efforts to calm the country's creditors, street protests arose, and so did military repression.\n\nMeanwhile, Noriega's regime had fostered a well-hidden criminal economy that operated as a parallel source of income for the military and their allies, providing revenues from drugs and money laundering. Toward the end of the military dictatorship, a new wave of Chinese migrants arrived on the isthmus in the hope of migrating to the United States. The smuggling of Chinese became an enormous business, with revenues of up to 200 million dollars for Noriega's regime (see Mon 167). \n\nThe military dictatorship, at that time supported by the United States, perpetrated the assassination and torture of more than one hundred Panamanians and forced at least a hundred more dissidents into exile. (see Zárate 15). Noriega also began playing a double role in Central America under the supervision of the CIA. While the Contadora group conducted diplomatic efforts to achieve peace in the region, Noriega supplied Nicaraguan Contras and other guerrillas in the region with weapons and ammunition.\n\nOn June 6, 1987, the recently retired Colonel Roberto Díaz Herrera, resentful that Noriega's broke the agreed \"Torrijos Plan\" of succession that would have made him the chief of the military after Noriega, decided to denounce the regime. He revealed details of the electoral fraud, accused Noriega of planning Torrijos's death and declared that Torrijos had received 12 million dollars from the Shah of Iran for giving the exiled Iranian leader asylum. Hd also accused Noriega of the assassination by decapitation of then opposition leader Dr. Hugo Spadafora.\n\nOn the night of June 9, 1987, the Cruzada Civilista (\"Civic Crusade\") was created and began organizing actions of civil disobedience. The Crusade called for a general strike. In response, the military suspended constitutional rights and declared a state of emergency in the country. On July 10, the Civic Crusade called for a massive demonstration that was violently repressed by the \"Dobermans\", the military's special riot control unit. That day, later known as El Viernes Negro (\"Black Friday\"), left six hundred people injured and another six hundred detained, many of whom were later tortured and raped.\n\nUnited States President Ronald Reagan began a series of sanctions against the military regime. The United States froze economic and military assistance to Panama in the summer of 1987 in response to the domestic political crisis in Panama and an attack on the U.S. Embassy. Yet these sanctions did little to overthrow Noriega but instead severely damaged Panama's economy. The sanctions hit the Panamanian population hard and caused the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) to decline almost 25% between 1987–1989 (see Acosta n.p.). \n\nOn February 5, 1988, General Manuel Antonio Noriega was accused of drug trafficking by federal juries in Tampa and Miami.\n\nIn April 1988, the U.S. President Ronald Reagan invoked the International Emergency Economic Powers Act, freezing Panamanian government assets in all U.S. organizations. In May 1989 Panamanians voted overwhelmingly for the anti-Noriega candidates. The Noriega regime promptly annulled the election and embarked on a new round of repression.\n\nU.S. invasion (1989)\n\nThe United States government said Operation Just Cause, which commenced on December 20, 1989, was necessary to safeguard the lives of U.S. citizens in Panama, defend democracy and human rights, combat drug trafficking, and secure the neutrality of the Panama Canal as required by the Torrijos–Carter Treaties (New York Times, A Transcript of President Bush's Address n.p.). Human Rights Watch wrote in the 1989 report: \"Washington turned a blind eye to abuses in Panama for many years until concern over drug trafficking prompted indictments of the general [Noriega] by two grand juries in Florida in February 1988\". The U.S. reported 23 servicemen killed and 324 wounded, with Panamanian casualties estimated around 450. Described as a surgical maneuver, the action led to civilian deaths whose estimated numbers range from 400 to 4,000 during the two weeks of armed activities. This surgical maneuver represented the largest United States military operation to that date since the end of the Vietnam War (Cajar Páez 22) The United Nations put the Panamanian civilian death toll at 500, while other sources had higher statistics. The number of U.S. civilians (and their dependents), who had worked for the Panama Canal Commission and the U.S. Military, and were killed by the Panamanian Defense Forces, has never been fully disclosed.\n\nOn December 29, the UN General Assembly approved a resolution calling the intervention in Panama a \"flagrant violation of international law and of the independence, sovereignty and territorial integrity of the States\". The resolution was vetoed by the United States, the United Kingdom, and France. \n\nThe urban population, with many living below the poverty level, was greatly affected by the 1989 intervention. As pointed out in 1995 by a UN Technical Assistance Mission to Panama, the bombardments during the invasion caused the displacement of 20,000 people. The most heavily affected district was impoverished El Chorrillo, where several blocks of apartments were completely destroyed. El Chorrillo had been built in days of Canal construction, a series of wooden barracks which easily caught fire under the United States attack. The economic damage caused by the intervention has been estimated to be between 1.5 and 2 billion dollars. n.p. Many Panamanians supported the intervention. \n\nPost-intervention era\n\nPanama's Electoral Tribunal moved quickly to restore the civilian constitutional government, reinstated the results of the May 1989 election on December 27, 1989, and confirmed the victory of President Guillermo Endara and Vice Presidents Guillermo Ford and Ricardo Arias Calderon.\n\nDuring its five-year term, the often-fractious government struggled to meet the public's high expectations. Its new police force was a major improvement over its predecessor but was not fully able to deter crime. Ernesto Pérez Balladares was sworn in as President on September 1, 1994, after an internationally monitored election campaign.\n\nPerez Balladares ran as the candidate for a three-party coalition dominated by the Democratic Revolutionary Party (PRD), the erstwhile political arm of military dictatorships. Perez Balladares worked skillfully during the campaign to rehabilitate the PRD's image, emphasizing the party's populist Torrijos roots rather than its association with Noriega. He won the election with only 33% of the vote when the major non-PRD forces splintered into competing factions. His administration carried out economic reforms and often worked closely with the U.S. on implementation of the Canal treaties.\n\nOn September 1, 1999, Mireya Moscoso, the widow of former President Arnulfo Arias Madrid, took office after defeating PRD candidate Martin Torrijos, son of Omar Torrijos, in a free and fair election. During her administration, Moscoso attempted to strengthen social programs, especially for child and youth development, protection, and general welfare. Moscoso's administration successfully handled the Panama Canal transfer and was effective in the administration of the Canal.\n \nThe PRD's Martin Torrijos won the presidency and a legislative majority in the National Assembly in 2004. Torrijos ran his campaign on a platform of, among other pledges, a \"zero tolerance\" for corruption, a problem endemic to the Moscoso and Perez Balladares administrations. After taking office, Torrijos passed a number of laws which made the government more transparent. He formed a National Anti-Corruption Council whose members represented the highest levels of government and civil society, labor organizations, and religious leadership. In addition, many of his closest Cabinet ministers were non-political technocrats known for their support for the Torrijos government's anti-corruption aims. Despite the Torrijos administration's public stance on corruption, many high-profile cases, particularly involving political or business elites, were never acted upon.\n\nConservative supermarket magnate Ricardo Martinelli was elected to succeed Martin Torrijos with a landslide victory in the May 2009 presidential election. Mr. Martinelli's business credentials drew voters worried by slowing growth due to the world financial crisis. Standing for the four-party opposition Alliance for Change, Mr. Martinelli gained 60% of the vote, against 37% for the candidate of the governing left-wing Democratic Revolutionary Party.\n\nOn May 4, 2014, Juan Carlos Varela won the 2014 presidential election with over 39% of the votes, against the party of his former political partner Ricardo Martinelli, Cambio Democrático, and their candidate José Domingo Arias. He was sworn in on 1 July 2014.\n\nGeography\n\nPanama is located in Central America, bordering both the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean, between Colombia and Costa Rica. It mostly lies between latitudes 7° and 10°N, and longitudes 77° and 83°W (a small area lies west of 83°).\n\nIts location on the Isthmus of Panama is strategic. By 2000, Panama controlled the Panama Canal which connects the Atlantic Ocean and the Caribbean Sea to the North of the Pacific Ocean. Panama's total area is 74,177.3 km2.\n\nThe dominant feature of Panama's geography is the central spine of mountains and hills that forms the continental divide. The divide does not form part of the great mountain chains of North America, and only near the Colombian border are there highlands related to the Andean system of South America. The spine that forms the divide is the highly eroded arch of an uplift from the sea bottom, in which peaks were formed by volcanic intrusions.\n\nThe mountain range of the divide is called the Cordillera de Talamanca near the Costa Rican border. Farther east it becomes the Serranía de Tabasará, and the portion of it closer to the lower saddle of the isthmus, where the Panama Canal is located, is often called the Sierra de Veraguas. As a whole, the range between Costa Rica and the canal is generally referred to by geographers as the Cordillera Central.\n\nThe highest point in the country is the Volcán Barú, which rises to 3,475 metres (11,401 ft). A nearly impenetrable jungle forms the Darién Gap between Panama and Colombia where Colombian guerrilla and drug dealers are operating with hostage-taking. This and forest protection movements create a break in the Pan-American Highway, which otherwise forms a complete road from Alaska to Patagonia.\n\nPanama's wildlife holds the most diversity of all the countries in Central America. It is home to many South American species as well as North American wildlife.\n\nWaterways\n\nNearly 500 rivers lace Panama's rugged landscape. Mostly unnavigable, many originate as swift highland streams, meander in valleys, and form coastal deltas. However, the Río Chagres (Rio Chagres), located in central Panama, is one of the few wide rivers and a source of enormous hydroelectric power. The central part of the river is dammed by the Gatun Dam and forms Gatun Lake, an artificial lake that constitutes part of the Panama Canal. The lake was created between 1907 and 1913 by the building of the Gatun Dam across the Chagres River. When it was created, Gatun Lake was the largest man-made lake in the world, and the dam was the largest earth dam. The river drains northwest into the Caribbean. The Kampia and Madden Lakes (also filled from the Río Chagres) provide hydroelectricity for the area of the former Canal Zone.\n\nThe Río Chepo, another source of hydroelectric power, is one of the more than 300 rivers emptying into the Pacific. These Pacific-oriented rivers are longer and slower running than those of the Caribbean side. Their basins are also more extensive. One of the longest is the Río Tuira, which flows into the Golfo de San Miguel and is the nation's only river navigable by larger vessels.\n\nHarbors\n\nThe Caribbean coastline is marked by several good natural harbors. However, Cristóbal, at the Caribbean terminus of the canal, had the only important port facilities in the late 1980s. The numerous islands of the Archipiélago de Bocas del Toro, near the Beaches of Costa Rica, provide an extensive natural roadstead and shield the banana port of Almirante. The over 350 San Blas Islands, near Colombia, are strung out for more than 160 km along the sheltered Caribbean coastline.\n\nCurrently, the terminal ports located at each end of the Panama Canal, namely the Port of Cristobal and the Port of Balboa, are ranked second and third respectively in Latin America in terms of numbers of containers units (TEU) handled. The Port of Balboa covers 182 hectares and contains four berths for containers and two multi-purpose berths. In total, the berths are over 2,400 meters long with alongside depth of 15 meters. The Port of Balboa has 18 super post-Panamax and Panamax quay cranes and 44 gantry cranes. The Port of Balboa also contains 2,100 square meters of warehouse space. \n\nThe Ports of Cristobal (encompassing the container terminals of Panama Ports Cristobal, Manzanillo International Terminal and Colon Container Terminal) handled 2,210,720 TEU in 2009, second only to the Port of Santos, Brazil, in Latin America.\n\nExcellent deep water ports capable of accommodating large VLCC (Very Large Crude Oil Carriers) are located at Charco Azul, Chiriquí (Pacific) and Chiriquí Grande, Bocas del Toro (Atlantic) near Panama's western border with Costa Rica. The Trans-Panama pipeline, running across the isthmus with a length of 131 km, has been operating between Charco Azul and Chiriquí Grande since 1979. \n\nClimate\n\nPanama has a tropical climate. Temperatures are uniformly high—as is the relative humidity—and there is little seasonal variation. Diurnal ranges are low; on a typical dry-season day in the capital city, the early morning minimum may be 24 °C and the afternoon maximum 30 °C. The temperature seldom exceeds 32 °C for more than a short time. Temperatures on the Pacific side of the isthmus are somewhat lower than on the Caribbean, and breezes tend to rise after dusk in most parts of the country. Temperatures are markedly cooler in the higher parts of the mountain ranges, and frosts occur in the Cordillera de Talamanca in western Panama.\n\nClimatic regions are determined less on the basis of temperature than on rainfall, which varies regionally from less than 1300 mm to more than 3000 mm per year. Almost all of the rain falls during the rainy season, which is usually from April to December, but varies in length from seven to nine months. In general, rainfall is much heavier on the Caribbean than on the Pacific side of the continental divide. The annual average in Panama City is little more than half of that in Colón. Although rainy-season thunderstorms are common, the country is outside the hurricane belt.\n\nPanama's tropical environment supports an abundance of plants. Forests dominate, interrupted in places by grasslands, scrub, and crops. Although nearly 40% of Panama is still wooded, deforestation is a continuing threat to the rain-drenched woodlands. Tree cover has been reduced by more than 50% since the 1940s. Subsistence farming, widely practiced from the northeastern jungles to the southwestern grasslands, consists largely of corn, bean, and tuber plots. Mangrove swamps occur along parts of both coasts, with banana plantations occupying deltas near Costa Rica. In many places, a multi-canopied rain forest abuts the swamp on one side of the country and extends to the lower reaches of slopes in the other.\n\nPolitics\n\nPanama's politics take place in a framework of a presidential representative democratic republic, whereby the President of Panama is both head of state and head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the National Assembly. The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature.\n\nFor all people national elections are universal and mandatory for all citizens 18 years and older. National elections for the executive and legislative branches take place every five years. Members of the judicial branch (justices) are appointed by the head of state. Panama's National Assembly is elected by proportional representation in fixed electoral districts, so many smaller parties are represented. Presidential elections do not require a simple majority; out of the four last presidents only one, incumbent president Ricardo Martinelli, was elected with over 50% of the popular vote. \n\nPolitical culture\n\nIn December 1989 the United States invaded Panama to depose the dictator Manuel Noriega. Since the U.S. invasion, and resulting end to the 21-year military dictatorship, Panama has successfully completed four peaceful transfers of power to opposing political factions. The political landscape is dominated by two major parties and many smaller parties, many of which are driven by individual leaders more than ideologies. Former President Martin Torrijos is the son of dictator Omar Torrijos. He succeeded Mireya Moscoso, the widow of Arnulfo Arias. Panama's most recent national elections occurred on May 4, 2014 with Incumbent Vice-President Juan Carlos Varela declared the victor.\n\nForeign relations\n\nThe United States cooperates with the Panamanian government in promoting economic, political, security, and social development through U.S. and international agencies. Cultural ties between the two countries are strong, and many Panamanians come to the United States for higher education and advanced training.\n\nMilitary\n\nThe Panamanian Public Forces are the national security forces of Panama. Panama is the second country in Latin America (the other being Costa Rica) to permanently abolish standing armies. Panama maintains armed police and security forces, and small air and maritime forces. They are tasked with law enforcement and can perform limited military actions.\n\nAdministrative divisions\n\nPanama is divided into ten provinces with their respective local authorities (governors), which are divided into districts and corregimientos (townships) and has a total of ten cities. Also, there are five Comarcas (literally: \"Shires\") populated by a variety of indigenous groups.\n\n;Provinces\n* Bocas del Toro\n* Chiriquí\n* Coclé\n* Colón\n* Darién\n* Herrera\n* Los Santos\n* Panamá\n* West Panamá\n* Veraguas\n \n;Regions\n* Emberá\n* Guna Yala\n* Ngöbe-Buglé Comarca\n* Kuna de Madugandí\n* Kuna de Wargandí\n\nEconomy\n\nAccording to the CIA World Factbook, Panama had an unemployment rate of 2.7%. A food surplus was registered in August 2008. On the Human Development Index, Panama ranked 60th in 2015. In recent years, Panama's economy has experienced a boom, with growth in real gross domestic product (GDP) averaging over 10.4% in the 2006–2008 period. Panama's economy has been among the fastest growing and best managed in Latin America. The Latin Business Chronicle predicted that Panama would be the fastest growing economy in Latin America during the five years period 2010–14, matching Brazil's 10% rate. \n\nThe expansion project on the Panama Canal and the free trade agreement with the United States are expected to boost and extend economic expansion for some time.\n\nDespite Panama's upper-middle per capita GDP, it remains a country of stark contrasts. Perpetuated by dramatic educational disparities, over 25% of Panama's population lived in national poverty in 2013 and 3% of the population lives in extreme poverty, according to latest reports by the World Bank. \n\nEconomic sectors\n\nPanama's economy, because of its key geographic location, is mainly based on a well developed service sector especially commerce, tourism, and trading. The handover of the Canal and military installations by the United States has given rise to large construction projects.\n\nA project to build of a third set of locks for the Panama Canal A was overwhelmingly approved in referendum (with low voter turnout, however) on October 22, 2006. The official estimated cost of the project is US$5.25 billion. The canal is of major economic importance because it provides millions of dollars of toll revenue to the national economy and provides massive employment. Transfer of control of the Canal to the Panamanian government completed in 1999, after being controlled by the US for 85 years.\n\nCopper and gold deposits are being developed by foreign investors, to the dismay of some environmental groups, as all of the projects are located within protected areas. \n\nPanama as a tax haven \n\nSince the early 20th century, Panama has gained a reputation worldwide for being a tax haven. In 2016, the release of the Panama Papers caused a huge global financial scandal.\n\nTransportation\n\nPanama is home to Tocumen International Airport, Central America's largest airport. Additionally there are more than 20 smaller airfields in the country. See list of airports in Panama.\n\nPanama's roads, traffic and transportation systems are generally safe, though night driving is difficult and in many cases, restricted by local authorities. This usually occurs in informal settlements.[http://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/cis/cis_994.html \"Panama: Country-specific information\"]. U.S. Department of State (March 18, 2009). Traffic in Panama moves on the right, and Panamanian law requires that drivers and passengers wear seat belts. Highways are generally well-developed for a Latin American country.\n\nCurrently, Panama has modern buses known as Metrobuses, along with a Metro line. Formerly, the system was dominated by colorfully painted diablos rojos, with some remaining. A ' is usually \"customized\" or painted with bright colors, usually depicting famous actors, politicians or singers. Panama City's streets experience frequent traffic jams due to poor planning for the now extensive private vehicle fleet.\n\nTourism\n\nTourism in Panama is rapidly growing. It has maintained its growth over the past five years due to government tax and price discounts to foreign guests and retirees. These economic incentives have caused Panama to be regarded as a relatively good place to retire in the world. Real estate developers in Panama have increased the number of tourism destinations in the past five years because of the interest for these visitor incentives. 2,200,000 tourists arrived in 2012.\n\nThe number of tourists from Europe grew by 23.1% during the first nine months of 2008. According to the Tourism Authority of Panama (ATP), from January to September, 71,154 tourists from Europe entered Panama, which is 13,373 more than figures for same period the previous year. Most of the European tourists were Spaniards (14,820), followed by Italians (13,216), French (10,174) and British (8,833). There were 6997 from Germany, the most populous country in the European Union. Europe has become one of the key markets to promote Panama as a tourist destination.\n\nIn 2012, 4.345.5 million entered into the Panamanian economy as a result of tourism. This accounted for 9.5% of gross domestic product in the country, surpassing other productive sectors.\n\nPanama enacted Law No. 80 in 2012 for the promotion of foreign investment in tourism. Law 80 replaced an older Law 8 of 1994. Law 80 provides 100% exemption from income tax and real estate taxes for 15 years, duty-free imports for construction materials and equipment for five years, and capital gains tax exemption for five years. \n\nCurrency\n\nThe Panamanian currency is officially the balboa, fixed at a rate of 1:1 with the United States dollar since Panamanian independence in 1903. In practice Panama is dollarized: US dollars are legal tender and used for all paper currency, while Panama has its own coinage. Because of the tie to US dollars, Panama has traditionally had low inflation. According to the Economic Commission for Latin American and the Caribbean, Panama's inflation in 2006 was 2.0% as measured by weight Consumer Price Index (CPI). \n\nThe balboa replaced the Colombian peso in 1904 after Panama's independence. Balboa banknotes were printed in 1941 by President Arnulfo Arias. They were recalled several days later, giving them the name \"The Seven Day Dollar\". The notes were burned after the seven days but occasionally balboa notes can be found in collections. These were the only banknotes ever issued by Panama and U.S. notes have circulated both before and since.\n\nInternational trade\n\nThe high levels of Panamanian trade are in large part from the Colón Free Trade Zone, the largest free trade zone in the Western Hemisphere. Last year the zone accounted for 92% of Panama's exports and 64% of its imports, according to an analysis of figures from the Colon zone management and estimates of Panama's trade by the United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean. Panama's economy is also very much supported by the trade and export of coffee and other agricultural products.\n\nThe Bilateral Investment Treaty (BIT) between the governments of the United States and Panama was signed on October 27, 1982. The treaty protects US investment and assists Panama in its efforts to develop its economy by creating conditions more favorable for US private investment and thereby strengthening the development of its private sector. The BIT was the first such treaty signed by the US in the Western Hemisphere. A Panama - United States Trade Promotion Agreement (TPA) was signed in 2007, approved by Panama on July 11, 2007 and by US President Obama on October 21, 2011, and the agreement entered into force on October 31, 2012. \n\nSociety\n\nDemographics\n\nPanama recorded a population of 3,405,813 in its 2010 census. The proportion of the population aged below 15 in 2010 was 29%. 64.5% of the population were aged between 15 and 65, with 6.6% of the population being 65 years or older. \n\nMore than half the population lives in the Panama City–Colón metropolitan corridor, which spans several cities. Panama's urban population exceeds 70%, making Panama's population the most urbanized in Central America. \n\nEthnic groups\n\nIn 2010 the population was 65% Mestizo (mixed white, Native American), 12.3% Native Americans, 9.2% Black/mulattoes and 6.7% White.\n\nEthnic groups in Panama include Mestizo people, who are a mix of European and native ancestry. Black, or Afro-Panamanians account for 15-20% of the population. Most Afro-Panamanians live on the Panama-Colón metropolitan area, the Darien Province, La Palma, and Bocas Del Toro. Neighborhoods in Panama City that have large black populations include; Curundu, El Chorrillo, Rio Abajo, San Joaquín, El Marañón, San Miguelito, Colón, and Santa Ana. Black Panamanians are descendents of African slaves brought to the Americas on the 1500 Atlantic Slave Trade. The second wave of black people brought to Panama came from the Caribbean during the construction of the Panama Canal. Panama also has a considerable Chinese and Indian (India) population. They were brought to work on the canal during its construction. Most Chinese-Panamanians reside in the province of Chiriquí. Europeans and white-Panamanians are a minority in Panama. They are descendents of the people who colonized Panama, worked on the canal, and who moved to the country. Panama is also home to a small Arab community that have Mosques to practice Islam.\n\nThe Amerindian population includes seven ethnic groups: the Ngäbe, Kuna (Guna), Emberá, Buglé, Wounaan, Naso Tjerdi (Teribe), and Bri Bri. \n\nLanguages\n\nSpanish is the official and dominant language. The Spanish spoken in Panama is known as Panamanian Spanish. About 93% of the population speak Spanish as their first language, though many citizens who hold jobs at international levels, or who are a part of business corporations speak both English and Spanish. Native languages, such as Ngäbere are spoken throughout the country, mostly in their native grounds. Over 400,000 Panamanians hold their native languages and customs. Some new statistics show that as second language, English is spoken by 8%, French by 4% and Arabic by 1%.\n\nLargest cities\n\nThese are the 10 largest Panamanian cities and towns. Most of Panama's largest cities are part of the Panama City Metropolitan Area.\n\nReligion\n\nThe government of Panama does not collect statistics on the religious affiliation of citizens, but various sources estimate that 75% to 85% of the population identifies itself as Roman Catholic and 15%–25% as Protestant. The Bahá'í Faith community of Panama is estimated at 2.00% of the national population, or about 60,000 including about 10% of the Guaymí population. \n\nThe Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) claim more than 40,000 members. Smaller religious groups include Seventh-day Adventists, Jehovah's Witnesses, Episcopalians with between 7,000 and 10,000 members, Jewish and Muslim communities with approximately 10,000 members each, Hindus, Buddhists, and other Christians. Indigenous religions include Ibeorgun (among Kuna) and Mamatata (among Ngobe). There are also a small number of Rastafarians.\n\nEducation\n\nOriginally, during the 16th century, education in Panama was provided by Jesuit priests. Public education, as a national and governmental institution, began in 1903. The principles underlying this early education system were that children should receive different types of education in accordance with their social class and therefore the position they were expected to occupy in society.\n\nPublic education began in Panama soon after the separation from Colombia in 1903. The first efforts were guided by an extremely paternalistic view of the goals of education, as evidenced in comments made in a 1913 meeting of the First Panamanian Educational Assembly, \"The cultural heritage given to the child should be determined by the social position he will or should occupy. For this reason education should be different in accordance with the social class to which the student should be related.\" This elitist focus changed rapidly under United States influence.\n\nIn 2010, it was estimated that 94.1% of the population was literate (94.7% of males and 93.5% of females). Education in Panama is compulsory for the children of age group between 6 and 18. In recent decades, school enrollment at all levels, but especially at upper levels, has increased significantly. Panama used to participate in the PISA exams but due to debts and unsatisfactory exam results is postponing participation until 2018. \n\nCulture\n\nThe culture of Panama derived from European music, art and traditions brought over by the Spanish to Panama. Hegemonic forces have created hybrid forms of this by blending African and Native American culture with European culture. For example, the tamborito is a Spanish dance that was blended with African rhythms, themes and dance moves. \n\nDance is a symbol of the diverse cultures that have coupled in Panama. The local folklore can be experienced through a multitude of festivals, dances and traditions that have been handed down from generation to generation. Local cities host live reggae en español, reggaeton, haitiano (compas), jazz, blues, salsa, reggae, and rock music performances.\n\nHandicraft\n\nOutside Panama City, regional festivals take place throughout the year featuring local musicians and dancers. Panama's blended culture is reflected in traditional products, such as woodcarvings, ceremonial masks and pottery, as well as in Panama's architecture, cuisine and festivals. In earlier times, baskets were woven for utilitarian uses, but now many villages rely almost exclusively on the baskets they produce for tourists.\n\nAn example of undisturbed, unique culture in Panama is that of the Guna who are known for molas. Mola is the Guna word for blouse, but the term mola has come to mean the elaborate embroidered panels made by Guna women, that make up the front and back of a Guna woman's blouse. They are several layers of cloth, varying in color, that are loosely stitched together, made using a reverse appliqué process.\n\nHolidays and festivities\n\nThe Christmas parade, known as El desfile de Navidad, is celebrated in the capital, Panama City. This holiday is celebrated on December 25. The floats in the parade are decorated with the Panamanian colors, and the women dress in dresses called Pollera while the men dress in the traditional Montuno. In addition, the marching band in the parade, consisting of drummers, keeps the crowds entertained. In the city, a big Christmas tree is lit with Christmas lights, and everybody surrounds the tree and sings Christmas carols. \n\nTraditional cuisine\n\nPanamanian Cuisine is a mix of African, Spanish, and Native American techniques, dishes, and ingredients, reflecting its diverse population. Since Panama is a land bridge between two continents, it has a large variety of tropical fruits, vegetables and herbs that are used in native cooking.\n\nTypical Panamanian foods are mild-flavored, without the pungency of some of Panama's Latin American and Caribbean neighbors. Common ingredients are maize, rice, wheat flour, plantains, yuca (cassava), beef, chicken, pork and seafood.\n\nTraditional clothing\n\nPanamanian men's traditional clothing consists of white cotton shirts, trousers and woven straw hat.\n\nThe traditional women's clothing is the pollera. It originated in Spain in the 16th century, and by the early 1800s it was a typical in Panama, worn by women servants, especially wet nurses (De Zarate 5). Later, it was adopted by upper-class women.\n\nA pollera is made of \"cambric\" or \"fine linen\" (Baker 177). It is white, and is usually about 13 yards of material.\n\nThe original pollera consists of a ruffled blouse worn off the shoulders and a skirt is on the waistline with gold buttons. The skirt is also ruffled, so that when it is lifted up, it looks like a peacock's tail or a mantilla fan. The designs on the skirt and blouse are usually flowers or birds. Two large matching pom poms (mota) are on the front and back, four ribbons hang from the front and back on the waist line, five gold chains (caberstrillos) hang from the neck to the waist, a gold cross or medallion on a black ribbon is worn as a choker, and a silk purse is worn on the waistline. Earrings (zaricillos) are usually gold or coral. Slippers usually match the color of the pollera. Hair is usually worn in a bun, held by three large gold combs that have pearls (tembleques) worn like a crown. Quality pollera can cost up to $10,000, and may take a year to complete.\n\nToday, there are different types of polleras; the pollera de gala consists of a short-sleeved ruffle skirt blouse, two full-length skirts and a petticoat. Girls wear tembleques in their hair. Gold coins and jewelry are added to the outfit. The pollera montuna is a daily dress, with a blouse, a skirt with a solid color, a single gold chain, and pendant earrings and a natural flower in the hair. Instead of an off-the-shoulder blouse is a fitted white jacket with, shoulder pleats, and a flared hem. \n\nTraditional clothing in Panama can be worn in parades, where the females and males do a traditional dance. Females do a gentle sway and twirl their skirts, while the men hold their hats in their hands and dance behind the females.\n\nLiterature\n\nAccording to Professor Rodrigo Miró, the first story about Panama was written by Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés and published as part of the Historia General y Natural de Las Indias in 1535. Some poets and novelists born in Panamá are:\n\nSports\n\nThe U.S. influence in Panama can be seen in the country's sports. Baseball is Panama's national sport and the country has regional teams and a national team that represents it in international events. At least 140 Panamanian players have played professional baseball in the United States, more than any other Central American country. Notable players include Bruce Chen, Rod Carew, Mariano Rivera, Carlos Lee, Manny Sanguillén, and Carlos Ruiz.\n\nIn boxing, four Panamanians are in the International Boxing Hall of Fame: Roberto Durán, Eusebio Pedroza, Ismael Laguna and Panama Al Brown. Panama presently has two reigning world boxing champions: Guillermo Jones and Anselmo Moreno.\n\nSince the finals of the 20th century, Soccer is becoming a popular sport for Panamanians, the progress of the national league and the national team are notorious, with legendary players as Luis Ernesto Tapia, Rommel Fernández, the Dely Valdes Brothers: Armando, Julio and Jorge; and recent players as Jaime Penedo, Felipe Baloy, Luis Tejada, Blas Perez, Roman Torres and Harold Cummings.\n\nBasketball is popular in Panama. There are regional teams as well as a squad that competes internationally. Two of Panama's prominent basketball players are Rolando Blackman, a four-time NBA All-Star, and Kevin Daley, a 10-year captain and showman of the Harlem Globetrotters.\n\nOther popular sports include volleyball, taekwondo, golf, and tennis. A long-distance hiking trail called the [http://www.transpanama.org/ TransPanama Trail] is being built from Colombia to Costa Rica.\n\nOther non-traditional sports in the country have had great importance such as the triathlon that has captured the attention of many athletes nationwide and the country has hosted international competitions. Flag football has also been growing in popularity in both men and women and with international participation in world of this discipline being among the best teams in the world, the sport was introduced by Americans residing in the Canal Zone for veterans and retirees who even had a festival called the Turkey Ball. Other popular sports are American football, rugby, hockey, softball and other amateur sports including skateboarding, BMX and surfing, because the many beaches of Panama such as Santa Catalina and Venao that have hosted events the likes of ISA World Surfing Games.\n\nLong jumper Irving Saladino became the first Panamanian Olympic gold medalist in 2008. In 2012 eight different athletes represented Panama in the London 2012 Olympics: Irving Saladino in the long jump, Alonso Edward and Andrea Ferris in track and field, Diego Castillo in swimming, and the youngest on the team, Carolena Carstens who was 16 competing in taekwondo. She was the first representative to compete for Panama in that sport.\n\nClimate change \n\nPanama was one of the few countries that didn't enter an INDC at COP21.", "Colombia ( or ;), officially the Republic of Colombia (), is a transcontinental country largely situated in the northwest of South America, with territories in Central America. Colombia shares a border to the northwest with Panama, to the east with Venezuela and Brazil, to the south with Ecuador and Peru. It shares its maritime limits with Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, Jamaica, the Dominican Republic, and Haiti. It is a unitary, constitutional republic comprising thirty-two departments. The territory of what is now Colombia was originally inhabited by indigenous peoples including the Muisca, Quimbaya, and Tairona.\n\nThe Spanish arrived in 1499 and initiated a period of conquest and colonization ultimately creating the Viceroyalty of New Granada, with its capital at Bogotá. Independence from Spain was won in 1819, but by 1830 the \"Gran Colombia\" Federation was dissolved. What is now Colombia and Panama emerged as the Republic of New Granada. The new nation experimented with federalism as the Granadine Confederation (1858), and then the United States of Colombia (1863), before the Republic of Colombia was finally declared in 1886. Panama seceded in 1903. Since the 1960s, the country has suffered from an asymmetric low-intensity armed conflict, which escalated in the 1990s, but then decreased from 2005 onward. Colombia is one of the most ethnically and linguistically diverse countries in the world giving rise to a rich cultural heritage. This has also been influenced by Colombia's varied geography, and the imposing landscape of the country has resulted in the development of very strong regional identities.\nThe urban centres are mostly located in the highlands of the Andes mountains.\n\nColombian territory also encompasses Amazon rainforest, tropical grassland and both Caribbean and Pacific coastlines. Ecologically, it is one of the world's 17 megadiverse countries, and the most densely biodiverse of these per square kilometer. Colombia is a middle power and a regional actor with the fourth largest economy in Latin America, is part of the CIVETS group of six leading emerging markets and is an accessing member to the OECD. Colombia has a diversified economy with macroeconomic stability and favorable growth prospects in the long run.\n\nEtymology \n\nThe name \"Colombia\" is derived from the last name of Christopher Columbus (, ). It was conceived by the Venezuelan revolutionary Francisco de Miranda as a reference to all the New World, but especially to those under the Spanish and Portuguese rule. The name was later adopted by the Republic of Colombia of 1819, formed out of the territories of the old Viceroyalty of New Granada (modern-day Colombia, Panama, Venezuela, Ecuador, and northwest Brazil). \n\nWhen Venezuela, Ecuador and Cundinamarca came to exist as independent states, the former Department of Cundinamarca adopted the name \"Republic of New Granada\". In 1858, New Granada officially changed its name to the Granadine Confederation. In 1863, the name was again changed, this time to United States of Colombia, before finally adopting its present name – the Republic of Colombia – in 1886.\n\nTo refer to this country, the Colombian government uses the terms Colombia and República de Colombia.\n\nHistory \n\nPre-Columbian era \n\nDue to its location, the present territory of Colombia was a corridor of early human migration from Mesoamerica and the Caribbean to the Andes and Amazon. The oldest archaeological finds are from the Pubenza and El Totumo sites in the Magdalena Valley 100 km southwest of Bogotá. These sites date from the Paleoindian period (18,000–8000 BCE). At Puerto Hormiga and other sites, traces from the Archaic Period (~8000–2000 BCE) have been found. Vestiges indicate that there was also early occupation in the regions of El Abra and Tequendama in Cundinamarca. The oldest pottery discovered in the Americas, found at San Jacinto, dates to 5000 – 4000 BCE. \nAboriginal people inhabited the territory that is now Colombia by 10,500 BCE. Nomadic hunter-gatherer tribes at the El Abra and Tequendama sites near present-day Bogotá traded with one another and with other cultures from the Magdalena River Valley. Between 5000 and 1000 BCE, hunter-gatherer tribes transitioned to agrarian societies; fixed settlements were established, and pottery appeared. Beginning in the 1st millennium BCE, groups of Amerindians including the Muisca, Quimbaya, and Tairona developed the political system of cacicazgos with a pyramidal structure of power headed by caciques. The Muisca inhabited mainly the area of what is now the Departments of Boyacá and Cundinamarca high plateau (Altiplano Cundiboyacense) where they formed the Muisca Confederation. They farmed maize, potato, quinoa and cotton, and traded gold, emeralds, blankets, ceramic handicrafts, coca and salt with neighboring nations. The Taironas inhabited northern Colombia in the isolated Andes mountain range of Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta. The Quimbayas inhabited regions of the Cauca River Valley between the Occidental and Central cordilleras. The Incas expanded their empire on the southwest part of the country. \n\nSpanish rule \n\nAlonso de Ojeda (who had sailed with Columbus) reached the Guajira Peninsula in 1499. Spanish explorers, led by Rodrigo de Bastidas, made the first exploration of the Caribbean littoral in 1500. Christopher Columbus navigated near the Caribbean in 1502. In 1508, Vasco Núñez de Balboa accompanied an expedition to the territory through the region of Gulf of Urabá and they founded the town of Santa María la Antigua del Darién in 1510, the first stable settlement on the continent. \n\nSanta Marta was founded in 1525, and Cartagena in 1533. Spanish conquistador Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada led an expedition to the interior in April, 1536, and christened the districts through which he passed \"New Kingdom of Granada\". In August, 1538, he founded provisionally its capital near the Muisca cacicazgo of Bacatá, and named it \"Santa Fe\". The name soon acquired a suffix and was called Santa Fe de Bogotá. Two other notable journeys by early conquistadors to the interior took place in the same period. Sebastián de Belalcázar, conqueror of Quito, traveled north and founded Cali, in 1536, and Popayán, in 1537; from 1536–1539, German conquistador Nikolaus Federmann crossed the Llanos Orientales and went over the Cordillera Oriental in a search for El Dorado, the \"city of gold\". The legend and the gold would play a pivotal role in luring the Spanish and other Europeans to New Granada during the 16th and 17th centuries. \n\nIn 1542, the region of New Granada, along with all other Spanish possessions in South America, became part of the Viceroyalty of Peru, with its capital at Lima. In 1547, New Granada became the Captaincy-General of New Granada within the viceroyalty.\n\nIn 1549, the Royal Audiencia was created by a royal decree, and New Granada was ruled by the Royal Audience of Santa Fe de Bogotá, which at that time comprised the provinces of Santa Marta, Rio de San Juan, Popayán, Guayana and Cartagena. But important decisions were taken from the colony to Spain by the Council of the Indies. \n\nIndigenous peoples in New Granada experienced a decline in population due to conquest by the Spanish as well as Eurasian diseases, such as smallpox, to which they had no immunity. With the risk that the land was deserted, the Spanish Crown sold properties to the governors, conquerors and their descendants creating large farms and possession of mines. In the 16th century, Europeans began to bring slaves from Africa. Also there were heroes who defended human rights and freedom of oppressed peoples. To protect and exploit the indigenous peoples, several forms of land ownership and regulation were established: resguardos, encomiendas and haciendas. Repopulation was achieved by allowing colonization by farmers and their families who came from Spain. \n\nIn 1717 the Viceroyalty of New Granada was originally created, and then it was temporarily removed, to finally be reestablished in 1739. The Viceroyalty had Santa Fé de Bogotá as its capital. This Viceroyalty included some other provinces of northwestern South America which had previously been under the jurisdiction of the Viceroyalties of New Spain or Peru and correspond mainly to today's Venezuela, Ecuador and Panama. So, Bogotá became one of the principal administrative centers of the Spanish possessions in the New World, along with Lima and Mexico City, though it remained somewhat backward compared to those two cities in several economic and logistical ways. \n\nAfter Great Britain declared war on Spain in 1739, Cartagena quickly became the British forces’ top target but an upset Spanish victory during the War of Jenkins’ Ear, a war with Great Britain for economic control of the Caribbean cemented Spanish dominance in the Caribbean until the Seven Years’ War. \n\nThe 18th-century priest, botanist and mathematician José Celestino Mutis was delegated by Viceroy Antonio Caballero y Góngora to conduct an inventory of the nature of the New Granada. Started in 1783, this became known as the Royal Botanical Expedition to New Granada which classified plants, wildlife and founded the first astronomical observatory in the city of Santa Fe de Bogotá. In July 1801 the Prussian scientist Alexander von Humboldt reached Santa Fe de Bogotá where he met with Mutis. In addition, historical figures in the process of independence in New Granada emerged from the expedition as the astronomer Francisco José de Caldas, the scientist Francisco Antonio Zea, the zoologist Jorge Tadeo Lozano and the painter Salvador Rizo. \n\nIndependence\n\nSince the beginning of the periods of conquest and colonization, there were several rebel movements against Spanish rule, but most were either crushed or remained too weak to change the overall situation. The last one that sought outright independence from Spain sprang up around 1810, following the independence of St. Domingue (present-day Haiti) in 1804, which provided some support to the eventual leaders of this rebellion: Simón Bolívar and Francisco de Paula Santander. \n\nA movement was initiated by Antonio Nariño, who opposed Spanish centralism and led the opposition against the viceroyalty. Cartagena became independent in November 1811. Took place the formation of two independent governments which fought a civil war – a period known as the Foolish Fatherland. In 1811 the United Provinces of New Granada were proclaimed, headed by Camilo Torres Tenorio. Despite the successes of the rebellion, the emergence of two distinct ideological currents among the liberators (federalism and centralism) gave rise to an internal clash which contributed to the reconquest of territory by the Spanish. The viceroyalty was restored under the command of Juan Sámano, whose regime punished those who participated in the uprisings. The retribution stoked renewed rebellion, which, combined with a weakened Spain, made possible a successful rebellion led by the Venezuelan-born Simón Bolívar, who finally proclaimed independence in 1819. The pro-Spanish resistance was defeated in 1822 in the present territory of Colombia and in 1823 in Venezuela. \n\nThe territory of the Viceroyalty of New Granada became the Republic of Colombia, organized as a union of the current territories of Colombia, Panama, Ecuador, Venezuela, parts of Guyana and Brazil and north of Marañón River. The Congress of Cúcuta in 1821 adopted a constitution for the new Republic. Simón Bolívar became the first President of Colombia, and Francisco de Paula Santander was made Vice President. However, the new republic was unstable and three countries emerged from the collapse of Gran Colombia in 1830 (New Granada, Ecuador and Venezuela).\n\nColombia was the first constitutional government in South America, and the Liberal and Conservative parties, founded in 1848 and 1849 respectively, are two of the oldest surviving political parties in the Americas. Slavery was abolished in the country in 1851. \n\nInternal political and territorial divisions led to the dissolution of Gran Colombia in 1830. The so-called \"Department of Cundinamarca\" adopted the name \"New Granada\", which it kept until 1858 when it became the \"Confederación Granadina\" (Granadine Confederation). After a two-year civil war in 1863, the \"United States of Colombia\" was created, lasting until 1886, when the country finally became known as the Republic of Colombia. Internal divisions remained between the bipartisan political forces, occasionally igniting very bloody civil wars, the most significant being the Thousand Days' War (1899–1902). \n\n20th century\n\nThe United States of America's intentions to influence the area (especially the Panama Canal construction and control) led to the separation of the Department of Panama in 1903 and the establishment of it as a nation. The United States paid Colombia $25,000,000 in 1921, seven years after completion of the canal, for redress of President Roosevelt's role in the creation of Panama, and Colombia recognized Panama under the terms of the Thomson–Urrutia Treaty. Colombia was engulfed in the war with Peru over a territorial dispute involving the Amazonas department and its capital Leticia. \n\nSoon after, Colombia achieved some degree of political stability, which was interrupted by a bloody conflict that took place between the late 1940s and the early 1950s, a period known as La Violencia (\"The Violence\"). Its cause was mainly mounting tensions between the two leading political parties, which subsequently ignited after the assassination of the Liberal presidential candidate Jorge Eliécer Gaitán on 9 April 1948. The ensuing riots in Bogotá, known as El Bogotazo, spread throughout the country and claimed the lives of at least 180,000 Colombians. \n\nColombia entered the Korean War when Laureano Gómez was elected as President. It was the only Latin American country to join the war in a direct military role as an ally of the United States. Particularly important was the resistance of the Colombian troops at Old Baldy. \n\nFrom 1953 to 1964 the violence between the two political parties decreased first when Gustavo Rojas deposed the President of Colombia in a coup d'état and negotiated with the guerrillas, and then under the military junta of General Gabriel París Gordillo.\n\nAfter Rojas' deposition, the Colombian Conservative Party and Colombian Liberal Party agreed to create the \"National Front\", a coalition which would jointly govern the country. Under the deal, the presidency would alternate between conservatives and liberals every 4 years for 16 years; the two parties would have parity in all other elective offices. The National Front ended \"La Violencia\", and National Front administrations attempted to institute far-reaching social and economic reforms in cooperation with the Alliance for Progress. In the end, the contradictions between each successive Liberal and Conservative administration made the results decidedly mixed. Despite the progress in certain sectors, many social and political problems continued, and guerrilla groups were formally created such as the FARC, ELN, EPL, MAQL, PRT, CRS and M-19 to fight the government and political apparatus.\n\nSince the 1960s, the country has suffered from an asymmetric low-intensity armed conflict between the government forces, left-wing guerrilla groups and right-wing paramilitaries. The conflict escalated in the 1990s. The conflict in Colombia takes place mainly in remote rural areas. Since the beginning of the armed conflict, human rights defenders have staged heroic acts that shows us the importance of standing up against injustice and fight for the respect for human rights, despite staggering opposition. Five out of the seven guerrilla groups decided to demobilize after peace\nnegotiations in 1989 –1994. \n\nThe United States has been heavily involved in the conflict since its beginnings, when in the early 1960s the U.S. government encouraged the Colombian military to attack leftist militias in rural Colombia. This was part of the U.S. fight against communism. \n\nOn 4 July 1991, a new Constitution was promulgated. The changes generated by the new constitution are viewed as positive by Colombian society. \n\n21st century\n\nThe administration of President Álvaro Uribe (2002–10), adopted the democratic security policy which included an integrated counter-terrorism and counter-insurgency campaign. The Government economic plan also promoted confidence in investors. \n\nAs part of a controversial peace process the AUC (right-wing paramilitaries) as a formal organization had ceased to function. In February 2008, millions of Colombians demonstrated against FARC and other outlawed groups. \n\nIn 2012 the administration of President Juan Manuel Santos (2010–present), began a dialogue in Havana, Cuba between the Government of Colombia and guerrilla of FARC-EP with the aim to find a political solution to the armed conflict. After almost four years of peace negotiations, the Colombian state and the FARC have agreed to a bilateral and “definitive” ceasefire. The Government also began a process of assistance and reparation for victims of conflict. \n\nColombia shows modest progress in the struggle to defend human rights, as expressed by HRW. In terms of international relations, Colombia has moved from a period of tension and animosity with Venezuela, towards a positive outlook and a spirit of cooperation. Colombia has also won a seat on the Security Council of the UN. \n\nGeography \n\nThe geography of Colombia is characterized by its six main natural regions that present their own unique characteristics, from the Andes mountain range region shared with Ecuador and Venezuela; the Pacific coastal region shared with Panama and Ecuador; the Caribbean coastal region shared with Venezuela and Panama; the Llanos (plains) shared with Venezuela; the Amazon Rainforest region shared with Venezuela, Brazil, Peru and Ecuador; to the insular area, comprising islands in both the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. \n\nColombia is bordered to the northwest by Panama; to the east by Venezuela and Brazil; to the south by Ecuador and Peru; it established its maritime boundaries with neighboring countries through seven agreements on the Caribbean Sea and three on the Pacific Ocean. It lies between latitudes 12°N and 4°S, and longitudes 67° and 79°W.\n\nPart of the Ring of Fire, a region of the world subject to earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, Colombia is dominated by the Andes (which contain the majority of the country's urban centres). Beyond the Colombian Massif (in the south-western departments of Cauca and Nariño) these are divided into three branches known as cordilleras (mountain ranges): the Cordillera Occidental, running adjacent to the Pacific coast and including the city of Cali; the Cordillera Central, running between the Cauca and Magdalena River valleys (to the west and east respectively) and including the cities of Medellín, Manizales, Pereira and Armenia; and the Cordillera Oriental, extending north east to the Guajira Peninsula and including Bogotá, Bucaramanga and Cúcuta.\n\nPeaks in the Cordillera Occidental exceed 4700 m, and in the Cordillera Central and Cordillera Oriental they reach 5000 m. At 2600 m, Bogotá is the highest city of its size in the world.\n\nEast of the Andes lies the savanna of the Llanos, part of the Orinoco River basin, and, in the far south east, the jungle of the Amazon rainforest. Together these lowlands comprise over half Colombia's territory, but they contain less than 6% of the population. To the north the Caribbean coast, home to 21.9% of the population and the location of the major port cities of Barranquilla and Cartagena, generally consists of low-lying plains, but it also contains the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta mountain range, which includes the country's tallest peaks (Pico Cristóbal Colón and Pico Simón Bolívar), and the La Guajira Desert. By contrast the narrow and discontinuous Pacific coastal lowlands, backed by the Serranía de Baudó mountains, are sparsely populated and covered in dense vegetation. The principal Pacific port is Buenaventura.\n\nThe main rivers of Colombia are Magdalena, Cauca, Guaviare, Atrato, Meta, Putumayo and Caquetá. Colombia has four main drainage systems: the Pacific drain, the Caribbean drain, the Orinoco Basin and the Amazon Basin. The Orinoco and Amazon Rivers mark limits with Colombia to Venezuela and Peru respectively. \n\nProtected areas and the \"National Park System\" cover an area of about and account for 12.77% of the Colombian territory. Compared to neighboring countries, rates of deforestation in Colombia are still relatively low. Colombia is the sixth country in the world by magnitude of total renewable freshwater supply, and still has large reserves of freshwater.\n\nClimate \n\nColombians customarily describe their country in terms of the climatic zones. Below 1000 m in elevation is the tierra caliente (hot land), where temperatures are above 24 °C. About 82.5% of the country's total area lies in the tierra caliente. \n\nThe majority of the population can be found in the tierra templada (temperate land, between 1001 and), where temperatures vary between 17 and and the tierra fría (cold land, 2001 and). In the tierra fría mean temperatures range between 12 and. Beyond the tierra fría lie the alpine conditions of the forested zone and then the treeless grasslands of the páramos. Above 4000 m, where temperatures are below freezing, is the tierra helada, a zone of permanent snow and ice.\n\nFile:Nevado del Ruiz en Colombia.jpg\|Ice cap climate in the Nevado del Ruiz\nFile:Páramo de Sumapaz.jpg \|Alpine tundra climate in the Sumapaz Paramo\nFile:Tota Lake 1.JPG\|Oceanic climate in Tota Lake\nFile:Paisaje rural en Tinjacá.jpg\|Mediterranean climate in Boyacá Department \nFile:Desierto Frio en Boyacá.jpg\|Cold desert climate near Villa de Leyva\nFile:Sunset on the Amazon (7613489930).jpg\|Tropical rainforest climate in the Amazon Rainforest\nFile:NP Llanos36 lo (5853389005).jpg\|Tropical savanna climate in Los Llanos\nFile:Cabo de La vela.JPG\|Hot desert climate in the Guajira Peninsula\nFile:Johny Cay.jpg\|Tropical wet and dry climate in San Andrés y Providencia \n\nBiodiversity \n\nColombia is one of the megadiverse countries in biodiversity, ranking first in bird species. As for plants, the country has between 40,000 and 45,000 plant species, equivalent to 10 or 20% of total global species, this is even more remarkable given that Colombia is considered a country of intermediate size. Colombia is the second most biodiverse country in the world, lagging only after Brazil which is approximately 7 times bigger. \n\nColombia is the country in the planet more characterized by a high biodiversity, with the highest rate of species by area unit worldwide and it has the largest number of endemisms (species that are not found naturally anywhere else) of any country. About 10% of the species of the Earth live in Colombia, including over 1,900 species of bird, more than in Europe and North America combined, Colombia has 10% of the world’s mammals species, 14% of the amphibian species and 18% of the bird species of the world. \n\nColombia has about 2,000 species of marine fish and is the second most diverse country in freshwater fish. Colombia is the country with more endemic species of butterflies, number 1 in terms of orchid species and approximately 7,000 species of beetles. Colombia is second in the number of amphibian species and is the third most diverse country in reptiles and palms. There are about 2,900 species of mollusks and according to estimates there are about 300,000 species of invertebrates in the country. In Colombia there are 32 terrestrial biomes and 314 types of ecosystems. \n\nGovernment and politics \n\nThe government of Colombia takes place within the framework of a presidential participatory democratic republic as established in the Constitution of 1991. In accordance with the principle of separation of powers, government is divided into three branches: the executive branch, the legislative branch and the judicial branch. \n\nAs the head of the executive branch, the President of Colombia serves as both head of state and head of government, followed by the Vice President and the Council of Ministers. The president is elected by popular vote to serve four-year term (In 2015 the Colombia’s Congress approved the repeal of a 2004 constitutional amendment that eliminated the one-term limit for presidents). At the provincial level executive power is vested in department governors, municipal mayors and local administrators for smaller administrative subdivisions, such as corregimientos or comunas. All regional elections are held one year and five months after the presidential election. \n\nThe legislative branch of government is represented nationally by the Congress, a bicameral institution comprising a 166-seat Chamber of Representatives and a 102-seat Senate. The Senate is elected nationally and the Chamber of Representatives is elected in electoral districts. Members of both houses are elected to serve four-year terms two months before the president, also by popular vote. \n\nThe judicial branch is headed by four high courts, consisting of the Supreme Court which deals with penal and civil matters, the Council of State, which has special responsibility for administrative law and also provides legal advice to the executive, the Constitutional Court, responsible for assuring the integrity of the Colombian constitution, and the Superior Council of Judicature, responsible for auditing the judicial branch. Colombia operates a system of civil law, which since 2005 has been applied through an adversarial system.\n\nDespite a number of controversies, the democratic security policy has ensured that former President Uribe remained popular among Colombian people, with his approval rating peaking at 76%, according to a poll in 2009. However, having served two terms, he was constitutionally barred from seeking re-election in 2010. In the run-off elections on 20 June 2010 the former Minister of defense Juan Manuel Santos won with 69% of the vote against the second most popular candidate, Antanas Mockus. A second round was required since no candidate received over the 50% winning threshold of votes. Santos won nearly 51% of the vote in second-round elections on 15 June 2014, beating right-wing rival Óscar Iván Zuluaga, who won 45%. His term as Colombia's president runs for four years beginning 7 August 2014. \n\nForeign affairs \n\nThe foreign affairs of Colombia are headed by the President, as head of state, and managed by the Minister of Foreign Affairs. Colombia has diplomatic missions in all continents. \n\nColombia was one of the 4 founding members of the Pacific Alliance, which is a political, economic and co-operative integration mechanism that promotes the free circulation of goods, services, capital and persons between the members, as well as a common stock exchange and joint embassies in several countries. Colombia is also a member of the United Nations, the Organization of American States, the Organization of Ibero-American States, the Union of South American Nations and the Andean Community of Nations.\n\nMilitary \n\nThe executive branch of government is responsible for managing the defense of Colombia, with the President commander-in-chief of the armed forces. The Ministry of Defence exercises day-to-day control of the military and the Colombian National Police. Colombia has 466,713 active military personnel. And in 2014 3.1% of the country's GDP went towards military expenditure, placing it 18th in the world. Colombia's armed forces are the largest in Latin America, and it is the second largest spender on its military after Brazil. \n\nThe Colombian military is divided into three branches: the National Army of Colombia; the Colombian Air Force; and the Colombian Navy. The National Police functions as a gendarmerie, operating independently from the military as the law enforcement agency for the entire country. Each of these operates with their own intelligence apparatus separate from the national intelligence agency (ANIC, in Spanish). \n\nThe National Army is formed by divisions, brigades, special brigades and special units; the Colombian Navy by the Naval Infantry, the Naval Force of the Caribbean, the Naval Force of the Pacific, the Naval Force of the South, the Naval Force of the East, Colombia Coast Guards, Naval Aviation and the Specific Command of San Andres y Providencia; and the Air Force by 15 air units. The National Police has a presence in all municipalities.\n\nAdministrative divisions \n\nColombia is divided into 32 departments and one capital district, which is treated as a department (Bogotá also serves as the capital of the department of Cundinamarca). Departments are subdivided into municipalities, each of which is assigned a municipal seat, and municipalities are in turn subdivided into corregimientos in rural areas and into comunas in urban areas. Each department has a local government with a governor and assembly directly elected to four-year terms, and each municipality is headed by a mayor and council. There is a popularly elected local administrative board in each of the corregimientos or comunas. \n\nIn addition to the capital four other cities have been designated districts (in effect special municipalities), on the basis of special distinguishing features. These are Barranquilla, Cartagena, Santa Marta and Buenaventura. Some departments have local administrative subdivisions, where towns have a large concentration of population and municipalities are near each other (for example in Antioquia and Cundinamarca). Where departments have a low population (for example Amazonas, Vaupés and Vichada), special administrative divisions are employed, such as \"department corregimientos\", which are a hybrid of a municipality and a corregimiento.\n\nClick on a department on the map below to go to its article.\n\nEconomy \n\nHistorically an agrarian economy, Colombia urbanised rapidly in the 20th century, by the end of which just 17% of the workforce were employed in agriculture, generating just 6.1% of GDP; 21% of the workforce were employed in industry and 62% in services, responsible for 37.3% and 56.6% of GDP respectively. \n\nColombia's market economy grew steadily in the latter part of the 20th century, with gross domestic product (GDP) increasing at an average rate of over 4% per year between 1970 and 1998. The country suffered a recession in 1999 (the first full year of negative growth since the Great Depression), and the recovery from that recession was long and painful. However, in recent years growth has been impressive, reaching 6.9% in 2007, one of the highest rates of growth in Latin America. According to International Monetary Fund estimates, in 2012 Colombia's GDP (PPP) was US$500 billion (28th in the world and third in South America).\n\nTotal government expenditures account for 28.3 percent of the domestic economy. Public debt equals 32 percent of gross domestic product. A strong fiscal climate was reaffirmed by a boost in bond ratings. Annual inflation closed 2015 at 6.77% YoY (vs. 3.66% YoY in 2014). The average national unemployment rate in 2015 was 8.9%, although the informality is the biggest problem facing the labour market (the income of formal workers climbed 24.8% in 5 years while labor incomes of informal workers rose only 9%). Colombia has Free trade Zone (FTZ), such as Zona Franca del Pacifico, located in the Valle del Cauca, one of the most striking areas for foreign investment. \n \nColombia is rich in natural resources, and its main exports include mineral fuels, oils, distillation products, precious stones, forest products, pulp and paper, coffee, meat, cereals and vegetable oils, cotton, oilseed, sugars and sugar confectionery, fruit and other agricultural products, food processing, processed fish products, beverages, machinery, electronics, military products, aircraft, ships, motor vehicles, metal products, ferro-alloys, home and office material, chemicals and health related products, petrochemicals, agrochemicals, inorganic salts and acids, perfumery and cosmetics, medicaments, plastics, animal fibers, textile and fabrics, clothing and footwear, leather, construction equipment and materials, cement, software, among others. \n\nColombia is also known as an important global source of emeralds, and over 70% of cut flowers imported by the United States are Colombian. Non-traditional exports have boosted the growth of Colombian foreign sales as well as the diversification of destinations of export thanks to new free trade agreements. Principal trading partners are the United States, China, the European Union and some Latin American countries. \n\nThe electricity production in Colombia comes mainly from renewable energy sources. 70.35% is obtained from the hydroelectric generation. Colombia's commitment to renewable energy was recognized in the 2014 Global Green Economy Index (GGEI), ranking among the top 10 nations in the world in terms of greening efficiency sectors.\n\nThe financial sector has grown favorably due to good liquidity in the economy, the growth of credit and in general to the positive performance of the Colombian economy. The Colombian Stock Exchange through the Latin American Integrated Market (MILA) offers a regional market to trade equities. Colombia is now one of only three economies with a perfect score on the strength of legal rights index, according to the World Bank. \n\nIn 2015, the National Administrative Department of Statistics (DANE) reported that 27.8% of the population were living below the poverty line, of which 7.9% in \"extreme poverty\". 171,000 people have been lifted out of poverty. The Government has also been developing a process of financial inclusion within the country's most vulnerable population. \n\nRecent economic growth has led to a considerable increase of new millionaires, including the new entrepreneurs, Colombians with a net worth exceeding US $1 billion. \n\nTourism in Colombia is an important sector in the country's economy. Foreign tourist visits were predicted to have risen from 0.6 million in 2007 to 2.5 million in 2014. \n\nScience and technology \n\n \nColombia has more than 3,950 research groups in science and technology. iNNpulsa, a government body that promotes entrepreneurship and innovation in the country, provides grants to startups, in addition to other services it and institutions like Apps.co provide. Co-working spaces have arisen to serve as communities for startups large and small. Organizations such as the Corporation for biological research for the support of young people interested in scientific work has been successfully developed in Colombia. The International Center for Tropical Agriculture based in Colombia investigates the increasing challenge of global warming and food security. \n\nImportant inventions related to the medicine have been made in Colombia, such as the first external artificial pacemaker with internal electrodes, invented by the electronics engineer Jorge Reynolds Pombo, invention of great importance for those who suffer from heart failure. Also invented in Colombia were the microkeratome and keratomileusis technique, which form the fundamental basis of what now is known as LASIK (one of the most important techniques for the correction of refractive errors of vision) and the Hakim valve for the treatment of Hydrocephalus, among others. Colombia has begun to innovate in military technology for its army and other armies of the world; especially in the design and creation of personal ballistic protection products, military hardware, military robots, bombs, simulators and radar. \n\nSome leading Colombian scientists are Joseph M. Tohme, researcher recognized for his work on the genetic diversity of food, Manuel Elkin Patarroyo who is known for his groundbreaking work on synthetic vaccines for malaria, Francisco Lopera who discovered the \"Paisa Mutation\" or a type of early-onset Alzheimer's, Rodolfo Llinás known for his study of the intrinsic neurons properties and the theory of a syndrome that had changed the way of understanding the functioning of the brain, Jairo Quiroga Puello recognized for his studies on the characterization of synthetic substances which can be used to fight fungus, tumors, tuberculosis and even some viruses and Ángela Restrepo who established accurate diagnoses and treatments to combat the effects of a disease caused by the Paracoccidioides brasiliensis, among other scientists. \n\nInfrastructure \n\nTransportation in Colombia is regulated within the functions of the Ministry of Transport and entities such as the National Roads Institute (INVÍAS) responsible for the Highways in Colombia (13,000 km), the Aerocivil, responsible for civil aviation and airports, the National Infrastructure Agency, in charge of concessions through public–private partnerships, for the design, construction, maintenance, operation, and administration of the transport infrastructure, the General Maritime Directorate (Dimar) has the responsibility of coordinating maritime traffic control along with the Colombian Navy, among others and under the supervision of the Superintendency of Ports and Transport. \n\nThe target of Colombia’s government is to build 7,000 km of roads for the 2016–2020 period and reduce travel times by 30 per cent and transport costs by 20 per cent. A toll road concession programme will comprise 40 projects, and is part of a larger strategic goal to invest nearly $50bn in transport infrastructure, including: railway systems; making the Magdalena river navigable again; improving port facilities; as well as an expansion of Bogotá’s airport. \n\nDemographics \n\nWith an estimated 48 million people in 2015, Colombia is the third-most populous country in Latin America, after Brazil and Mexico. It is also home to the third-largest number of Spanish speakers in the world after Mexico and the United States. At the beginning of the 20th century, Colombia's population was approximately 4 million. The birth rate remained at high levels until the early 1970s, but since then, Colombia has experienced steady declines in its fertility, mortality, and population growth rates. Colombia is projected to have a population of 50.2 million by 2020 and 55.3 million by 2050. These trends are reflected in the country's age profile. In 2005 over 30% of the population was under 15 years old, compared to just 6.3% aged 65 and over. The total fertility rate was 1.9 births per woman in 2014. \n\nThe population is concentrated in the Andean highlands and along the Caribbean coast, also the population densities are generally higher in the Andean region. The nine eastern lowland departments, comprising about 54% of Colombia's area, have less than 6% of the population. Traditionally a rural society, movement to urban areas was very heavy in the mid-20th century, and Colombia is now one of the most urbanized countries in Latin America. The urban population increased from 31% of the total in 1938 to nearly 60% in 1973, and by 2014 the figure stood at 76%. The population of Bogotá alone has increased from just over 300,000 in 1938 to approximately 8 million today. In total seventy-two cities now have populations of 100,000 or more (2015). Colombia has the world's largest populations of internally displaced persons (IDPs), estimated to be up to 4.9 million people. \n\nThe life expectancy is 74.8 years in 2015 and infant mortality is 13.6 per thousand in 2015. In 2013, 93.6% of adults and 98.2% of youth are literate and the government spends about 4.9% of its GDP in education.\n\nColombia is ranked third in the world in the Happy Planet Index.\n\nLanguages\n\nMore than 99.2% of Colombians speak Spanish, also called Castilian; 65 Amerindian languages, two Creole languages, the Romani language and Colombian Sign Language are also spoken in the country. English has official status in the archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina. \n\nIncluding Spanish, a total of 101 languages are listed for Colombia in the Ethnologue database. The specific number of spoken languages varies slightly since some authors consider as different languages what others consider are varieties or dialects of the same language. The best estimates recorded that 71 languages are spoken in the country today. Most of these belong to the Chibchan, Tucanoan, Bora–Witoto, Guajiboan, Arawakan, Cariban, Barbacoan, and Saliban language families. There are currently about 850,000 speakers of native languages. \n\nEthnic groups \n\nColombia is ethnically diverse, its people descending from the original native inhabitants, Spanish colonists, Africans originally brought to the country as slaves, and 20th-century immigrants from Europe and the Middle East, all contributing to a diverse cultural heritage. The demographic distribution reflects a pattern that is influenced by colonial history. Whites tend to live mainly in urban centers, like Bogotá, Medellín or Cali, and the burgeoning highland cities. The populations of the major cities also include mestizos. Mestizo campesinos (people living in rural areas) also live in the Andean highlands where some Spanish conquerors mixed with the women of Amerindian chiefdoms. Mestizos include artisans and small tradesmen that have played a major part in the urban expansion of recent decades. \n\nThe 2005 census reported that the \"non-ethnic population\", consisting of whites and mestizos (those of mixed white European and Amerindian ancestry), constituted 86% of the national population. 10.6% is of African ancestry. Indigenous Amerindians comprise 3.4% of the population. 0.01% of the population are Roma. An extraofficial estimate considers that the 49% of the Colombian population is Mestizo or of mixed European and Amerindian ancestry, and that approximately 37% is White, mainly of Spanish lineage, but there is also a large population of Middle East descent; among the upper class there is a considerable input of Italian and German ancestry.\n\nMany of the Indigenous peoples experienced a reduction in population during the Spanish rule and many others were absorbed into the mestizo population, but the remainder currently represents over eighty distinct cultures. Reserves (resguardos) established for indigenous peoples occupy (27% of the country's total) and are inhabited by more than 800,000 people. Some of the largest indigenous groups are the Wayuu, the Paez, the Pastos, the Emberá and the Zenú. The departments of La Guajira, Cauca, Nariño, Córdoba and Sucre have the largest indigenous populations.\n\nThe Organización Nacional Indígena de Colombia (ONIC), founded at the first National Indigenous Congress in 1982, is an organization representing the indigenous peoples of Colombia. In 1991, Colombia signed and ratified the current international law concerning indigenous peoples, Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention, 1989.\n\nBlack Africans were brought as slaves, mostly to the coastal lowlands, beginning early in the 16th century and continuing into the 19th century. Large Afro-Colombian communities are found today on the Caribbean and Pacific coasts. The population of the department of Chocó, running along the northern portion of Colombia's Pacific coast, is over 80% black. British and Jamaicans migrated mainly to the islands of San Andres and Providencia. A number of other Europeans and North Americans migrated to the country in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, including people from the former USSR during and after the Second World War.\n\nMany immigrant communities have settled on the Caribbean coast, in particular recent immigrants from the Middle East. Barranquilla (the largest city of the Colombian Caribbean) and other Caribbean cities have the largest populations of Lebanese, Palestinian, and other Arabs. There are also important communities of Chinese, Japanese, Romanis and Jews. There is a major migration trend of Venezuelans, due to the political and economic situation in Venezuela. \n\nReligion \n\nThe National Administrative Department of Statistics (DANE) does not collect religious statistics, and accurate reports are difficult to obtain. However, based on various studies and a survey, about 90% of the population adheres to Christianity, the majority of which (70.9%) are Roman Catholic, while a significant minority (16.7%) adhere to Protestantism (primarily Evangelicalism). Some 4.7% of the population is atheist or agnostic, while 3.5% claim to believe in God but do not follow a specific religion. 1.8% of Colombians adhere to Jehovah's Witnesses and Adventism and less than 1% adhere to other religions, such as Islam, Judaism, Buddhism, Mormonism, Hinduism, Indigenous religions, Hare Krishna movement, Rastafari movement, Orthodox Catholic Church, and spiritual studies. The remaining people either did not respond or replied that they did not know. In addition to the above statistics, 35.9% of Colombians reported that they did not practice their faith actively. \n\nWhile Colombia remains a mostly Roman Catholic country by baptism numbers, the 1991 Colombian constitution guarantees freedom and equality of religion. \n\nLargest cities\n\nCulture \n\nColombia lies at the crossroads of Latin America and the broader American continent, and as such has been hit by a wide range of cultural influences. Native American, Spanish and other European, African, American, Caribbean, and Middle Eastern influences, as well as other Latin American cultural influences, are all present in Colombia's modern culture. Urban migration, industrialization, globalization, and other political, social and economic changes have also left an impression.\n\nMany national symbols, both objects and themes, have arisen from Colombia's diverse cultural traditions and aim to represent what Colombia, and the Colombian people, have in common. Cultural expressions in Colombia are promoted by the government through the Ministry of Culture.\n\nLiterature \n\nColombian literature dates back to pre-Columbian era; a notable example of the period is the epic poem known as the Legend of Yurupary. In Spanish colonial times notable writers include Hernando Domínguez Camargo and his epic poem to San Ignacio de Loyola, Juan Rodríguez Freyle (The Sheep) and the nun Francisca Josefa de Castillo, representative of mysticism.\n\nPost-independence literature linked to Romanticism highlighted Antonio Nariño, José Fernández Madrid, Camilo Torres Tenorio and Francisco Antonio Zea. In the second half of the nineteenth century and early twentieth century the literary genre known as costumbrismo became popular; great writers of this period were Tomás Carrasquilla, Jorge Isaacs and Rafael Pombo (the latter of whom wrote notable works of children's literature). Within that period, authors such as José Asunción Silva, José Eustasio Rivera, León de Greiff, Porfirio Barba-Jacob and José María Vargas Vila developed the modernist movement. In 1872, Colombia established the Colombian Academy of Language, the first Spanish language academy in the Americas. Candelario Obeso wrote the groundbreaking Cantos Populares de mi Tierra (1877), the first book of poetry by an Afro-Colombian author. \n\nBetween 1939 and 1940 seven books of poetry were published under the name Stone and Sky in the city of Bogotá that significantly impacted the country; they were edited by the poet Jorge Rojas. In the following decade, Gonzalo Arango founded the movement of \"nothingness\" in response to the violence of the time; he was influenced by nihilism, existentialism, and the thought of another great Colombian writer: Fernando González Ochoa. During the boom in Latin American literature, successful writers emerged, led by Nobel laureate Gabriel García Márquez and his magnum opus, One Hundred Years of Solitude, Eduardo Caballero Calderón, Manuel Mejía Vallejo, and Álvaro Mutis, a writer who was awarded the Cervantes Prize and the Prince of Asturias Award for Letters. Other leading contemporary authors are Fernando Vallejo (Rómulo Gallegos Prize) and Germán Castro Caycedo, the best-selling writer in Colombia after García Márquez. \n\nVisual arts \n\nColombian art has over 3,000 years of history. Colombian artists have captured the country's changing political and cultural backdrop using a range of styles and mediums. There is archeological evidence of ceramics being produced earlier in Colombia than anywhere else in the Americas, dating as early as 3,000 BCE. \n\nThe earliest examples of gold craftsmanship have been attributed to the Tumaco people of the Pacific coast and date to around 325 BCE. Roughly between 200 BCE and 800 CE, the San Agustín culture, masters of stonecutting, entered its “classical period\". They erected raised ceremonial centres, sarcophagi, and large stone monoliths depicting anthropomorphic and zoomorphhic forms out of stone.\n\nColombian art has followed the trends of the time, so during the 16th to 18th centuries, Spanish Catholicism had a huge influence on Colombian art, and the popular baroque style was replaced with rococo when the Bourbons ascended to the Spanish crown. More recently, Colombian artists Pedro Nel Gómez and Santiago Martínez Delgado started the Colombian Murial Movement in the 1940s, featuring the neoclassical features of Art Deco. \n\nSince the 1950s, the Colombian art started to have a distinctive point of view, reinventing traditional elements under the concepts of the 20th century. Examples of this are the Greiff portraits by Ignacio Gómez Jaramillo, showing what the Colombian art could do with the new techniques applied to typical Colombian themes. Carlos Correa, with his paradigmatic “Naturaleza muerta en silencio” (silent dead nature), combines geometrical abstraction and cubism. Alejandro Obregón is often considered as the father of modern Colombian painting, and one of the most influential artist in this period, due to his originality, the painting of Colombian landscapes with symbolic and expressionist use of animals, (specially the Andean condor). Fernando Botero, Omar Rayo and Oscar Murillo are probably the most widely known Colombian artists in the international scene. \n \n\nThe Colombian sculpture from the sixteenth to 18th centuries was mostly devoted to religious depictions of ecclesiastic art, strongly influenced by the Spanish schools of sacred sculpture. During the early period of the Colombian republic, the national artists were focused in the production of sculptural portraits of politicians and public figures, in a plain neoclassicist trend. During the 20th century, the Colombian sculpture began to develop a bold and innovative work with the aim of reaching a better understanding of national sensitivity. \n\nPhotography in Colombia began with the arrival in the country of the Daguerreotype that was brought by the Baron Gros in 1841. The Piloto public library has Latin America’s largest archive of negatives, containing 1.7 million antique photographs covering Colombia 1848 until 2005. \n\nThe Colombian press has promoted the work of the cartoonists. In recent decades, fanzines, internet and independent publishers have been fundamental to the growth of the comic in Colombia. \n\nArchitecture \n\nThroughout the times, there have been a variety of architectural styles, from those of indigenous peoples to contemporary ones, passing through colonial (military and religious), Republican, transition and modern styles. \n\nAncient habitation areas, longhouses, crop terraces, pathways, cemeteries, hypogeums and necropolises are all part of the architectural heritage of indigenous peoples. Some prominent indigenous structures are the preceramic and ceramic archaeological site of Tequendama, Tierradentro (a park that contains the largest concentration of pre-Columbian monumental shaft tombs with side chambers), the largest collection of religious monuments and megalithic sculptures in South America, located in San Agustín, Huila. Lost city (an archaeological site with a series of terraces carved into the mountainside, a net of tiled roads and several circular plazas) and also stand out the large villages mainly built with stone, wood, cane and mud. \n\nArchitecture during the period of conquest and colonization is mainly derived of adapting European styles to local conditions, and Spanish influence, especially Andalusian and Extremaduran, can be easily seen. When Europeans founded cities two things were making simultaneously: the dimensioning of geometrical space (town square, street), and the location of a tangible point of orientation. The construction of forts was common throughout the Caribbean and in some cities of the interior, because of the dangers that represented the hostile indigenous groups and the pirates who roamed the seas. Churches, chapels, schools, and hospitals belonging to religious orders cause a great urban impact. Baroque architecture is used in military buildings and public spaces. Marcelino Arroyo, Francisco José de Caldas and Domingo de Petrés were great representatives of neo-classical architecture.\n\nThe National Capitol is a great representative of romanticism. Wood is extensively used in doors, windows, railings and ceilings during the colonization of Antioquia. The Caribbean architecture acquires a strong Arabic influence. The Teatro Colón in Bogotá is a lavish example of architecture from the 19th century. The quintas houses with innovations in the volumetric conception are some of the best examples of the Republican architecture; the Republican action in the city focused on the design of three types of spaces: parks with forests, small urban parks and avenues and the Gothic style was most commonly used for the design of churches. \n\nDeco style, modern neoclassicism, eclecticism folklorist and art deco ornamental resources significantly influenced the architecture of Colombia, especially during the transition period. Modernism contributed with new construction technologies and new materials (steel, reinforced concrete, glass and synthetic materials) and the topology architecture and lightened slabs system also have a great influence. The most influential architects of the modern movement were Rogelio Salmona and Fernando Martínez Sanabria. \n\nThe contemporary architecture of Colombia is designed to give greater importance to the materials, this architecture takes into account the specific natural and artificial geographies and is also an architecture that appeals to the senses. The conservation of the architectural and urban heritage of Colombia has been promoted in recent years. \n\nMusic \n\n \nColombian music blends European-influenced guitar and song structure with large gaita flutes and percussion instruments from the indigenous population, while its percussion structure and dance forms come from Africa. Colombia has a diverse and dynamic musical environment. Many musicians, composers and singers Colombians are recognized internationally such as Shakira, Juanes or Carlos Vives. \n\nCaribbean music has many vibrant rhythms, such as cumbia (it is played by the maracas, the drums, the gaitas and guacharaca), porro (it is a monotonous but joyful rhythm), mapalé (with its fast rhythm and constant clapping) and the \"vallenato\", which originated in the northern part of the Caribbean coast (the rhythm is mainly played by the caja, the guacharaca, and accordion). \n\nThe music from the Pacific coast, such as the currulao is characterized by its strong use of drums (instruments such as the native marimba, the conunos, the bass drum, the side drum and the cuatro guasas or tubular rattle). An important rhythm of the south region of the Pacific coast is the contradanza (it is used in dance shows, as a result of the striking colours of the costumes). Marimba music, traditional chants and dances from the Colombia South Pacific region are on UNESCO's Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity. \n\nImportant musical rhythms of the Andean Region are the danza (dance of Andean folklore arising from the transformation of the European contredance), the bambuco (it is played with guitar, tiple and mandolin, the rhythm is danced by couples), the pasillo (a rhythm inspired by the Austrian waltz and the Colombian \"danza\", the lyrics have been composed by well-known poets), the rajaleña (it is performed by people that play the queco flute, the tiple, the carangano and the drum), the sanjuanero (it originated in Tolima and Huila Departments, the rhythm is joyful and fast). Apart from these traditional rhythms, salsa music has spread throughout the country, and the city of Cali is considered by many salsa singers to be 'The New Salsa Capital of the World'. \n\nThe instruments that distinguish the music of the Eastern Plains are the harp, the cuatro (a type of four-stringed guitar) and maracas. Important rhythms of this region are the joropo (a fast rhythm and there is also tapping as a result of its flamenco ancestry) and the galeron (it is heard a lot while cowboys are working). \n\nThe music of the Amazon region is strongly influenced by the indigenous religious practices. Some of the musical instruments used are the manguaré (a musical instrument of ceremonial type, consisting of a pair of large cylindrical drums), the quena (melodic instrument), the rondador, the congas, bells, and different types of flutes. \n\nThe music of the Archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina is usually accompanied by a mandolin, a tub-bass, a jawbone, a guitar and maracas. Some popular archipelago rhythms are the Schottische, the Calypso, the Polka and the Mento. \n\nPopular culture \n\nTheater was introduced in Colombia during the Spanish colonization in 1550 through zarzuela companies. Colombian theater is supported by the Ministry of Culture and a number of private and state owned organizations. The Ibero-American Theater Festival of Bogotá is the cultural event of the highest importance in Colombia and one of the biggest theater festivals in the world. Other important theater events are: The Festival of Puppet The Fanfare (Medellín), The Manizales Theater Festival, The Caribbean Theatre Festival (Santa Marta) and The Art Festival of Popular Culture \"Cultural Invasion\" (Bogotá). \n\nAlthough the Colombian cinema is young as an industry, more recently the film industry was growing with support from the Film Act passed in 2003. Many film festivals take place in Colombia, but the two most important are the Cartagena Film Festival, which is the oldest film festival in Latin America, and the Bogotá Film Festival. \n\nSome important national circulation newspapers are El Tiempo and El Espectador. Television in Colombia has two privately owned TV networks and three state-owned TV networks with national coverage, as well as six regional TV networks and dozens of local TV stations. Private channels, RCN and Caracol are the highest-rated. The regional channels and regional newspapers cover a department or more and its content is made in these particular areas. \n\nColombia has three major national radio networks: Radiodifusora Nacional de Colombia, a state-run national radio; Caracol Radio and RCN Radio, privately owned networks with hundreds of affiliates. There are other national networks, including Cadena Super, Todelar, and Colmundo. Many hundreds of radio stations are registered with the Ministry of Information Technology and Communications. \n\nCuisine \n\nColombia's varied cuisine is influenced by its diverse fauna and flora as well as the cultural traditions of the ethnic groups. Colombian dishes and ingredients vary widely by region. Some of the most common ingredients are: cereals such as rice and maize; tubers such as potato and cassava; assorted legumes; meats, including beef, chicken, pork and goat; fish; and seafood. Colombia cuisine also features a variety of tropical fruits such as cape gooseberry, feijoa, arazá, dragon fruit, mangostino, granadilla, papaya, guava, mora (blackberry), lulo, soursop and passionfruit. \n\nAmong the most representative appetizers and soups are patacones (fried green plantains), sancocho de gallina (chicken soup with root vegetables) and ajiaco (potato and corn soup). Representative snacks and breads are pandebono, arepas (corn cakes), aborrajados (fried sweet plantains with cheese), torta de choclo, empanadas and almojábanas. Representative main courses are bandeja paisa, lechona tolimense, mamona, tamales and fish dishes (such as arroz de lisa), especially in coastal regions where kibbeh, suero, costeño cheese and carimañolas are also eaten. Representative side dishes are papas criollas al horno (roasted Andean potatoes), papas chorreadas (potatoes with cheese) and arroz con coco (coconut rice). Organic food is a current trend in big cities, although in general across the country the fruits and veggies are very natural and fresh. \n\nRepresentative desserts are buñuelos, natillas, Maria Luisa cake, bocadillo made of guayaba (guava jelly), cocadas (coconut balls), casquitos de guayaba (candied guava peels), torta de natas, obleas, flan de arequipe, roscón, milhoja, and the tres leches cake (a sponge cake soaked in milk, covered in whipped cream, then served with condensed milk). Typical sauces (salsas) are hogao (tomato and onion sauce) and Colombian-style ají. \n\nSome representative beverages are coffee (Tinto), champús, cholado, lulada, avena colombiana, sugarcane juice, aguapanela, aguardiente, hot chocolate and fresh fruit juices (often made with sugar and water or milk). \n\nSports\n\nTejo is Colombia’s national sport and is a team sport that involves launching projectiles to hit a target. But of all sports in Colombia, football is the most popular. Colombia was the champion of the 2001 Copa América, in which they set a new record of being undefeated, conceding no goals and winning each match. Interestingly, Colombia has been awarded “mover of the year” twice. \n\nColombia is a mecca for roller skaters. The national team is a perennial powerhouse at the World Roller Speed Skating Championships. Colombia has traditionally been very good in cycling and a large number of Colombian cyclists have triumphed in major competitions of cycling. \n\nIn baseball, another sport rooted in the Caribbean Coast, Colombia was world amateur champion in 1947 and 1965.\nBaseball is popular in the Caribbean, mainly in the cities Cartagena, Barranquilla and Santa Marta. Of those cities have come good players like: Orlando Cabrera, Edgar Rentería who was champion of the World Series in 1997 and 2010, and others who have played in Major League Baseball. \n\nBoxing is one of the sports that more world champions has produced for Colombia. \nMotorsports also occupies an important place in the sporting preferences of Colombians; Juan Pablo Montoya is a race car driver known for winning 7 Formula One events. Colombia also has excelled in sports such as BMX, judo, shooting sport, taekwondo, wrestling, high diving and athletics, also has a long tradition in weightlifting and bowling. \n\nHealth\n\nLife expectancy at birth in 2000 was 70.99 years; the life expectancy increased to 74.8 years by 2015. Health standards in Colombia have improved very much since the 1980s, healthcare reforms have led to the massive improvements in the healthcare systems of the country. Although this new system has widened population coverage by the social and health security system from 21% (pre-1993) to 96% in 2012, health disparities persist, with the poor continuing to suffer less attention in their medical procedures.\n\nThrough health tourism, many people from over the world travel from their places of residence to other countries in search of medical treatment and the attractions in the countries visited. Colombia is projected as one of Latin America’s main destinations in terms of health tourism due to the quality of its health care professionals, a good number of institutions devoted to health, and an immense inventory of natural and architectural sites. Cities such as Bogotá, Cali, Medellín and Bucaramanga are the most visited in cardiology procedures, neurology, dental treatments, stem cell therapy, ENT, ophthalmology and joint replacements among others for the medical services of high quality. \n\nA study conducted by América Economía magazine ranked 22 Colombian health care institutions among the top 43 in Latin America, amounting to 51 percent of the total. \n\nEducation \n\nThe educational experience of many Colombian children begins with attendance at a preschool academy until age five (Educación preescolar). Basic education (Educación básica) is compulsory by law. It has two stages: Primary basic education (Educación básica primaria) which goes from first to fifth grade – children from six to ten years old, and Secondary basic education (Educación básica secundaria), which goes from sixth to ninth grade. Basic education is followed by Middle vocational education (Educación media vocacional) that comprises the tenth and eleventh grades. It may have different vocational training modalities or specialties (academic, technical, business, and so on.) according to the curriculum adopted by each school.\n\nAfter the successful completion of all the basic and middle education years, a high-school diploma is awarded. The high-school graduate is known as a bachiller, because secondary basic school and middle education are traditionally considered together as a unit called bachillerato (sixth to eleventh grade). Students in their final year of middle education take the ICFES test (now renamed Saber 11) in order to gain access to higher education (Educación superior). This higher education includes undergraduate professional studies, technical, technological and intermediate professional education, and post-graduate studies. Technical professional institutions of Higher Education are also opened to students holder of a qualification in Arts and Business. This qualification is usually awarded by the SENA after a two years curriculum. \n\nBachilleres (high-school graduates) may enter into a professional undergraduate career program offered by a university; these programs last up to five years (or less for technical, technological and intermediate professional education, and post-graduate studies), even as much to six to seven years for some careers, such as medicine. In Colombia, there is not an institution such as college; students go directly into a career program at a university or any other educational institution to obtain a professional, technical or technological title. Once graduated from the university, people are granted a (professional, technical or technological) diploma and licensed (if required) to practice the career they have chosen. For some professional career programs, students are required to take the Saber-Pro test, in their final year of undergraduate academic education. \n\nPublic spending on education as a proportion of gross domestic product in 2013 was 4.9%. This represented 16.9% of total government expenditure. The primary and secondary gross enrolment ratios stood at 114.9% and 93% respectively. School-life expectancy was 13.5 years. A total of 93.6% of the population aged 15 and older were recorded as literate, including 98.2% of those aged 15–24." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Columbia", "Columbia (municipality)", "Columbia (song)", "Columbia automobile", "Columbia (yacht)", "Columbia (disambiguation)", "Columbia (town)" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "columbia", "columbia disambiguation", "columbia town", "columbia yacht", "columbia song", "columbia municipality", "columbia automobile" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "columbia", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Columbia" }
How old was Ronald Reagan when he became US President?	tc_652	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Ronald_Reagan.txt", "President_of_the_United_States.txt" ], "title": [ "Ronald Reagan", "President of the United States" ], "wiki_context": [ "Ronald Wilson Reagan (; February 6, 1911 – June 5, 2004) was an American politician and actor who served as the 40th President of the United States from 1981 to 1989. Prior to his presidency, he was the 33rd Governor of California from 1967 to 1975, following a career as a Hollywood actor and union leader.\n\nRaised in a poor family in small towns of northern Illinois, Ronald Reagan graduated from Eureka College in 1932 and worked as a sports announcer on several regional radio stations. After moving to Hollywood in 1937, he became an actor and starred in a few major productions. Reagan was twice elected as President of the Screen Actors Guild, the labor union for actors, where he worked to root out Communist influence. In the 1950s, he moved into television and was a motivational speaker at General Electric factories. Having been a lifelong Democrat, his views changed. He became a conservative and in 1962 switched to the Republican Party. In 1964, Reagan's speech, \"A Time for Choosing\", in support of Barry Goldwater's floundering presidential campaign, earned him national attention as a new conservative spokesman. Building a network of supporters, he was elected Governor of California in 1966. As governor, Reagan raised taxes, turned a state budget deficit to a surplus, challenged the protesters at the University of California, ordered National Guard troops in during a period of protest movements in 1969, and was re-elected in 1970. He twice ran unsuccessfully for the Republican nominations in 1968 and 1976; four years later, he easily won the nomination outright, going on to be elected the oldest President, defeating incumbent Jimmy Carter in 1980.\n\nEntering the presidency in 1981, Reagan implemented sweeping new political and economic initiatives. His supply-side economic policies, dubbed \"Reaganomics\", advocated tax rate reduction to spur economic growth, control of the money supply to curb inflation, economic deregulation, and reduction in government spending. In his first term he survived an assassination attempt, escalated the War on Drugs, and fought public-sector labor. Over his two terms, his economic policies saw a reduction of inflation from 12.5% to 4.4%, and an average annual growth of real GDP of 3.4%; while Reagan did enact cuts in domestic discretionary spending, increased military spending contributed to increased federal outlays overall, even after adjustment for inflation. During his reelection bid, Reagan campaigned on the notion that it was \"Morning in America\", winning a landslide in 1984 with the largest electoral college victory in history. Foreign affairs dominated his second term, including ending of the Cold War, the bombing of Libya, and the Iran–Contra affair. Publicly describing the Soviet Union as an \"evil empire\", he transitioned Cold War policy from détente to rollback, by escalating an arms race with the USSR while engaging in talks with Soviet General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev, which culminated in the INF Treaty, shrinking both countries' nuclear arsenals. During his famous speech at the Brandenburg Gate, President Reagan challenged Gorbachev to \"tear down this wall!\". Five months after the end of his term, the Berlin Wall fell, and on December 26, 1991, nearly three years after he left office, the Soviet Union collapsed.\n\nLeaving office in 1989, Reagan held an approval rating of sixty-eight percent, matching those of Franklin D. Roosevelt, and later Bill Clinton, as the highest ratings for departing presidents in the modern era. While having planned an active post-presidency, in 1994 Reagan disclosed his diagnosis with Alzheimer's disease earlier that year, appearing publicly for the last time at the funeral of Richard Nixon; he died ten years later in 2004 at the age of 93. An icon among Republicans, he ranks favorably in public and critical opinion of U.S. Presidents, and his tenure constituted a realignment toward conservative policies in the United States.\n\nEarly life\n\nRonald Wilson Reagan was born in an apartment on the second floor of a commercial building in Tampico, Illinois on February 6, 1911, the son of Nelle Clyde (Wilson) and John Edward \"Jack\" Reagan. Reagan's father was a salesman and a storyteller, the grandson of Irish Catholic immigrants from County Tipperary, while his mother was of half Scots and half English descent (Reagan's maternal grandmother was born in Surrey, England). Reagan had one older brother, Neil\n(1908–96), who became an advertising executive. As a boy, Reagan's father nicknamed his son \"Dutch,\" due to his \"fat little Dutchman\"-like appearance, and his \"Dutchboy\" haircut; the nickname stuck with him throughout his youth. Reagan's family briefly lived in several towns and cities in Illinois, including Monmouth, Galesburg, and Chicago, in 1919, they returned to Tampico and lived above the H. C. Pitney Variety Store until finally settling in Dixon. After his election as president, residing in the upstairs White House private quarters, Reagan would quip that he was \"living above the store again\". \n\nAccording to Paul Kengor, author of God and Ronald Reagan, Reagan had a particularly strong faith in the goodness of people, which stemmed from the optimistic faith of his mother, Nelle, and the Disciples of Christ faith, which he was baptized into in 1922. For the time, Reagan was unusual in his opposition to racial discrimination, and recalled a time in Dixon when the local inn would not allow black people to stay there. Reagan brought them back to his house, where his mother invited them to stay the night and have breakfast the next morning. \n\nAfter the closure of the Pitney Store in late 1920, the Reagans moved to Dixon; the midwestern \"small universe\" had a lasting impression on Reagan. He attended Dixon High School, where he developed interests in acting, sports, and storytelling. His first job was as a lifeguard at the Rock River in Lowell Park, near Dixon, in 1927. Over a six-year period, Reagan reportedly performed 77 rescues as a lifeguard. Reagan attended Eureka College, a Disciples-oriented liberal arts school, where he became a member of the Tau Kappa Epsilon fraternity, a cheerleader, and studied economics and sociology. While involved, the Miller Center of Public Affairs described him as an \"indifferent student\". He majored in Economics and graduated with a C average. He developed a reputation as a jack of all trades, excelling in campus politics, sports and theater. He was a member of the football team and captain of the swim team. He was elected student body president and led a student revolt against the college president after he tried to cut back the faculty. \n\nEntertainment career\n\nRadio and film\n\nAfter graduating from Eureka in 1932, Reagan drove himself to Iowa, where he held jobs as an announcer at several stations. He moved to WHO radio in Des Moines as an announcer for Chicago Cubs baseball games. His specialty was creating play-by-play accounts of games using as his source only basic descriptions that the station received by wire as the games were in progress. \n\nWhile traveling with the Cubs in California, Reagan took a screen test in 1937 that led to a seven-year contract with Warner Brothers studios. He spent the first few years of his Hollywood career in the \"B film\" unit, where, Reagan joked, the producers \"didn't want them good; they wanted them Thursday\".\n\nHis first screen credit was the starring role in the 1937 movie Love Is on the Air, and by the end of 1939 he had already appeared in 19 films, including Dark Victory with Bette Davis and Humphrey Bogart. Before the film Santa Fe Trail with Errol Flynn in 1940, he played the role of George \"The Gipper\" Gipp in the film Knute Rockne, All American; from it, he acquired the lifelong nickname \"the Gipper.\" In 1941 exhibitors voted him the fifth most popular star from the younger generation in Hollywood. \n\nReagan's favorite acting role was as a double amputee in 1942's Kings Row, in which he recites the line \"Where's the rest of me?\"—later used as the title of his 1965 autobiography. Many film critics considered Kings Row to be his best movie, though the film was condemned by New York Times critic Bosley Crowther. \n\nAlthough Reagan called Kings Row the film that \"made me a star\", he was unable to capitalize on his success because he was ordered to active duty with the U.S. Army at San Francisco two months after its release, and never regained \"star\" status in motion pictures. In the post-war era, after being separated from almost four years of World War II stateside service with the 1st Motion Picture Unit in December 1945, Reagan co-starred in such films as, The Voice of the Turtle, John Loves Mary, The Hasty Heart, Bedtime for Bonzo, Cattle Queen of Montana, Tennessee's Partner, Hellcats of the Navy (the only film in which he appears with Nancy Reagan) and the 1964 remake The Killers (his final film and the only one in which he played a villain). Throughout his film career, his mother answered much of his fan mail. \n\nMilitary service\n\nAfter completing fourteen home-study Army Extension Courses, Reagan enlisted in the Army Enlisted Reserve and was commissioned a second lieutenant in the Officers Reserve Corps of the cavalry on May 25, 1937. \n\nReagan was ordered to active duty for the first time on April 18, 1942. Due to his poor eyesight, he was classified for limited service only, which excluded him from serving overseas. His first assignment was at the San Francisco Port of Embarkation at Fort Mason, California, as a liaison officer of the Port and Transportation Office. Upon the approval of the Army Air Force (AAF), he applied for a transfer from the cavalry to the AAF on May 15, 1942, and was assigned to AAF Public Relations and subsequently to the First Motion Picture Unit (officially, the \"18th Army Air Force Base Unit\") in Culver City, California. On January 14, 1943, he was promoted to first lieutenant and was sent to the Provisional Task Force Show Unit of This Is the Army at Burbank, California. He returned to the First Motion Picture Unit after completing this duty and was promoted to captain on July 22, 1943.\n\nIn January 1944, Reagan was ordered to temporary duty in New York City to participate in the opening of the Sixth War Loan Drive. He was reassigned to the First Motion Picture Unit on November 14, 1944, where he remained until the end of World War II. He was recommended for promotion to major on February 2, 1945, but this recommendation was disapproved on July 17 of that year. While with the First Motion Picture Unit in 1945, he was indirectly involved in discovering actress Marilyn Monroe. He returned to Fort MacArthur, California, where he was separated from active duty on December 9, 1945. By the end of the war, his units had produced some 400 training films for the AAF. \n\nReagan never left the United States during the war, though he kept a film reel, obtained while in the service, depicting the liberation of Auschwitz, as he believed that someday doubts would arise as to whether the Holocaust had occurred. It has been alleged that he was overheard telling Israeli foreign minister Yitzhak Shamir in 1983 that he had filmed that footage himself and helped liberate Auschwitz, though this purported conversation was disputed by Secretary of State George P. Shultz. \n\nSAG president\n\nReagan was first elected to the Board of Directors of the Screen Actors Guild in 1941, serving as an alternate. After World War II, he resumed service and became 3rd vice-president in 1946. The adoption of conflict-of-interest bylaws in 1947 led the SAG president and six board members to resign; Reagan was nominated in a special election for the position of president and subsequently elected. He was subsequently chosen by the membership to serve seven additional one-year terms, from 1947 to 1952 and in 1959. Reagan led the SAG through eventful years that were marked by labor-management disputes, the Taft–Hartley Act, House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) hearings and the Hollywood blacklist era.\n\nSecret FBI informant in Hollywood\n\nDuring the late 1940s, Reagan and his wife provided the FBI with names of actors within the motion picture industry whom they believed to be communist sympathizers, though he expressed reservations; he said \"Do they expect us to constitute ourselves as a little FBI of our own and determine just who is a Commie and who isn't?\" \n\nReagan testified before the House Un-American Activities Committee on the subject as well. A fervent anti-communist, he reaffirmed his commitment to democratic principles, stating, \"I never as a citizen want to see our country become urged, by either fear or resentment of this group, that we ever compromise with any of our democratic principles through that fear or resentment.\"\n\nTelevision\n\nThough an early critic of television, Reagan landed fewer film roles in the late 1950s and decided to join the medium. He was hired as the host of General Electric Theater, a series of weekly dramas that became very popular. His contract required him to tour GE plants sixteen weeks out of the year, often demanding of him fourteen speeches per day. He earned approximately $125,000 per year (about $1.07 million in 2010 dollars) in this role. The show ran for ten seasons from 1953 to 1962 and, as a result it increased Reagan's profile in American households, especially as he had appeared in feature films mostly in supporting role or as a \"second lead\".\n\nHis final work as a professional actor was as host and performer from 1964 to 1965 on the television series Death Valley Days. \n\nReagan and Nancy Davis appeared together on television several times, including an episode of General Electric Theater in 1958 called \"A Turkey for the President.\" \n\nMarriages and children\n\nIn 1938, Reagan co-starred in the film Brother Rat with actress Jane Wyman (1917–2007). They were engaged at the Chicago Theatre, and married on January 26, 1940, at the Wee Kirk o' the Heather church in Glendale, California. Together they had two biological children, Maureen (1941–2001) and Christine (who was born in 1947 but only lived one day), and adopted a third, Michael (born 1945). After arguments about Reagan's political ambitions, Wyman filed for divorce in 1948, citing a distraction due to her husband's Screen Actors Guild union duties; the divorce was finalized in 1949. He is the only US president to have been divorced. Reagan and Wyman continued to be friends until his death, with Wyman voting for Reagan in both of his runs and, upon his death, saying \"America has lost a great president and a great, kind, and gentle man.\" \n\nReagan met actress Nancy Davis (1921–2016) in 1949 after she contacted him in his capacity as president of the Screen Actors Guild to help her with issues regarding her name appearing on a Communist blacklist in Hollywood. She had been mistaken for another Nancy Davis. She described their meeting by saying, \"I don't know if it was exactly love at first sight, but it was pretty close.\" They were engaged at Chasen's restaurant in Los Angeles and were married on March 4, 1952, at the Little Brown Church in the Valley (North Hollywood, now Studio City) San Fernando Valley. Actor William Holden served as best man at the ceremony. They had two children: Patti (born October 21, 1952) and Ron (born May 20, 1958).\n\nObservers described the Reagans' relationship as close, authentic and intimate. During his presidency they were reported to frequently display their affection for one another; one press secretary said, \"They never took each other for granted. They never stopped courting.\" He often called her \"Mommy\" and she called him \"Ronnie.\" He once wrote to her, \"Whatever I treasure and enjoy ... all would be without meaning if I didn't have you.\" When he was in the hospital in 1981, she slept with one of his shirts to be comforted by his scent. In a letter to U.S. citizens written in 1994, Reagan wrote \"I have recently been told that I am one of the millions of Americans who will be afflicted with Alzheimer's disease... I only wish there was some way I could spare Nancy from this painful experience,\" and in 1998, while Reagan was stricken by Alzheimer's, Nancy told Vanity Fair, \"Our relationship is very special. We were very much in love and still are. When I say my life began with Ronnie, well, it's true. It did. I can't imagine life without him.\" Nancy Reagan died on March 6, 2016 at the age of 94. \n\nEarly political career\n\nReagan began as a Hollywood Democrat; Franklin D. Roosevelt was his great hero. He moved to the right in the 1950s, became a Republican in 1962, and emerged as a leading conservative spokesman in the Goldwater campaign of 1964. \n\nHe joined numerous political committees with a left-wing orientation, such as the American Veterans Committee. He fought against Republican-sponsored right-to-work legislation and for Helen Gahagan Douglas in 1950, when she was defeated for the Senate by Richard Nixon. It was his realization that Communists were a powerful backstage influence in those groups, that led him to rally his friends against them. \n\nReagan spoke frequently at rallies with a strong ideological dimension; in December 1945, he was stopped from leading an anti-nuclear rally in Hollywood by pressure from the Warner Bros. studio. He would later make nuclear weapons a key point of his presidency, specifically his opposition to mutually assured destruction, building on previous efforts to limit the spread of nuclear weapons to a new focus to reduce the numbers and types of them. In the 1948 election, Reagan strongly supported Harry S. Truman, appearing on stage with him during a campaign speech in Los Angeles.McCullough, David. Truman. Simon & Schuster, 1992, p. 665. ISBN 0-671-45654-7. However, in the early 1950s, as his relationship with actress Nancy Davis grew, he shifted to the right and endorsed the presidential candidacies of Dwight D. Eisenhower in 1952 and 1956 as well as Richard Nixon in 1960. \n\nHe was hired by General Electric in 1954 to host the General Electric Theater, a weekly TV drama series. Much more important, he crisscrossed the country giving talks to over 200,000 GE employees as a motivational speaker. His many speeches—which he wrote himself—were non-partisan but carried a conservative, pro-business message; he was influenced by Lemuel Boulware, a senior GE executive. Boulware, known for his tough stance against unions and his innovative strategies to win over workers, championed the core tenets of modern American conservatism: free markets, anticommunism, lower taxes, and limited government. Eager for a larger stage, but not allowed to enter politics by GE, he quit and formally registered as a Republican. He often said \"I didn't leave the Democratic Party. The party left me.\" \n\nWhen legislation that would become Medicare was introduced in 1961, Reagan created a recording for the American Medical Association warning that such legislation would mean the end of freedom in America. Reagan said that if his listeners did not write letters to prevent it, \"we will awake to find that we have socialism. And if you don't do this, and if I don't do it, one of these days, you and I are going to spend our sunset years telling our children, and our children's children, what it once was like in America when men were free.\" He also joined the National Rifle Association and would become a lifetime member. \n\nReagan gained national attention in his speeches for conservative presidential contender Barry Goldwater in 1964. Speaking for Goldwater, Reagan stressed his belief in the importance of smaller government. Consolidating themes he had developed in talks for GE, he argued in \"A Time for Choosing\" (October 27, 1964):\n\nThis \"A Time for Choosing\" speech was not enough to turn around the faltering Goldwater campaign, but it was the key event that established Reagan's national political visibility. \n\nGovernorship of California: 1967–75\n\nCalifornia Republicans were impressed with Reagan's political views and charisma after his \"Time for Choosing\" speech, he announced in late 1965, his campaign for Governor of California in 1966. He defeated former San Francisco mayor George Christopher in the GOP primary. In Reagan's campaign, he emphasized two main themes: \"to send the welfare bums back to work,\" and, in reference to burgeoning anti-war and anti-establishment student protests at the University of California at Berkeley, \"to clean up the mess at Berkeley.\" Ronald Reagan accomplished in 1966 what US Senator William F. Knowland in 1958 and former Vice President Richard Nixon in 1962 had tried: he was elected, defeating two-term governor Edmund G. \"Pat\" Brown, and was sworn in on January 2, 1967. In his first term, he froze government hiring and approved tax hikes to balance the budget. \n\nShortly after the beginning of his term, Reagan tested the presidential waters in 1968 as part of a \"Stop Nixon\" movement, hoping to cut into Nixon's Southern support and be a compromise candidate if neither Nixon nor second-place Nelson Rockefeller received enough delegates to win on the first ballot at the Republican convention. However, by the time of the convention Nixon had 692 delegate votes, 25 more than he needed to secure the nomination, followed by Rockefeller with Reagan in third place.\n\nReagan was involved in high-profile conflicts with the protest movements of the era. On May 15, 1969, during the People's Park protests at UC Berkeley, Reagan sent the California Highway Patrol and other officers to quell the protests, in an incident that became known as \"Bloody Thursday,\" resulting in the death of student James Rector and the blinding of carpenter Alan Blanchard. Reagan then called out 2,200 state National Guard troops to occupy the city of Berkeley for two weeks to crack down on the protesters. A year after \"Bloody Thursday,\" Reagan responded to questions about campus protest movements saying, \"If it takes a bloodbath, let's get it over with. No more appeasement.\" When the Symbionese Liberation Army kidnapped Patty Hearst in Berkeley and demanded the distribution of food to the poor, Reagan joked to a group of political aides about a botulism outbreak contaminating the food. Conversely, in that one afternoon, \"Bloody Thursday,\" 111 police officers were injured, including one C.H.P. officer who was knifed in the chest. After calling in the National Guard, the Guard remained in Berkeley for 17 days, camping in People's Park, and demonstrations subsided as the University removed cordoned-off fencing and placed all development plans for People's Park on hold. \n\nEarly in 1967, the national debate on abortion was beginning. Democratic California state senator Anthony C. Beilenson introduced the \"Therapeutic Abortion Act,\" in an effort to reduce the number of \"back-room abortions\" performed in California. The State Legislature sent the bill to Reagan's desk where, after many days of indecision, he signed it. About two million abortions would be performed as a result, most because of a provision in the bill allowing abortions for the well-being of the mother. Reagan had been in office for only four months when he signed the bill, and later stated that had he been more experienced as governor, he would not have signed it. After he recognized what he called the \"consequences\" of the bill, he announced that he was pro-life. He maintained that position later in his political career, writing extensively about abortion. \n\nIn 1967, Reagan signed the Mulford Act, which became California penal code [http://caselaw.findlaw.com/cacodes/pen/12020-12040.html 12031] and [http://leginfo.ca.gov/cgi-bin/displaycode?sectionpen&group\n00001-01000&file=142-181 171(c)]. The bill repealed a law allowing public carrying of loaded firearms. Named after Republican assemblyman Don Mulford, the bill garnered national attention after the Black Panthers marched bearing arms upon the California State Capitol to protest the bill. \n\nDespite an unsuccessful attempt to recall him in 1968, Reagan was re-elected in 1970, defeating \"Big Daddy\" Jesse M. Unruh. He chose not to seek a third term in the following election cycle. One of Reagan's greatest frustrations in office concerned capital punishment, which he strongly supported. His efforts to enforce the state's laws in this area were thwarted when the Supreme Court of California issued its People v. Anderson decision, which invalidated all death sentences issued in California before 1972, though the decision was later overturned by a constitutional amendment. The only execution during Reagan's governorship was on April 12, 1967, when Aaron Mitchell's sentence was carried out by the state in San Quentin's gas chamber. \n\nIn 1969, Reagan, as governor, signed the Family Law Act, an amalgam of two bills which had been written and revised by the California State Legislature for over two years and became the first no-fault divorce legislation in the United States. \n\nReagan's terms as governor helped to shape the policies he would pursue in his later political career as president. By campaigning on a platform of sending \"the welfare bums back to work,\" he spoke out against the idea of the welfare state. He also strongly advocated the Republican ideal of less government regulation of the economy, including that of undue federal taxation. \n\nReagan did not seek re-election to a third term as governor in 1974 and was succeeded by Democratic California Secretary of State Jerry Brown on January 6, 1975.\n\n1976 presidential campaign\n\nIn 1976, Reagan challenged incumbent President Gerald Ford in a bid to become the Republican Party's candidate for president. Reagan soon established himself as the conservative candidate with the support of like-minded organizations such as the American Conservative Union which became key components of his political base, while President Ford was considered a more moderate Republican. \n\nReagan's campaign relied on a strategy crafted by campaign manager John Sears of winning a few primaries early to damage the inevitability of Ford's likely nomination. Reagan won North Carolina, Texas, and California, but the strategy failed, as he ended up losing New Hampshire, Florida, and his native Illinois. The Texas campaign lent renewed hope to Reagan, when he swept all ninety-six delegates chosen in the May 1 primary, with four more awaiting at the state convention. Much of the credit for that victory came from the work of three co-chairmen, including Ernest Angelo, the mayor of Midland, and Ray Barnhart of Houston, whom President Reagan would appoint in 1981 as director of the Federal Highway Administration. \n\nHowever, as the GOP convention neared, Ford appeared close to victory. Acknowledging his party's moderate wing, Reagan chose moderate Senator Richard Schweiker of Pennsylvania as his running mate if nominated. Nonetheless, Ford prevailed with 1,187 delegates to Reagan's 1,070. Ford would go on to lose the 1976 Presidential election to the Democrat Jimmy Carter.\n\nReagan's concession speech emphasized the dangers of nuclear war and the threat posed by the Soviet Union. Though he lost the nomination, he received 307 write-in votes in New Hampshire, 388 votes as an Independent on Wyoming's ballot, and a single electoral vote from a faithless elector in the November election from the state of Washington, which Ford had won over Democratic challenger Jimmy Carter.\n\nAfter the campaign, Reagan remained in the public debate with the Ronald Reagan Radio Commentary series and his political action committee, Citizens for the Republic, which was later revived in Alexandria, Virginia, in 2009 by the Reagan biographer Craig Shirley. \n\n1980 presidential campaign\n\nThe 1980 presidential campaign between Reagan and incumbent President Jimmy Carter was conducted during domestic concerns and the ongoing Iran hostage crisis. His campaign stressed some of his fundamental principles: lower taxes to stimulate the economy, less government interference in people's lives, states' rights, and a strong national defense. \n\nReagan launched his campaign by declaring \"I believe in states' rights.\" After receiving the Republican nomination, Reagan selected one of his primary opponents, George H. W. Bush, to be his running mate. His showing in the October televised debate boosted his campaign. Reagan won the election, carrying 44 states with 489 electoral votes to 49 electoral votes for Carter (representing six states and Washington, D.C.). Reagan received 51% of the popular vote while Carter took 41%, and Independent John B. Anderson (a liberal Republican) received 7%. Republicans captured the Senate for the first time since 1952, and gained 34 House seats, but the Democrats retained a majority.\n\nPresidency of the United States: 1981–89\n\nDuring his presidency, Reagan pursued policies that reflected his personal belief in individual freedom, brought changes domestically, both to the U.S. economy and expanded military, and contributed to the end of the Cold War. Termed the Reagan Revolution, his presidency would reinvigorate American morale, reinvigorate the American economy and reduce American reliance upon government. As president, Reagan kept a diary in which he commented on daily occurrences of his presidency and his views on the issues of the day. The diaries were published in May 2007 in the bestselling book, The Reagan Diaries. \n\nFirst term\n\nTo date, Reagan is the oldest person elected to the office of the presidency (at 69) and the oldest president at the time of inauguration (at 69 years, 341 days). In his first inaugural address on January 20, 1981, which Reagan himself wrote, he addressed the country's economic malaise arguing: \"In this present crisis, government is not the solution to our problems; government is the problem.\" \n\nPrayer in schools and a moment of silence\n\nIn 1981, Reagan became the first president to propose a constitutional amendment on school prayer. Reagan's election reflected an opposition to the 1962 Supreme Court case Engel v. Vitale, prohibiting state officials from composing an official state prayer and requiring that it be recited in the public schools. Reagan's 1981 proposed amendment stated: \"Nothing in this Constitution shall be construed to prohibit individual or group prayer in public schools or other public institutions. No person shall be required by the United States or by any state to participate in prayer.\" In 1984, Reagan again raised the issue, asking Congress \"why can't [the] freedom to acknowledge God be enjoyed again by children in every schoolroom across this land?\" In 1985, Reagan expressed his disappointment that the Supreme Court ruling still bans a moment of silence for public schools, and said he had \"an uphill battle.\" In 1987 Reagan again renewed his call for Congress to support voluntary prayer in schools and end \"the expulsion of God from America's classrooms.\"Stuart Taylor Jr., [http://www.nytimes.com/1987/01/28/nyregion/high-court-accepts-appeal-of-moment-of-silence-law.html High Court Accepts Appeal Of Moment Of Silence Law]. January 28, 1987, The New York times. Critics argue that any governmental imposition of prayer on public school students is involuntary. No Supreme Court rulings suggest that students cannot engage in silent prayer on their own. During his term in office, Reagan campaigned vigorously to restore organized prayer to the schools, first as a moment of prayer and later as a Moment of Silence. \n\nAssassination attempt\n\nOn March 30, 1981, only 69 days into the new administration, Reagan, his press secretary James Brady, Washington police officer Thomas Delahanty, and Secret Service agent Tim McCarthy were struck by gunfire from would-be assassin John Hinckley Jr., outside the Washington Hilton Hotel. Although \"close to death\" upon arrival at George Washington University Hospital, Reagan was stabilized in the emergency room, then underwent emergency exploratory surgery. He recovered and was released from the hospital on April 11, becoming the first serving U.S. President to survive being shot in an assassination attempt. The attempt had great influence on Reagan's popularity; polls indicated his approval rating to be around 73%. Reagan believed that God had spared his life so that he might go on to fulfill a greater purpose. \n\nAssistant Secretary of State nomination\n\nIn response to conservative criticism that the State Department lacked hardliners, Reagan in 1981 nominated Ernest W. Lefever as Assistant Secretary of State for Human Rights and Humanitarian Affairs. Lefever performed poorly at his confirmation hearings and the Senate committee rejected his nomination by vote of 4–13; Lefever withdrew his name. \n\nAir traffic controllers' strike\n\nIn summer 1981 PATCO, the union of federal air traffic controllers went on strike, violating a federal law prohibiting government unions from striking. Declaring the situation an emergency as described in the 1947 Taft–Hartley Act, Reagan stated that if the air traffic controllers \"do not report for work within 48 hours, they have forfeited their jobs and will be terminated.\" They did not return and on August 5, Reagan fired 11,345 striking air traffic controllers who had ignored his order, and used supervisors and military controllers to handle the nation's commercial air traffic until new controllers could be hired and trained. A leading reference work on public administration concluded, \"The firing of PATCO employees not only demonstrated a clear resolve by the president to take control of the bureaucracy, but it also sent a clear message to the private sector that unions no longer needed to be feared.\" \n\n\"Reaganomics\" and the economy\n\nDuring Jimmy Carter's last year in office (1980), inflation averaged 12.5%, compared with 4.4% during Reagan's last year in office (1988). During Reagan's administration, the unemployment rate declined from 7.5% to 5.4%, with the rate reaching highs of 10.8% in 1982 and 10.4% in 1983, averaging 7.5% over the eight years, and real GDP growth averaged 3.4% with a high of 8.6% in 1983, while nominal GDP growth averaged 7.4%, and peaked at 12.2% in 1982. \n\nReagan implemented policies based on supply-side economics, advocating a laissez-faire philosophy and free-market fiscal policy, seeking to stimulate the economy with large, across-the-board tax cuts. He also supported returning the United States to some sort of gold standard, and successfully urged Congress to establish the U.S. Gold Commission to study how one could be implemented. Citing the economic theories of Arthur Laffer, Reagan promoted the proposed tax cuts as potentially stimulating the economy enough to expand the tax base, offsetting the revenue loss due to reduced rates of taxation, a theory that entered political discussion as the Laffer curve. Reaganomics was the subject of debate with supporters pointing to improvements in certain key economic indicators as evidence of success, and critics pointing to large increases in federal budget deficits and the national debt. His policy of \"peace through strength\" resulted in a record peacetime defense buildup including a 40% real increase in defense spending between 1981 and 1985. \n\nDuring Reagan's presidency, federal income tax rates were lowered significantly with the signing of the Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981, which lowered the top marginal tax bracket from 70% to 50% and the lowest bracket from 14% to 11%. Other tax increases passed by Congress and signed by Reagan ensured however that tax revenues over his two terms were 18.2% of GDP as compared to 18.1% over the 40-year period 1970–2010. Then, in 1982 the Job Training Partnership Act of 1982 was signed into law, initiating one of the United States' first public–private partnerships and a major part of the president's job creation program. Reagan's Assistant Secretary of Labor and Chief of Staff, Al Angrisani, was a primary architect of the bill.\n\nConversely, Congress passed and Reagan signed into law tax increases of some nature in every year from 1981 to 1987 to continue funding such government programs as Tax Equity and Fiscal Responsibility Act of 1982 (TEFRA), Social Security, and the Deficit Reduction Act of 1984 (DEFRA). Despite the fact that TEFRA was the \"largest peacetime tax increase in American history,\" gross domestic product (GDP) growth recovered strongly after the early 1980s recession ended in 1982, and grew during his eight years in office at an annual rate of 7.9% per year, with a high of 12.2% growth in 1981. Unemployment peaked at 10.8% monthly rate in December 1982—higher than any time since the Great Depression—then dropped during the rest of Reagan's presidency. Sixteen million new jobs were created, while inflation significantly decreased. The Tax Reform Act of 1986, another bipartisan effort championed by Reagan, simplified the tax code by reducing the number of tax brackets to four and slashing a number of tax breaks. The top rate was dropped to 28%, but capital gains taxes were increased on those with the highest incomes from 20% to 28%. The increase of the lowest tax bracket from 11% to 15% was more than offset by expansion of the personal exemption, standard deduction, and earned income tax credit. The net result was the removal of six million poor Americans from the income tax roll and a reduction of income tax liability at all income levels. \n\nThe net effect of all Reagan-era tax bills was a 1% decrease in government revenues when compared to Treasury Department revenue estimates from the Administration's first post-enactment January budgets. However, federal income tax receipts increased from 1980 to 1989, rising from $308.7 billion to $549 billion or an average annual rate of 8.2% (2.5% attributed to higher Social Security receipts), and federal outlays grew at an annual rate of 7.1%. \n\nReagan's policies proposed that economic growth would occur when marginal tax rates were low enough to spur investment, which would then lead to higher employment and wages. Critics labeled this \"trickle-down economics\"—the belief that tax policies that benefit the wealthy will create a \"trickle-down\" effect to the poor. Questions arose whether Reagan's policies benefited the wealthy more than those living in poverty, and many poor and minority citizens viewed Reagan as indifferent to their struggles. These views were exacerbated by the fact that Reagan's economic regimen included freezing the minimum wage at $3.35 an hour, slashing federal assistance to local governments by 60%, cutting the budget for public housing and Section 8 rent subsidies in half, and eliminating the antipoverty Community Development Block Grant program. The widening gap between the rich and poor had already begun during the 1970s before Reagan's economic policies took effect. Along with Reagan's 1981 cut in the top regular tax rate on unearned income, he reduced the maximum capital gains rate to only 20%. Reagan later set tax rates on capital gains at the same level as the rates on ordinary income like salaries and wages, with both topping out at 28%. Reagan is viewed as an antitax hero despite raising taxes eleven times over the course of his presidency, all in the name of fiscal responsibility. According to Paul Krugman, \"Over all, the 1982 tax increase undid about a third of the 1981 cut; as a share of GDP, the increase was substantially larger than Mr. Clinton's 1993 tax increase.\" According to historian and domestic policy adviser Bruce Bartlett, Reagan's tax increases over the course of his presidency took back half of the 1981 tax cut. \n\nFurther following his opposition to government intervention, Reagan cut the budgets of non-military programs including Medicaid, food stamps, federal education programs and the EPA. While he protected entitlement programs, such as Social Security and Medicare, his administration attempted to purge many people with disabilities from the Social Security disability rolls. \n\nThe administration's stance toward the Savings and Loan industry contributed to the savings and loan crisis. It is also suggested, by a minority of Reaganomics critics, that the policies partially influenced the stock market crash of 1987, but there is no consensus regarding a single source for the crash. In order to cover newly spawned federal budget deficits, the United States borrowed heavily both domestically and abroad, raising the national debt from $997 billion to $2.85 trillion. Reagan described the new debt as the \"greatest disappointment\" of his presidency. \n\nHe reappointed Paul Volcker as Chairman of the Federal Reserve, and in 1987 he appointed monetarist Alan Greenspan to succeed him. Reagan ended the price controls on domestic oil which had contributed to energy crises in the early 1970s. The price of oil subsequently dropped, and the 1980s did not see the fuel shortages that the 1970s had. Reagan also fulfilled a 1980 campaign promise to repeal the windfall profit tax in 1988, which had previously increased dependence on foreign oil. Some economists, such as Nobel Prize winners Milton Friedman and Robert Mundell, argue that Reagan's tax policies invigorated America's economy and contributed to the economic boom of the 1990s. Other economists, such as Nobel Prize winner Robert Solow, argue that Reagan's deficits were a major reason his successor, George H.W. Bush, reneged on a campaign promise and resorted to raising taxes. \n\nDuring Reagan's presidency, a program was initiated within the U.S. Intelligence Community to ensure America's economic strength. The program, Project Socrates, developed and demonstrated the means required for the United States to generate and lead the next evolutionary leap in technology acquisition and utilization for a competitive advantage—automated innovation. To ensure that the United States acquired the maximum benefit from automated innovation, Reagan, during his second term, had an executive order drafted to create a new federal agency to implement the Project Socrates results on a nationwide basis. However, Reagan's term came to end before the executive order could be coordinated and signed, and the incoming Bush administration, labeling Project Socrates as \"industrial policy,\" had it terminated. \n\nEscalation of the Cold War\n\nReagan escalated the Cold War, accelerating a reversal from the policy of détente which began in 1979 after the Soviet war in Afghanistan. Reagan ordered a massive buildup of the United States Armed Forces and implemented new policies towards the Soviet Union: reviving the B-1 Lancer program that had been canceled by the Carter administration, and producing the MX missile. In response to Soviet deployment of the SS-20, Reagan oversaw NATO's deployment of the Pershing missile in West Germany. \n\nIn 1984, journalist Nicholas Lemann interviewed Reagan Secretary of Defense Caspar Weinberger and summarized the strategy of the Reagan administration to roll back the Soviet Union:\n\nLemann notes that when he wrote that in 1984, he thought the Reaganites were living in a fantasy world. But in 2016, he says, that passage represents \"a fairly uncontroversial description of what Reagan actually did.\"\n\nTogether with the United Kingdom's prime minister Margaret Thatcher, Reagan denounced the Soviet Union in ideological terms. In a famous address on June 8, 1982, to the British Parliament in the Royal Gallery of the Palace of Westminster, Reagan said, \"the forward march of freedom and democracy will leave Marxism–Leninism on the ash heap of history.\" On March 3, 1983, he predicted that communism would collapse, stating, \"Communism is another sad, bizarre chapter in human history whose last pages even now are being written.\" In a speech to the National Association of Evangelicals on March 8, 1983, Reagan called the Soviet Union \"an evil empire.\" \n\nAfter Soviet fighters downed Korean Air Lines Flight 007 near Moneron Island on September 1, 1983, carrying 269 people, including Georgia congressman Larry McDonald, Reagan labeled the act a \"massacre\" and declared that the Soviets had turned \"against the world and the moral precepts which guide human relations among people everywhere.\" The Reagan administration responded to the incident by suspending all Soviet passenger air service to the United States, and dropped several agreements being negotiated with the Soviets, wounding them financially. As result of the shootdown, and the cause of KAL 007's going astray thought to be inadequacies related to its navigational system, Reagan announced on September 16, 1983, that the Global Positioning System would be made available for civilian use, free of charge, once completed in order to avert similar navigational errors in future. \n\nUnder a policy that came to be known as the Reagan Doctrine, Reagan and his administration also provided overt and covert aid to anti-communist resistance movements in an effort to \"rollback\" Soviet-backed communist governments in Africa, Asia, and Latin America. Reagan deployed the CIA's Special Activities Division to Afghanistan and Pakistan. They were instrumental in training, equipping and leading Mujaheddin forces against the Soviet Army. President Reagan's Covert Action program has been given credit for assisting in ending the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan, though some of the United States funded armaments introduced then would later pose a threat to U.S. troops in the 2000s (decade) war in Afghanistan. However, in a break from the Carter policy of arming Taiwan under the Taiwan Relations Act, Reagan also agreed with the communist government in China to reduce the sale of arms to Taiwan. \n\nIn March 1983, Reagan introduced the Strategic Defense Initiative, a defense project that would have used ground- and space-based systems to protect the United States from attack by strategic nuclear ballistic missiles. Reagan believed that this defense shield could make nuclear war impossible. There was much disbelief surrounding the program's scientific feasibility, leading opponents to dub SDI \"Star Wars\" and argue that its technological objective was unattainable. The Soviets became concerned about the possible effects SDI would have; leader Yuri Andropov said it would put \"the entire world in jeopardy.\" For those reasons, David Gergen, former aide to President Reagan, believes that in retrospect, SDI hastened the end of the Cold War. \n\nCritics labeled Reagan's foreign policies as aggressive, imperialistic, and chided them as \"warmongering,\" though they were supported by leading American conservatives who argued that they were necessary to protect U.S. security interests. The Reagan administration also backed anti-communist leaders accused of severe human rights violations, such as Efraín Ríos Montt of Guatemala and Hissène Habré of Chad. \n\nLebanese Civil War (1983)\n\nWith the approval of Congress, Reagan in 1983 sent forces to Lebanon to reduce the threat of the Lebanese Civil War. The American peacekeeping forces in Beirut, a part of a multinational force during the Lebanese Civil War, were attacked on October 23, 1983. The Beirut barracks bombing killed 241 American servicemen and wounded more than 60 others by a suicide truck bomber. Reagan sent in the USS New Jersey battleship to shell Syrian positions in Lebanon. He then withdrew all the Marines from Lebanon. \n\nOperation Urgent Fury (Grenada: 1983)\n\nOn October 25, 1983, Reagan ordered U.S. forces to invade Grenada, code named Operation Urgent Fury, where a 1979 coup d'état had established an independent non-aligned Marxist–Leninist government. A formal appeal from the Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS) led to the intervention of U.S. forces; President Reagan also cited an allegedly regional threat posed by a Soviet-Cuban military build-up in the Caribbean and concern for the safety of several hundred American medical students at St. George's University as adequate reasons to invade. Operation Urgent Fury was the first major military operation conducted by U.S. forces since the Vietnam War, several days of fighting commenced, resulting in a U.S. victory, with 19 American fatalities and 116 wounded American soldiers. In mid-December, after a new government was appointed by the Governor-General, U.S. forces withdrew.\n\n1984 presidential campaign\n\nReagan accepted the Republican nomination in Dallas, Texas. He proclaimed that it was \"morning again in America,\" regarding the recovering economy and the dominating performance by the U.S. athletes at the 1984 Summer Olympics, among other things. He became the first American president to open an Olympic Games held in the United States. \n\nReagan's opponent in the 1984 presidential election was former Vice President Walter Mondale. With questions about Reagan's age, and a weak performance in the first presidential debate, his ability to perform the duties of president for another term was questioned. His apparent confused and forgetful behavior was evident to his supporters; they had previously known him clever and witty. Rumors began to circulate that he had Alzheimer's disease. Reagan rebounded in the second debate, and confronted questions about his age, quipping, \"I will not make age an issue of this campaign. I am not going to exploit, for political purposes, my opponent's youth and inexperience,\" which generated applause and laughter, even from Mondale himself. \n\nThat November, Reagan was re-elected, winning 49 of 50 states. The president's overwhelming victory saw Mondale carry only his home state of Minnesota (by 3,800 votes) and the District of Columbia. Reagan won a record 525 electoral votes, the most of any candidate in United States history, and received 59% of the popular vote to Mondale's 41%. \n\nSecond term\n\nReagan was sworn in as president for the second time on January 20, 1985, in a private ceremony at the White House. Because January 20 fell on a Sunday, a public celebration was not held but took place in the Capitol rotunda the following day. January 21 was one of the coldest days on record in Washington, D.C.; due to poor weather, inaugural celebrations were held inside the Capitol. In the coming weeks he shook up his staff somewhat, moving White House Chief of Staff James Baker to Secretary of the Treasury and naming Treasury Secretary Donald Regan, a former Merrill Lynch officer, Chief of Staff. \n\nIn 1985, Reagan visited a German military cemetery in Bitburg to lay a wreath with West German Chancellor Helmut Kohl. It was determined that the cemetery held the graves of forty-nine members of the Waffen-SS. Reagan issued a statement that called the Nazi soldiers buried in that cemetery as themselves \"victims,\" a designation which ignited a stir over whether Reagan had equated the SS men to victims of the Holocaust; Pat Buchanan, Reagan's Director of Communications, argued that the president did not equate the SS members with the actual Holocaust. Now strongly urged to cancel the visit, the president responded that it would be wrong to back down on a promise he had made to Chancellor Kohl. He ultimately attended the ceremony where two military generals laid a wreath. \n\nThe disintegration of the Space Shuttle Challenger on January 28, 1986, proved a pivotal moment in Reagan's presidency. All seven astronauts aboard were killed. On the night of the disaster, Reagan delivered a speech, written by Peggy Noonan, in which he said:\n\nIn 1988, near the end of the Iran–Iraq War, the U.S. Navy guided missile cruiser USS Vincennes accidentally shot down Iran Air Flight 655 killing 290 civilian passengers. The incident further worsened already tense Iran–United States relations. \n\nWar on Drugs\n\nReagan announced a War on Drugs in 1982, in response to concerns about the increasing crack epidemic. Though Nixon had previously declared a war on drugs, Reagan advocated more militant policies. \n\nHe said that \"drugs were menacing our society\" and promised to fight for drug-free schools and workplaces, expanded drug treatment, stronger law enforcement and drug interdiction efforts, and greater public awareness. \n\nIn 1986, Reagan signed a drug enforcement bill that budgeted $1.7 billion to fund the War on Drugs and specified a mandatory minimum penalty for drug offenses. The bill was criticized for promoting significant racial disparities in the prison population and critics also charged that the policies did little to reduce the availability of drugs on the street, while resulting in a great financial burden for America. Defenders of the effort point to success in reducing rates of adolescent drug use. First Lady Nancy Reagan made the War on Drugs her main priority by founding the \"Just Say No\" drug awareness campaign, which aimed to discourage children and teenagers from engaging in recreational drug use by offering various ways of saying \"no.\" Nancy Reagan traveled to 65 cities in 33 states, raising awareness about the dangers of drugs including alcohol. \n\nResponse to AIDS Epidemic\n\nThe Reagan administration largely ignored the AIDS crisis, which began to unfold in the United States in 1981, the same year Reagan took office. AIDS research was chronically underfunded during Reagan's administration, and requests for more funding by doctors at the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) were routinely denied. By the end of the first 12 months of the epidemic, when more than 1,000 people had died of AIDS in the US, the CDC had spent less than $1 million on AIDS research. In contrast, funding had been made amply available to the CDC in their efforts to stop Legionnaires' disease after an outbreak in 1976; the CDC had spent $9 million in fighting Legionnaires' disease, though the outbreak had caused fewer than 50 deaths. \n\nBy the time President Reagan had given his first speech on the epidemic, some six years into his presidency, 36,058 Americans had been diagnosed with AIDS and 20,849 had died of it. By the end of 1989, the year Reagan left office, 115,786 people had been diagnosed with AIDS in the United States, and more than 70,000 of them had died of it. It has been suggested that far fewer would have died, both then and in the decades that followed, if the Reagan Administration had applied the same determination in combatting AIDS as Gerald Ford's Administration had applied to fighting Legionnaires' disease. \n\nLibya bombing\n\nRelations between Libya and the United States under President Reagan were continually contentious, beginning with the Gulf of Sidra incident in 1981; by 1982, Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi was considered by the CIA to be, along with USSR leader Leonid Brezhnev and Cuban leader Fidel Castro, part of a group known as the \"unholy trinity\" and was also labeled as \"our international public enemy number one\" by a CIA official. These tensions were later revived in early April 1986, when a bomb exploded in a Berlin discothèque, resulting in the injury of 63 American military personnel and death of one serviceman. Stating that there was \"irrefutable proof\" that Libya had directed the \"terrorist bombing,\" Reagan authorized the use of force against the country. In the late evening of April 15, 1986, the United States launched a series of air strikes on ground targets in Libya. \n\nThe UK Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher allowed the U.S. Air Force to use Britain's air bases to launch the attack, on the justification that the UK was supporting America's right to self-defense under Article 51 of the United Nations Charter. The attack was designed to halt Gaddafi's \"ability to export terrorism,\" offering him \"incentives and reasons to alter his criminal behavior.\" The president addressed the nation from the Oval Office after the attacks had commenced, stating, \"When our citizens are attacked or abused anywhere in the world on the direct orders of hostile regimes, we will respond so long as I'm in this office.\" The attack was condemned by many countries. By a vote of 79 in favor to 28 against with 33 abstentions, the United Nations General Assembly adopted resolution 41/38 which \"condemns the military attack perpetrated against the Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya on April 15, 1986, which constitutes a violation of the Charter of the United Nations and of international law.\" \n\nImmigration\n\nReagan signed the Immigration Reform and Control Act in 1986. The act made it illegal to knowingly hire or recruit illegal immigrants, required employers to attest to their employees' immigration status, and granted amnesty to approximately three million illegal immigrants who entered the United States before January 1, 1982, and had lived in the country continuously. Critics argue that the employer sanctions were without teeth and failed to stem illegal immigration. Upon signing the act at a ceremony held beside the newly refurbished Statue of Liberty, Reagan said, \"The legalization provisions in this act will go far to improve the lives of a class of individuals who now must hide in the shadows, without access to many of the benefits of a free and open society. Very soon many of these men and women will be able to step into the sunlight and, ultimately, if they choose, they may become Americans.\" Reagan also said, \"The employer sanctions program is the keystone and major element. It will remove the incentive for illegal immigration by eliminating the job opportunities which draw illegal aliens here.\"\n\nIran–Contra affair\n\nIn 1986, the Iran–Contra affair became a problem for the administration stemming from the use of proceeds from covert arms sales to Iran during the Iran–Iraq War to fund the Contra rebels fighting against the government in Nicaragua, which had been specifically outlawed by an act of Congress. The affair became a political scandal in the United States during the 1980s. The International Court of Justice, whose jurisdiction to decide the case was disputed by the United States, ruled that the United States had violated international law and breached treaties in Nicaragua in various ways (see Nicaragua v. United States). \n\nPresident Reagan professed that he was unaware of the plot's existence. He opened his own investigation and appointed two Republicans and one Democrat (John Tower, Brent Scowcroft and Edmund Muskie, known as the \"Tower Commission\") to investigate the scandal. The commission could not find direct evidence that Reagan had prior knowledge of the program, but criticized him heavily for his disengagement from managing his staff, making the diversion of funds possible. A separate report by Congress concluded that \"If the president did not know what his national security advisers were doing, he should have.\" Reagan's popularity declined from 67% to 46% in less than a week, the greatest and quickest decline ever for a president. The scandal resulted in fourteen indictments within Reagan's staff, and eleven convictions. \n\nMany Central Americans criticize Reagan for his support of the Contras, calling him an anti-communist zealot, blinded to human rights abuses, while others say he \"saved Central America.\" Daniel Ortega, Sandinistan and president of Nicaragua, said that he hoped God would forgive Reagan for his \"dirty war against Nicaragua.\"\n\nEnd of the Cold War\n\nUntil the early 1980s, the United States had relied on the qualitative superiority of its weapons to essentially frighten the Soviets, but the gap had been narrowed. Although the Soviet Union did not accelerate military spending after President Reagan's military buildup, their large military expenses, in combination with collectivized agriculture and inefficient planned manufacturing, were a heavy burden for the Soviet economy. At the same time, Saudi Arabia increased oil production, which resulted in a drop of oil prices in 1985 to one-third of the previous level; oil was the main source of Soviet export revenues. These factors contributed to a stagnant Soviet economy during Gorbachev's tenure. \n\nReagan recognized the change in the direction of the Soviet leadership with Mikhail Gorbachev, and shifted to diplomacy, with a view to encourage the Soviet leader to pursue substantial arms agreements. Reagan's personal mission was to achieve \"a world free of nuclear weapons,\" which he regarded as \"totally irrational, totally inhumane, good for nothing but killing, possibly destructive of life on earth and civilization.\"\"[http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2010/04/07/giulianis-obama-nuke-crit_n_528439.html Giuliani's Obama-Nuke Critique Defies And Ignores Reagan],\" Huffington Post, April 7, 2010.\"[http://www.heritage.org/Research/Lecture/President-Reagans-Legacy-and-US-Nuclear-Weapons-Policy President Reagan's Legacy and U.S. Nuclear Weapons Policy],\" Heritage Foundation, July 20, 2006 He was able to start discussions on nuclear disarmament with General Secretary Gorbachev.\"Hyvästi, ydinpommi,\" Helsingin Sanomat 2010-09-05, pp. D1–D2 Gorbachev and Reagan held four summit conferences between 1985 and 1988: the first in Geneva, Switzerland, the second in Reykjavík, Iceland, the third in Washington, D.C., and the fourth in Moscow. Reagan believed that if he could persuade the Soviets to allow for more democracy and free speech, this would lead to reform and the end of Communism. \n\nSpeaking at the Berlin Wall on June 12, 1987, Reagan challenged Gorbachev to go further, saying \"General Secretary Gorbachev, if you seek peace, if you seek prosperity for the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe, if you seek liberalization, come here to this gate! Mr. Gorbachev, open this gate! Mr. Gorbachev, tear down this wall!\"\n\nBefore Gorbachev's visit to Washington, D.C., for the third summit in 1987, the Soviet leader announced his intention to pursue significant arms agreements. The timing of the announcement led Western diplomats to contend that Gorbachev was offering major concessions to the United States on the levels of conventional forces, nuclear weapons, and policy in Eastern Europe. He and Reagan signed the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty (INF) at the White House, which eliminated an entire class of nuclear weapons. The two leaders laid the framework for the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty, or START I; Reagan insisted that the name of the treaty be changed from Strategic Arms Limitation Talks to Strategic Arms Reduction Talks.\n\nWhen Reagan visited Moscow for the fourth summit in 1988, he was viewed as a celebrity by the Soviets. A journalist asked the president if he still considered the Soviet Union the evil empire. \"No,\" he replied, \"I was talking about another time, another era.\" At Gorbachev's request, Reagan gave a speech on free markets at the Moscow State University. In his autobiography, An American Life, Reagan expressed his optimism about the new direction that they charted and his warm feelings for Gorbachev. In November 1989, ten months after Reagan left office, the Berlin Wall was opened, the Cold War was unofficially declared over at the Malta Summit on December 3, 1989, and two years later, the Soviet Union collapsed. \n\nHealth\n\nEarly in his presidency, Reagan started wearing a custom, technologically advanced hearing aid, first in his right ear and later in his left as well. His decision to go public in 1983 regarding his wearing the small, audio-amplifying device boosted their sales. \n\nOn July 13, 1985, Reagan underwent surgery at Bethesda Naval Hospital to remove cancerous polyps from his colon. He relinquished presidential power to the Vice President for eight hours in a similar procedure as outlined in the 25th Amendment, which he specifically avoided invoking. The surgery lasted just under three hours and was successful. Reagan resumed the powers of the presidency later that day. In August of that year, he underwent an operation to remove skin cancer cells from his nose. In October, additional skin cancer cells were detected on his nose and removed. \n\nIn January 1987, Reagan underwent surgery for an enlarged prostate which caused further worries about his health. No cancerous growths were found, however, and he was not sedated during the operation. In July of that year, aged 76, he underwent a third skin cancer operation on his nose. \n\nOn January 7, 1989, Reagan underwent surgery at Walter Reed Army Medical Center to repair a Dupuytren's contracture of the ring finger of his left hand. The surgery lasted for more than three hours and was performed under regional anesthesia. This procedure was done just thirteen days before he left office. For this reason he had a hand and finger bandage the day of his farewell speech and the day of the Inauguration of George H. W. Bush.\n\nJudiciary\n\nDuring his 1980 campaign, Reagan pledged that, if given the opportunity, he would appoint the first female Supreme Court Justice. That opportunity came in his first year in office when he nominated Sandra Day O'Connor to fill the vacancy created by the retirement of Justice Potter Stewart. In his second term, Reagan elevated William Rehnquist to succeed Warren E. Burger as Chief Justice, and named Antonin Scalia to fill the vacant seat. Reagan nominated conservative jurist Robert Bork to the high court in 1987. Senator Ted Kennedy, a Democrat of Massachusetts, strongly condemned Bork, and great controversy ensued. Bork's nomination was rejected 58–42. Reagan then nominated Douglas Ginsburg, but Ginsburg withdrew his name from consideration after coming under fire for his cannabis use. Anthony Kennedy was eventually confirmed in his place. Along with his three Supreme Court appointments, Reagan appointed 83 judges to the United States Courts of Appeals, and 290 judges to the United States district courts.\n\nReagan also nominated Vaughn Walker, who would later be revealed to be the earliest known gay federal judge, to the United States District Court for the Central District of California. However, the nomination stalled in the Senate, and Walker was not confirmed until he was renominated by Reagan's successor, George H. W. Bush. \n\nEarly in his tenure, Reagan appointed Clarence M. Pendleton, Jr., of San Diego as the first African American to chair the United States Commission on Civil Rights. Pendleton tried to steer the commission into a conservative direction in line with Reagan's views on social and civil rights policy during his time as tenure from 1981 until his sudden death in 1988. Pendleton soon aroused the ire of many civil rights advocates and feminists when he ridiculed the comparable worth proposal as being \"Looney Tunes.\" \n\nIn 1984, Reagan commuted the 18-year sentence of former Louisiana Commissioner of Agriculture and Forestry Gil Dozier, a Democrat from Baton Rouge, to the time served for violations of both the Hobbs and the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations acts. On September 23, 1980, the United States District Court for the Middle District of Louisiana convicted Dozier of extortion and racketeering when he pushed companies doing business with his department to make campaign contributions on his behalf. Reagan determined that the 18-year sentence was excessive compared to what other political figures in similar circumstances had been receiving. \n\nPost-presidency\n\nPublic speaking\n\nAfter leaving office in 1989, the Reagans purchased a home in Bel Air, Los Angeles, in addition to the Reagan Ranch in Santa Barbara. They regularly attended Bel Air Presbyterian Church and occasionally made appearances on behalf of the Republican Party; Reagan delivered a well-received speech at the 1992 Republican National Convention. Previously on November 4, 1991, the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library was dedicated and opened to the public. At the dedication ceremonies, five presidents were in attendance, as well as six first ladies, marking the first time that five presidents were gathered in the same location. Reagan continued publicly to speak in favor of a line-item veto; the Brady Bill; a constitutional amendment requiring a balanced budget; and the repeal of the 22nd Amendment, which prohibits anyone from serving more than two terms as president. In 1992 Reagan established the Ronald Reagan Freedom Award with the newly formed Ronald Reagan Presidential Foundation. His final public speech was on February 3, 1994, during a tribute to him in Washington, D.C., and his last major public appearance was at the funeral of Richard Nixon on April 27, 1994.\n\nAssault\n\nOn April 13, 1992, Reagan was assaulted by an anti-nuclear protester during a luncheon speech while accepting an award from the National Association of Broadcasters in Las Vegas. The protester, 41-year old Richard Paul Springer, smashed a 2-foot-high 30-pound crystal statue of an eagle that the broadcasters had given the former president. Flying shards of glass hit Reagan, but he was not injured. Using media credentials, Springer intended to announce government plans for an underground nuclear weapons test in the Nevada desert the following day. Springer was the founder of an anti-nuclear group called the 100th Monkey. Following his arrest on assault charges, a Secret Service spokesman could not explain how Springer got past the federal agents who guarded Reagan's life at all times. Later, Springer plead guilty to reduced charges and said he hadn't meant to hurt Reagan through his actions. He plead guilty to a misdemeanor federal charge of interfering with the Secret Service, but other felony charges of assault and resisting officers were dropped. \n\nAlzheimer's disease\n\nAnnouncement and reaction: 1994\n\nIn August 1994, at the age of 83, Reagan was diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease, an incurable neurological disorder which destroys brain cells and ultimately causes death. In November, he informed the nation through a handwritten letter, writing in part:\n\nAfter his diagnosis, letters of support from well-wishers poured into his California home. \n\nBut there was also speculation over how long Reagan had demonstrated symptoms of mental degeneration. Former CBS White House correspondent Lesley Stahl recounted that, in her final meeting with the president in 1986, Reagan did not seem to know who Stahl was, and that she came close to reporting that Reagan was senile, but at the end of the meeting, Reagan had regained his alertness. However, Dr. Lawrence K. Altman, a physician employed as a reporter for the New York Times, noted that \"the line between mere forgetfulness and the beginning of Alzheimer's can be fuzzy,\" and all four of Reagan's White House doctors said that they saw no evidence of Alzheimer's while he was president. Dr. John E. Hutton, Reagan's primary physician from 1984 to 1989, said the president \"absolutely\" did not \"show any signs of dementia or Alzheimer's.\" His former Chief of Staff James Baker considered \"ludicrous\" the idea that Reagan slept during cabinet meetings. Other staff members, former aides, and friends said they saw no indication of Alzheimer's while he was president. Reagan did experience occasional memory lapses, though, especially with names. Reagan's doctors say that he only began exhibiting overt symptoms of the illness in late 1992 or 1993, several years after he had left office. For example, Reagan repeated a toast to Margaret Thatcher, with identical words and gestures, at his 82nd-birthday party on Feb. 6, 1993. \n\nComplicating the picture, Reagan suffered an episode of head trauma in July 1989, five years before his diagnosis. After being thrown from a horse in Mexico, a subdural hematoma was found and surgically treated later in the year. Nancy Reagan, citing what doctors told her, asserts that her husband's 1989 fall hastened the onset of Alzheimer's disease, although acute brain injury has not been conclusively proven to accelerate Alzheimer's or dementia. Reagan's one-time physician Daniel Ruge has said it is possible, but not certain, that the horse accident affected the course of Reagan's memory.\n\nProgression: 1994–2004\n\nAs the years went on, the disease slowly destroyed Reagan's mental capacity. He was only able to recognize a few people, including his wife, Nancy. He remained active, however; he took walks through parks near his home and on beaches, played golf regularly, and until 1999 he often went to his office in nearby Century City. \n\nReagan suffered a fall at his Bel Air home on January 13, 2001, resulting in a broken hip. The fracture was repaired the following day and the 89-year-old Reagan returned home later that week, although he faced difficult physical therapy at home. On February 6, 2001, Reagan reached the age of 90, becoming the third former president to do so (the other two being John Adams and Herbert Hoover, with Gerald Ford, George H. W. Bush and Jimmy Carter later reaching 90). Reagan's public appearances became much less frequent with the progression of the disease, and as a result, his family decided that he would live in quiet semi-isolation with his wife Nancy. Nancy Reagan told CNN's Larry King in 2001 that very few visitors were allowed to see her husband because she felt that \"Ronnie would want people to remember him as he was.\" After her husband's diagnosis and death, Nancy Reagan became a stem-cell research advocate, urging Congress and President George W. Bush to support federal funding for embryonic stem-cell research, something Bush opposed. In 2009, she praised President Barack Obama for lifting restrictions on such research. Mrs. Reagan has said that she believes that it could lead to a cure for Alzheimer's. \n\nDeath\n\nReagan died of pneumonia, complicated by Alzheimer's disease, at his home in Bel Air, California, on the afternoon of June 5, 2004. A short time after his death, Nancy Reagan released a statement saying, \"My family and I would like the world to know that President Ronald Reagan has died after 10 years of Alzheimer's disease at 93 years of age. We appreciate everyone's prayers.\" President George W. Bush declared June 11 a National Day of Mourning, and international tributes came in from around the world. Reagan's body was taken to the Kingsley and Gates Funeral Home in Santa Monica, California later in the day, where well-wishers paid tribute by laying flowers and American flags in the grass. On June 7, his body was removed and taken to the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library, where a brief family funeral was held conducted by Pastor Michael Wenning. His body lay in repose in the Library lobby until June 9; over 100,000 people viewed the coffin. \n\nOn June 9, Reagan's body was flown to Washington, D.C. where he became the tenth United States president to lie in state; in thirty-four hours, 104,684 people filed past the coffin. \n\nOn June 11, a state funeral was conducted in the Washington National Cathedral, and presided over by President George W. Bush. Eulogies were given by former British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, former Canadian Prime Minister Brian Mulroney, and both former President George H. W. Bush and President George W. Bush. Also in attendance were Mikhail Gorbachev, and many world leaders, including British Prime Minister Tony Blair, Prince Charles, representing his mother Queen Elizabeth II, German Chancellor Gerhard Schröder, Italian Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi, and interim presidents Hamid Karzai of Afghanistan, and Ghazi al-Yawer of Iraq. \n\nAfter the funeral, the Reagan entourage was flown back to the Ronald W. Reagan Presidential Library in Simi Valley, California, where another service was held, and President Reagan was interred. At the time of his death, Reagan was the longest-lived president in U.S. history, having lived 93 years and 120 days (2 years, 8 months, and 23 days longer than John Adams, whose record he surpassed). He is now the second longest-lived president, just 45 days fewer than Gerald Ford. He was the first United States president to die in the 21st century, and his was the first state funeral in the United States since that of President Lyndon B. Johnson in 1973.\n\nHis burial site is inscribed with the words he delivered at the opening of the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library: \"I know in my heart that man is good, that what is right will always eventually triumph and that there is purpose and worth to each and every life.\" \n\nLegacy\n\nSince Reagan left office in 1989, substantial debate has occurred among scholars, historians, and the general public surrounding his legacy. Supporters have pointed to a more efficient and prosperous economy as a result of Reagan's economic policies, foreign policy triumphs including a peaceful end to the Cold War, and a restoration of American pride and morale. Proponents also argue Reagan restored faith in the American Dream with his unabated and passionate love for the United States, after a decline in American confidence and self-respect under Jimmy Carter's perceived weak leadership, particularly during the Iranian hostage crisis, as well as his gloomy, dreary outlook for the future of the United States during the 1980 election. Critics contend that Reagan's economic policies resulted in rising budget deficits, a wider gap in wealth, and an increase in homelessness and that the Iran–Contra affair lowered American credibility. \n\nOpinions of Reagan's legacy among the country's leading policy makers and journalists differ as well. Edwin Feulner, president of The Heritage Foundation, said that Reagan \"helped create a safer, freer world\" and said of his economic policies: \"He took an America suffering from 'malaise'... and made its citizens believe again in their destiny.\" However, Mark Weisbrot, co-Director of the Center for Economic and Policy Research, contended that Reagan's \"economic policies were mostly a failure\" while Howard Kurtz of The Washington Post opined that Reagan was \"a far more controversial figure in his time than the largely gushing obits on television would suggest.\" \n\nDespite the continuing debate surrounding his legacy, many conservative and liberal scholars agree that Reagan has been the most influential president since Franklin D. Roosevelt, leaving his imprint on American politics, diplomacy, culture, and economics through his effective communication, dedicated patriotism and pragmatic compromising. Since he left office, historians have reached a consensus, as summarized by British historian M. J. Heale, who finds that scholars now concur that Reagan rehabilitated conservatism, turned the nation to the right, practiced a considerably pragmatic conservatism that balanced ideology and the constraints of politics, revived faith in the presidency and in American exceptionalism, and contributed to victory in the Cold War. \n\nCold War\n\nThe Cold War was a major political, economic and military endeavor for over four decades, but the confrontation between the two superpowers had decreased dramatically by the end of Reagan's presidency. The significance of Reagan's role in ending the Cold War has spurred contentious and opinionated debate. That Reagan played a role in contributing to the downfall of the Soviet Union is agreed, but the extent of this role is continuously debated, with many believing that Reagan's defense policies, economic policies, military policies and hard line rhetoric against the Soviet Union and Communism, as well as summits with General Secretary Gorbachev played a significant part in ending the Cold War. \n\nHe was first among post–World War II presidents to put into practice the concept that the Soviet Union could be defeated rather than simply negotiated with, a post-Détente strategy, a conviction that was vindicated by Gennadi Gerasimov, the Foreign Ministry spokesman under Gorbachev, who said that the Strategic Defense Initiative was \"very successful blackmail. ... The Soviet economy couldn't endure such competition.\" Reagan's aggressive rhetoric toward the USSR had mixed effects; Jeffery W. Knopf observes that being labeled \"evil\" probably made no difference to the Soviets but gave encouragement to the East-European citizens opposed to communism.\n\nGeneral Secretary Gorbachev said of his former rival's Cold War role: \"[He was] a man who was instrumental in bringing about the end of the Cold War,\" and deemed him \"a great president.\" Gorbachev does not acknowledge a win or loss in the war, but rather a peaceful end; he said he was not intimidated by Reagan's harsh rhetoric. Margaret Thatcher, former Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, said of Reagan, \"he warned that the Soviet Union had an insatiable drive for military power... but he also sensed it was being eaten away by systemic failures impossible to reform.\" She later said, \"Ronald Reagan had a higher claim than any other leader to have won the Cold War for liberty and he did it without a shot being fired.\" Said Brian Mulroney, former Prime Minister of Canada: \"He enters history as a strong and dramatic player [in the Cold War].\" Former President Lech Wałęsa of Poland acknowledged, \"Reagan was one of the world leaders who made a major contribution to communism's collapse.\" That Reagan had little or no effect in ending the Cold War is argued with equal weight; that Communism's internal weakness had become apparent, and the Soviet Union would have collapsed in the end regardless of who was in power. President Harry S. Truman's policy of containment is also regarded as a force behind the fall of the U.S.S.R., and the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan undermined the Soviet system itself.\n\nDomestic and political legacy\n\nRonald Reagan reshaped the Republican party, led the modern conservative movement, and altered the political dynamic of the United States. More men voted Republican under Reagan, and Reagan tapped into religious voters. The so-called \"Reagan Democrats\" were a result of his presidency.\n\nAfter leaving office, Reagan became an iconic influence within the Republican party. His policies and beliefs have been frequently invoked by Republican presidential candidates since 1989. The 2008 Republican presidential candidates were no exception, for they aimed to liken themselves to him during the primary debates, even imitating his campaign strategies. Republican nominee John McCain frequently said that he came to office as \"a foot soldier in the Reagan Revolution.\" Reagan's most famous statement regarding the role of smaller government was that \"Government is not a solution to our problem, government is the problem.\" \n\nReagan has become an iconic figure in the Republican Party, with praise for his accomplishments part of the standard GOP rhetoric a quarter century after his retirement. Washington Post reporter Carlos Lozada notes how in the 2016 presidential race the main Republican contenders have adopted \"standard GOP Gipper worship,\" including even Donald Trump, who previously had been skeptical. \n\nThe period of American history most dominated by Ronald Reagan and his policies concerning taxes, welfare, defense, the federal judiciary and the Cold War is known today as the Reagan Era, and emphasizes that the conservative \"Reagan Revolution,\" led by Reagan, had a permanent impact on the United States in domestic and foreign policy. The Clinton presidency (1993–2001) is often treated as an extension of the Reagan Era, as is the Bush presidency (2001–09). Historian Eric Foner noted that the Obama candidacy in 2008 \"aroused a great deal of wishful thinking among those yearning for a change after nearly thirty years of Reaganism.\" \n\nCampaigning for the Democratic nomination in 2008, Barack Obama, an American liberal, interpreted how Reagan changed the nation's trajectory:\n\nCultural and political image\n\nAccording to columnist Chuck Raasch, \"Reagan transformed the American presidency in ways that only a few have been able to.\" He redefined the political agenda of the times, advocating lower taxes, a conservative economic philosophy, and a stronger military. His role in the Cold War further enhanced his image as a different kind of leader. Reagan's \"avuncular style, optimism, and plain-folks demeanor\" also helped him turn \"government-bashing into an art form.\"\n\nAs a sitting president, Reagan did not have the highest approval ratings, but his popularity has increased since 1989. Gallup polls in 2001 and 2007 ranked him number one or number two when correspondents were asked for the greatest president in history. Reagan ranked third of post–World War II presidents in a 2007 Rasmussen Reports poll, fifth in an ABC 2000 poll, ninth in another 2007 Rasmussen poll, and eighth in a late 2008 poll by United Kingdom newspaper The Times. In a Siena College survey of over 200 historians, however, Reagan ranked sixteenth out of 42. While the debate about Reagan's legacy is ongoing, the 2009 Annual C-SPAN Survey of Presidential Leaders ranked Reagan the 10th greatest president. The survey of leading historians rated Reagan number 11 in 2000. \n\nIn 2011, the Institute for the Study of the Americas released the first ever UK academic survey to rate U.S. presidents. This poll of UK specialists in U.S. history and politics placed Reagan as the 8th greatest U.S. president. \n\nReagan's ability to connect with Americans earned him the laudatory moniker \"The Great Communicator.\" Of it, Reagan said, \"I won the nickname the great communicator. But I never thought it was my style that made a difference—it was the content. I wasn't a great communicator, but I communicated great things.\" His age and soft-spoken speech gave him a warm grandfatherly image. \n\nReagan also earned the nickname \"the Teflon President,\" in that public perceptions of him were not tarnished by the controversies that arose during his administration. According to Congresswoman Patricia Schroeder, who coined the phrase, and reporter Howard Kurtz, the epithet referred to Reagan's ability to \"do almost anything wrong and not get blamed for it.\" \n\nPublic reaction to Reagan was always mixed; the oldest president was supported by young voters, and began an alliance that shifted many of them to the Republican party. Reagan did not fare well with minority groups, especially African-Americans. This was largely due to his opposition to affirmative action policies. However, his support of Israel throughout his presidency earned him support from many Jews. He emphasized family values in his campaigns and during his presidency, although he was the first president to have been divorced. The combination of Reagan's speaking style, unabashed patriotism, negotiation skills, as well as his savvy use of the media, played an important role in defining the 1980s and his future legacy. \n\nReagan was known to joke frequently during his lifetime, displayed humor throughout his presidency, and was famous for his storytelling. His numerous jokes and one-liners have been labeled \"classic quips\" and \"legendary.\" Among the most notable of his jokes was one regarding the Cold War. As a microphone test in preparation for his weekly radio address in August 1984, Reagan made the following joke: \"My fellow Americans, I'm pleased to tell you today that I've signed legislation that will outlaw Russia forever. We begin bombing in five minutes.\" Former aide David Gergen commented, \"It was that humor... that I think endeared people to Reagan.\"\n\nHonors\n\nReagan received a number of awards in his pre- and post-presidential years. After his election as president, Reagan received a lifetime gold membership in the Screen Actors Guild, was inducted into the National Speakers Association Speaker Hall of Fame and received the United States Military Academy's Sylvanus Thayer Award. \n\nIn 1981, Ronald Reagan was inducted as a Laureate of The Lincoln Academy of Illinois and awarded the Order of Lincoln (the state's highest honor) by the Governor of Illinois in the area of Government. \n\nIn 1989, Reagan was made an Honorary Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath, one of the highest British orders (this entitled him to the use of the post-nominal letters \"GCB\" but, as a foreign national, not to be known as \"Sir Ronald Reagan\"); only two American presidents have received this honor, Reagan and George H.W. Bush. Reagan was also named an honorary Fellow of Keble College, Oxford. Japan awarded him the Grand Cordon of the Order of the Chrysanthemum in 1989; he was the second American president to receive the order and the first to have it given to him for personal reasons (Dwight D. Eisenhower received it as a commemoration of U.S.-Japanese relations). \n\nOn January 18, 1993, Reagan's former Vice-President and sitting President George H. W. Bush awarded him the Presidential Medal of Freedom (awarded with distinction), the highest honor that the United States can bestow. Reagan was also awarded the Republican Senatorial Medal of Freedom, the highest honor bestowed by Republican members of the Senate. \n\nOn Reagan's 87th birthday, in 1998, Washington National Airport was renamed Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport by a bill signed into law by President Bill Clinton. That year, the Ronald Reagan Building and International Trade Center was dedicated in Washington, D.C. He was among 18 included in Gallup's List of Widely Admired People of the 20th century, from a poll conducted in the U.S. in 1999; two years later, was christened by Nancy Reagan and the United States Navy. It is one of few Navy ships christened in honor of a living person and the first aircraft carrier to be named in honor of a living former president. \n\nIn 1998 the U.S. Navy Memorial Foundation awarded Reagan its Naval Heritage award for his support of the U S Navy and military in both his film career and while he served as president. \n\nCongress authorized the creation of the Ronald Reagan Boyhood Home National Historic Site in Dixon, Illinois in 2002, pending federal purchase of the property. On May 16 of that year, Nancy Reagan accepted the Congressional Gold Medal, the highest civilian honor bestowed by Congress, on behalf of the president and herself. \n\nAfter Reagan's death, the United States Postal Service issued a President Ronald Reagan commemorative postage stamp in 2005. Later in the year, CNN, along with the editors of Time magazine, named him the \"most fascinating person\" of the network's first 25 years; Time listed Reagan one of the 100 Most Important People of the 20th century as well. The Discovery Channel asked its viewers to vote for The Greatest American in June 2005; Reagan placed in first place, ahead of Lincoln and Martin Luther King Jr. \n\nIn 2006, Reagan was inducted into the California Hall of Fame, located at The California Museum for History, Women, and the Arts. Every year since 2002, California Governors Gray Davis and Arnold Schwarzenegger have proclaimed February 6 \"Ronald Reagan Day\" in the state of California in honor of their most famous predecessor. In 2010, Schwarzenegger signed Senate Bill 944, authored by Senator George Runner, to make every February 6 Ronald Reagan Day in California. \n\nIn 2007, Polish President Lech Kaczyński posthumously conferred on Reagan the highest Polish distinction, the Order of the White Eagle, saying that Reagan had inspired the Polish people to work for change and helped to unseat the repressive communist regime; Kaczyński said it \"would not have been possible if it was not for the tough-mindedness, determination, and feeling of mission of President Ronald Reagan.\" Reagan backed the nation of Poland throughout his presidency, supporting the anti-communist Solidarity movement, along with Pope John Paul II; the Ronald Reagan Park, a public facility in Gdańsk, was named in his honor.\n\nOn June 3, 2009, Nancy Reagan unveiled a statue of her late husband in the United States Capitol rotunda. The statue represents the state of California in the National Statuary Hall Collection. After Reagan's death, both major American political parties agreed to erect a statue of Reagan in the place of that of Thomas Starr King. The day before, President Obama signed the Ronald Reagan Centennial Commission Act into law, establishing a commission to plan activities to mark the upcoming centenary of Reagan's birth. \n\nIndependence Day 2011 saw the unveiling of another statue to Reagan—this time in the British capital of London, outside the American Embassy, Grosvenor Square. The unveiling was supposed to be attended by Reagan's wife, Nancy, but she did not attend; former Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice took her place and read a statement on her behalf; further to the former First Lady's absence President Reagan's friend, and the sole British Prime Minister during Reagan's presidency, Baroness Thatcher, was also unable to attend due to frail health.", "The President of the United States of America (POTUS) is the elected head of state and head of government of the United States. The president leads the executive branch of the federal government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces.\n\nThe President of the United States is considered one of the world's most powerful people, leading the world's only contemporary superpower. The role includes being the commander-in-chief of the world's most expensive military with the largest nuclear arsenal and leading the nation with the largest economy by real and nominal GDP. The office of the president holds significant hard and soft power both in the United States and abroad.\n\nArticle II of the U.S. Constitution vests the executive power of the United States in the president. The power includes execution of federal law, alongside the responsibility of appointing federal executive, diplomatic, regulatory and judicial officers, and concluding treaties with foreign powers with the advice and consent of the Senate. The president is further empowered to grant federal pardons and reprieves, and to convene and adjourn either or both houses of Congress under extraordinary circumstances. The president is largely responsible for dictating the legislative agenda of the party to which the president is enrolled. The president also directs the foreign and domestic policy of the United States. Since the founding of the United States, the power of the president and the federal government has grown substantially. \n\nThe president is indirectly elected by the people through the Electoral College to a four-year term, and is one of only two nationally elected federal officers, the other being the Vice President of the United States. The Twenty-second Amendment, adopted in 1951, prohibits anyone from ever being elected to the presidency for a third full term. It also prohibits a person from being elected to the presidency more than once if that person previously had served as president, or acting president, for more than two years of another person's term as president. In all, 43 individuals have served 44 presidencies (counting Cleveland's two non-consecutive terms separately) spanning 56 full four-year terms. On January 20, 2009, Barack Obama became the 44th and current president. On November 6, 2012, he was re-elected and is currently serving the 57th term. The next presidential election is scheduled to take place on November 8, 2016; on January 20, 2017, the newly elected president will take office.\n\nOrigin\n\nIn 1776, the Thirteen Colonies, acting through the Second Continental Congress, declared political independence from Great Britain during the American Revolution. The new states, though independent of each other as nation states, recognized the necessity of closely coordinating their efforts against the British. Desiring to avoid anything that remotely resembled a monarchy, Congress negotiated the Articles of Confederation to establish a weak alliance between the states. As a central authority, Congress under the Articles was without any legislative power; it could make its own resolutions, determinations, and regulations, but not any laws, nor any taxes or local commercial regulations enforceable upon citizens. This institutional design reflected the conception of how Americans believed the deposed British system of Crown and Parliament ought to have functioned with respect to the royal dominion: a superintending body for matters that concerned the entire empire. Out from under any monarchy, the states assigned some formerly royal prerogatives (e.g., making war, receiving ambassadors, etc.) to Congress, while severally lodging the rest within their own respective state governments. Only after all the states agreed to a resolution settling competing western land claims did the Articles take effect on March 1, 1781, when Maryland became the final state to ratify them.\n\nIn 1783, the Treaty of Paris secured independence for each of the former colonies. With peace at hand, the states each turned toward their own internal affairs. By 1786, Americans found their continental borders besieged and weak, their respective economies in crises as neighboring states agitated trade rivalries with one another, witnessed their hard currency pouring into foreign markets to pay for imports, their Mediterranean commerce preyed upon by North African pirates, and their foreign-financed Revolutionary War debts unpaid and accruing interest. Civil and political unrest loomed.\n\nFollowing the successful resolution of commercial and fishing disputes between Virginia and Maryland at the Mount Vernon Conference in 1785, Virginia called for a trade conference between all the states, set for September 1786 in Annapolis, Maryland, with an aim toward resolving further-reaching interstate commercial antagonisms. When the convention failed for lack of attendance due to suspicions among most of the other states, the Annapolis delegates called for a convention to offer revisions to the Articles, to be held the next spring in Philadelphia. Prospects for the next convention appeared bleak until James Madison and Edmund Randolph succeeded in securing George Washington's attendance to Philadelphia as a delegate for Virginia.\n\nWhen the Constitutional Convention convened in May 1787, the 12 state delegations in attendance (Rhode Island did not send delegates) brought with them an accumulated experience over a diverse set of institutional arrangements between legislative and executive branches from within their respective state governments. Most states maintained a weak executive without veto or appointment powers, elected annually by the legislature to a single term only, sharing power with an executive council, and countered by a strong legislature. New York offered the greatest exception, having a strong, unitary governor with veto and appointment power elected to a three-year term, and eligible for reelection to an indefinite number of terms thereafter. It was through the closed-door negotiations at Philadelphia that the presidency framed in the U.S. Constitution emerged.\n\nPowers and duties\n\nArticle I legislative role\n\nThe first power the Constitution confers upon the president is the veto. The Presentment Clause requires any bill passed by Congress to be presented to the president before it can become law. Once the legislation has been presented, the president has three options:\n# Sign the legislation; the bill then becomes law.\n# Veto the legislation and return it to Congress, expressing any objections; the bill does not become law, unless each house of Congress votes to override the veto by a two-thirds vote.\n# Take no action. In this instance, the president neither signs nor vetoes the legislation. After 10 days, not counting Sundays, two possible outcomes emerge:\n#* If Congress is still convened, the bill becomes law.\n#* If Congress has adjourned, thus preventing the return of the legislation, the bill does not become law. This latter outcome is known as the pocket veto.\n\nIn 1996, Congress attempted to enhance the president's veto power with the Line Item Veto Act. The legislation empowered the president to sign any spending bill into law while simultaneously striking certain spending items within the bill, particularly any new spending, any amount of discretionary spending, or any new limited tax benefit. Congress could then repass that particular item. If the president then vetoed the new legislation, Congress could override the veto by its ordinary means, a two-thirds vote in both houses. In Clinton v. City of New York, , the U.S. Supreme Court ruled such a legislative alteration of the veto power to be unconstitutional.\n\nArticle II executive powers\n\nWar and foreign affairs powers\n\nPerhaps the most important of all presidential powers is the command of the United States Armed Forces as its commander-in-chief. While the power to declare war is constitutionally vested in Congress, the president has ultimate responsibility for direction and disposition of the military. The present-day operational command of the Armed Forces (belonging to the Department of Defense) is normally exercised through the Secretary of Defense, with assistance of the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, to the Combatant Commands, as outlined in the presidentially approved Unified Command Plan (UCP). The framers of the Constitution took care to limit the president's powers regarding the military; Alexander Hamilton explains this in Federalist No. 69: Congress, pursuant to the War Powers Resolution, must authorize any troop deployments longer than 60 days, although that process relies on triggering mechanisms that have never been employed, rendering it ineffectual. Additionally, Congress provides a check to presidential military power through its control over military spending and regulation. While historically presidents initiated the process for going to war, critics have charged that there have been several conflicts in which presidents did not get official declarations, including Theodore Roosevelt's military move into Panama in 1903, the Korean War, the Vietnam War, and the invasions of Grenada in 1983 and Panama in 1990.\n\nAlong with the armed forces, the president also directs U.S. foreign policy. Through the Department of State and the Department of Defense, the president is responsible for the protection of Americans abroad and of foreign nationals in the United States. The president decides whether to recognize new nations and new governments, and negotiates treaties with other nations, which become binding on the United States when approved by two-thirds vote of the Senate.\n\nAlthough not constitutionally provided, presidents also sometimes employ \"executive agreements\" in foreign relations. These agreements frequently regard administrative policy choices germane to executive power; for example, the extent to which either country presents an armed presence in a given area, how each country will enforce copyright treaties, or how each country will process foreign mail. However, the 20th century witnessed a vast expansion of the use of executive agreements, and critics have challenged the extent of that use as supplanting the treaty process and removing constitutionally prescribed checks and balances over the executive in foreign relations. Supporters counter that the agreements offer a pragmatic solution when the need for swift, secret, and/or concerted action arises.\n\nAdministrative powers\n\nThe president is the head of the executive branch of the federal government and is constitutionally obligated to \"take care that the laws be faithfully executed.\" The executive branch has over four million employees, including members of the military. \n\nPresidents make numerous executive branch appointments: an incoming president may make up to 6,000 before taking office and 8,000 more while serving. Ambassadors, members of the Cabinet, and other federal officers, are all appointed by a president with the \"advice and consent\" of a majority of the Senate. When the Senate is in recess for at least ten days, the president may make recess appointments. Recess appointments are temporary and expire at the end of the next session of the Senate.\n\nThe power of a president to fire executive officials has long been a contentious political issue. Generally, a president may remove purely executive officials at will. However, Congress can curtail and constrain a president's authority to fire commissioners of independent regulatory agencies and certain inferior executive officers by statute. \n\nThe president additionally possesses the ability to direct much of the executive branch through executive orders that are grounded in federal law or constitutionally granted executive power. Executive orders are reviewable by federal courts and can be superseded by federal legislation.\n\nTo manage the growing federal bureaucracy, Presidents have gradually surrounded themselves with many layers of staff, who were eventually organized into the Executive Office of the President of the United States. Within the Executive Office, the President's innermost layer of aides (and their assistants) are located in the White House Office.\n\nJuridical powers\n\nThe president also has the power to nominate federal judges, including members of the United States courts of appeals and the Supreme Court of the United States. However, these nominations do require Senate confirmation. Securing Senate approval can provide a major obstacle for presidents who wish to orient the federal judiciary toward a particular ideological stance. When nominating judges to U.S. district courts, presidents often respect the long-standing tradition of Senatorial courtesy. Presidents may also grant pardons and reprieves, as is often done just before the end of a presidential term, not without controversy.\n\nHistorically, two doctrines concerning executive power have developed that enable the president to exercise executive power with a degree of autonomy. The first is executive privilege, which allows the president to withhold from disclosure any communications made directly to the president in the performance of executive duties. George Washington first claimed privilege when Congress requested to see Chief Justice John Jay's notes from an unpopular treaty negotiation with Great Britain. While not enshrined in the Constitution, or any other law, Washington's action created the precedent for the privilege. When Richard Nixon tried to use executive privilege as a reason for not turning over subpoenaed evidence to Congress during the Watergate scandal, the Supreme Court ruled in United States v. Nixon, , that executive privilege did not apply in cases where a president was attempting to avoid criminal prosecution. When President Bill Clinton attempted to use executive privilege regarding the Lewinsky scandal, the Supreme Court ruled in Clinton v. Jones, , that the privilege also could not be used in civil suits. These cases established the legal precedent that executive privilege is valid, although the exact extent of the privilege has yet to be clearly defined. Additionally, federal courts have allowed this privilege to radiate outward and protect other executive branch employees, but have weakened that protection for those executive branch communications that do not involve the president. \n\nThe state secrets privilege allows the president and the executive branch to withhold information or documents from discovery in legal proceedings if such release would harm national security. Precedent for the privilege arose early in the 19th century when Thomas Jefferson refused to release military documents in the treason trial of Aaron Burr and again in Totten v. United States , when the Supreme Court dismissed a case brought by a former Union spy. However, the privilege was not formally recognized by the U.S. Supreme Court until United States v. Reynolds , where it was held to be a common law evidentiary privilege. Before the September 11 attacks, use of the privilege had been rare, but increasing in frequency. Since 2001, the government has asserted the privilege in more cases and at earlier stages of the litigation, thus in some instances causing dismissal of the suits before reaching the merits of the claims, as in the Ninth Circuit's ruling in Mohamed v. Jeppesen Dataplan, Inc. Critics of the privilege claim its use has become a tool for the government to cover up illegal or embarrassing government actions. \n\nLegislative facilitator\n\nThe Constitution's Ineligibility Clause prevents the President (and all other executive officers) from simultaneously being a member of Congress. Therefore, the president cannot directly introduce legislative proposals for consideration in Congress. However, the president can take an indirect role in shaping legislation, especially if the president's political party has a majority in one or both houses of Congress. For example, the president or other officials of the executive branch may draft legislation and then ask senators or representatives to introduce these drafts into Congress. The president can further influence the legislative branch through constitutionally mandated, periodic reports to Congress. These reports may be either written or oral, but today are given as the State of the Union address, which often outlines the president's legislative proposals for the coming year. Additionally, the president may attempt to have Congress alter proposed legislation by threatening to veto that legislation unless requested changes are made.\n\nIn the 20th century critics began charging that too many legislative and budgetary powers have slid into the hands of presidents that should belong to Congress. As the head of the executive branch, presidents control a vast array of agencies that can issue regulations with little oversight from Congress. One critic charged that presidents could appoint a \"virtual army of 'czars' – each wholly unaccountable to Congress yet tasked with spearheading major policy efforts for the White House.\" Presidents have been criticized for making signing statements when signing congressional legislation about how they understand a bill or plan to execute it. This practice has been criticized by the American Bar Association as unconstitutional. Conservative commentator George Will wrote of an \"increasingly swollen executive branch\" and \"the eclipse of Congress.\"\n\nAccording to Article II, Section 3, Clause 2 of the Constitution, the president may convene either or both houses of Congress. If both houses cannot agree on a date of adjournment, the president may appoint a date for Congress to adjourn.\n\nCeremonial roles\n\nAs head of state, the president can fulfill traditions established by previous presidents. William Howard Taft started the tradition of throwing out the ceremonial first pitch in 1910 at Griffith Stadium, Washington, D.C., on the Washington Senators' Opening Day. Every president since Taft, except for Jimmy Carter, threw out at least one ceremonial first ball or pitch for Opening Day, the All-Star Game, or the World Series, usually with much fanfare. \n\nThe President of the United States has served as the honorary president of the Boy Scouts of America since the founding of the organization. \n\nOther presidential traditions are associated with American holidays. Rutherford B. Hayes began in 1878 the first White House egg rolling for local children. Beginning in 1947 during the Harry S. Truman administration, every Thanksgiving the president is presented with a live domestic turkey during the annual national thanksgiving turkey presentation held at the White House. Since 1989, when the custom of \"pardoning\" the turkey was formalized by George H. W. Bush, the turkey has been taken to a farm where it will live out the rest of its natural life. \n\nPresidential traditions also involve the president's role as head of government. Many outgoing presidents since James Buchanan traditionally give advice to their successor during the presidential transition. Ronald Reagan and his successors have also left a private message on the desk of the Oval Office on Inauguration Day for the incoming president. \n\nDuring a state visit by a foreign head of state, the president typically hosts a State Arrival Ceremony held on the South Lawn, a custom begun by John F. Kennedy in 1961. This is followed by a state dinner given by the president which is held in the State Dining Room later in the evening. \n\nThe modern presidency holds the president as one of the nation's premier celebrities. Some argue that images of the presidency have a tendency to be manipulated by administration public relations officials as well as by presidents themselves. One critic described the presidency as \"propagandized leadership\" which has a \"mesmerizing power surrounding the office.\" Administration public relations managers staged carefully crafted photo-ops of smiling presidents with smiling crowds for television cameras. One critic wrote the image of John F. Kennedy was described as carefully framed \"in rich detail\" which \"drew on the power of myth\" regarding the incident of PT 109 and wrote that Kennedy understood how to use images to further his presidential ambitions. As a result, some political commentators have opined that American voters have unrealistic expectations of presidents: voters expect a president to \"drive the economy, vanquish enemies, lead the free world, comfort tornado victims, heal the national soul and protect borrowers from hidden credit-card fees.\"\n\nCritics of presidency's evolution\n\nMost of the nation's Founding Fathers expected the Congress, which was the first branch of government described in the Constitution, to be the dominant branch of government; they did not expect a strong executive. However, presidential power has shifted over time, which has resulted in claims that the modern presidency has become too powerful, unchecked, unbalanced, and \"monarchist\" in nature. Critic Dana D. Nelson believes presidents over the past thirty years have worked towards \"undivided presidential control of the executive branch and its agencies.\" She criticizes proponents of the unitary executive for expanding \"the many existing uncheckable executive powers – such as executive orders, decrees, memorandums, proclamations, national security directives and legislative signing statements – that already allow presidents to enact a good deal of foreign and domestic policy without aid, interference or consent from Congress.\" Activist Bill Wilson opined that the expanded presidency was \"the greatest threat ever to individual freedom and democratic rule.\"\n\nSelection process\n\nEligibility\n\nArticle II, Section 1, Clause 5 of the Constitution sets the following qualifications for holding the presidency:\n* be a natural-born citizen of the United States;Foreign-born American citizens who met the age and residency requirements at the time the Constitution was adopted were also eligible for the presidency. However, this allowance has since become obsolete.\n* be at least thirty-five years old;\n* be a resident in the United States for at least fourteen years.\n\nThe Twelfth Amendment precludes anyone ineligible to being the president from becoming the vice president.\n\nA person who meets the above qualifications is still disqualified from holding the office of president under any of the following conditions:\n* Under the Twenty-second Amendment, no person can be elected president more than twice. The amendment also specifies that if any eligible person serves as president or acting president for more than two years of a term for which some other eligible person was elected president, the former can only be elected president once. Scholars disagree over whether a person precluded by the Twenty-second Amendment to being elected president is also precluded to being vice president. \n* Under Article I, Section 3, Clause 7, upon conviction in impeachment cases, the Senate has the option of disqualifying convicted individuals from holding federal office, including that of president. \n* Under Section 3 of the Fourteenth Amendment, no person who swore an oath to support the Constitution, and later rebelled against the United States, can become president. However, this disqualification can be lifted by a two-thirds vote of each house of Congress.\n\nCampaigns and nomination\n\nThe modern presidential campaign begins before the primary elections, which the two major political parties use to clear the field of candidates before their national nominating conventions, where the most successful candidate is made the party's nominee for president. Typically, the party's presidential candidate chooses a vice presidential nominee, and this choice is rubber-stamped by the convention. The most common previous profession by U.S. presidents is lawyer. \n\nNominees participate in nationally televised debates, and while the debates are usually restricted to the Democratic and Republican nominees, third party candidates may be invited, such as Ross Perot in the 1992 debates. Nominees campaign across the country to explain their views, convince voters and solicit contributions. Much of the modern electoral process is concerned with winning swing states through frequent visits and mass media advertising drives.\n\nElection and oath\n\nThe president is elected indirectly. A number of electors, collectively known as the Electoral College, officially select the president. On Election Day, voters in each of the states and the District of Columbia cast ballots for these electors. Each state is allocated a number of electors, equal to the size of its delegation in both Houses of Congress combined. Generally, the ticket that wins the most votes in a state wins all of that state's electoral votes and thus has its slate of electors chosen to vote in the Electoral College.\n\nThe winning slate of electors meet at its state's capital on the first Monday after the second Wednesday in December, about six weeks after the election, to vote. They then send a record of that vote to Congress. The vote of the electors is opened by the sitting vice president—acting in that role's capacity as President of the Senate—and read aloud to a joint session of the incoming Congress, which was elected at the same time as the president.\n\nPursuant to the Twentieth Amendment, the president's term of office begins at noon on January 20 of the year following the election. This date, known as Inauguration Day, marks the beginning of the four-year terms of both the president and the vice president. Before executing the powers of the office, a president is constitutionally required to take the presidential oath:\n\nAlthough not required, presidents have traditionally palmed a Bible while swearing the oath and have added, \"So help me God!\" to the end of the oath. Further, although the oath may be administered by any person authorized by law to administer oaths, presidents are traditionally sworn in by the Chief Justice of the United States.\n\nTenure and term limits\n\nThe term of office for president and vice president is four years. George Washington, the first president, set an unofficial precedent of serving only two terms, which subsequent presidents followed until 1940. Before Franklin D. Roosevelt, attempts at a third term were encouraged by supporters of Ulysses S. Grant and Theodore Roosevelt; neither of these attempts succeeded. In 1940, Franklin D. Roosevelt declined to seek a third term, but allowed his political party to \"draft\" him as its presidential candidate and was subsequently elected to a third term. In 1941, the United States entered World War II, leading voters to elect Roosevelt to a fourth term in 1944. But Roosevelt died only 82 days after taking office for the fourth term on 12 April 1945.\n\nAfter the war, and in response to Roosevelt being elected to third and fourth terms, the Twenty-second Amendment was adopted. The amendment bars anyone from being elected president more than twice, or once if that person served more than half of another president's term. Harry S. Truman, president when this amendment was adopted, was exempted from its limitations and briefly sought a third (a second full) term before withdrawing from the 1952 election.\n\nSince the amendment's adoption, four presidents have served two full terms: Dwight D. Eisenhower, Ronald Reagan, Bill Clinton, and George W. Bush. Barack Obama has been elected to a second term, and will complete his term on 20 January 2017, if he does not die or resign before that date. Jimmy Carter and George H. W. Bush sought a second term, but were defeated. Richard Nixon was elected to a second term, but resigned before completing it. Lyndon B. Johnson was the only president under the amendment to be eligible to serve more than two terms in total, having served for only fourteen months following John F. Kennedy's assassination. However, Johnson withdrew from the 1968 Democratic Primary, surprising many Americans. Gerald Ford sought a full term, after serving out the last two years and five months of Nixon's second term, but was not elected.\n\nVacancy or disability\n\nVacancies in the office of President may arise under several possible circumstances: death, resignation and removal from office.\n\nArticle II, Section 4 of the Constitution allows the House of Representatives to impeach high federal officials, including the president, for \"treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors.\" Article I, Section 3, Clause 6 gives the Senate the power to remove impeached officials from office, given a two-thirds vote to convict. The House has thus far impeached two presidents: Andrew Johnson in 1868 and Bill Clinton in 1998. Neither was subsequently convicted by the Senate; however, Johnson was acquitted by just one vote.\n\nUnder Section 3 of the Twenty-fifth Amendment, the president may transfer the presidential powers and duties to the vice president, who then becomes acting president, by transmitting a statement to the Speaker of the House and the President pro tempore of the Senate stating the reasons for the transfer. The president resumes the discharge of the presidential powers and duties upon transmitting, to those two officials, a written declaration stating that resumption. This transfer of power may occur for any reason the president considers appropriate; in 2002 and again in 2007, President George W. Bush briefly transferred presidential authority to Vice President Dick Cheney. In both cases, this was done to accommodate a medical procedure which required Bush to be sedated; both times, Bush returned to duty later the same day. \n\nUnder Section 4 of the Twenty-fifth Amendment, the vice president, in conjunction with a majority of the Cabinet, may transfer the presidential powers and duties from the president to the vice president by transmitting a written declaration to the Speaker of the House and the president pro tempore of the Senate that the president is unable to discharge the presidential powers and duties. If this occurs, then the vice president will assume the presidential powers and duties as acting president; however, the president can declare that no such inability exists and resume the discharge of the presidential powers and duties. If the vice president and Cabinet contest this claim, it is up to Congress, which must meet within two days if not already in session, to decide the merit of the claim.\n\nThe United States Constitution mentions the resignation of the president, but does not regulate its form or the conditions for its validity. Pursuant to federal law, the only valid evidence of the president's resignation is a written instrument to that effect, signed by the president and delivered to the office of the Secretary of State. This has only occurred once, when Richard Nixon delivered a letter to Henry Kissinger to that effect.\n\nSection 1 of the Twenty-fifth Amendment states that the vice president becomes president upon the removal from office, death or resignation of the preceding president. The Presidential Succession Act of 1947 provides that if the offices of President and Vice President are each either vacant or are held by a disabled person, the next officer in the presidential line of succession, the Speaker of the House, becomes acting president. The line then extends to the President pro tempore of the Senate, followed by every member of the Cabinet. These persons must fulfill all eligibility requirements of the office of President to be eligible to become acting president; ineligible individuals are skipped. There has never been a special election for the office of President.\n\nCompensation\n\nSince 2001, the president has earned a $400,000 annual salary, along with a $50,000 annual expense account, a $100,000 nontaxable travel account, and $19,000 for entertainment. The most recent raise in salary was approved by Congress and President Bill Clinton in 1999 and went into effect in 2001.\n\nThe White House in Washington, D.C., serves as the official place of residence for the president. As well as access to the White House staff, facilities available to the president include medical care, recreation, housekeeping, and security services. The government pays for state dinners and other official functions, but the president pays for personal, family and guest dry cleaning and food; the high food bill often amazes new residents. Naval Support Facility Thurmont, popularly known as Camp David, is a mountain-based military camp in Frederick County, Maryland, used as a country retreat and for high alert protection of the president and guests. Blair House, located next to the Eisenhower Executive Office Building at the White House Complex and Lafayette Park, is a complex of four connected townhouses exceeding 70000 sqft of floor space which serves as the president's official guest house and as a secondary residence for the president if needed. \n\nFor ground travel, the president uses the presidential state car, which is an armored limousine built on a heavily modified Cadillac-based chassis.[http://www.secretservice.gov/press/GPA02-09_Limo.pdf New Presidential Limousine enters Secret Service Fleet] U.S. Secret Service Press Release (January 14, 2009) Retrieved on January 20, 2009. One of two identical Boeing VC-25 aircraft, which are extensively modified versions of Boeing 747-200B airliners, serve as long distance travel for the president and are referred to as Air Force One while the president is on board (although any U.S. Air Force aircraft the President is aboard is designated as \"Air Force One\" for the duration of the flight). In-country trips are typically handled with just one of the two planes while overseas trips are handled with both, one primary and one backup. Any civilian aircraft the President is aboard is designated Executive One for the flight. The president also has access to a fleet of thirty-five U.S. Marine Corps helicopters of varying models, designated Marine One when the president is aboard any particular one in the fleet. Flights are typically handled with as many as five helicopters all flying together and frequently swapping positions as to disguise which helicopter the President is actually aboard to any would-be threats.\n\nThe U.S. Secret Service is charged with protecting the sitting president and the first family. As part of their protection, presidents, first ladies, their children and other immediate family members, and other prominent persons and locations are assigned Secret Service codenames. The use of such names was originally for security purposes and dates to a time when sensitive electronic communications were not routinely encrypted; today, the names simply serve for purposes of brevity, clarity, and tradition. \n\nFile:White House lawn (1).tif\|The White House\n\nFile:Camp David 1959.jpg\|Camp David\nFile:Blair House daylight.jpg\|Blair House\nFile:GPA02-09 US SecretService press release 2009 Limousine Page 3 Image.jpg\|State car\nFile:Air Force One over Mt. Rushmore.jpg\|Air Force One\nFile:Marine One (1970).jpg\|Marine One\n\nPost-presidency\n\nBeginning in 1959, all living former presidents were granted a pension, an office, and a staff. The pension has increased numerous times with Congressional approval. Retired presidents now receive a pension based on the salary of the current administration's cabinet secretaries, which was $199,700 each year in 2012. Former presidents who served in Congress may also collect congressional pensions. The Former Presidents Act, as amended, also provides former presidents with travel funds and franking privileges. Prior to 1997, all former presidents, their spouses, and their children until age 16 were protected by the Secret Service until the president's death. In 1997, Congress passed legislation limiting secret service protection to no more than 10 years from the date a president leaves office. On January 10, 2013, President Obama signed legislation reinstating lifetime secret service protection for him, George W. Bush, and all subsequent presidents. A spouse who remarries is no longer eligible for secret service protection.\n\nSome presidents have had significant careers after leaving office. Prominent examples include William Howard Taft's tenure as Chief Justice of the United States and Herbert Hoover's work on government reorganization after World War II. Grover Cleveland, whose bid for reelection failed in 1888, was elected president again four years later in 1892. Two former presidents served in Congress after leaving the White House: John Quincy Adams was elected to the House of Representatives, serving there for seventeen years, and Andrew Johnson returned to the Senate in 1875. John Tyler served in the provisional Congress of the Confederate States during the Civil War and was elected to the Confederate House of Representatives, but died before that body first met.\n\nPresidents may use their predecessors as emissaries to deliver private messages to other nations or as official representatives of the United States to state funerals and other important foreign events. Richard Nixon made multiple foreign trips to countries including China and Russia and was lauded as an elder statesman. Jimmy Carter has become a global human rights campaigner, international arbiter, and election monitor, as well as a recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize. Bill Clinton has also worked as an informal ambassador, most recently in the negotiations that led to the release of two American journalists, Laura Ling and Euna Lee, from North Korea. Clinton has also been active politically since his presidential term ended, working with his wife Hillary on her 2008 and 2016 presidential bids and President Obama on his reelection campaign.\n\nFile:Carter 2k14.tif\|Jimmy Carter39th (1977–81)\nFile:President George H. W.tif\|George H. W. Bush41st (1989–93)\nFile:Clinton 2k15.tif\|Bill Clinton42nd (1993–2001)\nFile:Bush 2k14.tif\|George W. Bush43rd (2001–09)\n\nPresidential libraries\n\nSince Herbert Hoover, each president has created a repository known as a presidential library for preserving and making available his papers, records and other documents and materials. Completed libraries are deeded to and maintained by the National Archives and Records Administration (NARA); the initial funding for building and equipping each library must come from private, non-federal sources. There are currently thirteen presidential libraries in the NARA system. There are also presidential libraries maintained by state governments and private foundations and Universities of Higher Education, such as the Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum, which is run by the State of Illinois, the George H.W. Bush Presidential Library and Museum, which is run by Texas A&M University and the Lyndon Baines Johnson Presidential Library and Museum, which is run by the University of Texas at Austin.\n\nAs many presidents live for many years after leaving office, several of them have personally overseen the building and opening of their own presidential libraries, some even making arrangements for their own burial at the site. Several presidential libraries therefore contain the graves of the president they document, such as the Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum in Yorba Linda, California and the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library in Simi Valley, California. The graves are viewable by the general public visiting these libraries.\n\nTimeline of Presidents" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "sixty-nine", "69" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "69", "sixty nine" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "69", "type": "Numerical", "value": "69" }
Which Iowa-born artist painted American Gothic and Spring Turning?	tc_654	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "American_Gothic.txt" ], "title": [ "American Gothic" ], "wiki_context": [ "American Gothic is a painting by Grant Wood in the collection of the Art Institute of Chicago. Wood's inspiration came from what is now known as the American Gothic House, and his decision to paint the house along with \"the kind of people I fancied should live in that house.\" The painting shows a farmer standing beside a woman that has been interpreted to be either his wife or his daughter.Fineman, Mia (June 8, 2005). [http://www.slate.com/articles/arts/art/2005/06/the_most_famous_farm_couple_in_the_world.html \"The Most Famous Farm Couple in the World: Why American Gothic still fascinates.\"]. Slate. The figures were modeled by Wood's sister, Nan Wood Graham, and Wood and Graham's dentist. The woman is dressed in a colonial print apron evoking 19th-century Americana, and the man is holding a pitchfork. The plants on the porch of the house are mother-in-law's tongue and geranium, which are the same plants as in Wood's 1929 portrait of his mother, Woman with Plants.\n\nIt is one of the most familiar images in 20th-century American art, and has been widely parodied in American popular culture.\n\nCreation\n\nIn August 1930, Grant Wood, an American painter with European training, was driven around Eldon, Iowa, by a young painter from Eldon, John Sharp. Looking for inspiration, Wood noticed the Dibble House, a small white house built in the Carpenter Gothic architectural style. Sharp's brother suggested in 1973 that it was on this drive that Wood first sketched the house on the back of an envelope. Wood's earliest biographer, Darrell Garwood, noted that Wood \"thought it a form of borrowed pretentiousness, a structural absurdity, to put a Gothic-style window in such a flimsy frame house.\" At the time, Wood classified it as one of the \"cardboardy frame houses on Iowa farms\" and considered it \"very paintable\". After obtaining permission from the Jones family, the house's owners, Wood made a sketch the next day in oil on paperboard from the house's front yard. This sketch displayed a steeper roof and a longer window with a more pronounced ogive than on the actual house, features which eventually adorned the final work.\n\nWood decided to paint the house along with \"the kind of people I fancied should live in that house.\" He recruited his sister Nan (1899–1990) to model the woman, dressing her in a colonial print apron mimicking 19th-century Americana. The man is modeled on Wood's dentist, Dr. Byron McKeeby (1867–1950) from Cedar Rapids, Iowa. Nan, perhaps embarrassed about being depicted as the wife of a man twice her age, told people that her brother had envisioned the couple as father and daughter, rather than husband and wife, which Grant seems to confirm in his letter to a Mrs. Nellie Sudduth in 1941. \n\nThe three-pronged hay fork is echoed in the stitching of the man's overalls, the Gothic window of the house, and the structure of the man's face. However, Wood did not add figures to his sketch until he returned to his studio in Cedar Rapids. He would not return to Eldon again before his death in 1942, although he did request a photograph of the home to complete his painting.\n\nReception\n\nWood entered the painting in a competition at the Art Institute of Chicago. The judges deemed it a \"comic valentine\", but a museum patron persuaded them to award the painting the bronze medal and $300 cash prize. The patron also persuaded the Art Institute to buy the painting, which remains there today. The image soon began to be reproduced in newspapers, first by the Chicago Evening Post and then in New York, Boston, Kansas City, and Indianapolis. However, Wood received a backlash when the image finally appeared in the Cedar Rapids Gazette. Iowans were furious at their depiction as \"pinched, grim-faced, puritanical Bible-thumpers.\" Wood protested that he had not painted a caricature of Iowans but a depiction of his appreciation, stating \"I had to go to France to appreciate Iowa.\"\n\nArt critics who had favorable opinions about the painting, such as Gertrude Stein and Christopher Morley, also assumed the painting was meant to be a satire of rural small-town life. It was thus seen as part of the trend toward increasingly critical depictions of rural America, along the lines of Sherwood Anderson's 1919 Winesburg, Ohio, Sinclair Lewis's 1920 Main Street, and Carl Van Vechten's 1924 The Tattooed Countess in literature.\n\nYet another interpretation sees it as an \"old-fashioned mourning portrait... Tellingly, the curtains hanging in the windows of the house, both upstairs and down, are pulled closed in the middle of the day, a mourning custom in Victorian America. The woman wears a black dress beneath her apron, and glances away as if holding back tears. One imagines she is grieving for the man beside her...\" Wood had been only 10 when his father had died and later had lived for a decade \"above a garage reserved for hearses,\" so death was on his mind. \n\nHowever, with the onset of the Great Depression, the painting came to be seen as a depiction of steadfast American pioneer spirit. Wood assisted this transition by renouncing his Bohemian youth in Paris and grouping himself with populist Midwestern painters, such as John Steuart Curry and Thomas Hart Benton, who revolted against the dominance of East Coast art circles. Wood was quoted in this period as stating, \"All the good ideas I've ever had came to me while I was milking a cow.\"\n\nParodies\n\nThe Depression-era understanding of the painting as a depiction of an authentically American scene prompted the first well-known parody, a 1942 photo by Gordon Parks of cleaning woman Ella Watson, shot in Washington, D.C.\n\nAmerican Gothic is a frequently parodied image. It has been lampooned in Broadway shows such as The Music Man, movies such as The Rocky Horror Picture Show, television shows such as Green Acres, marketing campaigns, pornography, and by couples who recreate the image by facing a camera, one of them holding a pitchfork or other object in its place.\n\nFile:Gordon Parks - American Gothic.jpg\|alt=Man holding up a broom and mop with an American flag hanging in the background, in imitation of the original American Gothic.\|American Gothic, Washington, D.C. (1942) by Gordon Parks was the first prominent parody of the painting.\nFile:American Gothic Dress-Up.jpg\|alt=visitor's wearing period-style clothing, and with props such as a pitchfork and glasses\|Visitors dressing up and taking their photograph outside the house." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Grant DeVolson Wood", "Grant Wood" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "grant wood", "grant devolson wood" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "grant wood", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Grant Wood" }
Which country does the airline Garuda come from?	tc_655	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Airline.txt", "Garuda_Indonesia.txt" ], "title": [ "Airline", "Garuda Indonesia" ], "wiki_context": [ "An airline is a company that provides air transport services for traveling passengers and freight. Airlines utilize aircraft to supply these services and may form partnerships or alliances with other airlines for codeshare agreements. Generally, airline companies are recognized with an air operating certificate or license issued by a governmental aviation body.\n\nAirlines vary in size, from small domestic airlines to full-service international airlines. Airline services can be categorized as being intercontinental, domestic, regional, or international, and may be operated as scheduled services or charters. The largest airline currently is American Airlines Group.\n\nHistory\n\nThe first airlines\n\nDELAG, Deutsche Luftschiffahrts-Aktiengesellschaft was the world's first airline. It was founded on November 16, 1909 with government assistance, and operated airships manufactured by The Zeppelin Corporation. Its headquarters were in Frankfurt. The first fixed wing scheduled air service was started on January 1, 1914 from St. Petersburg, Florida to Tampa, Florida. The four oldest non-dirigible airlines that still exist are Netherlands' KLM (1919), Colombia's Avianca (1919), Australia's Qantas (1921), and the Czech Republic's Czech Airlines (1923).\n\nEuropean airline industry\n\nBeginnings\n\nThe earliest fixed wing airline in Europe was the Aircraft Transport and Travel, formed by George Holt Thomas in 1916. Using a fleet of former military Airco DH.4A biplanes that had been modified to carry two passengers in the fuselage, it operated relief flights between Folkestone and Ghent. On 15 July 1919, the company flew a proving flight across the English Channel, despite a lack of support from the British government. Flown by Lt. H Shaw in an Airco DH.9 between RAF Hendon and Paris - Le Bourget Airport, the flight took 2 hours and 30 minutes at £21 per passenger.\n\nOn 25 August 1919, the company used DH.16s to pioneer a regular service from Hounslow Heath Aerodrome to Le Bourget, the first regular international service in the world. The airline soon gained a reputation for reliability, despite problems with bad weather and began to attract European competition. In November 1919, it won the first British civil airmail contract. Six Royal Air Force Airco DH.9A aircraft were lent to the company, to operate the airmail service between Hawkinge and Cologne. In 1920, they were returned to the Royal Air Force. \n\nOther British competitors were quick to follow - Handley Page Transport was established in 1919 and used the company's converted wartime Type O/400 bombers with a capacity for 19 passengers, to run a London-Paris passenger service.\n\nThe first French airline was Société des lignes Latécoère, later known as Aéropostale, which started its first service in late 1918 to Spain. The Société Générale des Transports Aériens was created in late 1919, by the Farman brothers and the Farman F.60 Goliath plane flew scheduled services from Toussus-le-Noble to Kenley, near Croydon, England. Another early French airline was the Compagnie des Messageries Aériennes, established in 1919 by Louis-Charles Breguet, offering a mail and freight service between Le Bourget Airport, Paris and Lesquin Airport, Lille. \n\nThe first German airline to use heavier than air aircraft was Deutsche Luft-Reederei established in 1917 which started operating in February 1919. In its first year, the D.L.R. operated regularly scheduled flights on routes with a combined length of nearly 1000 miles. By 1921 the D.L.R. network was more than 3000 km (1865 miles) long, and included destinations in the Netherlands, Scandinavia and the Baltic Republics. Another important German airline was Junkers Luftverkehr, which began operations in 1921. It was a division of the aircraft manufacturer Junkers, which became a separate company in 1924. It operated joint-venture airlines in Austria, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Hungary, Latvia, Norway, Poland, Sweden and Switzerland.\n\nThe Dutch airline KLM made its first flight in 1920, and is the oldest continuously operating airline in the world. Established by aviator Albert Plesman, it was immediately awarded a \"Royal\" predicate from Queen Wilhelmina Its first flight was from Croydon Airport, London to Amsterdam, using a leased Aircraft Transport and Travel DH-16, and carrying two British journalists and a number of newspapers. In 1921, KLM started scheduled services.\n\nIn Finland, the charter establishing Aero O/Y (now Finnair) was signed in the city of Helsinki on September 12, 1923. Junkers F.13 D-335 became the first aircraft of the company, when Aero took delivery of it on March 14, 1924. The first flight was between Helsinki and Tallinn, capital of Estonia, and it took place on March 20, 1924, one week later.\n\nIn the Soviet Union, the Chief Administration of the Civil Air Fleet was established in 1921. One of its first acts was to help found Deutsch-Russische Luftverkehrs A.G. (Deruluft), a German-Russian joint venture to provide air transport from Russia to the West. Domestic air service began around the same time, when Dobrolyot started operations on 15 July 1923 between Moscow and Nizhni Novgorod. Since 1932 all operations had been carried under the name Aeroflot.\n\nEarly European airlines tend to favour comfort - the passenger cabins were often spacious with luxurious interiors - over speed and efficiency. The relatively basic navigational capabilities of pilots at the time also meant that delays due to the weather were commonplace.\n\nRationalization\n\nBy the early 1920s, small airlines were struggling to compete, and there was a movement towards increased rationalization and consolidation. In 1924, Imperial Airways was formed from the merger of Instone Air Line Company, British Marine Air Navigation, Daimler Airway and Handley Page Transport Co Ltd., to allow British airlines to compete with stiff competition from French and German airlines that were enjoying heavy government subsidies. The airline was a pioneer in surveying and opening up air routes across the world to serve far-flung parts of the British Empire and to enhance trade and integration. \n\nThe first new airliner ordered by Imperial Airways, was the Handley Page W8f City of Washington, delivered on 3 November 1924. In the first year of operation the company carried 11,395 passengers and 212,380 letters. In April 1925, the film The Lost World became the first film to be screened for passengers on a scheduled airliner flight when it was shown on the London-Paris route.\n\nTwo French airlines also merged to form Air Union on 1 January 1923. This later merged with four other French airlines to become Air France, the country's flagship carrier to this day, on 7 October 1933.\n\nGermany's Deutsche Luft Hansa was created in 1926 by merger of two airlines, one of them Junkers Luftverkehr. Luft Hansa, due to the Junkers heritage and unlike most other airlines at the time, became a major investor in airlines outside of Europe, providing capital to Varig and Avianca. German airliners built by Junkers, Dornier, and Fokker were among the most advanced in the world at the time.\n\nGlobal expansion\n\nIn 1926, Alan Cobham surveyed a flight route from the UK to Cape Town, South Africa, following this up with another proving flight to Melbourne, Australia. Other routes to British India and the Far East were also charted and demonstrated at this time. Regular services to Cairo and Basra began in 1927 and was extended to Karachi in 1929. The London-Australia service was inaugurated in 1932 with the Handley Page HP 42 airliners. Further services were opened up to Calcutta, Rangoon, Singapore, Brisbane and Hong Kong passengers departed London on 14 March 1936 following the establishment of a branch from Penang to Hong Kong.\n\nImperial's aircraft were small, most seating fewer than twenty passengers, and catered for the rich - only about 50,000 passengers used Imperial Airways in the 1930s. Most passengers on intercontinental routes or on services within and between British colonies were men doing colonial administration, business or research. \n\nLike Imperial Airways, Air France and KLM's early growth depended heavily on the needs to service links with far-flung colonial possessions (North Africa and Indochina for the French and the East Indies for the Dutch). France began an air mail service to Morocco in 1919 that was bought out in 1927, renamed Aéropostale, and injected with capital to become a major international carrier. In 1933, Aéropostale went bankrupt, was nationalized and merged into Air France.\n\nAlthough Germany lacked colonies, it also began expanding its services globally. In 1931, the airship Graf Zeppelin began offering regular scheduled passenger service between Germany and South America, usually every two weeks, which continued until 1937. In 1936, the airship Hindenburg entered passenger service and successfully crossed the Atlantic 36 times before crashing at Lakehurst, New Jersey on May 6, 1937.\n\nFrom February 1934 until World War II began in 1939 Deutsche Lufthansa operated an airmail service from Stuttgart, Germany via Spain, the Canary Islands and West Africa to Natal in Brazil. This was the first time an airline flew across an ocean. \n\nBy the end of the 1930s Aeroflot had become the world's largest airline, employing more than 4,000 pilots and 60,000 other service personnel and operating around 3,000 aircraft (of which 75% were considered obsolete by its own standards). During the Soviet era Aeroflot was synonymous with Russian civil aviation, as it was the only air carrier. It became the first airline in the world to operate sustained regular jet services on 15 September 1956 with the Tupolev Tu-104.\n\nEU airline deregulation\n\nDeregulation of the European Union airspace in the early 1990s has had substantial effect on the structure of the industry there. The shift towards 'budget' airlines on shorter routes has been significant. Airlines such as EasyJet and Ryanair have often grown at the expense of the traditional national airlines.\n\nThere has also been a trend for these national airlines themselves to be privatized such as has occurred for Aer Lingus and British Airways. Other national airlines, including Italy's Alitalia, have suffered - particularly with the rapid increase of oil prices in early 2008.\n\nU.S. airline industry\n\nEarly development\n\nTony Jannus conducted the United States' first scheduled commercial airline flight on 1 January 1914 for the St. Petersburg-Tampa Airboat Line. The 23-minute flight traveled between St. Petersburg, Florida and Tampa, Florida, passing some 50 ft above Tampa Bay in Jannus' Benoist XIV wood and muslin biplane flying boat. His passenger was a former mayor of St. Petersburg, who paid $400 for the privilege of sitting on a wooden bench in the open cockpit. The Airboat line operated for about four months, carrying more than 1,200 passengers who paid $5 each. Chalk's International Airlines began service between Miami and Bimini in the Bahamas in February 1919. Based in Ft. Lauderdale, Chalk's claimed to be the oldest continuously operating airline in the United States until its closure in 2008. \n\nFollowing World War I, the United States found itself swamped with aviators. Many decided to take their war-surplus aircraft on barnstorming campaigns, performing aerobatic maneuvers to woo crowds. In 1918, the United States Postal Service won the financial backing of Congress to begin experimenting with air mail service, initially using Curtiss Jenny aircraft that had been procured by the United States Army Air Service. Private operators were the first to fly the mail but due to numerous accidents the US Army was tasked with mail delivery. During the Army's involvement they proved to be too unreliable and lost their air mail duties. By the mid-1920s, the Postal Service had developed its own air mail network, based on a transcontinental backbone between New York City and San Francisco. To supplant this service, they offered twelve contracts for spur routes to independent bidders. Some of the carriers that won these routes would, through time and mergers, evolve into Pan Am, Delta Air Lines, Braniff Airways, American Airlines, United Airlines (originally a division of Boeing), Trans World Airlines, Northwest Airlines, and Eastern Air Lines.\n\nService during the early 1920s was sporadic: most airlines at the time were focused on carrying bags of mail. In 1925, however, the Ford Motor Company bought out the Stout Aircraft Company and began construction of the all-metal Ford Trimotor, which became the first successful American airliner. With a 12-passenger capacity, the Trimotor made passenger service potentially profitable. Air service was seen as a supplement to rail service in the American transportation network.\n\nAt the same time, Juan Trippe began a crusade to create an air network that would link America to the world, and he achieved this goal through his airline, Pan American World Airways, with a fleet of flying boats that linked Los Angeles to Shanghai and Boston to London. Pan Am and Northwest Airways (which began flights to Canada in the 1920s) were the only U.S. airlines to go international before the 1940s.\n\nWith the introduction of the Boeing 247 and Douglas DC-3 in the 1930s, the U.S. airline industry was generally profitable, even during the Great Depression. This trend continued until the beginning of World War II.\n\nDevelopment since 1945\n\nAs governments met to set the standards and scope for an emergent civil air industry toward the end of the war, the U.S. took a position of maximum operating freedom; U.S. airline companies were not as hard-hit as European and the few Asian ones had been. This preference for \"open skies\" operating regimes continues, with limitations, to this day.\n\nWorld War II, like World War I, brought new life to the airline industry. Many airlines in the Allied countries were flush from lease contracts to the military, and foresaw a future explosive demand for civil air transport, for both passengers and cargo. They were eager to invest in the newly emerging flagships of air travel such as the Boeing Stratocruiser, Lockheed Constellation, and Douglas DC-6. Most of these new aircraft were based on American bombers such as the B-29, which had spearheaded research into new technologies such as pressurization. Most offered increased efficiency from both added speed and greater payload.\n\nIn the 1950s, the De Havilland Comet, Boeing 707, Douglas DC-8, and Sud Aviation Caravelle became the first flagships of the Jet Age in the West, while the Eastern bloc had Tupolev Tu-104 and Tupolev Tu-124 in the fleets of state-owned carriers such as Czechoslovak ČSA, Soviet Aeroflot and East-German Interflug. The Vickers Viscount and Lockheed L-188 Electra inaugurated turboprop transport.\n\nThe next big boost for the airlines would come in the 1970s, when the Boeing 747, McDonnell Douglas DC-10, and Lockheed L-1011 inaugurated widebody (\"jumbo jet\") service, which is still the standard in international travel. The Tupolev Tu-144 and its Western counterpart, Concorde, made supersonic travel a reality. Concorde first flew in 1969 and operated through 2003. In 1972, Airbus began producing Europe's most commercially successful line of airliners to date. The added efficiencies for these aircraft were often not in speed, but in passenger capacity, payload, and range. Airbus also features modern electronic cockpits that were common across their aircraft to enable pilots to fly multiple models with minimal cross-training.\n\nUS airline deregulation\n\nThe 1978 U.S. airline industry deregulation lowered federally controlled barriers for new airlines just as a downturn in the nation's economy occurred. New start-ups entered during the downturn, during which time they found aircraft and funding, contracted hangar and maintenance services, trained new employees, and recruited laid off staff from other airlines.\n\nMajor airlines dominated their routes through aggressive pricing and additional capacity offerings, often swamping new start-ups. In the place of high barriers to entry imposed by regulation, the major airlines implemented an equally high barrier called loss leader pricing. In this strategy an already established and dominant airline stomps out its competition by lowering airfares on specific routes, below the cost of operating on it, choking out any chance a start-up airline may have. The industry side effect is an overall drop in revenue and service quality. Since deregulation in 1978 the average domestic ticket price has dropped by 40%. So has airline employee pay. By incurring massive losses, the airlines of the USA now rely upon a scourge of cyclical Chapter 11 bankruptcy proceedings to continue doing business. America West Airlines (which has since merged with US Airways) remained a significant survivor from this new entrant era, as dozens, even hundreds, have gone under.\n\nIn many ways, the biggest winner in the deregulated environment was the air passenger. Although not exclusively attributable to deregulation, indeed the U.S. witnessed an explosive growth in demand for air travel. Many millions who had never or rarely flown before became regular fliers, even joining frequent flyer loyalty programs and receiving free flights and other benefits from their flying. New services and higher frequencies meant that business fliers could fly to another city, do business, and return the same day, from almost any point in the country. Air travel's advantages put long distance intercity railroad travel and bus lines under pressure, with most of the latter having withered away, whilst the former is still protected under nationalization through the continuing existence of Amtrak.\n\nBy the 1980s, almost half of the total flying in the world took place in the U.S., and today the domestic industry operates over 10,000 daily departures nationwide.\n\nToward the end of the century, a new style of low cost airline emerged, offering a no-frills product at a lower price. Southwest Airlines, JetBlue, AirTran Airways, Skybus Airlines and other low-cost carriers began to represent a serious challenge to the so-called \"legacy airlines\", as did their low-cost counterparts in many other countries. Their commercial viability represented a serious competitive threat to the legacy carriers. However, of these, ATA and Skybus have since ceased operations.\n\nIncreasingly since 1978, US airlines have been reincorporated and spun off by newly created and internally led management companies, and thus becoming nothing more than operating units and subsidiaries with limited financially decisive control. Among some of these holding companies and parent companies which are relatively well known, are the UAL Corporation, along with the AMR Corporation, among a long list of airline holding companies sometime recognized worldwide. Less recognized are the private equity firms which often seize managerial, financial, and board of directors control of distressed airline companies by temporarily investing large sums of capital in air carriers, to rescheme an airlines assets into a profitable organization or liquidating an air carrier of their profitable and worthwhile routes and business operations.\n\nThus the last 50 years of the airline industry have varied from reasonably profitable, to devastatingly depressed. As the first major market to deregulate the industry in 1978, U.S. airlines have experienced more turbulence than almost any other country or region. In fact, no U.S. legacy carrier survived bankruptcy-free. Amongst the outspoken critics of deregulation, former CEO of American Airlines, Robert Crandall has publicly stated:\n\n\"Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection filing shows airline industry deregulation was a mistake. \"\n\nThe airline industry bailout\n\nCongress passed the [http://ostpxweb.ost.dot.gov/aviation/Data/stabilizationact.pdf Air Transportation Safety and System Stabilization Act] (P.L. 107-42) in response to a severe liquidity crisis facing the already-troubled airline industry in the aftermath of the September 11th terrorist attacks. Through the ATSB Congress sought to provide cash infusions to carriers for both the cost of the four-day federal shutdown of the airlines and the incremental losses incurred through December 31, 2001 as a result of the terrorist attacks. This resulted in the first government bailout of the 21st century. Between 2000 and 2005 US airlines lost $30 billion with wage cuts of over $15 billion and 100,000 employees laid off. \n\nIn recognition of the essential national economic role of a healthy aviation system, Congress authorized partial compensation of up to $5 billion in cash subject to review by the Department of Transportation and up to $10 billion in loan guarantees subject to review by a newly created Air Transportation Stabilization Board (ATSB). The applications to DOT for reimbursements were subjected to rigorous multi-year reviews not only by DOT program personnel but also by the Government Accountability Office and the DOT Inspector General. \n\nUltimately, the federal government provided $4.6 billion in one-time, subject-to-income-tax cash payments to 427 U.S. air carriers, with no provision for repayment, essentially a gift from the taxpayers. (Passenger carriers operating scheduled service received approximately $4 billion, subject to tax.) In addition, the ATSB approved loan guarantees to six airlines totaling approximately $1.6 billion. Data from the US Treasury Department show that the government recouped the $1.6 billion and a profit of $339 million from the fees, interest and purchase of discounted airline stock associated with loan guarantees. \n\nAsian airline industry\n\nAlthough Philippine Airlines (PAL) was officially founded on February 26, 1941, its license to operate as an airliner was derived from merged Philippine Aerial Taxi Company (PATCO) established by mining magnate Emmanuel N. Bachrach on December 3, 1930, making it Asia's oldest scheduled carrier still in operation. Commercial air service commenced three weeks later from Manila to Baguio, making it Asia's first airline route. Bachrach's death in 1937 paved the way for its eventual merger with Philippine Airlines in March 1941 and made it Asia's oldest airline. It is also the oldest airline in Asia still operating under its current name. Bachrach's majority share in PATCO was bought by beer magnate Andres R. Soriano in 1939 upon the advice of General Douglas MacArthur and later merged with newly formed Philippine Airlines with PAL as the surviving entity. Soriano has controlling interest in both airlines before the merger. PAL restarted service on March 15, 1941 with a single Beech Model 18 NPC-54 aircraft, which started its daily services between Manila (from Nielson Field) and Baguio, later to expand with larger aircraft such as the DC-3 and Vickers Viscount.\n\nIndia was also one of the first countries to embrace civil aviation. One of the first West Asian airline companies was Air India, which had its beginning as Tata Airlines in 1932, a division of Tata Sons Ltd. (now Tata Group). The airline was founded by India's leading industrialist, JRD Tata. On October 15, 1932, J. R. D. Tata himself flew a single engined De Havilland Puss Moth carrying air mail (postal mail of Imperial Airways) from Karachi to Bombay via Ahmedabad. The aircraft continued to Madras via Bellary piloted by Royal Air Force pilot Nevill Vintcent. Tata Airlines was also one of the world's first major airlines which began its operations without any support from the Government. \n\nWith the outbreak of World War II, the airline presence in Asia came to a relative halt, with many new flag carriers donating their aircraft for military aid and other uses. Following the end of the war in 1945, regular commercial service was restored in India and Tata Airlines became a public limited company on July 29, 1946 under the name Air India. After the independence of India, 49% of the airline was acquired by the Government of India. In return, the airline was granted status to operate international services from India as the designated flag carrier under the name Air India International.\n\nOn July 31, 1946, a chartered Philippine Airlines (PAL) DC-4 ferried 40 American servicemen to Oakland, California, from Nielson Airport in Makati City with stops in Guam, Wake Island, Johnston Atoll and Honolulu, Hawaii, making PAL the first Asian airline to cross the Pacific Ocean. A regular service between Manila and San Francisco was started in December. It was during this year that the airline was designated as the flag carrier of Philippines.\n\nDuring the era of decolonization, newly born Asian countries started to embrace air transport. Among the first Asian carriers during the era were Cathay Pacific of Hong Kong (founded in September 1946), Orient Airways (later Pakistan International Airlines; founded in October 1946), Air Ceylon (later SriLankan Airlines; founded in 1947), Malayan Airways Limited in 1947 (later Singapore and Malaysia Airlines), El Al in Israel in 1948, Garuda Indonesia in 1948, Japan Airlines in 1951, Thai Airways International in 1960, and Korean National Airlines in 1947.\n\nLatin American airline industry\n\nAmong the first countries to have regular airlines in Latin America were Bolivia with Lloyd Aéreo Boliviano, Cuba with Cubana de Aviación, Colombia with Avianca, Argentina with Aerolineas Argentinas, Chile with LAN Chile (today LAN Airlines), Brazil with Varig, Dominican Republic with Dominicana de Aviación, Mexico with Mexicana de Aviación, Trinidad and Tobago with BWIA West Indies Airways (today Caribbean Airlines), Venezuela with Aeropostal, and TACA based in El Salvador and representing several airlines of Central America (Costa Rica, Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua). All the previous airlines started regular operations well before World War II.\n\nThe air travel market has evolved rapidly over recent years in Latin America. Some industry estimates indicate that over 2,000 new aircraft will begin service over the next five years in this region.\n\nThese airlines serve domestic flights within their countries, as well as connections within Latin America and also overseas flights to North America, Europe, Australia, and Asia.\n\nOnly three airlines: Avianca, LAN, and TAM Airlines have international subsidiaries and cover many destinations within the Americas as well as major hubs in other continents. LAN with Chile as the central operation along with Peru, Ecuador, Colombia and Argentina and some operations in the Dominican Republic. The recently formed AviancaTACA group has control of Avianca Brazil, VIP Ecuador and a strategic alliance with AeroGal. And TAM with its Mercosur base in Asuncion, Paraguay. As of 2010, talks of uniting LAN and TAM have strongly developed to create a joint airline named LATAM.\n\nRegulatory considerations\n\nNational\n\nMany countries have national airlines that the government owns and operates. Fully private airlines are subject to a great deal of government regulation for economic, political, and safety concerns. For instance, governments often intervene to halt airline labor actions to protect the free flow of people, communications, and goods between different regions without compromising safety.\n\nThe United States, Australia, and to a lesser extent Brazil, Mexico, India, the United Kingdom, and Japan have \"deregulated\" their airlines. In the past, these governments dictated airfares, route networks, and other operational requirements for each airline. Since deregulation, airlines have been largely free to negotiate their own operating arrangements with different airports, enter and exit routes easily, and to levy airfares and supply flights according to market demand.\n\nThe entry barriers for new airlines are lower in a deregulated market, and so the U.S. has seen hundreds of airlines start up (sometimes for only a brief operating period). This has produced far greater competition than before deregulation in most markets. The added competition, together with pricing freedom, means that new entrants often take market share with highly reduced rates that, to a limited degree, full service airlines must match. This is a major constraint on profitability for established carriers, which tend to have a higher cost base.\n\nAs a result, profitability in a deregulated market is uneven for most airlines. These forces have caused some major airlines to go out of business, in addition to most of the poorly established new entrants.\n\nIn the United States, the airline industry is dominated by four large firms. Because of industry consolidation, after fuel prices dropped considerably in 2015, very little of the savings were passed on to consumers. \n\nInternational\n\nGroups such as the International Civil Aviation Organization establish worldwide standards for safety and other vital concerns. Most international air traffic is regulated by bilateral agreements between countries, which designate specific carriers to operate on specific routes. The model of such an agreement was the Bermuda Agreement between the US and UK following World War II, which designated airports to be used for transatlantic flights and gave each government the authority to nominate carriers to operate routes.\n\nBilateral agreements are based on the \"freedoms of the air\", a group of generalized traffic rights ranging from the freedom to overfly a country to the freedom to provide domestic flights within a country (a very rarely granted right known as cabotage). Most agreements permit airlines to fly from their home country to designated airports in the other country: some also extend the freedom to provide continuing service to a third country, or to another destination in the other country while carrying passengers from overseas.\n\nIn the 1990s, \"open skies\" agreements became more common. These agreements take many of these regulatory powers from state governments and open up international routes to further competition. Open skies agreements have met some criticism, particularly within the European Union, whose airlines would be at a comparative disadvantage with the United States' because of cabotage restrictions.\n\nEconomic considerations\n\nHistorically, air travel has survived largely through state support, whether in the form of equity or subsidies. The airline industry as a whole has made a cumulative loss during its 100-year history, once the costs include subsidies for aircraft development and airport construction. \n\nOne argument is that positive externalities, such as higher growth due to global mobility, outweigh the microeconomic losses and justify continuing government intervention. A historically high level of government intervention in the airline industry can be seen as part of a wider political consensus on strategic forms of transport, such as highways and railways, both of which receive public funding in most parts of the world.\n\nAlthough many countries continue to operate state-owned or parastatal airlines, many large airlines today are privately owned and are therefore governed by microeconomic principles to maximize shareholder profit.\n\nTop airline groups by revenue \n\nfor 2010, source : Airline Business August 2011, Flightglobal Data Research\n\nTicket revenue\n\nAirlines assign prices to their services in an attempt to maximize profitability. The pricing of airline tickets has become increasingly complicated over the years and is now largely determined by computerized yield management systems.\n\nBecause of the complications in scheduling flights and maintaining profitability, airlines have many loopholes that can be used by the knowledgeable traveler. Many of these airfare secrets are becoming more and more known to the general public, so airlines are forced to make constant adjustments.\n\nMost airlines use differentiated pricing, a form of price discrimination, to sell air services at varying prices simultaneously to different segments. Factors influencing the price include the days remaining until departure, the booked load factor, the forecast of total demand by price point, competitive pricing in force, and variations by day of week of departure and by time of day. Carriers often accomplish this by dividing each cabin of the aircraft (first, business and economy) into a number of travel classes for pricing purposes.\n\nA complicating factor is that of origin-destination control (\"O&D control\"). Someone purchasing a ticket from Melbourne to Sydney (as an example) for A$200 is competing with someone else who wants to fly Melbourne to Los Angeles through Sydney on the same flight, and who is willing to pay A$1400. Should the airline prefer the $1400 passenger, or the $200 passenger plus a possible Sydney-Los Angeles passenger willing to pay $1300? Airlines have to make hundreds of thousands of similar pricing decisions daily.\n\nThe advent of advanced computerized reservations systems in the late 1970s, most notably Sabre, allowed airlines to easily perform cost-benefit analyses on different pricing structures, leading to almost perfect price discrimination in some cases (that is, filling each seat on an aircraft at the highest price that can be charged without driving the consumer elsewhere).\n\nThe intense nature of airfare pricing has led to the term \"fare war\" to describe efforts by airlines to undercut other airlines on competitive routes. Through computers, new airfares can be published quickly and efficiently to the airlines' sales channels. For this purpose the airlines use the Airline Tariff Publishing Company (ATPCO), who distribute latest fares for more than 500 airlines to Computer Reservation Systems across the world.\n\nThe extent of these pricing phenomena is strongest in \"legacy\" carriers. In contrast, low fare carriers usually offer pre-announced and simplified price structure, and sometimes quote prices for each leg of a trip separately.\n\nComputers also allow airlines to predict, with some accuracy, how many passengers will actually fly after making a reservation to fly. This allows airlines to overbook their flights enough to fill the aircraft while accounting for \"no-shows,\" but not enough (in most cases) to force paying passengers off the aircraft for lack of seats, stimulative pricing for low demand flights coupled with overbooking on high demand flights can help reduce this figure. This is especially crucial during tough economic times as airlines undertake massive cuts to ticket prices to retain demand. \n\nOperating costs\n\nFull-service airlines have a high level of fixed and operating costs to establish and maintain air services: labor, fuel, airplanes, engines, spares and parts, IT services and networks, airport equipment, airport handling services, sales distribution, catering, training, aviation insurance and other costs. Thus all but a small percentage of the income from ticket sales is paid out to a wide variety of external providers or internal cost centers.\n\nMoreover, the industry is structured so that airlines often act as tax collectors. Airline fuel is untaxed because of a series of treaties existing between countries. Ticket prices include a number of fees, taxes and surcharges beyond the control of airlines. Airlines are also responsible for enforcing government regulations. If airlines carry passengers without proper documentation on an international flight, they are responsible for returning them back to the original country.\n\nAnalysis of the 1992–1996 period shows that every player in the air transport chain is far more profitable than the airlines, who collect and pass through fees and revenues to them from ticket sales. While airlines as a whole earned 6% return on capital employed (2-3.5% less than the cost of capital), airports earned 10%, catering companies 10-13%, handling companies 11-14%, aircraft lessors 15%, aircraft manufacturers 16%, and global distribution companies more than 30%. (Source: Spinetta, 2000, quoted in Doganis, 2002)\n\nThe widespread entrance of a new breed of low cost airlines beginning at the turn of the century has accelerated the demand that full service carriers control costs. Many of these low cost companies emulate Southwest Airlines in various respects, and like Southwest, they can eke out a consistent profit throughout all phases of the business cycle.\n\nAs a result, a shakeout of airlines is occurring in the U.S. and elsewhere. American Airlines, United Airlines, Continental Airlines (twice), US Airways (twice), Delta Air Lines, and Northwest Airlines have all declared Chapter 11 bankruptcy. Some argue that it would be far better for the industry as a whole if a wave of actual closures were to reduce the number of \"undead\" airlines competing with healthy airlines while being artificially protected from creditors via bankruptcy law. On the other hand, some have pointed out that the reduction in capacity would be short lived given that there would be large quantities of relatively new aircraft that bankruptcies would want to get rid of and would re-enter the market either as increased fleets for the survivors or the basis of cheap planes for new startups.\n\nWhere an airline has established an engineering base at an airport, then there may be considerable economic advantages in using that same airport as a preferred focus (or \"hub\") for its scheduled flights.\n\nAssets and financing\n\nAirline financing is quite complex, since airlines are highly leveraged operations. Not only must they purchase (or lease) new airliner bodies and engines regularly, they must make major long-term fleet decisions with the goal of meeting the demands of their markets while producing a fleet that is relatively economical to operate and maintain. Compare Southwest Airlines and their reliance on a single airplane type (the Boeing 737 and derivatives), with the now defunct Eastern Air Lines which operated 17 different aircraft types, each with varying pilot, engine, maintenance, and support needs.\n\nA second financial issue is that of hedging oil and fuel purchases, which are usually second only to labor in its relative cost to the company. However, with the current high fuel prices it has become the largest cost to an airline. Legacy airlines, compared with new entrants, have been hit harder by rising fuel prices partly due to the running of older, less fuel efficient aircraft. While hedging instruments can be expensive, they can easily pay for themselves many times over in periods of increasing fuel costs, such as in the 2000–2005 period.\n\nIn view of the congestion apparent at many international airports, the ownership of slots at certain airports (the right to take-off or land an aircraft at a particular time of day or night) has become a significant tradable asset for many airlines. Clearly take-off slots at popular times of the day can be critical in attracting the more profitable business traveler to a given airline's flight and in establishing a competitive advantage against a competing airline.\n\nIf a particular city has two or more airports, market forces will tend to attract the less profitable routes, or those on which competition is weakest, to the less congested airport, where slots are likely to be more available and therefore cheaper. For example, Reagan National Airport attracts profitable routes due partly to its congestion, leaving less-profitable routes to Baltimore-Washington International Airport and Dulles International Airport.\n\nOther factors, such as surface transport facilities and onward connections, will also affect the relative appeal of different airports and some long distance flights may need to operate from the one with the longest runway. For example, LaGuardia Airport is the preferred airport for most of Manhattan due to its proximity, while long-distance routes must use John F. Kennedy International Airport's longer runways.\n\nAirline partnerships\n\nCodesharing is the most common type of airline partnership; it involves one airline selling tickets for another airline's flights under its own airline code. An early example of this was Japan Airlines' (JAL) codesharing partnership with Aeroflot in the 1960s on Tokyo–Moscow flights; Aeroflot operated the flights using Aeroflot aircraft, but JAL sold tickets for the flights as if they were JAL flights. This practice allows airlines to expand their operations, at least on paper, into parts of the world where they cannot afford to establish bases or purchase aircraft. Another example was the Austrian–Sabena partnership on the Vienna–Brussels–New York/JFK route during the late '60s, using a Sabena Boeing 707 with Austrian livery.\n\nSince airline reservation requests are often made by city-pair (such as \"show me flights from Chicago to Düsseldorf\"), an airline that can codeshare with another airline for a variety of routes might be able to be listed as indeed offering a Chicago–Düsseldorf flight. The passenger is advised however, that airline no. 1 operates the flight from say Chicago to Amsterdam, and airline no. 2 operates the continuing flight (on a different airplane, sometimes from another terminal) to Düsseldorf. Thus the primary rationale for code sharing is to expand one's service offerings in city-pair terms to increase sales.\n\nA more recent development is the airline alliance, which became prevalent in the late 1990s. These alliances can act as virtual mergers to get around government restrictions. Alliances of airlines such as Star Alliance, Oneworld, and SkyTeam coordinate their passenger service programs (such as lounges and frequent-flyer programs), offer special interline tickets, and often engage in extensive codesharing (sometimes systemwide). These are increasingly integrated business combinations—sometimes including cross-equity arrangements—in which products, service standards, schedules, and airport facilities are standardized and combined for higher efficiency. One of the first airlines to start an alliance with another airline was KLM, who partnered with Northwest Airlines. Both airlines later entered the SkyTeam alliance after the fusion of KLM and Air France in 2004.\n\nOften the companies combine IT operations, or purchase fuel and aircraft as a bloc to achieve higher bargaining power. However, the alliances have been most successful at purchasing invisible supplies and services, such as fuel. Airlines usually prefer to purchase items visible to their passengers to differentiate themselves from local competitors. If an airline's main domestic competitor flies Boeing airliners, then the airline may prefer to use Airbus aircraft regardless of what the rest of the alliance chooses.\n\nFuel hedging\n\nFuel hedging is a contractual tool used by transportation companies like airlines to reduce their exposure to volatile and potentially rising fuel costs. Several low cost carriers such as Southwest Airlines adopt this practice. \n\nSouthwest is credited with maintaining strong business profits between 1999 and the early 2000s due to its fuel hedging policy. Many other airlines are replicating Southwest's hedging policy to control their fuel costs.\n\nEnvironmental impacts\n\nAircraft engines emit noise pollution, gases and particulate emissions, and contribute to global dimming.\n\nGrowth of the industry in recent years raised a number of ecological questions.\n\nDomestic air transport grew in China at 15.5 percent annually from 2001 to 2006. The rate of air travel globally increased at 3.7 percent per year over the same time. In the EU greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87% between 1990 and 2006. However it must be compared with the flights increase, only in UK, between 1990 and 2006 terminal passengers increased from 100 000 thousands to 250 000 thousands., according to AEA reports every year, 750 million passengers travel by European airlines, which also share 40% of merchandise value in and out of Europe. Without even pressure from \"green activists\", targeting lower ticket prices, generally, airlines do what is possible to cut the fuel consumption (and gas emissions connected therewith). Further, according to some reports, it can be concluded that the last piston-powered aircraft were as fuel-efficient as the average jet in 2005. \n\nDespite continuing efficiency improvements from the major aircraft manufacturers, the expanding demand for global air travel has resulted in growing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Currently, the aviation sector, including US domestic and global international travel, make approximately 1.6 percent of global anthropogenic GHG emissions per annum. North America accounts for nearly 40 percent of the world's GHG emissions from aviation fuel use. \n\nCO2 emissions from the jet fuel burned per passenger on an average 3200 km airline flight is about 353 kilograms (776 pounds). Loss of natural habitat potential associated with the jet fuel burned per passenger on a 3200 km airline flight is estimated to be 250 square meters (2700 square feet). \n\nIn the context of climate change and peak oil, there is a debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme, with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account. \n\nThe airline industry is responsible for about 11 percent of greenhouse gases emitted by the U.S. transportation sector. Boeing estimates that biofuels could reduce flight-related greenhouse-gas emissions by 60 to 80 percent. The solution would be blending algae fuels with existing jet fuel: \n\n* Boeing and Air New Zealand are collaborating with leading Brazilian biofuel maker Tecbio, New Zealand's Aquaflow Bionomic and other jet biofuel developers around the world.\n* Virgin Atlantic and Virgin Green Fund are looking into the technology as part of a biofuel initiative. \n* KLM has made the first commercial flight with biofuel in 2009.\n\nThere are projects on electric aircraft, and some of them are fully operational as of 2013.\n\nCall signs\n\nEach operator of a scheduled or charter flight uses an airline call sign when communicating with airports or air traffic control centres. Most of these call-signs are derived from the airline's trade name, but for reasons of history, marketing, or the need to reduce ambiguity in spoken English (so that pilots do not mistakenly make navigational decisions based on instructions issued to a different aircraft), some airlines and air forces use call-signs less obviously connected with their trading name. For example, British Airways uses a Speedbird call-sign, named after the logo of its predecessor, BOAC, while SkyEurope used Relax.\n\nAirline personnel\n\nThe various types of airline personnel include:\nFlight operations personnel including flight safety personnel.\n* Flight crew, responsible for the operation of the aircraft. Flight crew members include:\n Pilots (Captain and First Officer: some older aircraft also required a Flight Engineer and/or a Navigator)\n Flight attendants, (led by a purser on larger aircraft)\n** In-flight security personnel on some airlines (most notably El Al)\n* Groundcrew, responsible for operations at airports. Ground crew members include:\n Aerospace and avionics engineers responsible for certifying the aircraft for flight and management of aircraft maintenance\n* Aerospace engineers, responsible for airframe, powerplant and electrical systems maintenance\n*Avionics engineers responsible for avionics and instruments maintenance\n Airframe and powerplant technicians\n Electric System technicians, responsible for maintenance of electrical systems\nAvionics technicians, responsible for maintenance of avionics\n Flight dispatchers\n Baggage handlers\n Ramp Agents\n Remote centralised weight and balancing \n Gate agents\n Ticket agents\n Passenger service agents (such as airline lounge employees)\n Reservation agents, usually (but not always) at facilities outside the airport.\n** Crew schedulers\nAirlines follow a corporate structure where each broad area of operations (such as maintenance, flight operations(including flight safety),\nand passenger service) is supervised by a vice president. Larger airlines often appoint vice presidents to oversee each of the\nairline's hubs as well. Airlines employ lawyers to deal with regulatory procedures and other administrative tasks.\n\nIndustry trends\n\nThe pattern of ownership has been privatized in the recent years, that is, the ownership has gradually changed from governments to private and individual sectors or organizations. This occurs as regulators permit greater freedom and non-government ownership, in steps that are usually decades apart. This pattern is not seen for all airlines in all regions. \n\nThe overall trend of demand has been consistently increasing. In the 1950s and 1960s, annual growth rates of 15% or more were common. Annual growth of 5-6% persisted through the 1980s and 1990s. Growth rates are not consistent in all regions, but countries with a de-regulated airline industry have more competition and greater pricing freedom. This results in lower fares and sometimes dramatic spurts in traffic growth. The U.S., Australia, Canada, Japan, Brazil, India and other markets exhibit this trend. The industry has been observed to be cyclical in its financial performance. Four or five years of poor earnings precede five or six years of improvement. But profitability even in the good years is generally low, in the range of 2-3% net profit after interest and tax. In times of profit, airlines lease new generations of airplanes and upgrade services in response to higher demand. Since 1980, the industry has not earned back the cost of capital during the best of times. Conversely, in bad times losses can be dramatically worse. Warren Buffett once said that despite all the money that has been invested in all airlines, the net profit is less than zero. He believes it is one of the hardest businesses to manage. \n\nAs in many mature industries, consolidation is a trend. Airline groupings may consist of limited bilateral partnerships, long-term, multi-faceted alliances between carriers, equity arrangements, mergers, or takeovers. Since governments often restrict ownership and merger between companies in different countries, most consolidation takes place within a country. In the U.S., over 200 airlines have merged, been taken over, or gone out of business since deregulation in 1978. Many international airline managers are lobbying their governments to permit greater consolidation to achieve higher economy and efficiency.", "Garuda Indonesia (PT Garuda Indonesia (Persero) Tbk ) is the national airline of Indonesia. Named after the holy bird Garuda of Hinduism from the national emblem of Indonesia, the airline is headquartered at Soekarno–Hatta International Airport in Tangerang, near Jakarta. As of 11 December 2014, the airline is rated as a 5-star airline by the international airline review firm Skytrax. The air carrier was previously known as Garuda Indonesian Airways.\n\nFounded in 1949 as KLM Interinsulair Bedrijf, the airline is now one of the world's leading airlines and the 20th member of the global airline alliance SkyTeam. It operates regularly scheduled flights to a large number of destinations in Southeast Asia, East Asia, Australia and Europe from its main hub in Jakarta, Soekarno–Hatta International Airport, as well as services to Australia and Asia from Ngurah Rai International Airport (Bali) and a large number of domestic flights from both Sultan Hasanuddin International Airport (Makassar) and Kualanamu International Airport (Medan).\n\nAt its peak in the late 1980s up to the mid-1990s, Garuda operated an extensive network of flights all over the world, with regularly scheduled services to Los Angeles, Paris, Rome and other cities in Europe and Asia. In the late 1990s and early 2000s, a series of financial and operational difficulties hit the airline hard, which included the in-flight murder of a human rights activist by airline staff, causing it to drastically cut back services. In 2009, the airline undertook a five-year modernization plan known as the Quantum Leap, which overhauled the airline's brand, livery, logo and uniforms, as well as newer, more modern aircraft and facilities and a renewed focus on international markets, and earning the airline awards such as Most Improved Airline and World's Best Cabin Crew. \n\nThe airline also operated a budget subsidiary Citilink, which provided low-cost flights to multiple Indonesian destinations and was spun-off in 2012. \n\nHistory\n\nBeginnings\n\nThe earliest predecessor to Garuda Indonesia was KNILM, Royal Dutch Indies Airways, founded in 1928 during the Dutch colonial period; despite the similar name, it was not a subsidiary of the main Dutch carrier KLM. KNILM was dissolved in 1947, and its assets were transferred to a new KLM subsidiary, KLM Interinsulair Bedrijf (KLM Interinsular Service), which was nationalized in December 1949.\n\nThe name \"Garuda\" was derived from a Dutch poem written by a renowned Javanese scholar and poet Raden Mas Noto Soeroto; \"Ik ben Garuda, Vishnoe's vogel, die zijn vleugels uitslaat hoog boven uw eilanden\", which means \"I'm Garuda, Vishnu's Bird, that spreads its wings high above the Islands\". In Hindu mythology, Garuda is the name of Lord Vishnu's mount (vahana). The line was mentioned by Sukarno during the Dutch–Indonesian Round Table Conference at The Hague, from 23 August to 2 November 1949.\n\nIn its current institutional form, Garuda Indonesia had its beginnings in the Indonesian war of independence against the Dutch in the late 1940s, when Garuda flew special transports with a Douglas DC-3. The first aircraft was a DC-3 known as Seulawah (Acehnese: \"Gold Mountain\", or from Arabic Shalawah, means praise/worship) and was purchased for a sum of 120,000 Malayan dollars, which was provided by the people of Aceh (notably local merchants). The first commercial flight from Calcutta to Rangoon was made on January 26, 1949, using a DC-3 Dakota aircraft with the tail number of “RI 001” and the name “Indonesian Airways”.The 26 January 1949 is generally recognized as the airline's founding date.\n\nA second DC-3 entered service in 1949, which flew its first flight on December 28, carrying President Sukarno on a flight from Jakarta to Yogyakarta, the first flight made under the name of \"Garuda Indonesian Airways\". Throughout the revolution, Garuda supported national interests, and often carried diplomats on its flights. The Burmese government helped the airline significantly during its beginnings. The country's national airline, Union of Burma Airways, often chartered one of the airline's DC-3s for its own flights. Accordingly, upon Garuda's formal joint incorporation with KLM on 31 March 1950, the airline presented the Burmese government with a DC-3 as a gift.\n\nBy the early and mid 1950s, the airline operated a fleet of 38 aircraft, which included 22 DC-3s, 8 Catalina seaplanes, and 8 Convair 240s, and in 1956, the airline operated its first flight to Mecca with Convair aircraft, carrying 40 Indonesian pilgrims.\n\nThe airline's fleet continued to grow throughout the 1960s, during which time the airline continued its expansion. It acquired three Lockheed L-188 Electras in 1961, which supplemented its Convair CV-240 fleet, before taking delivery of its first jet aircraft, the Convair 990 Coronado, in 1963, which allowed it to launch flights to Hong Kong.\n\nIn 1965, the airline took delivery of its first Douglas DC-8, and grew beyond the Asian market it was focused on, beginning scheduled flights to Amsterdam and Frankfurt via Colombo, Bombay, and Prague. Rome and Paris became the airline's third and fourth European destinations, with flights stopping in Bombay and Cairo to refuel. Flights to the People's Republic of China began that same year, with service to Canton via Phnom Penh, the first Indonesian airline to do so.\n\nContinued growth\n\nDuring the early 1970s, Garuda Indonesia took delivery of both the McDonnell Douglas DC-9 and Fokker F28 Fellowship for its short and medium-haul operations. The airline went on to take delivery of 62 F28s, holding the title for the largest operator of the F28 in the world. In 1973, the airline took delivery of its first Douglas DC-10, giving it the capability to carry more passengers and fly longer flights, and it replaced the DC-8 and Convair 990 fleet on flights within Asia and to Europe. The DC-10 would become an integral part of the Garuda fleet for the years to come, outlasting the newer McDonnell Douglas MD-11s, before the type was finally retired in 2002. Afterwards, in 1980, the airline took delivery of the first Boeing 747-200, complementing the DC-10 on high-capacity or long-range routes.\n\nOn 21 June 1982, Garuda became the launch customer of the Airbus A300B4-220FFCC, which was the first variant of the A300 capable of being operated with two pilots instead of three. By 1984, nine of these were in service, supplemented by 8 Douglas DC-10s, 24 Douglas DC-9s, 45 Fokker F-28s, and 6 Boeing 747-200s. In 1985 under Reyn Altin Johannes Lumenta, who had been CEO since 1984, Garuda made the controversial decision to hire foreign brand consultants Landor Associates to create a new logo, livery and brand for the airline, a project that was regarded as expensive and unnecessary at the time. However, this move was later on applauded as vital for the reputation and corporate identity of Garuda Indonesia as the national airline.\n\nUnder Lumenta, Garuda also increased the number of flight frequencies and destinations, reduced ticket prices and collaborated with Merpati Nusantara Airlines, introducing flexible tickets valid for both Indonesian airlines. \n\nIn 1990, the airline took delivery of the Douglas MD-11s, which gradually replaced the DC-10 on flights to Europe, and also allowed the airline to launch flights to Los Angeles via Honolulu. During this time, the airline operated a fleet of the aforementioned MD-11s, DC-10s, 747, Airbus A300 and Boeing 737-400, operating it to destinations throughout Asia, Europe and North America. In 1994, the airline took delivery of its first Boeing 747-400 aircraft, which would go on to become a mainstay of its fleet until 2015, operating hajj flights and high density short-haul routes, while the delivery of the first Airbus A330-300 in 1996 allowed more flexibility for the airline, as it was more fuel-efficient than the three and four engined jets. That same year, the airline placed an order for six Boeing 777 aircraft, due for delivery in 2000, however, a new series of challenges and difficulties was about to hit the airline.\n\nDifficult times\n\nThe late 1990s and early 2000s would prove to be a turbulent and difficult time for the airline; two separate accidents in 1996 and 1997 added to the problems being caused by the 1997 Asian financial crisis, resulting in a drastic reduction in operations, including the termination of service to the Americas and a massive scaling back of its European operations. Largely due to historical links with the Netherlands, Garuda continued to operate flights to Amsterdam, Frankfurt and London after the initial cutbacks, although these flights were also discontinued on 28 October 2004. The situation was exacerbated by the 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks in the U.S., the Bali bombings, the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami, and the SARS scare, all of which contributed to a downturn in air travel and Indonesian tourism. As a result, its earlier order for the Boeing 777 was deferred, and so was an order for 18 Boeing 737-800s to replace its ageing 737 Classic fleet.\n\nOn 7 September 2004, the situation was worsened when human rights activist Munir Said Thalib, travelling to Amsterdam via Singapore on Garuda Indonesia Flight 974, was assassinated by off-duty pilot Pollycarpus Priyanto, who slipped arsenic into his drink some time before the departure of the flight's second leg to Amsterdam. He was reported to have felt unwell several hours after departure from Singapore, during which time he was checked on by a doctor who happened to be on board, and moved to the business class cabin to sleep. He died approximately two hours before arrival into Amsterdam, sparking an international controversy, during which time Priyanto, along with CEO Indra Setiawan and deputy Rohainil Aini, were all convicted of his murder, although it has been alleged it was under orders from the Indonesian State Intelligence Agency (BIN). The airline was found negligent in failing to perform an emergency landing and was ordered to pay compensation to Munir's widow, but failed to do so. However, by 2005, the airline had largely recovered from its economic problems, swapping its order for six Boeing 777-200ERs for 10 Boeing 787-8 Dreamliners in 2005, but its operational problems would remain. \n\nIn June 2007, the EU banned Garuda Indonesia, along with all other Indonesian airlines, from flying into any European countries, following the crash of a Boeing 737-400 earlier that year. With the support of the international aviation industry for all Indonesian airlines, the EU promised to review its ban and sent a team of experts, led by the European Commission's Air Safety Administrator Federico Grandini to Indonesia to consider lifting the ban. In August 2007, the transportation minister of Indonesia announced that the EU would lift its ban hopefully sometime in October, stating that the ban was attributed to communication breakdown between the two parties and that discussions were in progress.\n\nIn November 2007, Garuda announced its intention to fly to Amsterdam from Jakarta and Denpasar with either Airbus A330 or Boeing 777 aircraft if the EU lifted its ban, however, on 28 November 2007, the EU stated that the safety reforms already undertaken were a step in the right direction for the EU to consider lifting the ban, but still did not satisfy the EU's aviation safety standards, and thus, did not lift its ban. The ban was lifted in July 2009, after which Garuda began evaluating service to Amsterdam and other European destinations, as well as the United States. \n\nIn July 2007, the Deputy of Marketing, Ministry of Culture and Tourism of Indonesia announced that Garuda Indonesia had plans to start service to India, although the date had not been determined. Garuda served flights to India which are all cancelled as of May 2016.\n\nRebirth\n\nFollowing the lift of the EU ban against Garuda Indonesia and three other Indonesian carriers, the airline announced in July 2009 an aggressive five-year expansion plan known as the Quantum Leap. The plan involved an image overhaul, including changing the airline's livery, staff uniform and logo, and nearly doubling the size of its fleet from 62 to 116. The Quantum Leap also plans to boost passenger annual numbers to 27.6 million in the same period, up from 10.1 million at the time of program launch through increasing domestic and international destinations from 41 to 62. Route expansions included Amsterdam, with a stopover in Dubai, in 2010. As of 2014, Garuda flies to Amsterdam non-stop five times a week using a Boeing 777-300ER with continuing service to London, with the sixth weekly service to be added by the end of 2015. Other European and American cities such as Frankfurt, Paris, Rome, Madrid and Los Angeles are being considered for reopening. [http://bisniskeuangan.kompas.com/read/xml/2009/07/23/16300392/Progam.Quantum.Leap..Garuda.Kejar.Laba.Rp.3.7.Triliun Progam [sic] \"Quantum Leap\", Garuda Kejar Laba Rp 3,7 Triliun – KOMPAS.com]. Bisniskeuangan.kompas.com. Retrieved 25 November 2010. \n\nAs part of the Quantum Leap, the airline refreshed its logo and redesigned its iconic livery in 2009, more than 20 years after the last update. New uniforms were introduced in 2010. In 2010, the airline placed a firm order for six additional Airbus A330s at the 2010 Farnborough Airshow, while it opened a new hub at Sultan Hasanuddin International Airport, Makassar, South Sulawesi to increase services to the eastern part of Indonesia on 1 June 2011, its third after Jakarta and Denpasar \n\nDuring this time period, the airline also added additional frequencies to many of its international routes, including to Singapore, Bangkok, Beijing and Shanghai from Jakarta, while it also added capacity to Denpasar-Seoul. It also re-opened routes, including Jakarta-Taipei in 2012.\n\nAt the Paris Air Show 2011, Garuda Indonesia announced a firm order of 25 Airbus A320s with an option for another 25. All 25 Airbus A320s are to be used by their subsidiary, Citilink The airline's earlier order for the Boeing 787, made in 2005, was changed once more, due to the delays in the 787's entry into service, and Garuda opted to sign for 10 Boeing 777-300ERs instead, which it would take delivery of in 2013 to use on long-haul flights to Europe, and medium-haul flights within Asia, such as to Japan, China and Korea, as well as short-haul domestic routes between Jakarta and Denpasar.\n\nThe airline made its debut on the Indonesia Stock Exchange in February 2011, with the government of Indonesia retaining a majority of the shares. PT Trans Airways bought 10.9 percent stake of Garuda Indonesia unsold IPO shares from underwriters on 27 April 2012. The transaction was valued at Rp 1.53 trillion ($166.8 million). \n\nIn 2014, the airline became one of seven airlines to earn the prestigious 5 star rating from Skytrax, marking the end of the 5-year Quantum Leap program. Following this announcement, Emirsyah Satar, who had been CEO for the past nine years, announced his resignation and retirement, and promoted budget spin-off Citilink subsidiary Arif Wibowo as CEO.\n\nFollowing Wibowo's promotion, he began a \"Quick Wins\" cost-cutting drive to cut down on losses while boosting revenue through various measures, including cancelling unprofitable routes and increasing staff efficiency. Despite this, Wibowo remains committed to continue the airline's international expansion, especially once market conditions, such as the weakening rupiah, improve. This was reaffirmed following the airline's announcement of its intent to order 90 new aircraft, from both Boeing and Airbus, worth $20 billion at list prices at the 2015 Paris Air Show. \n\nPresidents and CEOs\n\nCorporate affairs and identity\n\nBranding and livery\n\nSince its establishment, Garuda Indonesia has changed its branding and livery a few times. During the early years, Garuda color scheme was simple logotype \"Indonesia Airways\" with blue lines and Indonesian flag. In the 1960s, Garuda introduced a red and white color scheme in accordance to the Indonesian national identity and the Indonesian flag. Also in this period \"Garuda Indonesian Airways\" introduced a bird logo: a triangle stylized eagle-like Garuda with red and white shield. The logo was painted on the vertical stabilizer of Garuda's fleet from 1961 to 1969. In the 1970s, a logotype with a unique font replaced the triangular eagle as Garuda's corporate identity, along with a new color scheme consisting of a red and orange \"hockey stick\" line running along the aircraft's windows and vertical stabilizer. This livery used from 1969 to 1985.\n\nIn 1985, Garuda underwent a complete branding makeover, changing its name into \"Garuda Indonesia\" along with its color scheme, logo and logotype. The new branding and livery was created by Landor Associates who also created the new iconic bird logo: the Garuda symbol with five bent lines forming its wings. The color scheme was changed completely to a deep royal blue and aqua color, said to be inspired by the nature of Indonesia that was dominated by tropical greenery and seas when viewed from the air. The nationalistic red and white color scheme was no longer used.\n\nIn 2009, a new branding initiative was launched through a new image, developed once again by brand consultant Landor Associates, a new spin of the idea called \"nature's wing\". Garuda has since replaced the old logo painted on its fleet vertical stabilizer with this new \"nature's wing\" graphic of blue and aqua shades. The \"nature's wing\" graphic was inspired by the wings of tropical birds as well as the ripples of waves upon the water. The iconic bird symbol designed by Landor 24 years earlier is still maintained as Garuda Indonesia's logo, with minor changes, while the logotype now uses the Myriad Pro font. The new look is expected to be able to \"Capture the Spirit of Friendliness and Professionalism of Indonesia\".\n\nTo celebrate its 62 years of service on 26 January 2011, Garuda Indonesia painted 2 of its Boeing 737-800 aircraft with the retro liveries the airline used in the 1960s and 1970s.\n\nFor the company slogan, there are several slogans that were used in the past:\n* Garuda Indonesia, Kini Lebih Baik (Now Better)\n* Garuda Indonesia, Permata Nusantara (Jewel of The Archipelago)\n* Garuda Indonesia, Nusantara Bangsa (The Nation Archipelago)\n* Garuda Indonesia, Bangga Bersamanya (Proud of You Together) \n* Garuda Indonesia, The Airline of Indonesia\nThe current slogan is:\n* Garuda Indonesia, Look Forward\n\nHead office\n\nGaruda Indonesia has its head office at Soekarno–Hatta International Airport in Tangerang, Banten, Indonesia, near Cengkareng and near Jakarta. The head office is the Garuda Indonesia Management Building, located within the Garuda Indonesia City Center. The about 17000 sqm head office facility is on a 5 ha plot of land. As of 2009, the head office houses the Garuda management and about 1,000 employees from various units. Indonesian President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono opened the current Garuda head office in 2009. The previous head office was located in the city center of Jakarta, in Central Jakarta. \n\nPrivatization\n\nGaruda Indonesia had announced that its subsidiary, GMF AeroAsia would be listed in Indonesia Stock Exchange in 2008. However, due to financial crisis in 2008, GMF delayed IPO until 2009. The Ministry of State-Owned Companies (Kementrian BUMN) also had announced a plan to privatize Garuda, that opened a possibility to offer its shares publicly.\nGaruda Indonesia aimed to list on 11 February 2011, for an Initial Public Offering. Government of Indonesia has confirmed the IPO price of Garuda Indonesia at Rp.750 per share and also cut offering size to 6.3 billion shares only from 9.362 billion planned before. \n\nSubsidiaries\n\nGaruda Indonesia’s subsidiaries include:\n\nDestinations\n\nGaruda Indonesia operates flights to 133 destinations in 14 countries, with approximately 500 daily departures from its hubs at Jakarta, Denpasar, Medan and Makassar. The airline serves 3 continents Asia, Australia and Europe with its fleet of 140 aircraft, to destinations such as Singapore, Tokyo and Amsterdam, and although it has rapidly expanded its route network since the Quantum Leap began in 2009, the airline still does not fly to several major cities, such as Manila and Mumbai, and despite the airline repeatedly stating its intention to fly to both cities, a time frame has not been given. \n\nOn 13 October 2009, the airline announced it would resume flights to Europe for the first time following its removal from the E.U. blacklist. It commenced flights between Jakarta and Amsterdam in June 2010, initially with a refueling stop in Dubai. On 2 December 2012, after agreeing to a codeshare agreement with Etihad Airways, the airline changed the refueling stop to Abu Dhabi. After the delivery of its Boeing 777-300ER aircraft in 2013, the airline removed the Abu Dhabi refueling stop, and commenced non-stop service to Amsterdam, as the longest flight operated by the airline, and consequently ending flights to Abu Dhabi, leaving Etihad as the sole operator between Jakarta and Abu Dhabi. On 8 September that year, the airline extended its Amsterdam flight with continuing service to London Gatwick. \n\nIn 2011, Garuda flew 17.1 million passengers up 39% from the previous year, while the total revenue jumped 38% to Rp27.1 trillion ($2.95 billion). Composition of passengers on domestic routes and international routes was 81% versus 19% respectively. \n\nOn 31 March 2016, Garuda Indonesia took the first flight from Singapore Changi Airport to London Heathrow, using Boeing 777-300ER.\n\nCodeshare agreements and alliances\n\nCodesharing has allowed Garuda Indonesia to expand services into Western Europe and the Middle East. In 2009, Garuda Indonesia expressed an interest in joining the SkyTeam airline alliance, which would make it the second airline in Southeast Asia to join after Vietnam Airlines. Membership would open SkyTeam's network to Indonesian, Australian, and New Zealand markets, which it lacked connectivity to. In December 2009, three SkyTeam members – Korean Air, KLM, and Delta Air Lines (China Airlines joined as fourth member to support Garuda after its 2011 SkyTeam inclusion) – committed to supporting Garuda Indonesia to join SkyTeam. This made Garuda Indonesia eligible to apply for membership in the alliance. On 23 November 2010, Garuda Indonesia signed an agreement to join SkyTeam. The airline became the 20th member of the alliance on 5 March 2014. \n\nInside the SkyTeam alliance, Garuda also codeshares with member alliances for select routes:\n\nGaruda Indonesia offers flights to 28 other international destinations through codeshare agreements with a large number of airlines not in the SkyTeam alliance. The following list is as of November 2015:\n\n* On 19 June 2007, Garuda Indonesia and Hainan Airlines began codesharing in a bid to strengthen both airlines' marketing positions in Indonesia and People's Republic of China. In this agreement, Garuda Indonesia will be the operating partner on the Jakarta-Beijing (vv) service, flying five times a week using a new A330-200.\n* An interline agreement between Garuda Indonesia and Australian airline Virgin Blue was confirmed in November 2007. This facilitates travel for passengers connecting from a Virgin Australia domestic flight to a Garuda Indonesia international service departing from either Sydney, Melbourne or Perth. \n* In June 2008, it was announced that Garuda Indonesia would increase services between Australia and Bali. From 25 June, Garuda Indonesia added an extra flight between Darwin and Denpasar, bringing the total number of services to three per week. Additionally, a fourth flight from Melbourne to Denpasar began on 22 July. On 2 September, another extra service departed from Melbourne to bring the total number of flights per week to five, and a sixth flight left from Sydney. This extra capacity was in response to an increase in the number of Australians who traveled to Bali in the first quarter of 2008, marking a resurgence in Balinese tourism, which was hit hard by the 2002 and 2005 Bali bombings. \n* In August 2008, a codeshare agreement between Singapore Airlines and the airline on route between Singapore and Denpasar was established. Singapore Airlines is the operating carrier.\n* A partnership agreement with Etihad Airways was announced on 16 October 2012. The partnership includes a codeshare agreement for a total of 36 flights between the two airlines; subject to Government Regulatory Approval. Reciprocal Frequent Flyer programmes were also part of the agreement, allowing passengers to earn miles flying both Garuda Indonesia and Etihad Airways. Garuda Indonesia subsequently shifted its Dubai operations to Abu Dhabi as to compliment the agreement. \n* During the APEC summit on 7 October 2013, a codeshare agreement between Garuda Indonesia and Aeroméxico was announced, allowing passengers to travel from Jakarta to Mexico City via Tokyo and vice versa. Under the codeshare agreement, Aeromexico would place its flight numbers on Garuda Indonesia's Jakarta-Tokyo flights while Garuda Indonesia would place its flight numbers on Aeromexico's Tokyo-Mexico City flights. \n* On 19 November 2013, a codeshare agreement was announced between Garuda Indonesia and Jet Airways of India. Under the codeshare agreement, Jet Airways would place its flight numbers on Garuda Indonesia flights between Jakarta and Singapore while Garuda Indonesia would place its flight numbers on Jet Airways flights between Singapore and Mumbai, Delhi and Chennai. The two airlines also announced a reciprocal Frequent Flyer programme partnership, allowing passengers to earn miles flying both Garuda Indonesia and Jet Airways. \n* On 19 December 2013, Garuda Indonesia and Japan's All Nippon Airways announced a partnership agreement encompassing codeshare flights as well as reciprocal Frequent Flyer programmes. Under the codeshare agreement, ANA passengers arriving in Jakarta would be able to transfer to 10 destinations in Indonesia on board Garuda Indonesia flights, while Garuda Indonesia passengers arriving in Tokyo or Osaka would be able to transfer to 11 destination in Japan on board ANA flights. \n\nExplore and Explore-jet sub-brands\n\nAs Indonesia's flag carrier, Garuda Indonesia tries to connect many parts of Indonesia to support the government's \"Indonesian Interconnectivity\" program. However, there are many remote and smaller airports that cannot be reached by Garuda Indonesia's fleet of Boeing 737-800s. This is caused by the lack of airport infrastructure in smaller cities and remote areas, such as insufficient runway length that mostly less than 1,600 meters.\n\nIn line with its Quantum Leap plan, Garuda Indonesia ordered brand-new Bombardier CRJ1000 and ATR 72 to reach smaller airports from Garuda's hub like Ngurah Rai International Airport, Sultan Hasanuddin International Airport, and Kualanamu International Airport. On 25 November 2013, Garuda Indonesia has launched its new sub-brands \"Explore\" and \"Explore-jet\", for servicing perintis (\"pioneer\") lines traditionally served by other airlines — (dormant) Merpati Nusantara Airlines and also its competitor Wings Air.\n\nSkyTeam\n\nOn 5 March 2014, Garuda Indonesia officially joined the SkyTeam alliance and became its 20th member. The inclusion of Garuda Indonesia adds 40 new destinations to SkyTeam’s global network and strengthens the alliance presence in Southeast Asia and Australia. To commemorate the event, the airline repainted an Airbus A330-300 (PK-GPF) a Boeing 737-800 (PK-GMH), and a Boeing 777-300ER (PK-GII) with the \"SkyTeam\" Grey livery. With the arrival of Garuda Indonesia to SkyTeam, a variety of facilities are given as including SkyPriority, as well as changing its current frequent flyer membership into GarudaMiles. In addition, Garuda was connected with 140 new destinations and also teamed up with the world's major airlines, such as KLM, Air France, Delta Air Lines, Aeroflot, China Airlines, Aeroméxico and Saudia, as well as XiamenAir. \n\nFleet\n\nAll of Garuda Indonesia's aircraft are maintained by GMF AeroAsia. The Boeing customer code for Garuda Indonesia is U3, which appears in their aircraft designation as a suffix, such as 737-8U3, 747-4U3 and 777-3U3ER.\n\nThe airline utilizes the Boeing 777-300ER on flights from Jakarta to Jeddah, Europe, Denpasar and Shanghai, and from Denpasar to Tokyo; the Airbus A330-200 on flights from Jakarta to Osaka, Seoul, Australia, Hong Kong and other Indonesian destinations; the larger Airbus A330-300 for medium-haul flights from Denpasar/Bali as well as from Jakarta to Tokyo and Beijing; the Boeing 737-800 on most domestic and regional routes and long-haul flights from Jakarta to Perth, Guangzhou and Hong Kong and Denpasar to Guangzhou; and the Bombardier CRJ1000 NextGen on regional flights to airports incapable of handling the newer 737-800, replacing the older Boeing 737 Classic aircraft. The ATR 72-600 turboprop entered service at the end of 2013, serving new inter-island routes to airports in the eastern part of Indonesia that cannot handle jet aircraft, routes that are traditionally served by other airlines. The airline also owns two Boeing 747-400 aircraft that are used for charter, Umrah and Hajj flights and when additional capacity is needed.\n\nGaruda plans to retire and return its oldest Boeing 737-800 planes (PK-GEx registration, totalling 6) to their lessors by mid-2017, while its original six A330 aircraft (PK-GPA, C-G) have been refitted in an all-economy configuration for high density domestic, international and Hajj routes. The airline has plans to take delivery of more new aircraft in the future, with an order for 50 Boeing 737 MAX 8 aircraft (46 new, 4 conversions from existing -800 order) announced on 12 October 2014, and signing a Letter of Intent (LoI) to purchase 90 new aircraft from Boeing and Airbus (30 737 MAX 8, 30 A350-900 XWB, 30 787-9 Dreamliner) worth $20 billion at list prices at the Paris Air Show 2015. \nGaruda has also reportedly signed on the dotted line for 14 Airbus A330-900neo aircraft with 7 A330-300 cancellations, first reported during the Singapore Airshow, although the 14-aircraft order remains to be confirmed. On April 19, 2016, Garuda confirmed their order for 14 A330-900neo aircraft.\n\nAs of July 2016, the Garuda Indonesia fleet consists the following aircraft, with an average age of 5.4 years: \n\nServices\n\nGaruda Indonesia is a full-service airline featuring economy, business (branded as 'executive') and first classes. The airline began to introduce new premium products and services with the arrival of the Airbus A330-200 and Boeing 737-800 aircraft. First class cabins were introduced in 2013 on board the Boeing 777-300ER with Wi-Fi and telecommunication services on board. \n\nCabin\n\nFirst class\n\nFirst class is available on 6 Boeing 777-300ERs, featuring 8 suites arranged in a 1-2-1 configuration. The first class suites are fitted with 24\" AVOD screen and seats that converts into a bed, as well as a touchscreen seat controller. A new chef-on-board service will enhance the dining experience. First Class passengers can use in-flight Wi-Fi connectivity at no cost. It has a seat pitch of 82 inches and a seat width of 22 inches. \n\n;Executive Class \nExecutive Class, Garuda's business class product, is available on all aircraft except the ATR 72-600, the Bombardier CRJ1000, and the older A330-300.\n\nThe new Executive Class cabin on-board Garuda's Boeing 777-300ERs are fitted with EADS Sogerma flat-bed seats arranged in a staggered 1-2-1 configuration; allowing for direct aisle access to all Executive Class passengers. These seats features with 74\" of seat pitch, 15\" AVOD screen, USB ports, in-seat laptop power supply, and personal reading light. Turndown service is also offered.\n\nFactory fresh Airbus A330-300 delivered from 2016 onwards will feature a new-generation business class based on the B/E Super Diamond seat, featuring all-aisle access, a 180 degree recline, more storage space, a new 16 inch touch-enabled entertainment screen, and touchscreen seat controls. However, the seat count decreases from 36 to 24. \n\nOn-board other Airbus A330s, the Executive Class cabin are equipped with fully flat-bed seats on all -200s and 7 -300s, however there are no Executive Class seats onboard 6 older A330-300s. The flat bed seats feature fully flat beds with up to 74\" seat pitch. Seats are equipped with personal AVOD In-Flight Entertainment System (IFE), USB ports, in-seat laptop power supply, and personal reading light. Executive Class seats on board Garuda's Airbus A330 series aircraft are configured in a 2-2-2 configuration.\n\nGaruda's newer Boeing 737-800 aircraft also features a new Executive Class product with 42\" of seat pitch in a 2-2 layout, equipped with an in-seat laptop power supply, personal 9-inch touch-screen & handset activated AVOD In-Flight Entertainment, and personal reading light.\n\nGaruda's Boeing 747-400 aircraft feature refurbished older Executive Class seats in new colors. Executive Class seats of Garuda's Boeing 747-400 feature 46\" - 48\" seat pitch and 19\" seat width.\n\nA range of hot and cold beverages are available, along with snacks and/or meals, depending on the length of the flight. Wine and beers are also offered on international flights. In July 2011, Garuda Indonesia launched the Indonesian Rijsttafel service in Executive Class as part of its signature in-flight services. This signature dining service introduces the passengers to a wide array of Indonesian cuisine in a single setting, as part of the Garuda Indonesia experience. This in-flight Indonesian Rijsttafel includes varieties of Indonesian signature dishes; choices of nasi kuning or regular steamed rice, accompanied with choices of dishes such as satay, rendang, gado-gado grilled chicken rica, red snapper in yellow acar sauce, fried shrimp in sambal, potato perkedel and tempeh, along with krupuk or rempeyek crackers. \n\nIn-flight entertainment\n\nIn-Flight Entertainment (IFE) is available on board most Garuda Indonesia aircraft: all A330, all 777 and all but 6 737-800s.\n\nGaruda's Boeing 777-300ER, Airbus A330s, and newer Boeing 737-800 aircraft are equipped with Audio video on demand In-Flight Entertainment System in all classes. The Economy Class on these aircraft features a 9-inch LCD touch-screen, while the Executive Class features a 9-inch, 11-inch and 15-inch touch-screen LCD in Garuda's Boeing 737-800, older Airbus A330-200, and all remaining Airbus A330 series and 777 aircraft respectively. In Executive Class on board the Airbus A330-300 and newer A330-200 aircraft, the screens are located on the seat backs or in the armrest of bulkhead rows, while in the older Airbus A330-200 aircraft and Boeing 737-800s, the screens are stowed in the armrest. In Economy Class, they are on the seat back. \n\nGaruda introduced a new intuitive IFE user interface onboard their factory fresh A330s from 2016 onwards. These come with an 11-inch touchscreen in Economy with a touchpad controller, and a 16-inch touchscreen in Business with a 4.7-inch touchscreen remote.\n\nGaruda's Boeing 747-400 aircraft are equipped with cabin screens that shows Airshow (a moving map system to allow passengers to track the progress of their flight), as well as featured films and short movies. Audio programmings are also available. Passengers in Executive Class can order portable media players (AVOD system) from flight attendants.\n\nNewspapers and magazines are provided to all passengers on board all flights. 6 international television channels are available on board the Boeing 777-300ER. \n\nImmigration On-Board (IoB)\n\nImmigration on Board (IoB) is a special service created by Garuda Indonesia to provide more convenience for their passengers traveling to Indonesia. With this service, in cooperation with the Directorate General of Immigration, an agency under Indonesian Ministry of Law and Human Rights, Garuda Indonesia passengers on certain long haul flights can complete their immigration process on-board before landing and disembarking.\n\nBy utilizing this service, Garuda Indonesia passengers will no longer have to queue at the immigration counter upon arrival at Ngurah Rai International Airport in Denpasar or Soekarno–Hatta International Airport in Jakarta, affording passengers the benefit of saving their time. \n\nTicketing\n\nA Jakarta-based 24-hour call center is available for local customer access where payment can be made by credit cards, internet/mobile banking or transfer via ATM. Recently online booking from their website is also possible with payment can be made online with credit cards from select countries.\n\nIn April 2011, Garuda Indonesia announced plans to develop online sales. Garuda Indonesia had cooperated with Visa and MasterCard to develop an online credit card payment system, allowing customers to use PayPal. Debit card payments may be processed with Bank Mandiri, BCA or BII. \n\nFrequent-flyer program\n\nGaruda Frequent Flyer, Garuda Indonesia's frequent-flyer program was launched in September 1999. \nIn 2005, Garuda Indonesia relaunched its Garuda Frequent Flyer (GFF) with a new look, benefits and services. The new program allows members to earn miles on domestic and international flights and has four tiers of membership covering GFF Junior, Blue, Silver, Gold, and Platinum status levels. Since June 2011 Garuda Indonesia launched a joint frequent flyer program with Korean Air. Members of the Garuda Frequent Flyer (GFF) program and Korean Air’s SkyPass program will benefit from the cooperation by accruing mileage for flying both Korean Air and Garuda or any Garuda–Korean Air code share flights. \n\nFrom 27 March 2014, due to joining SkyTeam, Garuda Indonesia announced that Garuda Frequent Flyer renamed as GarudaMiles. Currently, GFF Gold and Platinum members whose membership expires in February, are being sent their new card under GarudaMiles, with other GFF members following soon. Before joining SkyTeam, GFF members could earn/redeem their miles with (besides Garuda & Citilink) Korean Air, Etihad Airways, Air France-KLM (Flying Blue), and Jet Airways. They do also operated another Frequent Flyer which is Flying Blue since 2015. \n\nExecutive lounge\n\nThe Garuda Executive Lounge is open to passengers travelling in Executive Class, as well as those holding a Gold or Platinum Garuda Frequent Flyer card. Starting in 2011, passengers with an Executive Card Plus card or Garuda Indonesia Citibank credit card can no longer gain access to the lounge. Lounges are located at Soekarno–Hatta International Airport and throughout Indonesia, offering food and drinks, wireless internet, showers, meeting rooms and business services. \n\nSponsorships\n\nGaruda Indonesia was the official sponsor of the 2011 Southeast Asian Games and 2018 Asian Games. Garuda Indonesia also support the \"Wonderful Indonesia\" tourism campaign by placing the \"Wonderful Indonesia\" logo in their promotion materials as well as on the hull of their fleet. \n\nIn July 2012, Garuda Indonesia signed a 3-year sponsorship deal with Premier League club Liverpool FC. The agreement gives Garuda Indonesia the right to be the Official Partner of Liverpool Football Club and the Official Global Airline Partner of Liverpool Football Club. In addition, a six-minute advertisement video of Garuda Indonesia will be broadcast during matches held at the Liverpool FC home ground, Anfield, for the 2012-2014 season. \n\nGaruda, along with the Indonesian Tourism Board Wonderful Indonesia, would be a sponsor of The Amazing Race Asia 5.\n\nAwards\n\nIn 2010, the Center for Asia-Pacific Aviation (CAPA) named Garuda Indonesia as Asia's leading service quality airline.\nSkytrax awarded the airline the World's Most Improved in 2012. This is the beginning of a string of accolades recognizing the success of the airline Quantum Leap program. Roy Morgan survey named Garuda Indonesia the Best International Airline surpassing several distinguished airlines, such as: Singapore Airlines, Emirates and Air New Zealand with 91% of respondents gave a 'very satisfied' rating. The airline achieved Platinum level recognition from the League of American Communications Professionals (LACP) on its annual report. In July 2012, Garuda Indonesia was recognized as the World’s Best Regional Airline by the global airline review and ranking consultancy, Skytrax. \n\nIn 2013, Skytrax awarded Garuda Indonesia the world's best economy class for its service and product at the Paris Airshow 2013. For the first time, Garuda Indonesia ranked 8th in the Skytrax \"The World’s Top 10 Airlines\". During the \"Passenger Choice Award 2013\" held in September 2013 in Anaheim, California, organized by \"Airline Passenger Experience Association (APEX)\", Garuda Indonesia was distinguished as the \"Best in Region: Asia and Australasia\". \n\nIn July 2014, Skytrax awarded Garuda Indonesia \"The World’s Best Cabin Staff\" recognition. The award was based on a global customer satisfaction survey conducted on 18 million passengers between the period of August 2013 and May 2014. The recently launched First Class, on Boeing 777-300ER, was ranked the 9th world's best first class, the 6th world's best first class seat, and the 3rd world's best first class amenity kits by Skytrax in 2014. Overall, Garuda Indonesia was ranked 7th on the 2014 Skytrax \"Best Airlines Awards\", an improvement from the 8th position in 2013. \n\nIn September 2014, APEX (Airline Passenger Experience Association) awarded Garuda Indonesia as \"Best Airline in Asia & Australasia\" at the 2014 Passenger Choice Award; along with Cathay Pacific, EVA Air, Korean Air, and Singapore Airlines. In the same month, Garuda Indonesia also got Gold Award from the Pacific Asia Travel Association (PATA), for their immigration on board (IOB) service and their service quality and it is called as \"Garuda Indonesia Experience\". \n\nIn December 2014, Garuda Indonesia was awarded as a \"5-Star Airline\" by Skytrax; along with Singapore Airlines, Cathay Pacific, Qatar Airways, Hainan Airlines, Asiana Airlines, and All Nippon Airways. \n\nIn June 2015, Garuda Indonesia was awarded with \"The World's Best Cabin Crew\" by Skytrax for the second time. \n\nIn July 2016, Garuda Indonesia was awarded with \"The World's Best Cabin Crew\" by Skytrax for the third consecutive year. \n\nMarket share\n\nFor most of modern Indonesian history, Garuda Indonesia has dominated the Indonesian air travel market share. However, started in 2000, Lion Air started to grow and become a serious rival in domestic air travel in Indonesia. By mid 2015, Lion Air rules Indonesia's domestic air travel market share by 41.6 percent, while Garuda Indonesia came in second with 23.5 percent share. Sriwijaya Air came in third with a market share of 10.4 percent, followed by Garuda's low-cost subsidiary Citilink (8.9 percent) and Lion Air's regional flight service Wings Air (4.7 percent). Indonesia AirAsia, a unit of the Malaysian budget airline, had a 4.4 percent market share.\n\nOverall, Indonesian domestic air travel business is overwhelmingly ruled by two groups; Lion Air group and Garuda Indonesia group. By mid 2015, Lion Air group accounted for 43.17 percent of market share, while Garuda Indonesia group had a 37.08 percent market share. \n\nFor international routes, Garuda Indonesia has identified four airlines that became the benchmark to improve their service and to compete to be the world's best airline. The serious rivals for Garuda Indonesia's international routes are Singapore Airlines, Qatar Airways, Emirates and Cathay Pacific. \n\nIncidents and accidents\n\n* On 3 February 1961, a Douglas C-47 operating flight 542 went missing while flying over the Java Sea. All 5 crew and 21 passengers on board were believed to have perished. \n* On 16 February 1967, Garuda Indonesia Flight 708 crashed on landing at Manado, capital of the North Sulawesi province, killing 22 out of 84 passengers.\n* On 28 May 1968, a Convair 990 bound for Karachi, Pakistan crashed into the sea shortly after taking off from Bombay Santa Cruz airport. All 29 people on board (15 passengers and 14 crew members) died. In addition, there was one casualty on the ground.\n* On 7 September 1974, a Fokker F-27 crashed on approach to Tanjung Karang-Branti Airport. The aircraft crashed short of the runway while on approach in limited visibility . The aircraft eventually struck buildings near the runway and caught fire. 33 out of 36 people on board perished.\n* On 24 September 1975, Garuda Indonesia Flight 150 crashed on approach to Sultan Mahmud Badaruddin II Airport. The accident, which was attributed to poor weather and fog, killed 25 out of 61 passengers and one person on the ground.\n* On 11 July 1979, a Fokker F-28 on a domestic flight hit a volcano on approach to Medan Airport, Indonesia. All 61 people on board were killed. \n* On 28 March 1981, Garuda Indonesia Flight 206, a McDonnell Douglas DC-9-32, PK-GNJ \"Woyla\", was hijacked on a domestic flight from Palembang to Medan by five heavily armed hijackers. The hijackers diverted the flight to Penang, and then to Bangkok. The hijackers demanded the release of 84 political prisoners in Indonesia. On the third day of the hijacking (31 March 1981) the airplane parked in Bangkok Don Muang International Airport was stormed by Indonesian commandos One of the commandos was shot, probably by his comrades, as was the pilot, also probably by Indonesian commandos. The rest of the hostages were released unharmed. Two of the hijackers surrendered to the Thai commandos, but they were killed by the Indonesian commandos on the plane taking them back to Jakarta. \n* On 20 March 1982, a Fokker F-28 on a domestic flight overran the runway at Tanjung Karang-Branti Airport in bad weather. The aircraft subsequently burst into flames killing all 27 people on board. \n* On 30 December 1984, a DC-9-30 on a domestic flight touched down 1800m down the runway and overran through a ditch, trees and a fence at Ngurah Rai International Airport. The aircraft broke in 3 and caught fire. \n* On 4 April 1987, Garuda Indonesia Flight 035 hit a pylon and crashed on approach to Polonia International Airport in bad weather. 24 people were killed. \n* On 13 June 1996, Garuda Indonesia Flight 865 overran the runway at Fukuoka Airport, Japan after aborting takeoff well above rotation speed. The number-3 engine fuel line was severed, resulting in a massive fire and the total destruction of the rear end of the aircraft. Three of the 275 people on board were killed. \n* On 26 September 1997, Garuda Indonesia Flight 152, an Airbus A300B4-220 flying from Jakarta to Medan, crashed in Sibolangit, 18 mi short of Medan airport in low visibility, killing all 234 people on board. It is the deadliest aviation incident in Indonesia. \n* On 16 January 2002, Garuda Indonesia Flight 421 en route from Lombok to Yogyakarta was forced to make an emergency landing in poor weather on the Solo River, due to an engine flameout caused by water and hail ingestion. One person, a stewardess, was killed in the accident. \n* On 7 September 2004, human rights activist Munir Said Thalib was murdered on Garuda Indonesia Flight 974. Garuda's CEO at the time, Indra Setiawan, his deputy Rohainil Aini, and pilot Pollycarpus Priyanto were all convicted of his murder. Garuda was found negligent in refusing to perform an emergency landing and was ordered to pay compensation to Munir's widow, but failed to do so.\n* On 7 March 2007, Garuda Indonesia Flight 200, a Boeing 737-400 flying from Jakarta to Yogyakarta, crashed and burst into flames on landing at Adisucipto International Airport, Yogyakarta. 21 people were killed." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Unitary state of republic of indonesia", "Indonesian Republic", "INDONESIA", "ISO 3166-1:ID", "The world's most populous Muslim nation", "Unitary State of Republic of Indonesia", "Indonezio", "Wildlife of Indonesia", "Indonnesia", "Indoneshia", "Etymology of Indonesia", "Republic of Indonesia", "Indonesia, Republic of", "Unitary State of the Republic of Indonesia", "Indonesia", "Indonesie", "Indonesian government", "Ecology of Indonesia", "Indnonesia", "Republic Of Indonesia", "Unitary state of the republic of indonesia", "Indonesian Empire", "Indonésie", "Indonisia", "Republik Indonesia" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "wildlife of indonesia", "ecology of indonesia", "indnonesia", "indonesie", "iso 3166 1 id", "indonesia", "unitary state of republic of indonesia", "indonesian republic", "indonésie", "indonezio", "indonesia republic of", "indonesian government", "indonesian empire", "indonisia", "indonnesia", "indoneshia", "etymology of indonesia", "republic of indonesia", "world s most populous muslim nation", "republik indonesia" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "indonesia", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Indonesia" }
Sarah Vaughan first joined which band as singer?	tc_669	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Sarah_Vaughan.txt" ], "title": [ "Sarah Vaughan" ], "wiki_context": [ "Sarah Lois Vaughan (March 27, 1924 – April 3, 1990) was an American jazz singer, described by music critic Scott Yanow as having \"one of the most wondrous voices of the 20th century.\" \n\nNicknamed \"Sassy\" and \"The Divine One\", Sarah Vaughan was a Grammy Award winner. The National Endowment for the Arts bestowed upon her its \"highest honor in jazz\", the NEA Jazz Masters Award, in 1989. \n\nEarly life\n\nSarah Vaughan's father, Asbury \"Jake\" Vaughan, was a carpenter by trade and played guitar and piano. Her mother, Ada Vaughan, was a laundress and sang in the church choir. Jake and Ada Vaughan had migrated to Newark from Virginia during the First World War. Sarah was their only biological child, although in the 1960s they adopted Donna, the child of a woman who traveled on the road with Sarah Vaughan. \n\nThe Vaughans lived in a house on Brunswick Street, in Newark, New Jersey, for Sarah's entire childhood. Jake Vaughan was deeply religious and the family was very active in the New Mount Zion Baptist Church at 186 Thomas Street. Sarah began piano lessons at the age of seven, sang in the church choir and occasionally played piano for rehearsals and services.\n\nVaughan developed an early love for popular music on records and the radio. In the 1930s, Newark had a very active live music scene and Vaughan frequently saw local and touring bands that played in the city at venues like the Montgomery Street Skating Rink. By her mid-teens, Vaughan began venturing (illegally) into Newark's night clubs and performing as a pianist and, occasionally, singer, at venues including the Piccadilly Club and the Newark Airport USO.\n\nVaughan initially attended Newark's East Side High School, later transferring to Newark Arts High School, which had opened in 1931 as the United States' first arts \"magnet\" high school. However, her nocturnal adventures as a performer began to overwhelm her academic pursuits and Vaughan dropped out of high school during her junior year to concentrate more fully on music. Around this time, Vaughan and her friends began venturing across the Hudson River into New York City to hear big bands at the Apollo Theater in Harlem.\n\nCareer\n\n1942–43: Early career\n\nBiographies of Vaughan frequently stated that she was immediately thrust into stardom after a winning amateur night performance at Harlem's Zeus Theater. In fact, the story that biographer Renee relates seems to be a bit more complex. Vaughan was frequently accompanied by a friend, Doris Robinson, on her trips into New York City. Some time in the fall of 1942 (by which time she was 18 years old), Vaughan suggested that Robinson enter the Apollo Theater Amateur Night contest. Vaughan played piano accompaniment for Robinson, who won second prize. Vaughan later decided to go back and compete herself as a singer. Vaughan sang \"Body and Soul\" and won, although the exact date of her victorious Apollo performance is uncertain. The prize, as Vaughan recalled later to Marian McPartland, was $10 and the promise of a week's engagement at the Apollo. After a considerable delay, Vaughan was contacted by the Apollo in the spring of 1943 to open for Ella Fitzgerald.\n\nSome time during her week of performances at the Apollo, Vaughan was introduced to bandleader and pianist Earl \"Fatha\" Hines, although the exact details of that introduction are disputed. Billy Eckstine, Hines' singer at the time, has been credited by Vaughan and others with hearing her at the Apollo and recommending her to Hines. Hines claimed later to have discovered her himself and offered her a job on the spot. Regardless, after a brief tryout at the Apollo, Hines officially replaced his current male singer with Vaughan on April 4, 1943.\n\n1943–44: Earl Hines and Billy Eckstine\n\nVaughan spent the remainder of 1943 and part of 1944 touring the country with the Earl Hines big band that featured baritone Billy Eckstine. Vaughan was hired as a pianist, reputedly so Hines could hire her under the jurisdiction of the musicians' union (American Federation of Musicians) rather than the singers union (American Guild of Variety Artists), but after Cliff Smalls joined the band as a trombonist and pianist, Sarah's duties became limited exclusively to singing. The Earl Hines band in this period is remembered as an incubator of bebop, as it included trumpeter Dizzy Gillespie, saxophonist Charlie Parker (playing tenor rather than his more usual alto saxophone) and trombonist Bennie Green. Gillespie arranged for the band, although the contemporary recording ban by the musicians' union means there is no aural evidence in the form of commercial records.\n\nEckstine left the Hines band in late 1943 and formed his own big band with Gillespie, leaving Hines to become the new band's musical director. Parker came along too, and the Eckstine band over the next few years would host a startling cast of jazz talent: Miles Davis, Kenny Dorham, Art Blakey, Lucky Thompson, Gene Ammons, and Dexter Gordon, among others.\n\nVaughan accepted Eckstine's invitation to join his new band in 1944, giving her an opportunity to develop her musicianship with the seminal figures in this era of jazz. Eckstine's band afforded her first recording opportunity, a December 5, 1944 date that yielded the song \"I'll Wait and Pray\" for the De Luxe label. That date led critic and producer Leonard Feather to ask her to cut four sides under her own name later that month for the Continental label, backed by a septet that included Dizzy Gillespie and Georgie Auld.\n\nBand pianist John Malachi is credited with giving Vaughan the moniker \"Sassy\", a nickname that matched her personality. Vaughan liked it and the name (and its shortened variant \"Sass\") stuck with colleagues and, eventually, the press. In written communications, Vaughan often spelled it \"Sassie\".\n\nVaughan officially left the Eckstine band in late 1944 to pursue a solo career, although she remained very close to Eckstine personally and recorded with him frequently throughout her life.\n\n1945–48: Early solo career (\"Tenderly\")\n\nVaughan began her solo career in 1945 by freelancing in clubs on New York's 52nd Street such as the Three Deuces, the Famous Door, the Downbeat and the Onyx Club. Vaughan hung around the Braddock Grill, next door to the Apollo Theater in Harlem. On May 11, 1945, Vaughan recorded \"Lover Man\" for the Guild label with a quintet featuring Gillespie and Parker with Al Haig on piano, Curly Russell on double bass and Sid Catlett on drums. Later that month she went into the studio with a slightly different and larger Gillespie/Parker aggregation and recorded three more sides.\n\nAfter being invited by violinist Stuff Smith to record the song \"Time and Again\" in October, Vaughan was offered a contract to record for the Musicraft label by owner Albert Marx, although she would not begin recording as a leader for Musicraft until May 7, 1946. In the intervening time, Vaughan made a handful of recordings for the Crown and Gotham labels and began performing regularly at Café Society Downtown, an integrated club in New York's Sheridan Square.\n\nWhile at Café Society, Vaughan became friends with trumpeter George Treadwell. Treadwell became Vaughan's manager and she ultimately delegated to him most of the musical director responsibilities for her recording sessions, leaving her free to focus almost entirely on singing. Over the next few years, Treadwell made significant positive changes in Vaughan's stage appearance. Aside from an improved wardrobe and hair style, Vaughan had her teeth capped, eliminating a gap between her two front teeth.\n\nMany of Vaughan's 1946 Musicraft recordings became quite well known among jazz aficionados and critics, including \"If You Could See Me Now\" (written and arranged by Tadd Dameron), \"Don't Blame Me\", \"I've Got a Crush on You\", \"Everything I Have Is Yours\" and \"Body and Soul\". With Vaughan and Treadwell's professional relationship on solid footing, the couple married on September 16, 1946.\n\nVaughan's recording success for Musicraft continued through 1947 and 1948. Her recording of \"Tenderly\" - she was proud to be the first to have recorded that Jazz standard - became an unexpected pop hit in late 1947. Her December 27, 1947, recording of \"It's Magic\" (from the Doris Day film Romance on the High Seas) found chart success in early 1948. Her recording of \"Nature Boy\" from April 8, 1948, became a hit around the time the better known Nat King Cole version of the song was released. Because of a second recording ban imposed by the musicians' union, \"Nature Boy\" was recorded with an a cappella choir as the only accompaniment, adding an ethereal air to a song with a vaguely mystical lyric and melody.\n\n1948–53: Stardom and the Columbia years\n\nThe musicians union ban pushed Musicraft to the brink of bankruptcy and Vaughan used the missed royalty payments as an opportunity to sign with the larger Columbia record label. Following the settling of the legal issues, her chart successes continued with the charting of \"Black Coffee\" in the summer of 1949. During her tenure at Columbia through 1953, Vaughan was steered almost exclusively to commercial pop ballads, a number of which had chart success: \"That Lucky Old Sun\", \"Make Believe (You Are Glad When You're Sorry)\", \"I'm Crazy to Love You\", \"Our Very Own\", \"I Love the Guy\", \"Thinking of You\" (with pianist Bud Powell), \"I Cried for You\", \"These Things I Offer You\", \"Vanity\", \"I Ran All the Way Home\", \"Saint or Sinner\", \"My Tormented Heart\", and \"Time\", among others.\n\nVaughan achieved substantial critical acclaim. She won Esquire magazine's New Star Award for 1947 as well as awards from Down Beat magazine continuously from 1947 through 1952, and from Metronome magazine from 1948 through 1953. A handful of critics disliked her singing as being \"over-stylized\", reflecting the heated controversies of the time over the new musical trends of the late '40s. However, the critical reception to the young singer was generally positive.\n\nRecording and critical success led to numerous performing opportunities, packing clubs around the country almost continuously throughout the years of the late 1940s and early 1950s. In the summer of 1949, Vaughan made her first appearance with a symphony orchestra in a benefit for the Philadelphia Orchestra entitled \"100 Men and a Girl.\" Around this time, Chicago disk jockey Dave Garroway coined a second nickname for her, \"The Divine One\", that would follow her throughout her career. One of her early television appearances was on DuMont's variety show Stars on Parade (1953–54), in which she sang \"My Funny Valentine\" and \"Linger Awhile\".\n\nWith improving finances, in 1949 Vaughan and Treadwell purchased a three-story house on 21 Avon Avenue in Newark, occupying the top floor during their increasingly rare off-hours at home and relocating Vaughan's parents to the lower two floors. However, the business pressures and personality conflicts led to a cooling in the personal relationship between Treadwell and Vaughan. Treadwell hired a road manager to handle Vaughan's touring needs and opened a management office in Manhattan so he could work with clients in addition to Vaughan.\n\nVaughan's relationship with Columbia Records also soured as she became dissatisfied with the commercial material she was required to record and lackluster financial success of her records. A set of small group sides recorded in 1950 with Miles Davis and Bennie Green are among the best of her career, but they were atypical of her Columbia output.\n\n1954–59: Mercury years\n\nIn 1953, Treadwell negotiated a unique contract for Vaughan with Mercury Records. She would record commercial material for the Mercury label and more jazz-oriented material for its subsidiary EmArcy. Vaughan was paired with producer Bob Shad and their excellent working relationship yielded strong commercial and artistic success. Her debut Mercury recording session took place in February 1954 and she stayed with the label through 1959. After a stint at Roulette Records (1960 to 1963), Vaughan returned to Mercury from 1964 to 1967.\n\nVaughan's commercial success at Mercury began with the 1954 hit, \"Make Yourself Comfortable\", recorded in the fall of 1954, and continued with a succession of hits, including: \"How Important Can It Be\" (with Count Basie), \"Whatever Lola Wants\", \"The Banana Boat Song\", \"You Ought to Have A Wife\" and \"Misty\". Her commercial success peaked in 1959 with \"Broken Hearted Melody\", a song she considered to be \"corny\", but, nonetheless, became her first gold record, and a regular part of her concert repertoire for years to come. Vaughan was reunited with Billy Eckstine for a series of duet recordings in 1957 that yielded the hit \"Passing Strangers\". Vaughan's commercial recordings were handled by a number of different arrangers and conductors, primarily Hugo Peretti and Hal Mooney.\n\nThe jazz \"track\" of her recording career proceeded apace, backed either by her working trio or various combinations of stellar jazz players. One of her own favorite albums was a 1954 sextet date that included Clifford Brown.\n\nIn the latter half of the 1950s she followed a schedule of almost non-stop touring, with many famous jazz musicians. She was featured at the first Newport Jazz Festival in the summer of 1954 and starred in subsequent editions of that festival at Newport and in New York City for the remainder of her life. In the fall of 1954, she performed at Carnegie Hall with the Count Basie Orchestra on a bill that also included Billie Holiday, Charlie Parker, Lester Young and the Modern Jazz Quartet. That fall, she again toured Europe successfully before embarking on a \"Big Show\" U.S. tour, a grueling succession of start-studded one-nighters that included Count Basie, George Shearing, Erroll Garner and Jimmy Rushing. At the 1955 New York Jazz Festival on Randalls Island, Vaughan shared the bill with the Dave Brubeck quartet, Horace Silver, Jimmy Smith, and the Johnny Richards Orchestra\n\nAlthough the professional relationship between Vaughan and Treadwell was quite successful through the 1950s, their personal relationship finally reached a breaking point and she filed for a divorce in 1958. Vaughan had entirely delegated financial matters to Treadwell, and despite significant income figures reported through the 1950s, at the settlement Treadwell said that only $16,000 remained. The couple evenly divided the amount and their personal assets, terminating their business relationship.\n\n1959–69: C.B. Atkins and Roulette Records\n\nThe exit of Treadwell from Vaughan's life was precipitated by the entry of Clyde \"C.B.\" Atkins, a man of uncertain background whom she had met in Chicago and married on September 4, 1959. Although Atkins had no experience in artist management or music, Vaughan wished to have a mixed professional and personal relationship like the one she had with Treadwell. She made Atkins her personal manager, although she was still feeling the sting of the problems she had with Treadwell and initially kept a slightly closer eye on Atkins. Vaughan and Atkins moved into a house in Englewood, New Jersey. \n\nWhen Vaughan's contract with Mercury Records ended in late 1959, she immediately signed on with Roulette Records, a small label owned by Morris Levy, who was one of the backers of New York's Birdland, where she frequently appeared. Roulette's roster also included Count Basie, Joe Williams, Dinah Washington, Lambert, Hendricks and Ross and Maynard Ferguson.\n\nVaughan began recording for Roulette in April 1960, making a string of strong large ensemble albums arranged and/or conducted by Billy May, Jimmy Jones, Joe Reisman, Quincy Jones, Benny Carter, Lalo Schifrin, and Gerald Wilson. She had some pop chart success in 1960 with \"Serenata\" on Roulette and a couple of residual tracks from her Mercury contract, \"Eternally\" and \"You're My Baby\". She made a pair of intimate vocal/guitar/double bass albums of jazz standards: After Hours (1961) with guitarist Mundell Lowe and double bassist George Duvivier and Sarah + 2 (1962) with guitarist Barney Kessell and double bassist Joe Comfort.\n\nIn 1961 Vaughn and Atkins adopted a daughter, Deborah Lois Atkins, known professionally as Paris Vaughan. However, the relationship with Atkins proved difficult and violent so, following a series of incidents, she filed for divorce in November 1963. She turned to two friends to help sort out the financial affairs of the marriage: club owner John \"Preacher\" Wells, a childhood acquaintance, and Clyde \"Pumpkin\" Golden, Jr. Wells and Golden found that Atkins' gambling and profligate spending had put Vaughan around $150,000 in debt. The Englewood house was ultimately seized by the IRS for nonpayment of taxes. Vaughan retained custody of their child and Golden essentially took Atkins place as Vaughan's manager and lover for the remainder of the decade.\n\nAround the time of her second divorce, she became disenchanted with Roulette Records. Roulette' finances were even more deceptive and opaque than usual in the record business and its recording artists often had little to show for their efforts other than some excellent records. When her contract with Roulette ended in 1963, Vaughan returned to the more familiar confines of Mercury Records. In the summer of 1963, Vaughan went to Denmark with producer Quincy Jones to record four days of live performances with her trio, Sassy Swings the Tivoli, an excellent example of her live show from this period. The following year, she made her first appearance at the White House, for President Johnson.\n\nThe Tivoli recording would be the brightest moment of her second stint with Mercury. Changing demographics and tastes in the 1960s left jazz artists with shrinking audiences and inappropriate material. While Vaughan retained a following large and loyal enough to maintain her performing career, the quality and quantity of her recorded output dwindled even as her voice darkened and her skill remained undiminished. At the conclusion of her Mercury deal in 1967, she was left without a recording contract for the remainder of the decade.\n\nIn 1969, Vaughan terminated her professional relationship with Golden and relocated to the West Coast, settling first into a house near Benedict Canyon in Los Angeles and then into what would end up being her final home in Hidden Hills.\n\n1970–82: Rebirth\n\nVaughan met Marshall Fisher after a 1970 performance at a casino in Las Vegas and Fisher soon fell into the familiar dual role as Vaughan's lover and manager. Fisher was another man of uncertain background with no musical or entertainment business experience but, unlike some of her earlier associates, he was a genuine fan devoted to furthering her career.\n\nThe 1970s heralded a rebirth in Vaughan's recording activity. In 1971, Bob Shad, who had worked with her as producer at Mercury Records, asked her to record for his new record label, Mainstream Records. Basie veteran Ernie Wilkins arranged and conducted her first Mainstream album A Time in My Life in November 1971. In April 1972, Vaughan recorded a collection of ballads written, arranged and conducted by Michel Legrand. Arrangers Legrand, Peter Matz, Jack Elliott and Allyn Ferguson teamed up for Vaughan's third Mainstream album, Feelin' Good. Vaughan recorded Live in Japan, a live album in Tokyo with her trio in September 1973.\n\nDuring her sessions with Legrand, Bob Shad presented \"Send in the Clowns\", a Stephen Sondheim song from the Broadway musical A Little Night Music, to Vaughan for consideration. The song would become her signature, replacing the chestnut \"Tenderly\" that had been with her from the beginning of her solo career.\n\nUnfortunately, Vaughan's relationship with Mainstream soured in 1974, allegedly in a conflict precipitated by Fisher over an album cover photograph and/or unpaid royalties. This left Vaughan without a recording contract for three years.\n\nIn December 1974, Vaughan played a private concert for the United States president Gerald Ford and French president Giscard d'Estaing during their summit on Martinique. In 1974, conductor Michael Tilson Thomas asked Vaughan to participate in an all-Gershwin show he was planning for a guest appearance with the Los Angeles Philharmonic at the Hollywood Bowl. The arrangements were by Marty Paich and the orchestra would be augmented by established jazz artists Dave Grusin on piano, Ray Brown on double bass, drummer Shelly Manne and saxophonists Bill Perkins and Pete Christlieb. The concert was a success and Thomas and Vaughan repeated the performance with Thomas' home orchestra in Buffalo, New York, followed by appearances in 1975 and 1976 with other symphony orchestras in the United States. These performances fulfilled a long-held interest by Vaughan in working with orchestras and she made performances without Thomas for the remainder of the decade.\n\nIn 1977, Tom Guy, a young filmmaker and public TV producer, followed Vaughan around on tour, interviewing numerous artists speaking about her and capturing both concert and behind-the-scenes footage. The resulting sixteen hours of footage was pared down into an hour-and-a-half documentary, Listen to the Sun, that aired on September 21, 1978, on New Jersey Public Television, but was never commercially released.\n\nIn 1977, Norman Granz, who was also Ella Fitzgerald's manager, signed Vaughan to his Pablo Records label. Vaughan had not had a recording contract for three years, although she had recorded a 1977 album of Beatles songs with contemporary pop arrangements for Atlantic Records that was eventually released in 1981. Vaughan's first Pablo release was I Love Brazil!, recorded with an all-star cast of Brazilian musicians in Rio de Janeiro in the fall of 1977. It garnered a Grammy nomination.\n\n1977 saw the release of the Godley & Creme album Consequences, on which Vaughan sang \"Lost Weekend\", one of the few tracks to achieve popularity outside of the album.\n\nThe Pablo contract resulted in a total of seven albums: a second and equally wondrous Brazilian record, Copacabana (1979), again recorded in Rio de Janeiro, How Long Has This Been Going On? (1978) with a quartet consisting of pianist Oscar Peterson, guitarist Joe Pass, bassist Ray Brown, and drummer Louis Bellson; two Duke Ellington Songbook albums (1979); Send in the Clowns (1981) with the Count Basie orchestra playing arrangements primarily by Sammy Nestico; and Crazy and Mixed Up (1982), another quartet album featuring Sir Roland Hanna, piano, Joe Pass, guitar, Andy Simpkins, bass, and Harold Jones, drums.\n\nVaughan and Waymond Reed divorced in 1981.\n\n1982–89: Late career\n\nVaughan remained active as a performer during the 1980s and began receiving awards for her contribution to American music and status as elder stateswoman of jazz. In the summer of 1980 Vaughan received a plaque on 52nd Street outside the CBS Building (Black Rock) commemorating the jazz clubs she had once frequented on \"Swing Street\" and which had long since been replaced with office buildings. A performance of her symphonic Gershwin program with the New Jersey Symphony in 1980 was broadcast on PBS and won her an Emmy Award the next year for \"Individual Achievement, Special Class.\" She was reunited in 1982 with Tilson Thomas for a modified version of the Gershwin program, played again by the Los Angeles Philharmonic but this time in its home hall, the Dorothy Chandler Pavilion; the CBS recording of the concert, Gershwin Live!, won a Grammy for Best Jazz Vocal Performance, Female, and has become something of a classic itself. In 1985 Vaughan received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, and in 1988 she was inducted into the American Jazz Hall of Fame.\n\nFollowing the end of her contract with Pablo Records in 1982, Vaughan only committed herself to a limited number of studio recordings. She made a guest appearance in 1984 on Barry Manilow's 2:00 AM Paradise Cafe, an album of original pastiche compositions that featured a number of established jazz artists. In 1984, Vaughan participated in one of the more unusual projects of her career, The Planet is Alive, Let It Live a symphonic piece composed by Tito Fontana and Sante Palumbo on Italian translations of Polish poems by Karol Wojtyla, by then better known as Pope John Paul II. The recording was made in Germany with an English translation by writer Gene Lees and was released by Lees on his own private label after the recording was turned down by the major labels. In 1986, Vaughan sang two songs, \"Happy Talk\" and \"Bali Ha'i\", in the role of Bloody Mary on an otherwise stiff studio recording by opera stars Kiri Te Kanawa and José Carreras of the score of the Broadway musical South Pacific, while sitting on the studio floor.\n\nVaughan's final complete album was Brazilian Romance, produced and composed by Sérgio Mendes and recorded primarily in the early part of 1987 in New York and Detroit. In 1988, Vaughan contributed vocals to an album of Christmas carols recorded by the Mormon Tabernacle Choir with the Utah Symphony Orchestra and sold in Hallmark Cards stores. In 1989, Quincy Jones' album Back on the Block featured Vaughan in a brief scatting duet with Ella Fitzgerald. This was Vaughan's final studio recording and, fittingly, it was Vaughan's only formal studio recording with Fitzgerald in a career that had begun 46 years earlier opening for Fitzgerald at the Apollo.\n\nVaughan is featured in a number of video recordings from the 1980s. Sarah Vaughan Live from Monterey was taped in 1983 or 1984 and featured her working trio with guest soloists. Sass and Brass was taped in 1986 in New Orleans and features her working trio with guest soloists, including Dizzy Gillespie and Maynard Ferguson. Sarah Vaughan: The Divine One was featured in the American Masters series on PBS. Also in 1986, on Independence Day in a program nationally-televised on PBS she performed with the National Symphony Orchestra, conducted by Mstislav Rostropovich, in a medley of songs composed by George Gershwin \n\nShe was given the George and Ira Gershwin Award for Lifetime Musical Achievement, UCLA Spring Sing. \n\nDeath\n\nIn 1989, Vaughan's health began to decline, although she rarely revealed any hints in her performances. She canceled a series of engagements in Europe in 1989 citing the need to seek treatment for arthritis in the hand, although she was able to complete a later series of performances in Japan. During a run at New York's Blue Note Jazz Club in 1989, Vaughan received a diagnosis of lung cancer and was too ill to finish the final day of what would turn out to be her final series of public performances.\n\nVaughan returned to her home in California to begin chemotherapy and spent her final months alternating stays in the hospital and at home. Vaughan grew weary of the struggle and demanded to be taken home, where she died on the evening of April 3, 1990, while watching a television movie featuring her daughter, a week after her 66th birthday.\n\nVaughan's funeral was held at the new location of Mount Zion Baptist Church, 208 Broadway in Newark, New Jersey, with the same congregation she grew up in. Following the ceremony, a horse-drawn carriage transported her body to its final resting place in Glendale Cemetery, Bloomfield in New Jersey. \n\nVoice\n\nParallels have been drawn between Vaughan's voice and that of opera singers. Jazz singer Betty Carter said that with training Vaughan could have \"...gone as far as Leontyne Price.\" Bob James, Vaughan's musical director in the 1960s said that \"...the instrument was there. But the knowledge, the legitimacy of that whole world were not for her...But if the aria were in Sarah's range she could bring something to it that a classically trained singer could not.\" \n\nIn a chapter devoted to Vaughan in his book Visions of Jazz (2000), critic Gary Giddins described Vaughan as the \"...ageless voice of modern jazz – of giddy postwar virtuosity, biting wit and fearless caprice\". He concluded by saying that \"No matter how closely we dissect the particulars of her talent...we must inevitably end up contemplating in silent awe the most phenomenal of her attributes, the one she was handed at birth, the voice that happens once in a lifetime, perhaps once in several lifetimes.\"\n\nVaughan's New York Times obituary described her as a \"singer who brought an operatic splendour to her performances of popular standards and jazz.\" Fellow jazz singer Mel Tormé said that Vaughan had \"...the single best vocal instrument of any singer working in the popular field.\" Her ability was envied by Frank Sinatra who said that \"Sassy is so good now that when I listen to her I want to cut my wrists with a dull razor.\" The New York Times critic John S. Wilson said in 1957 that Vaughan possessed \"what may well be the finest voice ever applied to jazz.\" Age hardly affected Vaughan's voice. Her voice was still close to its peak before her death at the age of 66. Late in life Vaughan retained a \"youthful suppleness and remarkably luscious timbre\", she was still capable of the projection of coloratura passages described as \"delicate and ringingly high\".\n\nVaughan had a large vocal range of soprano through a female baritone, exceptional body, volume, a variety of vocal textures, and superb and highly personal vocal control. Her ear and sense of pitch were just about perfect, and there were no difficult intervals. \n\nIn her later years her voice was described as a \"burnished contralto\" and as her voice deepened with age her lower register was described as having \"shades from a gruff baritone into a rich, juicy contralto\". Her use of her contralto register was likened to \"dipping into a deep, mysterious well to scoop up a trove of buried riches.\" Musicologist Henry Pleasants noted that \"Vaughan who sings easily down to a contralto low D, ascends to a pure and accurate [soprano] high C.\" \n\nVaughan's vibrato was described as \"an ornament of uniquely flexible size, shape and duration,\" a vibrato described as \"voluptuous\" and \"heavy\" Vaughan was accomplished in her ability to \"fray\" or \"bend\" notes at the extremities of her vocal range. It was noted in a 1972 performance of Leslie Bricusse and Lionel Bart's \"Where Is Love?\" that \"In mid-tune she began twisting the song, swinging from the incredible cello tones of her bottom register, skyrocketing to the wispy pianissimos of her top.\"\n\nVaughan would use a handheld microphone in live performance, using its placement as part of her performance. Her various placings of the microphone would allow her to complement her volume and vocal texture, often holding the microphone at arms length and moving it to alter her volume.\n\nVaughan would frequently use the song \"Send in the Clowns\" to demonstrate her vocal abilities in live performance, it was described as a \"three-octave tour de force of semi-improvisational pyrotechnics in which the jazz, pop and operatic sides of her musical personality came together and found complete expression\" by the New York Times.\n\nSingers directly influenced by Vaughan have included Phoebe Snow, Anita Baker, Sade and Rickie Lee Jones. Singers Carmen McRae and Dianne Reeves both recorded tribute albums to Vaughan following her death; Sarah: Dedicated to You (1991) and The Calling: Celebrating Sarah Vaughan (2001) respectively.\n\nThough usually considered a \"jazz singer\", Vaughan avoided classifying herself as one. Vaughan discussed the term in an 1982 interview for Down Beat:\n\nI don't know why people call me a jazz singer, though I guess people associate me with jazz because I was raised in it, from way back. I'm not putting jazz down, but I'm not a jazz singer...I've recorded all kinds of music, but (to them) I'm either a jazz singer or a blues singer. I can't sing a blues – just a right-out blues – but I can put the blues in whatever I sing. I might sing 'Send In the Clowns' and I might stick a little bluesy part in it, or any song. What I want to do, music-wise, is all kinds of music that I like, and I like all kinds of music. \n\nPersonal life\n\nVaughan was married three times: to George Treadwell (1946–1958), Clyde Atkins (1958–1961) and Waymon Reed (1978–1981). Unable to bear children, Vaughan adopted a baby girl (Debra Lois) in 1961. Debra worked in the 1980s and 1990s as an actress under the name Paris Vaughan. Paris is married to former NHL forward Russ Courtnall.\n\nIn 1977, Vaughan terminated her personal and professional relationship with Marshall Fisher. Although Fisher is occasionally referenced as Vaughan's third husband, they were never legally married. Vaughan began a relationship with Waymon Reed, a trumpet player 16 years her junior who was playing with the Count Basie band. Reed joined her working trio as a musical director and trumpet player and became her third husband in 1978.\n\nSarah Vaughan was a member of the Zeta Phi Beta Sorority, Incorporated. \n\nAwards and nomination\n\nTributes\n\nIn 2004–2006, New Jersey Transit paid tribute to Miss Vaughan in the design of its new Newark Light Rail stations. Passengers stopping at any station on this line can read the lyric to one of her signature songs, \"Send in the Clowns\", along the edge of the station platform.\n\nOn March 27, 2003, initiated by Susie M. Butler, the cities of San Francisco and Berkeley, California, signed a proclamation making March 27 \"Sarah Lois Vaughan Day\" in their respective cities.\n\nIn 2012, Vaughan was elected into the New Jersey Hall of Fame. \n\nGrammy Hall of Fame\n\nRecordings of Sarah Vaughan were inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame, which is a special Grammy award established in 1973 to honor recordings that are at least twenty-five years old, and that have \"qualitative or historical significance.\"\n\nDiscography" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Earl Hines", "The Earl Hines Orchestra", "Fatha Hines", "Fatha Earl Hines", "Earl Fatha Hines", "Earl %22Fatha%22 Hines", "Earl Kenneth Hines", "Earl (Kenneth) Hines" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "fatha earl hines", "earl hines orchestra", "fatha hines", "earl hines", "earl fatha hines", "earl 22fatha 22 hines", "earl kenneth hines" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "earl hines", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Earl Hines" }
Which pioneering aviator had a plane called Percival Gull?	tc_671	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "Search" ], "filename": [ "Percival_Gull.txt", "C._W._A._Scott.txt" ], "title": [ "Percival Gull", "C. W. A. Scott" ], "wiki_context": [ "The Percival Gull was a British single-engined monoplane, first flown in 1932. It was successful as a fast company transport, racing aircraft and long-range record breaker. It was developed into the Vega Gull and the Proctor.\n\nDesign and development\n\nThe Percival Gull was the first aircraft of the Percival Aircraft Company, formed in 1932 by Edgar Percival and Lt. Cdr E.B.W. Leake. It was designed by Percival himself, and was strongly influenced by the Hendy 302, designed by Basil \"Hendy\" Henderson, that he had previously owned and raced. The new company did not have the facilities to build the Gull, so the prototype was produced by the British Aircraft Company of Maidstone, Kent, and the first 24 production machines were manufactured by Parnall Aircraft of Yate, Gloucestershire. In 1934, the Percival Aircraft Company moved to Gravesend Airport, Kent, where it built its own Gulls.Grey 1972, pp. 64c–65c.Jackson 1974, pp. 93–96, 511–512.\n\nThe Gull was a low-wing cantilever monoplane, constructed of wood with fabric covering. The wings reduced outwards in both thickness and chord, with dihedral outboard of the centre section. They were constructed according to Basil Henderson's patent, and folded rearwards at the rear spar for storage. There were split flaps inboard. The fin and rudder were initially very similar to those of the Hendy 302, with a horn balance and a notable nick on the leading edge where that balance met the fin, but this was soon replaced by the final symmetric, elliptical and unbalanced arrangement. The horizontal surfaces were also rounded, and tail plane incidence was adjustable in flight for trim; the elevators were mounted on a common shaft. Harwood 1994, pp. 68–69. \n\nAlthough Gull variants were powered by five different engines, those were all inverted inline air-cooled types driving two-bladed propellers, making for a neatly faired installation. The rear fuselage was of square cross section with a rounded top. The glazed cabin joined smoothly into a raised dorsal fairing, and placed the pilot in front and two passenger seats, slightly staggered behind. Entry into the early models was via the sliding canopy. The main undercarriage was fixed and spatted, each wheel mounted on three struts in the early models; there was a small steerable tail wheel.\n\nThe early models could be fitted with one of two 130 hp (97 kW) 4-cylinder engines, the Cirrus Hermes IV, or the de Havilland Gipsy Major. Alternatively, for racing or for pilots desiring more power, the 160 hp (119 kW) Napier Javelin III 6-cylinder engine was an option. The D.2 variants are known generically as the \"Gull Four\" (not \"Gull IV\"). That was despite the Javelin 6-cylinder engine in the Gull Four Mk IIA, and that before the war the Gipsy Major-powered variant was known as the \"Gull Major\". In 1934, one Gull was modified with cabin doors, revised and shorter glazing, and a faired, single-strut main undercarriage. This version was known as the Gull Four Mk III, (retrospectively P.1D), and those refinements were incorporated in all later Gulls.\n\nThe final variant was the D.3 \"Gull Six\", similar to the D.2 \"Gull Four Mk III\" with the revised canopy and undercarriage, but with the much more powerful 200 hp (149 kW) de Havilland Gipsy Six 6-cylinder engine. This had the same length and span as the Gull Major variants, but was 195 lb (88 kg) heavier and much faster at 178 mph (286 km/h). One Gull Six (VT-AGV) had the cabin replaced with a tandem pair of open cockpits. It was sometimes known as the P.7 \"Touring Gull\". \n\nOperational history\n\nGulls sold well to private owners, offering speed and comfort. Others were bought by charter companies, and were used for photographic and newspaper work. Gulls were used, for example, to cover distant but important events such as the Italo-Abyssinian war of 1935. Some were used for company communications, such as Avro Aircraft and Shell. The sole Gull Four Mk III (G-ADOE) was used by Blackburn Aircraft as a test bed for both the Cirrus Major Mks 1 and 2 engines. Gulls were sold abroad, to France, Australia, Japan, Brazil and elsewhere. Two Gulls worked the Karachi-Lahore mail run for Indian National Airways. \n\nRacing and record-breaking\n\nOn 9 July 1932, E.W. Percival flew the prototype Gull (G-ABUR) in the round Britain King's Cup Race, averaging almost 143 mph (230 km/h), although a D-series Gull never won the trophy. The speed of Gulls also made them attractive for the long distance flights popular in the 1930s and the Gull, fitted with extra tanks offered a range of 2,000 miles (3,220 km). Lewis 1970\n \nOn 4 October 1933, Charles Kingsford Smith started a flight in a Gull Four (G-ACJV), from Lympne Aerodrome to Darwin, Australia, arriving on 10 December 1933, in a record 7 days, 4 hrs, 44 min.\n\nOn 17 June 1935, E.W. Percival piloted a Gull Six (G-ADEP) from Gravesend to Oran (Algeria), returning to Croydon Airport the same day, and was later awarded the Oswald Watt Gold Medal in recognition of this flight.\n\nNew Zealander Jean Batten made at least two memorable flights in her Gull Six (G-ADPR). On 11 November 1935, she departed Lympne and flew two legs to Thiès, Senegal. After a 12 hr, 30 min crossing of the Atlantic on 13 November, she arrived at Port Natal, Brazil, and later awarded the Britannia Trophy. On 5 October 1936, Batten flew from Lympne to Darwin in the record time 5 days, 21 hr, 3 min, then flying on across the Tasman Sea to Auckland to set another total record time of 11 days, 45 min. \n\nOn 4 May 1936, Amy Johnson, flying a Gull Six (G-ADZO), took off from Gravesend on a flight to Wingfield aerodrome, Cape Town and back to Croydon Airport in a record 7 days 22 hr 43min.\n\nMilitary service\n\nOne Gull Six (G-ADEU) was evaluated by the RAE, that resulted in an RAF order for the Percival Proctor, a variant of the Percival Vega Gull. About six Gull Sixes were impressed into the RAF and Fleet Air Arm during the Second World War, in the UK, Egypt and India; one of them was Jean Batten's (G-ADPR), as AX866. Blackburn Aircraft continued to use its Gull Four Mk III (G-ADOE), later re-engined with a Gipsy Major engine in private ownership. Similarly, Vickers Armstrongs retained its Gull Six (G-ADFA) throughout the war. \n\nSurvivors\n\nFlying\n\n* Gull Four VH-UTP, ex G-ACHA, a 1933 King's Cup entrant flown by Edgar Percival was moved to Australia in the 1930s, was damaged in 1956 and stored. It has been restored and flew again in 1999 and is still operational.\n* Gull Six VH-CCM, ex VH-ACM, ex G-ACUP, moved to Australia in 1939, where with VH-UVA (another Gull Six), it was used as the basis for the Connellan Airways fleet at Alice Springs. Sold into private ownership in 1948, it was restored in 2001 and is still operational.Godfurnon, Nicolas.[http://users.skynet.be/BAMRS/gull/gull-en.htm \"Percival Gull.\"] Brussels Air Museum Restoration Society (BAMRS). Retrieved: 8 May 2011.\n\nOn display\n\n* Gull Four G-ACGR is in the Brussels Air & Space Museum.\n* Gull Six G-ADPR (Jean Batten's) is on display in Auckland Airport.\n* Gull Six G-AERD in the National Museum of Australia.\n\nVariants\n\nThe P. designations were applied retrospectively in 1947, after the company had become Hunting Percival.\n\nOperators\n\n;\nSouth African Air Force\n;\nSpanish Air Force\n;\nRoyal Air Force\n\nSpecifications (D.2 Gull Four, Hermes engine)", "Flight Lieutenant Charles William Anderson Scott, AFC (13 February 1903 – 15 April 1946) was an English aviator, best known for winning the MacRobertson Air Race in 1934.\n\nBiography\n\nBorn on Friday the 13th he was the son of Mary Donaldson and Charles Kennedy Scott, who was founder of the Oriana Madrigal Society and the founder and conductor of the Philharmonic Choir. Scott was also the great nephew of Lord Scott-Dickson a Scottish Unionist politician and judge. Scott was born in London and was educated at Westminster School. He was a keen musician, poet and yachtsman. After leaving school he served on a sugar plantation in British Guiana for a short time before returning to England and joining the Royal Air Force in 1922 where he learned to fly.\n\nWhile serving with the RAF, Scott gained a reputation for his aerobatic skill and was RAF heavyweight boxing champion for two consecutive years. He left the RAF in 1926 and emigrated to Australia, where he took up a post as a commercial pilot for the fledgling airline company Queensland and Northern Territory Aerial Services (now Qantas). In 1929, while on leave from QANTAS following a crash in a de Havilland DH.50J, Scott met his first wife Kathleen. In 1930, he broke the solo record from Brisbane to Melbourne in a de Havilland DH.60 Gipsy Moth aeroplane to get to the birth of his daughter Rosemary. Scott became world famous when he broke the England–Australia solo flight record in 1931, flying a de Havilland DH.60 Moth. For this achievement, the King awarded him the Air Force Cross in 1931. Competing against fellow pilots such as Bert Hinkler, Charles Kingsford Smith and Jim Mollison, Scott went on to beat the Australia–England solo flight record in 1932 and then re-took the England–Australia the same year. In 1934, he was picked, along with Tom Campbell Black, to fly one of three purpose-built de Havilland DH.88 Comet Racers to compete in the MacRobertson Air Race, which is still considered the world's greatest air race. Scott and Black won the race, breaking the England–Australia flight record of 162 hours down to 52 hours and 33 minutes. They reached the finish line in Melbourne in 71 hours winning the £10.000 prize money and becoming world famous overnight. Following the race, Scott received several medals and awards and was celebrated wherever he went, including invitations from King Edward VIII.\n\nIn 1936, Scott took over Sir Alan Cobham's National Air Displays Ltd and for one season operated C.W.A. Scott Flying Display Ltd. In September that year, he won another air race; flying a Percival Vega Gull, he and Giles Guthrie won the Schlesinger Air Race from Portsmouth to Johannesburg, South Africa, again winning the £10,000 prize money. Before the race, Scott married his second wife, Greta Bremna, but they divorced in 1940. With the onset of World War II Scott served for a time as an Air Raid Precautions (ARP) civil defence ambulance driver then he joined the Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve (RNVR) as a lieutenant, and took part in the Dakar landing. He also spent a period as an Atlantic ferry pilot and was stationed with de Havilland Canada as a test pilot, testing newly built de Havilland Mosquitos and training pilots to fly them. Following the war, and after becoming estranged from his third wife, Scott took a post at the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA) headquarters in Germany. On 15 April 1946, whilst in a state of depression, he fatally wounded himself with a gunshot using his military issue revolver.\n\nEarly career and RAF service\n\nScott was educated at Westminster School. In 1920 he left school and took a 5-year contract with a sugar plantation at a British colony in Demerara, British Guiana. Scott did not enjoy his time at the sugar plantation and after 18 months and a bout of malaria his father arranged for his release of the 5-year contract and for his passage back home to London. He joined the RAF as a pilot in 1922 and on 9 December 1922 he was granted a short service commission as a probationary pilot Officer, and joined No. 2 Flying Training School, Duxford for flight training. He made his first \"solo flight\" in an Avro 504K and on 9 July 1923 his rank as Pilot Officer was confirmed; on 15 November 1923 he got his \"wings\" and was appointed Pilot Officer to be stationed with No. 32 Squadron RAF Kenley, where he acquired a reputation for his\naerobatic skill flying Sopwith Snipes and Gloster Grebes. Partly because he had passed the navigation exam at flying training school with 100 percent, his C.O sent him on a three-month navigation coarse at RAF Calshot; Scott enjoyed his few months by the sea and just passed the final examinations with 60 percent, which was the exact percentage required to pass. On 9 July 1924 he was promoted to the rank of Flying Officer, and on 1 November 1924 he was appointed Flying Officer to be stationed at the Armament and Gunnery School Eastchurch; however, the decision to post him there was changed and he remained with 32 Squadron, Kenley. He left the service on 9 December 1926 and was transferred onto the reserve list as a class C Flying Officer until 9 December 1930. During Scott's time with the RAF he recorded 893 hours of flying time. \n\nCruiser and heavyweight boxing titles \n\nWhen Scott first joined Flying training school Duxford, he and the other new pilot officers were divided into squads; in each squad one of the officers was made \"Squad commander\" though the squad commander was equal in rank to the other officers in his squad. In Scott's case the squad commander named Newbigging was a large fellow of some six foot four and had seen a lot of service with the Scots Guards in World War I. Newbigging soon took offence to Scott's precocious attitude, as Scott was undisciplined and fresh from the sugar plantations, where he was well adept at enforcing discipline, but not too keen on taking orders for himself. This clash of personalities lead to Scott and Newbigging having a bout of fisticuffs (as Scott referred to it), of which Scott was the victor. News of this spread around the camp, and subsequently Scott was sent off as one of a team to box in the group championships; after winning the fight in his weight there, he was then picked to box in the RAF championships at RAF Halton. The RAF championships took place near the end of Scott's first term at Duxford and he won the heavy-weight title there, becoming RAF heavyweight champion for 1923. \n\nOn returning to his camp he received a personal commendation from his Wing Commander, who then informed Scott that he had been selected to box for the RAF against the Army, Navy, and Marines. In 1923, 1924 and 1925 The Imperial Services Boxing Association (I.S.B.A) Championships took the form of Inter Service Team Championships between the Royal Navy, Royal Marines, Army and Royal Air Force. The championships took place at Aldershot. Scott met his opponent in the dressing-room before the fight a Lieutenant Capper who in Scott's words - \"held out two enormous gloves and asked me if I had any objection to his using those, as the standard gloves would not fit his hands. Had he held out a meat axe I would have acquiesced as meekly, for I knew that nothing could prevent him doing with me just what he liked.\"Scott's book page 24 Scott lost the fight in round two and Capper went on to win the amateur championship of England.\n\nThe following year, then posted at Kenley the RAF annual individual boxing championships took place and Scott successfully defended his title becoming RAF heavyweight champion for his second year running in 1924. This meant that instead of returning immediately to his unit Scott went to RNAS Lee-on-Solent with the rest of the RAF team to train for the I.S.B.A Championships, to be held at HMNB Portsmouth, again he failed to beat his opponent but put up a much better fight than he had done the previous year. \n\nAerobatics \n\nIn 1924 Scott and other members of No. 32 Squadron performed six nights a week in a night time air display over the Wembley Exhibition flying Sopwith Snipes which were painted black for the display and fitted with white lights on the wings tail and fuselage of the aircraft. The display involved firing blank ammunition into the stadium crowds and dropping pyrotechnics from the aeroplanes to simulate shrapnel from guns on the ground, Explosions on the ground also produced the effect of bombs being dropped into the stadium by the Aeroplanes. On one evening during these displays one of the pilots had to make a forced landing at the nearby allotted forced landing ground, seconds after the pilot evacuated the crashed aeroplane it went up in flames. Unbeknown to Scott his parents were spectators in the crowd that night and after rumours among the crowd and belief by the pilots that one of them had burnt to death that night, Scott's father made several phone calls to the RAF who would not disclose any information, so he drove all the way to their Mess at Northolt to establish that His son was indeed alive and then relay that information back to Scott's Mother who was very distressed. A similar air display was conducted the following year at the Wembley Exhibition called London Defended and they also did a piece much the same at the Aldershot tattoo.\n\nThe following month June 1925, No 32 Squadron did an air display demonstrating Flight-converging bombing at the R.A.F Display, Hendon. Scott was selected to do individual aerobatics in a brand-new Snipe which he was allowed to paint red, this pleased Scott greatly as it meant that he was also allowed to practice his aerobatics at a low altitude, rather than above 2000 feet which was R.A.F regulations at that time. In Scott's book he tells of how for his solo display he was allotted exactly seven minutes during the luncheon break, to complete his show but after just two minutes, a flying wire broke in the near edge of the port side, anxious not to cut his allotted seven minutes down too much he began to fly the aircraft upside down in an effort to reduce the strain on the flying wires, he continued flying in an inverted position for some time until he noticed a worrying quiver in the top plane and promptly landed slightly short of his seven minutes. The following week in the weekly edition of Flight magazine their reporter described the incident in these words- Flight 02, 07, 1925- While there was a certain liveliness in the aerodrome during the early part of the day, it was not until about 1.30 pm that the first really exciting item occurred, when a machine—we think it was one of the good old Sopwith \"Snipes\"—went up and executed a number of really excellent stunts, including one of the longest sustained upside-down flights we have seen. Incidentally, two months later when No 32 Squadron had received their full complement of new Gloster Grebes, Scott delivered the same Snipe to the newly forming No. 17 Squadron Hawkinge. The senior Flying Commander asked him how good the machine was and Scott who thought it to be the finest Sopwith Snipe he had ever handled told him just that. Then two weeks later while flying at considerable altitude the left wing of the Snipe collapsed and the Flight Commander was killed. His death was announced in Flight magazine on 1 October 1925 under the heading- R.A.F. Flying Accidents:The Air Ministry regrets to announce the following flying accidents:- Resulting from an accident near Folkestone to a Sopwith Snipe of No. 17 Squadron Hawkinge on 24 September, Flight-Lieutenant Arthur Wilfred Cuddon-Davis, the pilot and sole occupant of the aircraft, was killed. Scott would go on to become top of the bill for the 1933 British Hospitals Air Pageant and then form C. W. A. Scott's Flying display for the 1936 season.\n\nWorld War II \n\nWith the outbreak of World war Two in 1939 only six months before the pivotal Battle of Britain got under way, Scott approached the RAF once again, Scott felt that his experience in the air would be valuable to the RAF's war effort, but officials within the RAF did not agree, it was suggested that he may join as a Pilot Officer (the lowest commissioned rank) and that he may then be placed on ferry duties after some aviation instructions. Scott publicly criticized the 'Aviation Chaos' within the RAF after their refusal to accept his application to join at a level where his experience could have been of use to the war effort and instead joined the ARP as an ambulance driver in London, although he did go on to Ferry aircraft across the Atlantic to Britain later on in the war as a RAF Transport Command pilot and was a test pilot testing Mosquitos and training pilots to fly Mosquitos while posted with De haviland Canada. \n\nQantas years \n\nHaving qualified for his 'B' commercial licence he emigrated to Australia in 1927 to seek work with airline companies. He played a pioneering role in the formation and the early expansion of the airline company Qantas which still operates to this day and is the national airline of Australia. As a commercial pilot in Australia he frequently made long air taxi flights, perhaps the best known being a 4000 mi trip across Central Australia. Scott became a senior pilot for Qantas and during this time he acquired an intimate knowledge of the northern territory. In 1929 Qantas posted him to Brisbane to take over the duties of flying instructor at Eagle Farm Airport, Brisbane Flying Training School. \nDuring Scott's time as a pilot for Qantas he recorded 3,179 hours of flying time, covering over 83000 mi.\n\nScott's fatal DH.50J crash \n\nOn 4 September 1928 Scott crashed the Qantas DH.50J named Hermes registered G-AUHI in bad weather six miles north-east of Parafield Aerodrome, South Australia, resulting in the death of his engineer George Nutson.\nScott had been the pilot for a long tour of Northern Australia earlier that year for Lord Stonehaven and had then piloted an equally extensive tour of north Australia for the British Marshal of the Royal Air Force, Sir John Salmond who was in Australia as a guest of the Commonwealth Government to advise on aerial defence. Salmond's tour ended in Adelaide and not long after an early morning take-off, on the return journey to Longreach Scott crashed in hilly country and bad weather. Scott broke his jaw and suffered severe burns as Hermes burst into flames. Despite his injuries and shock, Scott dragged Nutson, his engineer and the only other person on board, free from the flames but Nutson died from his injuries later in hospital. The aircraft was destroyed by the fire. \n\nIn addition to the tragedy of Nutson's death, the crash came as a heavy financial blow and caused major disruptions to Qantas' operations, especially the planned Brisbane service. On 7 September Hudson Fysh asked the directors \"to decide on the questions of Scott's future employment\". Scott, he wrote, \"has given valuable service and he is a brilliant pilot, is possibly the hardest worker we have yet employed and has the physical qualities to stand up to this.\" However, said Fysh, despite repeated notifications and personal instructions Scott had not attained \"the standard of care and safety we demand.\" His personal behaviour had been the subject of criticism, though he was popular and a good man to work with. \"I find on present evidence that the pilot (Scott) committed a serious error of judgement in leaving Parafield Aerodrome in weather which was unsuitable...and when there was no need for hurry.\" Scott had also, Fysh reported, placed fourteen tins of petrol in the cabin of the aircraft without proper reason.\n\nAfter the crash, Scott had swiftly offered his resignation. But angered and offended by this judgement passed on him by Fysh, who had not heard Scott's evidence or that of the Official Air Accident Investigation Committee, Scott withdrew his resignation and in a letter to Fergus McMaster on 12 October explained that he had only offered his resignation \"as the right thing to do... in the feeling of good fellowship that can exist between employer and employee.\" He had, he said, expected a fair hearing, adding, \"I must mention certain letters that I received from the managing director and their effect on my attitude\". Scott did not agree with Fysh's views on the facts concerning the take-off. \"I am no novice\", he wrote indignantly, \"to such flying conditions.\"\n\nOn 16 October, Fysh reported to McMaster that in his interview with Scott he had \"gained nothing that would tend to make us take a more lenient view of his general behaviour and the Adelaide crash\" in fact, wrote Fysh, \"Scott had made matters worse by saying that the petrol was placed in the cabin to enable him to return via Broken Hill and Thargomindah right across more or less unknown country, and without even informing us\". Fysh admitted, \"I could certainly use Scott later on...If he can be got on to safe flying he will make an excellent man for us\". Fysh suggested to the board that Scott be suspended for two months without pay, take a salary reduction, in future strictly carry out company rules and that Scott must sign an undertaking to go teetotal both on and off duty.\n\nMcMaster considered Both Scott's and Fysh's views on the crash, and on 21 October he explained to Scott that he had fully considered all his points, but reiterated \"the fact remains that you were a pilot employed in commercial aviation and you did not put safety first. You took a risk that you should not have taken. I quite realize that for a man such as yourself, with unlimited energy, ambition and skill it must come hard to sit down and not act...\"\nMcMaster then soundly reprimanded Scott for his off duty conduct, saying \"It was common street talk that only a few days previous to you leaving Longreach for Hughenden to pick up Sir John Salmond you had been drinking heavily. Your conduct was anything but desirable both as regards your own interests and the interests of commercial aviation.\" McMaster acknowledged that \"street talk\" was not something ordinarily to be listened to but, he said, \"the talk was common at the Hotel, the Club and the Golf Links\". He concluded: \"I sincerely regret losing your services and am only too willing to place your letter before the board\".\n\nThe board considered Scott's letter, and after formally interviewing him, decided to allow him to continue flying with Qantas. Scott did not make reference to these disciplinary proceedings in his book in 1934, though does write in detail about the crash and the spin from eighteen hundred feet in cloud to the ground. He wrote: \"I returned to flying duties at the end of January 1929\". Fysh thought him \"a brilliant but over-volatile pilot...too brilliant to be stable\". As a result of this crash came a set of \"Rules for the Observance of Pilots\", which Fysh put into operation in November 1928. \n\nEarly England Australia record flights \n\nBy 1931 Scott had made several record breaking flights across Australia while serving as a pilot for Qantas. He had made a record-breaking flight whilst flying Lord Stonehaven on his tour in 1927 and had then gone on to make the longest air taxi trip of its time in Australia of 3000 miles whilst piloting for Sir John Salmond's tour of the northern territories in 1928. Scott had also broken many speed records across Australia including the Brisbane - Cairns record and the Brisbane - Melbourne speed record in 1930. He had met Amy Johnson when he escorted her across Australia following her record England - Australia flight and was also inspired by Bert Hinkler whom he had also met (as he had been involved in the search for Hinkler who had become lost following his record breaking England - Australia flight). Scott secured financial backing to attempt an England to Australia record which also involved delivery of the de Havilland Moth G-ABHY to his financial backer; on 10 April 1931 Scott landed at Darwin after having left England 9 days 4 hrs 11 minutes earlier, breaking the England - Australia record. This would be the first of three England Australia records, the next one being a record breaking flight back to England in 1931 in another DH Moth, this time funded by Lord Wakefield who purchased the Moth VH-UQA for Scott to complete this and another record England - Australia flight in 1932. It was announced in the London Gazette for 30 June 1931 that \"The King has been graciously pleased to approve of the award of the Air Force Cross to Mr. Charles William Anderson Scott in recognition of the distinguished services rendered to aviation by his recent flights between England and Australia.\" \n\nThe London to Melbourne Centenary Air Race\n\n \n\nIn 1934, Scott and Tom Campbell Black were entered in the London to Melbourne Air Race, officially known as the \"MacRobertson Air Race\", and also dubbed \"The world's Greatest Air race\". The Great Air Race is still believed to be the most important air race that has ever taken place, because as well as attracting more publicity, worldwide organization and involvement than any other air race before or since, it stood to encourage the extension of an established air route to the British Empire's furthermost territory. This was not only thought to be highly beneficial as an air mail and passenger route, but would also enable troops and supplies to be quickly and efficiently moved to the area should there be any future military threats from South East Asia. Charles Scott and Campbell Black had met one year previously to the start of the race at a cocktail party at the Royal Aero Club in London. They had both agreed to enter the race, but only as a team and only if a suitable sponsor could be found. In early 1934 Scott was called to Stag lane for a meeting with the business manager of the de Havilland Aircraft Company, where he was introduced to Arthur Edwards, an entrepreneur and speculative property developer. Edwards (Managing director of the Grosvenor House Hotel development) and Scott struck a deal within 20 minutes of meeting and it was in a private capacity that Edwards engaged the services of both Scott and Black, following his order directly off the drawing board of a de Havilland Comet. Scott's team was not the only team to have ordered a De Havilland DH.88 Comet to be designed and built specifically with the intention of being suitable to compete in, and win both the handicap and the speed section of the race. Jim Mollison and his wife Amy Mollison (Amy Johnson) ordered a Comet using their own funds and another team also gained sponsorship to purchase and race the third of the de Havilland Machines, which were to be designed, built and tested in time for the race. The Great Air Race would commence from Mildenhall aerodrome at 6.30 am on 20 October 1934.\n\nIt was agreed that Scott would be designated handling pilot for the race and occupy the front seat of the tandem cockpit, piloting the take-off and landing at every enforced checkpoint along the route and any other refuelling, or necessary stops for the entirety of the race. The flying of the plane would be on a fifty-fifty basis involving shifts of 4 hours on four hours off. Just six days before the start of the race Scott flew the newly built scarlet Comet, number 34 named Grosvenor House G-ACSS, which had only logged 83 minutes of flight time, from Hatfield Aerodrome where it had been built to RAF Mildenhall and made a nicely judged landing. He later admitted that he had never handled a twin engine aircraft before this one. With one day to go before the start of the race, amidst frantic last-minute preparations a Royal visit was made by HRH The Prince of Wales whom Scott was photographed with explaining the new variable-pitch propeller system fitted to his Comet. Their Royal Highnesses King George V and Queen Mary also visited that afternoon at very short notice, meeting competitors including Scott.\n\nThe race commenced on time in front of an unexpected 60,000-strong crowd with the first plane to take off being the Mollisons' Comet named Black Magic and soon after C.W.A. Scott and Tom Campbell Black were in the air heading for Melbourne. Scott and Black touched down at their first control point in Baghdad 12 hours and 2500 mi later just a few minutes behind the Mollisons and were in the air again half an hour later on course for Allahabad. When they arrived in Allahabad, another 12 hours and 2300 mi later they had taken the race lead as the Mollisons' Comet was held up with complications to its undercarriage in Karachi. When they touched down in Singapore observers thought they saw smoke coming from an engine but the fire service found no problem; after shutting down the engines Scott ordered two glasses of beer and jinked about with nervous energy, keen to be on his way. The next part of the journey involved island hopping before the crossing of the Timor Sea Just two days after leaving RAF Mildenhall Scott and Black touched down on Australian soil in Darwin; Scott was found by race officials lying down under the wing of his aeroplane stretching his right leg. He was suffering badly from cramp in his leg because they feared that the port engine was seizing up so had throttled it down, this meant that Scott was forced to compensate for the uneven port/starboard power levels by constantly applying pressure to the Rudder control pedal with his right foot during flight. The following is an excerpt from Time magazine, 29 October 1934, Volume XXIV, Number 18.\n\nThis England to Australia record of 52 hours 33 mins remains unbeaten today (2012) by any other piston-powered aircraft. On 10 November 1935, Charles Kingsford-Smith and his co-pilot died trying to beat this record.\n\nBoth the other Comets were also suffering from overheating engines and the Mollisons had been forced to retire from the race only having reached Allahabad. This gave Scott and Black a good chance of winning. Engineers examined the port engine during the turn around and decided that it was OK to fly if throttled down.\nAfter having no real sleep since leaving England, they flew off course in an area that Scott knew very well from all his previous experience flying in the Northern territories but eventually Scott and Black touched down at their final control point in Charleville just 800 miles short of their 11,325 mile journey. Scott was reported as looking haggard, worn and unshaven and could only speak in a whisper; he almost collapsed from the severe cramp which again afflicted his leg. Provision had been made to replace two of the pistons on the weary port engine but it was deemed unnecessary if they made the final 6 hour leg operating on low power. They set off from Charleville only having to return due to a faulty oil pressure gauge, the fault was realized and they once again began the final stretch of their journey. Each pilot flew for half an hour at a time while the other smoked or slept, but this then proved impossible, so by mutual consent the periods were cut down to twenty minutes and then to ten. It was still a strain to keep awake, manipulate the controls and maintain course, but with this regular changing they just about managed it. \n\nFinally nearly 71 hours after the start of the race at Mildenhall of which 65 and a half hours had been spent in the air, Scott and Black were the first to fly across the finish line marked by neon lights and white sheets laid out on the ground at Flemington Racecourse. A crowd of between 50,000 and 100,000 jubilant spectators let out deafening cheers as they circled and flew the finishing line once more at high speed and low level in victorious celebration and to be sure of a proper finish. Using all the strength and ability he had remaining Scott landed the victorious Comet at nearby Laverton Aerodrome and they declared themselves winners of the \"Speed Section\" of the race eligible for the First Place Prize of 10,000 pounds. The race had been organised into two sections, the \"race\" section and the \"handicap\" section with some competitors entering either one of the two sections and some competitors entering both, Scott and Black had entered both and they had also won the \"Handicap Section\" but the race rules didn't allow them to Claim the prize money for both the \"race\" and \"handicap\" sections of the race. Scott and Black were then put through yet another flight as they were ferried in two De Havilland DH.60 Moths back to Flemington Racecourse for an official public reception, where they were greeted by Sir Macpherson Robertson the organizer of the race.\n\nCaptured on film by Movietone, C.W.A. Scott who was never short of a word, humoured the on-looking public with this speech: \n\nScott's speech in Melbourne\n\nBlack insisted that he had never made a speech in his life that that if he were going to say anything that it would only be \"Thank you\". Celebrations followed and when all the qualifying back markers had arrived in Melbourne they were all paraded through the streets in open top cars C.W.A. Scott and Tom Campbell Black at the front of the procession with other competitors like the popular young Australian Jimmy Melrose following behind.\n\nA phone call from Scott's father following the race was reported in The Courier-Mail Brisbane on 26 October 1934. The article entitled \"FATHER SPEAKS TO AIRMAN\" \"Scott Accepts Job in London\" published; \"The News Chroncle\" announces that Scott has joined its staff as aviation editor. Scott also went on to become \"Aviation correspondent\" for The Courier-Mail and in conjunction with Scott's book being published in November 1934 The Courier-Mail purchased the Queensland rights to publish several articles entitled \"SCOTT TELLS THE STORY OF HIS LIFE\" which were very similar in text to chapters of his book. \n\nIn the months leading up to the race Scott had been compiling his autobiography. He had had a months worth of meetings with John Leggitt where he had dictated the entire story of his life and John Leggit was to put the book together and get it to press. On being victorious in the race Scott wrote the final chapter of his book \"Scott's Book, The life and Mildenhall-Melbourne flight of C.W.A. Scott told by himself\" and cabled this final chapter to England so that the book could be published by Hodder and Stoughton in November 1934 while Scott himself was still on his way back from Australia.\n\nBack in England Scott and Black were awarded the gold medal of the Royal Aero Club The gold, silver and bronze medals are awarded annually for outstanding achievement in aviation during the preceding year or over a number of years, principally, but not necessarily, as a pilot. They were also awarded The Britannia Trophy by the Royal Aero Club, England, presented \"For the British Aviator or Aviators accomplishing the most meritorious performance in aviation during the previous year.\" Scott also received the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI) Gold Air Medal for 1934 and the Harmon Trophy, the International Award for Best Aviator of 1934.\n\nIn February 1935 Scott was installed as a member of G.A.P.A.N Guild of Air Pilots and Air Navigators of the British Empire. The Guild was and still is responsible for advising the government on air safety and aeronautics. \n\nDe Havilland Mosquito\n\n]Scott and Black's skilful and accomplished flying of the DH.88 Comet in The Great Air Race went a long way to prove the De Havilland Aircraft Company's ability to produce a world class military light weight wooden aeroplane. The wooden construction and stressed skin covering not only saved weight and compensated for the low power engines, but simplified production and enabled a fast construction rate. The potential of the construction design could be seen in the design of the DH.88, which heavily influenced the design of the Mosquito.\nThe Comet was to become the model for the de Havilland Mosquito of which over 7000 were produced. They were to become the most versatile British RAF aeroplane of World War II, lightweight and fast like the Comet, many Mosquitoes were produced as unarmed bombers, as their speed was their defence.\n\nIn 1943 during World War II Scott was attached to the \"de Havilland of Canada\" Test Flight staff where he test flew new Mosquitos, he also trained pilots to fly the Mosquito and served during World War II as an Atlantic ferry pilot at a time when over 1000 newly built Mosquitoes were ferried to Britain from de Havilland Canada.\n\nC.W.A. Scott's Flying Display\n\n \nIn December 1935 Scott bought most of Sir Alan Cobhams company National Aviation Displays Ltd and formed C.W.A. Scott's Flying Display Ltd. An article in The Argus (Melbourne) 19 December 1935, read \" A Company entitled \"C.W.A. Scott's Flying Display Ltd\" has acquired from Sir Alan Cobham the aircraft and other assets of National Aviation Displays Ltd. Mr Scott is chairman and the directors include Mr Campbell Black and Miss Jean Batten. The company aims at making flying popular and in affording novices opportunities of learning to fly under dual control.\" \n\nAn article in Flight magazine April I6, 1936 described the up and coming season as follows; \"The season's programme of Mr. C.W.A. Scott's \"Flying for All\" Display embraces over 150 centres in the United Kingdom and Irish Free State, and aims particularly at familiarising people with some of the cheap, easy-to-fly light aeroplanes available to-day. The ever popular chestnuts popularised at previous displays have been preserved to cater for the purely spectacular tastes of the crowd.\"\nThe administrators were, Capt. P. Phillips, D.F.C. (Managing Director), Capt. J. R. King (Chief Pilot), Mr. C. W. A. Scott (Chairman) and Mr. D. L. Eskell (General Manager). The outfit consisted of 10-15 staff operating 10-15 aircraft and ran for the 1936 season but due to exceptionally bad weather throughout the season trading was not good. Scott agreed, in conjunction with his codirectors, that C. W. A, Scott's Flying Display, Ltd., should go into voluntary liquidation in November 1936. \n\nThe Schlesinger Race 1936\n\nScott's co-pilot in the MacRobertson Race, Tom Campbell Black died in an accident while taxiing in a Percival Mew Gull G-AEKL preparing for the race. Three Vega Gulls were built for the race, two were entered into the Schlesinger Race from England to Johannesburg, South Africa. The winners of the \"Schlesinger Race\" were C W.A. Scott and Giles Guthrie flying Vega Gull G-AEKE landing at Rand Airport on 1 October 1936. The aircraft had left Portsmouth 52 hours 56 minutes 48 seconds earlier. Out of the original 14 entries to the race Scott and Guthrie were the only ones to finish, winning the 10,000 pounds prize money. In 1937 Charles Gardner went on to win the King's Cup Race in the repaired Mew Gull G-AEKL in which Black had suffered his fatal accident. Giles Guthrie then acquired the aircraft and came second in the kings Cup in 1938.\n\nPersonal life\n\nCharles Scott was married three times, divorced twice, and had one daughter. Scott met his first wife Miss Kathleen O'Neill (daughter of Mr and Mrs J. M. O'Neill, Melbourne) in 1929 whilst on leave from QANTAS after his DH 50 crash. He took a boat trip from Brisbane to Hong Kong via Thursday Island and Manilla down along the South China Sea to Singapore, and back via Java and Celebes. Scott and O'Neill met on this boat trip and fell in love, they were married at Scots' Church, Melbourne, Collins St in April 1929. On 13 February 1930 (his 27th birthday) Scott made a record flight from Brisbane to Melbourne, Scott left Brisbane at 4.10 am in a Gipsy Moth aeroplane and after only 13 hours and 20 minutes of actual flying time landed at Essendon aerodrome at 6.40 that evening, the motivation behind this record breaking flight was the birth of his daughter Rosemary. It was reported that Scott would take his young daughter's toy golliwog on all of his record breaking flights as his lucky mascot. In 1935 it was announced in the Queenslander newspaper that Mrs Scott was seeking a divorce the article read as follows \" Mrs. C. W. A. Scott Seeking Divorce LONDON, Wednesday. It is understood that Mrs. C. W. A. Scott is seeking a divorce from her husband, the winner of the Centenary Air Race. The case probably will be heard late in December. It appears on the undefended list. Mrs. Scott is an Australian, and there is one daughter—Rosemary.\" \nIn December 1935 Mrs K Scott was granted the divorce and it was announced in the Canberra Times in these words \"\nAIRMAN'S DIVORCE LONDON, Thursday. Mrs C W A Scott, wife of the winner of the England to Australia Centenary Air Race was today granted a decree nisi on the grounds of her husband's misconduct with a girl from Australia. The suit was undefended. Evidence showed that Scott, in 1933 confessed that he loved a girl, and later he went away. His wife was granted custody of the child, which. was born in Australia.\" \nOn 17 September 1936 just twelve days before entering the Schlesinger race Scott married Greta Constance Bremner at Caxton Hall register office, Greta was the daughter of Mr. and Mrs. E. J. L. Bremner of Melbourne, Australia and sister of the well known actress Miss Marie Bremner. It was also reported that His Former wife Kathleen remarried on the same day to Mr. Norman Bower advertising manager of the Philco Radio Corporation. Earlier that year Charles Scott appeared in several newspaper articles when he was best man at his younger brothers wedding to Miss Margaret Doreen Hollins, elder daughter of Dr. and Mrs. T. J. Hollins. In March 1936 both couples appeared in newspapers being photographed aboard Scott's yacht Chamelion enjoying cruises off Burnham on Crouch where the boat was kept.\nIt was announced in The Advertiser (Adelaide) 10 October 1940 that Mrs Greta Scott had been granted a divorce from Charles on 8 October 1940 in the following article; Mrs. C. W. A. Scott Granted Divorce LONDON. 8 October. Mrs. Greta Scott, of Melbourne, today was granted a decree on the grounds of misconduct against Mr. C. W. A. Scott, the airman. The suit was not defended. Mrs. Scott, who was the aviator's second wife, alleged that her husband's drinking habits became obnoxious after 1938. When the war started she took up nursing, and Scott became friendly with another woman. On 28 August 1941 Scott married his third wife, Kathleen Barnesley Prichard in Montreal, She was a Canadian who he had met in Montreal, Canada while serving as an Atlantic ferry pilot RAF Ferry Command. By the time of his death in 1946 he had fallen in love with a Mrs. Margaret K. Wenner, director of Mass Tracing Division of the Central Tracing Bureau, UNRRA. He had met Margaret a few months earlier and become friends close with her, while posted at the UNNRA headquarters in Germany. Scott wanted to marry, but her refusal to leave her husband and accept his proposal was cited as reason for his suicide in the note which he left, which was addressed to her on the morning of his suicide when he shot himself in his chest near his heart, causing his death. \n\nRaces and record flights\n\nAircraft registered to C.W.A. Scott and/or C.W.A. Scott's Flying Display Ltd \n\nG-AUJN DH.60G Gipsy I 21.5.29 by CWA Scott. Australia. Reregistered VH-UJN Impressed RAAF 19.8.40. A7-116 \nG-ABHY\tDH.60M Moth\t CWA Scott. Sold in Australia. Reregistered VH-UQH.\nVH-UQA DH.60M [Gipsy II] 16.5.31 CWA Scott. Reregistered in UK G-ACOA\nG-ABSI\tAirspeed AS.4 Ferry\tCWA Scott's Flying DIsplay Ltd. Impressed RAF 18.4.40 Reregistered AV968.\nG-ACCF\tDH.83 Fox Moth\tCWA Scott. Impressed RAF 31.8.41\nG-ACGN DH.83 Fox Moth CWA Scott's Flying Display Ltd. Later VH-UDD in Australia, Stripped for parts 19.1.43 \nG-ACFB\tAirspeed AS.4 Ferry\tCWA Scott's Flying Display Ltd. Impressed RAF 18.2.41 Reregistered DJ715.\nG-ACLU\tAvro 640 Cadet\tCWA Scott's Flying Display Ltd. Sold abroad.\nG-ACOZ\tAvro 640 Cadet\t\tCWA Scott's Flying Display Ltd. Scrapped 1941.\nG-ACPB\tAvro 640 Cadet\t\tCWA Scott's Flying Display Ltd.\nG-ACUT\tCierva C.30A (Avro 671)\tCWA Scott's Flying Display Ltd.\nG-ADWG\tDH.82A Tiger Moth\tCWA Scott's Flying Display Ltd. Sold India. Reregistered VT-AMA.\nG-AEEO\tB.A.C. Drone\t CWA Scott's Flying Display Ltd. Reported written off 23.9.39.\nG-AEFK\tMignet HM.14 Pou-Du-Ciel (Flying Flea)\tCWA Scott's Flying Display Ltd.\nG-ADLC Miles Falcon Owned by Scott and used for the 1936 King's Cup Air Race 1936 \n\nLater years\n\nOn 15 April 1946 whilst posted at the UNRRA headquarters in Germany, Scott committed suicide by fatally shooting himself with his army issue revolver. Scott was buried in Mengeringhausen a few miles from where he had died. \n\nBelow is an excerpt from \"The Great Air Race\" by Arthur Swinson, first published 1968. It should be noted that this representation of Scott's frame of mind prior to his suicide is only the opinion of the author and cannot be taken as fact. Some large errors in Swinson's account of the circumstances of Scott's death include the fact that Scott was actually married to his third wife by the time of his death, not his second wife, as Swinson suggests. Scott was depressed at the time of his death but as recently discovered facts, contained in the official death report which is held in the Scott family archive prove, The reason for Scott's wish to end is life was purely attributed to his love for another woman named Margaret Wenner whom he had met in Germany and to whom was also married. Scott had repeatedly asked her to marry him but she had consistently refused. It was this reason that he gave for his suicide in a note on the morning of his death. There was no suggestion that his suicide had anything to do with his work life or level of fame, which was obviously affected by the war, but there is no evidence to suggest that he had any negative feelings about his status as a famous airman or the work he had been doing during and incidentally all for the war. Also it may be noted that although Swinson states that Scott was 42 at the time of his death he was in fact 43 as his suicide took place only two months after his 43rd birthday.\n\nThe following rather more touching news paper article was published in the News Chronicle the week following his death. It was written by his friend and former college from the News Chronicle, Ronald Walker.\n\nRelated films and newsreel links\n\n* [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0098812/ IMDB. The 1990 film, The Great Air Race, directed by Marcus Cole.]\n* .\n* .\n* [http://www.britishpathe.com/record.php?id=5431 British Pathe footage 1934 ENGLAND TO AUSTRALIA AIR RACE]\n* [http://www.britishpathe.com/record.php?id=5519 British Pathe footage 1934 FATIGUED BUT TRIUMPHANT ]\n* [http://www.britishpathe.com/record.php?id=5437 British Pathe footage 1934 GREAT SCOTT]\n* [http://www.britishpathe.com/record.php?id=75357 British Pathe footage 1934 WIZARDS OF THE AIR reel 1]\n* [http://www.britishpathe.com/record.php?id=75358 British Pathe footage 1934 WIZARDS OF THE AIR reel 2]\n* [http://www.britishpathe.com/record.php?id=75359 British Pathe footage 1934 WIZARDS OF THE AIR reel 3]\n* [http://www.britishpathe.com/record.php?id=75360 British Pathe footage 1934 WIZARDS OF THE AIR reel 4]\n* [http://www.britishpathe.com/record.php?id=5430 British Pathe footage 1934 RECORD HOLDERS HOME ]\n* [http://www.britishpathe.com/record.php?id=81625 British Pathe footage 1934 TOM CAMPBELL BLACK ARRIVES BY TRAIN]\n* [http://www.britishpathe.com/record.php?id=5261 British Pathe footage 1934 SCOTT AND BLACK'S PLANE IN GLASGOW]\n* [http://www.britishpathe.com/record.php?id=6930 British Pathe footage 1936 PORTSMOUTH - JOHANNESBURG AIR RACE]\n* [http://www.britishpathe.com/record.php?id=7026 British Pathe footage 1936 PORTSMOUTH - JOHANNESBURG AIR RACE WELCOMED HOME]\n* \n\nBibliography\n\n* Arthur Swinson The Great Air Race. Cassell & Company Ltd, first printed, 1968. SBN 304-93151-9.\n* Bowman, Martin. de Havilland Mosquito (Crowood Aviation series). Ramsbury, Marlborough, Wiltshire, UK: The Crowwood Press, 2005. ISBN 1-86126-736-3.\n* McCullough, Bruce. Tom Campbell Black: Pioneer Aviator. Auckland. [http://www.tomcampbellblack.150m.com/ Tom Campbell Black]\n* Stuart McKay MBE. Mildenhall to Melbourne, The World's Greatest Air Race.The Tiger House Press 2009 ISBN 978-0-9563981-0-9.\n* C.W.A. Scott. Scott's Book,the life and Mildenhall-Melbourne flight of C.W.A. Scott, London : Hodder & Stoughton, 1934., Bib ID 2361252\n* Gunn, John The defeat of distance Qantas 1919-1939, 1985, ISBN 0-7022-1707-7.\n* Holliday, Joe. Mosquito! The Wooden Wonder Aircraft of World War II. Toronto: Doubleday, 1970. ISBN 0-7701-0138-0.\n* Hotson, Fred. The De Havilland Canada Story. Toronto: CANAV Books, 1983. ISBN 0-9690703-2-2.\n* Howe, Stuart. Mosquito Portfolio. London: Ian Allan Ltd., 1984. ISBN 0-7110-1406-X." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Jean Gardner Batten", "Jean Batten", "Jean Gardner Batten CBE" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "jean gardner batten", "jean batten", "jean gardner batten cbe" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "jean batten", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Jean Batten" }
Henri Becquerel shared a Nobel prize for his work in discovering what?	tc_674	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Henri_Becquerel.txt", "Nobel_Prize.txt" ], "title": [ "Henri Becquerel", "Nobel Prize" ], "wiki_context": [ "Antoine Henri Becquerel (15 December 1852 – 25 August 1908) was a physicist, Nobel laureate, and the first person to discover evidence of radioactivity. For work in this field he, along with Marie Skłodowska-Curie and Pierre Curie, received the 1903 Nobel Prize in Physics. The SI unit for radioactivity, the becquerel (Bq), is named after him.\n\nBiography\n\nEarly life\n\nBecquerel was born in Paris into a rich family which produced four generations of scientists: Becquerel's grandfather (Antoine César Becquerel), father (Alexandre-Edmond Becquerel), and son (Jean Becquerel). He studied engineering at the École Polytechnique and the École des Ponts et Chaussées. In 1890 he married Louise Désirée Lorieux.\n\nCareer\n\nIn 1892, he became the third in his family to occupy the physics chair at the Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle. In 1894, he became chief engineer in the Department of Bridges and Highways.\n\nBecquerel's earliest works centered on the subject of his doctoral thesis: the plane polarization of light, with the phenomenon of phosphorescence and absorption of light by crystals. \n\nBecquerel's discovery of spontaneous radioactivity is a famous example of serendipity, of how chance favors the prepared mind. Becquerel had long been interested in phosphorescence, the emission of light of one color following a body's exposure to light of another color. In early 1896, in the wave of excitement following Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen's discovery of X-rays on January 5 that same year, Becquerel thought that phosphorescent materials, such as some uranium salts, might emit penetrating X-ray-like radiation when illuminated by bright sunlight. His first experiments appeared to show this.\n\nDescribing them to the French Academy of Sciences on February 27\n, 1896, he said:\nOne wraps a Lumière photographic plate with a bromide emulsion in two sheets of very thick black paper, such that the plate does not become clouded upon being exposed to the sun for a day. One places on the sheet of paper, on the outside, a slab of the phosphorescent substance, and one exposes the whole to the sun for several hours. When one then develops the photographic plate, one recognizes that the silhouette of the phosphorescent substance appears in black on the negative. If one places between the phosphorescent substance and the paper a piece of money or a metal screen pierced with a cut-out design, one sees the image of these objects appear on the negative ... One must conclude from these experiments that the phosphorescent substance in question emits rays which pass through the opaque paper and reduce silver salts. \n\nBut further experiments led him to doubt and then abandon this hypothesis. On March 2, 1896 he reported\n\nI will insist particularly upon the following fact, which seems to me quite important and beyond the phenomena which one could expect to observe: The same crystalline crusts [of potassium uranyl sulfate], arranged the same way with respect to the photographic plates, in the same conditions and through the same screens, but sheltered from the excitation of incident rays and kept in darkness, still produce the same photographic images. Here is how I was led to make this observation: among the preceding experiments, some had been prepared on Wednesday the 26th and Thursday the 27th of February, and since the sun was out only intermittently on these days, I kept the apparatuses prepared and returned the cases to the darkness of a bureau drawer, leaving in place the crusts of the uranium salt. Since the sun did not come out in the following days, I developed the photographic plates on the 1st of March, expecting to find the images very weak. Instead the silhouettes appeared with great intensity ... One hypothesis which presents itself to the mind naturally enough would be to suppose that these rays, whose effects have a great similarity to the effects produced by the rays studied by M. Lenard and M. Röntgen, are invisible rays emitted by phosphorescence and persisting infinitely longer than the duration of the luminous rays emitted by these bodies. However, the present experiments, without being contrary to this hypothesis, do not warrant this conclusion. I hope that the experiments which I am pursuing at the moment will be able to bring some clarification to this new class of phenomena. \n\nBy May 1896, after other experiments involving non-phosphorescent uranium salts, he arrived at the correct explanation, namely that the penetrating radiation came from the uranium itself, without any need for excitation by an external energy source. \n\nThere followed a period of intense research into radioactivity, including the determination that the element thorium is also radioactive and the discovery of additional radioactive elements polonium and radium by Marie Skłodowska-Curie and her husband Pierre Curie.\n\nIn 1903, Becquerel shared the Nobel Prize in Physics with Pierre and Marie Skłodowska-Curie \"in recognition of the extraordinary services he has rendered by his discovery of spontaneous radioactivity\".\n\nAs often happens in science, radioactivity came close to being discovered nearly four decades earlier in 1857, when Abel Niepce de Saint-Victor, who was investigating photography under Michel Eugène Chevreul, observed that uranium salts emitted radiation that could darken photographic emulsions. By 1861, Niepce de Saint-Victor realized that uranium salts produce \"a radiation that is invisible to our eyes\". Niepce de Saint-Victor knew Edmond Becquerel, Henri Becquerel's father. In 1868, Edmond Becquerel published a book, La lumière: ses causes et ses effets (Light: Its causes and its effects). On page 50 of volume 2, Edmond noted that Niepce de Saint-Victor had observed that some objects that had been exposed to sunlight could expose photographic plates even in the dark. Niepce further noted that on the one hand, the effect was diminished if an obstruction were placed between a photographic plate and the object that had been exposed to the sun, but \" … d'un autre côté, l'augmentation d'effet quand la surface insolée est couverte de substances facilement altérables à la lumière, comme le nitrate d'urane … \" ( … on the other hand, the increase in the effect when the surface exposed to the sun is covered with substances that are easily altered by light, such as uranium nitrate … ). \n\nHonors and awards\n\nIn 1908, the year of his death, Becquerel was elected Permanent Secretary of the Académie des Sciences. He died at the age of 55 in Le Croisic.\n\nThe SI unit for radioactivity, the becquerel (Bq), is named after him. There is a crater called Becquerel on the Moon and also a crater called Becquerel on Mars.\n\nHe also received the following awards besides the Nobel Prize for Physics (1903):\nRumford Medal (1900)\nHelmholtz Medal (1901)\n*Barnard Medal (1905)\n\nBecquerel was elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS) in 1908.", "The Nobel Prize (,; Swedish definite form, singular: Nobelpriset; ) is a set of annual international awards bestowed in a number of categories by Swedish and Norwegian committees in recognition of academic, cultural and/or scientific advances.\n\nThe will of the Swedish inventor Alfred Nobel established the prizes in 1895. The prizes in Chemistry, Literature, Peace, Physics, and Physiology or Medicine were first awarded in 1901. The related Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences was established by Sweden's central bank in 1968. Medals made before 1980 were struck in 23 carat gold, and later from 18 carat green gold plated with a 24 carat gold coating. Between 1901 and 2015, the Nobel Prizes and the Prize in Economic Sciences were awarded 573 times to 900 people and organizations. With some receiving the Nobel Prize more than once, this makes a total of 870 individuals (822 men and 48 women) and 23 organizations.\n\nThe prize ceremonies take place annually in Stockholm, Sweden, except for the peace prize which is held in Oslo, Norway and each recipient, or laureate, receives a gold medal, a diploma and a sum of money that has been decided by the Nobel Foundation. (, each prize was worth SEK8 million or about , €0.93 million or £0.6 million.) The Nobel Prize is widely regarded as the most prestigious award available in the fields of literature, medicine, physics, chemistry, peace, and economics. \n\nThe Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences awards the Nobel Prize in Physics, the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, and the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences; the Nobel Assembly at Karolinska Institutet awards the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine; the Swedish Academy grants the Nobel Prize in Literature; and the Nobel Peace Prize is awarded not by a Swedish organisation but by the Norwegian Nobel Committee.\n\nThe prize is not awarded posthumously; however, if a person is awarded a prize and dies before receiving it, the prize may still be presented. Though the average number of laureates per prize increased substantially during the 20th century, a prize may not be shared among more than three people. \n\nHistory\n\nAlfred Nobel () was born on 21 October 1833 in Stockholm, Sweden, into a family of engineers. He was a chemist, engineer, and inventor. In 1894, Nobel purchased the Bofors iron and steel mill, which he made into a major armaments manufacturer. Nobel also invented ballistite. This invention was a precursor to many smokeless military explosives, especially the British smokeless powder cordite. As a consequence of his patent claims, Nobel was eventually involved in a patent infringement lawsuit over cordite. Nobel amassed a fortune during his lifetime, with most of his wealth from his 355 inventions, of which dynamite is the most famous. \n\nIn 1888, Nobel was astonished to read his own obituary, titled The merchant of death is dead, in a French newspaper. As it was Alfred's brother Ludvig who had died, the obituary was eight years premature. The article disconcerted Nobel and made him apprehensive about how he would be remembered. This inspired him to change his will. On 10 December 1896, Alfred Nobel died in his villa in San Remo, Italy, from a cerebral haemorrhage. He was 63 years old. \n\nNobel wrote several wills during his lifetime. He composed the last over a year before he died, signing it at the Swedish–Norwegian Club in Paris on 27 November 1895. To widespread astonishment, Nobel's last will specified that his fortune be used to create a series of prizes for those who confer the \"greatest benefit on mankind\" in physics, chemistry, physiology or medicine, literature, and peace.[http://www.nobelprize.org/alfred_nobel/will/will-full.html Full text of Alfred Nobel´s Will] Nobel bequeathed 94% of his total assets, 31 million SEK (c. US$186 million, €150 million in 2008), to establish the five Nobel Prizes. \nBecause of scepticism surrounding the will, it was not until 26 April 1897 that it was approved by the Storting in Norway. The executors of Nobel's will, Ragnar Sohlman and Rudolf Lilljequist, formed the Nobel Foundation to take care of Nobel's fortune and organise the award of prizes. \n\nNobel's instructions named a Norwegian Nobel Committee to award the Peace Prize, the members of whom were appointed shortly after the will was approved in April 1897. Soon thereafter, the other prize-awarding organisations were designated or established. These were Karolinska Institutet on 7 June, the Swedish Academy on 9 June, and the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences on 11 June. The Nobel Foundation reached an agreement on guidelines for how the prizes should be awarded; and, in 1900, the Nobel Foundation's newly created statutes were promulgated by King Oscar II. In 1905, the personal union between Sweden and Norway was dissolved.\n\nNobel Foundation\n\nThe Nobel Foundation was founded as a private organisation on 29 June 1900. Its function is to manage the finances and administration of the Nobel Prizes. In accordance with Nobel's will, the primary task of the Foundation is to manage the fortune Nobel left. Robert and Ludwig Nobel were involved in the oil business in Azerbaijan and, according to Swedish historian E. Bargengren, who accessed the Nobel family archives, it was this \"decision to allow withdrawal of Alfred's money from Baku that became the decisive factor that enabled the Nobel Prizes to be established\". Another important task of the Nobel Foundation is to market the prizes internationally and to oversee informal administration related to the prizes. The Foundation is not involved in the process of selecting the Nobel laureates. In many ways, the Nobel Foundation is similar to an investment company, in that it invests Nobel's money to create a solid funding base for the prizes and the administrative activities. The Nobel Foundation is exempt from all taxes in Sweden (since 1946) and from investment taxes in the United States (since 1953). Since the 1980s, the Foundation's investments have become more profitable and as of 31 December 2007, the assets controlled by the Nobel Foundation amounted to 3.628 billion Swedish kronor (c. US$560 million). \n\nAccording to the statutes, the Foundation consists of a board of five Swedish or Norwegian citizens, with its seat in Stockholm. The Chairman of the Board is appointed by the Swedish King in Council, with the other four members appointed by the trustees of the prize-awarding institutions. An Executive Director is chosen from among the board members, a Deputy Director is appointed by the King in Council, and two deputies are appointed by the trustees. However, since 1995, all the members of the board have been chosen by the trustees, and the Executive Director and the Deputy Director appointed by the board itself. As well as the board, the Nobel Foundation is made up of the prize-awarding institutions (the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, the Nobel Assembly at Karolinska Institute, the Swedish Academy, and the Norwegian Nobel Committee), the trustees of these institutions, and auditors.\n\nFirst prizes\n\nOnce the Nobel Foundation and its guidelines were in place, the Nobel Committees began collecting nominations for the inaugural prizes. Subsequently they sent a list of preliminary candidates to the prize-awarding institutions.\n\nThe Nobel Committee's Physics Prize shortlist cited Wilhelm Röntgen's discovery of X-rays and Philipp Lenard's work on cathode rays. The Academy of Sciences selected Röntgen for the prize. In the last decades of the 19th century, many chemists had made significant contributions. Thus, with the Chemistry Prize, the Academy \"was chiefly faced with merely deciding the order in which these scientists should be awarded the prize.\" The Academy received 20 nominations, eleven of them for Jacobus van't Hoff. Van't Hoff was awarded the prize for his contributions in chemical thermodynamics. \n\nThe Swedish Academy chose the poet Sully Prudhomme for the first Nobel Prize in Literature. A group including 42 Swedish writers, artists and literary critics protested against this decision, having expected Leo Tolstoy to be awarded. Some, including Burton Feldman, have criticised this prize because they consider Prudhomme a mediocre poet. Feldman's explanation is that most of the Academy members preferred Victorian literature and thus selected a Victorian poet. The first Physiology or Medicine Prize went to the German physiologist and microbiologist Emil von Behring. During the 1890s, von Behring developed an antitoxin to treat diphtheria, which until then was causing thousands of deaths each year. \n\nThe first Nobel Peace Prize went to the Swiss Jean Henri Dunant for his role in founding the International Red Cross Movement and initiating the Geneva Convention, and jointly given to French pacifist Frédéric Passy, founder of the Peace League and active with Dunant in the Alliance for Order and Civilization.\n\nSecond World War\n\nIn 1938 and 1939, Adolf Hitler's Third Reich forbade three laureates from Germany (Richard Kuhn, Adolf Friedrich Johann Butenandt, and Gerhard Domagk) from accepting their prizes. Each man was later able to receive the diploma and medal. Even though Sweden was officially neutral during the Second World War, the prizes were awarded irregularly. In 1939, the Peace Prize was not awarded. No prize was awarded in any category from 1940–42, due to the occupation of Norway by Germany. In the subsequent year, all prizes were awarded except those for literature and peace. \n\nDuring the occupation of Norway, three members of the Norwegian Nobel Committee fled into exile. The remaining members escaped persecution from the Germans when the Nobel Foundation stated that the Committee building in Oslo was Swedish property. Thus it was a safe haven from the German military, which was not at war with Sweden. These members kept the work of the Committee going, but did not award any prizes. In 1944, the Nobel Foundation, together with the three members in exile, made sure that nominations were submitted for the Peace Prize and that the prize could be awarded once again.\n\nPrize in Economic Sciences\n\nIn 1968, Sveriges Riksbank celebrated its 300th anniversary by donating a large sum of money to the Nobel Foundation to be used to set up a prize in honor of Nobel. The following year, the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences was awarded for the first time. The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences became responsible for selecting laureates. The first laureates for the Economics Prize were Jan Tinbergen and Ragnar Frisch \"for having developed and applied dynamic models for the analysis of economic processes.\" Although not a Nobel Prize, it is intimately identified with the other awards; the laureates are announced with the Nobel Prize recipients, and the Prize in Economic Sciences is presented at the Swedish Nobel Prize Award Ceremony. The Board of the Nobel Foundation decided that after this addition, it would allow no further new prizes. \n\nAward process\n\nThe award process is similar for all of the Nobel Prizes; the main difference is in who can make nominations for each of them. \n\nNominations\n\nNomination forms are sent by the Nobel Committee to about 3,000 individuals, usually in September the year before the prizes are awarded. These individuals are generally prominent academics working in a relevant area. Regarding the Peace Prize, inquiries are also sent to governments, former Peace Prize laureates and current or former members of the Norwegian Nobel Committee. The deadline for the return of the nomination forms is 31 January of the year of the award. The Nobel Committee nominates about 300 potential laureates from these forms and additional names. The nominees are not publicly named, nor are they told that they are being considered for the prize. All nomination records for a prize are sealed for 50 years from the awarding of the prize.\n\nSelection\n\nThe Nobel Committee then prepares a report reflecting the advice of experts in the relevant fields. This, along with the list of preliminary candidates, is submitted to the prize-awarding institutions. The institutions meet to choose the laureate or laureates in each field by a majority vote. Their decision, which cannot be appealed, is announced immediately after the vote. A maximum of three laureates and two different works may be selected per award. Except for the Peace Prize, which can be awarded to institutions, the awards can only be given to individuals. If the Peace Prize is not awarded, the money is split among the scientific prizes. This has happened 19 times so far.\n\nPosthumous nominations\n\nAlthough posthumous nominations are not presently permitted, individuals who died in the months between their nomination and the decision of the prize committee were originally eligible to receive the prize. This has occurred twice: the 1931 Literature Prize awarded to Erik Axel Karlfeldt, and the 1961 Peace Prize awarded to UN Secretary General Dag Hammarskjöld. Since 1974, laureates must be thought alive at the time of the October announcement. There has been one laureate, William Vickrey, who in 1996 died after the prize (in Economics) was announced but before it could be presented. On 3 October 2011, the laureates for the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine were announced; however, the committee was not aware that one of the laureates, Ralph M. Steinman, had died three days earlier. The committee was debating about Steinman's prize, since the rule is that the prize is not awarded posthumously. The committee later decided that as the decision to award Steinman the prize \"was made in good faith\", it would remain unchanged. \n\nRecognition time lag\n\nNobel's will provided for prizes to be awarded in recognition of discoveries made \"during the preceding year\". Early on, the awards usually recognised recent discoveries. However, some of these early discoveries were later discredited. For example, Johannes Fibiger was awarded the 1926 Prize for Physiology or Medicine for his purported discovery of a parasite that caused cancer. To avoid repeating this embarrassment, the awards increasingly recognised scientific discoveries that had withstood the test of time. According to Ralf Pettersson, former chairman of the Nobel Prize Committee for Physiology or Medicine, \"the criterion 'the previous year' is interpreted by the Nobel Assembly as the year when the full impact of the discovery has become evident.\"\n\nThe interval between the award and the accomplishment it recognises varies from discipline to discipline. The Literature Prize is typically awarded to recognise a cumulative lifetime body of work rather than a single achievement. The Peace Prize can also be awarded for a lifetime body of work. For example, 2008 laureate Martti Ahtisaari was awarded for his work to resolve international conflicts. However, they can also be awarded for specific recent events. For instance, Kofi Annan was awarded the 2001 Peace Prize just four years after becoming the Secretary-General of the United Nations. Similarly Yasser Arafat, Yitzhak Rabin, and Shimon Peres received the 1994 award, about a year after they successfully concluded the Oslo Accords. \n\nAlthough Nobel's will stated that prizes should be awarded for contributions made \"during the preceding year\", awards for physics, chemistry, and medicine are typically awarded once the achievement has been widely accepted. Sometimes, this takes decades – for example, Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar shared the 1983 Physics Prize for his 1930s work on stellar structure and evolution. Not all scientists live long enough for their work to be recognised. Some discoveries can never be considered for a prize if their impact is realised after the discoverers have died. \n\nAward ceremonies\n\nExcept for the Peace Prize, the Nobel Prizes are presented in Stockholm, Sweden, at the annual Prize Award Ceremony on 10 December, the anniversary of Nobel's death. The recipients' lectures are normally held in the days prior to the award ceremony. The Peace Prize and its recipients' lectures are presented at the annual Prize Award Ceremony in Oslo, Norway, usually on 10 December. The award ceremonies and the associated banquets are typically major international events. The Prizes awarded in Sweden's ceremonies' are held at the Stockholm Concert Hall, with the Nobel banquet following immediately at Stockholm City Hall. The Nobel Peace Prize ceremony has been held at the Norwegian Nobel Institute (1905–1946), at the auditorium of the University of Oslo (1947–1989) and at Oslo City Hall (1990–present). \n\nThe highlight of the Nobel Prize Award Ceremony in Stockholm occurs when each Nobel laureate steps forward to receive the prize from the hands of the King of Sweden. In Oslo, the Chairman of the Norwegian Nobel Committee presents the Nobel Peace Prize in the presence of the King of Norway. At first King Oscar II did not approve of awarding grand prizes to foreigners. It is said that his mind changed once his attention had been drawn to the publicity value of the prizes for Sweden. \n\nNobel Banquet\n\nAfter the award ceremony in Sweden, a banquet is held in the Blue Hall at the Stockholm City Hall, which is attended by the Swedish Royal Family and around 1,300 guests.\n\nThe Nobel Peace Prize banquet is held in Norway at the Oslo Grand Hotel after the award ceremony. Apart from the laureate, guests include the President of the Storting, the Prime Minister, and, since 2006, the King and Queen of Norway. In total, about 250 guests attend.\n\nNobel lecture\n\nAccording to the statutes of the Nobel Foundation, each laureate is required to give a public lecture on a subject related to the topic of their prize. The Nobel lecture as a rhetorical genre took decades to reach its current format. These lectures normally occur during Nobel Week (the week leading up to the award ceremony and banquet, which begins with the laureates arriving in Stockholm and normally ends with the Nobel banquet), but this is not mandatory. The laureate is only obliged to give the lecture within six months of receiving the prize. Some have happened even later. For example, U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt received the Peace Prize in 1906 but gave his lecture in 1910, after his term in office. The lectures are organized by the same association which selected the laureates. \n\nPrizes\n\nMedals\n\nIt was announced on 30 May 2012 that the Nobel Foundation had awarded the contract for the production of the five (Swedish) Nobel Prize medals to Svenska Medalj AB. Formerly, the Nobel Prize medals were minted by Myntverket (the Swedish Mint) from 1902 to 2010. Myntverket, Sweden's oldest company, ceased operations in 2011 after 1,017 years. In 2011, the Mint of Norway, located in Kongsberg, made the medals. The Nobel Prize medals are registered trademarks of the Nobel Foundation. Each medal features an image of Alfred Nobel in left profile on the obverse. The medals for physics, chemistry, physiology or medicine, and literature have identical obverses, showing the image of Alfred Nobel and the years of his birth and death. Nobel's portrait also appears on the obverse of the Peace Prize medal and the medal for the Economics Prize, but with a slightly different design. For instance, the laureate's name is engraved on the rim of the Economics medal. The image on the reverse of a medal varies according to the institution awarding the prize. The reverse sides of the medals for chemistry and physics share the same design.[http://osulibrary.oregonstate.edu/specialcollections/coll/pauling/bond/pictures/nobel-chemistry-medal.html \"Nobel Prize for Chemistry. Front and back images of the medal. 1954\"], \"Source: Photo by Eric Arnold. Ava Helen and Linus Pauling Papers. Honors and Awards, 1954h2.1\", \"All Documents and Media: Pictures and Illustrations\", Linus Pauling and The Nature of the Chemical Bond: A Documentary History, the Valley Library, Oregon State University. Retrieved 7 December 2007.\n\nAll medals made before 1980 were struck in 23 carat gold. Since then, they have been struck in 18 carat green gold plated with 24 carat gold. The weight of each medal varies with the value of gold, but averages about 175 g for each medal. The diameter is 66 mm and the thickness varies between and . Because of the high value of their gold content and tendency to be on public display, Nobel medals are subject to medal theft. During World War II, the medals of German scientists Max von Laue and James Franck were sent to Copenhagen for safekeeping. When Germany invaded Denmark, chemist George de Hevesy dissolved them in aqua regia (nitro-hydrochloric acid), to prevent confiscation by Nazi Germany and to prevent legal problems for the holders. After the war, the gold was recovered from solution, and the medals re-cast. \n\nDiplomas\n\nNobel laureates receive a diploma directly from the hands of the King of Sweden or, in the case of the peace prize, the Chairman of the Norwegian Nobel Committee. Each diploma is uniquely designed by the prize-awarding institutions for the laureates that receive them. The diploma contains a picture and text in Swedish which states the name of the laureate and normally a citation of why they received the prize. None of the Nobel Peace Prize laureates has ever had a citation on their diplomas. \n\nAward money\n\nThe laureates are given a sum of money when they receive their prizes, in the form of a document confirming the amount awarded. The amount of prize money depends upon how much money the Nobel Foundation can award each year. The purse has increased since the 1980s, when the prize money was 880 000 SEK (c. 2.6 million SEK, US$350 000 or €295,000 today) per prize. In 2009, the monetary award was 10 million SEK (US$1.4 million, €950,000). In June 2012, it was lowered to 8 million SEK. If there are two laureates in a particular category, the award grant is divided equally between the recipients. If there are three, the awarding committee has the option of dividing the grant equally, or awarding one-half to one recipient and one-quarter to each of the others. It is common for recipients to donate prize money to benefit scientific, cultural, or humanitarian causes. \n\nControversies and criticisms\n\nControversial recipients\n\nAmong other criticisms, the Nobel Committees have been accused of having a political agenda, and of omitting more deserving candidates. They have also been accused of Eurocentrism, especially for the Literature Prize. \n\n;Peace Prize\n\nAmong the most criticised Nobel Peace Prizes was the one awarded to Henry Kissinger and Lê Đức Thọ. This led to the resignation of two Norwegian Nobel Committee members. Lê Đức Thọ declined the prize. Kissinger and Thọ were awarded the prize for negotiating a ceasefire between North Vietnam and the United States in January 1973. However, when the award was announced, both sides were still engaging in hostilities. Many critics were of the opinion that Kissinger was not a peace-maker but the opposite, responsible for widening the war. \n\nYasser Arafat, Shimon Peres, and Yitzhak Rabin received the Peace Prize in 1994 for their efforts in making peace between Israel and Palestine. Immediately after the award was announced, one of the five Norwegian Nobel Committee members denounced Arafat as a terrorist and resigned. Additional misgivings about Arafat were widely expressed in various newspapers. \n\nAnother controversial Peace Prize was that awarded to Barack Obama in 2009. Nominations had closed only eleven days after Obama took office as President, but the actual evaluation occurred over the next eight months. Obama himself stated that he did not feel deserving of the award, or worthy of the company it would place him in. Past Peace Prize laureates were divided, some saying that Obama deserved the award, and others saying he had not secured the achievements to yet merit such an accolade. Obama's award, along with the previous Peace Prizes for Jimmy Carter and Al Gore, also prompted accusations of a left-wing bias. \n\n;Literature Prize\n\nThe award of the 2004 Literature Prize to Elfriede Jelinek drew a protest from a member of the Swedish Academy, Knut Ahnlund. Ahnlund resigned, alleging that the selection of Jelinek had caused \"irreparable damage to all progressive forces, it has also confused the general view of literature as an art.\" He alleged that Jelinek's works were \"a mass of text shovelled together without artistic structure.\" The 2009 Literature Prize to Herta Müller also generated criticism. According to The Washington Post many US literary critics and professors were ignorant of her work. This made those critics feel the prizes were too Eurocentric. \n\n;Science prizes\n\nIn 1949, the neurologist António Egas Moniz received the Physiology or Medicine Prize for his development of the prefrontal leucotomy. The previous year Dr. Walter Freeman had developed a version of the procedure which was faster and easier to carry out. Due in part to the publicity surrounding the original procedure, Freeman's procedure was prescribed without due consideration or regard for modern medical ethics. Endorsed by such influential publications as The New England Journal of Medicine, leucotomy or \"lobotomy\" became so popular that about 5,000 lobotomies were performed in the United States in the three years immediately following Moniz's receipt of the Prize. \n\nOverlooked achievements\n\nThe Norwegian Nobel Committee confirmed that Mahatma Gandhi was nominated for the Peace Prize in 1937–39, 1947, and a few days before he was assassinated in January 1948. Later, members of the Norwegian Nobel Committee expressed regret that he was not given the prize. Geir Lundestad, Secretary of Norwegian Nobel Committee in 2006 said, \"The greatest omission in our 106 year history is undoubtedly that Mahatma Gandhi never received the Nobel Peace prize. Gandhi could do without the Nobel Peace prize. Whether Nobel committee can do without Gandhi is the question\". In 1948, the year of Gandhi's death, the Nobel Committee declined to award a prize on the grounds that \"there was no suitable living candidate\" that year. Later, when the Dalai Lama was awarded the Peace Prize in 1989, the chairman of the committee said that this was \"in part a tribute to the memory of Mahatma Gandhi.\" Other high profile individuals with widely recognised contributions to peace have been missed out. Foreign Policy lists Eleanor Roosevelt, Václav Havel, Ken Saro-Wiwa, Sari Nusseibeh and Corazon Aquino as people who \"never won the prize, but should have.\". The physicist Arnold Sommerfeld was nominated 81 times but an award was never made. \n\nIn 1965, UN Secretary General U Thant was informed by the Norwegian Permananent Representative to the UN that he would be awarded that year's prize and asked whether or not he would accept. He consulted staff and later replied that he would. At the same time, Chairman Gunnar Jahn of the Nobel Peace prize committee, lobbied heavily against giving U Thant the prize and the prize was at the last minute awarded to UNICEF. The rest of the committee all wanted the prize to go to U Thant, for his work in defusing the Cuban Missile Crisis, ending the war in the Congo, and his ongoing work to mediate an end to the Vietnam War. The disagreement lasted three years and in 1966 and 1967 no prize was given, with Gunnar Jahn effectively vetoing an award to U Thant. \n\nThe Literature Prize also has controversial omissions. Adam Kirsch has suggested that many notable writers have missed out on the award for political or extra-literary reasons. The heavy focus on European and Swedish authors has been a subject of criticism. The Eurocentric nature of the award was acknowledged by Peter Englund, the 2009 Permanent Secretary of the Swedish Academy, as a problem with the award and was attributed to the tendency for the academy to relate more to European authors. This tendency towards European authors still leaves a number of European writers on a list of notable writers that have been overlooked for the Literature Prize, including Europe's Leo Tolstoy, Anton Chekhov, J. R. R. Tolkien, Émile Zola, Marcel Proust, Vladimir Nabokov, James Joyce, August Strindberg, Simon Vestdijk, the New World's Jorge Luis Borges, Ezra Pound, John Updike, Arthur Miller, Mark Twain, and Africa's Chinua Achebe. \n\nThe strict rule against awarding a prize to more than three people is also controversial. When a prize is awarded to recognize an achievement by a team of more than three collaborators, one or more will miss out. For example, in 2002, the prize was awarded to Koichi Tanaka and John Fenn for the development of mass spectrometry in protein chemistry, an award that did not recognize the achievements of Franz Hillenkamp and Michael Karas of the Institute for Physical and Theoretical Chemistry at the University of Frankfurt. According to one of the nominees for the prize in physics, the three person limit deprived him and two other members of his team of the honor in 2013: the team of Carl Hagen, Gerald Guralnik, and Tom Kibble published a paper in 1964 that gave answers to how the Cosmos began, but did not share the 2013 Physics Prize awarded to Peter Higgs and François Englert, who had also published papers in 1964 concerning the subject. All five physicists arrived at the same conclusion, albeit from different angles. Hagen contends that an equitable solution is to either abandon the three limit restriction, or expand the time period of recognition for a given achievement to two years. \n\nSimilarly, the prohibition of posthumous awards fails to recognise achievements by an individual or collaborator who dies before the prize is awarded. In 1962, Francis Crick, James D. Watson, and Maurice Wilkins were awarded the Physiology or Medicine Prize for discovering the structure of DNA. Rosalind Franklin, a key contributor in that discovery, died of ovarian cancer four years earlier. The Economics Prize was not awarded to Fischer Black, who died in 1995, when his co-author Myron Scholes received the honor in 1997 for their landmark work on option pricing along with Robert C. Merton, another pioneer in the development of valuation of stock options. In the announcement of the award that year, the Nobel committee prominently mentioned Black's key role.\n\nPolitical subterfuge may also deny proper recognition. Lise Meitner and Fritz Strassmann, who co-discovered nuclear fission along with Otto Hahn, may have been denied a share of Hahn's 1944 Nobel Chemistry Award due to having fled Germany when the Nazis came to power. The Meitner and Strassmann roles in the research was not fully recognized until years later, when they joined Hahn in receiving the 1966 Enrico Fermi Award.\n\nEmphasis on discoveries over inventions\n\nAlfred Nobel left his fortune to finance annual prizes to be awarded \"to those who, during the preceding year, shall have conferred the greatest benefit on mankind.\" He stated that the Nobel Prizes in Physics should be given \"to the person who shall have made the most important 'discovery' or 'invention' within the field of physics.\" Nobel did not emphasise discoveries, but they have historically been held in higher respect by the Nobel Prize Committee than inventions: 77% of the Physics Prizes have been given to discoveries, compared with only 23% to inventions. Christoph Bartneck and Matthias Rauterberg, in papers published in Nature and Technoetic Arts, have argued this emphasis on discoveries has moved the Nobel Prize away from its original intention of rewarding the greatest contribution to society. \n\nSpecially distinguished laureates\n\nMultiple laureates\n\nFour people have received two Nobel Prizes. Marie Curie received the Physics Prize in 1903 for her work on radioactivity and the Chemistry Prize in 1911 for the isolation of pure radium, making her the only person to win a Nobel Prize in two different sciences. Linus Pauling won the 1954 Chemistry Prize for his research into the chemical bond and its application to the structure of complex substances. Pauling also won the Peace Prize in 1962 for his activism against nuclear weapons, making him the only laureate of two unshared prizes. John Bardeen received the Physics Prize twice: in 1956 for the invention of the transistor and in 1972 for the theory of superconductivity. Frederick Sanger received the prize twice in Chemistry: in 1958 for determining the structure of the insulin molecule and in 1980 for inventing a method of determining base sequences in DNA. \n\nTwo organisations have received the Peace Prize multiple times. The International Committee of the Red Cross received it three times: in 1917 and 1944 for its work during the world wars; and in 1963 during the year of its centenary. The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees has won the Peace Prize twice for assisting refugees: in 1954 and 1981. \n\nFamily laureates\n\nThe Curie family has received the most prizes, with four prizes won by five individual laureates. Marie Curie received the prizes in Physics (in 1903) and Chemistry (in 1911). Her husband, Pierre Curie, shared the 1903 Physics prize with her. Their daughter, Irène Joliot-Curie, received the Chemistry Prize in 1935 together with her husband Frédéric Joliot-Curie. In addition, the husband of Marie Curie's second daughter, Henry Labouisse, was the director of UNICEF when it won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1965. \n\nAlthough no family matches the Curie family's record, there have been several with two laureates. The husband-and-wife team of Gerty Cori and Carl Ferdinand Cori shared the 1947 Prize in Physiology or Medicine as did the husband-and-wife team of May-Britt Moser and Edvard Moser in 2014 (along with John O'Keefe). J. J. Thomson was awarded the Physics Prize in 1906 for showing that electrons are particles. His son, George Paget Thomson, received the same prize in 1937 for showing that they also have the properties of waves. William Henry Bragg and his son, William Lawrence Bragg, shared the Physics Prize in 1915 for inventing the X-ray spectrometer. Niels Bohr won the Physics prize in 1922, as did his son, Aage Bohr, in 1975. Manne Siegbahn, who received the Physics Prize in 1924, was the father of Kai Siegbahn, who received the Physics Prize in 1981. Hans von Euler-Chelpin, who received the Chemistry Prize in 1929, was the father of Ulf von Euler, who was awarded the Physiology or Medicine Prize in 1970. C.V. Raman won the Physics Prize in 1930 and was the uncle of Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, who won the same prize in 1983. Arthur Kornberg received the Physiology or Medicine Prize in 1959. Kornberg's son, Roger later received the Chemistry Prize in 2006. Jan Tinbergen, who won the first Economics Prize in 1969, was the brother of Nikolaas Tinbergen, who received the 1973 Physiology or Medicine Prize. Alva Myrdal, Peace Prize laureate in 1982, was the wife of Gunnar Myrdal who was awarded the Economics Prize in 1974. Economics laureates Paul Samuelson and Kenneth Arrow were brothers-in-law.\n\nCultural impact\n\nBeing a symbol of scientific or literary achievement that's recognisable worldwide, the Nobel Prize is often depicted in fiction. This includes films like The Prize and Nobel Son about fictional Nobel laureates as well as fictionalized accounts of stories surrounding real prizes such as Nobel Chor, a film based on the unsolved theft of Rabindranath Tagore's prize. \n\nRefusals and constraints\n\nTwo laureates have voluntarily declined the Nobel Prize. In 1964, Jean-Paul Sartre was awarded the Literature Prize but refused, stating, \"A writer must refuse to allow himself to be transformed into an institution, even if it takes place in the most honourable form.\" The other is Lê Đức Thọ, chosen for the 1973 Peace Prize for his role in the Paris Peace Accords. He declined, stating that there was no actual peace in Vietnam. \n\nDuring the Third Reich, Adolf Hitler hindered Richard Kuhn, Adolf Butenandt, and Gerhard Domagk from accepting their prizes. All of them were awarded their diplomas and gold medals after World War II. In 1958, Boris Pasternak declined his prize for literature due to fear of what the Soviet Union government might do if he travelled to Stockholm to accept his prize. In return, the Swedish Academy refused his refusal, saying \"this refusal, of course, in no way alters the validity of the award.\" The Academy announced with regret that the presentation of the Literature Prize could not take place that year, holding it until 1989 when Pasternak's son accepted the prize on his behalf. Aung San Suu Kyi was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1991, but her children accepted the prize because she had been placed under house arrest in Burma; Suu Kyi delivered her speech two decades later, in 2012. Liu Xiaobo was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2010 while he and his wife were under house arrest in China as political prisoners.\n\nLegacy\n\nThe memorial symbol \"Planet of Alfred Nobel\" was opened in Dnipropetrovsk University of Economics and Law in 2008. On the globe, there are 802 Nobel laureates' reliefs made of a composite alloy obtained when disposing of military strategic missiles." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Nuclear decay", "Atomic decay", "Nuclear Radiation", "Radioative process", "Decay law for radioactivity", "Activity (radioactivity)", "Radiation, Radioactivity", "Change of decay rate", "Radioactive decay law", "Atomic Decay", "Nuclear radiation", "Elements, radioactive", "Radio activity", "Radiation, nuclear", "Radioactive Decay", "Total activity", "Radioactivity", "Solar influence on radioactive decay", "Radioactive materials", "Radioactive decay", "Decay mode", "Quantum decay", "Decay, radioactive", "Radioactivite", "Nuclear Decay", "Decay rate", "Radioactive process", "Becquerel Rays", "Table of radioactive decay", "Subnuclear transformation", "Radioactive source", "Radioelement", "Radioactive" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "radioactive materials", "table of radioactive decay", "radioelement", "atomic decay", "radioactive", "radioative process", "decay mode", "decay radioactive", "solar influence on radioactive decay", "radioactive decay law", "radiation radioactivity", "radioactive decay", "decay law for radioactivity", "total activity", "nuclear radiation", "decay rate", "elements radioactive", "nuclear decay", "radioactive process", "radio activity", "activity radioactivity", "radioactivite", "radioactive source", "quantum decay", "subnuclear transformation", "becquerel rays", "radiation nuclear", "change of decay rate", "radioactivity" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "radioactivity", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Radioactivity" }
Who was the first white music star to record on Atlantic, through its sister label Atco?	tc_675	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Atlantic_Records.txt", "Atco_Records.txt" ], "title": [ "Atlantic Records", "Atco Records" ], "wiki_context": [ "Atlantic Recording Corporation (simply known as Atlantic Records) is a major American record label best known for its numerous recordings of rhythm and blues, rock and roll, jazz, and hip hop. Over its first 20 years of operation, Atlantic earned a reputation as one of the most important American recording labels, specializing in jazz, R&B and soul recordings by African-American musicians including Aretha Franklin, Ray Charles, Wilson Pickett, Sam and Dave, Ruth Brown and Otis Redding, a position greatly enhanced by its distribution deal with Stax Records.\n\nIn 1967, Atlantic became a wholly owned subsidiary of Warner Bros.-Seven Arts, now the Warner Music Group, and expanded into rock and pop music. In 2004 Atlantic Records and its sister label Elektra Records merged into Atlantic Records Group. Craig Kallman is currently Chairman of Atlantic Records. Label co-founder Ahmet Ertegün served as Founding Chairman until his death on December 14, 2006, at age 83. The label also has a number of deals with previously independent labels such as Must Destroy and VP Records. Over the years, Atlantic Records has housed many artists of a wide variety of genres.\n\nHistory\n\nEarly years\n\nIn 1944, brothers Nesuhi and Ahmet Ertegun elected to remain in the USA when their mother and sister returned to Turkey, following the death of their father Munir Ertegun, who had been the first Turkish Ambassador to the United States. The brothers had become ardent fans of jazz and rhythm & blues music, amassing a collection of over 15,000 78rpm records. Ahmet ostensibly stayed on in Washington to undertake post-graduate music studies at Georgetown University but immersed himself in the Washington music scene and decided to enter the record business, then enjoying a resurgence after wartime restrictions on the shellac used in manufacture. He convinced the family dentist, Dr Vahdi Sabit, to invest $10,000 and recruited Herb Abramson, a dentistry student.\n\nAbramson had worked as a part-time A&R manager/producer for the jazz label National Records, signing Big Joe Turner and Billy Eckstine. He founded Jubilee Records in 1946, but had no interest in its most successful artists. So, in September 1947, he sold his share in Jubilee to his partner, Jerry Blaine, and invested $2500 in the new Atlantic label.\n\nAtlantic Records was incorporated in October 1947 and was run by Abramson (the company president) and Ertegun (vice-president in charge of A&R, production and promotion) while Abramson's wife Miriam ran the label's publishing company, Progressive Music, and did most office duties until 1949 when Atlantic hired its first employee, book-keeper Francine Wakschal, who remained with the label for the next 49 years. Miriam quickly gained a reputation for toughness: staff engineer Tom Dowd later recalled; \"Tokyo Rose was the kindest name some people had for her\" and Doc Pomus described her as \"an extraordinarily vitriolic woman\". When interviewed in 2009 she attributed her reputation to the company's chronic cash-flow shortage: \" ... most of the problems we had with artists were that they wanted advances, and that was very difficult for us ... we were undercapitalized for a long time.\" The label's original office in the Ritz Hotel, Manhattan proved too expensive so they relocated to an $85 per month room in the Hotel Jefferson. In the early fifties Atlantic moved from the Hotel Jefferson to offices at 301 West 54th St and then to its best-known home at 356 West 56th St.\n\nAtlantic's first batch of recordings were issued in late January 1948, and included Tiny Grimes' \"That Old Black Magic\" and \"The Spider\" by Joe Morris. In its early years Atlantic focused principally on modern jazz although it released some country and western and spoken word recordings. Abramson also produced \"Magic Records\" which were children's records with four different sets of grooves so each side had four different stories of which the story which got played was determined by where the stylus landed on the groove. \n\nSoon after its formation, Atlantic faced a serious challenge - in late 1947 James Petrillo, head of the American Federation of Musicians, announced an indefinite ban on all recording activities by union musicians, and this came into force on January 1, 1948. The union action forced Atlantic to use almost all its capital to cut and stockpile enough recordings to last through the ban, which was initially expected to continue for at least a year.\n\nErtegun and Abramson spent much of the late 1940s and early 1950s scouring nightclubs in search of talent. Ertegun composed many songs under the alias \"A. Nugetre\", including Big Joe Turner's hit \"Chains of Love\", working them out in his head and then recording them in 25c recording booths in Times Square and giving the recording to an arranger or straight to the session musicians. Early releases featured Joe Morris, Frank Culley, Art Pepper, Shelly Manne, Pete Rugolo, Tiny Grimes, The Delta Rhythm Boys, The Clovers, The Cardinals, Big Joe Turner, Erroll Garner, Mal Waldron, Howard McGhee, James Moody, Dizzy Gillespie, Jackie & Roy, Sarah Vaughan, Lead Belly, Sonny Terry, Professor Longhair, Mabel Mercer, Sylvia Syms, Billy Taylor, Mary Lou Williams, Sidney Bechet, Django Reinhardt, Earl Hines, Barney Bigard, Pee Wee Russell, Al Hibbler, Meade Lux Lewis, Jimmy Yancey, Johnny Hodges and Bobby Short.\n\nThe hits begin\n\nIn early 1949 a New Orleans distributor phoned Ertegun trying to obtain Stick McGhee's \"Drinking Wine, Spo-Dee-O-Dee\", which was unavailable due to the closure of McGhee's previous label. Ertegun knew Stick's younger brother Brownie McGhee, with whom Stick happened to be staying, so he contacted the McGhee brothers and cut a re-recording. When released in February 1949, it became Atlantic's first hit, selling 400,000 copies, and ultimately reached #2 after spending almost half a year in the Billboard R&B charts - although McGhee himself earned just $10 for the session. From this point Atlantic's fortunes rose rapidly: they recorded 187 songs in 1949 (more than three times the output of the previous two years) and received overtures of a manufacturing and distribution deal with Columbia Records, who would pay Atlantic a 3% royalty on every copy sold. Ertegun asked about artists' royalties, which he paid, which surprised Columbia executives, who did not, which scuttled the deal. \n\nOn the recommendation of broadcaster Willis Conover, Ertegun and Abramson went to see Ruth Brown at the Crystal Caverns club in Washington and invited her to audition for Atlantic. She was badly injured in a car accident en route to New York but Atlantic supported her for nine months and then signed her. Her first release for the label \"So Long\", cut at her second Atlantic session on May 25, 1949 with the Eddie Condon band, was a major hit, reaching #6 on the R&B chart. Brown went on to record more than eighty songs for the label, becoming the most prolific and best-selling Atlantic artist of the period. So significant was Brown's success to Atlantic's fortunes that the label became known colloquially as \"The House That Ruth Built\". \n\nJoe Morris, one of the label's earliest signings, scored a major hit with his October 1950 release \"Anytime, Anyplace, Anywhere\", the first Atlantic record issued in 45rpm format, which the company began pressing in January 1951. The Clovers' \"Don't You Know I Love You\" (composed by Ertegun) became the label's first R&B #1 in September 1951 and a few weeks later Ruth Brown's \"Teardrops from my Eyes\" became its first million-selling record. She hit #1 again in March–April 1952 with \"5-10-15 Hours\". \"Daddy Daddy\" reached #3 in September 1952, and \"Mama, He Treats Your Daughter Mean\" (which featured the MJQ's Connie Kay on drums) reached #1 in February–March 1953, becoming a solid seller for years afterwards, as did the late 1954 \"Oh What A Dream\", her last hit with Atlantic. After she left the label in 1961 Brown's fortunes declined rapidly - within a few years was reduced to working as a cleaner and bus-driver to support her children. In the 1980s she sued her former label for unpaid royalties; although Atlantic, which had prided itself on treating artists fairly, had stopped paying royalties to some artists, Ahmet Ertegun denied this was intentional. Brown eventually received a voluntary payment of $20,000 and founded a charity, the Rhythm and Blues Foundation, in 1988, established with a donation of $1.5 million from Ertegun.\n\nIn 1952 Atlantic signed Ray Charles, who scored a string of hugely influential hits including \"I Got A Woman\", \"What'd I Say\" and \"Hallelujah I Love Her So\". Later that year The Clovers' \"One Mint Julep\" reached #2. In 1953, after learning that singer Clyde McPhatter had been fired from Billy Ward and His Dominoes and was forming his own group (The Drifters), Ahmet Ertegun tracked McPhatter down and signed the new group immediately. Their single \"Money Honey\" became the biggest R&B hit of the year. Their subsequent records created some controversy: the suggestive \"Such A Night\" was banned by radio station WXYZ in Detroit and the follow-up \"Honey Love\" was banned in Memphis though both records reached #1 on the Billboard R&B chart.\n\nAlthough not a major success in chart terms, female vocal trio The Cookies became an important part of the Atlantic 'family'. The original group, put together by Atlantic producer Jesse Stone in 1954, comprised Darlene (Ethel) McCrea, Dorothy Jones and Dorothy's cousin Beulah Robertson, who was replaced in 1956 by Marjorie \"Margie\" Hendricks. They recorded \"In Paradise\", a minor R&B hit in early 1956, but after another unsuccessful release the trio became the regular backing singers for Atlantic recording sessions. They performed on many hits in this period including Joe Turner's \"Corinna, Corinna\" and \"Lipstick, Powder and Paint\", Chuck Willis' \"It's Too Late (She's Gone)\", and Ray Charles' \"Lonely Avenue\", \"Drown In My Own Tears\" and \"Night Time is the Right Time\" (which features Margie Hendricks prominently), before being taken on by Ray Charles and renamed The Raelettes.\n\nTom Dowd\n\nRecording engineer and producer Tom Dowd played a crucial role in Atlantic's success. He initially worked for Atlantic on a freelance basis, but within a few years he had been hired as the label's full-time staff engineer. His recordings for Atlantic and Stax exerted a major influence on the history of popular music and he scored more hits than George Martin and Phil Spector combined. As Atlantic's studio engineer Tom Dowd oversaw many advances in production.\n\nAtlantic was one of the first independent labels to make recordings in stereo: Dowd used a portable stereo recorder which ran simultaneously with the studio's existing mono recorder. In 1953 (according to Billboard) Atlantic was the first label to issue commercial LPs recorded in the early, experimental stereo system called binaural recording. In this system, recordings were made using two microphones, spaced at approximately the distance between the human ears, and the left and right channels were cut as two separate, parallel grooves, although playing them back required a player with a special tone-arm fitted with dual needles; it was not until around 1958 that the single stylus microgroove system (in which the two stereo channels were cut into either side of a single groove) became the industry standard. By the late 1950s stereo LPs and record players were being introduced into the marketplace. Atlantic's early stereo recordings included \"Lover's Question\" by Clyde McPhatter, \"What Am I Living For\" by Chuck Willis, \"I Cried a Tear\" by LaVern Baker, \"Splish Splash\" by Bobby Darin, \"Yakety Yak\" by the Coasters and \"What'd I Say\" by Ray Charles. Although these were primarily 45rpm mono singles for much of the 1950s Dowd stockpiled his \"parallel\" stereo takes for future release. In 1968 the label issued History of Rhythm and Blues, Volume 4 (Atlantic SD-8164) in stereo and the stereo versions of Ray Charles \"What'd I Say\" and \"Night Time is the Right Time\" were also included on the Atlantic anthology The Birth Of Soul: The Complete Atlantic Rhythm & Blues Recordings, 1952–1959. \n\nAtlantic's New York studio was also the first in America to install multitrack recording machines, developed by the Ampex company. Bobby Darin's \"Splish, Splash\" was the first song to be recorded on 8-track recorder whereas it was not until the mid-1960s that multitrackers became the norm in recording studios and EMI's Abbey Road Studios did not install 8-track facilities until 1968. \n\nThe label entered the new LP market very early: its first was a 10\" album of poetry by Walter Benton, This Is My Beloved (March 1949), narrated by John Dall, with music by Vernon Duke In 1951, Atlantic was one of the first independents to press records in the new 45rpm single format, and by 1956 the \"45\" had overtaken the \"78\" as the main sales format for singles. In April that year, Miriam (Abramson) Bienstock reported to Billboard that Atlantic was now selling 75% of its singles as 45s whereas only one year earlier 78s had been outselling 45s by two to one.\n\nJerry Wexler\n\nHerb Abramson was drafted into the US Army in February 1953 and left for Germany where he served in the US Army Dental Corps, although he retained his post as President of Atlantic on full pay. Ertegun recruited Billboard reporter Jerry Wexler in June 1953: who is credited with coining the term \"rhythm & blues\" to replace the earlier \"race music\". He was appointed vice-president and purchased 13% of the company's stock for $2,063.25. Wexler and Ertegun soon formed a close partnership which, in collaboration with Tom Dowd, produced thirty R&B hits.\n\nErtegun and Wexler realized many R&B recordings by black artists were being covered by white performers, often with greater chart success: Atlantic's LaVern Baker had a #4 R&B hit with \"Tweedlee Dee\" but a rival version by Georgia Gibbs went to #2 on the pop charts, Big Joe Turner's April 1954 release \"Shake, Rattle and Roll\" was a #1 R&B hit but only made #22 on the pop chart while Bill Haley & His Comets's version reached #7, sold over 1 million copies and was Decca Records' biggest-selling song of the year. In July 1954, as rock'n'roll gathered momentum, Wexler and Ertegun wrote a prescient article for Cash Box, headlined \"The Latest Trend: R&B Disks Are Going Pop\", devoted to what they called \"cat music\"; the same month, Atlantic scored its first major \"crossover\" hit on the Billboard pop chart when the \"Sh-Boom\" by The Clovers reached #5 (although The Crew-Cuts' version went to #1). Atlantic missed an important signing in 1955 when Sun Records' owner Sam Phillips sold Elvis Presley's recording contract in a bidding war between labels. Atlantic offered $25,000 which, Ertegun later noted, \"was all the money we had then.\" but they were outbid by RCA Records's offer of $45,000. In 1990 Ertegun remarked:\n\n\"The president of RCA at the time had been extensively quoted in Variety damning R&B music as immoral. He soon stopped when RCA signed Elvis Presley.\"\n\nNesuhi Ertegun\n\nAhmet's older brother Nesuhi was recruited to the label in January 1955. He had been living in Los Angeles for several years and had only irregular contact with his younger brother, but when Ahmet learned that Nesuhi had been offered a partnership in Atlantic's rival Imperial Records, he and Wexler convinced Nesuhi to join Atlantic instead. Nesuhi headed the label's jazz division and built a strong roster, signing West Coast jazzers Shorty Rogers, Jimmy Giuffre, Herbie Mann and Les McCann, as well as Charles Mingus, John Coltrane and the Modern Jazz Quartet, who became a mainstay of the label, releasing twenty albums; by 1958 Atlantic was America's second-largest independent jazz label. Nesuhi was also in charge of LP album production, a market that was beginning to take off, and he was credited with greatly improving the packaging, production and originality of Atlantic's LP line. He soon deleted the old '100' and '400' series of 10\" albums and the earlier 12\" albums in Atlantic's catalog, launching the new '1200' series, which sold for $4.98, with Shorty Rogers' The Swingin' Mr Rogers (Atlantic 1212). In 1956 he started the '8000' popular series (selling for $3.98) for the label's few R&B albums, reserving the 1200 series for jazz. Joel Dorn became Nesuhi's assistant following his successful production of Hubert Laws' The Laws of Jazz. \n\nHerb Abramson departs\n\nHerb Abramson's return from military service in 1955 created problems: Ertegun and Wexler had scored a run of hits, including Big Joe Turner's \"Flip Flop and Fly\" and Ray Charles' \"I Got A Woman\", and when Abramson returned, he realized that that he had been effectively replaced by Wexler as Ahmet's partner. There were also personal conflicts: Abramson did not get along well with either Wexler or Nesuhi Ertegun, and he had returned from his military service with a German girlfriend, which precipitated his divorce from Miriam, a minor stockholder and Atlantic's business and publishing manager.\n\nBy 1958 relations between Abramson and his partners had broken down completely, so in December 1958 a $300,000 buy-out was arranged; his stock was split between Nesuhi Ertegun and Abramson's ex-wife Miriam, who had in the meantime remarried to music publisher Freddy Bienstock (later the owner of the Carlin Music / Chappell Music publishing empire). Abramson's departure opened the way for Ahmet Ertegun to take over as president of the label. The roles of the other executives with Abramson's departure were Wexler as executive vice-president and general manager, Nesuhi Ertegun as executive vice-president in charge of the LP department and Miriam Bienstock as vice-president and also president of Atlantic's music publishing arm Progressive Music with Wexler as executive vice-president and the Ertegun brothers vice-president of Progressive. \n\nExpansion\n\nAtlantic played a major role in popularizing the new genre that Jerry Wexler dubbed rhythm & blues and it profited handsomely from this. The market for these records exploded during late 1953 and early 1954, as more and more R&B hits crossed over to the mainstream (i.e. white) audience. In its tenth anniversary feature on Atlantic, Billboard noted that previously, \"... a very big r&b record might achieve 250,000 sales, but from this point on (1953–54), the industry began to see million sellers, one after the other, in the r&b field\". It observed that the label's \"fresh sound\" and the quality of its recordings, arrangements and musicians was a great advance on what was the standard for R&B records at the time, and that for the past five years Atlantic had \"dominated the rhythm and blues chart with its roster of powerhouse artists\".\n\nFrom 1954 onwards Atlantic created or acquired several important subsidiary labels, the first being the short-lived but significant Cat Records. By the mid-1950s Atlantic had an informal agreement with Eddie Barclay's French label Barclay Records and the two companies regularly exchanged titles, usually jazz recordings. Atlantic also began to get recordings distributed in the United Kingdom; initially this was done through EMI on a 'one-off' basis, but in September 1955 Miriam Abramson went to the UK and signed a formal distribution deal with Decca Records, who were soon releasing every new Atlantic title. Miriam later recalled:\n\n\"I was the one who came to England at the beginning to negotiate all those deals (in the fall of 1955). I would deal with people there who were not really comfortable with women in business, so ... we would do business very quickly and get it over with. But they were charming. Sir Edward Lewis was wonderful, we became great friends. We kept in touch after I left Atlantic.\" \n\nA new subsidiary label, Atco Records, was established in 1955 as an effort to keep Abramson involved. East West was founded in September 1957; it initially concentrated on singles and featured an \"across the board\" roster of pop, rock & roll, rhythm & blues and rockabilly artists and its first releases were by Jay Holliday, Johnny Houston and The Glowtones. After a slow start, Atco had considerable success with The Coasters and Bobby Darin. Darin's early releases had not been successful and Abramson planned to drop him, but Ertegun offered him another chance, and the session he produced yielded \"Splish Splash\", which Darin had written in 12 minutes and which sold 100,000 copies in the first month and became a million-seller. During 1958-59 Darin's \"Queen of the Hop\" made the Top 10 on both the US pop and R&B charts and also charted in the UK, \"Dream Lover\", a multi-million seller, reached #2 in the USA and became a UK #1, and \"Mack the Knife\" (August 1959) went to #1 in both the US and the UK, sold over 2 million copies and won the 1960 Grammy Award for 'Record of the Year'. \"Beyond the Sea\", an English-language version of the Charles Trenet hit \"La Mer\", became his fourth consecutive US/UK Top 10 hit. Darin later signed with Capitol Records and left for Hollywood to begin a movie career although Atco continued to score hits into 1962 with tracks already in the can, including \"You Must Have Been a Beautiful Baby\" and \"Things\". Darin returned to Atlantic in 1965. \n\nBy 1958 the label had expanded considerably - in 1956 Atlantic's head office moved to 157 West 57th St, while retaining two floors in the earlier premises at 234 West 56th St. New staff hired between 1956 and 1958 included Gary Kramer (director of publicity and advertising), Lester Lees (national sales manager), Victor Selsman (DJ promotions), Lester Sill (West Coast promotions) and Bob Bushnell (recording engineer).\n\nDuring the 1960s Atlantic distributed selected titles recorded by many small regional independent labels including Dial (Joe Tex), Karen (The Capitols' \"Cool Jerk\"), Rosemart (Don Covay's \"Mercy, Mercy\"), Nola (Willie Tee's \"Teasin' You\"), Vault, Class, Shirley, Tomorrow, Instant, Dade (\"Mashed Potatoes\" by Nat Kendrick & The Swans), Moonglow, Correct-Tone Records, Lu-Pine, Keetch, Royo, T-Neck, Heidi, Sims and others, using those labels' imprints and separate catalog numbers.\n\nLeiber, Stoller and Spector\n\nIn October 1955 Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller scored a West Coast hit with Los Angeles-based vocal group The Robins, who released \"Smokey Joe's Cafe\" on the duo's own Spark Records label. Seeking a national outlet, they leased the master to Atco and in November Atlantic purchased Spark and its catalog; Leiber and Stoller signed a landmark deal with Atlantic that made them America's first independent record producers. In 1956 two members of The Robins, Carl Gardner and Bobby Nunn, formed The Coasters who finally provided Atlantic with the crossover success it had been striving for. Their first (March 1956) Atco release (recorded in Hollywood) was \"Down in Mexico\", a Top 10 R&B hit: the double-sided \"Young Blood\"/\"Searchin'\" (also recorded in Hollywood) followed, with both sides entering the pop Top 10 after radio exposure and both charting for over 20 weeks - \"Searchin'\" reached #3 and \"Young Blood\" #8. Following Leiber and Stoller to New York, The Coasters' then cut \"Yakety Yak\" (June 1958), featuring the saxophone of King Curtis, and this became Atlantic's first pop #1; \"Charlie Brown\" made #2 on both the pop and R&B charts in February 1959, \"Along Came Jones\" also reached the pop Top 10 as did \"Poison Ivy\" (#7, Aug. 1959). \"Little Egypt\" (1961) was their last hit, reaching #21 in the pop chart.\n\nLeiber and Stoller also wrote the classic \"Ruby Baby\" for The Drifters, a 1956 #13 R&B hit that featured Johnny Moore as lead vocalist (replacing Clyde McPhatter, who had been drafted); it became a pop standard and reached #2 in 1962 when re-recorded by Dion. By 1958, The Drifters had undergone many lineup changes and their former popularity was waning. That May, after one of the members got into a fight with the manager of the Apollo Theater, group manager George Treadwell sacked the entire lineup and recruited the members of The Five Crowns to become the 'new' Drifters. Leiber and Stoller produced \"There Goes My Baby\" with this second incarnation, featuring a lead vocal by Ben E. King, who also co-wrote the song. It was the first R&B song to feature a string arrangement, but Ertegun disliked it and Jerry Wexler was appalled, reportedly telling the producers; \"Get that out of here. I hate it. It's out of tune and it's phony and it's shit and get it out of here\". They refused to release it for several months, but when they finally relented and released it as a single in April 1959, the song shot to #1.\n\nPhil Spector had learned the basics of record production working for Lester Sill and Lee Hazlewood's Trey Records label (which was distributed by Atlantic) in California in the late 1950s. At Sill's recommendation, he returned to New York to work for Leiber and Stoller in early 1960. Leiber and Stoller assigned him to produce Ray Peterson's \"Corrine, Corrina\" and Curtis Lee's \"Pretty Little Angel Eyes\" (released on Peterson's Dunes Records label), both of which became hits. As a result, Atlantic signed him as a staff producer, though his difficult personality was already evident, and Ahmet Ertegun was reportedly the only Atlantic executive who liked him. Leiber later remarked, \"He wasn't likeable. He was funny, he was amusing - but he wasn't nice.\" Wexler reportedly had no time for him and Miriam Bienstock, in her typically blunt fashion, described Spector's erratic behavior \"insane\" and considered him \"a pain in the neck\". When Ertegun took Spector to meet Bobby Darin, he openly criticized Darin's songwriting, with the result that Darin had him thrown out of the house. \n\nDespite these issues, Atlantic kept Spector on for a time, but with diminishing returns. Spector produced The Top Notes' original version of \"Twist and Shout\", but it flopped. Bert Berns, the song's writer, was incensed by Spector's arrangement, which he believed had ruined the song, so Berns re-recorded it the way he thought it should sound with The Isley Brothers, and it became a huge hit. Spector also produced Jean DuShon, Billy Storm, LaVern Baker and Ruth Brown during his short stay at Atlantic, with only moderate success. He left Atlantic in 1961 and returned to Los Angeles, where he founded Philles Records with Lester Sill and soon established himself as the preeminent American pop producer of the mid-1960s \n\nIn early 1960 the Drifters came out with \"Dance With Me\", which reached #15 on the pop chart and #2 R&B. \"This Magic Moment\" reached #16 on the pop chart, and their classic rendition of Doc Pomus' poignant \"Save The Last Dance For Me\" became a major international pop hit, reaching #1 in the USA and #2 in the UK. However, in May 1960, after only one year and just 10 recordings with the Drifters, lead singer Benjamin Nelson left the group due to a dispute with manager George Treadwell. Assuming the stage name Ben E. King, he launched a successful solo career, although the Drifters went on to score several more big hits.\n\nKing's first solo single, \"Spanish Harlem\" (co-written by Leiber and Spector and produced by Leiber and Stoller), became a Top 10 pop hit in early 1961. It was followed by \"Stand By Me\", a re-interpretation of the gospel standard \"Lord, Stand By Me\", with new lyrics by King and orchestration by Stan Applebaum. Reaching #4 on the pop chart, the song quickly became a standard covered by many artists including John Lennon. It has since been included in the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame's 500 Songs That Shaped Rock and Roll listing and in 2001 it was voted #25 in the 'Songs of the Century' poll conducted by the Recording Industry Association of America. In late 1962, The Drifters returned to the charts, fronted by new lead vocalist Rudy Lewis, performing hits recorded with Ben E. King on stage and TV. \"Up On The Roof\", co-written by Gerry Goffin and Carole King, was another major crossover hit making the Top 5 on both the pop and R&B charts, and Mann, Weil, Leiber, and Stoller's \"On Broadway\" made the Top 10 on both charts. It has since been covered by many artists. The Drifters' last hit, \"Under The Boardwalk\" (1964), was produced by Bert Berns and orchestrated by British arranger-producer-composer Mike Leander. Lead singer Rudy Lewis was found dead on the morning of the recording session (May 21, 1964) and former lead singer Johnny Moore was brought in to replace him. Despite this tragedy, the song became a big hit, reaching #4 on the pop chart and #1 on the R&B chart, and went on to be covered by many other acts, including The Rolling Stones.\n\nThe Leiber & Stoller/Atlantic partnership was enormously successful, but by 1962 the relationship was deteriorating. The duo reportedly resented the credit accorded to Spector, but their own artistic and financial demands alienated the Atlantic executives. From the beginning, Miriam Bienstock \"couldn't see why it was necessary to use them\" and they infuriated Jerry Wexler by asking for producers' credits on record labels and sleeves, although this was grudgingly granted. The breaking point came when duo asked for a producer's royalty, which was also granted informally, but their accountant insisted on a written contract and also requested an audit of Atlantic's accounts. When this was carried out (over Jerry Wexler's strenuous objections) it was found that Leiber and Stoller had been underpaid by $18,000. Although Leiber considered dropping the matter, Stoller insisted on pressing Atlantic for payment, but when they presented their request, Wexler exploded, telling them it would mean the end of their relationship with Atlantic. Leiber and Stoller backed down but the showdown ended the partnership anyway: Ertegun and Wexler told them they would not be involved in The Drifters' next recording, giving the assignment to Phil Spector. Atlantic quickly filled the gap left by Leiber and Stoller's departure with the hiring of producer and songwriter Bert Berns, who had recently scored a major hit with his remake of \"Twist and Shout\" for The Isley Brothers.\n\nThe ramifications of the split continued after Leiber and Stoller left Atlantic: in 1963 they set up Red Bird Records with George Goldner. Although they scored major hits (including The Dixie Cups' \"Chapel of Love\" and The Shangri-Las \"Leader of the Pack\"), the label's business position was precarious, so in late 1964 they approached Jerry Wexler, proposing a merger with Atlantic. When interviewed in 1990 for Ertegun's biography, Wexler declined to discuss the matter, but Ertegun himself claimed that these negotiations soon developed into a plan to buy him out. At this time (September 1964), the Ertegun brothers and Wexler were in the process of buying out the company's other two shareholders, Dr. Sabit and Miriam Bienstock and it was proposed (presumably by Wexler) that Leiber and Stoller would buy Sabit's shares. Leiber, Stoller, Goldner, and Wexler pitched their plan to Ertegun at a fateful lunch meeting at the Plaza Hotel in New York. Though Leiber and Stoller were adamant it was not their intention to buy Ertegun out, Ahmet was aggravated by Goldner's high-handed attitude and became convinced that Wexler was conspiring with them. Wexler then told Ertegun that if he refused, Wexler would do the deal without him, but this was impossible since the Ertegun brothers still held the majority share, while Wexler only controlled about 20%. Ertegun nursed a lifelong grudge against Leiber and Stoller and the affair drove an irreparable wedge between Ertegun and Wexler. \n\nStax\n\nAtlantic was doing so well in early 1959 that some scheduled releases were held back and the company enjoyed two successive months of gross sales of over $1 million that summer, thanks to hits by The Coasters, The Drifters, LaVern Baker, Ray Charles, Bobby Darin and Clyde McPhatter However, only months later the company was reeling from the successive loss of its two biggest artists, Bobby Darin and Ray Charles, who together accounted for one third of sales. Darin, who moved to the Los Angeles area, signed with Capitol Records. Charles signed a deal with ABC-Paramount Records in November 1959 that reportedly included increased royalties, a production deal, profit-sharing and eventual ownership of his master tapes. Wexler later commented; \"It was very grim. I thought we were going to die\" and Ertegun in 1990 disputed whether Charles had received the promised benefits. It led to a permanent rift between Charles and his former colleagues, although Ertegun remained good friends with Darin who returned to Atlantic in 1966. Charles returned to Atlantic in 1977. \n\nThrough 1961-62 Leiber and Stoller's successes maintained the label's fortunes, and these were further enhanced by a licensing deal with a small Memphis-based independent label Stax Records, which would soon prove to be of enormous value. In 1960, Atlantic's Memphis distributor Buster Williams contacted Wexler and told him he was pressing large quantities of \"Cause I Love You\", a duet between Memphis-based singers Carla Thomas and her father Rufus Thomas, which was released on a small local label called Satellite (which was soon renamed Stax Records, from the names of the owners, Jim Stewart and Estelle Axton, in 1961). Wexler contacted the co-owner of Satellite, Jim Stewart, who agreed to lease the record to Atlantic for $1000 plus a small royalty (the first money the label had ever made). The deal included a $5000 payment against a five-year option on all other records. When Carla Thomas' first solo single, \"Gee Whiz (Look at his Eyes)\" began to attract national attention in 1961 New York producer Hy Weiss, went to Memphis to try to acquire the rights, but after examining the contract he told Wexler it gave Atlantic options on all Satellite recordings for the next five years. Wexler subsequently claimed he had been unaware of this: \"The lawyers did it and I didn't read every contract.\" Wexler and Stewart and discussed the deal and according to Wexler's account, \"... there was no acrimony. Everything was fine and we picked up the record. Then we really rolled with Stax.\"\n\nThe Atlantic deal marked the start of a hugely successful eight-year association between the two labels, giving Stax access to Atlantic's promotions and distribution, and it meant easy money for Atlantic, as Wexler later conceded:\n\n\"...it was certainly biased on our favor. We didn't pay for the masters ... Jim paid for the masters and then he would send us a finished tape and we would put it out. Our costs began at the production level - the pressing, and distribution, and promotion, and advertising.\" \n\nThe deal to distribute Satellite's \"Last Night\" by The Mar-Keys on the Satellite label marked the first time Atlantic began marketing outside tracks on a non-Atlantic label. When Stewart discovered there was another label in California called Satellite Records, he changed the name of his label to Stax.\n\nAtlantic began pressing and distributing Stax records and Wexler soon sent Tom Dowd to upgrade Stax's recording equipment and facilities. Wexler was impressed by the easy-going, cooperative atmosphere at the Stax studios and by the distinctive sound of the label's racially integrated group of 'house' musicians (which he described as \"an unthinkably great band\") and he was soon bringing Atlantic artists to Memphis to record. Shortly afterwards Stewart and Wexler hired Al Bell, then working as a DJ at a Washington DC radio station, to take over national promotion of Stax releases, the first African-American partner in the label.\n\nIn 1962 the Stax deal began to reap major rewards for both labels. An after-hours jam by members of the Stax house band resulted in the classic instrumental \"Green Onions\". In conversation with BBC Radio 2 DJ Johnnie Walker on September 7, 2008, guitarist Steve Cropper revealed that the record became an instant success when DJ Reuben Washington played it four times in succession on Memphis radio station WLOK, before either the tune or the band had an agreed-upon name. The single was issued nationally in August 1962, by which time the band had been dubbed Booker T & the MGs; \"Green Onions\" became the biggest instrumental hit of the year, reaching #1 on the R&B chart and #3 on the pop chart, where it stayed for 16 weeks, and it sold over one million copies, earning a gold record award.\n\n1962 also saw the Stax debut of Otis Redding, who had been Johnny Jenkins' driver and was allowed to record several songs at the end of one of Jenkins' sessions, among them his own \"These Arms of Mine\", which was released on Stax's Volt subsidiary and became a minor hit in the south. Over the next five years Redding would become one of Stax's most important artists. During 1965 Redding broke through into the national charts; \"Mr. Pitiful\" reached #10 on the soul chart and just missed out on the pop Top 40, followed by \"I've Been Loving You Too Long\", which made #2 on the soul chart and peaked at #21. \"Respect\" also performed strongly, reaching #4 on the soul chart and #35 on the pop chart. \n\nOver the next five years Stax and its subsidiary Volt provided Atlantic with a tremendous run of success, and many Atlantic artists were taken to Memphis to record. Among the many hits recorded by (or at) Stax between 1963 and 1967 were Rufus Thomas' \"Walking The Dog\", Otis Redding's \"Respect\", his classic version of \"Try A Little Tenderness\" and \"Tramp\", his hit duet with Carla Thomas, Eddie Floyd's \"Knock On Wood\" and The Bar-Kays' \"Soul Finger\". Sam & Dave were signed to Atlantic but recorded at Stax at Jerry Wexler's suggestion; with the Stax band and the writing team of Isaac Hayes and David Porter, the duo scored eight consecutive R&B Top 20 hits including \"You Don't Know Like I Know\", \"Hold On, I'm Coming\", \"When Something Is Wrong With My Baby\", \"Soul Man\" and \"I Thank You; Wilson Pickett scored hits with \"In The Midnight Hour\", \"634-5789\", \"Land of 1000 Dances\", \"Mustang Sally\", \"Funky Broadway\" and \"I'm In Love\".\n\nSome of Pickett's earlier hits were recorded at Stax, but in early 1966 Jim Stewart banned all non-Stax productions from the studio, so Atlantic began using other southern studios, notably Rick Hall's FAME Studios in Muscle Shoals, Alabama, and the American Group Productions studio in Memphis, run by former Stax producer Chips Moman.\n\nThe soul years, 1962–1967\n\nIn late 1961 singer Solomon Burke arrived at Jerry Wexler's office unannounced. Wexler was a fan of Burke's and had long wanted to sign him so when Burke told Wexler his contract with his former label had expired Wexler replied: \"You're home. I'm signing you today\". The first song Wexler produced with Burke was \"Just Out of Reach\", which became a big hit in September 1961. Burke's the soul/country & western crossover predated Ray Charles' similar venture by more than 6 months. Burke became a consistent big seller through the mid-1960s and scored hits on Atlantic into 1968. In 1962 folk music was booming and the label came very close to signing Peter, Paul & Mary; although Wexler and Ertegun pursued them vigorously the deal fell through at the last minute and they later discovered music publisher Artie Mogull had introduced their manager Albert Grossman to Warner Bros. Records executive Herman Starr, who had made the trio an irresistible offer that gave them complete creative control over the recording and packaging of their music. \n\nDoris Troy signed with Atlantic in early 1963 and in June scored a major hit with \"Just One Look\", which she co-wrote and which reached #3 on the R&B chart and #10 on the pop chart. She scored another UK hit with \"What'cha Gonna Do About It\" and went on to a long and a successful career as a backing vocalist on many Dusty Springfield hits and with other famous acts including Pink Floyd, George Harrison and Nick Drake. \"Just One Look\" has been covered by many other artists including The Hollies, whose version became a major hit in the UK and gave the group its first US chart placing in 1964.\n\n1967-68 was a peak period for Atlantic, as the string of hits coming from the Stax roster was augmented by the tremendous crossover success of Aretha Franklin, who shot to fame virtually overnight, becoming the preeminent female soul artist of the era, and earning the title \"Queen of Soul\". Wexler signed Franklin in January 1967 after the expiry of her contract with Columbia Records, who had unsuccessfully tried to market her as a jazz singer. In late 1966 a Columbia executive asked Jerry Wexler what he was going to do with Franklin, to which he replied \"we're gonna put her back in church\". Wexler was determined to return Franklin to her gospel roots and personally took over her production at FAME Studios in Muscle Shoals, crucially allowing her to establish the \"feel\" of the songs by singing while accompanying herself on piano. Although the session was fraught with tension (mainly due to the fractious presence of Aretha's then husband and manager, Ted White), it yielded a double-sided hit which initiated a run of seven consecutive singles that made both the US pop and soul Top 10, and of which five were million-sellers; \"I Never Loved A Man (The Way I Love You)\" (b/w \"Do Right Woman\") (soul #1, pop #9), \"Respect\" (soul and pop #1), \"Baby, I Love You\" (soul #1, pop #4), \"(You Make Me Feel Like) A Natural Woman\" (soul #2, pop #8), \"Chain of Fools\" (soul #1, pop #2), \"Since You've Been Gone\" (1968, soul #1, pop #5) and \"Think\" (1968, soul #1, pop #7).\n\nThe mid-1960s British Invasion led Atlantic to change its British distributor, since Decca did not give Atlantic access to its British recording artists, who mainly appeared in the U.S. via their U.S. subsidiary London Records. In 1966 Atlantic signed a new reciprocal licensing deal with Polydor Records. Thanks to Polydor's recent distribution deal with Robert Stigwood's Reaction label, the deal included newly formed British \"supergroup\" Cream, whose debut album was released on Atco in late 1966. In May 1967 the group came to Atlantic's New York studio to record their US breakthrough LP Disraeli Gears with Tom Dowd; it became a Top 5 LP in both the US and the UK, with the single \"Sunshine of Your Love\" reaching #5 on the Billboard Hot 100. Although Jerry Wexler was dismissive of the new developments in popular music—derisively dubbing the new generation of (predominantly white) musicians as \"the rockoids\" —Cream's American success marked the beginning of Atlantic's hugely successful diversification into the exploding rock music market, which would reap enormous rewards in the 1970s with signings such as Led Zeppelin, Yes, Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young and Bad Company.\n\nIn late 1966 rising Los Angeles group Buffalo Springfield were signed to the Atco label, and in early 1967 they scored a major US hit with their second single, \"For What It's Worth\", which made the national Top 10, sold over 1 million copies and earned a gold record award. Despite this early breakthrough and Ahmet Ertegun's high hopes for the band, internal tensions and the drug-related deportation of Canadian-born bassist Bruce Palmer led to the band splitting up in May 1968 without achieving any further hits. However former members Stephen Stills and Neil Young would go on to play a major role in Atlantic's rock success as members of 1970s supergroup Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young.\n\nIn 1965 Jerry Wexler signed Los Angeles duo Sonny & Cher to Atco and their first single for the label became an international smash hit; \"I Got You Babe\" spent three weeks at #1 on the Billboard Hot 100 and sold more than million copies in the USA, as well as reaching #1 in the UK, where it sold 780,000 copies. Over the next three years the duo scored a string of hits, with a total of five Top 20 US singles including the #6 hit \"The Beat Goes On\" (1967), and their debut album Look At Us reached #2 on the US album chart in 1965.\n\nAcquisition by Warner Bros.-Seven Arts\n\nDespite the huge success Atlantic was enjoying with its own artists and through its deal with Stax, by 1967 Jerry Wexler was seriously concerned about the disintegration of the old order of independent record companies and, fearing for the label's future, he began agitating for it to be sold to a larger company. Label president Ahmet Ertegun still had no desire to sell, but the balance of power had changed since the abortive takeover attempt of 1962; Atlantic's original investor Dr Vahdi Sabit and minority stockholder Miriam Bienstock had both been bought out in September 1964 and the other remaining partner, Nesuhi Ertegun, was eventually convinced to side with Wexler. Since they jointly held more stock, Ahmet was obliged to agree to the sale.\n\nIn October 1967 Atlantic was sold to Warner Bros.-Seven Arts for US$17.5 million, although all the partners later agreed that it was a poor deal which greatly undervalued Atlantic's true worth. Initially, Atlantic and Atco operated entirely separately from the group's other labels, Warner Bros. Records and Reprise Records, and management did not interfere with the music division, since the ailing movie division was losing money, while the Warner recording division was booming - by mid-1968 Warner's recording and publishing interests were generating 74% of the group's total profits. \n\nThe sale of Atlantic Records activated a clause in the distribution agreement with Stax Records calling for renegotiation of the distribution deal and at this point the Stax partners discovered that the deal gave Atlantic ownership of all the Stax recordings Atlantic distributed. The new Warner owners refused to relinquish ownership of the Stax masters, so the distribution deal ended on May 1968. Atlantic continues to hold the rights to Stax recordings they distributed in the 1960s.\n\nIn the wake of the takeover, Jerry Wexler's influence in the company rapidly diminished; by his own admission, he and Ertegun had run Atlantic as \"utmost despots\" but in the new corporate structure, he found himself unwilling to accept the delegation of responsibility that his executive role dictated. He was also alienated from the \"rockoid\" white acts that were quickly becoming the label's most profitable commodities, and dispirited by the rapidly waning fortunes of the black acts he had championed, such as Ben E. King and Solomon Burke. Wexler ultimately decided to leave New York and move to Florida. Following his departure, Ertegun—who had previously taken little interest in Atlantic's business affairs—took decisive control of the label and quickly became a major force in the expanding Warner music group.\n\nDuring 1968 Atlantic established a new subsidiary label, Cotillion Records. The label was originally formed as an outlet for blues and deep Southern soul; its first single, Otis Clay's version of \"She's About A Mover\", was an R&B hit. Cotillion's catalog quickly expanded to include progressive rock, folk-rock, gospel, jazz and comedy. In 1976, the label started focusing on disco and R&B. Among its acts were the post-Curtis Mayfield Impressions, Slave, Brook Benton, Jean Knight, Mass Production, Sister Sledge, The Velvet Underground, Stacy Lattisaw, Lou Donaldson, Mylon LeFevre, Stevie Woods, Johnny Gill, Emerson, Lake & Palmer, Garland Green, The Dynamics, The Fabulous Counts, and The Fatback Band. Cotillion was also responsible for launching the career of Luther Vandross, who recorded for the label as part of the trio Luther. Cotillion also released the triple-albums soundtrack of the Woodstock festival film in 1970. From 1970 it also distributed Embryo Records, founded by jazz flautist Herbie Mann after his earlier Atlantic contract had expired.\n\nIn addition to establishing Cotillion, Atlantic began expanding its own roster to include rock, soul/rock, progressive rock, British bands and singer songwriters. Two female artists were personally signed by Wexler, with album releases in 1969, Dusty Springfield (Dusty in Memphis) and Lotti Golden (Motor-Cycle),Barry, Thomas (September 9, 1969). \"The Salty Socking Soul of Lotti Golden\". Look, pp. 76,76,78 although Golden also had a close working relationship with Ertegun, who was instrumental in her signing with the label. By 1969, the Atlantic 8000 series (1968–72) consisted of R&B, rock, soul/rock and psychedelic acts. Other releases that year include albums by Aretha Franklin (Soul '69), Led Zeppelin (Led Zeppelin), Don Covay (House of Blue Lights), Boz Scaggs (Boz Scaggs), Roberta Flack (First Take), Wilson Pickett (Hey Jude), Mott The Hoople (Mott The Hoople), and Black Pearl, (Black Pearl).\n\nIn 1969 Warner Bros.-Seven Arts was taken over by the Kinney National Company, and in the early 1970s the group was rebadged as Warner Communications. After buying Elektra Records and its sister label Nonesuch Records in 1970, Kinney combined the operations of all of its record labels under a new holding company, WEA, and also known as Warner Music Group. WEA was also used as a label for distributing the company's artists outside North America. In January 1970, Ahmet Ertegun was successful in his executive battle against Warner Bros. Records president Mike Maitland to keep Atlantic Records autonomous and as a result Maitland was fired by Kinney president Steve Ross. Ertegun recommended Mo Ostin to succeed Maitland as Warner Bros. Records president. With Ertegun's power at Warners now secure, Atlantic was able to successfully maintain autonomy through the parent company reorganizations and continue to do their own marketing, while WEA handled distribution.\n\nThe rock era\n\nOver the course of the 1970s, Atlantic - until then regarded as the pre-eminent American R&B/soul label - rapidly reinvented itself as a major force on the burgeoning rock music scene and, thanks to a string of lucrative signings, the Atlantic roster soon boasted some of the most popular and successful rock acts in the world. Ahmet Ertegun unquestionably led this change, but much credit should also be accorded to label executive Jerry L. Greenberg and A&R manager John Kalodner, both of whom came to prominence at Atlantic in this period.\n\nIt is notable that many of the biggest rock acts on the Atlantic roster in this period were British (including Led Zeppelin, Genesis, Yes, Bad Company and Phil Collins) and this was largely due to the influence of Ahmet Ertegun. According to Greenberg, Ertegun had long seen the UK as a prime source of untapped musical talent and at his urging, Greenberg was soon visiting the UK six or seven times each year in search of new signings. \n\nFor much of its early history, Jerry Wexler had effectively been the \"day-to-day\" manager of the label, while Ertegun had concentrated in A&R and had shown comparatively less interest in the business side of the operation - but that changed rapidly after the sale to Warner. Although Ertegun had been forced into accepting the sale, he adroitly turned the situation to his advantage - he quickly gained executive control of the label, and was also soon wielding considerable influence in the larger Warner group. By contrast, Wexler was disenchanted by Atlantic's move into \"white rock\"; during the early 1970s he gradually drifted away from the label, and he officially left the company in 1975. It was Wexler's protégé Jerry L. Greenberg who filled the breach left by his departure, and alongside Ertegun, Greenberg played a major role in Atlantic 's success in the 1970s.\n\nGreenberg's meteoric rise to prominence at Atlantic saw him go from personal assistant to label president in just seven years. As a teenager, he drummed for his own group, Jerry Green and The Passengers, which recorded for several labels (including Atlantic) in the late 1950s, and by eighteen he had founded his own independent label. He began his professional career in the music industry in the early 1960s as a \"plugger\", promoting newly released records to radio stations. In 1967, on the strength of Greenberg's success in promoting Percy Sledge's hit \"When a Man Loves a Woman\", Wexler hired Greenberg as his personal assistant, and over the next few years he mentored Greenberg in recording, producing, finding songs, and the day-to-day tasks of running a major label.\n\nGreenberg: \"When I came to work for him (Wexler) one of the first assignments he gave me was to find songs for Dusty Springfield for the Dusty in Memphis album. Jerry taught me the day-to-day aspects of the record business, which was finding songs, how to call disc jockeys, how to check sales, marketing ... all of that. When they sold the company (to Warner) Jerry went to Florida and started making records down there and that’s when I really became close with Ahmet. When Ahmet signed The Rolling Stones in 1971 he took me to France to meet Mick Jagger. That’s when I really became Ahmet’s protégé. I learned from Ahmet, first of all, about music and, secondly, how you treat artist and the whole creative system that goes with treating an artist. The Rolling Stones didn’t turn out a record every two years. They put one out when creatively they were ready to write songs. I was a musician and all of our artists recognized that and I think that is why I got along with them so well. I was never intimidated by Robert Plant or Belushi or the Bee Gees or the Eagles. I told them what I thought about the record. I told them if I thought they had a hit single or not. In case of a tie the artist won. It was that simple. Ahmet really taught me how to be a diplomat when it came to certain situations with artist and managers and it was an extremely wonderful relationship. It was almost like a father son relationship.\"\n\nIn 1969 Greenberg was appointed as General Manager of the label. In the early 1970s, with Wexler now spending most of his time in Miami, Greenberg began working closely with Ertegun, who recognised his ability and promoted him rapidly. By 1972 Greenberg held the dual titles of Vice President of Radio Promotion, and Vice President of Artists and Repertoire, and in 1974 Ertegun - by now Chairman of the company - appointed him President of Atlantic Records, making Greenberg, at just 32, the youngest-ever president of a major recording company.\n\nAtlantic's success with rock acts had begun with Cream, and it was another British hard rock group who became its next major discovery. In late October 1968 music manager Peter Grant flew to New York with tapes of the debut album by a new British rock band called Led Zeppelin. Ertegun and Wexler already knew of the group's leader, Jimmy Page, through his tenure in The Yardbirds, and their favourable opinion was reinforced by Dusty Springfield, who strongly recommended that Atlantic should sign the new band. When Grant met with Ertegun and Wexler, a deal was quickly drawn up. On November 23 Atlantic issued a press release announcing the signing of Led Zeppelin to an exclusive five-year contract, one of the \"most substantial\" in the label's history; although not disclosed at the time, this included an advance of $US200,000. Zeppelin recorded directly for Atlantic Records from 1968 to 1973 and after that contract expired, they founded their own \"vanity\" label, Swan Song Records and signed a distribution deal with Atlantic (after being turned down by other labels). The arrival of Led Zeppelin proved timely for Atlantic's future as a rock label - one month after their signing, Atlantic's flagship rock act Cream played their farewell concert at the Royal Albert Hall in London (supported, coincidentally, by another up-and-coming new band, Yes, who were themselves signed to Atlantic early the next year).\n\nAtlantic's next major breakthrough came with one of rock's first \"supergroups\", although the label almost lost what proved to be one of the most successful signings in its history. In 1969 Stephen Stills was still signed to Atlantic under the contract dating from his tenure in Buffalo Springfield. His agent David Geffen came to Jerry Wexler to ask for Stills to be released from his Atlantic contract, because Geffen wanted Stills' new group to sign with Columbia Records. Wexler lost his temper and threw Geffen out of his office, but fortunately Geffen called Ahmet Ertegun the next day, and Ertegun persuaded Geffen to convince Clive Davis at Columbia Records to let Atlantic sign the new group, Crosby Stills & Nash. \n\nThe trio was formed following a chance meeting between members of three leading 1960s pop groups - Stephen Stills, David Crosby of The Byrds and Graham Nash of The Hollies). Stills and Crosby had been friends since the early 1960s; Nash had first met Crosby in the mid-1960s when The Byrds toured the UK, and he renewed the friendship when The Hollies toured the US in mid-1968. By this time creative tensions within The Hollies were coming to a head, and Nash had already decided to leave the group. Fate intervened during the Hollies US tour, when Nash reunited with Crosby and met Stephen Stills (ex-Buffalo Springfield) at a party at the Los Angeles home of Cass Elliott in July 1968. After Crosby and Stills sang Stills' new composition \"You Don't Have To Cry\" that evening, Nash asked them to repeat it, and chimed in with an impromptu third harmony part. The trio's unique vocal chemistry was instantly apparent, so when Nash quit the Hollies in August 1968 and relocated to Los Angeles, the three immediately formed a trio, Crosby, Stills & Nash. After surprisingly failing their audition for Apple Records, thanks to Ertegun's intervention and intense negotiations with David Geffen, who represented Crosby and Nash, as well as Stills, they ultimately signed with Atlantic, who gave them virtually complete freedom to record their first album. The signing was complicated by the fact that Nash was still under contract to Epic Records (The Hollies' US distributor), but Ertegun used his diplomatic prowess to overcome this by arranging a 'swap' – he released former Buffalo Springfield member Richie Furay from his Atlantic contract, allowing Furay's new group Poco to sign to Epic, and in exchange Columbia Records (the parent company of Epic) allowed Nash to sign to Atlantic. In the event, Ertegun and Atlantic were the clear winners - Poco achieved moderate success for Epic, but Crosby, Stills & Nash's self-titled debut album (released in May 1969) became a huge and enduring hit - it reached #6 on the Billboard album chart, spawned two US Top 40 singles, became a multi-platinum seller and eventually earned a place in the Rolling Stone list of The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time &mdash.\n\nWith their commercial breakthrough, CSN needed to recruit extra members to allow them to tour, since Stephen Stills had played almost all the instruments on their first album. They first added session player Dallas Taylor as their drummer; Stills' former Buffalo Springfield bandmate Bruce Palmer was initially hired as the bassist, but he was subsequently removed and replaced by Motown bassist Greg Reeves before the group recorded again. It was Ertegun who suggested the final member of the quintet, another of Stills' former Buffalo Springfield bandmates, Neil Young (who was already signed to Atlantic's sister label Reprise Records as a solo artist). The new lineup embarked on a short US tour, and their profile was immeasurably enhanced by only their second live performance, which took place at the epochal Woodstock Festival.\n\nThe recording of the CSNY album displayed a previously unheard-of level of indulgence by their record company, with Stills estimating that they spent some 800 hours in the studio, although this investment was quickly recouped when Déjà Vu was released in March 1970 - it became a huge hit, reaching #1 on the Billboard album chart (also reaching #1 in Australia and #5 in the UK) and generating three hit singles. It was soon followed by another Top 20 single, the non-album track \"Ohio\". In contrast to the laboriously-recorded album tracks, Young wrote the song immediately after seeing photos of the infamous Kent State shootings in Life magazine; the group went to the studio later that day and the track was cut, live, in just a few takes; it was rush-released in June 1970, hitting the shops only weeks after the event it protested.\n\nFuelled by their huge success as a group, all four main members of CSNY released their own solo albums over the next few months: Stills, Crosby and Nash released their debut solo albums on Atlantic during 1970-71, each featuring stellar supporting casts of backing musicians alongside the other members of CSNY. (Young's After The Goldrush came out on Atlantic's sister label Reprise Records, to which Young had already signed as a solo artist). Stills' album was a major hit, reaching #3 (with the single \"Love The One You're With\" making #14 on the US singles chart); Crosby's If I Could Only Remember My Name reached #14 (and has remained in print ever since) and Nash's Songs for Beginners reached #15, with the single \"Chicago\", reaching #35. In the meantime, Atlantic had released CSNY's second album, the 2LP live set 4 Way Street, which also went to #1 and earned a gold record award, but by the time it had reached the stores the group had already split. Despite this, Atlantic enjoyed continued success with the various members - Stills' next two LPs both made the US Top 10, as did Crosby and Nash's 1972 duo album. The group briefly reformed in 1974 for a hugely successful stadium tour, and although plans for a new album were scuppered by the band's legendary infighting, the hastily compiled anthology So Far still managed to top the US album chart.\n\nConcurrently, Led Zeppelin were fast becoming one of the biggest acts in the world, earning millions for Atlantic. Despite some early negative critical reactions, their 1969 debut album took off rapidly, going Top 10 in the US and the UK, where it remained on the charts for 73 weeks and 79 weeks respectively and also charting as a Top 10 album in Spain and Australia. It has remained a consistently huge seller ever since, earning 8 platinum awards (8 million copies) for sales in the USA alone. Zeppelin's second LP was even more successful, going to #1 in the USA, Canada, Britain, Australia and Spain and earning a Grammy nomination for Best Album. It too became a massive and enduring success, selling over 12 million copies in the USA.\n\nHot on the heels of the huge success of CSNY and Led Zeppelin, British band Yes rapidly established themselves as one of the leading groups in the burgeoning progressive rock genre, and their success also played a significant part in establishing the primacy of the long-playing album as the major sales format for rock music in the 1970s. After several lineup changes during 1969-70, the band settled into its \"classic\" incarnation, with guitarist Steve Howe and keyboard player Rick Wakeman, who both joined during 1971. Although the extended length of much of their material made it somewhat difficult to promote the band with single releases, their live prowess gained them an avid following and their albums were hugely successful - their third LP The Yes Album (1971), which featured the debut of new guitarist Steve Howe, became their first big hit, reaching #4 in the UK and just scraping onto the chart in the US at #40. From this point, and notwithstanding the impact of the punk/new wave movement in the late 1970s, the band enjoyed an extraordinary run of success—beginning with their fourth album Fragile, each of the eleven albums they released between 1971 and 1991 (including the lavishly packaged live triple-album Yessongs) made the Top 20 in the USA and the UK, and the double-LP Tales of Topographic Oceans (1973) and Going For The One (1977) both reached #1 in the UK.\n\nIn the mid 1970s, Atlantic scored with another British band Bad Company, a new group including former Free vocalist Paul Rodgers and drummer Simon Kirke, ex-Mott the Hoople guitarist Mick Ralphs, and ex-King Crimson bassist Boz Burrell. Managed by Led Zeppelin's Peter Grant, and signed to Zeppelin's Swan Song label (which was distributed by Atlantic), Bad Company's first three albums were hugely successful, and the group also had five US Top 40 singles between 1974 and 1976. Their 1974 self-titled debut album went to #1 on the Billboard album chart, earning a Platinum award for sales of over 1 million copies, and they also scored two Top 20 singles with \"Can't Get Enough\" (#5) and \"Movin' On\" (#19). Their second album Straight Shooter (1975), reached #3 on the Billboard album chart and spawned another two hits, \"Good Lovin' Gone Bad\" (#No. 36) and \"Feel Like Makin' Love\"(#10). Their next LP Run With the Pack (1976) earned the group a third Platinum-certified album, reaching #5 on the Billboard chart, and their cover of the Atlantic classic \"Young Blood\" - the breakthrough hit for The Coasters back in 1957 - peaked at No. 20 on the US charts. After this run of heady success, however, their fourth album Burnin' Sky (1977) sold poorly compared to the previous three (reaching only #15 on the album chart), and the title-track single failed to reach the Top 40, only getting to #78. The band's fortunes revived with their next album, Desolation Angels (1979), which reached No. 3 on the Billboard charts and again had two charting singles: \"Rock 'n' Roll Fantasy\" (#13) and \"Gone Gone Gone\" (#56). Unfortunately, this renewed success was short-lived; manager Peter Grant lost interest in the music scene after the untimely death of his close friend, Led Zeppelin drummer John Bonham, in September 1980, and as a result both Led Zeppelin and Bad Company subsequently split up.\n\nMuch of Atlantic's renewed success as a rock label in the late 1970s can be attributed to the efforts of renowned A&R manager John Kalodner. In 1974 the former photographer, record store manager and music critic joined Atlantic's New York publicity department. In 1975 Kalodner moved to the A&R department, rose rapidly through the ranks, and in 1976 he was promoted to become Atlantic's first West Coast director of A&R. Over the next four years he was instrumental in signing a string of major acts including Foreigner, AC/DC, Peter Gabriel and Phil Collins. Kalodner built his reputation by signing acts that other labels had turned down, and perhaps the most significant example of his achievements in this area was his championing of Anglo-American band Foreigner.\n\nThe group was the brainchild of expatriate British musicians Mick Jones (ex Spooky Tooth) and Ian McDonald, one of the founding members of King Crimson. The demo tapes of the songs that eventually became their debut album (including the song \"Feels Like The First Time\") were famously rejected by almost every major label, including Atlantic - although their tenacious manager Bud Prager later revealed that, in retaliation for a previous bad deal, he deliberately didn't approach CBS (\"They had screwed me out of a lot of money, so I figured I would screw them out of Foreigner. The band was never even offered to them.\") Prager persisted with Atlantic, even though their A&R department and label president Jerry Greenberg repeatedly rejected Foreigner; it was Kalodner's dogged belief in the group (and a live audition) that finally convinced Greenberg to allow Kalodner to sign them and take them on as his personal project. Even then, Kalodner was turned down by twenty-six producers before he found someone willing to take on the project. Despite all the resistance, Kalodner's belief in Foreigner was totally vindicated by the group's massive success - their 1976 debut single \"Feels LIke The First Time\" reached #4 on the Billboard singles chart, their self-titled debut album sold more than 4 million copies, and the subsequent singles from the album kept the group in the US charts continuously for more than a year. In the years that followed, Foreigner became one of Atlantic's biggest successes, and one of the biggest-selling groups in history, scoring a string of international hits and selling more than 80 million albums worldwide, including 37.5 million albums in the USA alone.\n\nIn 1978 Atlantic finally broke the leading UK progressive group Genesis as a major act in the USA. Ahmet Ertegun had first seen them perform in the Midwest on one of their early American tours, and it was on this occasion that he also became an ardent fan of their drummer/vocalist, Phil Collins. Jerry Greenberg signed the group to Atlantic in the USA in 1973 on Ertegun's advice, but although they were very successful in Europe, Genesis remained at best a \"cult\" act in America for most of the Seventies. In the meantime, original lead singer Peter Gabriel had left the group in 1975, followed in 1977 by lead guitarist Steve Hackett, reducing the group to a three-piece. Ertegun was directly involved in the recording of the band's 1978 album ...And Then There Were Three, personally remixing the album's projected first single \"Follow You, Follow Me\". Although the group didn't use this version, it guided them in their subsequent production. Collins later commented, \"We didn't use his version, but we knew what he was getting at. He saw something more in there that wasn't coming out before.\" The released version of \"Follow You, Follow Me\" gave Genesis their first hit single in the USA, the album became their first American gold record, and the experience resulted in Ertegun and Collins becoming close friends.\n\nBy 1979 Genesis drummer/singer Phil Collins was considering branching out into a solo career. Reacting to the acrimonious breakup of his first marriage, he had begun writing and recording new songs at home, which were considerably different from the material he had been recording with Genesis. Although many in the industry reportedly discouraged him from going solo, Collins was strongly supported by Ertegun, who encouraged him to record an album after hearing the R&B-flavoured demo tapes Collins had recorded in his garage. Ertegun also insisted on changes to the song that became Collins' debut single. After hearing the song's sparsely-arranged opening section, Ertegun said: \"Where's the backbeat, man? The kids won't know where it is - you've got to put extra drums on it.\" Collins replied \"The drums come later,\" to which Ertegun retorted \"By that time the kids will have switched over to another radio station.\" Acceding to Ertegun's demand, Collins took the unusual step of overdubbing extra drums on the finished master tape, and he later commented, \"He (Ertegun) was quite right.\" \n\nAlthough his close friendship with Ertegun helped Collins launch his solo career, the fact that he eventually signed to Atlantic in the USA was apparently as much by luck as by design. By early 1980, when Collins was recording his solo album, the record industry was suffering greatly from the impact of the worldwide economic recession, and many labels were beginning to cull their rosters and drop acts that weren't providing major returns. At this same time, Genesis' contract with Atlantic was up for renewal, and Collins was yet to sign as a solo artist. As part of the negotiations, Collins and his bandmates wanted their own 'vanity' label, Duke Records, but according to Kalodner, and despite of Ertegun's personal interest, the group's demands, and their relatively modest performance in the USA made Atlantic executives ambivalent about the deal. Kalodner was overseeing the recording of Collins' solo album while Atlantic were vacillating about signing the band and Collins, but it was at this point that Kalodner was abruptly dismissed from Atlantic, although he was almost immediately recruited to head the A&R division at the newly formed Geffen Records. Angered by his unceremonious ejection from Atlantic, he alerted Geffen to Collins' availability, but to his chagrin, neither Geffen nor any other US label showed interest; He then alerted Virgin Records boss Richard Branson, who immediately contacted Collins' manager Tony Stratton Smith and signed Collins to Virgin in the UK as a solo act.\n\nUltimately, Atlantic resigned Genesis and signed up Collins to a solo contract, and when it was released later that year, Collins' debut solo single became a huge hit, Aided by its music video, which was given heavy exposure on the newly launched MTV cable music TV channel, \"In The Air Tonight\", topped the charts in many countries including the USA, and his album Face Value sold more than five million copies. Collins went on to enjoy colossal solo success in parallel with his continuing career in Genesis, and he is now recognised as one of the most successful recording artists in history, with solo sales of more than 150 million albums. Although much maligned by rock critics and the tabloid press, Collins has earned the remarkable distinction of being one of only three performers (alongside Paul McCartney and Michael Jackson) who have sold over 100 million albums worldwide both as solo artists and (separately) as principal members of a band.\n\nKalodner had also signed Collins' former bandmate Peter Gabriel, and Atlantic released the first two of Gabriel's four self-titled solo albums in America. The first album (also known as \"Car\") was moderately successful, spawning the UK hit single \"Solsbury Hill\" but his second album (a.k.a. \"Scratch\") did not fare as well, although it did reach #10 on the UK album chart. Kalodner had heard some early recordings Gabriel was making for his next album, and reportedly loved the two very commercial tracks he was played, but when the final master was delivered, the two 'commercial' tracks were missing, and Kalodner was incensed by what he felt was a very 'eccentric' and uncommercial album. In one of the rare missteps in his career, Kalodner advised Ertegun and Greenberg that they should reject the album and that they should consider dropping Gabriel from the label. Surprisingly, his advice was accepted and on Ertegun's personal approval, Gabriel's contract with Atlantic was terminated. Gabriel's third solo album (a.k.a. \"Melt\") was eventually released on the Mercury imprint and became a significant success, with the single \"Games Without Frontiers\" reaching the Top 10 in the UK and #48 on the Billboard Hot 100 in the USA.\n\nAlthough Ertegun subsequently disputed Kalodner's account of the Genesis/Collins contract saga, he agreed that the loss of Gabriel was a big mistake, and his regret about his handling of the matter was only compounded by Gabriel's subsequent success with Geffen. Much of this was due to Kalodner, who later admitted that, as soon as Gabriel was dropped from Atlantic, he realised he had made a mistake. In order to make amends to Gabriel, he alerted both CBS and Geffen to the fact that Gabriel was available, and after a bidding war, Gabriel signed with Geffen. They released his fourth solo album (a.k.a. \"Security\") in 1984 to wide acclaim, and Gabriel scored a minor US hit with the single \"Shock The Monkey\". Atlantic's regret was undoubtedly heightened when Gabriel achieved huge international success with his fifth album So (1986), which reached #1 in the UK and #2 in the USA and sold more than 5 million copies in the USA. The irony was further compounded by the fact that Gabriel scored a US #1 hit with the R&B-influenced single \"Sledgehammer\", which featured the legendary Memphis Horns, and which Gabriel later described as \"my chance to sing like Otis Redding.\"\n\nAtlantic (and the world) suffered a catastrophic loss in February 1978 when a fire destroyed most of its tape archive, which had been stored in a non-air-conditioned warehouse in Long Branch, New Jersey. Although master tapes of the material in Atlantic's released back catalog fortunately survived due to being stored in New York, the fire destroyed or damaged an estimated 5000-6000 reels of tape, including virtually all of the company's unreleased master tapes, alternate takes, rehearsal tapes and session multi-tracks recorded between 1948 and 1969. Atlantic was one of the first labels to record in stereo; many of the tapes that were lost were stereo 'alternates' recorded in the late 1940s and 1950s (which Atlantic routinely taped simultaneously with the mono versions until the 1960s) as well as almost all of the 8-track multitrack masters recorded by Tom Dowd in the 1950s and 1960s. According to Billboard journalist Bill Holland, news of the fire was kept quiet, and one Atlantic staffer who spoke to Holland reported that he did not find out about it until a year later. Fortunately, reissue producers and archivists subsequently located some tapes that were at first presumed 'lost', but which had survived because they had evidently been removed from the New Jersey archive years earlier and not returned. During the compilation of the Rhino-Atlantic John Coltrane boxed set, producer Joel Dorn located supposedly destroyed outtakes from Coltrane's seminal 1959 album Giant Steps, plus other treasures including Bobby Darin's original Atco demo of \"Dream Lover\" (with Fred Neil playing guitar). Atlantic archivists have since rediscovered other 'lost' material including unreleased masters, alternate takes and rehearsal tapes by Ray Charles, Van \"Piano Man\" Walls, Ornette Coleman, Lennie Tristano and Lee Konitz. \n\nIn May 1988, the label held a 40th Anniversary concert, broadcast on HBO. This concert, which was almost 13 hours in length, featured performances by a large number of their artists and included reunions of some rock legends like Led Zeppelin and Crosby, Stills, and Nash (being David Crosby's first full band performance since being released from prison). \n\n\"You're Pitiful\" dispute\n\nIn 2006, the label denied \"Weird Al\" Yankovic permission to release \"You're Pitiful\", a parody of James Blunt's \"You're Beautiful\", despite Blunt's own approval of the song. Atlantic said that it was too early in Blunt's career, and that they did not want Blunt to become a one-hit wonder. Although Yankovic could have legally gone ahead with the parody anyway, his record label, Volcano Entertainment, thought that it was best not to \"go to war\" with Atlantic. The parody was released onto the Internet as a free download. Later he recorded two more parodies, \"White & Nerdy\", and \"Do I Creep You Out\", to replace \"You're Pitiful\". Yankovic, afterward, began wearing T-shirts reading \"Atlantic Records sucks\" while performing live. In addition, the music video for \"White & Nerdy\" depicts Yankovic vandalizing the Wikipedia article on Atlantic Records, replacing the whole page with \"YOU SUCK!\" in excessively large type (which spawned copycat vandalism). \n\nRecent developments\n\nWarner Communications merged with Time Inc. (owners of the aforementioned HBO) in 1990, forming Time Warner. That same year, Jimmy Iovine founded Interscope Records, in which Atlantic owned a 50% stake. Interscope released notable gangsta rap titles — many in conjunction with Death Row Records. Pressure from activist groups opposed to gangsta rap, however, later led to parent company Time Warner's decision to sell Atlantic's stake in the label to MCA in 1995. \n\nA country music division, which was founded in the 1980s, was closed in 2001. This branch included acts such as Neal McCoy, Tracy Lawrence and John Michael Montgomery, all of whom were transferred to Warner Bros. Records' Nashville division. The Atlantic Nashville division was revived in 2008 with Zac Brown Band and Jesse Lee being signed to it.\n\nTime Warner sold Warner Music Group to a group of investors for $2.6 billion in late 2003. The deal closed in early 2004, consolidating Elektra Records and Atlantic into one label operated in the eastern United States.\n\nIn 2007, the label celebrated its 60th anniversary with the May 2 PBS broadcast of the American Masters documentary Atlantic Records: The House that Ahmet Built and the simultaneous Starbucks CD release of Atlantic 60th Anniversary: R&B Classics Chosen By Ahmet Ertegun. \n\nThat year also saw Atlantic reach a milestone for major record labels: \"More than half of its music sales in the United States are now from digital products, like downloads on iTunes and ring tones for cellphones\", doing so \"without seeing as steep of a decline in Compact Disc sales as the rest of the industry.\" \n\nNotable sublabels\n\n1017 Brick Squad Records\nBig Beat Records\nBig Tree Records\nCotillion Records\nEardrum Records\nFinnadar Records \nFirst Priority Music\nGrand Hustle Records\nLaSalle Records\nMaybach Music Group\nStone Flower Records\nTAG Recordings\nVortex Records\nFueled by Ramen", "ATCO Records is an American record company and label founded in 1955 as a division of Atlantic Records. It was devised as an outlet for productions by one of Atlantic's founders, Herb Abramson, who had returned to the company from military service. It was also intended as a home for acts that did not fit the format of Atlantic, which was releasing blues, jazz, rhythm and blues, and soul. The Atco name is an abbreviation of ATlantic COrporation. Atco also provided distribution for other labels, including RSO Records, Volt, Island, Modern, Ruthless, and Rolling Stones Records.\n\nHistory\n\n1960s–1970s\n\nFor most of its history, Atco was known for pop music and rock and roll, but during its early years it produced some jazz albums. These included Harry Arnold, Betty Carter, King Curtis, Herb Geller, Roland Hanna, and Helen Merrill. \n\nAtco's rock era began with Bobby Darin and The Coasters. In the early 1960s Atlantic began to license material from international sources, leading to instrumental hit singles from Jorgen Ingmann, Acker Bilk, and Bent Fabric. Starting in the mid-1960s, Atco moved into rock and roll with Sonny and Cher, Buffalo Springfield, Vanilla Fudge, and Cream.\n\nIn 1964 Atco released a single in the U.S. by The Beatles, \"Ain't She Sweet\"; (flip side \"Nobody's Child\", with lead singer Tony Sheridan), which had been recorded in Hamburg in 1961. With lead vocals by John Lennon, \"Ain't She Sweet\" reached #19 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart in August 1964. Atco also released an album entitled Ain't She Sweet which featured the other two tracks by Sheridan and the Beatles from the Hamburg session and filled out by eight other songs covered by The Swallows.\n\nIn 1966 Atco released \"Substitute\" by The Who. The song was issued through an arrangement with UK Polydor Records because of the dispute the Who was having with their producer, Shel Talmy, and their contract with U.S. Decca Records and UK Brunswick Records. This would be the only Who recording to appear on Atco, although Pete Townshend and John Entwistle would eventually sign to Atco as solo artists.\n\nAtlantic de-emphasized Atco in the mid-1970s, using the label mostly for hard rock acts and some British and European bands. In the mid-1970s, Atco issued early albums from AC/DC. Starting in 1978, AC/DC releases were issued on Atlantic until their contract with the label ended in the 1990s.\n\n1980s–1990s\n\nIn 1980 Atco's visibility rose with strong chart performances from Pete Townshend's Empty Glass album and the song \"Cars\" by Gary Numan. The last number one hit on Atco was \"If Wishes Came True\" by Sweet Sensation in 1990. In 1991, Sylvia Rhone merged Atco with Atlantic's fledgling EastWest Records America label and briefly operated the combination as Atco–East West Records America. By 1994, the Atco name was dropped and the label continued operating as EastWest Records America, which then switched to sister label Elektra Records for distribution. Since then, the Atco name and logo appeared only on reissues of old material through Elektra. As of mid-2005, its most recent release (in a joint venture with Rhino Records) was the soundtrack of the Bobby Darin biopic Beyond the Sea, which starred Kevin Spacey and featured his renditions of Darin's songs.\n\nRevival\n\nIn 2006, Warner Music Group reactivated Atco Records in conjunction with Rhino Entertainment. Scarlett Johansson, Keith Sweat, and Art Garfunkel were among the first artists signed to the label. Garfunkel issued Some Enchanted Evening on January 30, 2007. Johansson issued Anywhere I Lay My Head on May 20, 2008. Queensrÿche released its American Soldier album on Atco on March 31, 2009. The New York Dolls released its album Cause I Sez So on Atco on May 5, 2009.\n\nRoster\n\nThe following is a list of artists who have recorded for Atco Records.\n\n* AC/DC (outside Australia)\n* Airrace\n* Allman Brothers Band (Capricorn/Atco)\n* Steve Arrington\n* Back Street Crawler\n* Barrabás\n* The Beatles (US)\n* Bad Company\n* Badger\n* Ginger Baker (including Ginger Baker's Air Force and Baker Gurvitz Army) (US/Canada)\n* Jeff Beck\n* Bee Gees (US/Canada)\n* Chuck Berry\n* Mr Acker Bilk (US/Canada)\n* Black Oak Arkansas\n* Blackfoot\n* Blind Faith (US/Canada)\n* Blue Mountain Eagle\n* Blue Magic\n* Blues Image\n* Sonny Bono (as \"Sonny\")\n* Brooklyn Brothers\n* Jack Bruce (US/Canada)\n* Buffalo Springfield\n* Cactus\n* The Capitols\n* Jim Carroll\n* Change\n* Cher\n* Corina\n* Eric Clapton (US/Canada)\n* The Coasters\n* Natalie Cole (Modern/Atco) \n* Arthur Conley\n* Cream (US/Canada)\n* Cross Country\n* Bobby Darin\n* Spencer Davis Group (US/Canada)\n* Delaney & Bonnie and Friends\n* The D.O.C. (Ruthless/Atco)\n* Dr. John\n* Dream Theater\n* Dave Edmunds\n* Jonathan Edwards (Capricorn/Atco)\n* Eight Seconds\n* Electric Boys\n* Enuff Z Nuff\n* Envy\n* John Entwistle\n* Julie Driscoll, Brian Auger & The Trinity\n* Bent Fabric and his Piano\n* Scott Fagan\n* Fat Mattress\n* Fatback\n* The Fireballs\n* Tricia Leigh Fisher\n* Flies on Fire\n* Focus (US/Canada)\n* The Fourmost\n* Peter Gabriel (US/Canada)\n* Art Garfunkel\n* Genesis (US/Canada)\n* R.B. Greaves\n* Tim Hardin\n* Gordon Haskell\n* Donny Hathaway\n* Hawkwind\n* Horslips (US)\n* Humble Pie\n* Steve Hunter\n* Jorgen Ingmann\n* INXS (US/Canada)\n* Iron Butterfly\n* Deon Jackson (Carla)\n* James Gang\n* J.J. Fad (Ruthless/Atco)\n* Robbin Julien \n* Scarlett Johansson\n* Juicy Lucy\n* Michael Kamen\n* Ben E. King\n* King Curtis\n* Last Words\n* Bettye LaVette\n* Lime (Critique/Atco)\n* Lindisfarne\n* Loudness\n* Lulu\n* Manowar\n* Penny McLean\n* Michel'le (Ruthless/Atco)\n* New York Dolls\n* New York Rock and Roll Ensemble\n* Stevie Nicks (Modern/Atco) (US/Canada)\n* Nina & Frederik (US/Canada)\n* Gary Numan (US/Canada)\n* Outlaw Blood\n* Pantera\n* Pat & The Satellites\n* The Persuaders\n* Pleasure Bombs\n* Queensrÿche\n* The Raindogs\n* Otis Redding\n* Ann Richards\n* Bob Rivers (Critique/Atco)\n* The Robins\n* The Rose Garden\n* Rowan & Martin\n* Roxy Music (US/Canada)\n* Shadows Of Knight (Dunwich/Atco)\n* Shannon (Mirage/Atco)\n* The Sherbs\n* Kym Sims\n* Slave\n* P.F. Sloan\n* Sonny & Cher\n* Southside Johnny & the Jukes (Mirage/Atco)\n* Keith Sweat\n* Sweet Sensation\n* The System (Mirage/Atco)\n* Taffy\n* Tangier\n* Livingston Taylor (Capricorn/Atco)\n* Nino Tempo & April Stevens\n* Nolan Thomas (Mirage/Atco)\n* Pete Townshend (US/Canada)\n* The Troggs\n* Vandenberg\n* Vanilla Fudge\n* Jerry Jeff Walker\n* Dee Dee Warwick\n* Stevie Wright\n* Yes\n* Yomo & Maulkie (Ruthless/Atco)" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Bobby Darrin", "Bobby Darren", "Gyp the Cat", "Robert Cassotto", "Bobby Darin", "Bobby darin", "The Rinky Dinks", "Bobby daren", "Walden Robert Cassotto" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "gyp cat", "bobby daren", "bobby darren", "rinky dinks", "bobby darrin", "walden robert cassotto", "robert cassotto", "bobby darin" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "bobby darin", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Bobby Darin" }
Who took the assumed name Sebastian Melmoth when living in Paris?	tc_676	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Oscar_Wilde.txt" ], "title": [ "Oscar Wilde" ], "wiki_context": [ "Oscar Fingal O'Flahertie Wills Wilde (16 October 1854 - 30 November 1900) was an Irish playwright, novelist, essayist, and poet. After writing in different forms throughout the 1880s, he became one of London's most popular playwrights in the early 1890s. He is remembered for his epigrams, his novel The Picture of Dorian Gray, his plays, as well as the circumstances of his imprisonment and early death.\n\nWilde's parents were successful Anglo-Irish Dublin intellectuals. Their son became fluent in French and German early in life. At university, Wilde read Greats; he proved himself to be an outstanding classicist, first at Dublin, then at Oxford. He became known for his involvement in the rising philosophy of aestheticism, led by two of his tutors, Walter Pater and John Ruskin. After university, Wilde moved to London into fashionable cultural and social circles. \n\nAs a spokesman for aestheticism, he tried his hand at various literary activities: he published a book of poems, lectured in the United States and Canada on the new \"English Renaissance in Art\", and then returned to London where he worked prolifically as a journalist. Known for his biting wit, flamboyant dress and glittering conversation, Wilde became one of the best-known personalities of his day.\n\nAt the turn of the 1890s, he refined his ideas about the supremacy of art in a series of dialogues and essays, and incorporated themes of decadence, duplicity, and beauty into his only novel, The Picture of Dorian Gray (1890). The opportunity to construct aesthetic details precisely, and combine them with larger social themes, drew Wilde to write drama. He wrote Salome (1891) in French in Paris but it was refused a licence for England due to the absolute prohibition of Biblical subjects on the English stage. Unperturbed, Wilde produced four society comedies in the early 1890s, which made him one of the most successful playwrights of late Victorian London.\n\nAt the height of his fame and success, while his masterpiece, The Importance of Being Earnest (1895), was still on stage in London, Wilde had the Marquess of Queensberry prosecuted for libel. The Marquess was the father of Wilde's lover, Lord Alfred Douglas. The charge carried a penalty of up to two years in prison. The trial unearthed evidence that caused Wilde to drop his charges and led to his own arrest and trial for gross indecency with men. After two more trials he was convicted and imprisoned for two years' hard labour. \n\nIn 1897, in prison, he wrote De Profundis, which was published in 1905, a long letter which discusses his spiritual journey through his trials, forming a dark counterpoint to his earlier philosophy of pleasure. Upon his release he left immediately for France, never to return to Ireland or Britain. There he wrote his last work, The Ballad of Reading Gaol (1898), a long poem commemorating the harsh rhythms of prison life. He died destitute in Paris at the age of 46.\n\nEarly life\n\nOscar Wilde was born at 21 Westland Row, Dublin (now home of the Oscar Wilde Centre, Trinity College), the second of three children born to Sir William Wilde and Jane Wilde, two years behind William (\"Willie\"). Wilde's mother, under the pseudonym \"Speranza\" (the Italian word for 'Hope'), wrote poetry for the revolutionary Young Irelanders in 1848 and was a lifelong Irish nationalist. She read the Young Irelanders' poetry to Oscar and Willie, inculcating a love of these poets in her sons. Lady Wilde's interest in the neo-classical revival showed in the paintings and busts of ancient Greece and Rome in her home. William Wilde was Ireland's leading oto-ophthalmologic (ear and eye) surgeon and was knighted in 1864 for his services as medical adviser and assistant commissioner to the censuses of Ireland. He also wrote books about Irish archaeology and peasant folklore. A renowned philanthropist, his dispensary for the care of the city's poor at the rear of Trinity College, Dublin, was the forerunner of the Dublin Eye and Ear Hospital, now located at Adelaide Road. On his father's side Wilde was descended from a Dutchman, Colonel de Wilde, who went to Ireland with King William of Orange's invading army in 1690. On his mother's side Wilde's ancestors included a bricklayer from County Durham who emigrated to Ireland sometime in the 1770s. \n\nWilde was baptised as an infant in St. Mark's Church, Dublin, the local Church of Ireland (Anglican) church. When the church was closed, the records were moved to the nearby St. Ann's Church, Dawson Street. Davis Coakley references a second baptism by a Catholic priest, Father Prideaux Fox, who befriended Oscar's mother circa 1859. According to Fox's own testimony written by him years later in Donahoe's Magazine in 1905, Jane Wilde would visit his chapel in Glencree, Co Wicklow for Mass and would take her sons with her. She then asked Father Fox to baptise her sons. \nFox described it in this way:\n\n\"I am not sure if she ever became a Catholic herself but it was not long before she asked me to instruct two of her children, one of them being the future erratic genius, Oscar Wilde. After a few weeks I baptized these two children, Lady Wilde herself being present on the occasion.\" \nIn addition to his children with his wife, Sir William Wilde was the father of three children born out of wedlock before his marriage: Henry Wilson, born in 1838, and Emily and Mary Wilde, born in 1847 and 1849, respectively, of different maternity to Henry. Sir William acknowledged paternity of his illegitimate children and provided for their education, but they were reared by his relatives rather than with his wife and legitimate children. \n\nIn 1855, the family moved to No. 1 Merrion Square, where Wilde's sister, Isola, was born in 1857. The Wildes' new home was larger and, with both his parents' sociality and success, it soon became a \"unique medical and cultural milieu\". Guests at their salon included Sheridan Le Fanu, Charles Lever, George Petrie, Isaac Butt, William Rowan Hamilton and Samuel Ferguson.\n\nUntil he was nine, Oscar Wilde was educated at home, where a French and a German governess taught him their languages. He then attended Portora Royal School in Enniskillen, County Fermanagh. Until his early twenties, Wilde summered at the villa, Moytura House, his father built in Cong, County Mayo. There the young Wilde and his brother Willie played with George Moore.\n\nIsola died aged nine of meningitis. Wilde's poem \"Requiescat\" is written to her memory. \n\n \"Tread lightly, she is near\nUnder the snow\nSpeak gently, she can hear\nthe daisies grow\" \n\nUniversity education: 1870s\n\nTrinity College, Dublin\n\nWilde left Portora with a royal scholarship to read classics at Trinity College, Dublin, from 1871 to 1874, sharing rooms with his older brother Willie Wilde. Trinity, one of the leading classical schools, placed him with scholars such as R. Y. Tyrell, Arthur Palmer, Edward Dowden and his tutor, J. P. Mahaffy who inspired his interest in Greek literature. As a student Wilde worked with Mahaffy on the latter's book Social Life in Greece. Wilde, despite later reservations, called Mahaffy \"my first and best teacher\" and \"the scholar who showed me how to love Greek things\". For his part, Mahaffy boasted of having created Wilde; later, he named him \"the only blot on my tutorship\". \n\nThe University Philosophical Society also provided an education, discussing intellectual and artistic subjects such as Rossetti and Swinburne weekly. Wilde quickly became an established member – the members' suggestion book for 1874 contains two pages of banter (sportingly) mocking Wilde's emergent aestheticism. He presented a paper entitled \"Aesthetic Morality\". At Trinity, Wilde established himself as an outstanding student: he came first in his class in his first year, won a scholarship by competitive examination in his second, and then, in his finals, won the Berkeley Gold Medal, the University's highest academic award in Greek. He was encouraged to compete for a demyship to Magdalen College, Oxford – which he won easily, having already studied Greek for over nine years.\n\nMagdalen College, Oxford\n\nAt Magdalen, he read Greats from 1874 to 1878, and from there he applied to join the Oxford Union, but failed to be elected. \n\nAttracted by its dress, secrecy, and ritual, Wilde petitioned the Apollo Masonic Lodge at Oxford, and was soon raised to the \"Sublime Degree of Master Mason\". During a resurgent interest in Freemasonry in his third year, he commented he \"would be awfully sorry to give it up if I secede from the Protestant Heresy\". He was deeply considering converting to Catholicism, discussing the possibility with clergy several times. In 1877, Wilde was left speechless after an audience with Pope Pius IX in Rome. He eagerly read Cardinal Newman's books, and became more serious in 1878, when he met the Reverend Sebastian Bowden, a priest in the Brompton Oratory who had received some high-profile converts. Neither his father, who threatened to cut off his funds, nor Mahaffy thought much of the plan; but mostly Wilde, the supreme individualist, balked at the last minute from pledging himself to any formal creed. On the appointed day of his baptism, Father Bowden received a bunch of altar lilies instead. Wilde retained a lifelong interest in Catholic theology and liturgy. \n\nWhile at Magdalen College, Wilde became particularly well known for his role in the aesthetic and decadent movements. He wore his hair long, openly scorned \"manly\" sports though he occasionally boxed, and decorated his rooms with peacock feathers, lilies, sunflowers, blue china and other objets d'art, once remarking to friends whom he entertained lavishly, \"I find it harder and harder every day to live up to my blue china.\"Ellmann (1988:43–44) The line quickly became famous, accepted as a slogan by aesthetes but used against them by critics who sensed in it a terrible vacuousness. Some elements disdained the aesthetes, but their languishing attitudes and showy costumes became a recognised pose. Wilde was once physically attacked by a group of four fellow students, and dealt with them single-handedly, surprising critics. By his third year Wilde had truly begun to create himself and his myth, and saw his learning developing in much larger ways than merely the prescribed texts. This attitude resulted in his being rusticated for one term, when he nonchalantly returned to college late from a trip to Greece with Prof. Mahaffy. \n\nWilde did not meet Walter Pater until his third year, but had been enthralled by his Studies in the History of the Renaissance, published during Wilde's final year in Trinity. Pater argued that man's sensibility to beauty should be refined above all else, and that each moment should be felt to its fullest extent. Years later, in De Profundis, Wilde called Pater's Studies... \"that book that has had such a strange influence over my life\". He learned tracts of the book by heart, and carried it with him on travels in later years. Pater gave Wilde his sense of almost flippant devotion to art, though it was John Ruskin who gave him a purpose for it. Ruskin despaired at the self-validating aestheticism of Pater, arguing that the importance of art lies in its potential for the betterment of society. Ruskin admired beauty, but believed it must be allied with, and applied to, moral good. When Wilde eagerly attended Ruskin's lecture series The Aesthetic and Mathematic Schools of Art in Florence, he learned about aesthetics as simply the non-mathematical elements of painting. Despite being given to neither early rising nor manual labour, Wilde volunteered for Ruskin's project to convert a swampy country lane into a smart road neatly edged with flowers.\n\nWilde won the 1878 Newdigate Prize for his poem \"Ravenna\", which reflected on his visit there the year before, and he duly read it at Encaenia. In November 1878, he graduated with a double first in his B.A. of Classical Moderations and Literae Humaniores (Greats). Wilde wrote to a friend, \"The dons are beyond words – the Bad Boy doing so well in the end!\" \n\nApprenticeship of an aesthete: 1880s\n\nDebut in society\n\nAfter graduation from Oxford, Wilde returned to Dublin, where he met again Florence Balcombe, a childhood sweetheart. She became engaged to Bram Stoker and they married in 1878. Wilde was disappointed but stoic: he wrote to her, remembering \"the two sweet years – the sweetest years of all my youth\" they had spent together. He also stated his intention to \"return to England, probably for good.\" This he did in 1878, only briefly visiting Ireland twice. \n\nUnsure of his next step, he wrote to various acquaintances enquiring about Classics positions at Oxford or Cambridge. [http://www.wilde-online.info/the-rise-of-historical-criticism.html The Rise of Historical Criticism] was his submission for the Chancellor's Essay prize of 1879, which, though no longer a student, he was still eligible to enter. Its subject, \"Historical Criticism among the Ancients\" seemed ready-made for Wilde – with both his skill in composition and ancient learning – but he struggled to find his voice with the long, flat, scholarly style. Unusually, no prize was awarded that year.The essay was later published in \"Miscellanies\", the final section of the 1908 edition of Wilde's collected works. (Mason, S. 1914:486) With the last of his inheritance from the sale of his father's houses, he set himself up as a bachelor in London. The 1881 British Census listed Wilde as a boarder at 1 (now 44) Tite Street, Chelsea, where Frank Miles, a society painter, was the head of the household. Wilde spent the next six years in London and Paris, and in the United States where he travelled to deliver lectures.\n\nHe had been publishing lyrics and poems in magazines since his entering Trinity College, especially in Kottabos and the Dublin University Magazine. In mid-1881, at 27 years old, Poems collected, revised and expanded his poetic efforts. The book was generally well received, and sold out its first print run of 750 copies, prompting further printings in 1882. It was bound in a rich, enamel, parchment cover (embossed with gilt blossom) and printed on hand-made Dutch paper; Wilde presented many copies to the dignitaries and writers who received him over the next few years. The Oxford Union condemned the book for alleged plagiarism in a tight vote. The librarian, who had requested the book for the library, returned the presentation copy to Wilde with a note of apology. Richard Ellmann argues that Wilde's poem \"Hélas!\" was a sincere, though flamboyant, attempt to explain the dichotomies he saw in himself: \n\nTo drift with every passion till my soulIs a stringed lute on which all winds can play\n\nPunch was less enthusiastic, \"The poet is Wilde, but his poetry's tame\" was their verdict.\n\nAmerica: 1882\n\nAestheticism was sufficiently in vogue to be caricatured by Gilbert and Sullivan in Patience (1881). Richard D'Oyly Carte, an English impresario, invited Wilde to make a lecture tour of North America, simultaneously priming the pump for the US tour of Patience and selling this most charming aesthete to the American public. Wilde journeyed on the SS Arizona, arriving 2 January 1882, and disembarking the following day.Wilde reputedly told a customs officer that \"I have nothing to declare except my genius\", although the first recording of this remark was many years later, and Wilde's best lines were often quoted immediately in the press. () Originally planned to last four months, it continued for almost a year due to the commercial success. Wilde sought to transpose the beauty he saw in art into daily life. This was a practical as well as philosophical project: in Oxford he had surrounded himself with blue china and lilies, and now one of his lectures was on interior design. When asked to explain reports that he had paraded down Piccadilly in London carrying a lily, long hair flowing, Wilde replied, \"It's not whether I did it or not that's important, but whether people believed I did it\". Wilde believed that the artist should hold forth higher ideals, and that pleasure and beauty would replace utilitarian ethics. \n\nWilde and aestheticism were both mercilessly caricatured and criticised in the press; the Springfield Republican, for instance, commented on Wilde's behaviour during his visit to Boston to lecture on aestheticism, suggesting that Wilde's conduct was more a bid for notoriety rather than devotion to beauty and the aesthetic. T.W. Higginson, a cleric and abolitionist, wrote in \"Unmanly Manhood\" of his general concern that Wilde, \"whose only distinction is that he has written a thin volume of very mediocre verse\", would improperly influence the behaviour of men and women. Though his press reception was hostile, Wilde was well received in diverse settings across America; he drank whiskey with miners in Leadville, Colorado and was fêted at the most fashionable salons in every city he visited. \n\nLondon life and marriage\n\nHis earnings, plus expected income from The Duchess of Padua, allowed him to move to Paris between February and mid-May 1883. Whilst there he met Robert Sherard, whom he entertained constantly. \"We are dining on the Duchess tonight\", Wilde would declare before taking him to a fancy restaurant. In August he briefly returned to New York for the production of Vera, his first play, after it was turned down in London. He reportedly entertained the other passengers with \"Ave Imperatrix!, A Poem on England\", about the rise and fall of empires. E.C. Stedman, in Victorian Poets describes this \"lyric to England\" as \"manly verse – a poetic and eloquent invocation\". Ave Imperatrix had been first published in The World, an American magazine, in 1880, having first been intended for Time magazine. Apparently the editor liked the verse, so switched it to the other magazine so as to attain \"a larger and better audience\". It was revised for inclusion in Poems the next year. (Mason 1914:233) The play was initially well received by the audience, but when the critics wrote lukewarm reviews attendance fell sharply and the play closed a week after it had opened. \n\nWilde was left to return to England and lecturing on topics including Personal Impressions of America, The Value of Art in Modern Life, and Dress.\n\nIn London, he had been introduced in 1881 to Constance Lloyd, daughter of Horace Lloyd, a wealthy Queen's Counsel. She happened to be visiting Dublin in 1884, when Wilde was lecturing at the Gaiety Theatre. He proposed to her, and they married on 29 May 1884 at the Anglican St. James Church in Paddington in London. Constance's annual allowance of £250 was generous for a young woman (equivalent to about £ in current value), but the Wildes had relatively luxurious tastes, and they had preached to others for so long on the subject of design that people expected their home to set new standards. No. 16, Tite Street was duly renovated in seven months at considerable expense. The couple had two sons, Cyril (1885) and Vyvyan (1886). Wilde became the sole literary signatory of George Bernard Shaw's petition for a pardon of the anarchists arrested (and later executed) after the Haymarket massacre in Chicago in 1886. \n\nRobert Ross had read Wilde's poems before they met, and was unrestrained by the Victorian prohibition against homosexuality, even to the extent of estranging himself from his family. By Richard Ellmann's account, he was a precocious seventeen-year-old \"so young and yet so knowing, was determined to seduce Wilde\". According to Daniel Mendelsohn, Wilde, who had long alluded to Greek love, was \"initiated into homosexual sex\" by Ross, while his \"marriage had begun to unravel after his wife's second pregnancy, which left him physically repelled\". \n\nProse writing: 1886–91\n\nJournalism and editorship: 1886–89\n\nCriticism over artistic matters in the Pall Mall Gazette provoked a letter in self-defence, and soon Wilde was a contributor to that and other journals during the years 1885–87. He enjoyed reviewing and journalism; the form suited his style. He could organise and share his views on art, literature and life, yet in a format less tedious than lecturing. Buoyed up, his reviews were largely chatty and positive. Wilde, like his parents before him, also supported the cause of Irish Nationalism. When Charles Stewart Parnell was falsely accused of inciting murder Wilde wrote a series of astute columns defending him in the Daily Chronicle.\n\nHis flair, having previously only been put into socialising, suited journalism and did not go unnoticed. With his youth nearly over, and a family to support, in mid-1887 Wilde became the editor of The Lady's World magazine, his name prominently appearing on the cover. He promptly renamed it The Woman's World and raised its tone, adding serious articles on parenting, culture, and politics, keeping discussions of fashion and arts. Two pieces of fiction were usually included, one to be read to children, the other for the ladies themselves. Wilde worked hard to solicit good contributions from his wide artistic acquaintance, including those of Lady Wilde and his wife Constance, while his own \"Literary and Other Notes\" were themselves popular and amusing. \n\nThe initial vigour and excitement he brought to the job began to fade as administration, commuting and office life became tedious. At the same time as Wilde's interest flagged, the publishers became concerned anew about circulation: sales, at the relatively high price of one shilling, remained low. Increasingly sending instructions to the magazine by letter, he began a new period of creative work and his own column appeared less regularly. In October 1889, Wilde had finally found his voice in prose and, at the end of the second volume, Wilde left The Woman's World. The magazine outlasted him by one volume.\n\nIf Wilde's period at the helm of the magazine was a mixed success from an organizational point of view, one can also argue that it played a pivotal role in his development as a writer and facilitated his ascent to fame. Whilst Wilde the journalist supplied articles under the guidance of his editors, Wilde the editor is forced to learn to manipulate the literary marketplace on his own terms. \n\nShorter fiction\n\nWilde published The Happy Prince and Other Tales in 1888, and had been regularly writing fairy stories for magazines. In 1891 he published two more collections, Lord Arthur Savile's Crime and Other Stories, and in September A House of Pomegranates was dedicated \"To Constance Mary Wilde\". \"The Portrait of Mr. W. H.\", which Wilde had begun in 1887, was first published in Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine in July 1889. It is a short story, which reports a conversation, in which the theory that Shakespeare's sonnets were written out of the poet's love of the boy actor \"Willie Hughes\", is advanced, retracted, and then propounded again. The only evidence for this is two supposed puns within the sonnets themselves. \n\nThe anonymous narrator is at first sceptical, then believing, finally flirtatious with the reader: he concludes that \"there is really a great deal to be said of the Willie Hughes theory of Shakespeare's sonnets.\" By the end fact and fiction have melded together. Arthur Ransome wrote that Wilde \"read something of himself into Shakespeare's sonnets\" and became fascinated with the \"Willie Hughes theory\" despite the lack of biographical evidence for the historical William Hughes' existence. Instead of writing a short but serious essay on the question, Wilde tossed the theory amongst the three characters of the story, allowing it to unfold as background to the plot. The story thus is an early masterpiece of Wilde's combing many elements that interested him, conversation, literature and the idea that to shed oneself of an idea one must first convince another of its truth. Ransome concludes that Wilde succeeds precisely because the literary criticism is unveiled with such a deft touch. \n\nThough containing nothing but \"special pleading\", it would not, he says \"be possible to build an airier castle in Spain than this of the imaginary William Hughes\" we continue listening nonetheless to be charmed by the telling. \"You must believe in Willie Hughes,\" Wilde told an acquaintance, \"I almost do, myself.\"\n\nEssays and dialogues \n\nWilde, having tired of journalism, had been busy setting out his aesthetic ideas more fully in a series of longer prose pieces which were published in the major literary-intellectual journals of the day. In January 1889, The Decay of Lying: A Dialogue appeared in The Nineteenth Century, and Pen, Pencil and Poison, a satirical biography of Thomas Griffiths Wainewright, in the Fortnightly Review, edited by Wilde's friend Frank Harris. Two of Wilde's four writings on aesthetics are dialogues: though Wilde had evolved professionally from lecturer to writer, he retained an oral tradition of sorts. Having always excelled as a wit and raconteur, he often composed by assembling phrases, bons mots and witticisms into a longer, cohesive work. \n\nWilde was concerned about the effect of moralising on art, he believed in art's redemptive, developmental powers: \"Art is individualism, and individualism is a disturbing and disintegrating force. There lies its immense value. For what it seeks is to disturb monotony of type, slavery of custom, tyranny of habit, and the reduction of man to the level of a machine.\"Wilde, O. The Complete Works of Oscar Wilde, Collins. In his only political text, The Soul of Man Under Socialism, he argued political conditions should establish this primacy, and concluded that the government most amenable to artists was no government at all. Wilde envisions a society where mechanisation has freed human effort from the burden of necessity, effort which can instead be expended on artistic creation. George Orwell summarised, \"In effect, the world will be populated by artists, each striving after perfection in the way that seems best to him.\" \n\nThis point of view did not align him with the Fabians, intellectual socialists who advocated using state apparatus to change social conditions, nor did it endear him to the monied classes whom he had previously entertained. Pearson, H. Essays of Oscar Wilde London: Meuthen & Co (1950:xi) Catalogue no:5328/u Hesketh Pearson, introducing a collection of Wilde's essays in 1950, remarked how The Soul of Man Under Socialism had been an inspirational text for Tsarist revolutionaries in Russia but laments that in the Stalinist era \"it is doubtful whether there are any uninspected places in which it could now be hidden\".\n\nWilde considered including this pamphlet and The Portrait of Mr. W.H., his essay-story on Shakespeare's sonnets, in a new anthology in 1891, but eventually decided to limit it to purely aesthetic subjects. Intentions packaged revisions of four essays: The Decay of Lying, Pen, Pencil and Poison, The Truth of Masks (first published 1885), and The Critic as Artist in two parts. For Pearson the biographer, the essays and dialogues exhibit every aspect of Wilde's genius and character: wit, romancer, talker, lecturer, humanist and scholar and concludes that \"no other productions of his have as varied an appeal\". 1891 turned out to be Wilde's annus mirabilis, apart from his three collections he also produced his only novel.\n\nThe Picture of Dorian Gray\n\nThe first version of The Picture of Dorian Gray was published as the lead story in the July 1890 edition of Lippincott's Monthly Magazine, along with five others. The story begins with a man painting a picture of Gray. When Gray, who has a \"face like ivory and rose leaves\", sees his finished portrait, he breaks down. Distraught that his beauty will fade while the portrait stays beautiful, he inadvertently makes a Faustian bargain in which only the painted image grows old while he stays beautiful and young. For Wilde, the purpose of art would be to guide life as if beauty alone were its object. As Gray's portrait allows him to escape the corporeal ravages of his hedonism, Wilde sought to juxtapose the beauty he saw in art with daily life.\n\nReviewers immediately criticised the novel's decadence and homosexual allusions; The Daily Chronicle for example, called it \"unclean\", \"poisonous\", and \"heavy with the mephitic odours of moral and spiritual putrefaction\". Wilde vigorously responded, writing to the editor of the Scots Observer, in which he clarified his stance on ethics and aesthetics in art – \"If a work of art is rich and vital and complete, those who have artistic instincts will see its beauty and those to whom ethics appeal more strongly will see its moral lesson.\" He nevertheless revised it extensively for book publication in 1891: six new chapters were added, some overtly decadent passages and homo-eroticism excised, and a preface was included consisting of twenty two epigrams, such as \"Books are well written, or badly written. That is all.\" Contemporary reviewers and modern critics have postulated numerous possible sources of the story, a search Jershua McCormack argues is futile because Wilde \"has tapped a root of Western folklore so deep and ubiquitous that the story has escaped its origins and returned to the oral tradition.\" Wilde claimed the plot was \"an idea that is as old as the history of literature but to which I have given a new form\". Modern critic Robin McKie considered the novel to be technically mediocre, saying that the conceit of the plot had guaranteed its fame, but the device is never pushed to its full. \n\nTheatrical career: 1892–95\n\nSalomé\n\nThe 1891 census records the Wildes' residence at 16 Tite Street, where he lived with his wife Constance and two sons. Wilde though, not content with being better known than ever in London, returned to Paris in October 1891, this time as a respected writer. He was received at the salons littéraires, including the famous mardis of Stéphane Mallarmé, a renowned symbolist poet of the time. Wilde's two plays during the 1880s, Vera; or, The Nihilists and The Duchess of Padua, had not met with much success. He had continued his interest in the theatre and now, after finding his voice in prose, his thoughts turned again to the dramatic form as the biblical iconography of Salome filled his mind. One evening, after discussing depictions of Salome throughout history, he returned to his hotel and noticed a blank copybook lying on the desk, and it occurred to him to write in it what he had been saying. The result was a new play, Salomé, written rapidly and in French. \n\nA tragedy, it tells the story of Salome, the stepdaughter of the tetrarch Herod Antipas, who, to her stepfather's dismay but mother's delight, requests the head of Jokanaan (John the Baptist) on a silver platter as a reward for dancing the Dance of the Seven Veils. When Wilde returned to London just before Christmas the Paris Echo referred to him as \"le great event\" of the season. Rehearsals of the play, starring Sarah Bernhardt, began but the play was refused a licence by the Lord Chamberlain, since it depicted biblical characters. Salome was published jointly in Paris and London in 1893, but was not performed until 1896 in Paris, during Wilde's later incarceration. \n\nComedies of society\n\nWilde, who had first set out to irritate Victorian society with his dress and talking points, then outrage it with Dorian Gray, his novel of vice hidden beneath art, finally found a way to critique society on its own terms. Lady Windermere's Fan was first performed on 20 February 1892 at St James's Theatre, packed with the cream of society. On the surface a witty comedy, there is subtle subversion underneath: \"it concludes with collusive concealment rather than collective disclosure\". The audience, like Lady Windermere, are forced to soften harsh social codes in favour of a more nuanced view. The play was enormously popular, touring the country for months, but largely trashed by conservative critics. \nIt was followed by A Woman of No Importance in 1893, another Victorian comedy, revolving around the spectre of illegitimate births, mistaken identities and late revelations. Wilde was commissioned to write two more plays and An Ideal Husband, written in 1894, followed in January 1895. \n\nPeter Raby said these essentially English plays were well-pitched, \"Wilde, with one eye on the dramatic genius of Ibsen, and the other on the commercial competition in London's West End, targeted his audience with adroit precision\". \n\nQueensberry family\n\nIn mid-1891 Lionel Johnson introduced Wilde to Lord Alfred Douglas, an undergraduate at Oxford at the time. Known to his family and friends as \"Bosie\", he was a handsome and spoilt young man. An intimate friendship sprang up between Wilde and Douglas and by 1893 Wilde was infatuated with Douglas and they consorted together regularly in a tempestuous affair. If Wilde was relatively indiscreet, even flamboyant, in the way he acted, Douglas was reckless in public. Wilde, who was earning up to £100 a week from his plays (his salary at The Woman's World had been £6), indulged Douglas's every whim: material, artistic or sexual.\n\nDouglas soon dragged Wilde into the Victorian underground of gay prostitution and Wilde was introduced to a series of young, working class, male prostitutes from 1892 onwards by Alfred Taylor. These infrequent rendezvous usually took the same form: Wilde would meet the boy, offer him gifts, dine him privately and then take him to a hotel room. Unlike Wilde's idealised, pederastic relations with Ross, John Gray, and Douglas, all of whom remained part of his aesthetic circle, these consorts were uneducated and knew nothing of literature. Soon his public and private lives had become sharply divided; in De Profundis he wrote to Douglas that \"It was like feasting with panthers; the danger was half the excitement... I did not know that when they were to strike at me it was to be at another's piping and at another's pay.\" \n\nDouglas and some Oxford friends founded a journal, The Chameleon, to which Wilde \"sent a page of paradoxes originally destined for the Saturday Review\". \"Phrases and Philosophies for the Use of the Young\" was to come under attack six months later at Wilde's trial, where he was forced to defend the magazine to which he had sent his work. In any case, it became unique: The Chameleon was not published again.\n\nLord Alfred's father, the Marquess of Queensberry, was known for his outspoken atheism, brutish manner and creation of the modern rules of boxing.Queensberry's oldest son, Francis Douglas, Viscount Drumlanrig, possibly had an intimate association with Archibald Philip Primrose, 5th Earl of Rosebery, the Prime Minister to whom he was private secretary, which ended with Drumlanrig's death in an unexplained shooting accident. In any case the Marquess of Queensberry came to believe his sons had been corrupted by older homosexuals or, as he phrased it in a letter in the aftermath of Drumlanrig's death: \"Montgomerys, The Snob Queers like Rosebery and certainly Christian Hypocrite like Gladstone and the whole lot of you\". Ellmann (1988:402) Queensberry, who feuded regularly with his son, confronted Wilde and Lord Alfred about the nature of their relationship several times, but Wilde was able to mollify him. In June 1894, he called on Wilde at 16 Tite Street, without an appointment, and clarified his stance:\n\"I do not say that you are it, but you look it, and pose at it, which is just as bad. And if I catch you and my son again in any public restaurant I will thrash you\" to which Wilde responded: \"I don't know what the Queensberry rules are, but the Oscar Wilde rule is to shoot on sight\". His account in De Profundis was less triumphant: \"It was when, in my library at Tite Street, waving his small hands in the air in epileptic fury, your father... stood uttering every foul word his foul mind could think of, and screaming the loathsome threats he afterwards with such cunning carried out\". Queensberry only described the scene once, saying Wilde had \"shown him the white feather\", meaning he had acted in a cowardly way. Though trying to remain calm, Wilde saw that he was becoming ensnared in a brutal family quarrel. He did not wish to bear Queensberry's insults, but he knew to confront him could lead to disaster were his liaisons disclosed publicly.\n\nThe Importance of Being Earnest\n\nWilde's final play again returns to the theme of switched identities: the play's two protagonists engage in \"bunburying\" (the maintenance of alternative personas in the town and country) which allows them to escape Victorian social mores.Mendelshon, Daniel; The Two Oscar Wildes, New York Review of Books, Volume 49, Number 15 · 10 October 2002 Earnest is even lighter in tone than Wilde's earlier comedies. While their characters often rise to serious themes in moments of crisis, Earnest lacks the by-now stock Wildean characters: there is no \"woman with a past\", the principals are neither villainous nor cunning, simply idle cultivés, and the idealistic young women are not that innocent. Mostly set in drawing rooms and almost completely lacking in action or violence, Earnest lacks the self-conscious decadence found in The Picture of Dorian Gray and Salome. \n\nThe play, now considered Wilde's masterpiece, was rapidly written in Wilde's artistic maturity in late 1894. It was first performed on 14 February 1895, at St James's Theatre in London, Wilde's second collaboration with George Alexander, the actor-manager. Both author and producer assiduously revised, prepared and rehearsed every line, scene and setting in the months before the premiere, creating a carefully constructed representation of late-Victorian society, yet simultaneously mocking it. During rehearsal Alexander requested that Wilde shorten the play from four acts to three, which the author did. Premieres at St James's seemed like \"brilliant parties\", and the opening of The Importance of Being Earnest was no exception. Allan Aynesworth (who played Algy) recalled to Hesketh Pearson, \"In my fifty-three years of acting, I never remember a greater triumph than [that] first night.\" Earnest's immediate reception as Wilde's best work to date finally crystallised his fame into a solid artistic reputation.Wheatcroft, G. [http://www.theatlantic.com/past/docs/issues/2003/05/wheatcroft.htm \"Not Green, Not Red, Not Pink\"] The Atlantic Monthly, May 2003. The Importance of Being Earnest remains his most popular play. \n\nWilde's professional success was mirrored by an escalation in his feud with Queensberry. Queensberry had planned to insult Wilde publicly by throwing a bouquet of rotting vegetables onto the stage; Wilde was tipped off and had Queensberry barred from entering the theatre. Fifteen weeks later Wilde was in prison.\n\nTrials\n\nWilde v. Queensberry\n\nOn 18 February 1895, the Marquess left his calling card at Wilde's club, the Albemarle, inscribed: \"For Oscar Wilde, posing somdomite\". Queensberry's handwriting was almost indecipherable: The hall porter initially read \"ponce and sodomite\", but Queensberry himself claimed that he'd written \"posing 'as' a sodomite\", an easier accusation to defend in court. Merlin Holland concludes that \"what Queensberry almost certainly wrote was \"posing \", (Holland (2004:300)) Wilde, encouraged by Douglas and against the advice of his friends, initiated a private prosecution against Queensberry for libel, since the note amounted to a public accusation that Wilde had committed the crime of sodomy.\n\nQueensberry was arrested on a charge of criminal libel, a charge carrying a possible sentence of up to two years in prison ([http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/Vict/6-7/96/section/IV/enacted Libel Act of 1843]). Under the Act, Queensberry could avoid conviction for libel only by demonstrating that his accusation was in fact true, and furthermore that there was some \"public benefit\" to having made the accusation openly. Queensberry's lawyers thus hired private detectives to find evidence of Wilde's homosexual liaisons to prove the fact of the accusation. They decided on a strategy of portraying Wilde as a depraved older man who habitually enticed naive youths into a life of vicious homosexuality to demonstrate that there was some public interest in making the accusation openly, ostensibly to warn off other youths who might otherwise have become entrapped by Wilde.\n\nWilde's friends had advised him against the prosecution at a Saturday Review meeting at the Café Royal on 24 March 1895; Frank Harris warned him that \"they are going to prove sodomy against you\" and advised him to flee to France. Wilde and Douglas walked out in a huff, Wilde saying \"it is at such moments as these that one sees who are one's true friends\". The scene was witnessed by George Bernard Shaw who recalled it to Arthur Ransome a day or so before Ransome's trial for libelling Douglas in 1913. To Ransome it confirmed what he had said in his 1912 literary book on Wilde; that Douglas's rivalry for Wilde with Robbie Ross and his arguments with his father had resulted in Wilde's public disaster; as Wilde wrote in De Profundis. Douglas lost his case. Shaw included an account of the argument between Harris, Douglas and Wilde in the preface to his play The Dark Lady of the Sonnets. \n\nThe libel trial became a cause célèbre as salacious details of Wilde's private life with Taylor and Douglas began to appear in the press. A team of private detectives had directed Queensberry's lawyers, led by Edward Carson QC, to the world of the Victorian underground. Wilde's association with blackmailers and male prostitutes, cross-dressers and homosexual brothels was recorded, and various persons involved were interviewed, some being coerced to appear as witnesses since they too were accomplices to the crimes of which Wilde was accused. \n\nThe trial opened on 3 April 1895 amid scenes of near hysteria both in the press and the public galleries. The extent of the evidence massed against Wilde forced him to declare meekly, \"I am the prosecutor in this case\". Wilde's lawyer, Sir Edward George Clarke, opened the case by pre-emptively asking Wilde about two suggestive letters Wilde had written to Douglas, which the defence had in its possession. He characterised the first as a \"prose sonnet\" and admitted that the \"poetical language\" might seem strange to the court but claimed its intent was innocent. Wilde stated that the letters had been obtained by blackmailers who had attempted to extort money from him, but he had refused, suggesting they should take the £60 (equal to £ today) offered, \"unusual for a prose piece of that length\". He claimed to regard the letters as works of art rather than something of which to be ashamed. \n\nCarson, a fellow Dubliner who had attended Trinity College, Dublin at the same time as Wilde, cross-examined Wilde on how he perceived the moral content of his works. Wilde replied with characteristic wit and flippancy, claiming that works of art are not capable of being moral or immoral but only well or poorly made, and that only \"brutes and illiterates,\" whose views on art \"are incalculably stupid\", would make such judgements about art. Carson, a leading barrister, diverged from the normal practice of asking closed questions. Carson pressed Wilde on each topic from every angle, squeezing out nuances of meaning from Wilde's answers, removing them from their aesthetic context and portraying Wilde as evasive and decadent. While Wilde won the most laughs from the court, Carson scored the most legal points. To undermine Wilde's credibility, and to justify Queensberry's description of Wilde as a \"posing...somdomite\", Carson drew from the witness an admission of his capacity for \"posing\", by demonstrating that he had lied about his age on oath. Playing on this, he returned to the topic throughout his cross-examination. \n\nCarson then moved to the factual evidence and questioned Wilde about his acquaintances with younger, lower-class men. Wilde admitted being on a first-name basis and lavishing gifts upon them, but insisted that nothing untoward had occurred and that the men were merely good friends of his. Carson repeatedly pointed out the unusual nature of these relationships and insinuated that the men were prostitutes. Wilde replied that he did not believe in social barriers, and simply enjoyed the society of young men. Then Carson asked Wilde directly whether he had ever kissed a certain servant boy, Wilde responded, \"Oh, dear no. He was a particularly plain boy – unfortunately ugly – I pitied him for it.\"Foldy (1997:17) Carson pressed him on the answer, repeatedly asking why the boy's ugliness was relevant. Wilde hesitated, then for the first time became flustered: \"You sting me and insult me and try to unnerve me; and at times one says things flippantly when one ought to speak more seriously.\"\n\nIn his opening speech for the defence, Carson announced that he had located several male prostitutes who were to testify that they had had sex with Wilde. On the advice of his lawyers, Wilde dropped the prosecution. Queensberry was found not guilty, as the court declared that his accusation that Wilde was \"posing as a Somdomite\" was justified, \"true in substance and in fact.\" Under the Libel Act 1843, Queensberry's acquittal rendered Wilde legally liable for the considerable expenses Queensberry had incurred in his defence, which left Wilde bankrupt.\n\nRegina v. Wilde\n\nAfter Wilde left the court, a warrant for his arrest was applied for on charges of sodomy and gross indecency. Robbie Ross found Wilde at the Cadogan Hotel, Knightsbridge, with Reginald Turner; both men advised Wilde to go at once to Dover and try to get a boat to France; his mother advised him to stay and fight. Wilde, lapsing into inaction, could only say, \"The train has gone. It's too late.\" Wilde was arrested for \"gross indecency\" under Section 11 of the Criminal Law Amendment Act 1885, a term meaning homosexual acts not amounting to buggery (an offence under a separate statute). At Wilde's instruction, Ross and Wilde's butler forced their way into the bedroom and library of 16 Tite Street, packing some personal effects, manuscripts, and letters. Wilde was then imprisoned on remand at Holloway where he received daily visits from Douglas.\n\nEvents moved quickly and his prosecution opened on 26 April 1895. Wilde pleaded not guilty. He had already begged Douglas to leave London for Paris, but Douglas complained bitterly, even wanting to give evidence; he was pressed to go and soon fled to the Hotel du Monde. Fearing persecution, Ross and many others also left the United Kingdom during this time. Under cross examination Wilde was at first hesitant, then spoke eloquently:\n\nThis response was counter-productive in a legal sense as it only served to reinforce the charges of homosexual behaviour.\nThe trial ended with the jury unable to reach a verdict. Wilde's counsel, Sir Edward Clarke, was finally able to get a magistrate to allow Wilde and his friends to post bail. The Reverend Stewart Headlam put up most of the £5,000 surety required by the court, having disagreed with Wilde's treatment by the press and the courts. Wilde was freed from Holloway and, shunning attention, went into hiding at the house of Ernest and Ada Leverson, two of his firm friends. Edward Carson approached Frank Lockwood QC, the Solicitor General and asked \"Can we not let up on the fellow now?\" Lockwood answered that he would like to do so, but feared that the case had become too politicised to be dropped.\n\nThe final trial was presided over by Mr Justice Wills. On 25 May 1895 Wilde and Alfred Taylor were convicted of gross indecency and sentenced to two years' hard labour. The judge described the sentence, the maximum allowed, as \"totally inadequate for a case such as this,\" and that the case was \"the worst case I have ever tried\". Wilde's response \"And I? May I say nothing, my Lord?\" was drowned out in cries of \"Shame\" in the courtroom. \n\nImprisonment\n\nWilde entered prison on 25 May 1895, and was released on 18 May 1897. \n\nHe first entered Newgate Prison in London for a week for processing, then was moved to Pentonville Prison, where the \"hard labour\" to which he had been sentenced consisted of many hours of walking a treadmill and picking oakum (separating the fibres in scraps of old navy ropes), and where prisoners were allowed to read only the Bible and The Pilgrim's Progress. Prisoners were not allowed to speak to each other, and, when out of their cells, were required to wear a cap with a thick veil so they would not be recognised by other prisoners. \n\nA few months later he was moved to Wandsworth Prison in London. Inmates there also followed the regimen of \"hard labour, hard fare and a hard bed\", which wore harshly on Wilde's delicate health. In November he collapsed during chapel from illness and hunger. His right ear drum was ruptured in the fall, an injury that later contributed to his death. He spent two months in the infirmary. \n\nRichard B. Haldane, the Liberal MP and reformer, visited Wilde and had him transferred in November to Reading Gaol, 30 miles west of London on 23 November 1895. The transfer itself was the lowest point of his incarceration, as a crowd jeered and spat at him on the railway platform. Here, he spent the remainder of his sentence, and was assigned the third cell on the third floor of C ward – and thereafter was addressed and identified only by \"C33\" – the number of his cell, the third cell on the third floor of C ward. \n\nAbout five months after Wilde arrived at Reading Gaol, Charles Thomas Wooldridge, a trooper in the Royal Horse Guards, was brought to Reading to await his trial for murdering his wife on 29 March 1896; on 17 June Wooldridge was sentenced to death and returned to Reading for his execution, which took place on Tuesday, 7 July 1896 – the first hanging at Reading in 18 years. From Wooldridge's hanging, Wilde later wrote The Ballad of Reading Gaol.\n\nWilde was not, at first, even allowed paper and pen but Haldane eventually succeeded in allowing access to books and writing materials. Wilde requested, among others: the Bible in French; Italian and German grammars; some Ancient Greek texts, Dante's Divine Comedy, Joris-Karl Huysmans's new French novel about Christian redemption En Route, and essays by St Augustine, Cardinal Newman and Walter Pater. \n\nBetween January and March 1897 Wilde wrote a 50,000-word letter to Douglas. He was not allowed to send it, but was permitted to take it with him upon release. In reflective mode, Wilde coldly examines his career to date, how he had been a colourful agent provocateur in Victorian society, his art, like his paradoxes, seeking to subvert as well as sparkle. His own estimation of himself was: one who \"stood in symbolic relations to the art and culture of my age\". It was from these heights that his life with Douglas began, and Wilde examines that particularly closely, repudiating him for what Wilde finally sees as his arrogance and vanity: he had not forgotten Douglas's remark, when he was ill, \"When you are not on your pedestal you are not interesting.\" Wilde blamed himself, though, for the ethical degradation of character that he allowed Douglas to bring about in him and took responsibility for his own fall, \"I am here for having tried to put your father in prison.\" The first half concludes with Wilde forgiving Douglas, for his own sake as much as Douglas's. The second half of the letter traces Wilde's spiritual journey of redemption and fulfilment through his prison reading. He realised that his ordeal had filled his soul with the fruit of experience, however bitter it tasted at the time.\n ...I wanted to eat of the fruit of all the trees in the garden of the world... And so, indeed, I went out, and so I lived. My only mistake was that I confined myself so exclusively to the trees of what seemed to me the sun-lit side of the garden, and shunned the other side for its shadow and its gloom. \n \n\nWilde was released from prison on 18 May 1897 and sailed immediately for France. He would never return to Britain or to Ireland.\n\nOn his release, he gave the manuscript to Ross, who may or may not have carried out Wilde's instructions to send a copy to Douglas (who later denied having received it). De Profundis was partially published in 1905, its complete and correct publication first occurred in 1962 in The Letters of Oscar Wilde.Ross published a version of the letter expurgated of all references to Douglas in 1905 with the title De Profundis, expanding it slightly for an edition of Wilde's collected works in 1908, and then donated it to the British Museum on the understanding that it would not be made public until 1960. In 1949, Wilde's son Vyvyan Holland published it again, including parts formerly omitted, but relying on a faulty typescript bequeathed to him by Ross. Ross's typescript had contained several hundred errors, including typist's mistakes, Ross's 'improvements' and other inexplicable omissions. Holland/Hart-Davis (2000:683)\n\nDecline: 1897–1900\n\nExile\n\nThough Wilde's health had suffered greatly from the harshness and diet of prison, he had a feeling of spiritual renewal. He immediately wrote to the Society of Jesus requesting a six-month Catholic retreat; when the request was denied, Wilde wept. \"I intend to be received into the Catholic Church before long\", Wilde told a journalist who asked about his religious intentions. \n\nHe spent his last three years in impoverished exile. He took the name \"Sebastian Melmoth\", after Saint Sebastian, and the titular character of Melmoth the Wanderer; a Gothic novel by Charles Maturin, Wilde's great-uncle. Wilde wrote two long letters to the editor of the Daily Chronicle, describing the brutal conditions of English prisons and advocating penal reform. His discussion of the dismissal of Warder Martin for giving biscuits to an anaemic child prisoner, repeated the themes of the corruption and degeneration of punishment that he had earlier outlined in The Soul of Man Under Socialism. \n\nWilde spent mid-1897 with Robert Ross in the seaside village of Berneval-le-Grand in northern France, where he wrote The Ballad of Reading Gaol, narrating the execution of Charles Thomas Wooldridge, who murdered his wife in a rage at her infidelity; it moves from an objective story-telling to symbolic identification with the prisoners as a whole. No attempt is made to assess the justice of the laws which convicted them, but rather the poem highlights the brutalisation of the punishment that all convicts share. Wilde juxtaposes the executed man and himself with the line \"Yet each man kills the thing he loves\". Wilde too was separated from his wife and sons. He adopted the proletarian ballad form, and the author was credited as \"C33\", Wilde's cell number in Reading Gaol. He suggested that it be published in Reynold's Magazine, \"because it circulates widely among the criminal classes – to which I now belong – for once I will be read by my peers – a new experience for me\". It was an immediate roaring commercial success, going through seven editions in less than two years, only after which \"[Oscar Wilde]\" was added to the title page, though many in literary circles had known Wilde to be the author. It brought him a little money.\n\nAlthough Douglas had been the cause of his misfortunes, he and Wilde were reunited in August 1897 at Rouen. This meeting was disapproved of by the friends and families of both men. Constance Wilde was already refusing to meet Wilde or allow him to see their sons, though she sent him money – a meagre three pounds a week. During the latter part of 1897, Wilde and Douglas lived together near Naples for a few months until they were separated by their families under the threat of cutting off all funds. \n\nWilde's final address was at the dingy Hôtel d'Alsace (now known as L'Hôtel), on rue des Beaux-Arts in Saint-Germain-des-Prés, Paris. \"This poverty really breaks one's heart: it is so sale [filthy], so utterly depressing, so hopeless. Pray do what you can\" he wrote to his publisher. He corrected and published An Ideal Husband and The Importance of Being Earnest, the proofs of which, according to Ellmann, show a man \"very much in command of himself and of the play\", but he refused to write anything else: \"I can write, but have lost the joy of writing\".Ellmann (1988:527) \n\nHe wandered the boulevards alone, and spent what little money he had on alcohol. A series of embarrassing encounters with English visitors, or Frenchmen he had known in better days, drowned his spirit. Soon Wilde was sufficiently confined to his hotel to joke, on one of his final trips outside, \"My wallpaper and I are fighting a duel to the death. One of us has got to go.\" On 12 October 1900 he sent a telegram to Ross: \"Terribly weak. Please come.\" His moods fluctuated; Max Beerbohm relates how their mutual friend Reginald 'Reggie' Turner had found Wilde very depressed after a nightmare. \"I dreamt that I had died, and was supping with the dead!\" \"I am sure\", Turner replied, \"that you must have been the life and soul of the party.\" Turner was one of the very few of the old circle who remained with Wilde right to the end, and was at his bedside when he died.\n\nDeath\n\nBy 25 November Wilde had developed cerebral meningitis. Robbie Ross arrived on 29 November and sent for a priest, and Wilde was conditionally baptised into the Catholic Church by Fr Cuthbert Dunne, a Passionist priest from Dublin (the sacrament being conditional because of the doctrine that one may be baptised only once), Wilde having been baptised in the Church of Ireland, and having moreover a recollection of Catholic baptism as a child, a fact later attested to by the minister of the sacrament, Fr Lawrence Fox. Fr Dunne recorded the baptism:\n As the voiture rolled through the dark streets that wintry night, the sad story of Oscar Wilde was in part repeated to me... Robert Ross knelt by the bedside, assisting me as best he could while I administered conditional baptism, and afterwards answering the responses while I gave Extreme Unction to the prostrate man and recited the prayers for the dying. As the man was in a semi-comatose condition, I did not venture to administer the Holy Viaticum; still I must add that he could be roused and was roused from this state in my presence. When roused, he gave signs of being inwardly conscious... Indeed I was fully satisfied that he understood me when told that I was about to receive him into the Catholic Church and gave him the Last Sacraments... And when I repeated close to his ear the Holy Names, the Acts of Contrition, Faith, Hope and Charity, with acts of humble resignation to the Will of God, he tried all through to say the words after me. Robert Ross, in his letter to More Adey (dated 14 December 1900), described a similar scene: \"(Wilde) was conscious that people were in the room, and raised his hand when I asked him whether he understood. He pressed our hands. I then went in search of a priest and with great difficulty found Fr Cuthbert Dunne, of the Passionists, who came with me at once and administered Baptism and Extreme Unction – Oscar could not take the Eucharist\".(Holland/Hart-Davis (2000:1219–1220))\n\nWilde died of cerebral meningitis on 30 November 1900. Different opinions are given as to the cause of the meningitis: Richard Ellmann claimed it was syphilitic; however, Merlin Holland, Wilde's grandson, thought this to be a misconception, noting that Wilde's meningitis followed a surgical intervention, perhaps a mastoidectomy; Wilde's physicians, Dr Paul Cleiss and A'Court Tucker, reported that the condition stemmed from an old suppuration of the right ear (from the prison injury, see above) treated for several years (une ancienne suppuration de l'oreille droite d'ailleurs en traitement depuis plusieurs années) and made no allusion to syphilis. \n\nBurial\n\nWilde was initially buried in the Cimetière de Bagneux outside Paris; in 1909 his remains were disinterred and transferred to Père Lachaise Cemetery, inside the city. His tomb there was designed by Sir Jacob Epstein,Epstein produced the design with architect Charles Holden, for whom Epstein produced several controversial commissions in London. It was commissioned by Robert Ross, who asked for a small compartment to be made for his own ashes, which were duly transferred in 1950. The modernist angel depicted as a relief on the tomb was originally complete with male genitalia, which have since been vandalised; their current whereabouts are unknown. In 2000, Leon Johnson, a multimedia artist, installed a silver prosthesis to replace them. \n\nIn 2011 the tomb was cleaned of the many lipstick marks left there by admirers, and a glass barrier was installed to prevent further marks or damage. \n\nThe epitaph is a verse from The Ballad of Reading Gaol: \n\nAnd alien tears will fill for him\nPity's long-broken urn,\nFor his mourners will be outcast men,\nAnd outcasts always mourn.\n\nBiographies\n\nWilde's life continues to fascinate, and he has been the subject of numerous biographies since his death. The earliest were memoirs by those who knew him: often they are personal or impressionistic accounts which can be good character sketches, but are sometimes factually unreliable. Frank Harris, his friend and editor, wrote a biography, Oscar Wilde: His Life and Confessions (1916); though prone to exaggeration and sometimes factually inaccurate, it offers a good literary portrait of Wilde. Lord Alfred Douglas wrote two books about his relationship with Wilde. Oscar Wilde and Myself (1914), largely ghost-written by T.W.H. Crosland, vindictively reacted to Douglas's discovery that De Profundis was addressed to him and defensively tried to distance him from Wilde's scandalous reputation. Both authors later regretted their work. Later, in Oscar Wilde: A Summing Up (1939) and his Autobiography he was more sympathetic to Wilde. Of Wilde's other close friends, Robert Sherard, Robert Ross, his literary executor; and Charles Ricketts variously published biographies, reminiscences or correspondence. The first more or less objective biography of Wilde came about when Hesketh Pearson wrote Oscar Wilde: His Life and Wit (1946). In 1954 Vyvyan Holland published his memoir Son of Oscar Wilde, which recounts the difficulties Wilde's wife and children faced after his imprisonment. It was revised and updated by Merlin Holland in 1989.\n\nOscar Wilde, a critical study by Arthur Ransome was published in 1912. The book only briefly mentioned Wilde's life, but subsequently Ransome (and The Times Book Club) were sued for libel by Lord Alfred Douglas. The trial in April 1913 was in a way a re-run of the trial(s) of Oscar Wilde. The trial resulted from Douglas's rivalry with Robbie Ross for Wilde (and his need of money). Douglas lost; De Profundis which was read in part at the trial disproved his claims (Ross had shown Ransome the full text of it). \n\nWilde's life was still waiting for independent, true scholarship when Richard Ellmann began researching his 1987 biography Oscar Wilde, for which he posthumously won a National (USA) Book Critics Circle Award in 1988 and a Pulitzer Prize in 1989. The book was the basis for the 1997 film Wilde, directed by Brian Gilbert and starring Stephen Fry as the title character. \n\nNeil McKenna's 2003 biography, The Secret Life of Oscar Wilde, offers an exploration of Wilde's sexuality. Often speculative in nature, it was widely criticised for its pure conjecture and lack of scholarly rigour. Thomas Wright's Oscar's Books (2008) explores Wilde's reading from his childhood in Dublin to his death in Paris. After tracking down many books that once belonged to Wilde's Tite Street library (dispersed at the time of his trials), Wright was the first to examine Wilde's marginalia.\n\nWilde's charm also had a lasting effect on Parisian literati, who produced several original biographies and monographs on him. André Gide, on whom Wilde had such a strange effect, wrote, In Memoriam, Oscar Wilde; Wilde also features in his journals. Thomas Louis, who had earlier translated books on Wilde into French, produced his own L'esprit d'Oscar Wilde in 1920. Modern books include Philippe Jullian's Oscar Wilde, and L'affaire Oscar Wilde, ou, Du danger de laisser la justice mettre le nez dans nos draps (The Oscar Wilde Affair, or, On the Danger of Allowing Justice to put its Nose in our Sheets) by Odon Vallet, a French religious historian. \n\nSelected works\n\n* Ravenna (1878)\n* Poems (1881)\n* The Happy Prince and Other Stories (1888, fairy stories)\n* Lord Arthur Savile's Crime and Other Stories (1891, stories)\n* House of Pomegranates (1891, fairy stories)\n* Intentions (1891, essays and dialogues on aesthetics)\n* The Picture of Dorian Gray (first published in Lippincott's Monthly Magazine July 1890, in book form in 1891; novel)\n* The Soul of Man under Socialism (1891, political essay)\n* Lady Windermere's Fan (1892, play)\n* A Woman of No Importance (1893, play)\n* An Ideal Husband (performed 1895, published 1898; play)\n* The Importance of Being Earnest (performed 1895, published 1898; play)\n* De Profundis (written 1897, published variously 1905, 1908, 1949, 1962; epistle)\n* The Ballad of Reading Gaol (1898, poem)\n\nTributes\n\nIn 2012, Wilde was inducted into the Legacy Walk, an outdoor public display which celebrates LGBT history and people. \n\nNotes\n\nFootnotes\n\nCitations" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Oscar Wild", "Flahertie", "C. 3. 3. 3", "Oscar Wilde", "O'Flahertie", "C. 3. 3. 3.", "O Wilde", "Oscar O'Flahertie Wills Wilde", "Oscar O'flaherty Wilde", "Oscar wilde", "Sebastian Melmoth", "Oscar Fingal O'Flaherty Wills Wilde", "Theocritus: a villanelle", "Oscar Wilde/Biblio", "Oscar Fingal O'Flahertie Wills Wilde", "Cyril Wilde" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "o flahertie", "theocritus villanelle", "flahertie", "oscar wilde biblio", "oscar fingal o flahertie wills wilde", "o wilde", "oscar fingal o flaherty wills wilde", "oscar wilde", "oscar o flaherty wilde", "c 3 3 3", "sebastian melmoth", "oscar o flahertie wills wilde", "oscar wild", "cyril wilde" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "oscar wilde", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Oscar Wilde" }
Who founded the off-Broadway theater where Hair had its premier?	tc_680	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Hair_(musical).txt" ], "title": [ "Hair (musical)" ], "wiki_context": [ "Hair: The American Tribal Love-Rock Musical is a rock musical with a book and lyrics by James Rado and Gerome Ragni and music by Galt MacDermot. A product of the hippie counterculture and sexual revolution of the 1960s, several of its songs became anthems of the anti-Vietnam War peace movement. The musical's profanity, its depiction of the use of illegal drugs, its treatment of sexuality, its irreverence for the American flag, and its nude scene caused much comment and controversy. The musical broke new ground in musical theatre by defining the genre of \"rock musical\", using a racially integrated cast, and inviting the audience onstage for a \"Be-In\" finale. \n\nHair tells the story of the \"tribe\", a group of politically active, long-haired hippies of the \"Age of Aquarius\" living a bohemian life in New York City and fighting against conscription into the Vietnam War. Claude, his good friend Berger, their roommate Sheila and their friends struggle to balance their young lives, loves, and the sexual revolution with their rebellion against the war and their conservative parents and society. Ultimately, Claude must decide whether to resist the draft as his friends have done, or to succumb to the pressures of his parents (and conservative America) to serve in Vietnam, compromising his pacifistic principles and risking his life.\n\nAfter an off-Broadway debut in October 1967 at Joseph Papp's Public Theater and a subsequent run at the Cheetah nightclub from December 1967 through January 1968, the show opened on Broadway in April 1968 and ran for 1,750 performances. Simultaneous productions in cities across the United States and Europe followed shortly thereafter, including a successful London production that ran for 1,997 performances. Since then, numerous productions have been staged around the world, spawning dozens of recordings of the musical, including the 3 million-selling original Broadway cast recording. Some of the songs from its score became Top 10 hits, and a feature film adaptation was released in 1979. A Broadway revival opened on March 31, 2009, earning strong reviews and winning the Tony Award and Drama Desk Award for best revival of a musical. In 2008, Time magazine wrote, \"Today Hair seems, if anything, more daring than ever.\"Zoglin, Richard. [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1828301,00.html \"A New Dawn for Hair\",] Time magazine, July 31, 2008 (in the August 11, 2008 issue, pp. 61–63)\n\nHistory \n\nHair was conceived by actors James Rado and Gerome Ragni. The two met in 1964 when they performed together in the Off-Broadway flop Hang Down Your Head and Die,Haun, Harry. \"Age of Aquarius\", Playbill, April 2009, from Hair at the Al Hirschfeld Theatre, p. 7 and they began writing Hair together in late 1964.Rado, James (February 14, 2003). [http://www.hairthemusical.com/history.html \"Hairstory – The Story Behind the Story\",] hairthemusical.com. Retrieved on April 11, 2008.[http://www.lortel.org/LLA_archive/index.cfm?search_by\nshow&titleViet%20Rock \"Viet Rock\"]. Lortel Archives: The Internet Off-Broadway Database. Retrieved on April 11, 2008. The main characters were autobiographical, with Rado's Claude being a pensive romantic and Ragni's Berger an extrovert. Their close relationship, including its volatility, was reflected in the musical. Rado explained, \"We were great friends. It was a passionate kind of relationship that we directed into creativity, into writing, into creating this piece. We put the drama between us on stage.\"\n\nRado described the inspiration for Hair as \"a combination of some characters we met in the streets, people we knew and our own imaginations. We knew this group of kids in the East Village who were dropping out and dodging the draft, and there were also lots of articles in the press about how kids were being kicked out of school for growing their hair long\". He recalled, \"There was so much excitement in the streets and the parks and the hippie areas, and we thought if we could transmit this excitement to the stage it would be wonderful.... We hung out with them and went to their Be-Ins [and] let our hair grow.\"Taylor, Kate (September 14, 2007). [http://www.nysun.com/arts/beat-goes/62643/ \"The Beat Goes On\"]. The New York Sun. Retrieved on May 27, 2008. Many cast members (Shelley Plimpton in particular) were recruited right off the street. Rado said, \"It was very important historically, and if we hadn't written it, there'd not be any examples. You could read about it and see film clips, but you'd never experience it. We thought, 'This is happening in the streets,' and we wanted to bring it to the stage.\"\n\nRado and Ragni came from different artistic backgrounds. In college, Rado wrote musical revues and aspired to be a Broadway composer in the Rodgers and Hammerstein tradition. He went on to study acting with Lee Strasberg. Ragni, on the other hand, was an active member of The Open Theater, one of several groups, mostly Off-off Broadway, that were developing experimental theatre techniques.Miller, pp. 54–56 He introduced Rado to the modern theatre styles and methods being developed at The Open Theater. In 1966, while the two were developing Hair, Ragni performed in The Open Theater's production of Megan Terry's play, Viet Rock, a story about young men being deployed to the Vietnam War. In addition to the war theme, Viet Rock employed the improvisational exercises being used in the experimental theatre scene and later used in the development of Hair. \n\nRado and Ragni brought their drafts of the show to producer Eric Blau who, through common friend Nat Shapiro, connected the two with Canadian composer Galt MacDermot. MacDermot had won a Grammy Award in 1961 for his composition \"African Waltz\" (recorded by Cannonball Adderley). The composer's lifestyle was in marked contrast to his co-creators: \"I had short hair, a wife, and, at that point, four children, and I lived on Staten Island.\" \"I never even heard of a hippie when I met Rado and Ragni.\" But he shared their enthusiasm to do a rock and roll show. \"We work independently,\" explained MacDermot in May 1968. \"I prefer it that way. They hand me the material. I set it to music.\" MacDermot wrote the first score in three weeks, starting with the songs \"I Got Life\", \"Ain't Got No\", \"Where Do I Go\" and the title song. He first wrote \"Aquarius\" as an unconventional art piece, but later rewrote it into an uplifting anthem.\n\nOff-Broadway productions \n\nThe creators pitched the show to Broadway producers and received many rejections. Eventually Joe Papp, who ran the New York Shakespeare Festival, decided he wanted Hair to open the new Public Theater (still under construction) in New York City's East Village. The musical was Papp's first non-Shakespeare offering. The production did not go smoothly: \"The rehearsal and casting process was confused, the material itself incomprehensible to many of the theater’s staff. The director, Gerald Freedman, the theater's associate artistic director, withdrew in frustration during the final week of rehearsals and offered his resignation. Papp accepted it, and the choreographer Anna Sokolow took over the show.... After a disastrous final dress rehearsal, Papp wired Mr. Freedman in Washington, where he'd fled: 'Please come back.' Mr. Freedman did.\"Isherwood, Charles (September 16, 2007). [http://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/16/theater/16ishe.html?_r1&pagewanted\nprint&oref=slogin \"The Aging of Aquarius\"]. The New York Times. Retrieved on May 25, 2008.\n\nHair premiered off-Broadway at the Public on October 17, 1967 and ran for a limited engagement of six weeks. The lead roles were played by Walker Daniels as Claude, Ragni as Berger, Jill O'Hara as Sheila, Steve Dean as Woof, Arnold Wilkerson as Hud, Sally Eaton as Jeanie and Shelley Plimpton as Crissy. Set design was by Ming Cho Lee, costume design by Theoni Aldredge, and although Anna Sokolow began rehearsals as choreographer, Freedman received choreographer credit. Although the production had a \"tepid critical reception\", it was popular with audiences. A cast album was released in 1967.\n\nChicago businessman Michael Butler was planning to run for the U.S. Senate on an anti-war platform. After seeing an ad for Hair in The New York Times that led him to believe the show was about Native Americans, he watched the Public's production several times and joined forces with Joe Papp to reproduce the show at another New York venue after the close of its run at the Public. Papp and Butler first moved the show to The Cheetah, a discothèque at 53rd Street and Broadway. It opened there on December 22, 1967 and ran for 45 performances. There was no nudity in either the Public Theater or Cheetah production.Horn, pp. 87–88\n\nRevision for Broadway \n\nHair underwent a thorough overhaul between its closing at the Cheetah in January 1968 and its Broadway opening three months later. The off-Broadway book, already light on plot, was loosened even further and made more realistic. For example, Claude had been written as a space alien who aspires to be a cinematic director; he became human for the Broadway version.Planer, Lindsay. [http://www.allmusic.com/album/hair-original-1967-off-broadway-cast-r677160/review \"Hair [Original 1967 Off-Broadway Cast]\"], Allmusic.com, accessed February 3, 2011 Moreover, were added. The song \"Let the Sun Shine In\" was added so that the ending would be more uplifting.\n\nBefore the move to Broadway, the creative team hired director Tom O'Horgan, who had built a reputation directing experimental theater at the La MaMa Experimental Theatre Club. He had been the authors' first choice to direct the Public Theater production, but he was in Europe at the time. Newsweek described O'Horgan's directing style as \"sensual, savage, and thoroughly musical... [he] disintegrates verbal structure and often breaks up and distributes narrative and even character among different actors.... He enjoys sensory bombardment.\" In rehearsals, O'Horgan used techniques passed down by Viola Spolin and Paul Sills involving role playing and improvisational \"games\". Many of the improvisations tried during this process were incorporated into the Broadway script.Horn, p. 53 O'Horgan and new choreographer Julie Arenal encouraged freedom and spontaneity in their actors, introducing \"an organic, expansive style of staging\" that had never been seen before on Broadway. The inspiration to include nudity came when the authors saw an anti-war demonstration in Central Park where two men stripped naked as an expression of defiance and freedom, and they decided to incorporate the idea into the show. O'Horgan had used nudity in many of the plays he directed, and he helped integrate the idea into the fabric of the show.\n\nPapp declined to pursue a Broadway production, and so Butler produced the show himself. For a time it seemed that Butler would be unable to secure a Broadway theater, as the Shuberts, Nederlanders and other theater owners deemed the material too controversial. However, Butler had family connections and knew important people; he persuaded Biltmore Theatre owner David Cogan to make his venue available. \n\nSynopsis \n\n;Act I\nClaude, the nominal leader of the \"tribe\", sits center stage as the tribe mingles with the audience. Tribe members Sheila, a New York University student who is a determined political activist, and Berger, an irreverent free spirit, cut a lock of Claude's hair and burn it in a receptacle. After the tribe converges in slow-motion toward the stage, through the audience, they begin their celebration as children of the Age of Aquarius (\"Aquarius\"). Berger removes his trousers to reveal a loincloth. Interacting with the audience, he introduces himself as a \"psychedelic teddy bear\" and reveals that he is \"looking for my Donna\" (\"Donna\").\n\nThe tribe recites a list of pharmaceuticals, legal and illegal (\"Hashish\"). Woof, a gentle soul, extols several sexual practices (\"Sodomy\") and says, \"I grow things.\" He loves plants, his family and the audience, telling the audience, \"We are all one.\" Hud, a militant African-American, is carried in upside down on a pole. He declares himself \"president of the United States of Love\" (\"Colored Spade\"). In a fake English accent, Claude says that he is \"the most beautiful beast in the forest\" from \"Manchester, England\". A tribe member reminds him that he's really from Flushing, New York. Hud, Woof and Berger declare what color they are (\"I'm Black\"), while Claude says that he's \"invisible\". The tribe recites a list of things they lack (\"Ain't Got No\"). Four African-American tribe members recite street signs in symbolic sequence (\"Dead End\").\n\nSheila is carried onstage (\"I Believe in Love\") and leads the tribe in a protest chant. The tribe reprises \"Ain't Got No (Grass)\". Jeanie, an eccentric young woman, appears wearing a gas mask, satirizing pollution (\"Air\"). She is pregnant and in love with Claude. Although she wishes it was Claude's baby, she was \"knocked up by some crazy speed freak\". The tribe link together LBJ (President Lyndon B. Johnson), FBI (the Federal Bureau of Investigation), CIA (the Central Intelligence Agency) and LSD (\"Initials\"). Six members of the tribe appear dressed as Claude's parents, berating him for his various transgressions – he does not have a job, and he collects \"mountains of paper\" clippings and notes. They say that they will not give him any more money, and \"the army'll make a man out of you\". In defiance, Claude leads the tribe in celebrating their vitality (\"I Got Life\").\n\nAfter handing out imaginary pills to the tribe members, saying the pills are for high-profile people such as Richard Nixon, the Pope, and \"Alabama Wallace\", Berger relates how he was expelled from high school (\"Goin' Down\"). Claude returns from his draft board physical, which he passed. He pretends to burn his Vietnam War draft card, which Berger reveals as a library card. Claude agonizes about what to do about being drafted.\n\nTwo tribe members dressed as tourists come down the aisle to ask the tribe why they have such long hair. In answer, Claude and Berger lead the tribe in explaining the significance of their \"Hair\". The tourist lady states that kids should \"be free, no guilt\" and should \"do whatever you want, just so long as you don't hurt anyone.\" She observes that long hair is natural, like the \"elegant plumage\" of male birds (\"My Conviction\"). She opens her coat to reveal that she's a man in drag. As the couple leaves, the tribe calls her Margaret Mead.\n\nSheila gives Berger a yellow shirt. He goofs around and ends up tearing it in two. Sheila voices her distress that Berger seems to care more about the \"bleeding crowd\" than about her (\"Easy to Be Hard\"). Jeanie summarizes everyone's romantic entanglements: \"I'm hung up on Claude, Sheila's hung up on Berger, Berger is hung up everywhere. Claude is hung up on a cross over Sheila and Berger.\" The tribe runs out to the audience with fliers inviting them to a Be-In. Berger, Woof and another tribe member pay satiric tribute to the American flag as they fold it (\"Don't Put it Down\"). After young and innocent Crissy describes \"Frank Mills\", a boy she's looking for, the tribe participates in the \"Be-In\". The men of the tribe burn their draft cards. Claude puts his card in the fire, then changes his mind and pulls it out. He asks, \"where is the something, where is the someone, that tells me why I live and die?\" (\"Where Do I Go\"). The tribe emerges naked, intoning \"beads, flowers, freedom, happiness.\"\n\n;Act II\nFour tribe members have the \"Electric Blues\". After a black-out, the tribe enters worshiping \"Oh Great God of Power.\" Claude returns from the induction center, and tribe members act out an imagined conversation from Claude's draft interview, with Hud saying \"the draft is white people sending black people to make war on the yellow people to defend the land they stole from the red people\". Claude gives Woof a Mick Jagger poster, and Woof is excited about the gift, as he has said he's hung up on Jagger. Three white women of the tribe tell why they like \"Black Boys\" (\"black boys are delicious...\"), and three black women of the tribe, dressed like The Supremes, explain why they like \"White Boys\" (\"white boys are so pretty...\").\n\nBerger gives a joint to Claude that is laced with a hallucinogen. Claude starts to trip as the tribe acts out his visions (\"Walking in Space\"). He hallucinates that he is skydiving from a plane into the jungles of Vietnam. Berger appears as General George Washington and is told to retreat because of an Indian attack. The Indians shoot all of Washington's men. General Ulysses S. Grant appears and begins a roll call: Abraham Lincoln (played by a black female tribe member), John Wilkes Booth, Calvin Coolidge, Clark Gable, Scarlett O'Hara, Aretha Franklin, Colonel George Custer. Claude Bukowski is called in the roll call, but Clark Gable says \"he couldn't make it\". They all dance a minuet until three African witch doctors kill them – all except for Abraham Lincoln who says, \"I'm one of you\". Lincoln, after the three Africans sing his praises, recites an alternate version of the Gettysburg Address (\"Abie Baby\"). Booth shoots Lincoln, but Lincoln says to him, \"I ain't dying for no white man\".\n\nAs the visions continue, enter. One monk pours a can of gasoline over another monk, who is set afire (reminiscent of the self-immolation of Thích Quảng Đức) and runs off screaming. strangle the . shoot the nuns with ray guns. people stab the astronauts with knives. kill the Chinese with bows and tomahawks. kill the Native Americans with machine guns and then kill each other. A Sergeant and two parents appear holding up a suit on a hanger. The parents talk to the suit as if it is their son and they are very proud of him. The bodies rise and play like children. The play escalates to violence until they are all dead again. They rise again (\"Three-Five-Zero-Zero\") and, at the end of the trip sequence, two tribe members sing, over the dead bodies, a melody set to a Shakespeare lyric about the nobility of Man (\"What A Piece of Work Is Man\").\n\nAfter the trip, Claude says \"I can't take this moment to moment living on the streets.... I know what I want to be... invisible\". As they \"look at the moon,\" Sheila and the others enjoy a light moment (\"Good Morning Starshine\"). The tribe pays tribute to an old mattress (\"The Bed\"). Claude is left alone with his doubts. He leaves as the tribe enters wrapped in blankets in the midst of a snow storm. They start a protest chant and then wonder where Claude has gone. Berger calls out \"Claude! Claude!\" Claude enters dressed in a military uniform, his hair short, but they do not see him because he is an invisible spirit. Claude says, \"like it or not, they got me.\"\n\nClaude and everyone sing \"Flesh Failures\". The tribe moves in front of Claude as Sheila and Dionne take up the lyric. The whole tribe launches into \"Let the Sun Shine In\", and as they exit, they reveal Claude lying down center stage on a black cloth. During the curtain call, the tribe reprises \"Let the Sun Shine In\" and brings audience members up on stage to dance.\n\n(Note: This plot summary is based on the original Broadway script. The script has varied in subsequent productions.)\n\nPrincipal roles; original Off-Broadway and Broadway casts\n\nClaude Hooper Bukowski – Walker Daniels / James Rado\nGeorge Berger – Gerome Ragni\nSheila Franklin – Jill O'Hara / Lynn Kellogg \nJeanie – Sally Eaton\nNeil \"Woof\" Donovan – Steve Dean / Steve Curry\nHud – Arnold Wilkerson / Lamont Washington\nCrissy – Shelley Plimpton\nThe original Broadway production also included Melba Moore as Dionne, Ronnie Dyson, who sang \"Aquarius\", Paul Jabara and Diane Keaton.\n\nEarly productions \n\nBroadway \n\nHair opened on Broadway at the Biltmore Theatre on April 29, 1968. The production was directed by Tom O'Horgan and choreographed by Julie Arenal, with set design by Robin Wagner, costume design by Nancy Potts, and lighting design by Jules Fisher. The original Broadway \"tribe\" (i.e., cast) included authors Rado and Ragni, who played the lead roles of Claude and Berger, respectively, and Lynn Kellogg as Sheila, Lamont Washington as Hud, Sally Eaton and Shelley Plimpton reprising their off-Broadway roles as Jeanie and Crissy, Melba Moore as Dionne, Steve Curry as Woof, Ronnie Dyson (who sang \"Aquarius\"), Paul Jabara and Diane Keaton (both Moore and Keaton later played Sheila).[http://www.ibdb.com/production.php?id\n3393 \"Hair\"]. [http://www.ibdb.com/ Internet Broadway Database]. Retrieved on April 11, 2008. Among the performers who appeared in Hair during its original Broadway run were Ben Vereen, Keith Carradine, Barry McGuire, Ted Lange, Meat Loaf, Kenny Seymour (of Little Anthony and The Imperials), Joe Butler (of the Lovin' Spoonful), Peppy Castro (of the Blues Magoos), Robin McNamara, Heather MacRae (daughter of Gordon MacRae and Sheila MacRae), Eddie Rambeau, Vicki Sue Robinson, Beverly Bremers and Kim Milford.\n\nThe Hair team soon became embroiled in a lawsuit with the organizers of the Tony Awards. After assuring producer Michael Butler that commencing previews by April 3, 1968 would assure eligibility for consideration for the 1968 Tonys, the New York Theatre League ruled Hair ineligible, moving the cutoff date to March 19. The producers brought suit but were unable to force the League to reconsider. At the 1969 Tonys, Hair was nominated for Best Musical and Best Director but lost out to 1776 in both categories. The production ran for four years and 1,750 performances, closing on July 1, 1972.\n\nEarly regional productions \n\nThe West Coast version played at the Aquarius Theater in Los Angeles beginning about six months after the Broadway opening and running for an unprecedented two years. The Los Angeles tribe included Rado, Ragni, Robert Rothman, Ben Vereen (who replaced Ragni), Red Shepard, Ted Neeley (who replaced Rado), Meat Loaf, Gloria Jones, Táta Vega, Jobriath, Jennifer Warnes, and Dobie Gray.\n\nThere were soon nine simultaneous productions in U.S. cities, followed by national tours.King, Betty Nygaard. [http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/en/article/hair-emc/ \"Hair\"]. Encyclopedia of Music in Canada. Historica Foundation of Canada. Retrieved on May 31, 2008. Among the performers in these were Joe Mantegna, André DeShields, and Alaina Reed (Chicago), David Lasley, David Patrick Kelly, Meat Loaf, and Shaun Murphy (Detroit), Arnold McCuller (tour), Bob Bingham (Seattle) and Philip Michael Thomas (San Francisco). The creative team from Broadway worked on Hair in Los Angeles, Chicago and San Francisco, as the Broadway staging served as a rough template for these and other early regional productions. A notable addition to the team in Los Angeles was Tom Smothers, who served as co-producer. Regional casts consisted mostly of local actors, although a few Broadway cast members reprised their roles in other cities.Horn, pp. 100–01 O'Horgan or the authors sometimes took new ideas and improvisations from a regional show and brought them back to New York, such as when live chickens were tossed onto the stage in Los Angeles.\n\nIt was rare for so many productions to run simultaneously during an initial Broadway run. Producer Michael Butler, who had declared that Hair is \"the strongest anti-war statement ever written\", said the reason that he opened so many productions was to influence public opinion against the Vietnam War and end it as soon as possible. \n\nWest End \n\nHair opened at the Shaftesbury Theatre in London on September 27, 1968, led by the same creative team as the Broadway production. The opening night was delayed until the abolition of theatre censorship in England under the Theatres Act 1968 so that the show could include nudity and profanity. As with other early productions, the London show added a sprinkling of local allusions and other minor departures from the Broadway version.Horn, p. 105\n\nThe original London tribe included Sonja Kristina, Peter Straker, Paul Nicholas, Melba Moore, Elaine Paige, Paul Korda, Marsha Hunt, Floella Benjamin, Alex Harvey, Oliver Tobias, Richard O'Brien and Tim Curry. This was Curry's first full-time theatrical acting role, where he met future Rocky Horror Show collaborator O'Brien. Hairs engagement in London surpassed the Broadway production, running for 1,997 performances until its closure was forced by the roof of the theatre collapsing in July 1973. \n\nEarly international productions \n\nThe job of leading the foreign language productions of Hair was given to Bertrand Castelli, Butler's partner and executive producer of the Broadway show.Horn, pp. 103–10 Castelli was a writer/producer who traveled in Paris art circles and rubbed elbows with Pablo Picasso and Jean Cocteau. Butler described him as a \"crazy showman ... the guy with the business suit and beads\". Castelli decided to do the show in the local language of each country at a time when Broadway shows were always done in English. The translations followed the original script closely, and the Broadway stagings were used. Each script contained local references, such as street names and the names or depictions of local politicians and celebrities. Castelli produced companies in France, Germany, Mexico and other countries, sometimes also directing the productions.\n\nA German production, directed by Castelli, opened in 1968 in Munich; the tribe included Donna Summer, Liz Mitchell and Donna Wyant. A successful Parisian production of Hair opened on June 1, 1969. The original Australian production premiered in Sydney on June 6, 1969, produced by Harry M. Miller and directed by Jim Sharman, who also designed the production. The tribe included Keith Glass and then Reg Livermore as Berger, John Waters as Claude and Sharon Redd as The Magician. Redd was one of six African-Americans brought to Australia to provide a racially integrated tribe. [http://www.milesago.com/Stage/hair.htm Hair: Original Australian production], MILESAGO: Australasian Music & Popular Culture 1964–1975, accessed April 29, 2009. The production broke local box-office records and ran for two years, but because of some of the language in the show, the cast album was banned in Queensland and New Zealand. The production transferred to Melbourne in 1971 and then had a national tour. It marked the stage debut of Boston-born Australian vocalist Marcia Hines. In Mexico the production was banned by the government after one night in Acapulco. An 18-year-old Sônia Braga appeared in the 1969 Brazilian production. \n\nAnother notable production was in Belgrade, in the former Yugoslavia, in 1969. It was the first Hair to be produced in a communist country. The show, translated into Serbian, was directed by female producer-director Mira Trailović at the Atelje 212 theatre.Nježić, T. [http://www.blic.rs/kultura/vesti/autorima-kose-najvise-se-dopala-beogradska-verzija-iz-1969/3f95xhy \"Autorima 'Kose' najviše se dopala beogradska verzija iz 1969\"], blic.rs, January 31, 2010, accessed May 25, 2016Lemon, Richard. [http://www.intrafi.com/hair/holding/articles/HairArticles/SanFranProg10-69.html \"Here, There, Everywhere Hair\"], Performing Arts Magazine, October 1969, accessed May 25, 2016 It featured Dragan Nikolić, Branko Milićević, Seka Sablić and Dušan Prelević. Over four years, the production received 250 performances and was attended by president Tito. Local references in the script included barbs aimed at Mao Zedong as well as Albania, Yugoslavia's traditional rival.\n\nBy 1970, Hair was a huge financial success, and nineteen productions had been staged outside of North America. In addition to those named above, these included productions in Scandinavia, South America, Italy, Israel, Japan, Canada, the Netherlands, Switzerland and Austria. According to Billboard, the various productions of the show were raking in almost $1 million every ten days, and royalties were being collected for 300 different recordings of the show's songs, making it \"the most successful score in history as well as the most performed score ever written for the Broadway stage.\"\n\nThemes \n\nHair explores many of the themes of the hippie movement of the 1960s. Theatre writer Scott Miller described these as follows:\n[T]he youth of America, especially those on college campuses, started protesting all the things that they saw wrong with America: racism, environmental destruction, poverty, sexism and sexual repression, violence at home and the war in Vietnam, depersonalization from new technologies, and corruption in politics. ... Contrary to popular opinion, the hippies had great respect for America and believed that they were the true patriots, the only ones who genuinely wanted to save our country and make it the best it could be once again. ... [Long] hair was the hippies' flag – their ... symbol not only of rebellion but also of new possibilities, a symbol of the rejection of discrimination and restrictive gender roles (a philosophy celebrated in the song \"My Conviction\"). It symbolized equality between men and women. ... [T]he hippies' chosen clothing also made statements. Drab work clothes (jeans, work shirts, pea coats) were a rejection of materialism. Clothing from other cultures, particularly the Third World and native Americans, represented their awareness of the global community and their rejection of U.S. imperialism and selfishness. Simple cotton dresses and other natural fabrics were a rejection of synthetics, a return to natural things and simpler times. Some hippies wore old World War II or Civil War jackets as way of co-opting the symbols of war into their newfound philosophy of nonviolence.Miller, Scott (2001). [http://www.michaelbutler.com/hair/holding/articles/HairArticles/scottmiller.html \"HAIR – An analysis by Scott Miller\"; excerpt from Rebels with applause: Broadway's groundbreaking musicals]. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. ISBN 0-325-00357-2\n\nRace and the tribe \n\nExtending the precedents set by Show Boat (1927) and Porgy and Bess (1935), Hair opened the Broadway musical to racial integration; fully one-third of the cast was African American.Horn, p. 134 Except for satirically in skits, the roles for the black members of the tribe portrayed them as equals, breaking away from the traditional roles for blacks in entertainment as slaves or servants. An Ebony magazine article declared that the show was the biggest outlet for black actors in the history of the U.S. stage.\n\nSeveral songs and scenes from the show address racial issues. \"Colored Spade\", which introduces the character Hud, a militant black male, is a long list of racial slurs (\"jungle bunny... little black sambo\") topped off with the declaration that Hud is the \"president of the United States of love\". At the end of his song, he tells the tribe that the \"boogie man\" will get them, as the tribe pretends to be frightened. \"Dead End\", sung by black tribe members, is a list of street signs that symbolize black frustration and alienation. One of the tribe's protest chants is \"What do we think is really great? To bomb, lynch and segregate!\" \"Black Boys/White Boys\" is an exuberant acknowledgement of miscegenation; the U.S. Supreme Court had struck down laws against the practice in 1967. Another of the tribe's protest chants is \"Black, white, yellow, red. Copulate in a king-sized bed.\"\n\n\"Abie Baby\" is part of the Act 2 \"trip\" sequence: four African witch doctors, who have just killed various American historical, cultural and fictional characters, sing the praises of Abraham Lincoln, portrayed by a black female tribe member, whom they decide not to kill. The first part of the song contains stereotypical language that black characters used in old movies, like \"I's finished ... pluckin' y'all's chickens\" and \"I's free now thanks to y'all, Master Lincoln\". The Lincoln character then recites a modernized version of the Gettysburg Address, while a white female tribe member polishes Lincoln's shoes with her blond hair.\n\nThe many references to Native Americans throughout the script are part of the anti-consumerism, naturalism focus of the hippie movement and of Hair. The characters in the show are referred to as the \"tribe\", borrowing the term for Native American communities. The cast of each production chooses a tribal name: \"The practice is not just cosmetic ... the entire cast must work together, must like each other, and often within the show, must work as a single organism. All the sense of family, of belonging, of responsibility and loyalty inherent in the word \"tribe\" has to be felt by the cast.\" To enhance this feeling, O'Horgan put the cast through sensitivity exercises based on trust, touching, listening and intensive examination that broke down barriers between the cast and crew and encouraged bonding. These exercises were based on techniques developed at the Esalen Institute and Polish Lab Theater. The idea of Claude, Berger and Sheila living together is another facet of the 1960s concept of tribe. \n\nNudity, sexual freedom and drug use \n\nThe brief nude scene at the end of Act I was a subject of controversy and notoriety. Miller writes that \"nudity was a big part of the hippie culture, both as a rejection of the sexual repression of their parents and also as a statement about naturalism, spirituality, honesty, openness, and freedom. The naked body was beautiful, something to be celebrated and appreciated, not scorned and hidden. They saw their bodies and their sexuality as gifts, not as 'dirty' things.\"\n\nHair glorifies sexual freedom in a variety of ways. In addition to acceptance of miscegenation, mentioned above, the characters' lifestyle acts as a sexually and politically charged updating of La bohème; as Rado explained, \"The love element of the peace movement was palpable.\" In the song \"Sodomy\", Woof exhorts everyone to \"join the holy orgy Kama Sutra\". Toward the end of Act 2, the tribe members reveal their free love tendencies when they banter back and forth about who will sleep with whom that night.Barnes, Clive (April 30, 1968). [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?resFA0C14F7345D147493C2AA178FD85F4C8685F9&scp\n1&sqhair&st\np \"Theater: Hair – It's Fresh and Frank; Likable Rock Musical Moves to Broadway\"], New York Times, p. 40. Retrieved on April 11, 2008. Woof has a crush on Mick Jagger, and a three-way embrace between Claude, Berger and Sheila turns into a Claude–Berger kiss.Rado, James; Gerome Ragni [1966, 1969]. Hair, Original Script, Tams Whitmark.\n\nVarious illegal drugs are taken by the characters during the course of the show, most notably a hallucinogen during the trip sequence. The song \"Walking in Space\" begins the sequence, and the lyrics celebrate the experience declaring \"how dare they try to end this beauty ... in this dive we rediscover sensation ... our eyes are open, wide, wide, wide\". Similarly, in the song \"Donna\", Berger sings that \"I'm evolving through the drugs that you put down.\" At another point, Jeanie smokes marijuana and dismisses the critics of \"pot\". Generally, the tribe favors hallucinogenic or \"mind expanding\" drugs, such as LSD and marijuana,Miller, p. 116 while disapproving of other drugs such as speed and depressants. For example, Jeanie, after revealing that she is pregnant by a \"speed freak\", says that \"methedrine is a bad scene\". The song \"Hashish\" provides a list of pharmaceuticals, both illegal and legal, including cocaine, alcohol, LSD, opium and Thorazine, which is used as an antipsychotic.\n\nPacifism and environmentalism \n\nThe theme of opposition to the war that pervades the show is unified by the plot thread that progresses through the book – Claude's moral dilemma over whether to burn his draft card. Pacifism is explored throughout the extended trip sequence in Act 2. The lyrics to \"Three-Five-Zero-Zero\", which is sung during that sequence, evoke the horrors of war (\"ripped open by metal explosion\"). The song is based on Allen Ginsberg's 1966 poem, \"Wichita Vortex Sutra\". In the poem, General Maxwell Taylor proudly reports to the press the number of enemy soldiers killed in one month, repeating it digit by digit, for effect: \"Three-Five-Zero-Zero.\" The song begins with images of death and dying and turns into a manic dance number, echoing Maxwell's glee at reporting the enemy casualties, as the tribe chants \"Take weapons up and begin to kill\". The song also includes the repeated phrase \"Prisoners in niggertown/ It's a dirty little war\".\n\n\"Don't Put It Down\" satirizes the unexamined patriotism of people who are literally \"crazy\" for the American flag. \"Be In (Hare Krishna)\" praises the peace movement and events like the San Francisco and Central Park Be-Ins. Throughout the show, the tribe chants popular protest slogans like \"What do we want? Peace! – When do we want it? Now!\" and \"Do not enter the induction center\". The upbeat song, \"Let the Sun Shine In\", is a call to action, to reject the darkness of war and change the world for the better.\n\nHair also aims its satire at the pollution caused by our civilization. Jeanie appears from a trap door in the stage wearing a gas mask and then sings the song \"Air\": \"Welcome, sulfur dioxide. Hello carbon monoxide. The air ... is everywhere\". She suggests that pollution will eventually kill her, \"vapor and fume at the stone of my tomb, breathing like a sullen perfume\". In a comic, pro-green vein, when Woof introduces himself, he explains that he \"grows things\" like \"beets, and corn ... and sweet peas\" and that he \"loves the flowers and the fuzz and the trees\".\n\nReligion and astrology \n\nReligion, particularly Catholicism, appears both overtly and symbolically throughout the piece, and it is often made the brunt of a joke. Berger sings of looking for \"my Donna\", giving it the double meaning of the woman he's searching for and the Madonna. During \"Sodomy\", a hymn-like paean to all that is \"dirty\" about sex, the cast strikes evocative religious positions: the Pietà and Christ on the cross.Davis, Lorrie (1968). Album notes for Original Cast Recording of Hair, pp. 5–6 (CD booklet), RCA Victor (1150-2-RC). [http://musicbrainz.org/release/22b9abaa-1c35-41b9-82b7-e9e8c99d40c1.html Hair] at MusicBrainz. Before the song, Woof recites a modified rosary. In Act II, when Berger gives imaginary pills to various famous figures, he offers \"a pill for the Pope\". In \"Going Down\", after being kicked out of school, Berger compares himself to Lucifer: \"Just like the angel that fell / Banished forever to hell / Today have I been expelled / From high school heaven.\" Claude becomes a classic Christ figure at various points in the script.Miller, pp. 88–89 In Act I, Claude enters, saying, \"I am the Son of God. I shall vanish and be forgotten,\" then gives benediction to the tribe and the audience. Claude suffers from indecision, and, in his Gethsemane at the end of Act I, he asks \"Where Do I Go?\". There are textual allusions to Claude being on a cross, and, in the end, he is chosen to give his life for the others. Berger has been seen as a John the Baptist figure, preparing the way for Claude.\n\nSongs like \"Good Morning, Starshine\" and \"Aquarius\" reflect the 1960s cultural interest in astrological and cosmic concepts. \"Aquarius\" was the result of Rado's research into his own astrological sign.[http://www.orlok.com/hair/holding/articles/HairArticles/AstrologyToday.html \"Rapping With Sally Eaton of Hair\"]. Astrology Today. michaelbutler.com. Retrieved on April 11, 2008. The company's astrologer, Maria Crummere, was consulted about casting: Sheila was usually played by a Libra or Capricorn and Berger by a Leo, although Ragni, the original Berger, was a Virgo. Crummere was also consulted when deciding when the show would open on Broadway and in other cities.[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,840493,00.html \"Hairzapoppin'\"]. Time (December 12, 1969). Retrieved on May 29, 2008. The 1971 Broadway Playbill reported that she chose April 29, 1968 for the Broadway premiere. \"The 29th was auspicious ... because the moon was high, indicating that people would attend in masses. The position of the 'history makers' (Pluto, Uranus, Jupiter) in the 10th house made the show unique, powerful and a money-maker. And the fact that Neptune was on the ascendancy foretold that Hair would develop a reputation involving sex.\"Dowling, Colette (May 1971). [http://michaelbutler.com/hair/holding/articles/HairArticles/Playbill5-71.html \"Hair – Trusting the Kids and the Stars\"]. Playbill. Retrieved on June 1, 2008.\n\nIn Mexico, where Crummere did not pick the opening date, the show was closed down by the government after one night. She was not pleased with the date of the Boston opening (where the producers were sued over the show's content) saying, \"Jupiter will be in opposition to naughty Saturn, and the show opens the very day of the sun's eclipse. Terrible.\" But there was no astrologically safe time in the near future. \n\nLiterary themes and symbolism \n\nHair makes many references to Shakespeare's plays, especially Romeo and Juliet and Hamlet, and, at times, takes lyrical material directly from Shakespeare. For example, the lyrics to the song \"What a Piece of Work Is Man\" are from Hamlet (II: scene 2) and portions of \"Flesh Failures\" (\"the rest is silence\") are from Hamlet's final lines. In \"Flesh Failures/Let The Sun Shine In\", the lyrics \"Eyes, look your last!/ Arms, take your last embrace! And lips, O you/ The doors of breath, seal with a righteous kiss\" are from Romeo and Juliet (V: iii, 111–14). According to Miller, the Romeo suicide imagery makes the point that, with our complicity in war, we are killing ourselves.\n\nSymbolically, the running plot of Claude's indecision, especially his resistance to burning his draft card, which ultimately causes his demise, has been seen as a parallel to Hamlet: \"the melancholy hippie\". The symbolism is carried into the last scene, where Claude appears as a ghostly spirit among his friends wearing an army uniform in an ironic echo of an earlier scene, where he says, \"I know what I want to be ... invisible\". According to Public Theater Artistic Director Oskar Eustis, \"Both [Hair and Hamlet] center on idealistic brilliant men as they struggle to find their place in a world marred by war, violence, and venal politics. They see both the luminous possibilities and the harshest realities of being human. In the end, unable to effectively combat the evil around them, they tragically succumb.\" \n\nOther literary references include the song \"Three-Five-Zero-Zero\", based on Ginsberg's poem \"Wichita Vortex Sutra\", and, in the psychedelic drug trip sequence, the portrayal of Scarlett O'Hara, from Gone with the Wind, and activist African-American poet LeRoi Jones.\n\nDramatics \n\nIn his introduction to the published script of Viet Rock, Richard Schechner says, \"performance, action, and event are the key terms of our theatre – and these terms are not literary.\" In the 1950s, Off-off Broadway theaters began experimenting with non-traditional theater roles, blurring the lines between playwright, director, and actor. The playwright's job was not just to put words on a page, but to create a theatrical experience based on a central idea. By 1967, theaters such as The Living Theatre, La MaMa E.T.C. and The Open Theatre were actively devising plays from improvisational scenes crafted in the rehearsal space, rather than following a traditional script.Miller, pp. 56–58\n\nViet Rock and Hair \n\nMegan Terry's Viet Rock was created using this improvisational process. Scenes in Viet Rock were connected in \"prelogical ways\": a scene could be built from a tangent from the scene before, it could be connected psychologically, or it could be in counterpoint to the previous scene. Actors were asked to switch roles in the middle of a show, and frequently in mid-scene. In her stage directions for a Senate hearing scene in Viet Rock, Terry wrote, \"The actors should take turns being senators and witnesses; the transformations should be abrupt and total. When the actor is finished with one character he becomes another, or just an actor.\"\n\nHair was designed in much the same way. Tom O'Horgan, the show's Broadway director, was intimately involved in the experimental theatre movement. In the transition to Broadway, O'Horgan and the writers rearranged scenes to increase the experimental aspects of the show. Hair asks its actors to assume several different characters throughout the course of the piece, and, as in Claude's psychedelic trip in Act 2, sometimes during the same scene. Both Hair and Viet Rock include rock music, borrowed heavily from mass media, and frequently break down the invisible \"fourth wall\" to interact with the audience. For example, in the opening number, the tribe mingles with audience members, and at the end of the show, the audience is invited on stage.\n\nProduction design \n\nIn the original Broadway production, the stage was completely open, with no curtain and the fly area and grid exposed to the audience. The proscenium arch was outlined with climb-ready scaffolding. Wagner's spare set was painted in shades of grey with street graffiti stenciled on the stage. The stage was raked, and a tower of abstract scaffolding upstage at the rear merged a Native American totem pole and a modern sculpture of a crucifix-shaped tree. This scaffolding was decorated with found objects that the cast had gathered from the streets of New York. These included a life-size papier-mâché bus driver, the head of Jesus, and a neon marquee of the Waverly movie theater in Greenwich Village.Horn, pp. 61–64 Potts' costumes were based on hippie street clothes, made more theatrical with enhanced color and texture. Some of these included mixed parts of military uniforms, bell bottom jeans with Ukrainian embroidery, tie dyed T-shirts and a red white and blue fringed coat. Early productions were primarily reproductions of this basic design.\n\nNude scene \n\n\"Much has been written about that scene ... most of it silly,\" wrote Gene Lees in High Fidelity. The scene was inspired by two men who took off their clothes to antagonize the police during an informal anti-war gathering.[http://www.nj.com/entertainment/arts/index.ssf/2008/07/40_years_of_hair.html \"40 years of 'Hair'\"]. Newark Star-Ledger (July 19, 2008). Retrieved on July 26, 2008. During \"Where Do I Go?\", the stage was covered in a giant scrim, beneath which those choosing to participate in the scene removed their clothes. At the musical cue, \"they [stood] naked and motionless, their bodies bathed in Fisher's light projection of floral patterns. They chant[ed] of 'beads, flowers, freedom, and happiness.'\" It lasted only twenty seconds. Indeed, the scene happened so quickly and was so dimly lit that it prompted Jack Benny, during the interval at a London preview, to quip, \"Did you happen to notice if any of them were Jewish?\" Nevertheless, the scene prompted threats of censorship and even violent reactions in some places. It also became fodder for pop-cultural jokes. Groucho Marx quipped, \"I was gonna go see it, and then I called up the theater. ... They said the tickets were $11 apiece. I told them I'd call back, went into my bathroom, took off all my clothes, and looked at myself in the full-length mirror. Then I called the theater and said, 'Forget it.'\" \n\nThe nudity was optional for the performers. The French cast was \"the nudest\" of the foreign groups, while the London cast \"found nudity the hardest to achieve.\" The Swedish cast was reluctant to disrobe, but in Copenhagen, the tribe thought the nudity too tame and decided to walk naked up and down the aisle during the show's prelude. In some early performances, the Germans played their scene behind a big sheet labeled \"CENSORED\". Original Broadway cast member Natalie Mosco said, \"I was dead set against the nude scene at first, but I remembered my acting teacher having said that part of acting is being private in public. So I did it.\" According to Melba Moore, \"It doesn't mean anything except what you want it to mean. We put so much value on clothing. .... It's like so much else people get uptight about.\" Donna Summer, who was in the German production, said that \"it was not meant to be sexual. ... We stood naked to comment on the fact that society makes more of nudity than killing.\" Rado said that \"being naked in front of an audience, you're baring your soul. Not only the soul but the whole body was being exposed. It was very apt, very honest and almost necessary.\"\n\nMusic \n\nAfter studying the music of the Bantu at Cape Town University, MacDermot incorporated African rhythms into the score of Hair. He listened to \"what [the Bantu] called quaylas... [which have a] very characteristic beat, very similar to rock. Much deeper though.... Hair is very African – a lot of [the] rhythms, not the tunes so much.\" Quaylas stress beats on unexpected syllables, and this influence can be heard in songs like \"What a Piece of Work Is Man\" and \"Ain't Got No Grass\". MacDermot said, \"My idea was to make a total funk show. They said they wanted rock & roll – but to me that translated to 'funk.'\"Alapatt, Eothen; Galt MacDermot. [http://www.samplehead.com/worldofbeats/new-wob05.html \"Interview with Galt MacDermot by Eothen \"Egon\" Alapatt\"], \"Volume 5: Hair and Thangs\", November 1, 1999. Retrieved on November 9, 2013. That funk is evident throughout the score, notably in songs like \"Colored Spade\" and \"Walking in Space\".\n\nMacDermot has claimed that the songs \"can't all be the same. You've got to get different styles.... I like to think they're all a little different.\" As such, the music in Hair runs the gamut of rock: from the rockabilly sensibilities of \"Don't Put it Down\" to the folk rock rhythms of \"Frank Mills\" and \"What a Piece of Work is Man\". \"Easy to Be Hard\" is pure rhythm and blues, and protest rock anthems abound: \"Ain't Got No\" and \"The Flesh Failures\". The acid rock of \"Walking in Space\" and \"Aquarius\" are balanced by the mainstream pop of \"Good Morning Starshine\". Scott Miller ties the music of Hair to the hippies' political themes: \"The hippies... were determined to create art of the people and their chosen art form, rock/folk music was by its definition, populist. ...[T]he hippies' music was often very angry, its anger directed at those who would prostitute the Constitution, who would sell America out, who would betray what America stood for; in other words, directed at their parents and the government.\" Theatre historian John Kenrick explains the application of rock music to the medium of the stage:\n\nThe music did not resonate with everyone. Leonard Bernstein remarked \"the songs are just laundry lists\"Berkvist, Robert (May 11, 1969). [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res\nF20E13FD34541B7B93C3A8178ED85F4D8685F9&scp1&sq\nHe+Put+Hair+on+Broadway%27s+Chest&stp \"He Put Hair on Broadway's Chest\"]. New York Times, p. D1. Retrieved on May 26, 2008. and walked out of the production. Richard Rodgers could only hear the beat and called it \"one-third music\".\nJohn Fogerty said, \"Hair is such a watered down version of what is really going on that I can’t get behind it at all.\" Gene Lees, writing for High Fidelity, claimed that John Lennon found it \"dull\", and he wrote, \"I do not know any musician who thinks it's good.\"Lees, Gene (July 1969). [http://www.intrafi.com/hair/holding/articles/HairArticles/HighFidelity7-69.html \"hair in Europe\"]. High Fidelity. Retrieved on May 26, 2008.\n\nSongs \n\nThe score had many more songs than were typical of Broadway shows of the day. Most Broadway shows had about per act; Hairs total is in the thirties. This list reflects the most common Broadway lineup.Miller, pp. 70–77\n\n;Act I\n \"Aquarius\" – Tribe and soloist (often Dionne)\n* \"Donna\" – Berger and Tribe\n* \"Hashish\" – Tribe\n* \"Sodomy\" – Woof and Tribe\n* \"Colored Spade\" – Hud, Woof, Berger, Claude and Tribe\n* \"Manchester England\" – Claude and Tribe\n* \"I'm Black/Ain't Got No\" – Woof, Hud, Dionne and Tribe\n* \"I Believe in Love\" – Sheila and Tribe trio\n* \"Air\" – Jeanie with Crissy and Dionne\n* \"Initials (L.B.J.)\" – Tribe\n* \"I Got Life\" – Claude and Tribe\n* \"Going Down\" – Berger and Tribe\n* \"Hair\" – Claude, Berger, and Tribe\n* \"My Conviction\" – Margaret Mead (tourist lady)\n* \"Easy to Be Hard\" – Sheila\n* \"Don't Put It Down\" – Berger, Woof and male Tribe member\n* \"Frank Mills\" – Crissy\n* \"Be-In (Hare Krishna)\" – Tribe\n* \"Where Do I Go?: – Claude and Tribe\n\n;Act II\n* \"Electric Blues\" – Tribe quartet\n* \"Black Boys\" – Tribe sextet (three male, three female)\n* \"White Boys\" – Tribe Supremes trio\n* \"Walking in Space\" – Tribe\n* \"Yes, I's Finished/Abie Baby\" – Abraham Lincoln and Tribe trio (Hud and two men)\n* \"Three-Five-Zero-Zero\" – Tribe\n* \"What a Piece of Work Is Man\" – Tribe duo\n* \"Good Morning Starshine\" – Sheila and Tribe\n* \"The Bed\" – Tribe\n* \"Aquarius\" (reprise) – Tribe\n* \"Manchester England\" (reprise) – Claude and Tribe\n* \"Eyes Look Your Last\" – Claude and Tribe\n* \"The Flesh Failures (Let the Sunshine In)\" – Claude, Sheila, Dionne and Tribe\n\nThe show was under almost perpetual re-write. Thirteen songs were added between the production at the Public Theater and Broadway, including \"I Believe in Love\". \"The Climax\" and \"Dead End\" were cut between the productions, and \"Exanaplanetooch\" and \"You Are Standing on My Bed\" were present in previews but cut before Broadway. The Shakespearean speech \"What a piece of work is a man\" was originally spoken by Claude and musicalized by MacDermot for Broadway, and \"Hashish\" was formed from an early speech of Berger's. Subsequent productions have included \"Hello There\", \"Dead End\", and \"Hippie Life\" – a song originally written for the film that Rado included in several productions in Europe in the 1990s.Rado, James (July 25, 2007). [http://www.hairthemusical.com/en00537journal_entry.html \"New lyrics for 'Hippie Life' song\"], hairthemusical.com, accessed November 9, 2013 The 2009 Broadway revival included the ten-second \"Sheila Franklin\" and \"O Great God of Power\", two songs that were cut from the original production.\n\nRecordings \n\nThe first recording of Hair was made in 1967 featuring the off-Broadway cast. The original Broadway cast recording received a Grammy Award in 1968 for Best Score from an Original Cast Show Album and sold nearly 3 million copies in the U.S. by December 1969. The New York Times noted in 2007 that \"The cast album of Hair was... a must-have for the middle classes. Its exotic orange-and-green cover art imprinted itself instantly and indelibly on the psyche.... [It] became a pop-rock classic that, like all good pop, has an appeal that transcends particular tastes for genre or period.\" The 1993 London revival cast album contains new music that has been incorporated into the standard rental version.\n\nRCA Victor also released DisinHAIRited (RCA Victor LSO-1163): an album of songs that had been written for the show, but saw varying amounts of stage time. Some of the songs were cut between the Public and Broadway, some had been left off the original cast album due to space, and a few were never performed onstage.\n\n* One Thousand-Year-Old Man\n* So Sing the Children of the Avenue\n* Manhattan Beggar\n* Sheila Franklin/Reading the Writing\n* Washing the World\n* Exanaplanetooch\n* Hello There\n* Mr. Berger\n* I'm Hung\n* The Climax\n\n* Electric Blues\n* I Dig\n* Going Down\n* You Are Standing on My Bed\n* The Bed\n* Mess O' Dirt\n* Dead End\n* Oh Great God of Power\n* Eyes Look Your Last/Sentimental Ending\n\nSongs from Hair have been recorded by numerous artists, including Shirley Bassey, Barbra Streisand and Diana Ross. \"Good Morning Starshine\" was sung on a 1969 episode of Sesame Street by cast member Bob McGrath, and versions by artists such as Sarah Brightman, Petula Clark, and Strawberry Alarm Clock have been recorded. Artists as varied as Liza Minnelli and The Lemonheads have recorded \"Frank Mills\", and Andrea McArdle, Jennifer Warnes, and Sérgio Mendes have each contributed versions of \"Easy to Be Hard\". Hair also helped launch recording careers for performers Meat Loaf, Dobie Gray, Jennifer Warnes, Jobriath, Bert Sommer, Ronnie Dyson, Donna Summer and Melba Moore, among others.\n\nThe score of Hair saw chart successes, as well. The 5th Dimension released \"Aquarius/Let the Sunshine In\" in 1969, which won Record of the Year in 1970 and topped the charts for six weeks. The Cowsills' recording of the title song \"Hair\" climbed to #2 on the Billboard Hot 100. while Oliver's rendition of \"Good Morning Starshine\" reached #3. Three Dog Night's version of \"Easy to Be Hard\" went to #4. Nina Simone's 1968 medley of \"Ain't Got No / I Got Life\" reached the top 5 on the British charts. In 1970, ASCAP announced that \"Aquarius\" was played more frequently on U.S. radio and television than any other song that year. \n\nProductions in England, Germany, France, Sweden, Japan, Israel, the Netherlands, Australia and elsewhere released cast albums, and over 1,000 vocal and/or instrumental performances of individual songs from Hair have been recorded. Such broad attention was paid to the recordings of Hair that, after an unprecedented bidding war, ABC Records was willing to pay a record amount for MacDermot's next Broadway adaptation Two Gentlemen of Verona. The 2009 revival recording, released on June 23, debuted at #1 on Billboards \"Top Cast Album\" chart and at #63 in the Top 200, qualifying it as the highest debuting album in Ghostlight Records history. \n\nCritical reception \n\nReception to Hair upon its Broadway premiere was, with exceptions, overwhelmingly positive. Clive Barnes wrote in the New York Times: \"What is so likable about Hair...? I think it is simply that it is so likable. So new, so fresh, and so unassuming, even in its pretensions.\" John J. O'Connor of The Wall Street Journal said the show was \"exuberantly defiant and the production explodes into every nook and cranny of the Biltmore Theater\". Richard Watts Jr. of the New York Post wrote that \"it has a surprising if perhaps unintentional charm, its high spirits are contagious, and its young zestfulness makes it difficult to resist.\" \n\nTelevision reviews were even more enthusiastic. Allan Jeffreys of ABC said the actors were \"the most talented hippies you'll ever see... directed in a wonderfully wild fashion by Tom O'Horgan.\" Leonard Probst of NBC said \"Hair is the only new concept in musicals on Broadway in years and it's more fun than any other this season\". John Wingate of WOR TV praised MacDermot's \"dynamic score\" that \"blasts and soars\", and Len Harris of CBS said \"I've finally found the best musical of the Broadway season... it's that sloppy, vulgar, terrific tribal love rock musical Hair.\" \n\nA reviewer from Variety, on the other hand, called the show \"loony\" and \"without a story, form, music, dancing, beauty or artistry.... It's impossible to tell whether [the cast has] talent. Maybe talent is irrelevant in this new kind of show business.\" Reviews in the news weeklies were mixed; Jack Kroll in Newsweek wrote, \"There is no denying the sheer kinetic drive of this new Hair... there is something hard, grabby, slightly corrupt about O'Horgan's virtuosity, like Busby Berkeley gone bitchy.\" But a reviewer from Time wrote that although the show \"thrums with vitality [it is] crippled by being a bookless musical and, like a boneless fish, it drifts when it should swim.\" \n\nReviews were mixed when Hair opened in London. Irving Wardle in The Times wrote, \"Its honesty and passion give it the quality of a true theatrical celebration – the joyous sound of a group of people telling the world exactly what they feel.\" In The Financial Times, B. A. Young agreed that Hair was \"not only a wildly enjoyable evening, but a thoroughly moral one.\" However, in his final review before retiring after 48 years, 78-year-old W. A. Darlington of The Daily Telegraph wrote that he had \"tried hard\", but found the evening \"a complete bore – noisy, ugly and quite desperately funny.\"\n\nAcknowledging the show's critics, Scott Miller wrote in 2001 that \"some people can't see past the appearance of chaos and randomness to the brilliant construction and sophisticated imagery underneath.\" Miller notes, \"Not only did many of the lyrics not rhyme, but many of the songs didn't really have endings, just a slowing down and stopping, so the audience didn't know when to applaud.... The show rejected every convention of Broadway, of traditional theatre in general, and of the American musical in specific. And it was brilliant.\"\n\nAwards and nominations \n\nSocial change \n\nHair challenged many of the norms held by Western society in 1968. The name itself, inspired by the name of a Jim Dine painting depicting a comb and a few strands of hair,Rizzo, Frank (August 31, 2008). [http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/courant/access/1515698371.html?dids1515698371:1515698371&FMT\nABS&FMTSABS:FT&type\ncurrent&dateJul+20%2C+2008&author\nFRANK+RIZZO&pubHartford+Courant&edition\n&startpageG.1&desc\nREVIVING+THE+REVOLUTION \"Hair: Reviving the Revolution\"]. Hartford Courant, courant.com. Retrieved on November 9, 2013 (subscription required) was a reaction to the restrictions of civilization and consumerism and a preference for naturalism. Rado remembers that long hair \"was a visible form of awareness in the consciousness expansion. The longer the hair got, the more expansive the mind was. Long hair was shocking, and it was a revolutionary act to grow long hair. It was kind of a flag, really.\"\n\nThe musical caused controversy when it was first staged. The Act I finale was the first time a Broadway show had seen totally naked actors and actresses, and the show was charged with the desecration of the American flag and the use of obscene language. These controversies, in addition to the anti–Vietnam War theme, attracted occasional threats and acts of violence during the show's early years and became the basis for legal actions both when the show opened in other cities and on tour. Two cases eventually reached the U.S. Supreme Court.\n\nLegal challenges and violent reactions \n\nThe touring company of Hair met with resistance throughout the United States. In South Bend, Indiana, the Morris Civic Auditorium refused booking, and in Evansville, Indiana, the production was picketed by several church groups. In Indianapolis, Indiana, the producers had difficulty securing a theater, and city authorities suggested that the cast wear body stockings as a compromise to the city's ordinance prohibiting publicly displayed nudity. Productions were frequently confronted with the closure of theaters by the fire marshal, as in Gladewater, Texas. Chattanooga's 1972 refusal to allow the play to be shown at the city-owned Memorial Auditorium was later found by the U.S. Supreme Court to be an unlawful prior restraint. \n\nThe legal challenges against the Boston production were appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court. The Chief of the Licensing Bureau took exception to the portrayal of the American flag in the piece, saying, \"anyone who desecrates the flag should be whipped on Boston Common.\"Livingston, Guy (April 15, 1970). \"[http://www.michaelbutler.com/hair/holding/articles/HairArticles/Variety4-15-70.html Nudity and Flag \"Desecration\" Figure In Appeal Against Hair Foldo in Hub]\". Variety (michaelbutler.com). Retrieved on April 11, 2008. Although the scene was removed before opening, the District Attorney's office began plans to stop the show, claiming that \"lewd and lascivious\" actions were taking place onstage. The Hair legal team obtained an injunction against criminal prosecution from the Superior Court, and the D.A. appealed to the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court. At the request of both parties, several of the justices viewed the production and handed down a ruling that \"each member of the cast [must] be clothed to a reasonable extent.\" The cast defiantly played the scene nude later that night, stating that the ruling was vague as to when it would take effect. The next day, April 10, 1970, the production closed, and movie houses, fearing the ruling on nudity, began excising scenes from films in their exhibition. After the Federal appellate bench reversed the Massachusetts court's ruling, the D.A. appealed the case to the U.S. Supreme Court. In a 4–4 decision, the Court upheld the lower court's decision, allowing Hair to re-open on May 22.\"[http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res\nF60A16FE3B5A157493C1AB178ED85F448785F9&scp1&sq\nhair&st=p Supreme Court Clears Hair for Boston Run]\". New York Times: p. 26. May 23, 1970. Retrieved on April 11, 2008.\n\nIn April 1971, a bomb was thrown at the exterior of a theater in Cleveland, Ohio that had been housing a production, bouncing off the marquee and shattering windows in the building and in nearby storefronts. That same month, the families of cast member Jonathon Johnson and stage manager Rusty Carlson died in a fire in the Cleveland hotel where 33 members of the show's troupe had been staying. The Sydney, Australia production's opening night was interrupted by a bomb scare in June 1969. \n\nWorldwide reactions \n\nLocal reactions to the controversial material varied greatly. San Francisco's large hippie population considered the show an extension of the street activities there, often blurring the barrier between art and life by meditating with the cast and frequently finding themselves onstage during the show. An 18-year-old Princess Anne was seen dancing onstage in London, and in Washington DC, Henry Kissinger attended. In St. Paul, Minnesota, a protesting clergyman released 18 white mice into the lobby hoping to frighten the audience. Capt. Jim Lovell and Jack Swigert, after dubbing Apollo 13's lunar module \"Aquarius\" after the song, walked out of the production at the Biltmore in protest of perceived anti-Americanism and disrespect of the flag. \n\nAn Acapulco, Mexico production of Hair, directed by Castelli, played in 1969 for one night. After the performance, the theater, located across the street from a popular local bordello, was padlocked by the government, which said the production was \"detrimental to the morals of youth.\" The cast was arrested soon after the performance and taken to Immigration, where they agreed to leave the country, but because of legal complications they were forced to go into hiding.Johnson, p. 43 They were expelled from Mexico days later. \n\nHair effectively marked the end of stage censorship in the United Kingdom.Lewis, Anthony (September 29, 1968). \"[http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res\nF50E15FB3B541B7B93CBAB1782D85F4C8685F9&scp1&sq\nhair&stp Londoners Cool to Hairs Nudity; Four-Letter Words Shock Few at Musical's Debut]\". New York Times: p. 76. Retrieved on April 11, 2008. London's stage censor, the Lord Chamberlain, originally refused to license the musical, and the opening was delayed until Parliament passed a bill stripping him of his licensing power. In Munich, authorities threatened to close the production if the nude scene remained; however, after a local Hair spokesman declared that his relatives had been marched nude into Auschwitz, the authorities relented. In Bergen, Norway, local citizens formed a human barricade to try to prevent the performance.\n\nThe Parisian production encountered little controversy, and the cast disrobed for the nude scene \"almost religiously\" according to Castelli, nudity being common on stage in Paris. Even in Paris there was nevertheless occasional opposition, however, such as when a member of the local Salvation Army used a portable loud speaker to exhort the audience to halt the presentation. \n\nBeyond the 1960s \n\n1970s \n\nA Broadway revival of Hair opened in 1977 for a run of 43 performances. It was produced by Butler, directed by O'Horgan and performed in the Biltmore Theater, where the original Broadway production had played. The cast included Ellen Foley, Annie Golden, Cleavant Derricks and Kristen Vigard. Newcomer Peter Gallagher left the ensemble during previews to take the role of Danny Zuko in a tour of Grease. Reviews were generally negative, and critics accused the production of \"showing its gray\". Few major revivals of Hair followed until the early 1990s.\n\nA movie version of Hair, with a screenplay by Michael Weller, was directed by Miloš Forman and released in 1979. Filmed primarily in New York City's Central Park and Washington Square Park, the cast includes Treat Williams, Beverly D'Angelo, John Savage, Foley and Golden. Several of the songs were deleted, and the film's storyline departs significantly from the musical. The character of Claude is rewritten as an innocent draftee from Oklahoma, newly arrived in New York to join the military, and Sheila is a high-society debutante who catches his eye. In perhaps the greatest diversion from the stage version, a mistake leads Berger to go to Vietnam in Claude's place, where he is killed. \n\nRado and Ragni were unhappy with the film, feeling that Forman portrayed the hippies as \"oddballs\" and \"some sort of aberration\" without any connection to the peace movement, failing to capture the essence of the original stage production.Horn, pp. 117–18 They stated: \"Any resemblance between the 1979 film and the original Biltmore version, other than some of the songs, the names of the characters, and a common title, eludes us.\" In their view, the screen version of Hair has not yet been produced.\n\nHowever, the film received generally favorable reviews. Writing in The New York Times, Vincent Canby called it \"a rollicking musical memoir.... Weller's inventions make this Hair seem much funnier than I remember the show's having been. They also provide time and space for the development of characters who, on the stage, had to express themselves almost entirely in song.... [T]he entire cast is superb.... Mostly... the film is a delight.\" \n\n1980s and 1990s \n\nA 20th anniversary concert event was held in May 1988 at the United Nations General Assembly to benefit children with AIDS. The event was sponsored by First Lady Nancy Reagan with Barbara Walters giving the night's opening introduction.Horn, pp. 118–20 Rado, Ragni and MacDermot reunited to write nine new songs for the concert. The cast of 163 actors included former stars from various productions around the globe: Melba Moore, Ben Vereen, Treat Williams and Donna Summer, as well as guest performers Bea Arthur, Frank Stallone and Dr. Ruth Westheimer. Ticket prices ranged from $250 to $5,000 and the proceeds went to the United States Committee for UNICEF and the Creo Society's Fund for Children with AIDS.\n\nA 1985 production of Hair mounted in Montreal was reportedly the 70th professional production of the musical. In November 1988, Michael Butler produced Hair at Chicago's Vic Theater to celebrate the shows' 20th anniversary. The production was well received and ran until February 1989. From 1990 to 1991, Pink Lace Productions ran a U.S. national tour of Hair that included stops in South Carolina, Georgia, Tennessee and Kentucky. After Ragni died in 1991, MacDermot and Rado continued to write new songs for revivals through the 1990s. Hair Sarajevo, AD 1992 was staged during the Siege of Sarajevo as an appeal for peace. Rado directed a $1 million, 11 city national tour in 1994 that featured actor Luther Creek. With MacDermot returning to oversee the music, Rado's tour celebrated the show's 25th anniversary. A small 1990 \"bus and truck\" production of Hair toured Europe for over 3 years,Gowan, Anne (March 6, 1994). [http://www.michaelbutler.com/hair/holding/articles/HairArticles/WashTimes3-6-94.html \"Hair Today\"]. The Washington Times (michaelbutler.com). Retrieved April 11, 2008. and Rado directed various European productions from 1995 to 1999.\n\nA production opened in Australia in 1992 and a short-lived London revival starring John Barrowman and Paul Hipp opened at the Old Vic in London in 1993, directed by Michael Bogdanov. While the London production was faithful to the original, a member of the production staff said the reason it \"flopped\" was because the tribe consisted of \"Thatcher's children who didn't really get it\". Other productions were mounted around the world, including South Africa, where the show had been banned until the eradication of Apartheid. In 1996, Butler brought a month-long production to Chicago, employing the Pacific Musical Theater, a professional troupe in residence at California State University, Fullerton. Butler ran the show concurrently with the 1996 Democratic National Convention, echoing the last time the DNC was in Chicago: 1968. A 30th Anniversary Off-Off Broadway production was staged at Third Eye Repertory. It was directed by Shawn Rozsa. \n\n2000s and 2010s \n\nIn 2001, the Reprise! theatre company in Los Angeles performed Hair at the Wadsworth Theatre, starring Steven Weber as Berger, Sam Harris as Claude and Jennifer Leigh Warren as Sheila. That same year, Encores! Great American Musicals in Concert ended its 2001 City Center season with a production of Hair starring Luther Creek, Idina Menzel and Tom Plotkin, and featuring Hair composer Galt MacDermot on stage playing the keyboards. An Actors' Fund benefit of the show was performed for one night at the New Amsterdam Theater in New York City in 2004. The Tribe included Shoshana Bean, Raul Esparza, Jim J. Bullock, Liz Callaway, Gavin Creel, Eden Espinosa, Harvey Fierstein, Ana Gasteyer, Annie Golden, Jennifer Hudson, Julia Murney, Jai Rodriguez, RuPaul, Michael McKean, Laura Benanti and Adam Pascal. \n\nIn 2005, a London production opened at the Gate Theatre, directed by Daniel Kramer. James Rado approved an updating of the musical's script to place it in the context of the Iraq War instead of the Vietnam War. Kramer's modernized interpretation included \"Aquarius\" sung over a megaphone in Times Square, and nudity that called to mind images from Abu Ghraib. In March 2006, Rado collaborated with director Robert Prior for a CanStage production of Hair in Toronto, and a revival produced by Pieter Toerien toured South Africa in 2007. Directed by Paul Warwick Griffin, with choreography by Timothy Le Roux, the show ran at the Montecasino Theatre in Johannesburg and at Theatre on the Bay in Cape Town. A two-week run played at the Teatro Tapia in Old San Juan, Puerto Rico, in March 2010, directed by Yinoelle Colón. \n\nMichael Butler produced Hair at the MET Theatre in Los Angeles from September 14 through December 30, 2007. The show was directed and choreographed by Bo Crowell, with musical direction from Christian Nesmith (son of Michael Nesmith). Butler's production of Hair won the LA Weekly Theater Award for Musical of the Year. \n\nFor three nights in September 2007, Joe's Pub and the Public Theater presented a 40th anniversary production of Hair at the Delacorte Theater in Central Park. This concert version, directed by Diane Paulus, featured Jonathan Groff as Claude and Galt MacDermot on stage on the keyboards. The cast also included Karen Olivo as Sheila and Will Swenson as Berger. Actors from the original Broadway production joined the cast on stage during the encore of \"Let the Sun Shine In.\" Demand for the show was overwhelming, as long lines and overnight waits for tickets far exceeded that for other Delacorte productions such as Mother Courage and Her Children starring Meryl Streep and Kevin Kline. \n\nNine months later, The Public Theater presented a fully staged production of Hair at the Delacorte in a limited run from July 22, 2008 to September 14, 2008. Paulus again directed, with choreography by Karole Armitage. Groff and Swenson returned as Claude and Berger, together with others from the concert cast. Caren Lyn Manuel played Sheila, and Christopher J. Hanke replaced Groff as Claude on August 17. Reviews were generally positive, with Ben Brantley of The New York Times writing that \"this production establishes the show as more than a vivacious period piece. Hair, it seems, has deeper roots than anyone remembered\". Time magazine wrote: \"Hair... has been reinvigorated and reclaimed as one of the great milestones in musical-theatre history. ... Today Hair seems, if anything, more daring than ever.\"\n\n2009 Broadway revival and 2010 U.S. National Tour \n\nThe Public Theater production transferred to Broadway at the Al Hirschfeld Theatre, beginning previews on March 6, 2009, with an official opening on March 31, 2009. Paulus and Armitage again directed and choreographed, and most of the cast returned from the production in the park. A pre-performance ticket lottery was held nightly for $25 box-seat tickets. The opening cast included Gavin Creel as Claude, Will Swenson as Berger, Caissie Levy as Sheila, Megan Lawrence as Mom and Sasha Allen as Dionne. Designers included Scott Pask (sets), Michael McDonald (costumes) and Kevin Adams (lighting). \n\nCritical response was almost uniformly positive. The New York Daily News headline proclaimed \"Hair Revival's High Fun\". The review praised the daring direction, \"colorfully kinetic\" choreography and technical accomplishments of the show, especially the lighting, commening that \"as a smile-inducing celebration of life and freedom, [Hair is] highly communicable\"; but warning: \"If you're seated on the aisle, count on [the cast] to be in your face or your lap or ... braiding your tresses.\" The New York Post wrote that the production \"has emerged triumphant.... These days, the nation is fixated less on war and more on the economy. As a result, the scenes that resonate most are the ones in which the kids exultantly reject the rat race.\" Variety enthused, \"Director Diane Paulus and her prodigiously talented cast connect with the material in ways that cut right to the 1967 rock musical's heart, generating tremendous energy that radiates to the rafters. ... What could have been mere nostalgia instead becomes a full-immersion happening. ... If this explosive production doesn't stir something in you, it may be time to check your pulse.\" The Boston Globe dissented, saying that the production \"felt canned\" and \"overblown\" and that the revival \"feels unbearably naive and unforgivably glib\". Ben Brantley, writing for The New York Times, reflected the majority, however, delivering a glowing review:\n\nThe Public Theater struggled to raise the $5.5 million budgeted for the Broadway transfer, because of the severity of the economic recession in late 2008, but it reached its goal by adding new producing partners. Director Diane Paulus helped keep costs low by using an inexpensive set. The show grossed a healthy $822,889 in its second week. On April 30, 2009 on the Late Show with David Letterman, the cast recreated a performance on the same stage at the Ed Sullivan Theater by the original tribe. The production won the Tony Award for Best Revival of a Musical, the Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Revival of a Musical and the Drama League Award for Distinguished Revival of a Musical. Its cast album won the Grammy Award for Best Musical Show Album.[http://nationaltours.broadwayworld.com/article/Review_Roundup_HAIR_National_Tour_20110310 \"Review Roundup: HAIR National Tour\"]. BroadwayWorld.com, March 10, 2011 By August 2009, the revival had recouped its entire $5,760,000 investment, becoming one of the fastest-recouping musicals in Broadway history. \n\nWhen the Broadway cast transferred to London for the 2010 West-End revival, a mostly new tribe took over on Broadway on March 9, 2010, including former American Idol finalists Ace Young as Berger and Diana DeGarmo as Sheila. Kyle Riabko assumed the role of Claude, and Annaleigh Ashford played Jeanie. Sales decreased after the original cast transferred to London, and the revival closed on June 27, 2010 after 29 previews and 519 regular performances. \n\nA U.S. National Tour of the production began on October 21, 2010. Principals included Steel Burkhardt as Berger, Paris Remillard as Claude and Caren Lyn Tackett as Sheila. The tour received mostly positive reviews. The show returned to Broadway for an engagement at the St. James Theatre from July 5 through September 10, 2011. After that stop, the tour resumed. The tour ended on January 29, 2012. \n\n2010 West End revival \n\nThe 2009 Broadway production was duplicated at the Gielgud Theatre in London's West End. Previews began on April 1, 2010 with an official opening on April 14. The producers were the Public Theater, together with Cameron Mackintosh and Broadway Across America. Nearly all of the New York cast relocated to London. A new addition to the London cast was Luther Creek as Woof. The London revival closed on September 4, 2010. \n\nThe production received mostly enthusiastic reviews. Michael Billington of The Guardian described it as \"a vibrant, joyous piece of living theatre\", writing, \"it celebrates a period when the joy of life was pitted against the forces of intolerance and the death-dealing might of the military-industrial complex. As Shakespeare once said: 'There's sap in't yet.'\" Charles Spencer in The Daily Telegraph agreed: \"This is a timely and irresistibly vital revival of the greatest of all rock musicals. ... The verve and energy of the company ... is irresistible.\" Michael Coveney of The Independent wrote that Hair is \"one of the great musicals of all time, and a phenomenon that, I'm relieved to discover, stands up as a period piece\". In The Times, Benedict Nightingale commented that \"it's exhilarating, as well as oddly poignant, when a multihued cast dressed in everything from billowing kaftans to Ruritanian army jackets race downstage while delivering that tuneful salute to an age of Aquarius that still refuses to dawn.\" Quentin Letts was a dissenting voice in the Daily Mail. Though praising the performances and the production, he wrote: \"by the end the fraudulence of the gaiety becomes sickening. There is a lack of truthfulness in Hair which may not have been apparent when it was first performed in New York City in 1967 but which, today, is unavoidable.\" \n\n2014 Hollywood Bowl\n\nIn August 2014, the musical was given a three-night engagement at the Hollywood Bowl. Directed by Adam Shankman, the all-star cast included Kristen Bell as Sheila, Hunter Parrish as Claude, Benjamin Walker as Berger, Amber Riley as Dionne, Jenna Ushkowitz as Jeanie, Sarah Hyland as Crissy, Mario as Hud, and Beverly D'Angelo and Kevin Chamberlin as Claude's parents. \n\nInternational success \n\nHair has been performed in most of the countries of the world. After the Berlin Wall fell, the show traveled for the first time to Poland, Lebanon, the Czech Republic and Sarajevo (featured on ABC's Nightline with Ted Koppel, when Phil Alden Robinson visited that city in 1996 and discovered a production of Hair there in the midst of the war). In 1999, Michael Butler and director Bo Crowell helped produce Hair in Russia at the Stas Namin Theatre located in Moscow's Gorky Park. The Moscow production caused a similar reaction as the original did 30 years earlier because Russian soldiers were fighting in Chechnya at the time. \n\nRado wrote in 2003 that the only places where the show had not been performed were \"China, India, Vietnam, the Arctic and Antarctic continents as well as most African countries.\" Since then, an Indian production has been mounted. \n\nCultural impact \n\nPopular culture \n\nThe New York Times noted, in 2007, that \"Hair was one of the last Broadway musicals to saturate the culture as shows from the golden age once regularly did.\" Songs from the show continue to be recorded by major artists. In the 1990s, Evan Dando's group The Lemonheads recorded \"Frank Mills\" for their 1992 record It's A Shame About Ray, and Run DMC sampled \"Where Do I Go\" for their 1993 single \"Down With the King\" which went to #1 on the Billboard rap charts and reached the top 25 in the Billboard Hot 100 chart. In 2004, \"Aquarius\" was honored at number 33 on AFI's 100 Years... 100 Songs. \n\nSongs from the musical have been featured in films and television episodes. For example, in the 2005 movie Charlie and the Chocolate Factory, the character Willy Wonka welcomed the children with lyrics from \"Good Morning Starshine\". \"Aquarius\" was performed in the final episode of Laverne and Shirley in 1983, where the character Carmine moves to New York City to become an actor, and auditions for Hair. \"Aquarius/Let the Sunshine In\" was also performed in the final scene in the film The 40-Year-Old Virgin, and Three Dog Night's recording of \"Easy to Be Hard\" was featured in the first part of David Fincher's film Zodiac. On the Simpsons episode \"The Springfield Files\", the townspeople, Leonard Nimoy, Chewbacca, Dana Scully and Fox Mulder all sing \"Good Morning Starshine.\" The episode \"Hairography\" of the show Glee includes a much-criticized mash-up of the songs \"Hair\" and \"Crazy in Love\" by Beyoncé. In addition, Head of the Class featured a two-part episode in 1990 where the head of the English department is determined to disrupt the school's performance of Hair. The continued popularity of Hair is seen in its number ten ranking in a 2006 BBC Radio 2 listener poll of the \"[United Kingdom]'s Number One Essential Musicals.\" \n\nBecause of the universality of its pacifist theme, Hair continues to be a popular choice for high-school and university productions. Amateur productions of Hair are also popular worldwide. In 2002, Peter Jennings featured a Boulder, Colorado, high school production of Hair for his ABC documentary series \"In Search of America\". A September 2006 community theater production at the 2,000-seat Count Basie Theater in Red Bank, New Jersey, was praised by original producer Michael Butler, who said it was \"one of the best Hairs I have seen in a long time.\" Another example of a recent large-scale amateur production is the Mountain Play production at the 4,000-seat Cushing Memorial Amphitheatre in Mount Tamalpais State Park in Mill Valley, California in the spring of 2007. \n\nLegacy \n\nHair was Broadway's first concept musical, a form that dominated the musical theatre of the seventies,Horn, pp. 127–29 including shows like Company, Follies, Pacific Overtures and A Chorus Line. While the development of the concept musical was an unexpected consequence of Hairs tenure on Broadway, the expected rock music revolution on Broadway turned out to be less than complete.\n\nMacDermot followed Hair with three successive rock scores: Two Gentlemen of Verona (1971); Dude (1972), a second collaboration with Ragni; and Via Galactica (1972). While Two Gentlemen of Verona found receptive audiences and a Tony for Best Musical, Dude failed after just sixteen performances, and Via Galactica flopped after a month.Horn, pp. 131–32 According to Horn, these and other such \"failures may have been the result of producers simply relying on the label 'rock musical' to attract audiences without regard to the quality of the material presented.\" Jesus Christ Superstar (1970) and Godspell (1971) were two religiously themed successes of the genre. Grease (1971) reverted to the rock sounds of the 1950s, and black-themed musicals like The Wiz (1975) were heavily influenced by gospel, R&B and soul music. By the late 1970s, the genre had played itself out. Except for a few outposts of rock, like Dreamgirls (1981) and Little Shop of Horrors (1982), audience tastes in the 1980s turned to megamusicals with pop scores, like Les Misérables (1985) and The Phantom of the Opera (1986). Some later rock musicals, such as Rent (1996) and Spring Awakening (2006), as well as jukebox musicals featuring rock music, like We Will Rock You (2002) and Rock of Ages (2009), have found success. But the rock musical did not quickly come to dominate the musical theatre stage after Hair. Critic Clive Barnes commented, \"There really weren't any rock musicals. No major rock musician ever did a rock score for Broadway. ... You might think of the musical Tommy, but it was never conceived as a Broadway show. ... And one can see why. There's so much more money in records and rock concerts. I mean, why bother going through the pain of a musical which may close in Philadelphia?\" \n\nOn the other hand, Hair had a profound effect not only on what was acceptable on Broadway, but as part of the very social movements that it celebrated. For example, in 1970, Butler, Castelli and the various Hair casts contributed to fundraising for the World Youth Assembly, a United Nations-sponsored organization formed in connection with the celebration of the 25th anniversary of the United Nations.Teltsch, Kathleen. [http://www.orlok.com/hair/holding/articles/HairArticles/NYT5-19-70.html \"Youth Assembly Finds an Angel on Broadway\"], The New York Times, May 19, 1970. Retrieved on November 9, 2013 The Assembly enabled 750 young representatives from around the world to meet in New York in July 1970 to discuss social issues.[http://www.orlok.com/hair/holding/photographs/hair/wyainsert.html \"World Youth Assembly Fund\"]. Press release, June 1970, accessed April 19, 2011 For about a week, cast members worldwide collected donations at every show for the fund. Hair raised around $250,000 and ended up being the principal financier of the Assembly. Tribe members and Hair crews also contributed a days' pay, and Butler contributed a days' profits from these productions. Moreover, as Ellen Stewart, La MaMa's founder, noted:\nHair came with blue jeans, comfortable clothing, colors, beautiful colors, sounds, movement. ... And you can go to AT&T and see a secretary today, and she's got on blue jeans. ... You can go anywhere you want, and what Hair did, it is still doing twenty years later.... A kind of emancipation, a spiritual emancipation that came from [O'Horgan's] staging. ... Hair until this date has influenced every single thing that you see on Broadway, off-Broadway, off-off-Broadway, anywhere in the world, you will see elements of the experimental techniques that Hair brought not just to Broadway, but to the entire world." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Joe Papp", "Joseph Papp", "Joseph Papirofsky" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "joseph papp", "joseph papirofsky", "joe papp" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "joseph papp", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Joseph Papp" }
Established in 1919, which is the world's oldest surviving airline?	tc_681	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Airline.txt" ], "title": [ "Airline" ], "wiki_context": [ "An airline is a company that provides air transport services for traveling passengers and freight. Airlines utilize aircraft to supply these services and may form partnerships or alliances with other airlines for codeshare agreements. Generally, airline companies are recognized with an air operating certificate or license issued by a governmental aviation body.\n\nAirlines vary in size, from small domestic airlines to full-service international airlines. Airline services can be categorized as being intercontinental, domestic, regional, or international, and may be operated as scheduled services or charters. The largest airline currently is American Airlines Group.\n\nHistory\n\nThe first airlines\n\nDELAG, Deutsche Luftschiffahrts-Aktiengesellschaft was the world's first airline. It was founded on November 16, 1909 with government assistance, and operated airships manufactured by The Zeppelin Corporation. Its headquarters were in Frankfurt. The first fixed wing scheduled air service was started on January 1, 1914 from St. Petersburg, Florida to Tampa, Florida. The four oldest non-dirigible airlines that still exist are Netherlands' KLM (1919), Colombia's Avianca (1919), Australia's Qantas (1921), and the Czech Republic's Czech Airlines (1923).\n\nEuropean airline industry\n\nBeginnings\n\nThe earliest fixed wing airline in Europe was the Aircraft Transport and Travel, formed by George Holt Thomas in 1916. Using a fleet of former military Airco DH.4A biplanes that had been modified to carry two passengers in the fuselage, it operated relief flights between Folkestone and Ghent. On 15 July 1919, the company flew a proving flight across the English Channel, despite a lack of support from the British government. Flown by Lt. H Shaw in an Airco DH.9 between RAF Hendon and Paris - Le Bourget Airport, the flight took 2 hours and 30 minutes at £21 per passenger.\n\nOn 25 August 1919, the company used DH.16s to pioneer a regular service from Hounslow Heath Aerodrome to Le Bourget, the first regular international service in the world. The airline soon gained a reputation for reliability, despite problems with bad weather and began to attract European competition. In November 1919, it won the first British civil airmail contract. Six Royal Air Force Airco DH.9A aircraft were lent to the company, to operate the airmail service between Hawkinge and Cologne. In 1920, they were returned to the Royal Air Force. \n\nOther British competitors were quick to follow - Handley Page Transport was established in 1919 and used the company's converted wartime Type O/400 bombers with a capacity for 19 passengers, to run a London-Paris passenger service.\n\nThe first French airline was Société des lignes Latécoère, later known as Aéropostale, which started its first service in late 1918 to Spain. The Société Générale des Transports Aériens was created in late 1919, by the Farman brothers and the Farman F.60 Goliath plane flew scheduled services from Toussus-le-Noble to Kenley, near Croydon, England. Another early French airline was the Compagnie des Messageries Aériennes, established in 1919 by Louis-Charles Breguet, offering a mail and freight service between Le Bourget Airport, Paris and Lesquin Airport, Lille. \n\nThe first German airline to use heavier than air aircraft was Deutsche Luft-Reederei established in 1917 which started operating in February 1919. In its first year, the D.L.R. operated regularly scheduled flights on routes with a combined length of nearly 1000 miles. By 1921 the D.L.R. network was more than 3000 km (1865 miles) long, and included destinations in the Netherlands, Scandinavia and the Baltic Republics. Another important German airline was Junkers Luftverkehr, which began operations in 1921. It was a division of the aircraft manufacturer Junkers, which became a separate company in 1924. It operated joint-venture airlines in Austria, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Hungary, Latvia, Norway, Poland, Sweden and Switzerland.\n\nThe Dutch airline KLM made its first flight in 1920, and is the oldest continuously operating airline in the world. Established by aviator Albert Plesman, it was immediately awarded a \"Royal\" predicate from Queen Wilhelmina Its first flight was from Croydon Airport, London to Amsterdam, using a leased Aircraft Transport and Travel DH-16, and carrying two British journalists and a number of newspapers. In 1921, KLM started scheduled services.\n\nIn Finland, the charter establishing Aero O/Y (now Finnair) was signed in the city of Helsinki on September 12, 1923. Junkers F.13 D-335 became the first aircraft of the company, when Aero took delivery of it on March 14, 1924. The first flight was between Helsinki and Tallinn, capital of Estonia, and it took place on March 20, 1924, one week later.\n\nIn the Soviet Union, the Chief Administration of the Civil Air Fleet was established in 1921. One of its first acts was to help found Deutsch-Russische Luftverkehrs A.G. (Deruluft), a German-Russian joint venture to provide air transport from Russia to the West. Domestic air service began around the same time, when Dobrolyot started operations on 15 July 1923 between Moscow and Nizhni Novgorod. Since 1932 all operations had been carried under the name Aeroflot.\n\nEarly European airlines tend to favour comfort - the passenger cabins were often spacious with luxurious interiors - over speed and efficiency. The relatively basic navigational capabilities of pilots at the time also meant that delays due to the weather were commonplace.\n\nRationalization\n\nBy the early 1920s, small airlines were struggling to compete, and there was a movement towards increased rationalization and consolidation. In 1924, Imperial Airways was formed from the merger of Instone Air Line Company, British Marine Air Navigation, Daimler Airway and Handley Page Transport Co Ltd., to allow British airlines to compete with stiff competition from French and German airlines that were enjoying heavy government subsidies. The airline was a pioneer in surveying and opening up air routes across the world to serve far-flung parts of the British Empire and to enhance trade and integration. \n\nThe first new airliner ordered by Imperial Airways, was the Handley Page W8f City of Washington, delivered on 3 November 1924. In the first year of operation the company carried 11,395 passengers and 212,380 letters. In April 1925, the film The Lost World became the first film to be screened for passengers on a scheduled airliner flight when it was shown on the London-Paris route.\n\nTwo French airlines also merged to form Air Union on 1 January 1923. This later merged with four other French airlines to become Air France, the country's flagship carrier to this day, on 7 October 1933.\n\nGermany's Deutsche Luft Hansa was created in 1926 by merger of two airlines, one of them Junkers Luftverkehr. Luft Hansa, due to the Junkers heritage and unlike most other airlines at the time, became a major investor in airlines outside of Europe, providing capital to Varig and Avianca. German airliners built by Junkers, Dornier, and Fokker were among the most advanced in the world at the time.\n\nGlobal expansion\n\nIn 1926, Alan Cobham surveyed a flight route from the UK to Cape Town, South Africa, following this up with another proving flight to Melbourne, Australia. Other routes to British India and the Far East were also charted and demonstrated at this time. Regular services to Cairo and Basra began in 1927 and was extended to Karachi in 1929. The London-Australia service was inaugurated in 1932 with the Handley Page HP 42 airliners. Further services were opened up to Calcutta, Rangoon, Singapore, Brisbane and Hong Kong passengers departed London on 14 March 1936 following the establishment of a branch from Penang to Hong Kong.\n\nImperial's aircraft were small, most seating fewer than twenty passengers, and catered for the rich - only about 50,000 passengers used Imperial Airways in the 1930s. Most passengers on intercontinental routes or on services within and between British colonies were men doing colonial administration, business or research. \n\nLike Imperial Airways, Air France and KLM's early growth depended heavily on the needs to service links with far-flung colonial possessions (North Africa and Indochina for the French and the East Indies for the Dutch). France began an air mail service to Morocco in 1919 that was bought out in 1927, renamed Aéropostale, and injected with capital to become a major international carrier. In 1933, Aéropostale went bankrupt, was nationalized and merged into Air France.\n\nAlthough Germany lacked colonies, it also began expanding its services globally. In 1931, the airship Graf Zeppelin began offering regular scheduled passenger service between Germany and South America, usually every two weeks, which continued until 1937. In 1936, the airship Hindenburg entered passenger service and successfully crossed the Atlantic 36 times before crashing at Lakehurst, New Jersey on May 6, 1937.\n\nFrom February 1934 until World War II began in 1939 Deutsche Lufthansa operated an airmail service from Stuttgart, Germany via Spain, the Canary Islands and West Africa to Natal in Brazil. This was the first time an airline flew across an ocean. \n\nBy the end of the 1930s Aeroflot had become the world's largest airline, employing more than 4,000 pilots and 60,000 other service personnel and operating around 3,000 aircraft (of which 75% were considered obsolete by its own standards). During the Soviet era Aeroflot was synonymous with Russian civil aviation, as it was the only air carrier. It became the first airline in the world to operate sustained regular jet services on 15 September 1956 with the Tupolev Tu-104.\n\nEU airline deregulation\n\nDeregulation of the European Union airspace in the early 1990s has had substantial effect on the structure of the industry there. The shift towards 'budget' airlines on shorter routes has been significant. Airlines such as EasyJet and Ryanair have often grown at the expense of the traditional national airlines.\n\nThere has also been a trend for these national airlines themselves to be privatized such as has occurred for Aer Lingus and British Airways. Other national airlines, including Italy's Alitalia, have suffered - particularly with the rapid increase of oil prices in early 2008.\n\nU.S. airline industry\n\nEarly development\n\nTony Jannus conducted the United States' first scheduled commercial airline flight on 1 January 1914 for the St. Petersburg-Tampa Airboat Line. The 23-minute flight traveled between St. Petersburg, Florida and Tampa, Florida, passing some 50 ft above Tampa Bay in Jannus' Benoist XIV wood and muslin biplane flying boat. His passenger was a former mayor of St. Petersburg, who paid $400 for the privilege of sitting on a wooden bench in the open cockpit. The Airboat line operated for about four months, carrying more than 1,200 passengers who paid $5 each. Chalk's International Airlines began service between Miami and Bimini in the Bahamas in February 1919. Based in Ft. Lauderdale, Chalk's claimed to be the oldest continuously operating airline in the United States until its closure in 2008. \n\nFollowing World War I, the United States found itself swamped with aviators. Many decided to take their war-surplus aircraft on barnstorming campaigns, performing aerobatic maneuvers to woo crowds. In 1918, the United States Postal Service won the financial backing of Congress to begin experimenting with air mail service, initially using Curtiss Jenny aircraft that had been procured by the United States Army Air Service. Private operators were the first to fly the mail but due to numerous accidents the US Army was tasked with mail delivery. During the Army's involvement they proved to be too unreliable and lost their air mail duties. By the mid-1920s, the Postal Service had developed its own air mail network, based on a transcontinental backbone between New York City and San Francisco. To supplant this service, they offered twelve contracts for spur routes to independent bidders. Some of the carriers that won these routes would, through time and mergers, evolve into Pan Am, Delta Air Lines, Braniff Airways, American Airlines, United Airlines (originally a division of Boeing), Trans World Airlines, Northwest Airlines, and Eastern Air Lines.\n\nService during the early 1920s was sporadic: most airlines at the time were focused on carrying bags of mail. In 1925, however, the Ford Motor Company bought out the Stout Aircraft Company and began construction of the all-metal Ford Trimotor, which became the first successful American airliner. With a 12-passenger capacity, the Trimotor made passenger service potentially profitable. Air service was seen as a supplement to rail service in the American transportation network.\n\nAt the same time, Juan Trippe began a crusade to create an air network that would link America to the world, and he achieved this goal through his airline, Pan American World Airways, with a fleet of flying boats that linked Los Angeles to Shanghai and Boston to London. Pan Am and Northwest Airways (which began flights to Canada in the 1920s) were the only U.S. airlines to go international before the 1940s.\n\nWith the introduction of the Boeing 247 and Douglas DC-3 in the 1930s, the U.S. airline industry was generally profitable, even during the Great Depression. This trend continued until the beginning of World War II.\n\nDevelopment since 1945\n\nAs governments met to set the standards and scope for an emergent civil air industry toward the end of the war, the U.S. took a position of maximum operating freedom; U.S. airline companies were not as hard-hit as European and the few Asian ones had been. This preference for \"open skies\" operating regimes continues, with limitations, to this day.\n\nWorld War II, like World War I, brought new life to the airline industry. Many airlines in the Allied countries were flush from lease contracts to the military, and foresaw a future explosive demand for civil air transport, for both passengers and cargo. They were eager to invest in the newly emerging flagships of air travel such as the Boeing Stratocruiser, Lockheed Constellation, and Douglas DC-6. Most of these new aircraft were based on American bombers such as the B-29, which had spearheaded research into new technologies such as pressurization. Most offered increased efficiency from both added speed and greater payload.\n\nIn the 1950s, the De Havilland Comet, Boeing 707, Douglas DC-8, and Sud Aviation Caravelle became the first flagships of the Jet Age in the West, while the Eastern bloc had Tupolev Tu-104 and Tupolev Tu-124 in the fleets of state-owned carriers such as Czechoslovak ČSA, Soviet Aeroflot and East-German Interflug. The Vickers Viscount and Lockheed L-188 Electra inaugurated turboprop transport.\n\nThe next big boost for the airlines would come in the 1970s, when the Boeing 747, McDonnell Douglas DC-10, and Lockheed L-1011 inaugurated widebody (\"jumbo jet\") service, which is still the standard in international travel. The Tupolev Tu-144 and its Western counterpart, Concorde, made supersonic travel a reality. Concorde first flew in 1969 and operated through 2003. In 1972, Airbus began producing Europe's most commercially successful line of airliners to date. The added efficiencies for these aircraft were often not in speed, but in passenger capacity, payload, and range. Airbus also features modern electronic cockpits that were common across their aircraft to enable pilots to fly multiple models with minimal cross-training.\n\nUS airline deregulation\n\nThe 1978 U.S. airline industry deregulation lowered federally controlled barriers for new airlines just as a downturn in the nation's economy occurred. New start-ups entered during the downturn, during which time they found aircraft and funding, contracted hangar and maintenance services, trained new employees, and recruited laid off staff from other airlines.\n\nMajor airlines dominated their routes through aggressive pricing and additional capacity offerings, often swamping new start-ups. In the place of high barriers to entry imposed by regulation, the major airlines implemented an equally high barrier called loss leader pricing. In this strategy an already established and dominant airline stomps out its competition by lowering airfares on specific routes, below the cost of operating on it, choking out any chance a start-up airline may have. The industry side effect is an overall drop in revenue and service quality. Since deregulation in 1978 the average domestic ticket price has dropped by 40%. So has airline employee pay. By incurring massive losses, the airlines of the USA now rely upon a scourge of cyclical Chapter 11 bankruptcy proceedings to continue doing business. America West Airlines (which has since merged with US Airways) remained a significant survivor from this new entrant era, as dozens, even hundreds, have gone under.\n\nIn many ways, the biggest winner in the deregulated environment was the air passenger. Although not exclusively attributable to deregulation, indeed the U.S. witnessed an explosive growth in demand for air travel. Many millions who had never or rarely flown before became regular fliers, even joining frequent flyer loyalty programs and receiving free flights and other benefits from their flying. New services and higher frequencies meant that business fliers could fly to another city, do business, and return the same day, from almost any point in the country. Air travel's advantages put long distance intercity railroad travel and bus lines under pressure, with most of the latter having withered away, whilst the former is still protected under nationalization through the continuing existence of Amtrak.\n\nBy the 1980s, almost half of the total flying in the world took place in the U.S., and today the domestic industry operates over 10,000 daily departures nationwide.\n\nToward the end of the century, a new style of low cost airline emerged, offering a no-frills product at a lower price. Southwest Airlines, JetBlue, AirTran Airways, Skybus Airlines and other low-cost carriers began to represent a serious challenge to the so-called \"legacy airlines\", as did their low-cost counterparts in many other countries. Their commercial viability represented a serious competitive threat to the legacy carriers. However, of these, ATA and Skybus have since ceased operations.\n\nIncreasingly since 1978, US airlines have been reincorporated and spun off by newly created and internally led management companies, and thus becoming nothing more than operating units and subsidiaries with limited financially decisive control. Among some of these holding companies and parent companies which are relatively well known, are the UAL Corporation, along with the AMR Corporation, among a long list of airline holding companies sometime recognized worldwide. Less recognized are the private equity firms which often seize managerial, financial, and board of directors control of distressed airline companies by temporarily investing large sums of capital in air carriers, to rescheme an airlines assets into a profitable organization or liquidating an air carrier of their profitable and worthwhile routes and business operations.\n\nThus the last 50 years of the airline industry have varied from reasonably profitable, to devastatingly depressed. As the first major market to deregulate the industry in 1978, U.S. airlines have experienced more turbulence than almost any other country or region. In fact, no U.S. legacy carrier survived bankruptcy-free. Amongst the outspoken critics of deregulation, former CEO of American Airlines, Robert Crandall has publicly stated:\n\n\"Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection filing shows airline industry deregulation was a mistake. \"\n\nThe airline industry bailout\n\nCongress passed the [http://ostpxweb.ost.dot.gov/aviation/Data/stabilizationact.pdf Air Transportation Safety and System Stabilization Act] (P.L. 107-42) in response to a severe liquidity crisis facing the already-troubled airline industry in the aftermath of the September 11th terrorist attacks. Through the ATSB Congress sought to provide cash infusions to carriers for both the cost of the four-day federal shutdown of the airlines and the incremental losses incurred through December 31, 2001 as a result of the terrorist attacks. This resulted in the first government bailout of the 21st century. Between 2000 and 2005 US airlines lost $30 billion with wage cuts of over $15 billion and 100,000 employees laid off. \n\nIn recognition of the essential national economic role of a healthy aviation system, Congress authorized partial compensation of up to $5 billion in cash subject to review by the Department of Transportation and up to $10 billion in loan guarantees subject to review by a newly created Air Transportation Stabilization Board (ATSB). The applications to DOT for reimbursements were subjected to rigorous multi-year reviews not only by DOT program personnel but also by the Government Accountability Office and the DOT Inspector General. \n\nUltimately, the federal government provided $4.6 billion in one-time, subject-to-income-tax cash payments to 427 U.S. air carriers, with no provision for repayment, essentially a gift from the taxpayers. (Passenger carriers operating scheduled service received approximately $4 billion, subject to tax.) In addition, the ATSB approved loan guarantees to six airlines totaling approximately $1.6 billion. Data from the US Treasury Department show that the government recouped the $1.6 billion and a profit of $339 million from the fees, interest and purchase of discounted airline stock associated with loan guarantees. \n\nAsian airline industry\n\nAlthough Philippine Airlines (PAL) was officially founded on February 26, 1941, its license to operate as an airliner was derived from merged Philippine Aerial Taxi Company (PATCO) established by mining magnate Emmanuel N. Bachrach on December 3, 1930, making it Asia's oldest scheduled carrier still in operation. Commercial air service commenced three weeks later from Manila to Baguio, making it Asia's first airline route. Bachrach's death in 1937 paved the way for its eventual merger with Philippine Airlines in March 1941 and made it Asia's oldest airline. It is also the oldest airline in Asia still operating under its current name. Bachrach's majority share in PATCO was bought by beer magnate Andres R. Soriano in 1939 upon the advice of General Douglas MacArthur and later merged with newly formed Philippine Airlines with PAL as the surviving entity. Soriano has controlling interest in both airlines before the merger. PAL restarted service on March 15, 1941 with a single Beech Model 18 NPC-54 aircraft, which started its daily services between Manila (from Nielson Field) and Baguio, later to expand with larger aircraft such as the DC-3 and Vickers Viscount.\n\nIndia was also one of the first countries to embrace civil aviation. One of the first West Asian airline companies was Air India, which had its beginning as Tata Airlines in 1932, a division of Tata Sons Ltd. (now Tata Group). The airline was founded by India's leading industrialist, JRD Tata. On October 15, 1932, J. R. D. Tata himself flew a single engined De Havilland Puss Moth carrying air mail (postal mail of Imperial Airways) from Karachi to Bombay via Ahmedabad. The aircraft continued to Madras via Bellary piloted by Royal Air Force pilot Nevill Vintcent. Tata Airlines was also one of the world's first major airlines which began its operations without any support from the Government. \n\nWith the outbreak of World War II, the airline presence in Asia came to a relative halt, with many new flag carriers donating their aircraft for military aid and other uses. Following the end of the war in 1945, regular commercial service was restored in India and Tata Airlines became a public limited company on July 29, 1946 under the name Air India. After the independence of India, 49% of the airline was acquired by the Government of India. In return, the airline was granted status to operate international services from India as the designated flag carrier under the name Air India International.\n\nOn July 31, 1946, a chartered Philippine Airlines (PAL) DC-4 ferried 40 American servicemen to Oakland, California, from Nielson Airport in Makati City with stops in Guam, Wake Island, Johnston Atoll and Honolulu, Hawaii, making PAL the first Asian airline to cross the Pacific Ocean. A regular service between Manila and San Francisco was started in December. It was during this year that the airline was designated as the flag carrier of Philippines.\n\nDuring the era of decolonization, newly born Asian countries started to embrace air transport. Among the first Asian carriers during the era were Cathay Pacific of Hong Kong (founded in September 1946), Orient Airways (later Pakistan International Airlines; founded in October 1946), Air Ceylon (later SriLankan Airlines; founded in 1947), Malayan Airways Limited in 1947 (later Singapore and Malaysia Airlines), El Al in Israel in 1948, Garuda Indonesia in 1948, Japan Airlines in 1951, Thai Airways International in 1960, and Korean National Airlines in 1947.\n\nLatin American airline industry\n\nAmong the first countries to have regular airlines in Latin America were Bolivia with Lloyd Aéreo Boliviano, Cuba with Cubana de Aviación, Colombia with Avianca, Argentina with Aerolineas Argentinas, Chile with LAN Chile (today LAN Airlines), Brazil with Varig, Dominican Republic with Dominicana de Aviación, Mexico with Mexicana de Aviación, Trinidad and Tobago with BWIA West Indies Airways (today Caribbean Airlines), Venezuela with Aeropostal, and TACA based in El Salvador and representing several airlines of Central America (Costa Rica, Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua). All the previous airlines started regular operations well before World War II.\n\nThe air travel market has evolved rapidly over recent years in Latin America. Some industry estimates indicate that over 2,000 new aircraft will begin service over the next five years in this region.\n\nThese airlines serve domestic flights within their countries, as well as connections within Latin America and also overseas flights to North America, Europe, Australia, and Asia.\n\nOnly three airlines: Avianca, LAN, and TAM Airlines have international subsidiaries and cover many destinations within the Americas as well as major hubs in other continents. LAN with Chile as the central operation along with Peru, Ecuador, Colombia and Argentina and some operations in the Dominican Republic. The recently formed AviancaTACA group has control of Avianca Brazil, VIP Ecuador and a strategic alliance with AeroGal. And TAM with its Mercosur base in Asuncion, Paraguay. As of 2010, talks of uniting LAN and TAM have strongly developed to create a joint airline named LATAM.\n\nRegulatory considerations\n\nNational\n\nMany countries have national airlines that the government owns and operates. Fully private airlines are subject to a great deal of government regulation for economic, political, and safety concerns. For instance, governments often intervene to halt airline labor actions to protect the free flow of people, communications, and goods between different regions without compromising safety.\n\nThe United States, Australia, and to a lesser extent Brazil, Mexico, India, the United Kingdom, and Japan have \"deregulated\" their airlines. In the past, these governments dictated airfares, route networks, and other operational requirements for each airline. Since deregulation, airlines have been largely free to negotiate their own operating arrangements with different airports, enter and exit routes easily, and to levy airfares and supply flights according to market demand.\n\nThe entry barriers for new airlines are lower in a deregulated market, and so the U.S. has seen hundreds of airlines start up (sometimes for only a brief operating period). This has produced far greater competition than before deregulation in most markets. The added competition, together with pricing freedom, means that new entrants often take market share with highly reduced rates that, to a limited degree, full service airlines must match. This is a major constraint on profitability for established carriers, which tend to have a higher cost base.\n\nAs a result, profitability in a deregulated market is uneven for most airlines. These forces have caused some major airlines to go out of business, in addition to most of the poorly established new entrants.\n\nIn the United States, the airline industry is dominated by four large firms. Because of industry consolidation, after fuel prices dropped considerably in 2015, very little of the savings were passed on to consumers. \n\nInternational\n\nGroups such as the International Civil Aviation Organization establish worldwide standards for safety and other vital concerns. Most international air traffic is regulated by bilateral agreements between countries, which designate specific carriers to operate on specific routes. The model of such an agreement was the Bermuda Agreement between the US and UK following World War II, which designated airports to be used for transatlantic flights and gave each government the authority to nominate carriers to operate routes.\n\nBilateral agreements are based on the \"freedoms of the air\", a group of generalized traffic rights ranging from the freedom to overfly a country to the freedom to provide domestic flights within a country (a very rarely granted right known as cabotage). Most agreements permit airlines to fly from their home country to designated airports in the other country: some also extend the freedom to provide continuing service to a third country, or to another destination in the other country while carrying passengers from overseas.\n\nIn the 1990s, \"open skies\" agreements became more common. These agreements take many of these regulatory powers from state governments and open up international routes to further competition. Open skies agreements have met some criticism, particularly within the European Union, whose airlines would be at a comparative disadvantage with the United States' because of cabotage restrictions.\n\nEconomic considerations\n\nHistorically, air travel has survived largely through state support, whether in the form of equity or subsidies. The airline industry as a whole has made a cumulative loss during its 100-year history, once the costs include subsidies for aircraft development and airport construction. \n\nOne argument is that positive externalities, such as higher growth due to global mobility, outweigh the microeconomic losses and justify continuing government intervention. A historically high level of government intervention in the airline industry can be seen as part of a wider political consensus on strategic forms of transport, such as highways and railways, both of which receive public funding in most parts of the world.\n\nAlthough many countries continue to operate state-owned or parastatal airlines, many large airlines today are privately owned and are therefore governed by microeconomic principles to maximize shareholder profit.\n\nTop airline groups by revenue \n\nfor 2010, source : Airline Business August 2011, Flightglobal Data Research\n\nTicket revenue\n\nAirlines assign prices to their services in an attempt to maximize profitability. The pricing of airline tickets has become increasingly complicated over the years and is now largely determined by computerized yield management systems.\n\nBecause of the complications in scheduling flights and maintaining profitability, airlines have many loopholes that can be used by the knowledgeable traveler. Many of these airfare secrets are becoming more and more known to the general public, so airlines are forced to make constant adjustments.\n\nMost airlines use differentiated pricing, a form of price discrimination, to sell air services at varying prices simultaneously to different segments. Factors influencing the price include the days remaining until departure, the booked load factor, the forecast of total demand by price point, competitive pricing in force, and variations by day of week of departure and by time of day. Carriers often accomplish this by dividing each cabin of the aircraft (first, business and economy) into a number of travel classes for pricing purposes.\n\nA complicating factor is that of origin-destination control (\"O&D control\"). Someone purchasing a ticket from Melbourne to Sydney (as an example) for A$200 is competing with someone else who wants to fly Melbourne to Los Angeles through Sydney on the same flight, and who is willing to pay A$1400. Should the airline prefer the $1400 passenger, or the $200 passenger plus a possible Sydney-Los Angeles passenger willing to pay $1300? Airlines have to make hundreds of thousands of similar pricing decisions daily.\n\nThe advent of advanced computerized reservations systems in the late 1970s, most notably Sabre, allowed airlines to easily perform cost-benefit analyses on different pricing structures, leading to almost perfect price discrimination in some cases (that is, filling each seat on an aircraft at the highest price that can be charged without driving the consumer elsewhere).\n\nThe intense nature of airfare pricing has led to the term \"fare war\" to describe efforts by airlines to undercut other airlines on competitive routes. Through computers, new airfares can be published quickly and efficiently to the airlines' sales channels. For this purpose the airlines use the Airline Tariff Publishing Company (ATPCO), who distribute latest fares for more than 500 airlines to Computer Reservation Systems across the world.\n\nThe extent of these pricing phenomena is strongest in \"legacy\" carriers. In contrast, low fare carriers usually offer pre-announced and simplified price structure, and sometimes quote prices for each leg of a trip separately.\n\nComputers also allow airlines to predict, with some accuracy, how many passengers will actually fly after making a reservation to fly. This allows airlines to overbook their flights enough to fill the aircraft while accounting for \"no-shows,\" but not enough (in most cases) to force paying passengers off the aircraft for lack of seats, stimulative pricing for low demand flights coupled with overbooking on high demand flights can help reduce this figure. This is especially crucial during tough economic times as airlines undertake massive cuts to ticket prices to retain demand. \n\nOperating costs\n\nFull-service airlines have a high level of fixed and operating costs to establish and maintain air services: labor, fuel, airplanes, engines, spares and parts, IT services and networks, airport equipment, airport handling services, sales distribution, catering, training, aviation insurance and other costs. Thus all but a small percentage of the income from ticket sales is paid out to a wide variety of external providers or internal cost centers.\n\nMoreover, the industry is structured so that airlines often act as tax collectors. Airline fuel is untaxed because of a series of treaties existing between countries. Ticket prices include a number of fees, taxes and surcharges beyond the control of airlines. Airlines are also responsible for enforcing government regulations. If airlines carry passengers without proper documentation on an international flight, they are responsible for returning them back to the original country.\n\nAnalysis of the 1992–1996 period shows that every player in the air transport chain is far more profitable than the airlines, who collect and pass through fees and revenues to them from ticket sales. While airlines as a whole earned 6% return on capital employed (2-3.5% less than the cost of capital), airports earned 10%, catering companies 10-13%, handling companies 11-14%, aircraft lessors 15%, aircraft manufacturers 16%, and global distribution companies more than 30%. (Source: Spinetta, 2000, quoted in Doganis, 2002)\n\nThe widespread entrance of a new breed of low cost airlines beginning at the turn of the century has accelerated the demand that full service carriers control costs. Many of these low cost companies emulate Southwest Airlines in various respects, and like Southwest, they can eke out a consistent profit throughout all phases of the business cycle.\n\nAs a result, a shakeout of airlines is occurring in the U.S. and elsewhere. American Airlines, United Airlines, Continental Airlines (twice), US Airways (twice), Delta Air Lines, and Northwest Airlines have all declared Chapter 11 bankruptcy. Some argue that it would be far better for the industry as a whole if a wave of actual closures were to reduce the number of \"undead\" airlines competing with healthy airlines while being artificially protected from creditors via bankruptcy law. On the other hand, some have pointed out that the reduction in capacity would be short lived given that there would be large quantities of relatively new aircraft that bankruptcies would want to get rid of and would re-enter the market either as increased fleets for the survivors or the basis of cheap planes for new startups.\n\nWhere an airline has established an engineering base at an airport, then there may be considerable economic advantages in using that same airport as a preferred focus (or \"hub\") for its scheduled flights.\n\nAssets and financing\n\nAirline financing is quite complex, since airlines are highly leveraged operations. Not only must they purchase (or lease) new airliner bodies and engines regularly, they must make major long-term fleet decisions with the goal of meeting the demands of their markets while producing a fleet that is relatively economical to operate and maintain. Compare Southwest Airlines and their reliance on a single airplane type (the Boeing 737 and derivatives), with the now defunct Eastern Air Lines which operated 17 different aircraft types, each with varying pilot, engine, maintenance, and support needs.\n\nA second financial issue is that of hedging oil and fuel purchases, which are usually second only to labor in its relative cost to the company. However, with the current high fuel prices it has become the largest cost to an airline. Legacy airlines, compared with new entrants, have been hit harder by rising fuel prices partly due to the running of older, less fuel efficient aircraft. While hedging instruments can be expensive, they can easily pay for themselves many times over in periods of increasing fuel costs, such as in the 2000–2005 period.\n\nIn view of the congestion apparent at many international airports, the ownership of slots at certain airports (the right to take-off or land an aircraft at a particular time of day or night) has become a significant tradable asset for many airlines. Clearly take-off slots at popular times of the day can be critical in attracting the more profitable business traveler to a given airline's flight and in establishing a competitive advantage against a competing airline.\n\nIf a particular city has two or more airports, market forces will tend to attract the less profitable routes, or those on which competition is weakest, to the less congested airport, where slots are likely to be more available and therefore cheaper. For example, Reagan National Airport attracts profitable routes due partly to its congestion, leaving less-profitable routes to Baltimore-Washington International Airport and Dulles International Airport.\n\nOther factors, such as surface transport facilities and onward connections, will also affect the relative appeal of different airports and some long distance flights may need to operate from the one with the longest runway. For example, LaGuardia Airport is the preferred airport for most of Manhattan due to its proximity, while long-distance routes must use John F. Kennedy International Airport's longer runways.\n\nAirline partnerships\n\nCodesharing is the most common type of airline partnership; it involves one airline selling tickets for another airline's flights under its own airline code. An early example of this was Japan Airlines' (JAL) codesharing partnership with Aeroflot in the 1960s on Tokyo–Moscow flights; Aeroflot operated the flights using Aeroflot aircraft, but JAL sold tickets for the flights as if they were JAL flights. This practice allows airlines to expand their operations, at least on paper, into parts of the world where they cannot afford to establish bases or purchase aircraft. Another example was the Austrian–Sabena partnership on the Vienna–Brussels–New York/JFK route during the late '60s, using a Sabena Boeing 707 with Austrian livery.\n\nSince airline reservation requests are often made by city-pair (such as \"show me flights from Chicago to Düsseldorf\"), an airline that can codeshare with another airline for a variety of routes might be able to be listed as indeed offering a Chicago–Düsseldorf flight. The passenger is advised however, that airline no. 1 operates the flight from say Chicago to Amsterdam, and airline no. 2 operates the continuing flight (on a different airplane, sometimes from another terminal) to Düsseldorf. Thus the primary rationale for code sharing is to expand one's service offerings in city-pair terms to increase sales.\n\nA more recent development is the airline alliance, which became prevalent in the late 1990s. These alliances can act as virtual mergers to get around government restrictions. Alliances of airlines such as Star Alliance, Oneworld, and SkyTeam coordinate their passenger service programs (such as lounges and frequent-flyer programs), offer special interline tickets, and often engage in extensive codesharing (sometimes systemwide). These are increasingly integrated business combinations—sometimes including cross-equity arrangements—in which products, service standards, schedules, and airport facilities are standardized and combined for higher efficiency. One of the first airlines to start an alliance with another airline was KLM, who partnered with Northwest Airlines. Both airlines later entered the SkyTeam alliance after the fusion of KLM and Air France in 2004.\n\nOften the companies combine IT operations, or purchase fuel and aircraft as a bloc to achieve higher bargaining power. However, the alliances have been most successful at purchasing invisible supplies and services, such as fuel. Airlines usually prefer to purchase items visible to their passengers to differentiate themselves from local competitors. If an airline's main domestic competitor flies Boeing airliners, then the airline may prefer to use Airbus aircraft regardless of what the rest of the alliance chooses.\n\nFuel hedging\n\nFuel hedging is a contractual tool used by transportation companies like airlines to reduce their exposure to volatile and potentially rising fuel costs. Several low cost carriers such as Southwest Airlines adopt this practice. \n\nSouthwest is credited with maintaining strong business profits between 1999 and the early 2000s due to its fuel hedging policy. Many other airlines are replicating Southwest's hedging policy to control their fuel costs.\n\nEnvironmental impacts\n\nAircraft engines emit noise pollution, gases and particulate emissions, and contribute to global dimming.\n\nGrowth of the industry in recent years raised a number of ecological questions.\n\nDomestic air transport grew in China at 15.5 percent annually from 2001 to 2006. The rate of air travel globally increased at 3.7 percent per year over the same time. In the EU greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87% between 1990 and 2006. However it must be compared with the flights increase, only in UK, between 1990 and 2006 terminal passengers increased from 100 000 thousands to 250 000 thousands., according to AEA reports every year, 750 million passengers travel by European airlines, which also share 40% of merchandise value in and out of Europe. Without even pressure from \"green activists\", targeting lower ticket prices, generally, airlines do what is possible to cut the fuel consumption (and gas emissions connected therewith). Further, according to some reports, it can be concluded that the last piston-powered aircraft were as fuel-efficient as the average jet in 2005. \n\nDespite continuing efficiency improvements from the major aircraft manufacturers, the expanding demand for global air travel has resulted in growing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Currently, the aviation sector, including US domestic and global international travel, make approximately 1.6 percent of global anthropogenic GHG emissions per annum. North America accounts for nearly 40 percent of the world's GHG emissions from aviation fuel use. \n\nCO2 emissions from the jet fuel burned per passenger on an average 3200 km airline flight is about 353 kilograms (776 pounds). Loss of natural habitat potential associated with the jet fuel burned per passenger on a 3200 km airline flight is estimated to be 250 square meters (2700 square feet). \n\nIn the context of climate change and peak oil, there is a debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme, with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account. \n\nThe airline industry is responsible for about 11 percent of greenhouse gases emitted by the U.S. transportation sector. Boeing estimates that biofuels could reduce flight-related greenhouse-gas emissions by 60 to 80 percent. The solution would be blending algae fuels with existing jet fuel: \n\n* Boeing and Air New Zealand are collaborating with leading Brazilian biofuel maker Tecbio, New Zealand's Aquaflow Bionomic and other jet biofuel developers around the world.\n* Virgin Atlantic and Virgin Green Fund are looking into the technology as part of a biofuel initiative. \n* KLM has made the first commercial flight with biofuel in 2009.\n\nThere are projects on electric aircraft, and some of them are fully operational as of 2013.\n\nCall signs\n\nEach operator of a scheduled or charter flight uses an airline call sign when communicating with airports or air traffic control centres. Most of these call-signs are derived from the airline's trade name, but for reasons of history, marketing, or the need to reduce ambiguity in spoken English (so that pilots do not mistakenly make navigational decisions based on instructions issued to a different aircraft), some airlines and air forces use call-signs less obviously connected with their trading name. For example, British Airways uses a Speedbird call-sign, named after the logo of its predecessor, BOAC, while SkyEurope used Relax.\n\nAirline personnel\n\nThe various types of airline personnel include:\nFlight operations personnel including flight safety personnel.\n* Flight crew, responsible for the operation of the aircraft. Flight crew members include:\n Pilots (Captain and First Officer: some older aircraft also required a Flight Engineer and/or a Navigator)\n Flight attendants, (led by a purser on larger aircraft)\n** In-flight security personnel on some airlines (most notably El Al)\n* Groundcrew, responsible for operations at airports. Ground crew members include:\n Aerospace and avionics engineers responsible for certifying the aircraft for flight and management of aircraft maintenance\n* Aerospace engineers, responsible for airframe, powerplant and electrical systems maintenance\n*Avionics engineers responsible for avionics and instruments maintenance\n Airframe and powerplant technicians\n Electric System technicians, responsible for maintenance of electrical systems\nAvionics technicians, responsible for maintenance of avionics\n Flight dispatchers\n Baggage handlers\n Ramp Agents\n Remote centralised weight and balancing \n Gate agents\n Ticket agents\n Passenger service agents (such as airline lounge employees)\n Reservation agents, usually (but not always) at facilities outside the airport.\n** Crew schedulers\nAirlines follow a corporate structure where each broad area of operations (such as maintenance, flight operations(including flight safety),\nand passenger service) is supervised by a vice president. Larger airlines often appoint vice presidents to oversee each of the\nairline's hubs as well. Airlines employ lawyers to deal with regulatory procedures and other administrative tasks.\n\nIndustry trends\n\nThe pattern of ownership has been privatized in the recent years, that is, the ownership has gradually changed from governments to private and individual sectors or organizations. This occurs as regulators permit greater freedom and non-government ownership, in steps that are usually decades apart. This pattern is not seen for all airlines in all regions. \n\nThe overall trend of demand has been consistently increasing. In the 1950s and 1960s, annual growth rates of 15% or more were common. Annual growth of 5-6% persisted through the 1980s and 1990s. Growth rates are not consistent in all regions, but countries with a de-regulated airline industry have more competition and greater pricing freedom. This results in lower fares and sometimes dramatic spurts in traffic growth. The U.S., Australia, Canada, Japan, Brazil, India and other markets exhibit this trend. The industry has been observed to be cyclical in its financial performance. Four or five years of poor earnings precede five or six years of improvement. But profitability even in the good years is generally low, in the range of 2-3% net profit after interest and tax. In times of profit, airlines lease new generations of airplanes and upgrade services in response to higher demand. Since 1980, the industry has not earned back the cost of capital during the best of times. Conversely, in bad times losses can be dramatically worse. Warren Buffett once said that despite all the money that has been invested in all airlines, the net profit is less than zero. He believes it is one of the hardest businesses to manage. \n\nAs in many mature industries, consolidation is a trend. Airline groupings may consist of limited bilateral partnerships, long-term, multi-faceted alliances between carriers, equity arrangements, mergers, or takeovers. Since governments often restrict ownership and merger between companies in different countries, most consolidation takes place within a country. In the U.S., over 200 airlines have merged, been taken over, or gone out of business since deregulation in 1978. Many international airline managers are lobbying their governments to permit greater consolidation to achieve higher economy and efficiency." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Koninklijke Luchtvaart Maatschappi", "Flying Blue", "KLM Group", "Klm Ryl Dtch Airlines", "KLM asia", "K.L.M. Airlines", "Koninklijke Luchtvaart Maatschappij", "KLM Royal Dutch Airlines", "KLM Airlines", "KLM Meet&Seat", "Klm asia", "Koninklijke luchtvaart mij.", "KLM", "Royal Dutch Airlines", "Klm.com", "Klm", "Royal Netherlands Airlines", "KLM Cargo", "Klm.nl", "K.L.M.", "KLM Asia", "KLM AirCares", "Klm Asia", "KLM Airlines Cargo", "Koninklijke Luchtvaart Mij.", "Koninklijke Luchtvaart Maatschappij N.V." ], "normalized_aliases": [ "klm asia", "klm airlines", "koninklijke luchtvaart maatschappij n v", "koninklijke luchtvaart mij", "koninklijke luchtvaart maatschappi", "klm aircares", "k l m airlines", "royal netherlands airlines", "royal dutch airlines", "flying blue", "klm ryl dtch airlines", "klm meet seat", "klm com", "klm", "klm royal dutch airlines", "k l m", "klm airlines cargo", "klm nl", "klm group", "koninklijke luchtvaart maatschappij", "klm cargo" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "klm", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "KLM" }
"Which US First Lady said, ""No one can make you feel interior unless you consent?"""	tc_684	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "First_Lady_of_the_United_States.txt" ], "title": [ "First Lady of the United States" ], "wiki_context": [ "The First Lady of the United States (FLOTUS), is an unofficial title and position traditionally held by the wife of the President of the United States, concurrent with the president's term of office. \n\nThe position of the First Lady is unofficial and carries no official duties. The role of the First Lady has evolved over the centuries. The main role of the First Ladies, besides their private role as spouse, has been as hostess and organizer to the White House. She organizes and attends official ceremonies and functions of state either along with, or in place of, the president. \n\nThe position is largely one of status, and First Ladies have held influence in a range of sectors, from fashion to public opinion on policy. Historically, should a president be unmarried, or the president's wife is unable to act as First Lady, the president usually asks a relative or friend to act as White House hostess.\n\nCurrent First Lady \n\nThe current First Lady is Michelle Obama. At present, there are four living former first ladies: Rosalynn Carter, wife of Jimmy Carter; Barbara Bush, wife of George H. W. Bush; Hillary Clinton, wife of Bill Clinton; and Laura Bush, wife of George W. Bush.\n\nOrigins of the title \n\nThe use of the title First Lady to describe the spouse or hostess of an executive began in the United States. In the early days of the republic, there was not a generally accepted title for the wife of the president. Many early first ladies expressed their own preference for how they were addressed, including the use of such titles as \"Lady\", \"Mrs. President\", and \"Mrs. Presidentress\"; Martha Washington was often referred to as \"Lady Washington.\" One of the earliest uses of the term \"First Lady\" was applied to her in an 1838 newspaper article that appeared in the St. Johnsbury (VT) Caledonian, the author, \"Mrs. Sigourney\", discussing how Martha Washington had not changed, even after her husband George became president, wrote that \"The first lady of the nation still preserved the habits of early life. Indulging in no indolence, she left the pillow at dawn, and after breakfast, retired to her chamber for an hour for the study of the scriptures and devotion\". \n\nDolley Madison was reportedly referred to as \"First Lady\" in 1849 at her funeral in a eulogy delivered by President Zachary Taylor; however, no written record of this eulogy exists, nor did any of the newspapers of her day refer to her by that title. Sometime after 1849, the title began being used in Washington, D.C., social circles. One of the earliest known written examples comes from the November 3, 1863, diary entry of William Howard Russell, in which he referred to gossip about \"the First Lady in the Land,\" referring to Mary Todd Lincoln. The title first gained nationwide recognition in 1877, when newspaper journalist Mary C. Ames referred to Lucy Webb Hayes as \"the First Lady of the Land\" while reporting on the inauguration of Rutherford B. Hayes. The frequent reporting on Lucy Hayes' activities helped spread use of the title outside Washington. A popular 1911 comedic play about Dolley Madison by playwright Charles Nirdlinger, titled The First Lady in the Land, popularized the title further. By the 1930s it was in wide use. Use of the title later spread from the United States to other nations.\n\nWhen Edith Wilson took control of her husband's schedule in 1919 after he had a debilitating stroke, one Republican senator labeled her \"the Presidentress who had fulfilled the dream of the suffragettes by changing her title from First Lady to Acting First Man.\" \n\nThe wife of the :Vice President of the United States is sometimes referred to as the Second Lady of the United States, but this title is much less common.\n\nSeveral women who were not presidents' wives have served as First Lady, as when the president was a bachelor or widower, or when the wife of the president was unable to fulfill the duties of the First Lady herself. In these cases, the position has been filled by a female relative or friend of the president, such as Martha Jefferson Randolph during Jefferson's presidency, Emily Donelson and Sarah Yorke Jackson during Jackson's, Mary Elizabeth (Taylor) Bliss during Taylor's, Mary Harrison McKee during Benjamin Harrison's presidency, upon her mother's death, Harriet Lane during Buchanan's, and Rose Cleveland prior to Cleveland's marriage.\n\nRole \n\nBurns identifies four successive main themes of the First Ladyship: as public woman (1900–1929); as political celebrity (1932–1961); as political activist (1964–1977); and as political interloper (1980–2001).\n\nThe position of the First Lady is not an elected one and carries no official duties. Nonetheless, first ladies have held a highly visible position in American society. The role of the First Lady has evolved over the centuries. She is, first and foremost, the hostess of the White House. She organizes and attends official ceremonies and functions of state either along with, or in place of, the president.\n\nMartha Washington created the role and hosted many affairs of state at the national capital (New York and Philadelphia). This socializing became known as \"the Republican Court\" and provided elite women with an opportunity to play backstage political role. Both Martha Washington and Abigail Adams were treated as if they were \"ladies\" of the British royal court. \n\nDolley Madison popularized the First Ladyship by engaging in efforts to assist orphans and women, by dressing in elegant fashions and attracting newspaper coverage, and by risking her life to save iconic treasures during the War of 1812. Madison set the standard for the ladyship and her actions were the model for nearly every First Lady until Eleanor Roosevelt in the 1930s. She traveled widely and spoke to many groups, often voicing personal opinions to the left of the president's. She authored a weekly newspaper column and hosted a radio show. Jacqueline Kennedy led an effort to redecorate and restore the White House. \n\nOver the course of the 20th century it became increasingly common for first ladies to select specific causes to promote, usually ones that are not politically divisive. It is common for the First Lady to hire a staff to support these activities. Lady Bird Johnson pioneered environmental protection and beautification. Pat Nixon encouraged volunteerism and traveled extensively abroad; Betty Ford supported women's rights; Rosalynn Carter aided those with mental disabilities; Nancy Reagan founded the Just Say No drug awareness campaign; Barbara Bush promoted literacy; Hillary Clinton sought to reform the healthcare system in the U.S.; and Laura Bush supported women's rights groups and encouraged childhood literacy. Michelle Obama has become identified with supporting military families and tackling childhood obesity. \n\nClinton very much changed the role of the First Lady. In championing her cause of healthcare reform, she was made Chairperson in Charge of Healthcare and delivered a speech directly to the American Medical Association. In addition to her role as First Lady, Clinton ran for office. Clinton was elected a U.S. Senator from New York in 2001 and was the Secretary of State in the Obama administration from 2009 to 2013. Many first ladies, including Jacqueline Kennedy, Nancy Reagan, and Michelle Obama have been significant fashion trendsetters. There is a strong tradition against the First Lady holding outside employment while serving as White House hostess. However, some first ladies have exercised a degree of political influence by virtue of being an important adviser to the president. During Hillary Clinton's campaign for election to the U.S. Senate, the couple's daughter, Chelsea, took over much of the First Lady's role.\n\nOffice of the First Lady \n\nThe Office of the First Lady of the United States is accountable to the First Lady for her to carry out her duties as hostess of the White House, and is also in charge of all social and ceremonial events of the White House. The First Lady has her own staff that includes a chief of staff, press secretary, White House Social Secretary, Chief Floral Designer, etc. The Office of the First Lady is an entity of the White House Office, a branch of the Executive Office of the President. When First Lady Hillary Clinton decided to pursue a run for Senator of New York, she set aside her duties as first lady and moved to Chappaqua, New York to establish state residency. She resumed her duties as First Lady after winning her senatorial campaign, and retained her duties as both first lady and U.S. Senator for the seventeen-day overlap before Bill Clinton's term came to an end. \n\nExhibitions and collections \n\nEstablished in 1912, the First Ladies Collection has been one of the most popular attractions at the Smithsonian Institution. The original exhibition opened in 1914 and was one of the first at the Smithsonian to prominently feature women. Originally focused largely on fashion, the exhibition now delves deeper into the contributions of first ladies to the presidency and American society. In 2008, \"First Ladies at the Smithsonian\" opened at the National Museum of American History as part of its reopening year celebration. That exhibition served as a bridge to the museum's expanded exhibition on first ladies' history that opened on November 19, 2011. \"The First Ladies\" explores the unofficial but important position of first lady and the ways that different women have shaped the role to make their own contributions to the presidential administrations and the nation. The exhibition features 26 dresses and more than 160 other objects, ranging from those of Martha Washington to Michelle Obama, and includes White House china, personal possessions and other objects from the Smithsonian's unique collection of first ladies' materials. \n\nFirst Ladies of the United States \n\nFor a complete list of the first ladies, see List of First Ladies of the United States\n\nFirst Lady and fashion \n\nSome first ladies have garnered attention for their dress and style. Jacqueline Kennedy, for instance, became a global fashion icon: her style was copied by commercial manufacturers and imitated by many young women, and she was named to the International Best Dressed List Hall of Fame in 1965. Michelle Obama has also received significant attention for her fashion choices: style writer Robin Givhan praised her in The Daily Beast, arguing that the First Lady's style has helped to enhance the public image of the office. \n\nFictional First Ladies of the United States" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Eleanor Roosevelt", "Elenor Roosevelt", "Eleonore Roosevelt", "Eleanor: The Lonely Years", "Eleanor roosevelt", "Eleonor Roosevelt", "Anna Eleanor Roosevelt, Sr.", "Anna Eleanor Roosevelt Roosevelt", "Anna Eleanor %22Eleanor%22 Roosevelt", "Anna Eleanor Roosevelt", "Elanor roosevelt", "Eleanore Roosevelt" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "eleonor roosevelt", "anna eleanor roosevelt roosevelt", "anna eleanor roosevelt", "eleanore roosevelt", "eleonore roosevelt", "elenor roosevelt", "anna eleanor 22eleanor 22 roosevelt", "eleanor lonely years", "eleanor roosevelt", "anna eleanor roosevelt sr", "elanor roosevelt" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "eleanor roosevelt", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Eleanor Roosevelt" }
Who won super bowl X?	tc_685	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Super_Bowl_X.txt" ], "title": [ "Super Bowl X" ], "wiki_context": [ "Super Bowl X was an American football game between the National Football Conference (NFC) champion Dallas Cowboys and the American Football Conference (AFC) champion Pittsburgh Steelers to decide the National Football League (NFL) champion for the 1975 season. The Steelers defeated the Cowboys by the score of 21–17 to win their second consecutive Super Bowl. They were the third team to win back-to-back Super Bowls. (The Miami Dolphins won Super Bowls VII and VIII, and the Green Bay Packers won Super Bowls I and II.) It was also the first Super Bowl in which both participating teams had previously won a Super Bowl, as the Steelers were the defending champions and the Cowboys had won Super Bowl VI.\n\nThe game was played at the Orange Bowl in Miami, Florida, on January 18, 1976, one of the first major national events of the United States Bicentennial year. Both the pre-game and halftime show celebrated the Bicentennial, while players on both teams wore special patches on their jerseys with the Bicentennial logo.\n\nSuper Bowl X featured a contrast of styles between the Steelers and the Cowboys, which were, at the time, the two most popular teams in the league. The Steelers, dominating teams with their \"Steel Curtain\" defense and running game, finished the regular season with a league best 12–2 record and defeated the Baltimore Colts and the Oakland Raiders in the playoffs. The Cowboys, with their offense and \"flex\" defense, became the first NFC wild-card team to advance to the Super Bowl after posting a 10–4 regular season record and postseason victories over the Minnesota Vikings and the Los Angeles Rams.\n\nTrailing 10–7 in the fourth quarter of Super Bowl X, the Steelers rallied to score 14 unanswered points, including a 64-yard touchdown reception by Pittsburgh wide receiver Lynn Swann. The Cowboys cut the score, 21–17, late in the game with wide receiver Percy Howard's 34-yard touchdown reception, but Pittsburgh safety Glen Edwards halted Dallas' rally with an end zone interception as time expired. Swann, who caught four passes for a Super Bowl record 161 yards and one touchdown, became the first wide receiver to be named the Super Bowl's Most Valuable Player.\n\nBackground\n\nThe NFL awarded Super Bowl X to Miami on April 3, 1973 at the owners meetings held in Scottsdale, Arizona.\n\nPittsburgh Steelers\n\nThe Steelers became the first official #1 seed to reach the Super Bowl. Playoff seeds were instituted in 1975. The Steelers finished the regular season with a league best 12–2 record, dominating opponents with their \"Steel Curtain\" defense and powerful running game. Fullback Franco Harris ranked second in the league with 1,246 rushing yards and 10 touchdowns, while also catching 28 passes for 214 yards and another touchdown. Halfback Rocky Bleier had 528 rushing yards, and fullback John \"Frenchy\" Fuqua added 285 yards and 18 receptions. Still, the Steelers had a fine passing attack led by quarterback Terry Bradshaw. Bradshaw threw for 2,055 yards, 18 touchdowns, and nine interceptions, while rushing for 210 yards and three touchdowns. One reason why Bradshaw's numbers were much improved from the previous season was the emergence of wide receivers Lynn Swann and John Stallworth. Both saw limited playing time in the previous season, but became significant contributors. Swann caught a team leading 49 passes for 781 yards and 11 touchdowns. Stallworth only had 20 receptions, but he had an average of 21.2 yards per catch, recording a total of 423 reception yards.\n\nThe Steelers' \"Steel Curtain\" defense dominated the league, ranking third in fewest yards allowed (4,019) and sending 8 of their 11 starters to the Pro Bowl: defensive linemen Joe Greene and L. C. Greenwood; future Hall of Fame linebackers Jack Ham and Jack Lambert; Andy Russell, the team's third starting linebacker; future Hall of Fame defensive back Mel Blount; and safeties Glen Edwards and Mike Wagner.\n\nGreene made the Pro Bowl despite missing six games with injuries. Ham and Lambert had the best seasons of their careers, while Blount led the league with 11 interceptions and was named the NFL's Defensive Player of the Year.\n\nDallas Cowboys\n\nThe Cowboys advanced to their third Super Bowl in team history with their rather high-tech offense and \"flex\" defense. Quarterback Roger Staubach had a solid season, passing for 2,666 yards and 17 touchdowns, while also rushing for 310 yards. Wide receiver Drew Pearson led the team with 46 receptions for 822 yards and 8 touchdowns. Wide receiver Golden Richards and tight end Jean Fugett were also reliable targets in the Cowboys' passing game, combining for 59 receptions and 939 receiving yards.\n\nLike the Steelers, Dallas was a run-based team. Fullback Robert Newhouse was their leading rusher with\n930 yards, and also caught 34 passes for 274 yards. Halfback Doug Dennison contributed 388 yards. Perhaps the most talented player in the backfield was halfback Preston Pearson (no relation to receiver Drew Pearson), who signed on the team as a free agent after being cut by the Steelers in the preseason. Preston rushed for 509 yards, caught 27 passes for 351 yards, and added another 391 yards returning kickoffs. Preston had been especially effective in the playoffs, where he caught 12 passes for 200 yards and three touchdowns, and was extremely eager to increase his numbers in the Super Bowl against the team that let him go. Up front, the offensive line was led by All-Pro right tackle Rayfield Wright.\n\nThe Cowboys' \"Flex\" defense was anchored by linemen Harvey Martin and Ed \"Too Tall\" Jones. Linebacker Lee Roy Jordan led the team with six interceptions, while linebacker D.D. Lewis was an effective weapon pass rushing. The starting players in Dallas' defensive secondary, future Hall of Fame cornerback Mel Renfro, cornerback Mark Washington, and safeties Charlie Waters and Pro Bowler Cliff Harris, combined for 12 interceptions.\n\nEven though the Cowboys finished in second place in the NFC East with a 10–4 record, they qualified for the playoffs as the NFC's wild-card team (during that time, only one wild card team from each conference entered the playoffs). The Dallas Cowboys became the first NFC wild card team to reach the Super Bowl.\n\nPlayoffs\n\nDallas went on to defeat the Minnesota Vikings, 17–14, with a 50-yard touchdown pass from Staubach to Drew Pearson with less than a minute to play in what was called the \"Hail Mary pass\". They went on to crush the Los Angeles Rams, 37–7, in the NFC Championship Game. As a result, the Cowboys became the first ever wild card team to advance to the Super Bowl.\n\nMeanwhile, even though Pittsburgh's offense lost a total of 12 turnovers in their two playoff games, the Steelers only gave up a combined total of 20 points in their victories over the Baltimore Colts, 28–10, and the Oakland Raiders, 16–10.\n\nSuper Bowl pregame news and notes\n\nComing into Super Bowl X, most sports writers and fans expected that Swann would not play. He had suffered a severe concussion in the AFC Championship Game against the Raiders that forced him to spend two days in a hospital. If he did play, many assumed he would just be used as a decoy to draw coverage away from the other receivers.\n\nThroughout the week leading up to the Super Bowl, Swann was unable to participate in several team practices or was limited to only a minor workout in them. However, a few days before the game, he received a verbal challenge from Dallas safety Cliff Harris, who stated, \"I'm not going to hurt anyone intentionally. But getting hit again while he's running a pass route must be in the back of Swann's mind. I know it would be in the back of my mind.\"\n\nSwann responded \"I'm still not 100 percent. I value my health, but I've had no dizzy spells. I read what Harris said. He was trying to intimidate me. He said I'd be afraid out there. He needn't worry. He doesn't know Lynn Swann. He can't scare me or the team. I said to myself, 'The hell with it, I'm gonna play.' Sure, I thought about the possibility of being reinjured. But it's like being thrown by a horse. You have to get up and ride again immediately or you may be scared the rest of your life.\"\n\nSuper Bowl X would be the final NFL officiating assignment for veteran referee Norm Schachter, who also served as referee for Super Bowl I and Super Bowl V. Schachter worked as an officiating supervisor and instant replay official following his on-field retirement.\n\nTelevision, radio and entertainment\n\nCBS televised the game in the United States with play-by-play announcer Pat Summerall (calling his first Super Bowl in that role) and color commentator Tom Brookshier. Toward the end of the game, Hank Stram took over for Brookshier, who had left the booth to head down to the locker room area to conduct the postgame interviews with the winning team. Two days after the Super Bowl, Stram was hired as coach of the New Orleans Saints, interrupting his broadcasting career for two seasons.\n\nOn radio, Verne Lundquist and Al Wisk announced the game for the Dallas Cowboys Radio Network, and Jack Fleming and Myron Cope called the game for the Pittsburgh Steelers Radio Network. Ed Ingles and Jim Kelly called the game nationally for CBS Radio. Hosting television coverage was The NFL Today crew of Brent Musburger; Irv Cross and Phyllis George. During this game, CBS would begin using Jack Trombey's \"Horizontal Hold\" as the theme music. That would be used the following season for the NFL Today pregame show between 1976 and 1980 in its original form, with a remake for 1981 followed by updates for 1984 and 1989 before its retirement.\n\nThe overall theme of the Super Bowl entertainment was to celebrate the United States Bicentennial. Each Cowboys and Steelers player wore a special patch with the Bicentennial logo on their jerseys.\n\nThe performance event group Up with People performed during both the pregame festivities and the halftime show titled \"200 Years and Just a Baby: A Tribute to America's Bicentennial\". Up with People dancers portrayed various American historical figures along with a rendition of Steve Goodman's \"City of New Orleans\". Singer Tom Sullivan sang the national anthem.\n\nScenes for the 1977 suspense film Black Sunday, about a fictional terrorist attack on the Super Bowl via the Goodyear Blimp, were filmed during the game.\n\nThis was the last Super Bowl to kickoff as early as 2:00 p.m. (EST), thereby allowing a finish time before commencement of many of the nation's evening church services.\n\nGame summary\n\nThe Steelers won their second straight Super Bowl, largely through the plays by Swann and by stopping a rally by the Cowboys late in the fourth quarter. Officials did not call a single penalty on the Steelers during the game, while the Cowboys were called for only 2 penalties for 20 yards.\n\nOn the opening kickoff, the Cowboys ran a reverse where rookie linebacker Thomas \"Hollywood\" Henderson took a handoff from Preston Pearson and returned the ball a Super Bowl record 48 yards before kicker Roy Gerela forced him out of bounds at the Steelers' 44-yard line. Gerela suffered badly bruised ribs that would affect his kicking performance all afternoon. On the first play of the game, Steelers defensive lineman L. C. Greenwood sacked Cowboys quarterback Roger Staubach, forcing him to fumble. Although Dallas recovered the fumble, they eventually were forced to punt. The sack was a foreshadow of things to come for Staubach, who was sacked seven times on the day. Pittsburgh managed to get one first down and advanced to the Dallas 40-yard line, but then they too were forced to punt. Steelers punter Bobby Walden fumbled the snap. Walden managed to recover his own fumble, but Dallas took over on the Steelers' 29-yard line. On the very next play, Staubach threw a 29-yard touchdown pass to wide receiver Drew Pearson, taking a 7–0 lead. The score was the first touchdown permitted in the first quarter by the Steelers' defense in 1975.\n\nInstead of trying to immediately tie the game on a long passing play, the Steelers ran the ball on the first four plays of their ensuing possession, and then quarterback Terry Bradshaw completed a 32-yard pass to wide receiver Lynn Swann to reach the Cowboys' 16-yard line. Swann soared over the outstretched reach of defensive back Mark Washington before tight-roping the sideline to make the reception. Two running plays further advanced the ball to the 7-yard line. Then on third down and one, the Steelers managed to fool the Cowboys. Pittsburgh brought in two tight ends, which usually signals a running play. After the snap, tight end Randy Grossman faked a block to the inside as if it were a running play, but then ran a pass route into the endzone, and Bradshaw threw the ball to him for a touchdown, tying the game, 7–7. This marked the first Super Bowl that both teams scored in the first quarter.\n\nDallas responded on their next drive, advancing the ball 51 yards, all rushing, (30 of them on five carries from fullback Robert Newhouse) before incurring a third down false start penalty, and scoring on kicker Toni Fritsch's 36-yard field goal to take a 10–7 lead early in the second quarter. The 51 rushing yards the Cowboys amassed on the drive tripled what the Minnesota Vikings gained against Pittsburgh for all of Super Bowl IX. The Steelers subsequently advanced to the Cowboys' 36-yard line on their next possession, but on fourth down and two, Bradshaw's pass was broken up by Dallas safety Cliff Harris.\n\nLater in the period, Dallas drove to the Steelers' 20-yard line. But in three plays, the Cowboys lost 25 yards. On first down, Newhouse was tackled for a 3-yard loss by linebacker Andy Russell. Then Greenwood sacked Staubach for a 12-yard loss. And on third down, Staubach was sacked again, this time for a 10-yard loss, by defensive end Dwight White. The sacks pushed Dallas out of field goal range and they were forced to punt. The Steelers' offense got the ball back their own 6-yard line with 3:47 left in the half. On the drive, Bradshaw completed a 53-yard pass to Swann to advance the ball to the Cowboys' 37-yard line; Swann's catch has become one of the most memorable acrobatic catches in Super Bowl history. On the very next play, Bradshaw just missed connections with Swann at the Dallas 6. Pittsburgh drove to the 19-yard line after the two-minute warning, but the drive stalled there, and ended with no points after Gerela missed a 36-yard field goal attempt with 22 seconds remaining in the period.\n\nEarly in the third quarter, Pittsburgh got a great scoring opportunity when defensive back J. T. Thomas intercepted a pass from Staubach and returned it 35 yards to the Cowboys' 25-yard line. But once again the Steelers failed to score as the Dallas defense kept Pittsburgh out of the end zone and Gerela missed his second field goal, a 33-yard attempt. After the miss, Harris mockingly patted Gerela on his helmet and thanked him for \"helping Dallas out,\" but was immediately thrown to the ground by Steeler linebacker Jack Lambert. Lambert could have been ejected from the game for defending his teammate, but the officials decided to allow him to remain. \n\nThe third quarter was completely scoreless and the Cowboys maintained their 10–7 lead going into the final period. But early in the fourth quarter, Dallas punter Mitch Hoopes was forced to punt from inside his own goal line. As Hoopes stepped up to make the kick, Steelers running back Reggie Harrison broke through the line and blocked the punt. The ball went through the end zone for a safety, cutting the Dallas lead to 10–9. It was the second safety recorded in Super Bowl history, the first occurring a year earlier when White downed Minnesota's Fran Tarkenton on a fumble recovery in the end zone. Then Steelers running back Mike Collier returned the free kick 25 yards to the Cowboys' 45-yard line. Dallas halted the ensuing drive at the 20-yard line, but this time Gerela successfully kicked a 36-yard field goal to give Pittsburgh their first lead of the game, 12–10. Then on the first play of the Cowboys' next drive, Steelers defensive back Mike Wagner intercepted a pass from Staubach and returned it 19 yards to the Dallas 7-yard line. Wagner's interception came off the same play Dallas used to score their opening touchdown. Instead of surveying the middle of the field, Wagner watched Pearson and recognized the pattern. Staubach later said: \"It was our bread and butter play all season long. It was the first time it didn't work.\" The Cowboys defense again managed to prevent a touchdown, but Gerela kicked an 18-yard field goal to increase the Steelers lead to 15–10.\n\nThe Steelers forced a punt and regained possession of the ball on their own 30-yard line with 4:25 left in the final period, giving them a chance to either increase their lead or run out the clock to win the game. But after two plays, the Steelers found themselves facing 3rd down and 6 on their own 36-yard line. Assuming that the Cowboys would be expecting a short pass or a run, Bradshaw decided to try a long pass and told Swann in the huddle to run a deep post pattern. As Bradshaw dropped back to pass, Harris and linebacker D.D. Lewis both blitzed in an attempt to sack him. But Bradshaw managed to dodge Lewis and throw the ball just before being leveled by Harris and lineman Larry Cole, who landed a helmet-to-helmet hit on Bradshaw. Swann then caught the ball at the 5-yard line and ran into the end zone for a 64-yard touchdown completion. Bradshaw never did see Swann's catch or the touchdown since Cole's hit to Bradshaw's helmet knocked him out of the game with a head injury. It was only after he was assisted to the locker room that he was told what happened.\n\nAfter play resumed, Gerela missed the extra point attempt, but the Steelers now had a 21–10 lead with 3:02 left in the game, and the Cowboys needed two touchdowns to come back.\n\nStaubach then led his team 80 yards in 5 plays on the ensuing drive, scoring on a 34-yard touchdown pass to wide receiver Percy Howard and cutting their deficit to 21–17 (Howard's touchdown reception was the only catch of his NFL career; he was not mentioned by name by John Facenda in the highlight package produced by NFL Films). After Gerry Mullins recovered Dallas' onside kick attempt, the Steelers then tried to run out the clock on the next drive with four straight running plays, but the Cowboys defense stopped them on fourth down at their 39-yard line, giving Dallas one more chance to win. Some questioned why Noll would elect to go for it on fourth down but, as later explained by NFL Films, his entire kicking game had been suspect all game long with Gerela missing an extra point and two field goals while Walden fumbled a snap on a punt, had a punt blocked for a safety, and nearly had two others blocked. (Gerela's problems may have begun on the opening kickoff when he was forced to make a touchdown saving tackle on Hollywood Henderson.)\n\nWith 1:22 left in the game, Staubach started out the drive with an 11-yard scramble to midfield, and then followed it up with a 12-yard completion to Preston Pearson at the Steelers' 38-yard line. Pearson inexplicably ran towards the middle rather than running out of bounds to stop the clock. On the next play, Staubach couldn't handle a low snap but managed to recover the ball and throw it downfield for an incompletion. On second down with 12 seconds left, he threw a pass intended for Howard in the end zone, but the ball bounced off Howard's helmet and a Hail Mary replay was not to be. Had Howard positioned himself inches back from his position in the end zone as the ball came down he would have had a better opportunity to catch the ball and write himself into Cowboy folklore. Then on third down, Staubach once again tried to complete a pass to Howard in the end zone, but the ball was tipped by Wagner into the arms of safety Glen Edwards for an interception as time expired, sealing Pittsburgh's victory.\n\nBradshaw finished the game with 9 out of 19 pass completions for 209 yards and two touchdowns, with no interceptions. He also added another 16 yards rushing the ball. Staubach completed 15 out of 24 passes for 204 yards and two touchdowns with three interceptions. He also rushed for 22 yards on five carries, but was sacked seven times. Steelers running back Franco Harris was the leading rusher of the game with 82 rushing yards, and also caught a pass for 26 yards. Newhouse was the Cowboys top rusher with 56 yards, and caught two passes for 12 yards. Greenwood recorded a Super Bowl record four sacks but it has gone unrecognized since the NFL didn't officially record sacks until 1982.\n\nAftermath\n\nThe game was remembered for being the most exciting of the first 10 Super Bowl games. Swann's heroics and Lambert's 14 tackles and throw-down of Cliff Harris are the indelible images from the game. After being benched to start the 1974 campaign and being booed for most of his first four seasons in Pittsburgh, Bradshaw became the first quarterback to throw two game-winning touchdown passes in Super Bowl competition. The Steelers' bid for three-consecutive championships ended in a 24–7 loss to the Oakland Raiders in the 1976 AFC Championship game after a season that saw Pittsburgh's defense shut out five opponents and allow only 28 points in a 9-game span. The loss to Pittsburgh coupled with an early playoff exit in 1976 largely influenced the Cowboys to draft Tony Dorsett in the 1977 Draft to help infuse life into Dallas' offense. Dorsett helped lead Dallas to a Super Bowl XII victory over the Denver Broncos, who defeated the Steelers in the first round of the playoffs that year.\n\nPittsburgh and Dallas would battle in another thriller in Super Bowl XIII (also played in Miami). The result was the same, as the Steelers prevailed 35–31. But Super Bowl X was the game that began the rivalry between the two storied franchises. The Cowboys gained a measure of revenge by defeating the Steelers 27–17 in Super Bowl XXX following the 1995 season.\n\nThis was the final football game to be played on artificial turf (specifically, Poly-Turf) at the Orange Bowl. The surface in 1976 reverted to natural grass, and remained so until the stadium's closure in 2007. Turf was first installed at the Orange Bowl in 1970, but players complained often of the slickness of the surfaces, and fields became discolored due to the intense sunshine common to south Florida.\n\nBox score\n\nFinal statistics\n\nSource: [http://www.nfl.com/superbowl/history/boxscore/sbx NFL.com Super Bowl X]\n\nStatistical comparison\n\nIndividual statistics\n\n1Completions/attempts\n2Carries\n3Long gain\n4Receptions\n\nStarting lineups\n\nSource: \n\nOfficials\n\nReferee: Norm Schachter #56 third Super Bowl (I, V)\nUmpire: Joe Connell #57 second Super Bowl (VI)\nHead Linesman: Leo Miles #35 second Super Bowl (VIII)\nLine Judge: Jack Fette #39 third Super Bowl (V, VIII)\nField Judge: Bill O'Brien #83 first Super Bowl\nBack Judge: Stan Javie #29 third Super Bowl (II, VIII)\n\nThis was the first Super Bowl in which the referee wore a wireless microphone to announce penalties and other rulings to the audience in the stadium, those listening on radio and those watching on television. The idea was pioneered by Cowboys GM Tex Schramm.\n\nNorm Schachter retired following this game and became an officiating supervisor.\n\nNote: A seven-official system was not used until 1978\n\nNotes" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Smoky City", "Pittsburgh (Pa.)", "Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.", "Frick International Studies Academy Middle School", "Pitsburgh", "The Burgh", "Pittsbrugh", "Pittsburgh, Pa", "Pittsburgh, USA", "Glenwood, Pennsylvania", "Pittsburgh (PA)", "The Pittsburgh Style of Literature", "Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, U.S.", "Pittsburgh, United States of America", "Pittsburgh Pennsyvania", "UN/LOCODE:USPIT", "Da burgh", "Pittsburgh (pgh)", "Climate of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania", "Pittsburgh", "City of Bridges", "Pittsburgh Frick 6–8 Middle School", "Pittsburgh, PA", "St. Justin's High School", "East End (Pittsburgh)", "Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA", "Pittsburgh, Allegheny County, Pennsylvania", "The City of Bridges", "Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, US", "Fort du Quesne", "Pittsburgh Frick 6-8 Middle School", "City of Pittsburgh", "The Steel City", "Pittsburgh, PA.", "Pittsburgh Style", "Pittsburgh, Pa.", "Education in pittsburgh", "Pittsburg, PA", "Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.", "Education in Pittsburgh", "Pittsburg, Pennsylvania", "Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "steel city", "climate of pittsburgh pennsylvania", "pittsbrugh", "un locode uspit", "pittsburgh", "pittsburgh frick 6–8 middle school", "pittsburgh pennsylvania usa", "pittsburgh style", "city of pittsburgh", "pittsburgh pennsylvania u s", "st justin s high school", "pittsburgh pa", "glenwood pennsylvania", "da burgh", "pittsburgh style of literature", "pitsburgh", "east end pittsburgh", "pittsburgh pennsylvania us", "pittsburgh usa", "smoky city", "city of bridges", "fort du quesne", "pittsburg pennsylvania", "pittsburgh frick 6 8 middle school", "pittsburgh pennsylvania", "pittsburgh united states of america", "education in pittsburgh", "pittsburg pa", "pittsburgh pennsyvania", "burgh", "frick international studies academy middle school", "pittsburgh allegheny county pennsylvania", "pittsburgh pgh" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "pittsburgh", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Pittsburgh" }
Who brought to an end Jahangir Khan's long unbeaten run of success in squash in the 80s?	tc_686	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Jahangir_Khan.txt" ], "title": [ "Jahangir Khan" ], "wiki_context": [ "Jahangir Khan, HI, ()born 10 December 1963 in Karachi, Pakistan (sometimes spelled \"Jehangir Khan\") is a former World No. 1 professional squash player from Pakistan, who is considered to be the greatest player in the history of squash. Jahangir Khan is originally from Neway Kelay Payan, Peshawar. During his career he won the World Open six times and the British Open a record ten times. From 1981 to 1986, he was unbeaten in competitive play. During that time he won 555 matches consecutively, the longest winning streak by any athlete in top-level professional sports as recorded by Guinness World Records. He retired as a player in 1993, and has served as President of the World Squash Federation from 2002 to 2008, when he became Emeritus President. \n\nPlaying career \n\nJahangir was coached initially by his father, Roshan, the 1957 British Open champion, then by his late brother Torsam. After his brother's sudden death he was coached by his cousin Rehmat Khan, who guided Jahangir through most of his career. Jahangir was physically very weak as a child. Though the doctors had advised him not to take part in any sort of physical activity, after undergoing a couple of hernia operations his father let him play and try out their family game.\n\nIn 1979, the Pakistan selectors decided not to select Jahangir to play in the world championships in Australia, judging him too weak from a recent illness. Jahangir decided instead to enter the World Amateur Individual Championship and, at the age of 15, became the youngest-ever winner of that event.\n\nIn November 1979, Jahangir's older brother Torsam, who had been one of the leading international squash players in the 1970s, died suddenly of a heart attack during a tournament match in Australia. Torsam's death profoundly affected Jahangir. He considered quitting the game, but decided to pursue a career in the sport as a tribute to his brother.\n\nNotable achievements\n\n* Won World Amateur Championships at age 15\n* Youngest ever World Open Champion (aged 17)\n* Unbeaten in 555 consecutive matches over 5 years and 8 months\n* Won the British Open Championship 10 times in succession (1982-1993)\n* Six-times World Open Champion\n* First player to win World Open Championships without dropping a game\n* Played the second longest match in the squash history 2.46 h\n\nFive-year unbeaten run\n\nIn 1981, when he was 17, Jahangir became the youngest winner of the World Open, beating Australia's Geoff Hunt (the game's dominant player in the late-1970s) in the final. That tournament marked the start of an unbeaten run which lasted for five years and 555 matches. The hallmark of his play was his incredible fitness and stamina, which Rehmat Khan helped him build up through a punishing training and conditioning regime. Jahangir was quite simply the fittest player in the game, and would wear his opponents down through long rallies played at a furious pace.\n\nIn 1982, Jahangir astonished everyone by winning the International Squash Players Association Championship without losing a single point.\n\nThe unbeaten run finally came to end in the final of the World Open in 1986 in Toulouse, France, when Jahangir lost to New Zealand's Ross Norman. Norman had been in pursuit of Jahangir's unbeaten streak, being beaten time and time again. \"One day Jahangir will be slightly off his game and I will get him\", he vowed for five years.\n\nSpeaking about his unbeaten streak, Jahangir said: \"It wasn't my plan to create such a record. All I did was put in the effort to win every match I played and it went on for weeks, months and years until my defeat to Ross Norman in Toulouse in 1986.\"\n\n\"The pressure began to mount as I kept winning every time and people were anxious to see if I could be beaten. In that World Open final, Ross got me. It was exactly five years and eight months. I was unbeaten for another nine months after that defeat.\"\n\nSuccess in the hardball game\n\nWith his dominance over the international squash game in the first half of the 1980s secure, Jahangir decided to test his ability on the North American hardball squash circuit in 1983–1986. (Hardball squash is a North American variant of the game, played on smaller courts with a faster-moving ball.) Jahangir played in 13 top-level hardball tournaments during this period, winning 12 of them. He faced the leading American player on the circuit at the time, Mark Talbott, on 11 occasions (all in tournament finals), and won 10 of their encounters. With his domination of both the softball and hardball versions of the game, Jahangir truly cemented his reputation as the world's greatest squash player. His success in North America is considered by some observers to be among the factors which led to growing interest in the international \"softball\" version of squash in the continent, and the demise of the hardball game in the late-1980s and 1990s.\n\nRivalry with Jansher Khan \n\nAt the end of 1986 another Pakistani squash player, Jansher Khan, appeared on the international scene to challenge Jahangir's domination. Jahangir won their first few encounters in late-1986 and early-1987. But Jansher scored his first win over Jahangir in September 1987, beating him in straight games in the semi-finals of the Hong Kong Open. Jansher then went on to beat Jahangir in their next eight consecutive encounters and capture the 1987 World Open title.\n\nJahangir ended Jansher's winning streak in March 1988, and went on to win 11 of their next 15 encounters. The pair met in the 1988 World Open final, with Jahangir emerging the victor. But by that point it had become clear that squash now had two dominant players. The pair would continue to dominate the game for the rest of the decade. Jansher and Jahangir met a total of 37 times in tournament play. Jansher won 19 matches (74 games and 1,426 points), and Jahangir 18 matches (79 games and 1,459 points). This record doesn't include exhibition matches and league matches between them.\n\nJahangir did not win the World Open again after 1988, but he continued a stranglehold over the British Open title which he captured a record ten successive times between 1982 and 1991.\n\nWorld Open final appearances \n\nBritish Open final appearances \n\nTraining regimen \n\nIn a documentary on himself telecast on GEO Super, Jahangir revealed that he never had any fixed training regimen particularly designed for him, nor had he any specially formulated diet - he would eat anything hygienic but never miss two glasses of milk every day.\n\nFor his training, he would often start his day with a 9 mi jog which he would complete in 60–120 minutes at a moderate pace, followed by short bursts of timed sprints. Later he would weight train in the gym finally cooling down in the pools. He would follow this routine 5 days a week. On the 6th day he would match practice and rest on the 7th day.\n\nHe also said that he has experienced running on every surface - from custom-built tracks to asphalt roads, grass & farm fields to sea shores & knee-deep waters. Sometimes he would also visit the northern areas of Pakistan to train in high altitude fields under low oxygen conditions. All in all it made Jahangir one of the most physically and mentally fit athletes in the world.\n\nAwards, services and recognition \n\nJahangir retired as a player in 1993 after helping Pakistan win the World Team Championship in Karachi. The Government of Pakistan honoured Jahangir with the awards of Pride of Performance and civil award of Hilal-e-Imtiaz (Crescent of Distinction) for his achievements in squash. They also awarded him the title of Sportsman of the Millennium.\n\nIn 1990, Jahangir was elected Chairman of the Professional Squash Association, and in 1997, Vice-President of the Pakistan Squash Federation. He was elected as Vice-President of the World Squash Federation in November 1998, and in October 2002 was elected WSF President. In 2004, he was again unanimously re-elected as President of the World Squash Federation at the International Federation's 33rd Annual General Meeting in Casa Noyale, Mauritius.\n \nTime Magazine has named Jahangir as one of Asia's Heroes in the last 60 years. Jahangir Khan was conferred with an honorary Doctorate of Philosophy by London Metropolitan University for his contributions to the sport. Due to his immense and absolute dominance in squash he was nicknamed \"The Conqueror\" (a loose translation of his first name).\n\nPersonal life \n\nJahangir and his family originate from a village near Peshawar named Nawakille SWABI ( نواں کلی صوابی )(sometimes spelled \"Noakili\"). He currently lives in Karachi with his wife Rubina, and their two children Mariam and Omar.\n\nHe is the cousin of Rehmat Khan who married to Salma Agha and musician Natasha Khan, better known as Bat for Lashes, and actress Sashaa Agha are Jahangir's nieces. He is the son of Roshan Khan and brother of Torsam Khan." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Ross Norman" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "ross norman" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "ross norman", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Ross Norman" }
Jomo Kenyatta was born into which tribe?	tc_689	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Jomo_Kenyatta.txt" ], "title": [ "Jomo Kenyatta" ], "wiki_context": [ "Jomo Kenyatta (c. 1891 – 22 August 1978) was a Kenyan politician and the first President of Kenya. Kenyatta was the leader of Kenya from independence in 1963 to his death in 1978, serving first as Prime Minister (1963–64) and then as President (1964–78). He is considered the founding father of the Kenyan nation. Kenyatta was a well-educated intellectual who authored several books, and is remembered as a Pan-Africanist. He is also the father of Kenya's fourth and current President, Uhuru Kenyatta.\n\nNumerous institutions and locations are named after Kenyatta, including Nairobi's Jomo Kenyatta International Airport, Kenyatta International Conference Centre, Nairobi's main street and main streets in many Kenyan cities and towns, numerous schools, two universities (Kenyatta University and Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology), the country's main referral hospital, markets and housing estates. A statue in Nairobi's centre and monuments all over Kenya stand in his honour. Kenya observed a public holiday every 20 October in his honour until the 2010 constitution abolished Kenyatta Day and replaced it with Mashujaa (Heroes') day. Before the enactment of the new constitution, Kenyatta's face adorned Kenyan currency notes and coins of all denominations except the 40 shilling coin.\n\nEarly life\n\nJomo Kenyatta was born in Kiambu to parents Muigai wa Kung'u and Wambui in the village of Gatundu, in British East Africa (now Kenya), a member of the Kikuyu. His date of birth, sometime in the early to mid-1890s, was unclear even to him, as birth records were not traditionally kept. However, at least one biography gives his date of birth as October 20, 1891, a date so precise as to likely be apocryphal. His father died while Kamau was very young, after which, as was the custom, he was adopted by his uncle Ngengi, who also inherited his mother, to become Kamau wa Ngengi. When his mother died during childbirth, young Kamau moved from Ng'enda to Muthiga to live with his medicine man grandfather Kũngũ wa Magana, to whom he became very close.\n\nHe left home to become a resident pupil at the Church of Scotland Mission (CSM) at Thogoto, close to Kikuyu, about 12 miles north-west of Nairobi. He studied amongst other subjects: the Bible, English, mathematics and carpentry. He paid the school fees by working as a houseboy and cook for a white settler living nearby.\n\nIn his late teens, having completed his mission school education, he became an apprentice carpenter. The following year he underwent initiation ceremonies, including circumcision, to become a member of the kihiu-mwiri age group.\nIn 1914, he converted to Christianity, assuming the name John Peter, which he then changed to Johnstone Kamau. He left the mission later that year to seek employment.\n\nHe first worked as an apprentice carpenter on a sisal farm in Thika, under the tutelage of John Cook, who had been in charge of the building programme at Thogoto. During the First World War, Kikuyu were forced into work by the British authorities. To avoid this, he lived with Kamba relatives in Narok, where he worked as a clerk for an Asian contractor.\n\nIn 1920 he married Grace Wahu, under Kikuyu customs. When Grace got pregnant, his church elders ordered him to get married before a European magistrate, and undertake the appropriate church rites. On 20 November 1920 Kamau's first son Peter Muigai, was born. Kamau served as an interpreter in the Nairobi High Court, and ran a store out of his Dagoretti home during this period. He eventually married Grace Wahu in a civil ceremony in 1922. Grace Wahu lived in the Dagoretti home until her death in April 2007 at the age of around 100.\n\nIn 1922 Kamau began working, as a store clerk and water-meter reader for the Nairobi Municipal Council Public Works Department, once again under John Cook who was the Water Superintendent. Meter reading helped him meet many Kenyan-Asians at their homes who would become important allies later on.\n\nHe entered politics after taking interest in the political activities of James Beauttah and Joseph Kang'ethe the leaders of the Kikuyu Central Association (KCA). He joined KCA in 1924 and rose up the ranks of the association. Eventually he began to edit the movement's Kikuyu newspaper. By 1928 he had become the KCA's general secretary.\n\nIn 1928 he launched a monthly Kikuyu language newspaper called Muĩgwithania (Reconciler) which aimed to unite all sections of the Kikuyu. The paper, supported by an Asian-owned printing press, had a mild and unassuming tone, and was tolerated by the colonial government. He also made a presentation on Kikuyu land problems before the Hilton Young Commission in Nairobi in the same year.\n\nOverseas\n\nIn 1929 the KCA sent Kenyatta to London to lobby on its behalf with regard to Kikuyu tribal land affairs. Using the name Johnstone Kenyatta, he published articles and letters to the editor in The Times and the Manchester Guardian.Polsgrove, p. 6. He returned to Kenya on 24 September 1930 and was welcomed at Mombasa by his wife Wahu and James Beauttah. He then took part, on the side of traditionalists, in the debate on the issue of female genital mutilation of girls. He later worked for Kikuyu Independent Schools in Githunguri. \n\nHe returned to London in 1931 and enrolled in Woodbrooke Quaker College in Birmingham. Discouraged by the lack of official response to the land claims he was putting forward, he began an association with British Communists, who published articles he wrote in their publications. In 1932 to 1933, he briefly studied economics in Moscow at the Comintern School, KUTVU (University of the Toilers of the East) but left after the Soviet Union (worried about Hitler's growing power and seeing Britain and France as potential allies) withdrew its support for the movement against British and French colonial rule in Africa.\n\nIn 1934, Kenyatta enrolled at University College London and from 1935 studied social anthropology under Bronisław Malinowski at the London School of Economics (LSE). He was a member of the executive committee of the International African Friends of Abyssinia (formed in 1935), and was an active member of the International African Service Bureau, a pan-Africanist, anti-colonial organisation that had formed around former international communist leader George Padmore, who had also become disillusioned with the Soviet Union and himself moved to London. Kenyatta read the draft of the Kenya section of Padmore's new book, How Britain Rules Africa (1936). With the editorial help of an English editor named Dinah Stock who became a close friend, Kenyatta published his own book, Facing Mount Kenya (his revised LSE thesis), in 1938 under his new name, Jomo Kenyatta. The name \"Jomo\" is translated in English to \"Burning Spear\", while the name \"Kenyatta\" was said to be a reference to the beaded Masai belt he wore, and later to \"the Light of Kenya\". After the war, he wrote a pamphlet (with some content contributed by Padmore), Kenya: The Land of Conflict, published by the International African Service Bureau under the imprint Panaf Service. \n\nDuring this period, Kenyatta was an active member of a group of African, Caribbean and American intellectuals who included Dudley Thompson, George Padmore, C. L. R. James, Eric Williams, I. T. A. Wallace-Johnson, Chris Braithwaite, Amy Ashwood Garvey, Paul Robeson and Ralph Bunche. During his presidency, a number of streets in Nairobi were named after some of these early black-emancipation intellectuals.\n\nKenyatta acted as an extra in the film Sanders of the River (1934), directed by Zoltan Korda and starring Paul Robeson. \n\nDuring World War II, he worked as a labourer at an English farm in Sussex, and lectured on Africa for the Workers' Educational Association.\n\nIn 1942, he married an Englishwoman, Edna Clarke. He also published My People of Kikuyu and the Life of Chief Wang'ombe, a history shading into legend. Edna gave birth to their son, Peter Magana, in 1943. \n\nIn 1945, with other prominent African nationalist figures, such as Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana, Kenyatta helped organise the fifth Pan-African Congress, held in Britain. \n\nReturn to Kenya\n\nKenyatta returned to Kenya in 1946, after almost 15 years abroad.\n\nHe married for the third time, to Grace Wanjiku, Senior Chief Koinange's daughter, and sister to Mbiyu Koinange (who later became a lifelong confidant and was one of the most powerful politicians during Kenyatta's presidency).\n\nKenyatta then went into teaching, becoming principal of Kenya Teachers College Githunguri.\n\nIn 1947, he was elected president of the Kenya African Union (KAU). He began to receive death threats from white settlers after his election.\n\nFrom 1948 to 1951 he toured and lectured around the country condemning idleness, robbery, urging hard work while campaigning for the return of land given to white settlers and for independence within three years.\n\nHis wife, Grace Wanjiku, died in childbirth in 1950 as she gave birth to daughter Jane Wambui, who survived.\n\nIn 1951 Kenyatta married Ngina Muhoho, daughter of Chief Muhoho. She was popularly referred to as Mama Ngina and was independent Kenya's First Lady, when Kenyatta was elected President.\n\nThe Mau Mau Rebellion began in 1951 and KAU was banned, and a state of emergency was declared on 20 October 1952.\n\nTrial and imprisonment\n\nKenyatta was arrested in October 1952 and indicted with five others on the charges of \"managing and being a member\" of the Mau Mau Society, a radical anti-colonial movement engaged in rebellion against Kenya's British rulers. The accused were known as the \"Kapenguria Six\".\n\nThe trial lasted five months: Rawson Macharia, the main prosecution witness, turned out to have perjured himself; the judge—who had only recently been awarded an unusually large pension, and who maintained secret contact with the then colonial Governor of Kenya Evelyn Baring during the trial—was openly hostile to the defendants' cause.\n\nThe defence, led by British barrister D. N. Pritt, argued that the white settlers were trying to scapegoat Kenyatta and that there was no evidence tying him to the Mau Mau. The court sentenced Kenyatta on 8 April 1953 to seven years' imprisonment with hard labour and indefinite restriction thereafter. The subsequent appeal was refused by the British Privy Council in 1954.\n\nKenyatta remained in prison until 1959, after which he was detained in Lodwar, a remote part of Kenya.\n\nThe state of emergency was lifted on 12 January 1960. \n\nOn 28 February 1960, a public meeting of 25,000 in Nairobi demanded his release. On 15 April 1960, over a million signatures for a plea to release him were presented to the Governor. On 14 May 1960, he was elected KANU President in absentia. On 23 March 1961, Kenyan leaders, including Daniel arap Moi, later his longtime Vice President and successor as president, visited him at Lodwar. On 11 April 1961, he was moved to Maralal with daughter Margaret where he met world press for the first time in eight years. On 14 August 1961, he was released and brought to Gatundu.\n\nWhile contemporary opinion linked Kenyatta with the Mau Mau, historians have questioned his alleged leadership of the radical movement. Kenyatta was in truth a political moderate. His marriage of Colonial Chief's daughters, his post independence Kikuyu allies mainly being former colonial collaborators (though also from his tribe), and his short shrift treatment of former Mau Mau fighters after he came to power, all suggest a lack of strong ties to the Mau Mau.\n\nLeadership\n\nPre-independence\n\nKenyatta was admitted into the Legislative Council after his release in 1961, after Kariuki Njiiri (son of late Chief Njiiri) gave up his Kigumo seat for him.\n\nIn 1961 and 1962, he led the KANU delegation to first and second Lancaster Conference in London where Kenya's independence constitution was negotiated.\n\nElections were then held in May 1963, pitting Kenyatta's KANU (Kenya African National Union- which advocated for Kenya to be a unitary state) against KADU (Kenya African Democratic Union – which advocated for Kenya to be an ethnic-federal state). KANU beat KADU by winning 83 seats out of 124. On 1 June 1963, Kenyatta became prime minister of the autonomous Kenyan government. After independence, Queen Elizabeth II remained as Head of State (after Independence, styled as Queen of Kenya), represented by a Governor-General. He consistently asked white settlers not to leave Kenya and supported reconciliation.\n\nPost-independence\n\nKenyatta retained the role of prime minister after independence was declared and jubilantly celebrated on 12 December 1963. \n\nOn 1 June 1964, he had Parliament amend the Constitution to make Kenya a republic. The office of prime minister was replaced by a president with wide executive and legislative powers. Elected by the National Assembly, he was head of State, head of Government and Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces. Under the provisions of the amendment, Kenyatta automatically became president.\n\nHis policy was that of continuity and gradual Africanisation of the government, keeping many colonial civil servants in their old jobs as they were gradually replaced by Kenyans. He asked for British troops' help against Somali rebels, Shiftas, in the northeast and in ending an army mutiny in Nairobi in January 1964.\n\nOn 10 November 1964, KADU officially dissolved and its representatives joined KANU, forming a single party.\n\nKenyatta was re-elected un-opposed in 1966, and the next year had the Constitution amended to expand his powers. This term featured border conflicts with Somalia, and more political opposition. He consolidated his power greatly, and placed several of his Kikuyu tribesmen in most of the powerful state and security offices and posts. State security forces harassed dissidents and were suspected of complicity in several murders of prominent personalities deemed threats to his regime, including Pio Gama Pinto, Tom Mboya and J.M. Kariuki. MP and Lawyer C.M.G. Argwings-Kodhek and former Kadu Leader and minister Ronald Ngala, also died in suspicious car accidents.\n\nIn 1968 he published his biography Suffering Without Bitterness.\n\nIn the 1969 elections, Kenyatta banned the only other party, the Kenya People's Union (formed and led by his former vice president, Jaramogi Oginga Odinga, who had been forced to quit KANU along with his left leaning allies), detained its leaders, and called elections in which only KANU was allowed to participate. For all intents and purposes, Kenya was now a one-party state, though it would not be formally declared the only legally permitted party until 1982.\n\nOn 29 January 1970 he was sworn in as President for a further term. For the remainder of his presidency, Kenyatta held complete political control of the country. He made use of detention, appeals to ethnic loyalties, and careful appointment of government jobs to maintain his commanding position in Kenya's political system. However, as the 1970s wore on, advancing age kept him from the day-to-day management of government affairs. He intervened only when necessary to settle disputed issues. His relative isolation resulted in increasing domination of Kenya's affairs by well-connected Kikuyu who acquired great wealth as a result. \n\nKenyatta was re-elected as President in 1974, again as the only candidate. On 5 November 1974, he was sworn in as President for a third term. His increasingly feeble health meant that his inner circle effectively ruled the country, and greatly enriched themselves, in his name. He remained president until his death four years later in 1978.\n\nDeath\n\nPresident Kenyatta suffered a heart attack in 1966. In the mid-1970s, he lapsed into periodic comas lasting from a few hours to a few days from time to time. On 14 August 1978, he hosted his entire family, including his son Peter Magana who flew in from Britain with his family, at a reunion in Mombasa. On 22 August 1978, President Kenyatta died in Mombasa of natural causes attributable to old age; he was about 86 at the time of his death. He was buried on 31 August 1978 in Nairobi in a state funeral at a mausoleum on Parliament grounds.\n\nHe was succeeded as President after his death by his vice-president, Daniel arap Moi, who in turn ruled over Kenya until his resignation in 2002.\n\nLegacy\n\nMzee Jomo Kenyatta, as he was popularly known, was an important and influential statesman in Africa. He is credited with leading Kenya to independence and setting up the country as a relatively prosperous capitalist state. He pursued a moderate pro-Western, anti-Communist economic philosophy and foreign policy. He oversaw a peaceful land reform process, oversaw the setting up of the institutions of independent Kenya, and also oversaw Kenya's admission into the United Nations.\n\nHowever, Kenyatta was not without major flaws, and did also bequeath Kenya some major problems which continue to bedevil the country to date, hindering her development, and threatening her existence as a peaceful unitary multi-ethnic state.\n\nHe failed to mould Kenya, being its founding father, into a homogeneous multi-ethnic state. Instead, the country remains a de facto confederation of competing tribal interests.\n\nHis authoritarian style, characterized by patronage, favouritism, tribalism and/or nepotism drew criticism and dissent, and set an example followed by his successors. He had the Constitution amended to expand his powers, consolidating executive power. \n\nHe is also criticised for having ruled through a group consisting largely of his relatives, other Kikuyus, mostly from his native Kiambu district, offspring of former colonial chiefs, and African Kikuyu colonial collaborators and their offspring, while giving scant reward to those whom many consider the real fighters for Kenya's independence. This clique became the wealthiest, most powerful and most influential class in Kenya. \n\nKenyatta has further been criticised for encouraging the culture of wealth accumulation by public officials using the power and influence of their offices, thereby entrenching corruption in Kenya. He is regularly charged with having accumulated huge land holdings in Kenya. \"The regime of Kenya's first president, Jomo Kenyatta, was riddled with land grabbing which was perpetrated by him for his benefit and members of his family...between 1964 and 1966, one-sixth of European settlers’ lands that were intended for settlement of landless and land-scarce Africans were cheaply sold to the then President Kenyatta and his wife Ngina as well as his children...throughout the years of President Kenyatta's administration, his relatives friends and officials in his administration also benefited from the vice with wanton impunity.\" a report by Kenya's Truth, Justice and Reconciliation Commission was recently quoted as saying. \n\nHis policies are also criticised for perpetuating a large income and development inequality gap in the country. Development and resource allocation in the country during his reign was seen to have favoured some regions of the country over others. His resettlement of many Kikuyu tribesmen in the country's Rift Valley province is widely considered to have been done unfairly. \n\nFamily\n\nKenyatta had two children from his first marriage with Grace Wahu: son Peter Muigai Kenyatta (born 1920), who later became a deputy minister; and daughter Margaret Kenyatta (born 1928). Margaret served as mayor of Nairobi between 1970 and 1976 and then as Kenya's ambassador to the United Nations from 1976 to 1986. Grace Wahu died in April 2007. \n\nHe had one son, Peter Magana Kenyatta (born 1943) from his short marriage with Edna Clarke. \n\nHis third wife, Grace Wanjiku, died when giving birth in 1950. Daughter Jane Wambui survived. \n\nHis fourth wife, the best known due to her role as First Lady, was Ngina Kenyatta (née Muhoho), also known as Mama Ngina. She often accompanied him in public and also has some streets in Nairobi and Mombasa named after her. She bore Kenyatta four children: Christine Wambui (born 1952), Uhuru Muigai Kenyatta (born 1961), Anna Nyokabi (also known as Jeni) and Muhoho Kenyatta (born 1964). Mama Ngina lives quietly as a wealthy widow, and now as President's mother, in Kenya. Uhuru Kenyatta, Mzee Kenyatta's political heir, unsuccessfully vied for the Kenyan presidency as President Moi's preferred successor in 2002, but was elected Kenya's fourth President in 2013 . Muhoho Kenyatta runs the Kenyatta's vast family business but lives out of the public limelight.\n\nKenyatta was the uncle of Ngethe Njoroge, Kenya's first representative to the United Nations and the great uncle of Tom Morello, the guitarist for Rage Against the Machine. His niece, Beth Mugo, married to a retired ambassador, was an MP, served as Minister for Public Health and is now a nominated Senator." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Gikuyu", "Kikuyu (disambiguation)", "Gĩkũyũ (disambiguation)", "Kikuyu", "Gikuyu (disambiguation)" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "kikuyu disambiguation", "gĩkũyũ disambiguation", "kikuyu", "gikuyu disambiguation", "gikuyu" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "kikuyu", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Kikuyu" }
Bryan Abrams, Sam Walters, Mark Calderon and Kevin Thornton formed which group?	tc_692	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Color_Me_Badd.txt" ], "title": [ "Color Me Badd" ], "wiki_context": [ "Color Me Badd is an American contemporary R&B group that was formed in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma. The original members of the group were lead singer Bryan Abrams (born November 16, 1969), Mark Calderon (born September 27, 1970), Sam Watters (born July 23, 1970) and Kevin Thornton (born June 17, 1969). The group sold 12 million records worldwide. The group has been well known in New Zealand, Australia, Philippines, Indonesia, parts of east Asia, the United Kingdom, other parts of Europe, Canada and the United States. The group has been on TV shows, commercials, their songs have been in movies such as New Jack City, No Strings Attached and Glee. The group has not only had songs in movies but has starred as themselves on top TV shows in the 1990s such as Beverly Hills, 90210.\n\nEarly success\n\nThe band's breakthrough started in Oklahoma 1989, when they met Jon Bon Jovi and Richie Sambora of Bon Jovi at the Penn Square Mall Multiplex and were spontaneously hired to open for the band the following night after delivering an impromptu performance. \nThey kept in contact with the band's management and moved to New York to record their first album when they turned 18.\n \n\nColor Me Badd had five U.S. hit singles from their debut album C.M.B. throughout 1991 and 1992. These were \"I Wanna Sex You Up\" (U.S. #2), \"I Adore Mi Amor\" (U.S. #1), \"All 4 Love\" (U.S. #1), \"Thinkin' Back\" (U.S. #16) and \"Slow Motion\" (U.S. #18). \"I Wanna Sex You Up\" was also on the New Jack City soundtrack and hit number one in the United Kingdom.\n\nTheir debut album, C.M.B., was released in September 1991. It sold over 6 million copies worldwide and became certified 3x platinum in the United States by the RIAA.\n\nColor Me Badd performed at the 1991 Smash Hits Poll Winners' Awards in the United Kingdom, winning the Best New Group trophy. In January 1992, they were awarded the Favorite Single R&B/Soul trophy at the 19th annual American Music Awards, held at the Shrine Auditorium in Los Angeles. In March 1992, Color Me Badd won the Best R&B/Soul Single and Song of the Year categories at the sixth annual Soul Train Music Awards.\n\nIn October 1992, the group released a remix album entitled Young, Gifted & Badd: The Remixes. It contained the hit single \"Forever Love\" (U.S. #15), which was also featured on the Mo' Money soundtrack. However, the album peaked at U.S. #189.\n\nThe group's third album, Time and Chance, was released in November 1993. A hugely ambitious project, consisting of nineteen new tracks, this album represented a slight shift in musical style for Color Me Badd. Working with top producers including David Foster, Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis, a more soulful and funky sound had clearly emerged. Although some critics gave it positive reviews, the album did not fare well on the Billboard Album Charts, peaking at #56. It was certified gold in the U.S., for shipments of more than 500,000 units. With the music industry at the time embracing groups such as Nirvana and Pearl Jam, it was difficult for Color Me Badd to deliver the same success on the singles charts as they had done before. The album's title track, \"Time and Chance\", peaked at U.S. #21, while its follow up \"Choose\" also topped out at U.S. #23.\n\nThe group re-emerged in 1996 with their fourth album called Now and Forever. With high-profile producers including Narada Michael Walden, Babyface, Jon B and Boyz II Men, this album was well received by both critics and R&B fans alike. However, once again, sales were well below those expected from the group at around four thousand copies in the U.S. alone.\n\nThe album produced one major hit single, \"The Earth, The Sun, The Rain,\" which peaked at U.S. #19. However, it became a popular airwave staple and remained on the Billboard Charts for 19 weeks (the group's second-most-enduring single). The second single, \"Sexual Capacity,\" was a minor hit and appeared on the soundtrack to the Demi Moore film Striptease. This song was co-produced by Robin Thicke under the name Rob Thicke.\n\nAfter moving to Epic Records, Color Me Badd's fifth album, Awakening, was released in July 1998. Remaining true to their R&B roots, they again received critical acclaim for their vocal harmonies. \"Remember When\" achieved minor success on radio and has a companion video shot as well.\n\nKevin Thornton had previously left the group in October 1998 to pursue ministry. He later released a Christian solo album, in 2005, that features contemporary hip-hop/rap material with gospel and soul music. Thornton became a licensed minister, in August 2006, and has since served as an evangelist, youth pastor and worship leader at his home church, Without Walls Church, in Fort Worth, TX. He has partnered with the church's non-profit Fort Worth Hope Center in helping to feed over 100,000 families a year in the Dallas-Fort Worth metroplex. He is also actively involved in bringing awareness to the realities of human sex trafficking in America, through his partnership with \"Traffick911.\"\n\nSam Watters pursued a second career as a record producer, achieving success in later years with Jessica Simpson, Celine Dion, Fantasia, Anastacia, Natasha Bedingfield, Kelly Clarkson, 98 Degrees, Blake Lewis. Watters is also a member of the production/songwriting team, The Runaways, which also includes Rico Love, Wayne Wilkins, Ryan Tedder, and Louis Biancaniello.[http://www.djbooth.net/index/albums/review/keri-hilson-in-a-perfect-world-03190902/ Keri Hilson - In A Perfect World - Hip Hop Album Review] Watters married R&B singer and former American Idol contestant Tamyra Gray in 2006.\n\nMark Calderon continues to write and produce music for various artists including new music for Color Me Badd. He has worked with artists such as Stevie Brock who re-made the hit single \"All For Love\" which reached #1 on Disney Charts, worked with the artist IPV who is signed with Wright Entertainment as well as getting songs played on the hit series \"House MD\" and \"Knight Rider\". He continues to write and produce music. He has been a part of several mission trips to help those less fortunate and continues to be involved with helping the needy. He married Lisa Smedley-Calderon in 1992 who was their fashion stylist and who worked with entertainers such as Whitney Houston, Ralph Tresvant, Bobby Brown,Carmen Electra as well as many other artists and commercials.\n\nIn 2001, Bryan Abrams released a solo album entitled Welcome to Me. In 2007, Abrams co-starred in the VH1 reality TV series Mission: Man Band. In 2007, Abrams co-wrote and recorded an appearance on the Insane Clown Posse song \"Truth Dare\", which was released on the Psychopathic Records compilations Psychopathics from Outer Space 3 (2007) and Featuring Freshness (2011).\n\nReunion\n\nIn July 2010, Color Me Badd re-emerged as a duo composed of members Bryan Abrams and Mark Calderon. They headlined a concert in Hawaii (also starring All-4-One and Shai), and were well received by the audience and the local media. Later that year, Kevin Thornton reunited with the group. The trio first emerged together on the DirecTV gameshow Rock and a Hardplace hosted by Meatloaf. They raised funds for an L.A. charity group called \"FACE\" (a grass-roots organization bringing alcohol abuse awareness to youth) and competed against 1970s R&B group Divas. In early 2012, Mark Calderon and Bryan Abrams collaborated on a song with the Insane Clown Posse on The Mighty Death Pop!'s \"White Pop\" version's bonus CD called Mike E. Clark's Extra Pop Emporium. It is a soft R&B remix of the song \"Ghetto Rainbows.\" Although the song is believed to be a full Color Me Badd collaboration with ICP, it features Bryan Abrams and Mark Calderon only, and was also co-written by the duo.\n\nIn 2013 Color Me Badd launched their official website colormebaddmusic.com.\n\nIn 2015, Bryan Abrams, Mark Calderon, and Kevin Thornton began a tour in Singapore as Color Me Badd. \n\nOn April 30, 2016, Color Me Badd played a concert for U.S. Armed Forces at Okuma Beach, Okinawa, Japan.\n\nDiscography\n\nAlbums\n\nStudio albums\n\nCompilation albums\n\nRemix albums\n\nSingles" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Byran Abrahms", "Color Me Bad", "Mark Calderon", "Kevin Thornton (singer)", "Color Me Badd", "Colour Me Badd", "Color me bad", "Bryan Abrams" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "byran abrahms", "colour me badd", "color me bad", "bryan abrams", "kevin thornton singer", "color me badd", "mark calderon" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "color me badd", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Color Me Badd" }
When was the Scrabble World championship first held?	tc_696	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "Search" ], "filename": [ "World_Scrabble_Championship.txt" ], "title": [ "World Scrabble Championship" ], "wiki_context": [ "The World Scrabble Championship is the most prestigious title in competitive English-language Scrabble. It has been held every second year since 1991, and annually since 2013. The reigning World Scrabble Champion is Wellington Jighere, who won the title at Perth, Australia in 2015.\n\nSponsorship formerly alternated between Hasbro and Mattel, respectively the owners of the Scrabble trademark in North America and the rest of the world. However, Hasbro declined to sponsor WSC 2005, and instead Mattel has organised and/or sponsored all championships since 2005.\n\nThe number of players competing in the tournament has risen steadily over time, from 48 in the World Scrabble Championship 1991 to 108 in the World Scrabble Championship 2009. In 2011 it remained stable with 106 contestants. A set number of places is allocated to each competing country and it is then up to individual countries' national associations to determine which of their players will represent them. This is typically done by means of a national ratings system or qualifier tournaments or some combination of the two. A good performance by a national team according to specific criteria will earn further permanent places for that country.\n\nThe dictionary used is colloquially known as SOWPODS, which is the word authority used in the majority of English-language Scrabble-playing countries. It is commonly known as [http://www.harpercollins.co.uk/9780007589166/collins-official-scrabble-words Collins Scrabble Words] and was updated on 1 September 2015.\n\nOn May 17, 2013, Mattel announced that the event would be renamed the Scrabble Champions Tournament, and would be held as part of Mind Sports International's 2013 Prague Mind Sports Festival, to be held annually. MSI introduced a 'Last Chance Qualifier' tournament, giving players a last opportunity to qualify for the main event instead of having to be on their countries' teams; in 2013 this resulted in 5 extra players competing. In 2014 the SCT continued in London but it became an open event, inviting all players to compete.\n\nIn 2015 there was a traditional World Scrabble Championship hosted by WESPA. It was an invitational event with 131 players qualifying to play. \n\nIndividual championships \n\nNational representative totals throughout the years\n\nIndividual competitor results throughout the years (Pre 2000s)\n\nThis list contains the names of players who took part in one or more World Championships before 2001.\n\nIndividual competitor results throughout the years (2000s)\n\nThis list contains the names of players who started taking part in the World Championships after 1999." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "1991", "one thousand, nine hundred and ninety-one" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "1991", "one thousand nine hundred and ninety one" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "1991", "type": "Numerical", "value": "1991" }
Arlanda international airport is in which country?	tc_697	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Stockholm_Arlanda_Airport.txt" ], "title": [ "Stockholm Arlanda Airport" ], "wiki_context": [ "Stockholm Arlanda Airport , is an international airport located in the Sigtuna Municipality of Sweden, near the town of Märsta, 37 km north of Stockholm and nearly 40 km south-east of Uppsala. The airport is located within Stockholm County and the province of Uppland. It is the largest airport in Sweden and the third largest airport in the Nordic countries. The airport is the major gateway for international air travel in large parts of Sweden. Arlanda Airport was used by close to 22.5 million passengers in 2014, with 17 million international passengers and 5 million domestic. By January 2015, Stockholm Arlanda Airport saw a 30% pax growth over 5 years, top growth among European airports.\n\nStockholm Arlanda Airport is the larger of Stockholm's two airports. The other, Stockholm–Bromma, is located north-west of the city's centre, but can only be used by a small number of smaller aircraft. The smaller airports in Nyköping and Västerås are both located around 100 km away from the Swedish capital. Stockholm Arlanda serves as a major hub for NextJet, Norwegian Air Shuttle and Scandinavian Airlines.\n\nHistory\n\nThe airport was first used in 1959, but only for practice flights. In 1960, it opened for limited civil traffic and in 1962 the official opening ceremony took place. It was used for intercontinental traffic already in 1960 since the runway at Bromma was too short. Scandinavian Airlines started using Douglas DC-8's on North American routes. The airport was also used very early by Pan American World Airways. The name Arlanda was decided after a competition prior to the airport opening. It is derived from Arland, an old name for the parish Ärlinghundra (now Husby-Ärlinghundra in Märsta) where the airport is situated. The '-a' was added in analogy with other Swedish place names ending with -landa and also makes a play on the Swedish verb \"landa\", which means \"to land\". The 1960s and 70s saw increases in traffic with scheduled traffic and charter traffic. The Boeing 747 jumbojet was started to be used in the 1970s both on one stop scheduled flights to New York and on weekend nonstop charters to the Canary Islands. Domestic flights to Gothenburg, Malmö, Luleå and Kiruna were operated by SAS DC-9s from Arlanda since they were considered too noisy to be used at downtown Bromma. The rest of domestic traffic operated out of Bromma and all international traffic out of Arlanda.\n\nIn 1983 the domestic traffic operated by Linjeflyg moved from Bromma to Arlanda, using the terminal now known as Terminal 4. In 1990 two new domestic terminals called \"Domestic 2 and 3\" were built south of the first domestic terminal. In 1992 the terminal 2 was partly abandoned because of traffic decrease. It started to be used for international traffic the year after, and the main domestic and international terminals are renumbered into 4 and 5. The third runway was built between 1998 and 2002. However, a recession in 2002 delayed its opening until 2003. At that time protests were raised by people living under its flight path in the municipality of Upplands Väsby. Traffic has recovered since and is now showing healthy increases but the third runway is only used during peak hours for environmental reasons. In September 2010 the first Airbus A380 superjumbo landed at the airport. \n\nIn early 2014, Swedavia announced plans for further expansions of the airport terminal complex, including the construction of an additional pier for Terminal 5 in order to better accommodate larger aircraft such as the Airbus A380 and Boeing 747-8 and address forecasts of rising passenger numbers. In December 2014, the plans were approved by the Environmental Court of Appeals, and construction is scheduled to commence in the spring of 2015. \n\nFacilities\n\nRunways\n\nArlanda has three runways: Runway 1 (01L/19R), Runway 2 (08/26) and Runway 3 (01R/19L). Runway 1 is long and can handle take-offs and landings of the heaviest aircraft in use today. Runways 2 and 3 are long. As indicated, runways 1 and 3 are parallel runways that can be operated independently of one another. Runways 1 and 3 are equipped with CAT III systems for instrument landings. The airport can handle simultaneous take offs and landings using runways 1 and 3 at the same time. Simultaneous aircraft takeoffs and landings can be performed in Instrument meteorological conditions, (IMC). Runway 3 (01R/19L) is reached from the main terminal area via taxiway bridges constructed to be able to handle the heaviest and largest airplanes in traffic. Since runway 3 (01R/19L) is located at a distance from the terminals a deicing area is placed close to the runway to avoid too long time between deicing and take off in winter conditions. Another deicing area is located in connection with the southern ramp area close to take off positions at runway 01L. There are high speed taxiway exits from all runways, except runway 08, to enable aircraft to exit the runways quickly after landing. This increases runway capacity during rush hours. Use of parallel taxiways around the terminal area separates arriving and departing traffic. Arlanda can handle all aircraft types in service including the Airbus A380.\n\nTerminals\n\nThe airport has four terminals. Terminals 2 and 5 are used for international flights. Domestic flights are in Terminals 3 and 4. The new central building, Arlanda North, opened in late 2003, connecting terminal 5 with the newly built Pier F. All international flights handled by SAS and its Star Alliance partners use the new central building. An Arlanda South building, connecting terminals 2, 3 and 4 was also planned, but construction is currently suspended due to lack of funds. In the terminal areas and the shopping area \"Sky City\" there are restaurants, shopping facilities, bars etc. to cater to the needs for passengers and visitors to the airport. There are hotels both at the airport in connection with the terminals and in its surroundings. The hotel capacity at the airport was increased by the new Clarion Hotel Arlanda with 400 rooms which opened in November 2012 . There are also conference facilities at the airport.\n\n;Terminal 2 – International (Arlanda South)\nTerminal 2 (gates 61–72) was initially built in 1990 for use by SAS as a domestic terminal. The terminal was designed to enable short turnaround times for aircraft, increased efficiency, and short walking distances, at that time without security check and with most passengers having hand luggage only, allowed to show up 10 minutes before departure. It had double walk bridges designed for both doors of MD-80. However SAS decided to leave the terminal because of decreases in passenger traffic on domestic routes. For a while the terminal was used by other airlines like Transwede Airways for both domestic and international services but now the terminal is only used for international flights. Security checks, a larger luggage claim area, more shops and restaurants have had to be added over the years, making the terminal fairly small. But in 2013 it was extended with a new floor level, where restaurants and lounge now is located. Terminal 2 has 8 aircraft parking stands with passenger bridges.\nAs of 29 May 2012, Norwegian relocated its international flights from Terminal 2 to Terminal 5 ousting Air France and Czech Airlines to Terminal 2.\nIn April 2013, British Airways and Finnair relocated to the newly renovated Terminal 2. \n\n;Terminal 3 – Regional (Arlanda South)\nTerminal 3 (gates 51–59) was built in 1990 for regional aircraft. There is a café there. People walk outdoors from the gates and board the planes with airstairs. Access is through terminal 2, with a 200 m walking distance. As with terminal 2 it was built without security check, which was added after 2001. There has been a decline in passenger numbers for smaller connections in Sweden.\n\n;Terminal 4 – Domestic (Arlanda South)\nTerminal 4, formerly Inrikes 1 (gates 30–44) was originally designed for the Swedish domestic carrier Linjeflyg, and initiated in 1983. Linjeflyg and Scandinavian Airlines moved all operations from Stockholm–Bromma Airport to the new terminal at Arlanda in 1984. This was made to assemble the domestic and international departures between Scandinavian Airlines and Linjeflyg. Because of increasing popularity, the terminal soon got too small. For that reason Inrikes 2 was set up for SAS, who moved all domestic flights from Inrikes 1 to the new terminal in 1990.\nBecause of a recession in Swedish economy SAS moved back in 1992 and again the two carriers shared the terminal. Also in 1992 the terminal got a new name, Terminal 4. Since 1999 the terminal has had its own express station for high-speed trains, connecting the terminal with Stockholm Central Station and Terminal 5. In 2006, the terminal underwent a major renovation, the first since it was built in 1983.\n\n;Terminal 5 – International (Arlanda North)\nTerminal 5 (gates 1–24 & F26–F69) is the largest of the passenger terminals at the airport and in use for international flights. All intercontinental flights and other international flights, except those in terminal 2, operate from terminal 5. The terminal has three piers equipped with 31 aircraft parking stands with passenger bridges. There are also a number of remote aircraft parking positions serving this terminal. Terminal 5 has restaurants, bars and shopping areas. The first stage of the terminal was inaugurated in 1976. Terminal 5 has since been expanded with a new passenger pier F. In addition to the scheduled services listed, all charter flights are handled at Terminal 5. The terminal is like terminal 4 and Sky City connected with Stockholm Central station with high speed trains.\n\nCargo facilities\n\nStockholm Arlanda has extensive cargo flight activity. There is a cargo area with cargo terminals and cargo transit facilities in the southern part of the airport area. This cargo area is labeled \"Cargo City\" with warehouses operated by Cargo Center, DHL, Swedish postal service (Posten) and Spirit Air Cargo. A large part of mail and express parcels from Sweden is handled through the facilities at the airport. SAS Cargo has its cargo operation east of the passenger terminals close to the SAS hangars. Dedicated scheduled cargo flights are operated by Korean Air with Boeing 747 cargo aircraft, as well as Lufthansa Cargo and Turkish Airlines. DHL, FedEx and UPS operate express freight services at the airport. West Air Sweden and Amapola operate shorter cargo sectors. A number of airlines operate ad hoc cargo flights with various equipment. Outsize cargo is frequently hauled with the Antonov 124 and similar cargo planes. TNT had their operations at Arlanda but have since moved to Västerås Airport.\n\nOther facilities\n\nSwedavia, the Swedish airport management company, has its head office in the airport control tower facility. The company Sollentuna Cabin Interiors has its head office in Hangar 4 at Arlanda. The airline Skyways previously had its head office on the airport property. \n\nScandinavian Airlines previously had its head office on the airport property. The airline, previously headquartered at a facility in Solna, was scheduled to move into Arlanda in the northern hemisphere autumn of 2010. However the company has since moved its offices back to the SAS Frösundavik Office Building.\n\nOxford Aviation Academy has a flight simulator center for some of the most common airliners of today (like Boeing 737) at Arlanda. Arlanda has hangars and aircraft maintenance facilities operated by SAS Scandinavian Airlines and Priority Aero Maintenance. TUIfly Nordic based at the airport also has a large hangar for widebody jets. There is also a helicopter repair facility operated by Patria Helicopters. At the entrance to the airport the Jumbo Hostel, a Boeing 747 renovated into a hotel, is located. There are five hotels at the airport, Clarion Hotel Arlanda Airport, Radisson Blu Arlandia Hotel, Radisson Blu SkyCity Hotel and Rest and Fly. In addition there are several hotels nearby with transfer buses to/from the airport \n\nAirlines and destinations\n\nPassenger\n\n;Notes:\n Some flights operated by Cimber, CityJet, FlyBe or Jet Time.\n\nCargo\n\nStatistics\n\n \n\nWinter time operations and snow clearing\n\nSince its opening Stockholm Arlanda has always managed to continue its operations during heavy snowfall and difficult weather. Arlanda is exposed to lake-effect snowfalls, where ice cold air from the northeast in combination with open water in the Baltic Sea causes heavy snowfall.\nThe airport administration claims to be world-leading at clearing snow from the runways. Arlanda has a policy to never close due to snowfall. Heavy snowfall can however cause delays. During heavy snowfall at least one runway stays open but in bad weather condition there may be delays even if flight operations continue at all times. Not just runways need to be cleared, aprons and aircraft parking areas need snow clearing as well. It is an advantage that there are three runways allowing two open runways when one is cleared at lighter snowfall. The airport has a total of 250 000 m2 to clear from snow and ice, at the same time as the aircraft continue taking off and landing. During the colder half of the year Stockholm Arlanda has about 65 seasonally hired snow removal staff. Together with permanent staff, they form a team of 100 people who provide snow removal services. Special routes are planned for sweeping teams, which clear each route at intervals of 35 to 45 minutes. The sweeping teams are directed via radio from the air traffic control tower. When snow removal is completed on each runway the surface is tested by a friction vehicle which measures friction value. The airport announces the friction value, and then it is each pilot who decides whether this value is sufficient for a landing. The friction value determines how often a runway must be ploughed and treated with anti-skid agent.\n\nAircraft hangars and maintenance facilities\n\nSAS Technical Services, TUIfly Nordic and Priority Aero Maintenance. have large aircraft hangars and maintenance facilities at the airport. SAS Technical Services is headquartered at Arlanda and has hangar facilities suitable for widebody aircraft up to the size of Boeing 747-400s. The first part of this hangar complex was built to handle SAS' fleet of DC-8s. There are a number of positions on each side of the building initially built to handle this type. The hangar space are nowadays mostly used for Boeing 737s and MD-80s. The Boeing 747 hangar was inaugurated at the time when Scandinavian Airlines received their first Boeing 747s in the beginning of the 70s. It is large enough to handle a Boeing 747 and two MD-80 size airplanes at the same time. The offices of SAS Technical Services are situated in connection with the hangars. In the early days of the airport these hangars provided heavy maintenance for members of the KSSU group which included KLM, SAS, Swissair and UTA. A number of other airlines, such as Thai Airways International, also maintained their aircraft in those hangars. Now the main user is Scandinavian Airlines. TUIfly Nordic has a hangar able to handle their largest aircraft which is the Boeing 767-300ER. Priority Aero Maintenance has its facilities in the eastern part of the airport. They provide heavy aircraft maintenance for a number of aircraft including MD-80 which is a common type to be overhauled by the company.\n\nThere is also a hangar in the southern part of the airport that was built by the former Swedish domestic airline Linjeflyg. This hangar is mainly used by regional aircraft.\n\nHelicopter hangars and maintenance facilities are found at the very eastern part of the airport operated by Patria Helicopters.\n\nHotels and hostels\n\nThese are within the airport area:\n Clarion Hotel Arlanda Airport, at SkyCity, between terminal 4 and 5\n* Radisson Blu SkyCity Hotel, at SkyCity, between terminal 4 and 5\n* Radisson Blu Arlandia Hotel, at the road entrance, 1.5 km from the airport terminals, where the Jumbohostel also is.\n* Ibis Styles, 1,5 km straight east from the terminals.\n* In 2009, the Jumbohostel opened. A decommissioned Boeing 747 has been converted to a hostel, offering 72 beds.\n* Rest and Fly, owned by Pite Havsbad, between terminal 2 and 3, near SkyCity.\n\nVIP flights\n\nArlanda, as the main airport serving the Swedish capital, is also used by VIP-flights using business jets. Government officials and celebrities are frequent visitors. In April 2011, the then-Chairman of the Russian Government Vladimir Putin visited Stockholm with a couple of large jet airplanes. The Emperor of Japan has also visited Arlanda with his Boeing 747s. In September 2013, U.S. President Barack Obama, made an official visit to Sweden with Air Force One. EU-meetings and exhibitions in the Stockholm area also bring special flights to the airport. Various private companies use their business jets to attend meetings in the Stockholm area. Some VIP-flights also go to downtown Bromma Airport, but since Bromma has limited operational hours many go to Arlanda instead. European Flight Service has a Grumman Gulfstream G550 based at Arlanda for VIP flights.\n\nLike in other large airports, there is a VIP area, where anyone who want to pay can go through a dedicated security check, and wait in the VIP lounge and be transported by car to the airplane, avoiding mix with ordinary people. The VIP area can also hold wedding ceremonies, in combination with a forthcoming flight. \n\nGround transportation\n\nRail\n\nThe fastest way to the airport from Stockholm Central Station is the Arlanda Express high-speed train service, making the trip in 20 minutes. \n\nIt is possible to use the Stockholm commuter rail service (Pendeltåg) between Uppsala C and central and southern Stockholm. This route takes 38 minutes between Arlanda C station and Stockholm C. The fare is higher from Arlanda compared to other journeys on the commuter rail network.\n\nBus\n\nFlygbussarna, Swebus and SL operate coaches to and from the airport which stop at some locations in northern Stockholm County as well as Stockholm City Centre and Stockholm Central Station. There is also a local bus line no 583 to Märsta, from where there are commuter trains to Stockholm and surroundings, the cheapest way of getting to/from Stockholm.\n\nRoad\n\nThe motorway E4 goes past the airport and connects Arlanda with central Stockholm as well as Uppsala and other cities further north.\nTerminal parking, short-term and long-term parking is available at the airport. The low price long-term parking requires a free shuttle bus ride. The bus departs every 8–15 minutes. There is rental car facilities at the airport.\n\nTaxi\n\nAll taxi companies are required to offer fixed prices when going from the airport, which takes away the guess-work of how much the fare will cost (one can still request use of the taxi meter). Most major companies also offer fixed prices to the airport.\n\nPlease Note! Taxi fares are unregulated in Sweden nowadays, meaning taxis can claim any price as long as they follow the price list shown in the taxi and stuck on the side window. Although taxis at the Arlanda taxi stations are not allowed to charge more than 675 kr for at single trip to Uppsala or the northern parts of Stockholm.\n\nUppsala and farther north\n\nThere is a Stockholm commuter rail service (Pendeltåg) between Uppsala and Stockholm, but on Uppsala county tickets north of Arlanda. This route takes 18 minutes from Arlanda Central to its Uppsala C terminus.\n\nBuses operated by Upplands Lokaltrafik travel between Stockholm Arlanda Airport and Uppsala (bus no. 801) as well as Enköping to the southwest (bus no. 579/803) and Almunge (bus no. 806) to the northeast.\n\nLong-distance trains called Intercity, Regionaltåg (Regional train) or X2000 operated by SJ go to locations north of Stockholm Arlanda Airport and south of Stockholm. Passengers are not permitted to use long-distance trains to go to Stockholm Central Station; no such tickets are sold.\n\nEnvironment\n\nThere is an ongoing work to limit Arlanda's negative impact on the environment. In an effort to save electricity, buildings at Arlanda use district heating with biofuels and district cooling with water from a nearby lake. The take off charges for aircraft are partly based on the environmental performance of the aircraft and Arlanda is experimenting with Continuous Descent Approaches and landings, often referred to as \"green landings\". Jet fuel is since around 2006 delivered by boat to Gävle and via train to Brista close to Märsta and from there through pipeline. Previously fuel was delivered by ship to Värtahamnen in Stockholm and then by trucks through Stockholm city to Arlanda. The airport also takes measures to promote the use of bio fuel in taxis operating to and from the airport. \n\nOne of the most interesting eco-friendly systems Stockholm Arlanda Airport uses is their unique heating and cooling system for their hangar, terminals, and other buildings on the airfield. There innovative system uses a series of wells which are linked to a large underground aquifer. The water from this underground source is plumbed up and into the facilities air system which controls the temperature of the air coming from the vents. In the summertime, the underground water remains cooler than the surface. This allows the terminals to be cooled off without using extra energy that an air conditioner would require. Then, in the winter months, the underground water remains warmer than the surface. The water is then plumbed to a control/heating unit which uses bio-fuel to heat the water to a temperature appropriate for warming up the buildings. This heated water is also used to heat pads of cement on the ramp and near the large hangar doors. This is a very efficient way to keep the doors and ramps clear of ice. After the water is run through the system, it is then all replaced back into the aquifer to be used again. The unique aquifer system is one of Arlanda's most defining environmentally friendly designs. \n\nIncidents and accidents\n\n1 November 1969: A Linjeflyg Convair 440 registered as SE-BSU suffered an accident while being used for training purposes. After a simulated engine failure at takeoff the left wing contacted the ground and the aircraft crash-landed after the nose and main landing gear collapsed. None of the four persons on board were killed, but the aircraft was written off. \n 5 January 1970: A Spantax Convair 990 registered as EC-BNM on a ferry flight from Stockholm Arlanda Airport to Zürich Airport (ZRH) crashed while climbing after take-off. The aircraft had been scheduled for a charter flight earlier in the day, but the flight was cancelled after the no. 4 engine developed trouble. The decision was made to ferry the aircraft using three engines to Zurich for repairs and the aircraft departed at 10:54 p.m. from runway 19 (currently runway 19R). The aircraft contacted trees approximately from the point of lift-off. Five of the 10 passengers and crew on board were killed and the aircraft was written off. \n14 July 1973: A Sterling Airways Sud Aviation Caravelle registered as OY-SAN taxied into an obstruction and was written off as being damaged beyond repair. \n25 January 1974: Scandinavian Airlines Sud Aviation Caravelle registered as OY-KRA was damaged beyond repair and written off. \n26 May 1977: An Antonov 24 belonging to Aeroflot registered as SSSR-46806 on a scheduled flight from Donetsk Airport (DOK) to Riga Airport (RIX) was hijacked by a single hijacker who demanded to be taken to Sweden where the hijacker surrendered releasing the 23 passengers and crew. \n14 November 1978: An Aeroflot Tupolev 154 registered as SSSR-85286 on a scheduled flight from Stockholm–Arlanda Airport to Moscow–Sheremetyevo Airport (SVO) aborted its take-off after having reached rotation speed. The aircraft overran the runway and while none of the 74 passengers or crew was injured the aircraft suffered substantial damage. \n27 February 1979: An Aeroflot Tupolev 154 on a flight from Oslo to Stockholm with a continuation to Moscow was taken over by three hijackers. After landing in Stockholm they were overpowered by the aircraft's crew. \n16 August 1980 While landing during a thunderstorm, a JAT B 707 YU-AGG received strong tailwind and overran runway 26, blowing several tyres and receiving mud in all four engines. There were no fatalities in the incident.\n6 January 1987: A Transwede Sud Aviation Caravelle registered as SE-DEC on a non-scheduled flight from Stockholm–Arlanda Airport to Alicante Airport (ALC) encountered problems after take-off most likely caused by ice. The aircraft hit the runway hard causing the landing gear to fail and the aircraft slid off the runway and caught fire. None of the 27 passengers and crew was killed but the aircraft was written off and subsequently used by the airport's ARFF as a fire and rescue training aircraft. \n27 December 1991: Scandinavian Airlines Flight 751, a McDonnell Douglas MD-81, registered as OY-KHO, a scheduled flight from Stockholm–Arlanda Airport to Warsaw-Frederic Chopin Airport (WAW) with a stopover at Copenhagen-Kastrup Airport (CPH) crashed shortly after take-off due to a dual engine failure when clear ice, which had formed during the night, was not properly removed during de-icing, broke off and was ingested into the engines. None of the 129 passengers and crew was killed but the aircraft was written off. \n* 20 February 1993: A hijacker on board an Aeroflot Tupolev 134 on a scheduled flight between Tyumen Airport (TJM) and Saint Petersburg-Pulkovo Airport (LED) demanded to be taken to the United States. The aircraft first made a refueling stop in Tallinn where 30 passengers were released, after which the aircraft was flown to Stockholm where the hijacker demanded a larger aircraft to be flown to the U.S. After having released 12 more passengers, the hijacker, who was accompanied by his wife and child, surrendered, releasing the remaining 40 passengers and crew. \n* 7 October 1997: A BAC One-Eleven belonging to Tarom registered as YR-BCM on a scheduled flight from Bucharest-Otopeni International Airport (OTP) to Stockholm–Arlanda Airport suffered a failure of the nosewheel steering after touching down heavily on runway 26. As the airplane slowed down the commander discovered that he could not control the aircraft which departed the runway and continued into the grassy area to on the right side. The aircraft slowed down softly and when it came to a stop the passengers and crew were able to disembark using the normal exits. The aircraft was written off and taken to Halmstad by Le Caravelle Club to be used as a fire trainer. \n* 8 October 1999: A Saab 2000 belonging to SAS Commuter registered as SE-SLF called \"Eir Viking\" ran into a closed hangar door. At the time it was supposedly being taxied by two engineers or technicians. The two persons on board received some injuries and the aircraft was written off. \n*25 September 2010: A Pakistan International Airlines Boeing 777, flight 782, en route from Toronto Pearson International Airport to Jinnah International Airport in Karachi, Pakistan was diverted to Sweden and landed at Stockholm–Arlanda Airport due to a bomb threat." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Swedish sin", "Swea Region", "Sverige", "Swedish origin", "Schweden", "Kingdom of Sweden", "SWEDEN", "Etymology of Sweden", "Mainland Sweden", "Konungariket Sverige", "Ulf Bergman", "Swedish climate", "Sweden", "Climate of Sweden", "ISO 3166-1:SE", "Sveden", "Suecia", "Swedish realm", "Zweden" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "ulf bergman", "swea region", "swedish origin", "swedish climate", "kingdom of sweden", "sveden", "suecia", "swedish realm", "zweden", "iso 3166 1 se", "mainland sweden", "konungariket sverige", "schweden", "sweden", "sverige", "swedish sin", "climate of sweden", "etymology of sweden" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "sweden", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Sweden" }
What year was the centenary of Arkansas joining the Union?	tc_701	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Arkansas.txt" ], "title": [ "Arkansas" ], "wiki_context": [ "Arkansas is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States. Its name is of Siouan derivation from the language of the Osage denoting their related kin, the Quapaw Indians. The state's diverse geography ranges from the mountainous regions of the Ozark and the Ouachita Mountains, which make up the U.S. Interior Highlands, to the densely forested land in the south known as the Arkansas Timberlands, to the eastern lowlands along the Mississippi River and the Arkansas Delta. Known as \"the Natural State\", Arkansas has many diverse regions that offer residents and tourists a variety of opportunities for outdoor recreation.\n\nArkansas is the 29th largest in square miles and the 33rd most populous of the 50 United States. The capital and most populous city is Little Rock, located in the central portion of the state, a hub for transportation, business, culture, and government. The northwestern corner of the state, including the Fayetteville–Springdale–Rogers Metropolitan Area and Fort Smith metropolitan area, is also an important population, education, and economic center. The largest city in the eastern part of the state is Jonesboro. The largest city in the southeastern part of the state is Pine Bluff.\n\nThe Territory of Arkansas was admitted to the Union as the 25th state on June 15, 1836. Arkansas withdrew from the United States and joined the Confederate States of America during the Civil War. Upon returning to the Union, the state would continue to suffer due to its earlier reliance on slavery and the plantation economy, causing the state to fall behind economically and socially. White rural interests continued to dominate the state's politics until the Civil Rights movement in the mid-20th century. Arkansas began to diversify its economy following World War II and now relies on its service industry as well as aircraft, poultry, steel and tourism in addition to cotton and rice.\n\nThe culture of Arkansas is observable in museums, theaters, novels, television shows, restaurants and athletic venues across the state. Despite a plethora of cultural, economic, and recreational opportunities, Arkansas is often stereotyped as a \"poor, banjo-picking hillbilly\" state, a reputation dating back to early accounts of the territory by frontiersmen in the early 1800s. Arkansas's enduring image has earned the state \"a special place in the American consciousness\", but it has in reality produced such prominent figures as politician and educational advocate William Fulbright, former President Bill Clinton, former NATO Supreme Allied Commander General Wesley Clark, Walmart magnate Sam Walton, singer-songwriters Johnny Cash and Glen Campbell, the poet C.D. Wright, and noted physicist William L. McMillan, who was a pioneer in superconductor research.\n\nEtymology\n\nThe name Arkansas derives from the same root as the name for the state of Kansas. The Kansa tribe of Native Americans are closely associated with the Sioux tribes of the Great Plains. The word \"Arkansas\" itself is a French pronunciation (\"Arcansas\") of a Quapaw (a related \"Kaw\" tribe) word, akakaze, meaning \"land of downriver people\" or the Sioux word akakaze meaning \"people of the south wind\".\n\nIn 1881, the pronunciation of Arkansas with the final \"s\" being silent was made official by an act of the state legislature after a dispute arose between Arkansas's two U.S. senators as one favored the pronunciation as while the other favored .\n\nIn 2007, the state legislature passed a non-binding resolution declaring the possessive form of the state's name to be Arkansas's which has been followed increasingly by the state government. \n\nGeography\n\nBoundaries\n\nArkansas borders Louisiana to the south, Texas to the southwest, Oklahoma to the west, Missouri to the north, as well as Tennessee and Mississippi on the east. The United States Census Bureau classifies Arkansas as a southern state, sub-categorized among the West South Central States. The Mississippi River forms most of Arkansas's eastern border, except in Clay and Greene, counties where the St. Francis River forms the western boundary of the Missouri Bootheel, and in many places where the current channel of the Mississippi has meandered from the location of its original legal designation. The state line along the Mississippi River is indeterminate along much of the eastern border with Mississippi due to these meanders. \n\nTerrain\n\nArkansas can generally be split into two halves, the highlands in the northwest half and the lowlands of the southeastern half. The highlands are part of the Southern Interior Highlands, including The Ozarks and the Ouachita Mountains. The southern lowlands include the Gulf Coastal Plain and the Arkansas Delta. This dual split is somewhat simplistic, however, and thus usually yields to general regions named northwest, southwest, northeast, southeast, or central Arkansas. These directionally named regions are broad and not defined along county lines. Arkansas has seven distinct natural regions: the Ozark Mountains, Ouachita Mountains, Arkansas River Valley, Gulf Coastal Plain, Crowley's Ridge, and the Arkansas Delta, with Central Arkansas sometimes included as a blend of multiple regions. \n\nThe southeastern part of Arkansas along the Mississippi Alluvial Plain is sometimes called the Arkansas Delta. This region is a flat landscape of rich alluvial soils formed by repeated flooding of the adjacent Mississippi. Farther away from the river, in the southeast portion of the state, the Grand Prairie consists of a more undulating landscape. Both are fertile agricultural areas. The Delta region is bisected by an unusual geological formation known as Crowley's Ridge. A narrow band of rolling hills, Crowley's Ridge rises from 250 to above the surrounding alluvial plain and underlies many of the major towns of eastern Arkansas. \n\nNorthwest Arkansas is part of the Ozark Plateau including the Ozark Mountains, to the south are the Ouachita Mountains, and these regions are divided by the Arkansas River; the southern and eastern parts of Arkansas are called the Lowlands. These mountain ranges are part of the U.S. Interior Highlands region, the only major mountainous region between the Rocky Mountains and the Appalachian Mountains. The highest point in the state is Mount Magazine in the Ouachita Mountains, which rises to 2753 ft above sea level.\n\nHydrology\n\nArkansas has many rivers, lakes, and reservoirs within or along its borders. Major tributaries of the Mississippi River include the Arkansas River, the White River, and the St. Francis River. The Arkansas is fed by the Mulberry River and the Fourche LaFave River in the Arkansas River Valley, which is also home to Lake Dardanelle. The Buffalo River, Little Red River, Black River and Cache River all serve as tributaries to the White River, which also empties into the Mississippi. The Saline River, Little Missouri River, Bayou Bartholomew, and the Caddo River all serve as tributaries to the Ouachita River in south Arkansas, which eventually empties into the Mississippi in Louisiana. The Red River briefly serves as the state's boundary with Texas. Arkansas has few natural lakes but many major reservoirs, including Bull Shoals Lake, Lake Ouachita, Greers Ferry Lake, Millwood Lake, Beaver Lake, Norfork Lake, DeGray Lake, and Lake Conway. \n\nArkansas is home to many caves, such as Blanchard Springs Caverns. More than 43,000 Native American living, hunting and tool making sites, many of them Pre-Columbian burial mounds and rock shelters, have been cataloged by the State Archeologist. Crater of Diamonds State Park near Murfreesboro is the world's only diamond-bearing site accessible to the public for digging. Arkansas is home to a dozen Wilderness Areas totaling 158444 acre. These areas are set aside for outdoor recreation and are open to hunting, fishing, hiking, and primitive camping. No mechanized vehicles nor developed campgrounds are allowed in these areas. \n\nFlora and fauna\n\nArkansas is divided into three broad ecoregions, the Ozark, Ouachita-Appalachian Forests, Mississippi Alluvial and Southeast USA Coastal Plains, and the Southeastern USA Plainsand two biomes, the subtropical coniferous forest and the temperate deciduous forest. The state is further divided into seven subregions: the Arkansas Valley, Boston Mountains, Mississippi Alluvial Plain, Mississippi Valley Loess Plain, Ozark Highlands, Ouachita Mountains, and the South Central Plains. A 2010 United States Forest Service survey determined 18720000 acre of Arkansas's land is forestland, or 56% of the state's total area. Dominant species in Arkansas's forests include Quercus (oak), Carya (hickory), Pinus echinata (shortleaf pine) and Pinus taeda (loblolly pine). \n\nArkansas's plant life varies with its climate and elevation. The pine belt stretching from the Arkansas delta to Texas consists of dense oak-hickory-pine growth. Lumbering and paper milling activity is active throughout the region. In eastern Arkansas, one can find Taxodium (cypress), Quercus nigra (water oaks), and hickories with their roots submerged in the Mississippi Valley bayous indicative of the deep south. Nearby Crowley's Ridge is only home of the tulip tree in the state, and generally hosts more northeastern plant life such as the beech tree. The northwestern highlands are covered in an oak-hickory mixture, with Ozark white cedars, cornus (dogwoods), and Cercis canadensis (redbuds) also present. The higher peaks in the Arkansas River Valley play host to scores of ferns, including the Woodsia scopulina and Adiantum (maidenhair fern) on Mount Magazine. \n\nClimate\n\nArkansas generally has a humid subtropical climate. While not bordering the Gulf of Mexico, Arkansas is still close enough to this warm, large body of water for it to influence the weather in the state. Generally, Arkansas has hot, humid summers and slightly drier, mild to cool winters. In Little Rock, the daily high temperatures average around 93 °F with lows around 73 °F in July. In January highs average around 51 °F and lows around 32 °F. In Siloam Springs in the northwest part of the state, the average high and low temperatures in July are 89 and and in January the average high and lows are 44 and. Annual precipitation throughout the state averages between about 40 and; somewhat wetter in the south and drier in the northern part of the state. Snowfall is infrequent but most common in the northern half of the state. The half of the state south of Little Rock is more apt to see ice storms. Arkansas' all-time record high is 120 F at Ozark on August 10, 1936; the all-time record low is at Gravette, on February 13, 1905. \n\nArkansas is known for extreme weather and many storms. A typical year will see thunderstorms, tornadoes, hail, snow and ice storms. Between both the Great Plains and the Gulf States, Arkansas receives around 60 days of thunderstorms. Arkansas is located in Tornado Alley, and as a result, a few of the most destructive tornadoes in U.S. history have struck the state. While being sufficiently away from the coast to be safe from a direct hit from a hurricane, Arkansas can often get the remnants of a tropical system which dumps tremendous amounts of rain in a short time and often spawns smaller tornadoes.\n\nHistory\n\nEarly Arkansas through territorial period\n\nBefore European settlement of North America, Arkansas was inhabited by indigenous peoples for thousands of years. The Caddo, Osage, and Quapaw peoples encountered European explorers. The first of these Europeans was Spanish explorer Hernando de Soto in 1541, who crossed the Mississippi and marched across what is now central Arkansas, the Ozark Mountains, and all the way to Texas. Around McArthur, Arkansas, he led a Spanish raid against the Quigualtam tribe, slaying men, women and children without mercy. De Soto died there the next day, in May 1542, opting for a watery burial in order to hide from the Natives that he was not a deity, and was a mortal. While he was dumped into the Mississippi River, the once rich De Soto's will read: \"four Indian slaves, three horses and 700 hogs\". Later explorers included the French Jacques Marquette and Louis Jolliet in 1673, and Frenchmen Robert La Salle and Henri de Tonti in 1681. De Tonti established Arkansas Post at a Quapaw village in 1686, making it the first European settlement in the territory. The early Spanish or French explorers of the state gave it its name, which is probably a phonetic spelling of the Illinois tribe's name for the Quapaw people, who lived downriver from them. The name Arkansas has been pronounced and spelled in a variety of fashions. The region was organized as the Territory of Arkansaw on July 4, 1819, but the territory was admitted to the United States as the state of Arkansas on June 15, 1836. The name was historically,, and several other variants. Historically and modernly, the people of Arkansas call themselves either \"Arkansans\" or \"Arkansawyers\". In 1881, the Arkansas General Assembly passed the following concurrent resolution, now Arkansas Code 1-4-105 ([http://www.arkleg.state.ar.us/assembly/ArkansasCode/0/1-4-105.htm official text]):\nWhereas, confusion of practice has arisen in the pronunciation of the name of our state and it is deemed important that the true pronunciation should be determined for use in oral official proceedings.\nAnd, whereas, the matter has been thoroughly investigated by the State Historical Society and the Eclectic Society of Little Rock, which have agreed upon the correct pronunciation as derived from history, and the early usage of the American immigrants.\nBe it therefore resolved by both houses of the General Assembly, that the only true pronunciation of the name of the state, in the opinion of this body, is that received by the French from the native Indians and committed to writing in the French word representing the sound. It should be pronounced in three (3) syllables, with the final \"s\" silent, the \"a\" in each syllable with the Italian sound, and the accent on the first and last syllables. The pronunciation with the accent on the second syllable with the sound of \"a\" in \"man\" and the sounding of the terminal \"s\" is an innovation to be discouraged.\nCitizens of the state of Kansas often pronounce the Arkansas River as, in a manner similar to the common pronunciation of the name of their state.\n\nSettlers, including fur trappers, moved to Arkansas in the early 18th century. These people used Arkansas Post as a home base and entrepôt. During the colonial period, Arkansas changed hands between France and Spain following the Seven Years' War, although neither showed interest in the remote settlement of Arkansas Post. In April 1783, Arkansas saw its only battle of the American Revolutionary War, a brief siege of the post by British Captain James Colbert with the assistance of the Choctaw and Chickasaw. \n\nNapoleon Bonaparte sold French Louisiana to the United States in 1803, including all of Arkansas, in a transaction known today as the Louisiana Purchase. French soldiers remained as a garrison at Arkansas Post. Following the purchase, the balanced give-and-take relationship between settlers and Native Americans began to change all along the frontier, including in Arkansas. Following a controversy over allowing slavery in the territory, the Territory of Arkansas was organized on July 4, 1819. Gradual emancipation in Arkansas was struck down by one vote, the Speaker of the House Henry Clay, allowing Arkansas to organize as a slave territory. \n\nSlavery became a wedge issue in Arkansas, forming a geographic divide that remained for decades. The owners and operators of the cotton plantation economy in southeast Arkansas firmly supported slavery, as slave labor was perceived by them to be the best or \"only\" economically viable method of harvesting their cotton commodity crops. The \"hill country\" of northwest Arkansas was unable to grow cotton and relied on a cash-scarce, subsistence farming economy. \n\nAs European Americans settled throughout the East Coast and into the Midwest, in the 1830s the United States government forced the removal of many Native American tribes to Arkansas and Indian Territory west of the Mississippi River.\n\nAdditional Native American removals began in earnest during the territorial period, with final Quapaw removal complete by 1833 as they were pushed into Indian Territory. The capital was relocated from Arkansas Post to Little Rock in 1821, during the territorial period. \n\nStatehood, Civil War and Reconstruction\n\nWhen Arkansas applied for statehood, the slavery issue was again raised in Washington DC. Congress eventually approved the Arkansas Constitution after a 25-hour session, admitting Arkansas on June 15, 1836 as the 25th state and the 13th slave state, having a population of about 60,000. Arkansas struggled with taxation to support its new state government, a problem made worse by a state banking scandal and worse yet by the Panic of 1837.\n\nIn early antebellum Arkansas, the southeast Arkansas economy developed rapidly on the backs of slaves. On the eve of the Civil War in 1860, enslaved African Americans numbered 111,115 people, just over 25% of the state's population. However, plantation agriculture would ultimately set the state and region behind the nation for decades. The wealth developed among planters of southeast Arkansas caused a political rift to form between the northwest and southeast. \n\nMany politicians were elected to office from the Family, the Southern rights political force in antebellum Arkansas. Residents generally wanted to avoid a civil war. When the Gulf states seceded in early 1861, Arkansas voted to remain in the Union. Arkansas did not secede until Abraham Lincoln demanded Arkansas troops be sent to Fort Sumter to quell the rebellion there. The following month a state convention voted to terminate Arkansas's membership in the Union and join the Confederate States of America.\n\nArkansas held a very important position for the Rebels, maintaining control of the Mississippi River and surrounding Southern states. The bloody Battle of Wilson's Creek just across the border in Missouri shocked many Arkansans who thought the war would be a quick and decisive Southern victory. Battles early in the war took place in northwest Arkansas, including the Battle of Cane Hill, Battle of Pea Ridge, and Battle of Prairie Grove. Union General Samuel Curtis swept across the state to Helena in the Delta in 1862. Little Rock was captured the following year. The government shifted the state Confederate capital to Hot Springs, and then again to Washington from 1863-1865, for the remainder of the war. Throughout the state, guerrilla warfare ravaged the countryside and destroyed cities. Passion for the Confederate cause waned after implementation of unpopular programs such as the draft, high taxes, and martial law.\n\nUnder the Military Reconstruction Act, Congress declared Arkansas restored to the Union in June 1868. The Republican-controlled reconstruction legislature established universal male suffrage (though temporarily disfranchising all former Confederates, who were mostly Democrats), a public education system, and passed general issues to improve the state and help more of the population. The state soon came under almost exclusive control of the Radical Republicans, (those who moved from the North being derided as \"carpetbaggers\" based on allegations of corruption), and led by Governor Powell Clayton, they presided over a time of great upheaval and racial violence in the state between Republican state militia and the Ku Klux Klan.\n\nIn 1874, the Brooks-Baxter War, a political struggle between factions of the Republican Party shook Little Rock and the state governorship. It was settled only when President Ulysses S. Grant ordered Joseph Brooks to disperse his militant supporters.\n\nFollowing the Brooks-Baxter War, a new state constitution was ratified, re-enfranchising former Confederates.\n\nIn 1881, the Arkansas state legislature enacted a bill that adopted an official pronunciation of the state's name, to combat a controversy then simmering. (See Law and Government below.)\n\nAfter Reconstruction, the state began to receive more immigrants and migrants. Chinese, Italian, and Syrian men were recruited for farm labor in the developing Delta region. None of these nationalities stayed long at farm labor; the Chinese especially quickly became small merchants in towns around the Delta. Many Chinese became such successful merchants in small towns that they were able to educate their children at college. \n\nSome early 20th-century immigration included people from eastern Europe. Together, these immigrants made the Delta more diverse than the rest of the state. In the same years, some black migrants moved into the area because of opportunities to develop the bottomlands and own their own property.\n\nConstruction of railroads enabled more farmers to get their products to market. It also brought new development into different parts of the state, including the Ozarks, where some areas were developed as resorts. In a few years at the end of the 19th century, for instance, Eureka Springs in Carroll County grew to 10,000 people, rapidly becoming a tourist destination and the fourth-largest city of the state. It featured newly constructed, elegant resort hotels and spas planned around its natural springs, considered to have healthful properties. The town's attractions included horse racing and other entertainment. It appealed to a wide variety of classes, becoming almost as popular as Hot Springs.\n\nIn the late 1880s, the worsening agricultural depression catalyzed Populist and third party movements, leading to interracial coalitions. Struggling to stay in power, in the 1890s the Democrats in Arkansas followed other Southern states in passing legislation and constitutional amendments that disfranchised blacks and poor whites. Democrats wanted to prevent their alliance. In 1891 state legislators passed a requirement for a literacy test, knowing that many blacks and whites would be excluded, at a time when more than 25% of the population could neither read nor write. In 1892 they amended the state constitution to require a poll tax and more complex residency requirements, both of which adversely affected poor people and sharecroppers, forcing most blacks and many poor whites from voter rolls.\n\nBy 1900 the Democratic Party expanded use of the white primary in county and state elections, further denying blacks a part in the political process. Only in the primary was there any competition among candidates, as Democrats held all the power. The state was a Democratic one-party state for decades, until after passage of the federal Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Voting Rights Act of 1965 to enforce constitutional rights. \n\nBetween 1905 and 1911, Arkansas began to receive a small immigration of German, Slovak, and Scots-Irish from Europe. The German and Slovak peoples settled in the eastern part of the state known as the Prairie, and the Irish founded small communities in the southeast part of the state. The Germans were mostly Lutheran and the Slovaks were primarily Catholic. The Irish were mostly Protestant from Ulster, of Scots and Northern Borders descent.\n\nAfter the Supreme Court's decision in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas in 1954 that segregation in public schools was unconstitutional, some students worked to integrate schools in the state. The Little Rock Nine brought Arkansas to national attention in 1957 when the Federal government had to intervene to protect African-American students trying to integrate a high school in the Arkansas capital. Governor Orval Faubus had ordered the Arkansas National Guard to aid segregationists in preventing nine African-American students from enrolling at Little Rock's Central High School. After attempting three times to contact Faubus, President Dwight D. Eisenhower sent 1000 troops from the active-duty 101st Airborne Division to escort and protect the African-American students as they entered school on September 25, 1957. In defiance of federal court orders to integrate, the governor and city of Little Rock decided to close the high schools for the remainder of the school year. By the fall of 1959, however, the Little Rock high schools were completely integrated.\n\nBill Clinton, the 42nd President of the United States, was born in Hope, Arkansas. Before his presidency, Clinton served as the 40th and 42nd Governor of Arkansas, a total of nearly 12 years.\n\nCities and towns\n\nLittle Rock has been Arkansas's capital city since 1821 when it replaced Arkansas Post as the capital of the Territory of Arkansas. The state capitol was moved to Hot Springs and later Washington during the Civil War when the Union armies threatened the city in 1862, and state government did not return to Little Rock until after the war ended. Today, the Little Rock–North Little Rock–Conway metropolitan area is the largest in the state, with a population of 724,385 in 2013. \n\nThe Fayetteville–Springdale–Rogers Metropolitan Area is the second-largest metropolitan area in Arkansas, growing at the fastest rate due to the influx of businesses and the growth of the University of Arkansas and Walmart. \n\nThe state has eight cities with populations above 50,000 (based on 2010 census). In descending order of size, they are: Little Rock, Fort Smith, Fayetteville, Springdale, Jonesboro, North Little Rock, Conway, and Rogers. Of these, only Fort Smith and Jonesboro are outside the two largest metropolitan areas. Other notable cities include Pine Bluff, Crossett, Lake Village, Hot Springs, Bentonville, Texarkana, Sherwood, Jacksonville, Russellville, Bella Vista, West Memphis, Paragould, Cabot, Searcy, Van Buren, El Dorado, Blytheville, Harrison, Dumas, Rison, Warren, and Mountain Home.\n\nDemographics\n\nPopulation\n\nThe United States Census Bureau estimates that the population of Arkansas was 2,978,204 on July 1, 2015, a 2.14% increase since the 2010 United States Census.\n\nAs of 2015, Arkansas has an estimated population of 2,978,204. From fewer than 15,000 in 1820, Arkansas's population grew to 52,240 during a special census in 1835, far exceeding the 40,000 required to apply for statehood. Following statehood in 1836, the population doubled each decade until the 1870 Census conducted following the Civil War. The state recorded growth in each successive decade, although it gradually slowed in the 20th century.\n\nIt recorded population losses in the 1950 and 1960 Censuses. This outmigration was a result of multiple factors, including farm mechanization, decreasing labor demand, and young educated people leaving the state due to a lack of non-farming industry in the state. Arkansas again began to grow, recording positive growth rates ever since and exceeding the 2 million mark during the 1980 Census. Arkansas's current rate of change, age distributions, and gender distributions mirror national averages. Minority group data also approximates national averages. There are fewer people in Arkansas of Hispanic or Latino origin than the national average. The center of population of Arkansas for 2000 was located in Perry County, near Nogal. \n\nRace and ancestry\n\nIn terms of race and ethnicity, the state was 80.1% white (74.2% non-Hispanic white), 15.6% black or African American, 0.9% American Indian and Alaska Native, 1.3% Asian, and 1.8% from two or more races. Hispanics or Latinos of any race made up 6.6% of the population.\n\nAs of 2011, 39.0% of Arkansas's population younger than age 1 were minorities. \n\nEuropean Americans have a strong presence in the northwestern Ozarks and the central part of the state. African Americans live mainly in the southern and eastern parts of the state. Arkansans of Irish, English and German ancestry are mostly found in the far northwestern Ozarks near the Missouri border. Ancestors of the Irish in the Ozarks were chiefly Scots-Irish, Protestants from Northern Ireland, the Scottish lowlands and northern England part of the largest group of immigrants from Great Britain and Ireland before the American Revolution. English and Scots-Irish immigrants settled throughout the backcountry of the South and in the more mountainous areas. Americans of English stock are found throughout the state. \n\nThe principal ancestries of Arkansas's residents in 2010 were surveyed to be the following: \n* 15.5% African American\n* 12.3% Irish\n* 11.5% German\n* 11.0% American\n* 10.1% English\n* 4.7% Mexican\n* 2.1% French\n* 1.7% Scottish\n* 1.7% Dutch\n* 1.6% Italian\n* 1.4% Scots-Irish\n\nMost of the people identifying as American are of English descent and/or Scots-Irish descent. Their families have been in the state so long, in many cases since before statehood, that they choose to identify simply as having American ancestry or do not in fact know their own ancestry. Their ancestry primarily goes back to the original 13 colonies and for this reason many of them today simply claim American ancestry. Many people who identify themselves as Irish descent are in fact of Scots-Irish descent. \n\nAccording to the 2006–2008 American Community Survey, 93.8% of Arkansas' population (over the age of five) spoke only English at home. About 4.5% of the state's population spoke Spanish at home. About 0.7% of the state's population spoke any other Indo-European languages. About 0.8% of the state's population spoke an Asian language, and 0.2% spoke other languages.\n\nReligion\n\nArkansas, like most other Southern states, is part of the Bible Belt and is predominantly Protestant. The largest denominations by number of adherents in 2010 were the Southern Baptist Convention with 661,382; the United Methodist Church with 158,574; non-denominational Evangelical Protestants with 129,638; and the Catholic Church with 122,662. However, there are some residents of the state who live by other religions such as Wiccan, Pagan, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism or who prefer no religious denomination. \n\nEconomy\n\nOnce a state with a cashless society in the uplands and plantation agriculture in the lowlands, Arkansas's economy has evolved and diversified. The state's gross domestic product (GDP) was $105 billion in 2010. Six Fortune 500 companies are based in Arkansas, including the world's #1 retailer, Walmart. The per capita personal income in 2010 was $36,027, ranking forty-fifth in the nation. The three-year median household income from 2009-11 was $39,806, ranking forty-ninth in the nation. The state's agriculture outputs are poultry and eggs, soybeans, sorghum, cattle, cotton, rice, hogs, and milk. Its industrial outputs are food processing, electric equipment, fabricated metal products, machinery, and paper products. Mines in Arkansas produce natural gas, oil, crushed stone, bromine, and vanadium. According to CNBC, Arkansas currently ranks as the 20th best state for business, with the 2nd-lowest cost of doing business, 5th-lowest cost of living, 11th best workforce, 20th-best economic climate, 28th-best educated workforce, 31st-best infrastructure and the 32nd-friendliest regulatory environment. Arkansas gained twelve spots in the best state for business rankings since 2011. As of 2014, Arkansas was found to be the most affordable US state to live in. \n\nAs of April 2013 the state's unemployment rate is 7.5% \n\nIndustry and commerce\n\nArkansas's earliest industries were fur trading and agriculture, with development of cotton plantations in the areas near the Mississippi River. They were dependent on slave labor through the American Civil War.\n\nToday only approximately 3% of the population is employed in the agricultural sector, it remains a major part of the state's economy, ranking 13th in the nation in the value of products sold. The state is the U.S.'s largest producer of rice, broilers, and turkeys, and ranks in the top three for cotton, pullets, and aquaculture (catfish). Forestry remains strong in the Arkansas Timberlands, and the state ranks fourth nationally and first in the South in softwood lumber production. In recent years, automobile parts manufacturers have opened factories in eastern Arkansas to support auto plants in other states. Bauxite was formerly a large part of the state's economy, mined mostly around Saline County. \n\nTourism is also very important to the Arkansas economy; the official state nickname \"The Natural State\" was created for state tourism advertising in the 1970s, and is still used to this day. The state maintains 52 state parks and the National Park Service maintains seven properties in Arkansas. The completion of the William Jefferson Clinton Presidential Library in Little Rock has drawn many visitors to the city and revitalized the nearby River Market District. Many cities also hold festivals which draw tourists to the culture of Arkansas, such as The Bradley County Pink Tomato Festival in Warren, King Biscuit Blues Festival, Ozark Folk Festival, Toad Suck Daze, and Tontitown Grape Festival.\n\nCulture\n\nThe culture of Arkansas is available to all in various forms, whether it be architecture, literature, or fine and performing arts. The state's culture also includes distinct cuisine, dialect, and traditional festivals. Sports are also very important to the culture of Arkansas, ranging from football, baseball, and basketball to hunting and fishing. Perhaps the best-known piece of Arkansas's culture is the stereotype of its citizens as shiftless hillbillies. The reputation began when the state was characterized by early explorers as a savage wilderness full of outlaws and thieves. The most enduring icon of Arkansas's hillbilly reputation is The Arkansas Traveller, a painted depiction of a folk tale from the 1840s. Although intended to represent the divide between rich southeastern plantation Arkansas planters and the poor northwestern hill country, the meaning was twisted to represent a Northerner lost in the Ozarks on a white horse asking a backwoods Arkansan for directions. The state also suffers from the racial stigma common to former Confederate states, with historical events such as the Little Rock Nine adding to Arkansas's enduring image. \n\nArt and history museums display pieces of cultural value for Arkansans and tourists to enjoy. Crystal Bridges Museum of American Art in Bentonville is the most popular with 604,000 visitors in 2012, its first year. The museum includes walking trails and educational opportunities in addition to displaying over 450 works covering five centuries of American art. Several historic town sites have been restored as Arkansas state parks, including Historic Washington State Park, Powhatan Historic State Park, and Davidsonville Historic State Park.\n\nArkansas features a variety of native music across the state, ranging from the blues heritage of West Memphis, Pine Bluff, Helena-West Helena to rockabilly, bluegrass, and folk music from the Ozarks. Festivals such as the King Biscuit Blues Festival and Bikes, Blues, and BBQ pay homage to the history of blues in the state. The Ozark Folk Festival in Mountain View is a celebration of Ozark culture and often features folk and bluegrass musicians. Literature set in Arkansas such as I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings by Maya Angelou and A Painted House by John Grisham describe the culture at various time periods.\n\nSports and recreation\n\nSports have become an integral part of the culture of Arkansas, and her residents enjoy participating in and spectating various events throughout the year.\n\nTeam sports and especially collegiate football have been important to Arkansans. College football in Arkansas began from humble beginnings. The University of Arkansas first fielded a team in 1894 when football was a very dangerous game. Recent studies of the damage to team members from the concussions common in football make it clear that the danger persists.\n\n\"Calling the Hogs\" is a cheer that shows support for the Razorbacks, one of the two FBS teams in the state. High school football also began to grow in Arkansas in the early 20th century. Over the years, many Arkansans have looked to the Razorbacks football team as the public image of the state. Following the Little Rock Nine integration crisis at Little Rock Central High School, Arkansans looked to the successful Razorback teams in the following years to repair the state's reputation. Although the University of Arkansas is based in Fayetteville, the Razorbacks have always played at least two games per season at War Memorial Stadium in Little Rock in an effort to keep fan support in central and south Arkansas. Arkansas State University joined the University of Arkansas in the Football Bowl Subdivision in 1992 after playing in lower divisions for nearly two decades. However, the two schools have never played each other, due to the University of Arkansas' policy of not playing intrastate games. Six of Arkansas' smaller colleges play in the Great American Conference, with University of Arkansas at Pine Bluff playing in the Southwestern Athletic Conference and University of Central Arkansas competing in the Southland Conference.\n\nBaseball runs deep in Arkansas and has been popular since before the state hosted Major League Baseball (MLB) spring training in Hot Springs from 1886-1920s. Today, two minor league teams are based in the state. The Arkansas Travelers play at Dickey-Stephens Park in North Little Rock, and the Northwest Arkansas Naturals play in Arvest Ballpark in Springdale. Both teams compete in the Texas League.\n\nRelated to the state's frontier past, hunting continues in the state. The state created the Arkansas Game and Fish Commission in 1915 to regulate hunting and enforce those regulations. Today a significant portion of Arkansas's population participates in hunting duck in the Mississippi flyway and deer across the state. Millions of acres of public land are available for both bow and modern gun hunters.\n\nFishing has always been popular in Arkansas, and the sport and the state have benefited from the creation of reservoirs across the state. Following the completion of Norfork Dam, the Norfork Tailwater and the White River have become a destination for trout fishers. Several smaller retirement communities such as Bull Shoals, Hot Springs Village, and Fairfield Bay have flourished due to their position on a fishing lake. The Buffalo National River has been preserved in its natural state by the National Park Service and is frequented by fly fishers annually.\n\nHealth\n\nArkansans, as with many Southern states, have a high incidence of premature death, infant mortality, cardiovascular deaths, and occupational fatalities compared to the rest of the United States. The state is tied for 43rd with New York in percentage of adults who regularly exercise. Arkansas is usually ranked as one of the least healthy states due to high obesity, smoking, and sedentary lifestyle rates. In contrast though a Gallup poll demonstrates that Arkansas made the most immediate progress in reducing its number of uninsured residents following the passage of the Affordable Care Act. The percentage of uninsured in Arkansas dropped from 22.5 percent in 2013 to 12.4 percent in August 2014. \n\nThe Arkansas Clean Indoor Air Act went into effect in 2006, a statewide smoking ban excluding bars and some restaurants. \n\nHealthcare in Arkansas is provided by a network of hospitals as members of the Arkansas Hospital Association. Major institutions with multiple branches include Baptist Health, Community Health Systems, and HealthSouth. The University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences (UAMS) in Little Rock operates the UAMS Medical Center, a teaching hospital ranked as high performing nationally in cancer and nephrology. The pediatric division of UAMS Medical Center is known as Arkansas Children's Hospital, nationally ranked in pediatric cardiology and heart surgery. Together, these two institutions are the state's only Level I trauma centers. \n\nEducation\n\nArkansas ranks as the 32nd smartest state on the Morgan Quitno Smartest State Award, 44th in percentage of residents with at least a high school diploma, and 48th in percentage of bachelor's degree attainment. However, Arkansas has been making major strides recently in education reform. Education Week has praised the state, ranking Arkansas in the top 10 of their Quality Counts Education Rankings every year since 2009 while scoring it in the top 5 during 2012 and 2013. Arkansas specifically received an A in Transition and Policy Making for progress in this area consisting of early-childhood education, college readiness, and career readiness. Governor Mike Beebe has made improving education a major issue through his attempts to spend more on education. Through reforms, the state is now a leader in requiring curricula designed to prepare students for postsecondary education, rewarding teachers for student achievement, and providing incentives for principals who work in lower-tier schools. \n\nIn 2010 Arkansas students earned an average score of 20.3 on the ACT exam, just below the national average of 21. These results were expected due to the large increase in the number of students taking the exam since the establishment of the Academic Challenge Scholarship. Top high schools receiving recognition from the U.S. News & World Report are spread across the state, including Haas Hall Academy in Fayetteville, KIPP Delta Collegiate in Helena-West Helena, Bentonville, Rogers, Rogers Heritage, Valley Springs, Searcy, and McCrory. A total of 81 Arkansas high schools were ranked by the U.S. News & World Report in 2012. \n\nThe state supports a network of public universities and colleges, including two major university systems: Arkansas State University System and University of Arkansas System. The University of Arkansas, flagship campus of the University of Arkansas System in Fayetteville was ranked #63 among public schools in the nation by U.S. News & World Report. Other public institutions include University of Arkansas at Pine Bluff, Arkansas Tech University, Henderson State University, Southern Arkansas University, and University of Central Arkansas across the state. It is also home to 11 private colleges and universities including Hendrix College, one of the nation's top 100 liberal arts colleges, according to U.S. News & World Report. \n\nTransportation\n\nTransportation in Arkansas is overseen by the Arkansas State Highway and Transportation Department (AHTD), headquartered in Little Rock. Several main corridors pass through Little Rock, including Interstate 30 (I-30) and I-40 (the nation's 3rd-busiest trucking corridor). In northeast Arkansas, I-55 travels north from Memphis to Missouri, with a new spur to Jonesboro (I-555). Northwest Arkansas is served by I-540 from Fort Smith to Bella Vista, which is a segment of future I-49. The state also has the 13th largest state highway system in the nation. \n\nArkansas is served by 2750 mi of railroad track divided among twenty-six railroad companies including three Class I railroads. Freight railroads are concentrated in southeast Arkansas to serve the industries in the region. The Texas Eagle, an Amtrak passenger train, serves five stations in the state Walnut Ridge, Little Rock, Malvern, Arkadelphia, and Texarkana.\n\nArkansas also benefits from the use of its rivers for commerce. The Mississippi River and Arkansas River are both major rivers. The United States Army Corps of Engineers maintains the McClellan-Kerr Arkansas River Navigation System, allowing barge traffic up the Arkansas River to the Port of Catoosa in Tulsa, Oklahoma.\n\nThere are four airports with commercial service: Clinton National Airport, Northwest Arkansas Regional Airport, Fort Smith Regional Airport, and Texarkana Regional Airport, with dozens of smaller airports in the state.\n\nPublic transit and community transport services for the elderly or those with developmental disabilities are provided by agencies such as the Central Arkansas Transit Authority and the Ozark Regional Transit, organizations that are part of the Arkansas Transit Association.\n\nLaw and government\n\nAs with the federal government of the United States, political power in Arkansas is divided into three branches: executive, legislative, and judicial. Each officer's term is four years long. Office holders are term-limited to two full terms plus any partial terms before the first full term. \n\nExecutive\n\nThe current Governor of Arkansas is Asa Hutchinson, a Republican, who was inaugurated on January 13, 2015. The six other elected executive positions in Arkansas are lieutenant governor, secretary of state, attorney general, treasurer, auditor, and land commissioner. The governor also appoints qualified individuals to lead various state boards, committees, and departments. Arkansas governors served two-year terms until a referendum lengthened the term to four years, effective with the 1986 general election.\n\nIn Arkansas, the lieutenant governor is elected separately from the governor and thus can be from a different political party. \n\nLegislative\n\nThe Arkansas General Assembly is the state's bicameral bodies of legislators, composed of the Senate and House of Representatives. The Senate contains 35 members from districts of approximately equal population. These districts are redrawn decennially with each US census, and in election years ending in \"2\", the entire body is put up for reelection. Following the election, half of the seats are designated as two-year seats and will be up for reelection again in two years, these \"half-terms\" do not count against a legislator's term limits. The remaining half serve a full four-year term. This staggers elections such that half the body is up for re-election every two years and allows for complete body turnover following redistricting. Arkansas voters selected a 21-14 Republican majority in the Senate in 2012. Arkansas House members can serve a maximum of three two-year terms. House districts are redistricted by the Arkansas Board of Apportionment. Following the 2012 elections, Republicans gained a 51-49 majority in the House of Representatives. \n\nThe Republican Party majority status in the Arkansas State House of Representatives following the 2012 elections is the party's first since 1874. Arkansas was the last state of the old Confederacy to never have Republicans control either chamber of its house since the Civil War.\n\nFollowing the term limits changes, studies have shown that lobbyists have become less influential in state politics, but legislative staff, not subject to term limits, have acquired additional power and influence due to the high rate of elected official turnover. \n\nJudicial\n\nArkansas's judicial branch has five court systems: Arkansas Supreme Court, Arkansas Court of Appeals, Circuit Courts, District Courts and City Courts.\n\nMost cases begin in district court, which is subdivided into state district court and local district court. State district courts exercise district-wide jurisdiction over the districts created by the General Assembly, and local district courts are presided over by part-time judges who may privately practice law. There are currently 25 state district court judges presiding over 15 districts, with more districts to be created in 2013 and 2017. There are 28 judicial circuits of Circuit Court, with each contains five subdivisions: criminal, civil, probate, domestic relations, and juvenile court. The jurisdiction of the Arkansas Court of Appeals is determined by the Arkansas Supreme Court, and there is no right of appeal from the Court of Appeals to the high court. However, the Arkansas Supreme Court can review Court of Appeals cases upon application by either a party to the litigation, upon request by the Court of Appeals, or if the Arkansas Supreme Court feels the case should have been initially assigned to it. The twelve judges of the Arkansas Court of Appeals are elected from judicial districts to renewable six-year terms.\n\nThe Arkansas Supreme Court is the court of last resort in the state, composed of seven justices elected to eight-year terms. Established by the Arkansas Constitution in 1836, the court's decisions can be appealed to only the Supreme Court of the United States.\n\nFederal\n\nBoth of Arkansas's U.S. Senators, John Boozman and Tom Cotton, are Republicans. The state has four seats in U.S. House of Representatives. All four seats are held by Republicans: Rick Crawford (1st district), French Hill (2nd district), Steve Womack (3rd district), and Bruce Westerman (4th district). \n\nPolitics\n\nArkansas Governor Bill Clinton brought national attention to the state with a long speech at the 1988 Democratic National Convention endorsing Michael Dukakis. Pundits suggested the speech would ruin Clinton's political career, but instead, Clinton won the Democratic nomination for President the following cycle. Presenting himself as a \"New Democrat\" and using incumbent George H. W. Bush's broken promise against him, Clinton won the 1992 presidential election (43.0% of the vote) against Republican Bush (37.4% of the vote) and billionaire populist Ross Perot, who ran as an independent (18.9% of the vote).\n\nMost Republican strength traditionally lied mainly in the northwestern part of the state, particularly Fort Smith and Bentonville, as well as North Central Arkansas around the Mountain Home area. In the latter area, Republicans have been known to get 90 percent or more of the vote, while the rest of the state was more Democratic. After 2010, Republican strength expanded further to the Northeast and Southwest and into the Little Rock suburbs. The Democrats are mostly concentrated now to central Little Rock, the Mississippi Delta, the Pine Bluff area, and the areas around the southern border with Louisiana.\n\nArkansas has only elected three Republicans to the U.S. Senate since Reconstruction, Tim Hutchinson, who was defeated after one term by Mark Pryor; John Boozman, who defeated incumbent Blanche Lincoln; and Tom Cotton, who defeated Mark Pryor in the 2014 elections. Before 2013, the General Assembly had not been controlled by the Republican Party since Reconstruction, with the GOP holding a 51-seat majority in the state House and a 21-seat (of 35) in the state Senate following victories in 2012. Arkansas was one of just three states among the states of the former Confederacy that sent two Democrats to the U.S. Senate (the others being Florida and Virginia) for any period during the first decade of the 21st century.\n\nIn 2010, Republicans captured three of the state's four seats in the U.S. House of Representatives. In 2012, Republicans won election for all four House seats. Arkansas held the distinction of having a U.S. House delegation composed entirely of military veterans (Rick Crawford - Army; Tim Griffin - Army Reserve; Steve Womack - Army National Guard, Tom Cotton- Army). In 2014, the last Democrat in Arkansas' Congressional Delegation, Mark Pryor, was defeated in campaign to win a third term in the U.S. Senate, leaving the entire congressional delegation in GOP hands for the first time since Reconstruction.\n\nReflecting the state's large evangelical population, the state has a strong social conservative bent. Under the Arkansas Constitution Arkansas is a right to work state, its voters passed a ban on same-sex marriage with 75% voting yes, and the state is one of a handful with legislation on its books banning abortion in the event Roe v. Wade is ever overturned.\n\nAttractions\n\nArkansas is home to many areas protected by the National Park System. These include: \n* Arkansas Post National Memorial at Gillett\n* Blanchard Springs Caverns\n* Buffalo National River\n* Fort Smith National Historic Site\n* Hot Springs National Park\n* Little Rock Central High School National Historic Site\n* Pea Ridge National Military Park\n* President William Jefferson Clinton Birthplace Home National Historic Site\n* Arkansas State Capitol Building\n* List of Arkansas state parks" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "one thousand, nine hundred and thirty-six", "1936" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "1936", "one thousand nine hundred and thirty six" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "1936", "type": "Numerical", "value": "1936" }
Who duetted with Barbra Streisand on Till I Loved You in 1988?	tc_703	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Till_I_Loved_You_(album).txt" ], "title": [ "Till I Loved You (album)" ], "wiki_context": [ "Till I Loved You is a studio album by American artist Barbra Streisand, released on October 25, 1988 on Columbia Records. The album was particularly notable both for its thematic structure (its eleven songs chronicle a romance's beginning, middle and end) and its high-budget production, as many guest writers, producers and musicians participated during its making – Burt Bacharach and Carole Bayer Sager offered three brand new songs to the album, Quincy Jones produced \"The Places You Find Love\" and Luther Vandross and Dionne Warwick among others added backing vocals to the track. Also, the title track (a Top 40 hit in the Billboard Hot 100) was a duet between Streisand and her then-boyfriend, actor Don Johnson. According to the liner notes of Barbra's retrospective box set: Just for the Record, the album also received a record certification in Holland and in New Zealand. \n\nHistory\n\nAfter two successful projects with The Broadway Album – Streisand's 1985 return to her stage roots – and One Voice – her first full-length live concert recorded in September 1986, which was issued on both disc and video with benefit purposes, Barbra Streisand decided to make a return to the pop scene. Till I Loved You was conceived as a lushly romantic album, with a particular concept – it followed the stages of a relationship from the beginning (in songs like \"The Places You Find Love\") to the end (\"Some Good Things Never Last\"), and then wrapped up the theme with a positive song about the future (\"One More Time Around\").\n\nMany writers, producers and musicians appeared on the album, making of the album a high-budget project as happened with Streisand's previous pop mainstream project, 1984's Emotion.\n\nThe opening song, \"The Places You Find Love\" was produced by Quincy Jones. Later, the song appeared on his own album Back on the Block, which received a Grammy Award for Album of the Year in 1991. Streisand's version featured an all-star backup group - background vocals were credited to Luther Vandross, Dionne Warwick, James Ingram, Howard Hewett, Jennifer Holliday, Peggi Blu, Clif Magness, Siedah Garrett and Edie Lehmann. On Back on the Blocks version, Siedah Garrett sang the first verse and chorus, followed by Chaka Khan singing the second verse. Jones utilized the same arrangement and background singers for his album, and also incorporated some African chanting during the bridge and climax of the song. \"The Places You Find Love\" was the only time Barbra and Quincy Jones have worked together (until \"We Are The World 25 (For Haiti)\" in 2010).\n\nAnother highlight from the album was the title track, which was a duet with the Miami Vice superstar actor Don Johnson, whom Streisand was dating at the time of recording. The track was the love theme from Goya, a project developed by CBS Records, Freddie Gershon and Allan Carr for opera singer Plácido Domingo playing artist Francisco Goya. In 2006, in an interview with TV host Jonathan Ross, Johnson recalled about the recording of the song:\n\nBurt Bacharach produced and wrote three tracks on Till I Loved You with his wife and lyricist Carole Bayer Sager. According to his own words, \"Barbra has great range. Nobody sounds like her when she's up that high, with that kind of clarity and purity. You can tell right away it's her. You can't say that about many singers.\"\n\nPhil Ramone produced the song \"All I Ask of You\", which was originally a duet in Andrew Lloyd Webber's blockbuster musical The Phantom of the Opera. Ramone commented:\n\nTrack listing\n\nChart and certifications \n\nCharts \n\nCertifications" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Johnson, Don", "Don Johnson" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "johnson don", "don johnson" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "don johnson", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Don Johnson" }
What was first published on 21st December 1913 in the New York World?	tc_706	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "New_York_World.txt" ], "title": [ "New York World" ], "wiki_context": [ "The New York World was a newspaper published in New York City from 1860 until 1931. The paper played a major role in the history of American newspapers. It was a leading national voice of the Democratic Party. From 1883 to 1911 under publisher Joseph Pulitzer, it became a pioneer in yellow journalism, capturing readers' attention and pushing its daily circulation to the one-million mark.\n\nEarly years\n\nThe World was formed in 1860. From 1862 to 1876, it was edited by Manton Marble, who was also its proprietor. After Marble ran into financial trouble, he was forced to sell the unsuccessful newspaper. In 1864, the World was shut down for three days after it published forged documents purportedly from Abraham Lincoln. \n\nJoseph Pulitzer years\n\nThe World was a relatively unsuccessful New York newspaper from 1860 to 1883. It was purchased by Joseph Pulitzer in 1883, who began an aggressive era of circulation building. Reporter Nellie Bly became one of America's first investigative journalists, often working undercover. As a publicity stunt for the paper, inspired by the Jules Verne novel Around the World in Eighty Days, she traveled around the planet in 72 days in 1889-1890. In 1890, Pulitzer built the New York World Building, the tallest office building in the world at the time.\n\nIn 1889, Julius Chambers was appointed by Pulitzer as managing editor of the New York World; he served until 1891. \n\nIn 1896, the World began using a four-color printing press; it was the first newspaper to launch a color supplement, which featured the Yellow Kid cartoon Hogan's Alley. It joined a circulation battle with William Randolph Hearst's New York Journal American.\n\nThe World was attacked for being \"sensational\", and its circulation battles with Hearst's Journal American gave rise to the term yellow journalism. The charges of sensationalism were most frequently leveled at the paper by more established publishers, who resented Pulitzer's courting of the immigrant classes. And while the World presented its fair share of crime stories, it also published damning exposés of tenement abuses. After a heat wave in 1883 killed a disproportionate number of poor children, the World published stories about it, featuring such headlines as \"Lines of Little Hearses.\" Its coverage spurred action in the city for reform. Hearst reproduced Pulitzer's approach in the San Francisco Examiner and later in the Journal American.\n\nFrank Irving Cobb was employed on a trial basis as the editor of the World in 1904 by publisher Pulitzer. Cobb was a fiercely independent Kansan who resisted Pulitzer's attempts to \"run the office\" from his home. The elder man was so invested in the paper that he continually meddled with Cobb's work. The two found common ground in their support of Woodrow Wilson, but they had many other areas of disagreement.\n\nWhen Pulitzer's son took over administrative responsibility of The World in 1907, his father wrote a precisely worded resignation. Cobb had it printed in every New York paper—except the World. Pulitzer raged at the insult, but slowly began to respect Cobb's editorials and independent spirit. Exchanges, commentaries, and messages between them increased. The good rapport between the two was based largely on Cobb's flexibility. In May 1908, Cobb and Pulitzer met to outline plans for a consistent editorial policy.\n\nPulitzer's demands for editorials on contemporary breaking news led to overwork by Cobb. The publisher sent his managing editor on a six-week tour of Europe to restore his spirit. Shortly after Cobb's return, Pulitzer died. Cobb then published Pulitzer's resignation. Cobb retained the editorial policies he had shared with Pulitzer until he died of cancer in 1923. \n\nLater years\n\nWhen Pulitzer died in 1911, he passed control of the World to his sons Ralph, Joseph and Herbert. The World continued to grow under its executive editor Herbert Bayard Swope, who hired writers such as Frank Sullivan and Deems Taylor. Among the Worlds noted journalists were columnists Franklin Pierce Adams (F.P.A.) who wrote \"The Conning Tower,\" Heywood Broun who penned \"It Seems To Me\" on the editorial page, and hardboiled writer James M. Cain. C. M. Payne created several comic strips for the newspaper.\n\nThe paper published the first crossword puzzle in December 1913. The annual reference book, called The World Almanac, was founded by the newspaper, and its name, World Almanac, is directly descended from the newspaper.\n\nThe paper ran a twenty-article series that was an exposé on the 20th-century revival of the Ku Klux Klan, starting September 6, 1921.\n\nIn 1931, Pulitzer's heirs went to court to sell the World. A surrogate court judge decided in the Pulitzer sons' favor; Roy W. Howard purchased the newspaper for his Scripps-Howard chain. He closed the World and laid off the staff of 3,000 after the final issue was printed on February 27, 1931. Howard added the World name to his afternoon paper, the Evening Telegram, and called it the New York World-Telegram.\n\nLegacy\n\nJanet E. Steele argues that Pulitzer put a stamp on his age when he brought his brand of journalism from St. Louis to New York in 1883. In his New York World, Pulitzer emphasized illustrations, advertising, and a culture of consumption for working men. He believed they saved money to enjoy life with their families when they could, at Coney Island, for example.\n\nBy contrast, the long-established editor Charles A. Dana, of The Sun, held to a traditional view of the working man as one engaged in a struggle to better his working conditions and to improve himself. Dana thought that readers in the 20th century followed fewer faddish illustrations and wished newspapers did not need advertising. Dana resisted buying a Linotype. These two editors, and their newspapers, reflected two worlds—one old, one new—and Pulitzer won.\n\nRevival\n\nOn May 16, 2011, the Columbia University Graduate School of Journalism announced that it was launching an online publication named The New York World, in honor of the original newspaper published by Pulitzer, who founded the graduate school. The university said the mission of the publication would be \"to provide New York City citizens with accountability journalism about government operations that affect their lives.\" It is to be staffed mainly by those who have completed master's or doctoral degrees, and other affiliates of the school. \n\nNotable journalists of the World\n\nHarriet Hubbard Ayer (1849-1903)\nNellie Bly (Elizabeth Jane Cochrane) (1864-1922)\nHeywood Broun (1888-1939)\nIrvin S. Cobb (1876-1944)\nVarina Davis, columnist after her move to New York; widow of the Confederate president, Jefferson Davis \nHoward C. Hillegas (1872–1918)\nWalter Lippman (1889-1974)\nSt. Clair McKelway (1905–1980)\nWilliam Brown Meloney (1878–1925)\nCharles Edward Russell (1886–1894)" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "A crossword puzzle", "Cross word", "Diagramless", "Codecracker", "Arrowords", "Crossword", "Fill in crossword", "Xword", "Crossword puzzles", "Cruciverbalism", "Crosswords", "Cruzadex", "Scandinavian crossword", "Cruciverbalist", "Crossword puzzle", "Arroword", "Cross Word", "Diagramless crossword" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "diagramless crossword", "fill in crossword", "scandinavian crossword", "diagramless", "crossword", "crossword puzzles", "cruciverbalist", "crosswords", "cruzadex", "xword", "arroword", "codecracker", "cruciverbalism", "arrowords", "cross word", "crossword puzzle" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "crossword puzzle", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "A crossword puzzle" }
What finally knocked One Sweet Day off the No 1 position in the charts in the 90s?	tc_707	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "One_Sweet_Day.txt" ], "title": [ "One Sweet Day" ], "wiki_context": [ "\"One Sweet Day\" is a song by American singer Mariah Carey and R&B group Boyz II Men. The song was written by Carey, Walter Afanasieff and Boyz II Men: Wanya Morris, Shawn Stockman, Nathan Morris, and Michael McCary. \"One Sweet Day\" was produced by Carey and Afanasieff for her fifth studio album, Daydream, and was released as the album's second single on . The song speaks about death of a loved one, how the protagonist took their presence for granted and misses them, and finally about seeing the person in heaven. Both Carey and Boyz II Men wrote the song about specific people in their lives, being inspired by sufferers of AIDS epidemic, which was globally prevalent at that time.\n\n\"One Sweet Day\" received universal acclaim from critics, many of whom praised its lyrical content and vocals, as well as calling it a standout track from Daydream. It was ranked first in Rolling Stones reader's poll for the Best Collaboration of All Time. The song spent 16 weeks atop the Billboard Hot 100 in the United States, becoming the longest running number one song on the chart. Subsequently, \"One Sweet Day\" became the Billboards most successful song of the 1990s, topping the Hot 100 decade-end chart. Internationally, the song topped the charts in Canada and New Zealand, and reached the top-ten in Australia, Belgium, France, Ireland, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden and the United Kingdom.\n\nCarey performed \"One Sweet Day\" live alongside Boyz II Men at the 38th Grammy Awards ceremony, held on February 26, 1996. Additionally, the song was performed at Princess Diana's memorial service in September 1997. \"One Sweet Day\" was part of the set list on several of Carey's succeeding tours, making its debut during the album's accompanying set of concerts, the Daydream World Tour. It is featured on her compilation albums, #1's (1998), Greatest Hits (2001), The Ballads (2008), and #1 to Infinity (2015).\n\nThe music video for \"One Sweet Day\" was filmed in February 1995, and features snippets of Carey and Boyz II Men in and around the studio, and recording the song. The busy schedule of both Carey and Boyz II Men did not allow time to record a proper video. The singer later said that she was content a real music video was never filmed, fearing that no video could truly capture the song's strong lyrical message. Critics felt the video choice was wise, and agreed that the simple concept paid homage to the song's selfless message.\n\nBackground \n\n\"One Sweet Day\" was a song that Carey wrote with the R&B group Boyz II Men. After Carey's friend and past collaborator David Cole died, she began writing and developing a song that would pay homage to him and all the friends and family her fans had lost along the life's journey. Carey had the idea and chorus composed, and after meeting with Boyz II Men, they realized they too had a similar idea in development. Together, using Carey's chorus and idea, as well as the melody they had produced, they wrote and composed the song. The song was produced by Afanasieff, who built on the song's melody and added various grooves and beats. Carey expressed how the song was \"meant to be\" and how all the pieces fit into place:\n\n\"I wrote the initial idea for 'One Sweet Day' with Walter, and I had the chorus...and I stopped and said, 'I really wanna do this with Boyz II Men,' because...obviously I'm a big fan of theirs and I just thought that the work was crying out for them, the vocals that they do, so I put it away and said, 'Who knows if this could ever happen, but I just don't wanna finish this song because I want it to be our song if we ever do it together. [The] whole idea of when you lose people that are close to you, it changes your life and changes your perspective. When they came into the studio, I played them the idea for the song and when [it] was finished, they looked at each other, a bit stunned, and told me that Nathan \"Nate\" Morris had written a song for his road manager who had passed away. It had basically the same lyrics and fitted over the same chord changes. It was really, really weird, we finished the song right then and there. We were all kinda flipped about it ourselves. Fate had a lot to do with that. I know some people won't believe it, but we wouldn't make up such a crazy story.\"\n\nAfter they began working on the song, Carey began to incorporate other lyrics into the chorus, trying to make the song relatable to the AIDS epidemic that was in full force in the mid-1990s. Additionally, Mariah's sister Alison Carey had been diagnosed with HIV in 1988 when she was 27, an event that ruined their relationship and tore them apart. Carey has stated that she wrote the song hoping that all her fans that have lost someone could relate to \"One Sweet Day\" and maybe help ease the pain of the loss. Carey described the song as \"[the] whole idea of when you lose people that are close to you, it changes your life and changes our perspective.\"\n\nComposition \n\n\"One Sweet Day\" is a downtempo song that blends R&B and pop music. It incorporates organ instrumentation and different contemporary grooves and beats into its primary arrangement, adding percussion and synthesizers as well. The song is set in the time signature common time and moves at a slow tempo of 64 beats per minute. It is written in the key of A major and features a basic chord progression of A–Dmaj9–A–Dmaj9–Gadd9, while the basic melodic line spans roughly an octave and a half from E4 to A5; the piano in the piece ranges from D2 to A5. The song contains choral lyrics written by Carey, who also arranged and co-produced the song alongside Walter Afanasieff. Author Chris Nickson complimented the song's instrumentation and arrangement, calling its use of synthesizers \"wise\" and \"efficient.\" Additionally, he claimed Afanasieff's production and Carey's vocal and production arrangement helped the song's vocals and lyrical content flow together. The song finishes with the last chorus and coda in the key of B major.\n\nReception and recognition \n\n\"One Sweet Day\" has been lauded with universal acclaim from contemporary music critics. Allmusic's Stephen Thomas Erlewine praised the song for its craft and writing, commenting that \"[in] \"One Sweet Day,\" a duet with Boyz II Men, Carey appeals to both audiences equally because of the sheer amount of craft and hard work she puts into her albums. Ken Tucker from Entertainment Weekly felt the song truly highlighted the album, \"[One Sweet Day] radiates a breezy sexiness that Carey, for all the brazen hussiness of her public persona, rarely permits herself to reveal in song. Stephen Holden from The New York Times shared similar sentiments and wrote \"On 'One Sweet Day,' the singer joins forces with Boyz II Men, those masters of pleading post-doo-wop vocal harmonies, for a tender eulogy that suggests that the singers have been personally touched by the AIDS crisis.\" People felt the song was a \"stand-out track\" and called Carey's vocal performance \"bravura belting\".\n\n\"One Sweet Day\" won many prestigious awards throughout 1996. At the Blockbuster Entertainment Awards, the song won the award for \"Favorite Adult Contemporary Single Female 'One Sweet Day'\". \"One Sweet Day\" also won the award for \"Song of the Year\" at the BMI Awards and a \"Special Award for 16 weeks at #1\" at the Billboard Music Awards. Together, Daydream and \"One Sweet Day\" were nominated for six Grammy Awards at the 38th annual ceremony, however, to Carey's surprise, and to the shock of many critics, they lost all of the nominations. In a readers' poll conducted by Rolling Stone, the song was ranked first for the category of the Best Collaboration of All Time. \n\n\|-\n\|style\"text-align:center;\" rowspan\n\"7\"\|1996\n\|rowspan=\"2\"\|Billboard Music Awards \n\|Top Hot 100 Singles\n\| style=\"text-align:center; background:#fdd;\"\|Nominated\n\|-\n\|Special Award - 16 weeks at number one\n\| style=\"text-align:center; background:#9f9;\"\|Won\n\|-\n\|Blockbuster Entertainment Awards\n\|Single Favorite Adult Contemporary Female Singer\n\| style=\"text-align:center; background:#9f9;\"\|Won\n\|-\n\|rowspan=\"2\"\|Grammy Awards \n\|Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals\n\| style=\"text-align:center; background:#fdd;\"\|Nominated\n\|-\n\|Record of the Year\n\| style=\"text-align:center; background:#fdd;\"\|Nominated\n\|-\n\|MTV Video Music Awards \n\|Best R&B Video\n\| style=\"text-align:center; background:#fdd;\"\|Nominated\n\|-\n\|NAACP Image Awards \n\|Best Live performance at Madison Square\n\| style=\"text-align:center; background:#fdd;\"\|Nominated\n\|-\n\|rowspan\"3\" style\n\"text-align:center;\"\|1997\n\|ASCAP Awards\n\|Compositor de Rhythm & SoulA nomeação vai para os compositores da canção: Mariah Carey, Walter Afanasieff, Nathan Morris, Michael McCary, Shawn Stockman, Wanya Morris.\n\| style=\"text-align:center; background:#9f9;\"\|Won\n\|-\n\|rowspan=\"2\"\|BMI Pop Music Awards \n\|Best Pop Composer\n\| style=\"text-align:center; background:#9f9;\"\|Won\n\|-\n\|Song of the Year\n\| style=\"text-align:center; background:#9f9;\"\|Won\n\|}\n\nCommercial performance \n\n\"One Sweet Day\" became Carey's tenth chart topping single on the Billboard Hot 100 and Boyz II Men's fourth. The song remained at the peak for a record-breaking, 16 consecutive weeks, from December 2, 1995 to March 16, 1996. Boyz II Men had previously held this record twice, with \"End of the Road\" (1992) spending 13 weeks at the top and \"I'll Make Love to You\" (1994) spending 14. The former song shares this record with Brandy and Monica's \"The Boy Is Mine\", and the latter song shared its record with Whitney Houston's \"I Will Always Love You\". Carey's 2005 song \"We Belong Together\", The Black Eyed Peas's 2009 \"I Gotta Feeling\" and Mark Ronson's 2014 track, \"Uptown Funk\", managed to stay at number one for 14 weeks as well. \"One Sweet Day\" replaced \"Exhale (Shoop Shoop)\" by Whitney Houston at number one, and was replaced by Celine Dion's \"Because You Loved Me\". The single also debuted at number one, making Carey the first artist to have more than one number-one debut, and one of the two artists ever to have two consecutive singles debut at the top of the chart, along with Britney Spears, with \"3\" (2009) and \"Hold It Against Me\" (2011). One Sweet Day was the third best-selling single of 1995 in the US, with sales of over 1,300,000, with the second best-selling single being Carey's \"Fantasy\". The song spent 26 weeks in the top 40, was certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) and was ranked number one on Billboards \"Decade-End Charts\". To date the single sold 2,334,000 physical units. \n\nOutside the U.S., \"One Sweet Day\" was not as successful but did manage to reach the top-ten in over 13 countries and topped the chart in Canada and New Zealand, where it was certified platinum. In Canada, the song debuted on the RPM Singles Chart at number 89 on the RPM issue dated December 4, 1995, and reached the top of the chart on January 22, 1996. It was present on the chart for a total of 24 weeks, and ranked 12th on the RPM Year-end chart for 1996. It reached the top-two in Australia (platinum), The Netherlands; the top-five in France (silver) and Ireland and the top-ten in Belgium, Norway (platinum), Sweden and the United Kingdom (silver). In the UK, it is one of Carey's best-selling singles, with estimated sales of 255,000. \n\nMusic video \n\nThe song's music video was directed by Larry Jordan. When Carey and Boyz II Men got together to record \"One Sweet Day\", they did not have enough time to re-unite and film a video. Instead, a filming crew was present during the song's recording, and filmed bits of Carey and Boyz recording the song. Walter Afanasieff later told Fred Bronson that shooting the video was \"crazy\", stating \"They had film crews and video guys, while I'm at the board trying to produce. And these guys were running around having a ball, because Mariah and them are laughing and screaming and they're being interviewed. And I'm tapping people on the shoulder. 'We've got to get to the microphone!' They're gone in a couple of hours, so I recorded everything they did, praying that it was enough.\" After the song's release, Carey expressed her content with the video. that she was happy a real music video was never filmed, fearing that no video could truly capture the song's \"precious message\". Critics agreed, feeling that the song was a perfect match for the video and its message. Aside from the recording sessions, the video also shared bits of Carey and Boyz bonding and sharing their ideas in the studio, where Carey felt they \"bonded\".\n\nLive performances \n\n\"One Sweet Day\" was performed at the 38th Annual Grammy Awards, held on February 28, 1996. During the performance, Carey wore a long black dress and matching sleeveless blouse, while the group wore white jackets and black pants. After the song's bridge, a choir of male and female vocalists took place on the rafters placed over the stage, all wearing white gowns. The song was also performed at the memorial service for Princess Diana in September 1997, where other performers included Elton John. During the service and song recital, Carey wore a conservative long black sheer gown, with long golden curls. Boyz II Men all wore similar matching dark suit and garments. The song became part of Carey's BET Christmas special in 2001, where she sang the song alongside Boyz II Men. During the special, Carey wore a red gown in honor of the show's holiday theme, and featured a long golden hairstyle. One of the male vocalists had already been switched, as one of the group members had already resigned.\n\nAside from live television appearances, the song was performed on many of Carey's tours. \"One Sweet Day\" was performed at every show on her Daydream World Tour (1996), where Boyz II Men were featured on a large projection screen. The footage was taken from Carey's filmed concert at Madison Square Garden in late-1995, and was played in sync with Carey's verses. A similar concept was used for her Butterfly World Tour (1998), with the addition of several live back up vocalists joining on stage. Additionally, the song was performed on select dates on her The Adventures of Mimi tour (2006). During the tour's filmed show in Anaheim California, the group joined Carey live on stage and performed the song together. For the segment of the show, Carey wore a long turquoise gown, with several slits and cuts fashioned into the sides. During the Angels Advocate Tour in 2010, Carey performed a snippet of the song in Singapore, with Trey Lorenz filling in for the group's verses. Carey also performed the song as a part of her 2015 Las Vegas residency, Mariah Carey Number 1's, with Lorenz reprising his role as well as Daniel Moore.\n\nCover versions \n\n\"One Sweet Day\" was performed by the seven finalists on the seventh season of American Idol. The performance was taped due to the \"Mariah Carey\" themed week, where all the competitors sang songs from Carey's repertoire. The song was additionally sung on the fifth season of the UK TV show The X Factor, by the British boy-band JLS. Their performance received praise from all four judges, who commented how it was an \"impossibly hard song to sing\" because it was a \"Mariah song\". The song was also performed by John Adeleye during the seventh season The X Factor. The theme of the night was \"#1 songs\". Shannon Magrane performed the song on the eleventh season of American Idol the week the contestants performed songs from their birth years. Andy Williams released a version in 2007 on his album, I Don't Remember Ever Growing Up.\n\nFormats and track listings \n\nWorldwide Cassette CD single \n# \"One Sweet Day\" (Album Version) – 4:41\n# \"One Sweet Day\" (Live Version form Fantasy: Mariah Carey at Madison Square Garden) – 5:08\n\nJapanese CD maxi-single \n# \"One Sweet Day\" (Album Version) – 4:42\n# \"One Sweet Day\" (Live Version from Fantasy: Mariah Carey at Madison Square Garden) – 5:10\n# \"Open Arms\" – 3:30\n\nUK CD maxi-single #1 \n# \"One Sweet Day\" (Album Version) – 4:41\n# \"One Sweet Day\" (Sweet A Cappella) – 4:52\n# \"One Sweet Day\" (A Cappella) – 4:48\n# \"One Sweet Day\" (Chucky's Remix) – 4:51\n# \"One Sweet Day\" (Live Version from Fantasy: Mariah Carey at Madison Square Garden) – 5:08\n\nUK CD maxi-single #2 \n# \"One Sweet Day\" (Album Version) – 4:44\n# \"Fantasy\" (Def Drums Mix) – 4:01\n# \"Joy to the World\" (Celebration Mix) – 7:58\n# \"Joy to the World\" (Club Mix) – 7:35\n\nU.S. CD maxi-single \n# \"One Sweet Day\" (Album Version) – 4:41\n# \"One Sweet Day\" (Sweet A Cappella) – 4:52\n# \"One Sweet Day\" (A Cappella) – 4:48\n# \"One Sweet Day\" (Chucky's Remix) – 4:51\n# \"One Sweet Day\" (Live Version) – 5:08\n# \"Fantasy\" (Def Drums Mix) – 4:00\n\nCredits and personnel \n\nCredits adapted from the Daydream liner notes. \n* Mariah Carey – co-production, songwriting, vocals\n* Walter Afanasieff – co-production, songwriting\n* Nathan Morris – songwriting, vocals\n* Wanya Morris – songwriting, vocals\n* Shawn Stockman – songwriting, vocals\n* Michael McCary – songwriting, vocals\n\nCharts and certifications \n\nWeekly charts \n\nDecade-end charts \n\nAll-time charts \n\nYear-end charts \n\nCertifications and sales" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Because You Loved Me" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "because you loved me" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "because you loved me", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Because You Loved Me" }
Which actor paid $93,500 for the baseball which rolled between Bill Buckner's legs in game six of the 1986 World Series?	tc_709	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Bill_Buckner.txt" ], "title": [ "Bill Buckner" ], "wiki_context": [ "William \"Bill\" Joseph Buckner (born December 14, 1949) is a former Major League Baseball (MLB) first baseman. He appeared in MLB from 1969 through 1990. During his career, he played for the Los Angeles Dodgers, Chicago Cubs, Boston Red Sox, California Angels, and Kansas City Royals.\n\nBuckner accumulated over 2,700 hits in his twenty-year career, won a batting title in , and represented the Cubs at the All-Star Game the following season.\n\nDespite his successes, Buckner is best remembered for a ground ball fielding error in the tenth inning that ended Game 6 of the 1986 World Series against the New York Mets, a play that has since become prominently entrenched in American baseball lore. \n\nEarly years\n\nBuckner was born in Vallejo, California and grew up in American Canyon, California. He graduated from Napa High School in 1968 after playing on the school's baseball and football teams. While playing football, he was a two-time All-Statewide receiver Coaches and also achieved All-America honors twice. Buckner was selected by the Los Angeles Dodgers in the second round of the 1968 Major League Baseball draft. His friend, Bobby Valentine, was the Dodgers' first round pick. Upon signing with the Dodgers, Buckner was assigned to the Ogden Dodgers of the Pioneer League. He also briefly attended Los Angeles Valley College, the University of Southern California and Arizona State University and became a member of the Sigma Chi fraternity while a farmhand with the Dodgers.\n\nCareer\n\nLos Angeles Dodgers\n\nAfter two minor league seasons, in which he batted .323, Buckner made his major league debut with the Los Angeles Dodgers as a September call-up in at the age of 19. He appeared in one game, September 21 against the San Francisco Giants, and popped out to second baseman Ron Hunt, pinch hitting for Jim Brewer in the ninth inning. \n\nBuckner began the season with the Dodgers, but after batting .121 with no home runs and no RBIs, he was returned to Triple-A Spokane. His .335 batting average with the Spokane Indians earned him a second chance, and he returned to the Dodgers when rosters expanded that September. He batted .257 in the months of September and October, with four RBIs and five runs scored.\n\nBuckner earned a starting job with the Dodgers in as their opening day right fielder. Buckner also played some first base with the Dodgers, making 87 starts at first in , but when Steve Garvey emerged as a Gold Glove first baseman and the National League's Most Valuable Player the following season, he was shifted to left field permanently. Buckner played a supporting role in a baseball milestone on April 8, . Playing left field, Buckner climbed the fence in an attempt to catch Hank Aaron's 715th home run. In his Dodger career, Buckner batted .289 with 38 home runs and 277 runs batted in in 773 games.\n\nChicago Cubs\n\nFollowing the season, Buckner was traded to the Chicago Cubs with Iván DeJesús and Jeff Albert for Rick Monday and Mike Garman. He'd suffered a staph infection in his ankle in , so the Cubs shifted him to first base, where he remained for the final fourteen years of his career.\n\nWhereas early indications seemed to lean toward the Dodgers getting the better end of this deal, with Monday becoming one of the key centerpieces of the Dodgers clubs that went to the and 1978 World Series, Buckner soon emerged as something of a star for the beleaguered Cubs. During his career in Chicago, he batted over .300 four times, leading the league in 1980 at .324, and was the Cubs' sole representative at the 1981 Major League Baseball All-Star Game. \n\nOn May 17, 1979, in a famous slugfest at Wrigley Field that included three homers by Dave Kingman and two by Mike Schmidt, Buckner went four-for-seven with a grand slam and seven RBIs. When manager Herman Franks resigned late in the 1979 season, he made negative comments about several players, including calling Buckner \"nuts.\" \n\nBoston Red Sox\n\nEarly in the season, the Boston Red Sox were in the market for an upgrade at first base. On May 25, they acquired Buckner from the Cubs for Dennis Eckersley and Mike Brumley. The Red Sox were 19–25, and in sixth place in the American League East at the time of the trade, and improved to 67–51 the rest of the way to finish the season in fourth.\n\nBuckner appeared in all 162 games for the Red Sox in , and batted .299 with sixteen home runs and a career high 110 RBIs. Buckner was a prototypical contact hitter, and struck out just 36 times in 718 plate appearances to lead the league in that category (he also led the league in most at bats per strike out in , & , and placed second in , , & ). In 1985, he also set the Major League record for assists by a first baseman in a season with 184. His record stood for almost 25 years; in , the St. Louis Cardinals' Albert Pujols had 185 assists.\n\nIn September 1986, Buckner hit .340 with eight home runs and 22 RBIs, while missing just three games in spite of chronic ankle soreness. Dave Stapleton, the Bosox first baseman prior to the acquisition of Buckner, began seeing more playing time as a late inning defensive replacement for Buckner in September and October. Buckner, meanwhile, became the first major league player to wear Nike high-top baseball cleats professionally in an effort to relieve pressure from his ankles.\n\nBuckner drove in over 100 runs for the second season in a row, and was a key member of the team that won the American League East by 5.5 games. He entered Game five of the 1986 American League Championship Series batting just .111 in the ALCS, and was 0-for-three in the game when he singled to start the ninth inning rally, which was capped off by Dave Henderson's famous home run. He went three-for-six in the final two games, as the Red Sox came back from the brink of elimination to defeat the California Angels, and win the American League pennant.\n\n1986 World Series\n\nBoston was leading the heavily favored New York Mets three games to two in the 1986 World Series when Game Six of the series went into extra innings. For his part, Buckner was batting just .143 against Mets pitching, and was 0-for-5 in Game 6. When the Sox scored two runs in the top of the tenth, Boston manager John McNamara chose to have Buckner take the field in the bottom of the inning instead of bringing Stapleton in as a defensive replacement for the ailing Buckner as he had in games one, two and five. \n\nNew York came back to tie the game with three straight two-out singles off Calvin Schiraldi and a wild pitch by Bob Stanley. Mookie Wilson fouled off several pitches before hitting a slow roller to Buckner at first base. Aware of Wilson's speed, Buckner tried to rush the play. As a result, the ball rolled to the left side of his glove, through his legs and into right field, allowing Ray Knight to score the winning run from second base. \n\nBoston led Game 7 of the World Series 3–0 heading into the bottom of the sixth inning when New York scored three runs off Bruce Hurst (who had been named World Series Most Valuable Player before the Mets' improbable comeback in Game 6) to tie the game, and score three more off Schiraldi in the seventh to take a 6–3 lead. Buckner was two-for-four in the game, and scored one of two runs the Sox plated in the eighth. However, the comeback fell short, and the Mets won their second World Championship in franchise history. \n\nFallout\n\nRegardless of Schiraldi's pitching, Stanley's wild pitch or any of the other perceived shortcomings that led to Boston's loss in the 1986 World Series, Buckner's error epitomized the \"Curse of the Bambino\" in the minds of Red Sox fans, and he soon became the scapegoat for a frustrated fan base. Despite the fact that Buckner's error came after the score was already tied and the best he could have possibly done was to send Game 6 into an 11th inning, Buckner began receiving death threats and was heckled and booed by some of his own home fans. Meanwhile, he was the focal point of derision from the fans of opposing teams on the road—especially when he faced the Mets in Spring training , and the first time he came to bat at Yankee Stadium during the regular season. The Red Sox released Buckner on July 23, 1987, after recording a .273 batting average, two home runs and 42 RBI through 95 games.\n\nCareer twilight\n\nUpon his release from the Red Sox, Buckner signed with the California Angels. For the remainder of the 1987 season, Buckner batted .306 and drove in 32 runs in just 57 games.\n\nAt 38 years old, Buckner was released by the Angels on May 9, just before a road trip that would have brought him to New York against the Yankees and Boston. He signed with the Kansas City Royals shortly after his release, and walked into Fenway Park as a player for the opposing team for the first time on July 15. He went one-for-two off Roger Clemens with a walk. \n\nForgiveness\n\nBuckner returned to the Red Sox in as a free agent, and received a standing ovation from the crowd during player introductions at the home opener on April 9. \n\nBill Buckner’s last home run was against Kirk McCaskill on April 25, 1990, at Fenway Park – and was the only inside-the-park home run of his career. Despite his infamous bad legs, the 40-year-old Buckner circled the bases in the fourth inning when Angels’ outfielder Claudell Washington fell into the grandstands behind the short right field wall while attempting to retrieve Buckner’s drive over Washington's head. \n\nHis return was short lived, as he retired on June 5 with a .186 batting average, one home run and three RBIs.\n\nOn April 8, , Buckner threw out the first pitch to former teammate Dwight Evans at the Red Sox home opener as they unfurled their 2007 World Series championship banner. He received a four-minute standing ovation from the sell-out crowd. After the game, when asked if he had any second thoughts about appearing at the game, he said, \"I really had to forgive, not the fans of Boston, per se, but I would have to say in my heart I had to forgive the media for what they put me and my family through. So, you know, I've done that and I'm over that.\" \n\nCareer stats\n\nBuckner was a speedy baserunner until his ankle surgeries in 1975 and '76 for a severe ankle sprain and bone chips, respectively. He twice finished in the top-ten in the league in stolen bases ( & 1976), and twice led the league in doubles (1981 & 1983). After moving to first base, he played 1,555 regular season games and made only 128 errors in 13,901 chances.\n\nPost-playing career\n\nAfter Buckner retired from professional baseball he moved his family to Idaho, where he invested in real estate in the Boise area. One of the housing subdivisions which he developed is named Fenway Park. He lent his name to and was a minority owner of a local car dealership, Bill Buckner Motors in Emmett, which was in business from to 2008.\n\nOn January 4, 2011, Buckner was named the manager of the Brockton Rox of the Can-Am League. The Rox posted a 51–42 record in 2011, but after the season, the Rox dropped the professional format to join the Futures Collegiate Baseball League. In December, Buckner became the hitting instructor for the Boise Hawks for 2012. The Hawks are the Cubs' affiliate in the Class A-Short Season Northwest League. Buckner announced his retirement from baseball on March 3, 2014. \nBuckner was inducted into the Napa High School Hall of fame in 1997 and the CIF Sac-Joaquin Section Hall of Fame in 2010.\n\nPersonal life\n\nWith his wife, Jody, Buckner has two daughters, Brittany & Christen, and a son, Bobby. Bobby is a member of the Texas A&M–Corpus Christi Islanders baseball team. Buckner also has two brothers, Jim & Robert, who played minor league ball but did not make it to the majors. He also has a sister, Jan, who is Jim's twin.\n\nWarren Brusstar who also graduated from Napa High School was a teammate with Buckner for a year and a half while they played for the Cubs. \n\nReferences in popular culture\n\nCharlie Sheen purchased the \"Buckner Ball\" at auction in for $93,000, and it long resided in the collection of songwriter Seth Swirsky, who refers to it as the \"Mookie Ball.\" The ball was on loan for a time from Swirsky to the Mets to display in their Mets Hall of Fame and Museum, and it was among the most popular artifacts for fans to see. On May 3, 2012, Swirsky sold the ball through Heritage Auctions for $418,250. \n\nBuckner made a cameo at the beginning of the sports parody film The Comebacks and\nappeared in an episode of the HBO series Curb Your Enthusiasm, as well as a cameo in the pilot episode of the short-lived sitcom Inside Schwartz, advising the title character to \"just let it go\". His famous miscue is also referenced in the films Celtic Pride, Rounders and Fever Pitch, the episode \"Brother's Little Helper\" of The Simpsons, and the musical Johnny Baseball. On October 23, 2008, during former Federal Reserve chairman Alan Greenspan's testimony in House hearings on the economic crisis of 2008, Representative John Yarmuth referred to Greenspan as one of \"three Bill Buckners.\" \n\nDuring WrestleMania XIV, Pete Rose cut a promo against the city of Boston, facetiously saying \"I left tickets (to the event) for Bill Buckner, but he couldn't bend over to pick 'em up. How 'bout it?\"" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Bi-winning", "Charlie Sheen", "Carlos Estevez", "Charlysheen", "Charles sheen", "WINNING!", "Carlos Estavez", "Charlie sheen", "Carlos irwin estevez", "Carlos estevez", "Charles Irwin Sheen", "Carlos Irwin Estévez", "Carlos Estévez", "Duh, winning", "Carlos Irwin Estevez" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "winning", "charlysheen", "carlos estavez", "charles sheen", "carlos irwin estévez", "carlos irwin estevez", "charles irwin sheen", "charlie sheen", "carlos estévez", "bi winning", "carlos estevez", "duh winning" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "charlie sheen", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Charlie Sheen" }
Who was Theodore Roosevelt's Vice President between 1905 and 1909?	tc_710	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Vice_President_of_the_United_States.txt" ], "title": [ "Vice President of the United States" ], "wiki_context": [ "The Vice President of the United States (VPOTUS) is the second-highest position in the executive branch of the United States, after the President. The executive power of both the vice president and the president is granted under Article Two, Section One of the Constitution. The vice president is indirectly elected, together with the president, to a four-year term of office by the people of the United States through the Electoral College. The vice president is the first person in the presidential line of succession, and would normally ascend to the presidency upon the death, resignation, or removal of the president. The Office of the Vice President of the United States assists and organizes the vice president's official functions.\n\nThe vice president is also president of the United States Senate and in that capacity only votes when it is necessary to break a tie. While Senate customs have created supermajority rules that have diminished this constitutional tie-breaking authority, the vice president still retains the ability to influence legislation; for example, the Deficit Reduction Act of 2005 was passed in the Senate by a tie-breaking vice presidential vote. Additionally, pursuant to the Twelfth Amendment, the vice president presides over the joint session of Congress when it convenes to count the vote of the Electoral College.\n\nWhile the vice president's only constitutionally prescribed functions aside from presidential succession relate to their role as President of the Senate, the office is commonly viewed as a component of the executive branch of the federal government. The United States Constitution does not expressly assign the office to any one branch, causing a dispute among scholars whether it belongs to the executive branch, the legislative branch, or both. The modern view of the vice president as a member of the executive branch is due in part to the assignment of executive duties to the vice president by either the president or Congress, though such activities are only recent historical developments.\n\nOrigin\n\nThe creation of the office of vice president was a direct consequence of the creation of the Electoral College. Delegates to the Philadelphia Convention gave each state a number of presidential electors equal to that state's combined share of House and Senate seats. Yet the delegates were worried that each elector would only favor his own state's favorite son candidate, resulting in deadlocked elections that would produce no winners. To counter this potential difficulty, the delegates gave each presidential elector two votes, requiring that at least one of their votes be for a candidate from outside the elector's state; they also mandated that the winner of an election must obtain an absolute majority of the total number of electors. The delegates expected that each elector's second vote would go to a statesman of national character.\n\nFearing that electors might throw away their second vote to bolster their favorite son's chance of winning, however, the Philadelphia delegates specified that the runner-up would become vice president. Creating this new office imposed a political cost on discarded votes and forced electors to cast their second ballot.\n\nRoles of the vice president\n\nThe Constitution limits the formal powers and role of vice president to becoming president, should the president become unable to serve, prompting the well-known expression \"only a heartbeat away from the presidency,\" and to acting as the presiding officer of the U.S. Senate.\nOther statutorily granted roles include membership of both the National Security Council and the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. \n\nPresident of the United States Senate\n\nAs President of the Senate, the vice president has two primary duties: to cast a vote in the event of a Senate deadlock and to preside over and certify the official vote count of the U.S. Electoral College. For example, in the first half of 2001, the Senators were divided 50-50 between Republicans and Democrats and Dick Cheney's tie-breaking vote gave the Republicans the Senate majority.\n\nRegular duties\n\nAs President of the Senate (Article I, Section 3, Clause 4), the vice president oversees procedural matters and may cast a tie-breaking vote. There is a strong convention within the U.S. Senate that the vice president should not use their position as President of the Senate to influence the passage of legislation or act in a partisan manner, except in the case of breaking tie votes. As President of the Senate, John Adams cast twenty-nine tie-breaking votes, a record no successor except John C. Calhoun ever threatened. Adams's votes protected the president's sole authority over the removal of appointees, influenced the location of the national capital, and prevented war with Great Britain. On at least one occasion Adams persuaded senators to vote against legislation he opposed, and he frequently addressed the Senate on procedural and policy matters. Adams's political views and his active role in the Senate made him a natural target for critics of George Washington's administration. Toward the end of his first term, a threatened resolution that would have silenced him except for procedural and policy matters caused him to exercise more restraint in hopes of seeing his election as President of the United States.\n\nFormerly, the vice president would preside regularly over Senate proceedings, but in modern times, the vice president rarely presides over day-to-day matters in the Senate; in their place, the Senate chooses a President pro tempore (or \"president for a time\") to preside in the vice president's absence; the Senate normally selects the longest-serving senator in the majority party. The President pro tempore has the power to appoint any other senator to preside, and in practice junior senators from the majority party are assigned the task of presiding over the Senate at most times.\n\nExcept for this tie-breaking role, the Standing Rules of the Senate vest no significant responsibilities in the vice president. Rule XIX, which governs debate, does not authorize the vice president to participate in debate, and grants only to members of the Senate (and, upon appropriate notice, former presidents of the United States) the privilege of addressing the Senate, without granting a similar privilege to the sitting vice president. Thus, as Time magazine wrote during the controversial tenure of Vice President Charles G. Dawes, \"once in four years the Vice President can make a little speech, and then he is done. For four years he then has to sit in the seat of the silent, attending to speeches ponderous or otherwise, of deliberation or humor.\" \n\nRecurring, infrequent duties\n\nThe President of the Senate also presides over counting and presentation of the votes of the Electoral College. This process occurs in the presence of both houses of Congress, generally on January 6 of the year following a U.S. presidential election. In this capacity, only four vice presidents have been able to announce their own election to the presidency: John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, Martin Van Buren, and George H. W. Bush. At the beginning of 1961, it fell to Richard Nixon to preside over this process, which officially announced the election of his 1960 opponent, John F. Kennedy. In 2001, Al Gore announced the election of his opponent, George W. Bush. In 1969, Vice President Hubert Humphrey would have announced the election of his opponent, Richard Nixon; however, on the date of the Congressional joint session (January 6), Humphrey was in Norway attending the funeral of Trygve Lie, the first elected Secretary-General of the United Nations. \n\nIn 1933, incumbent Vice President Charles Curtis announced the election of House Speaker John Nance Garner as his successor, while Garner was seated next to him on the House dais.\n\nThe President of the Senate may also preside over most of the impeachment trials of federal officers. However, whenever the President of the United States is impeached, the US Constitution requires the Chief Justice of the United States to preside over the Senate for the trial. The Constitution is silent as to the presiding officer in the instance where the vice president is the officer impeached.\n\nSuccession and the Twenty-Fifth Amendment\n\nThe U.S. Constitution provides that should the president die, become disabled while in office or removed from office, the \"powers and duties\" of the office are transferred to the vice president. Initially, it was unclear whether the vice president actually became the new president or merely an acting president. This was first tested in 1841 with the death of President William Henry Harrison. Harrison's vice president, John Tyler, asserted that he had succeeded to the full presidential office, powers, and title, and declined to acknowledge documents referring to him as \"Acting President.\" Despite some strong calls against it, Tyler took the oath of office as the tenth President. Tyler's claim was not challenged legally, and so the Tyler precedent of full succession was established. This was made explicit by Section 1 of the Twenty-fifth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, ratified in 1967.\n\nSection 2 of the Twenty-fifth Amendment provides for vice presidential succession:\n Gerald Ford was the first vice president selected by this method, after the resignation of Vice President Spiro Agnew in 1973; after succeeding to the presidency, Ford nominated Nelson Rockefeller as vice president.\n\nAnother issue was who had the power to declare that an incapacitated president is unable to discharge his duties. This question had arisen most recently with the illnesses of President Dwight D. Eisenhower. Section 3 and Section 4 of the amendment provide means for the vice president to become acting president upon the temporary disability of the president. Section 3 deals with self-declared incapacity of the president. Section 4 deals with incapacity declared by the joint action of the vice president and of a majority of the Cabinet.\n\nWhile Section 4 has never been invoked, Section 3 has been invoked three times: on July 13, 1985 when Ronald Reagan underwent surgery to remove cancerous polyps from his colon, and twice more on June 29, 2002 and July 21, 2007 when George W. Bush underwent colonoscopy procedures requiring sedation. Prior to this amendment, Vice President Richard Nixon informally assumed some of President Dwight Eisenhower's duties for several weeks on each of three occasions when Eisenhower was ill.\n\nInformal roles\n\nThe extent of any informal roles and functions of the vice president depend on the specific relationship between the president and the vice president, but often include tasks such as drafter and spokesperson for the administration's policies, adviser to the president, and being a symbol of American concern or support. The influence of the vice president in this role depends almost entirely on the characteristics of the particular administration. Dick Cheney, for instance, was widely regarded as one of President George W. Bush's closest confidants. Al Gore was an important adviser to President Bill Clinton on matters of foreign policy and the environment. Often, vice presidents are chosen to act as a \"balance\" to the president, taking either more moderate or radical positions on issues.\n\nUnder the American system the president is both head of state and head of government, and the ceremonial duties of the former position are often delegated to the vice president. The vice president is often assigned the ceremonial duties of representing the president and the government at state funerals or other functions in the United States. This often is the most visible role of the vice president, and has occasionally been the subject of ridicule, such as during the vice presidency of George H. W. Bush. The vice president may meet with other heads of state or attend state funerals in other countries, at times when the administration wishes to demonstrate concern or support but cannot send the president themselves.\n\nOffice as stepping stone to the presidency\n\nIn recent decades, the vice presidency has frequently been used as a platform to launch bids for the presidency. The transition of the office to its modern stature occurred primarily as a result of Franklin Roosevelt's 1940 nomination, when he captured the ability to nominate his running mate instead of leaving the nomination to the convention. Prior to that, party bosses often used the vice presidential nomination as a consolation prize for the party's minority faction. A further factor potentially contributing to the rise in prestige of the office was the adoption of presidential preference primaries in the early 20th century. By adopting primary voting, the field of candidates for vice president was expanded by both the increased quantity and quality of presidential candidates successful in some primaries, yet who ultimately failed to capture the presidential nomination at the convention.\n\nOf the thirteen presidential elections from 1956 to 2004, nine featured the incumbent president; the other four (1960, 1968, 1988, 2000) all featured the incumbent vice president. Former vice presidents also ran, in 1984 (Walter Mondale), and in 1968 (Richard Nixon, against the incumbent vice president, Hubert Humphrey). The first presidential election to include neither the incumbent president nor the incumbent vice president on a major party ticket since 1952 came in 2008 when President George W. Bush had already served two terms and Vice President Cheney chose not to run. Richard Nixon is also the only non-sitting vice president to be elected president, as well as the only person to be elected president and vice president twice each.\n\nSelection process\n\nEligibility\n\nThe Twelfth Amendment states that \"no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible to that of Vice President of the United States.\" Thus, to serve as vice president, an individual must:\n* Be a natural-born U.S. citizen;\n* Be at least 35 years old\n* Have resided in the U.S. at least 14 years. \n\nDisqualifications\n\nAdditionally, Section 3 of the Fourteenth Amendment denies eligibility for any federal office to anyone who, having sworn an oath to support the United States Constitution, later has rebelled against the United States. This disqualification, originally aimed at former supporters of the Confederacy, may be removed by a two-thirds vote of each house of the Congress.\n\nUnder the Twenty-second Amendment, the President of the United States may not be elected to more than two terms. However, there is no similar such limitation as to how many times one can be elected vice president. Scholars disagree whether a former president barred from election to the presidency is also ineligible to be elected or appointed vice president, as suggested by the Twelfth Amendment. The issue has never been tested in practice.\n\nAlso, Article I, Section 3, Clause 7 allows the Senate, upon voting to remove an impeached federal official from office, to disqualify that official from holding any federal office.\n\nResidency limitation\n\nWhile it is commonly held that the president and vice president must be residents of different states, this is not actually the case. Nothing in the Constitution prohibits both candidates being from a single state. Instead, the limitation imposed is on the members of the Electoral College, who must cast a ballot for at least one candidate who is not from their own state.\n\nIn theory, the candidates elected could both be from one state, but the electors of that state would, in a close electoral contest, run the risk of denying their vice presidential candidate the absolute majority required to secure the election, even if the presidential candidate is elected. This would then place the vice presidential election in the hands of the Senate.\n\nIn practice, however, residency is rarely an issue. Parties have avoided nominating tickets containing two candidates from the same state. Further, the candidates may themselves take action to alleviate any residency conflict. For example, at the start of the 2000 election cycle Dick Cheney was a resident of Texas; Cheney quickly changed his residency back to Wyoming, where he had previously served as a U.S. Representative, when Texas governor and Republican presidential nominee George W. Bush asked Cheney to be his vice presidential candidate.\n\nNominating process\n\nThough the vice president does not need to have any political experience, most major-party vice presidential nominees are current or former United States Senators or Representatives, with the occasional nominee being a current or former Governor, a high-ranking military officer, or a holder of a major post within the Executive Department. The vice presidential candidates of the major national political parties are formally selected by each party's quadrennial nominating convention, following the selection of the party's presidential candidates. The official process is identical to the one by which the presidential candidates are chosen, with delegates placing the names of candidates into nomination, followed by a ballot in which candidates must receive a majority to secure the party's nomination.\n\nIn practice, the presidential nominee has considerable influence on the decision, and in the 20th century it became customary for that person to select a preferred running mate, who is then nominated and accepted by the convention. In recent years, with the presidential nomination usually being a foregone conclusion as the result of the primary process, the selection of a vice presidential candidate is often announced prior to the actual balloting for the presidential candidate, and sometimes before the beginning of the convention itself. The first presidential aspirant to announce his selection for vice president before the beginning of the convention was Ronald Reagan who, prior to the 1976 Republican National Convention announced that Richard Schweiker would be his running mate. Reagan's supporters then sought to amend the convention rules so that Gerald R. Ford would be required to name his vice presidential running mate in advance as well. The proposal was defeated, and Reagan did not receive the nomination in 1976. Often, the presidential nominee will name a vice presidential candidate who will bring geographic or ideological balance to the ticket or appeal to a particular constituency.\n\nThe vice presidential candidate might also be chosen on the basis of traits the presidential candidate is perceived to lack, or on the basis of name recognition. To foster party unity, popular runners-up in the presidential nomination process are commonly considered. While this selection process may enhance the chances of success for a national ticket, in the past it often insured that the vice presidential nominee represented regions, constituencies, or ideologies at odds with those of the presidential candidate. As a result, vice presidents were often excluded from the policy-making process of the new administration. Many times their relationships with the president and his staff were aloof, non-existent, or even adversarial.\n\nThe ultimate goal of vice presidential candidate selection is to help and not hurt the party's chances of getting elected. A selection whose positive traits make the presidential candidate look less favorable in comparison can backfire, such as in 1988 when Democratic candidate Michael Dukakis chose experienced Texas Senator Lloyd Bentsen, and in 2008 when Republican candidate John McCain picked dynamic Alaska Governor Sarah Palin. However, Palin also hurt McCain when her interviews with Katie Couric led to concerns about her fitness for the presidency. In 1984, Walter Mondale picked Geraldine Ferraro whose nomination became a drag on the ticket due to repeated questions about her husband's finances. Questions about Dan Quayle's experience and temperament were raised in the 1988 presidential campaign of George H.W. Bush, but he still won. James Stockdale, the choice of third-party candidate Ross Perot in 1992, was seen as unqualified by many, but the Perot-Stockdale ticket still won about 19% of the vote.\n\nHistorically, vice presidential candidates were chosen to provide geographic and ideological balance to a presidential ticket, widening a presidential candidate's appeal to voters from outside his regional base or wing of the party. Candidates from electoral-vote rich states were usually preferred. However, in 1992, moderate Democrat Bill Clinton (of Arkansas) chose moderate Democrat Al Gore (of Tennessee)\nas his running mate. Despite the two candidates' near-identical ideological and regional backgrounds, Gore's extensive experience in national affairs enhanced the appeal of a ticket headed by Clinton, whose political career had been spent entirely at the local and state levels of government. In 2000, George W. Bush chose Dick Cheney of Wyoming, a reliably Republican state with only three electoral votes, and in 2008, Barack Obama mirrored Bush's strategy when he chose Joe Biden of Delaware, a reliably Democratic state, likewise one with only three electoral votes. Both Cheney and Biden were chosen for their experience in national politics (experience lacked by both Bush and Obama) rather than the ideological balance or electoral vote advantage they would provide.\n\nThe first presidential candidate to choose his vice presidential candidate was Franklin Delano Roosevelt in 1940. The last not to name a vice presidential choice, leaving the matter up to the convention, was Democrat Adlai Stevenson in 1956. The convention chose Tennessee Senator Estes Kefauver over Massachusetts Senator (and later president) John F. Kennedy. At the tumultuous 1972 Democratic convention, presidential nominee George McGovern selected Senator Thomas Eagleton as his running mate, but numerous other candidates were either nominated from the floor or received votes during the balloting. Eagleton nevertheless received a majority of the votes and the nomination, though he later resigned from the ticket, resulting in Sargent Shriver becoming McGovern's final running mate; both lost to the Nixon-Agnew ticket by a wide margin, carrying only Massachusetts and the District of Columbia.\n\nIn cases where the presidential nomination is still in doubt as the convention approaches, the campaigns for the two positions may become intertwined. In 1976, Ronald Reagan, who was trailing President Gerald R. Ford in the presidential delegate count, announced prior to the Republican National Convention that, if nominated, he would select Senator Richard Schweiker as his running mate. This move backfired to a degree, as Schweiker's relatively liberal voting record alienated many of the more conservative delegates who were considering a challenge to party delegate selection rules to improve Reagan's chances. In the end, Ford narrowly won the presidential nomination and Reagan's selection of Schweiker became moot.\n\nElection, oath, and tenure\n\nVice presidents are elected indirectly in the United States. A number of electors, collectively known as the Electoral College, officially select the president. On Election Day, voters in each of the states and the District of Columbia cast ballots for these electors. Each state is allocated a number of electors, equal to the size of its delegation in both Houses of Congress combined. Generally, the ticket that wins the most votes in a state wins all of that state's electoral votes and thus has its slate of electors chosen to vote in the Electoral College.\n\nThe winning slate of electors meet at its state's capital on the first Monday after the second Wednesday in December, about six weeks after the election, to vote. They then send a record of that vote to Congress. The vote of the electors is opened by the sitting vice president, acting in his capacity as President of the Senate and read aloud to a joint session of the incoming Congress, which was elected at the same time as the president.\n\nPursuant to the Twentieth Amendment, the vice president's term of office begins at noon on January 20 of the year following the election. This date, known as Inauguration Day, marks the beginning of the four-year terms of both the president and vice president.\n\nAlthough Article VI requires that the vice president take an oath or affirmation of allegiance to the US Constitution, unlike the president, the United States Constitution does not specify the precise wording of the oath of office for the vice president. Several variants of the oath have been used since 1789; the current form, which is also recited by Senators, Representatives and other government officers, has been used since 1884:\n\nThe term of office for vice president is four years. While the Twenty-Second Amendment generally restricts the president to two terms, there is no similar limitation on the office of vice president, meaning an eligible person could hold the office as long as voters continued to vote for electors who in turn would renew the vice president's tenure. A vice president could even serve under different administrations, as George Clinton and John C. Calhoun have done.\n\nOriginal election process and reform\n\nUnder the original terms of the Constitution, the electors of the Electoral College voted only for office of president rather than for both president and vice president. Each elector was allowed to vote for two people for the top office. The person receiving the greatest number of votes (provided that such a number was a majority of electors) would be president, while the individual who received the next largest number of votes became vice president. If no one received a majority of votes, then the House of Representatives would choose among the five candidates with the largest numbers of votes, with each state's representatives together casting a single vote. In such a case, the person who received the highest number of votes but was not chosen president would become vice president. In the case of a tie for second, then the Senate would choose the vice president.Wikisource:Constitution of the United States of America#Section 1 2\n\nThe original plan, however, did not foresee the development of political parties and their adversarial role in the government. For example, in the election of 1796, Federalist John Adams came in first, but because the Federalist electors had divided their second vote amongst several vice presidential candidates, Democratic-Republican Thomas Jefferson came second. Thus, the president and vice president were from opposing parties. Predictably, Adams and Jefferson clashed over issues such as states' rights and foreign policy. \n\nA greater problem occurred in the election of 1800, in which the two participating parties each had a secondary candidate they intended to elect as vice president, but the more popular Democratic-Republican party failed to execute that plan with their electoral votes. Under the system in place at the time (Article II, Section 1, Clause 3), the electors could not differentiate between their two candidates, so the plan had been for one elector to vote for Thomas Jefferson but not for Aaron Burr, thus putting Burr in second place. This plan broke down for reasons that are disputed, and both candidates received the same number of votes. After 35 deadlocked ballots in the House of Representatives, Jefferson finally won on the 36th ballot and Burr became vice president. \n\nThis tumultuous affair led to the adoption of the Twelfth Amendment in 1804, which directed the electors to use separate ballots to vote for the president and vice president. While this solved the problem at hand, it ultimately had the effect of lowering the prestige of the vice presidency, as the office was no longer for the leading challenger for the presidency.\n\nThe separate ballots for president and vice president became something of a moot issue later in the 19th century when it became the norm for popular elections to determine a state's Electoral College delegation. Electors chosen this way are pledged to vote for a particular presidential and vice presidential candidate (offered by the same political party). So, while the Constitution says that the president and vice president are chosen separately, in practice they are chosen together.\n\nIf no vice presidential candidate receives an Electoral College majority, then the Senate selects the vice president, in accordance with the United States Constitution. The Twelfth Amendment states that a \"majority of the whole number\" of Senators (currently 51 of 100) is necessary for election. Further, the language requiring an absolute majority of Senate votes precludes the sitting vice president from breaking any tie which might occur. The election of 1836 is the only election so far where the office of the vice president has been decided by the Senate. During the campaign, Martin Van Buren's running mate Richard Mentor Johnson was accused of having lived with a black woman. Virginia's 23 electors, who were pledged to Van Buren and Johnson, refused to vote for Johnson (but still voted for Van Buren). The election went to the Senate, where Johnson was elected 33-17.\n\nSalary\n\nThe vice president's salary is $230,700. The salary was set by the 1989 Government Salary Reform Act, which also provides an automatic cost of living adjustment for federal employees.\n\nThe vice president does not automatically receive a pension based on that office, but instead receives the same pension as other members of Congress based on his position as President of the Senate. The vice president must serve a minimum of five years to qualify for a pension. \n\nSince 1974, the official residence of the vice president and their family has been Number One Observatory Circle, on the grounds of the United States Naval Observatory in Washington, D.C.\n\nVacancy\n\nArticle I, Section 2, Clause 5 and Article II, Section 4 of the Constitution both authorize the House of Representatives to serve as a \"grand jury\" with the power to impeach high federal officials, including the president, for \"treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors.\" Similarly, Article I, Section 3, Clause 6 and Article II, Section 4 both authorize the Senate to serve as a court with the power to remove impeached officials from office, given a two-thirds vote to convict. No vice president has ever been impeached.\n\nPrior to ratification of the Twenty-fifth Amendment in 1967, no provision existed for filling a vacancy in the office of vice president. As a result, the vice presidency was left vacant 16 times—sometimes for nearly four years—until the next ensuing election and inauguration: eight times due to the death of the sitting president, resulting in the vice presidents becoming president; seven times due to the death of the sitting vice president; and once due to the resignation of Vice President John C. Calhoun to become a senator.\n\nCalhoun resigned because he had been dropped from the ticket by President Andrew Jackson in favor of Martin Van Buren, due primarily to conflicting with the President over the issue of nullification. Already a lame duck vice president, he was elected to the Senate by the South Carolina state legislature and resigned the vice presidency early to begin his Senate term because he believed he would have more power as a senator.\n\nSince the adoption of the Twenty-Fifth Amendment, the office has been vacant twice while awaiting confirmation of the new vice president by both houses of Congress. The first such instance occurred in 1973 following the resignation of Spiro Agnew as Richard Nixon's vice president. Gerald Ford was subsequently nominated by President Nixon and confirmed by Congress. The second occurred 10 months later when Nixon resigned following the Watergate scandal and Ford assumed the presidency. The resulting vice presidential vacancy was filled by Nelson Rockefeller. Ford and Rockefeller are the only two people to have served as vice president without having been elected to the office, and Ford remains the only person to have served as both vice president and president without being elected to either office.\n\nThe original Constitution had no provision for selecting such a replacement, so the office of vice president would remain vacant until the beginning of the next presidential and vice presidential terms. This issue had arisen most recently when the John F. Kennedy assassination caused a vacancy from November 22, 1963, until January 20, 1965, and was rectified by Section 2 of the Twenty-Fifth Amendment.\n\nGrowth of the office\n\nFor much of its existence, the office of vice president was seen as little more than a minor position. Adams, the first vice president, was the first of many who found the job frustrating and stupefying, writing to his wife Abigail that \"My country has in its wisdom contrived for me the most insignificant office that ever the invention of man contrived or his imagination conceived.\" Many vice presidents lamented the lack of meaningful work in their role. John Nance Garner, who served as vice president from 1933 to 1941 under President Franklin D. Roosevelt, claimed that the vice presidency \"isn't worth a pitcher of warm piss.\" Harry Truman, who also served as vice president under Roosevelt, said that the office was as \"useful as a cow's fifth teat.\" \n\nThomas R. Marshall, the 28th vice president, lamented: \"Once there were two brothers. One ran away to sea; the other was elected Vice President of the United States. And nothing was heard of either of them again.\" His successor, Calvin Coolidge, was so obscure that Major League Baseball sent him free passes that misspelled his name, and a fire marshal failed to recognize him when Coolidge's Washington residence was evacuated. \n\nWhen the Whig Party asked Daniel Webster to run for the vice presidency on Zachary Taylor's ticket, he replied \"I do not propose to be buried until I am really dead and in my coffin.\" This was the second time Webster declined the office, which William Henry Harrison had first offered to him. Ironically, both of the presidents making the offer to Webster died in office, meaning the three-time presidential candidate could have become president if he had accepted either. Since presidents rarely died in office, however, the better preparation for the presidency was considered to be the office of Secretary of State, in which Webster served under Harrison, Tyler, and later, Taylor's successor, Fillmore.\n\nFor many years, the vice president was given few responsibilities. Garret Hobart, the first vice president under William McKinley, was one of the very few vice presidents at this time who played an important role in the administration. A close confidant and adviser of the president, Hobart was called \"Assistant President.\" However, until 1919, vice presidents were not included in meetings of the President's Cabinet. This precedent was broken by President Woodrow Wilson when he asked Thomas R. Marshall to preside over Cabinet meetings while Wilson was in France negotiating the Treaty of Versailles. President Warren G. Harding also invited his vice president, Calvin Coolidge, to meetings. The next vice president, Charles G. Dawes, did not seek to attend Cabinet meetings under President Coolidge, declaring that \"the precedent might prove injurious to the country.\" Vice President Charles Curtis was also precluded from attending by President Herbert Hoover.\n\nIn 1933, Franklin D. Roosevelt raised the stature of the office by renewing the practice of inviting the vice president to cabinet meetings, which every president since has maintained. Roosevelt's first vice president, John Nance Garner, broke with him at the start of the second term on the Court-packing issue and became Roosevelt's leading political enemy. In 1937, Garner became the first vice president to be sworn in on the Capitol steps in the same ceremony with the president, a tradition that continues. Prior to that time, vice presidents were traditionally inaugurated at a separate ceremony in the Senate chamber. Gerald R. Ford and Nelson A. Rockefeller, who were both appointed to the office under the terms of the 25th amendment, were inaugurated in the House and Senate chambers, respectively.\n\nGarner's successor, Henry Wallace, was given major responsibilities during the war, but he moved further to the left than the Democratic Party and the rest of the Roosevelt administration and was relieved of actual power. Roosevelt kept his last vice president, Harry Truman, uninformed on all war and postwar issues, such as the atomic bomb, leading Truman to remark, wryly, that the job of the vice president was to \"go to weddings and funerals.\" Following Roosevelt's death and Truman's ascension to the presidency, the need to keep vice presidents informed on national security issues became clear, and Congress made the vice president one of four statutory members of the National Security Council in 1949.\n\nRichard Nixon reinvented the office of vice president. He had the attention of the media and the Republican party, when Dwight Eisenhower ordered him to preside at Cabinet meetings in his absence. Nixon was also the first vice president to formally assume temporary control of the executive branch, which he did after Eisenhower suffered a heart attack on September 24, 1955, ileitis in June 1956, and a stroke in November 1957.\n\nUntil 1961, vice presidents had their offices on Capitol Hill, a formal office in the Capitol itself and a working office in the Russell Senate Office Building. Lyndon B. Johnson was the first vice president to be given an office in the White House complex, in the Old Executive Office Building. The former Navy Secretary's office in the OEOB has since been designated the \"Ceremonial Office of the Vice President\" and is today used for formal events and press interviews. President Jimmy Carter was the first president to give his vice president, Walter Mondale, an office in the West Wing of the White House, which all vice presidents have since retained. Because of their function as Presidents of the Senate, vice presidents still maintain offices and staff members on Capitol Hill.\n\nThough Walter Mondale's tenure was the beginning of the modern day power of the vice presidency, the tenure of Dick Cheney saw a rapid growth in the office of the vice president. Vice President Cheney held a tremendous amount of power and frequently made policy decisions on his own, without the knowledge of the President. After his tenure, and during the 2008 presidential campaign, both vice presidential candidates, Sarah Palin and Joe Biden, stated that the office had expanded too much under Cheney's tenure and both had planned to reduce the role to simply being an adviser to the president. \n\nPost–vice presidency\n\nThe five former vice presidents now living are:\n\nFile:Walter Mondale 2014.jpg\|Walter Mondale42nd (1977–1981)\nFile:President George H. W.tif\|George H. W. Bush43rd (1981–1989)\nFile:Quayle2k11.tif\|Dan Quayle44th (1989–1993)\nFile:Gore2k11.tif\|Al Gore45th (1993–2001)\nFile:Cheney.tif\|Dick Cheney46th (2001–2009)\n\nFour vice presidents have been elected to the presidency immediately after serving as vice president: John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, Martin Van Buren and George H. W. Bush. Richard Nixon, John C. Breckinridge, Hubert Humphrey and Al Gore were all nominated by their respective parties, but failed to succeed the presidents with whom they were elected, though Nixon was elected president eight years later.\n\nTwo vice presidents served under different presidents. George Clinton served under both Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, while John C. Calhoun served under John Quincy Adams and Andrew Jackson. In the modern era, Adlai Stevenson I became the first former vice president to seek election with a different running mate, running in 1900 with William Jennings Bryan after serving under Bryan's rival, Grover Cleveland. (He was also narrowly defeated for Governor of Illinois in 1908.) Charles W. Fairbanks, vice president under Theodore Roosevelt, sought unsuccessfully to return to office as Charles Evans Hughes' running mate in 1916.\n\nSome former vice presidents have sought other offices after serving as vice president. Daniel D. Tompkins ran for Governor of New York in 1820 whilst serving as vice president under James Monroe. He lost to DeWitt Clinton, but was re-elected vice president. John C. Calhoun resigned as vice president to accept election as US Senator from South Carolina. Hannibal Hamlin, Andrew Johnson, Alben Barkley and Hubert H. Humphrey were all elected to the Senate after leaving office. Levi P. Morton, vice president under Benjamin Harrison, was elected Governor of New York after leaving office.\n\nRichard Nixon unsuccessfully sought the governorship of California in 1962, nearly two years after leaving office as vice president and just over six years before becoming president. Walter Mondale ran unsuccessfully for president in 1984, served as U.S. Ambassador to Japan from 1993 to 1996, and then sought unsuccessfully to return to the Senate in 2002. George H. W. Bush won the presidency, and his vice president, Dan Quayle, sought the Republican nomination in 2000. Al Gore also ran unsuccessfully for the presidency in 2000, turning to environmental advocacy afterward. Cheney had previously explored the possibility of running for president before serving as vice president, but chose not to run for president after his two terms as vice president.\n\nSince 1977, former presidents and vice presidents who are elected or re-elected to the Senate are entitled to the largely honorific position of Deputy President pro tempore. So far, the only former vice president to have held this title is Hubert Humphrey following his return to the Senate. Walter Mondale would have been entitled to the position had his 2002 Senate bid been successful.\n\nUnder the terms of an 1886 Senate resolution, all former vice presidents are entitled to a portrait bust in the Senate wing of the United States Capitol, commemorating their service as presidents of the Senate. Dick Cheney is the most recent former vice president to be so honored.\n\nUnlike former presidents, who receive a pension automatically regardless of their time in office, former vice presidents must reach pension eligibility by accumulating the appropriate time in federal service. Since 2008, former vice president are also entitled to Secret Service personal protection. Former vice presidents traditionally receive Secret Service protection for up to six months after leaving office, by order of the Secretary of Homeland Security, though this can be extended if the Secretary believes the level of threat is sufficient. In 2008, a bill titled the \"Former Vice President Protection Act\" was passed by Congress and signed into law by President Bush. It provides six-month Secret Service protection by law to a former vice president and family. According to the Department of Homeland Security, protection for former vice president Cheney has been extended numerous times because threats against him have not decreased since his leaving office. \n\nTimeline of vice presidents" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Charles W. Fairbanks", "Charles Warren Fairbanks", "Charles Fairbanks" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "charles w fairbanks", "charles fairbanks", "charles warren fairbanks" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "charles w fairbanks", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Charles W. Fairbanks" }
Which nation was the first to ratify the United Nations charter in 1945?	tc_711	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "Search" ], "filename": [ "United_Nations.txt" ], "title": [ "United Nations" ], "wiki_context": [ "The United Nations (UN) is an intergovernmental organization to promote international co-operation. A replacement for the ineffective League of Nations, the organization was established on 24 October 1945 after World War II in order to prevent another such conflict. At its founding, the UN had 51 member states; there are now 193. The headquarters of the United Nations is in Manhattan, New York City, and experiences extraterritoriality. Further main offices are situated in Geneva, Nairobi, and Vienna. The organization is financed by assessed and voluntary contributions from its member states. Its objectives include maintaining international peace and security, promoting human rights, fostering social and economic development, protecting the environment, and providing humanitarian aid in cases of famine, natural disaster, and armed conflict.\n\nThe United Nations Charter was drafted at a conference in April–June 1945; this charter took effect 24 October 1945, and the UN began operation. The UN's mission to preserve world peace was complicated in its early decades by the Cold War between the US and Soviet Union and their respective allies. The organization participated in major actions in Korea and the Congo, as well as approving the creation of the state of Israel in 1947. The organization's membership grew significantly following widespread decolonization in the 1960s, and by the 1970s its budget for economic and social development programmes far outstripped its spending on peacekeeping. After the end of the Cold War, the UN took on major military and peacekeeping missions across the world with varying degrees of success.\n\nThe UN has six principal organs: the General Assembly (the main deliberative assembly); the Security Council (for deciding certain resolutions for peace and security); the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) (for promoting international economic and social co-operation and development); the Secretariat (for providing studies, information, and facilities needed by the UN); the International Court of Justice (the primary judicial organ); and the United Nations Trusteeship Council (inactive since 1994). UN System agencies include the World Bank Group, the World Health Organization, the World Food Programme, UNESCO, and UNICEF. The UN's most prominent officer is the Secretary-General, an office held by South Korean Ban Ki-moon since 2007. Non-governmental organizations may be granted consultative status with ECOSOC and other agencies to participate in the UN's work.\n\nThe organization won the Nobel Peace Prize in 2001, and a number of its officers and agencies have also been awarded the prize. Other evaluations of the UN's effectiveness have been mixed. Some commentators believe the organization to be an important force for peace and human development, while others have called the organization ineffective, corrupt, or biased.\n\nHistory\n\nBackground\n\nIn the century prior to the UN's creation, several international treaty organizations and conferences had been formed to regulate conflicts between nations, such as the International Committee of the Red Cross and the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907. Following the catastrophic loss of life in the First World War, the Paris Peace Conference established the League of Nations to maintain harmony between countries. This organization resolved some territorial disputes and created international structures for areas such as postal mail, aviation, and opium control, some of which would later be absorbed into the UN. However, the League lacked representation for colonial peoples (then half the world's population) and significant participation from several major powers, including the US, USSR, Germany, and Japan; it failed to act against the Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931, the Second Italo-Ethiopian War in 1935, the Japanese invasion of China in 1937, and German expansions under Adolf Hitler that culminated in the Second World War.\n\n1942 \"Declaration of United Nations\" by the Allies of World War II\n\nThe earliest concrete plan for a new world organization began under the aegis of the US State Department in 1939. The text of the \"Declaration by United Nations\" was drafted by President Franklin Roosevelt, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, and Roosevelt aide Harry Hopkins, while meeting at the White House, 29 December 1941. It incorporated Soviet suggestions, but left no role for France. \"Four Policemen\" was coined to refer four major Allied countries, United States, United Kingdom, Soviet Union, and China, which was emerged in Declaration by United Nations. Roosevelt first coined the term United Nations to describe the Allied countries. \"On New Year's Day 1942, President Roosevelt, Prime Minister Churchill, Maxim Litvinov, of the USSR, and T. V. Soong, of China, signed a short document which later came to be known as the United Nations Declaration and the next day the representatives of twenty-two other nations added their signatures.\" The term United Nations was first officially used when 26 governments signed this Declaration. One major change from the Atlantic Charter was the addition of a provision for religious freedom, which Stalin approved after Roosevelt insisted. By 1 March 1945, 21 additional states had signed.\n\nA JOINT DECLARATION BY THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, THE UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN AND NORTHERN IRELAND, THE UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS, CHINA, AUSTRALIA, BELGIUM, CANADA, COSTA RICA, CUBA, CZECHOSLOVAKIA, DOMINICAN REPUBLIC, EL SALVADOR, GREECE, GUATEMALA, HAITI, HONDURAS, INDIA, LUXEMBOURG, NETHERLANDS, NEW ZEALAND, NICARAGUA, NORWAY, PANAMA, POLAND, SOUTH AFRICA, YUGOSLAVIA\n\nThe Governments signatory hereto,\n\nHaving subscribed to a common program of purposes and principles embodied in the Joint Declaration of the President of the United States of America and the Prime Minister of Great Britain dated August 14, 1941, known as the Atlantic Charter,\n\nBeing convinced that complete victory over their enemies is essential to defend life, liberty, independence and religious freedom, and to preserve human rights and justice in their own lands as well as in other lands, and that they are now engaged in a common struggle against savage and brutal forces seeking to subjugate the world,\n\nDECLARE:\n\n(1) Each Government pledges itself to employ its full resources, military or economic, against those members of the Tripartite Pact and its adherents with which such government is at war.\n\n(2) Each Government pledges itself to cooperate with the Governments signatory hereto and not to make a separate armistice or peace with the enemies.\n\nThe foregoing declaration may be adhered to by other nations which are, or which may be, rendering material assistance and contributions in the struggle for victory over Hitlerism. \n\nDuring the war, the United Nations became the official term for the Allies. To join countries had to sign the Declaration and declare war on the Axis.\n\nFounding the UN 1945\n\nThe United Nations was formulated and negotiated among the delegations from the Soviet Union, the UK, the US and China at the Dumbarton Oaks Conference in 1944. After months of planning, the UN Conference on International Organization opened in San Francisco, 25 April 1945, attended by 50 governments and a number of non-governmental organizations involved in drafting the United Nations Charter. \"The heads of the delegations of the sponsoring countries took turns as chairman of the plenary meetings: Anthony Eden, of Britain, Edward Stettinius, of the United States, T. V. Soong, of China, and Vyacheslav Molotov, of the Soviet Union. At the later meetings, Lord Halifax deputized for Mr. Eden, Wellington Koo for T. V. Soong, and Mr Gromyko for Mr. Molotov.\" The UN officially came into existence 24 October 1945, upon ratification of the Charter by the five permanent members of the Security Council—France, the Republic of China, the Soviet Union, the UK and the US—and by a majority of the other 46 signatories.\n\nThe first meetings of the General Assembly, with 51 nations represented, and the Security Council took place in London beginning 6 January 1946. The General Assembly selected New York City as the site for the headquarters of the United Nations, and the facility was completed in 1952. Its site—like UN headquarters buildings in Geneva, Vienna, and Nairobi—is designated as international territory. The Norwegian Foreign Minister, Trygve Lie, was elected as the first UN Secretary-General.\n\nCold War era\n\nThough the UN's primary mandate was peacekeeping, the division between the US and USSR often paralysed the organization, generally allowing it to intervene only in conflicts distant from the Cold War. (A notable exception was a Security Council resolution in 1950 authorizing a US-led coalition to repel the North Korean invasion of South Korea, passed in the absence of the USSR.) In 1947, the General Assembly approved a resolution to partition Palestine, approving the creation of the state of Israel. Two years later, Ralph Bunche, a UN official, negotiated an armistice to the resulting conflict. In 1956, the first UN peacekeeping force was established to end the Suez Crisis; however, the UN was unable to intervene against the USSR's simultaneous invasion of Hungary following that country's revolution.\n\nIn 1960, the UN deployed United Nations Operation in the Congo (UNOC), the largest military force of its early decades, to bring order to the breakaway State of Katanga, restoring it to the control of the Democratic Republic of the Congo by 1964. While travelling to meet with rebel leader Moise Tshombe during the conflict, Dag Hammarskjöld, often named as one of the UN's most effective Secretaries-General, died in a plane crash; months later he was posthumously awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. In 1964, Hammarskjöld's successor, U Thant, deployed the United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus, which would become one of the UN's longest-running peacekeeping missions.\n\nWith the spread of decolonization in the 1960s, the organization's membership saw an influx of newly independent nations. In 1960 alone, 17 new states joined the UN, 16 of them from Africa. On 25 October 1971, with opposition from the United States, but with the support of many Third World nations, the mainland, communist People's Republic of China was given the Chinese seat on the Security Council in place of the Republic of China that occupied Taiwan; the vote was widely seen as a sign of waning US influence in the organization. Third World nations organized into the Group of 77 coalition under the leadership of Algeria, which briefly became a dominant power at the UN. In 1975, a bloc comprising the USSR and Third World nations passed a resolution, over strenuous US and Israeli opposition, declaring Zionism to be racism; the resolution was repealed in 1991, shortly after the end of the Cold War.\n\nWith an increasing Third World presence and the failure of UN mediation in conflicts in the Middle East, Vietnam, and Kashmir, the UN increasingly shifted its attention to its ostensibly secondary goals of economic development and cultural exchange. By the 1970s, the UN budget for social and economic development was far greater than its peacekeeping budget.\n\nPost-Cold War\n\nAfter the Cold War, the UN saw a radical expansion in its peacekeeping duties, taking on more missions in ten years than it had in the previous four decades. Between 1988 and 2000, the number of adopted Security Council resolutions more than doubled, and the peacekeeping budget increased more than tenfold. The UN negotiated an end to the Salvadoran Civil War, launched a successful peacekeeping mission in Namibia, and oversaw democratic elections in post-apartheid South Africa and post-Khmer Rouge Cambodia. In 1991, the UN authorized a US-led coalition that repulsed the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait. Brian Urquhart, Under-Secretary-General from 1971 to 1985, later described the hopes raised by these successes as a \"false renaissance\" for the organization, given the more troubled missions that followed.\n\nThough the UN Charter had been written primarily to prevent aggression by one nation against another, in the early 1990s the UN faced a number of simultaneous, serious crises within nations such as Somalia, Haiti, Mozambique, and the former Yugoslavia. The UN mission in Somalia was widely viewed as a failure after the US withdrawal following casualties in the Battle of Mogadishu, and the UN mission to Bosnia faced \"worldwide ridicule\" for its indecisive and confused mission in the face of ethnic cleansing. In 1994, the United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda failed to intervene in the Rwandan Genocide amid indecision in the Security Council.\n\nBeginning in the last decades of the Cold War, American and European critics of the UN condemned the organization for perceived mismanagement and corruption. In 1984, the US President, Ronald Reagan, withdrew his nation's funding from UNESCO (the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, founded 1946) over allegations of mismanagement, followed by Britain and Singapore. Boutros Boutros-Ghali, Secretary-General from 1992 to 1996, initiated a reform of the Secretariat, reducing the size of the organization somewhat. His successor, Kofi Annan (1997–2006), initiated further management reforms in the face of threats from the United States to withhold its UN dues.\n\nIn the late 1990s and 2000s, international interventions authorized by the UN took a wider variety of forms. The UN mission in the Sierra Leone Civil War of 1991–2002 was supplemented by British Royal Marines, and the invasion of Afghanistan in 2001 was overseen by NATO.In 2003, the United States invaded Iraq despite failing to pass a UN Security Council resolution for authorization, prompting a new round of questioning of the organization's effectiveness. Under the current Secretary-General, Ban Ki-moon, the UN has intervened with peacekeepers in crises including the War in Darfur in Sudan and the Kivu conflict in the Democratic Republic of Congo and sent observers and chemical weapons inspectors to the Syrian Civil War. In 2013, an internal review of UN actions in the final battles of the Sri Lankan Civil War in 2009 concluded that the organization had suffered \"systemic failure\". One hundred and one UN personnel died in the 2010 Haiti earthquake, the worst loss of life in the organization's history.\n\nStructure\n\nThe United Nations' system is based on five principal organs: the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC), the Secretariat, and the International Court of Justice. A sixth principal organ, the Trusteeship Council, suspended operations in 1994, upon the independence of Palau, the last remaining UN trustee territory.\n\nFour of the five principal organs are located at the main UN Headquarters in New York City. The International Court of Justice is located in The Hague, while other major agencies are based in the UN offices at Geneva, Vienna, and Nairobi. Other UN institutions are located throughout the world. The six official languages of the United Nations, used in intergovernmental meetings and documents, are Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian, and Spanish. On the basis of the Convention on the Privileges and Immunities of the United Nations, the UN and its agencies are immune from the laws of the countries where they operate, safeguarding the UN's impartiality with regard to the host and member countries. \n\nBelow the six organs sit, in the words of the author Linda Fasulo, \"an amazing collection of entities and organizations, some of which are actually older than the UN itself and operate with almost complete independence from it\". These include specialized agencies, research and training institutions, programmes and funds, and other UN entities.\n\nThe United Nations obey the Noblemaire principle, which is binding on any organization that belongs to the united nations system. This principle calls for salaries that will draw and keep citizens of countries where salaries are highest, and also calls for equal pay for work of equal value independent of the employee's nationality. Staff salaries are subject to an internal tax that is administered by the UN organizations. \n\nGeneral Assembly\n\nThe General Assembly is the main deliberative assembly of the United Nations. Composed of all United Nations member states, the assembly meets in regular yearly sessions, but emergency sessions can also be called. The assembly is led by a president, elected from among the member states on a rotating regional basis, and 21 vice-presidents. The first session convened 10 January 1946 in the Methodist Central Hall Westminster in London and included representatives of 51 nations.\n\nWhen the General Assembly votes on important questions, a two-thirds majority of those present and voting is required. Examples of important questions include recommendations on peace and security; election of members to organs; admission, suspension, and expulsion of members; and budgetary matters. All other questions are decided by a majority vote. Each member country has one vote. Apart from approval of budgetary matters, resolutions are not binding on the members. The Assembly may make recommendations on any matters within the scope of the UN, except matters of peace and security that are under consideration by the Security Council.\n\nDraft resolutions can be forwarded to the General Assembly by eight committees:\nGeneral Committee – a supervisory committee consisting of the assembly's president, vice-president, and committee heads\nCredentials Committee – responsible for determining the credentials of each member nation's UN representatives\nFirst Committee (Disarmament and International Security)\nSecond Committee (Economic and Financial)\nThird Committee (Social, Humanitarian, and Cultural)\nFourth Committee (Special Political and Decolonization)\nFifth Committee (Administrative and Budgetary)\nSixth Committee (Legal)\n\nSecurity Council\n\nThe Security Council is charged with maintaining peace and security among countries. While other organs of the United Nations can only make \"recommendations\" to member states, the Security Council has the power to make binding decisions that member states have agreed to carry out, under the terms of Charter Article 25. The decisions of the Council are known as United Nations Security Council resolutions.\n\nThe Security Council is made up of fifteen member states, consisting of five permanent members—China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States—and ten non-permanent members—Angola (term ends 2016), Chad (2015), Chile (2015), Jordan (2015), Lithuania (2015), Malaysia (2016), New Zealand (2016), Nigeria (2015), Spain (2016), and Venezuela (2016). The five permanent members hold veto power over UN resolutions, allowing a permanent member to block adoption of a resolution, though not debate. The ten temporary seats are held for two-year terms, with member states voted in by the General Assembly on a regional basis. The presidency of the Security Council rotates alphabetically each month. \n\nSecretariat\n\nThe UN Secretariat is headed by the Secretary-General, assisted by a staff of international civil servants worldwide. It provides studies, information, and facilities needed by United Nations bodies for their meetings. It also carries out tasks as directed by the Security Council, the General Assembly, the Economic and Social Council, and other UN bodies.\n\nThe Secretary-General acts as the de facto spokesperson and leader of the UN. The position is defined in the UN Charter as the organization's \"chief administrative officer\". Article 99 of the charter states that the Secretary-General can bring to the Security Council's attention \"any matter which in his opinion may threaten the maintenance of international peace and security\", a phrase that Secretaries-General since Trygve Lie have interpreted as giving the position broad scope for action on the world stage. The office has evolved into a dual role of an administrator of the UN organization and a diplomat and mediator addressing disputes between member states and finding consensus to global issues.\n\nThe Secretary-General is appointed by the General Assembly, after being recommended by the Security Council, where the permanent members have veto power. There are no specific criteria for the post, but over the years it has become accepted that the post shall be held for one or two terms of five years, that the post shall be appointed on the basis of geographical rotation, and that the Secretary-General shall not originate from one of the five permanent Security Council member states. The current Secretary-General is Ban Ki-moon, who replaced Kofi Annan in 2007 and was elected for a second term to conclude at the end of 2016. \n\nInternational Court of Justice\n\nThe International Court of Justice (ICJ), located in The Hague, in the Netherlands, is the primary judicial organ of the UN. Established in 1945 by the UN Charter, the Court began work in 1946 as the successor to the Permanent Court of International Justice. The ICJ is composed of 15 judges who serve 9-year terms and are appointed by the General Assembly; every sitting judge must be from a different nation.\n\nIt is based in the Peace Palace in The Hague, sharing the building with the Hague Academy of International Law, a private centre for the study of international law. The ICJ's primary purpose is to adjudicate disputes among states. The court has heard cases related to war crimes, illegal state interference, ethnic cleansing, and other issues. The ICJ can also be called upon by other UN organs to provide advisory opinions.\n\nEconomic and Social Council\n\nThe Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) assists the General Assembly in promoting international economic and social co-operation and development. ECOSOC has 54 members, which are elected by the General Assembly for a three-year term. The president is elected for a one-year term and chosen amongst the small or middle powers represented on ECOSOC. The council has one annual meeting in July, held in either New York or Geneva. Viewed as separate from the specialized bodies it co-ordinates, ECOSOC's functions include information gathering, advising member nations, and making recommendations. Owing to its broad mandate of co-ordinating many agencies, ECOSOC has at times been criticized as unfocused or irrelevant.\n\nECOSOC's subsidiary bodies include the United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues, which advises UN agencies on issues relating to indigenous peoples; the United Nations Forum on Forests, which co-ordinates and promotes sustainable forest management; the United Nations Statistical Commission, which co-ordinates information-gathering efforts between agencies; and the Commission on Sustainable Development, which co-ordinates efforts between UN agencies and NGOs working toward sustainable development. ECOSOC may also grant consultative status to non-governmental organizations; by 2004, more than 2,200 organizations had received this status.\n\nSpecialized agencies\n\nThe UN Charter stipulates that each primary organ of the UN can establish various specialized agencies to fulfill its duties. Some best-known agencies are the International Atomic Energy Agency, the Food and Agriculture Organization, UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization), the World Bank, and the World Health Organization (WHO). The UN performs most of its humanitarian work through these agencies. Examples include mass vaccination programmes (through WHO), the avoidance of famine and malnutrition (through the work of the WFP), and the protection of vulnerable and displaced people (for example, by UNHCR).\n\nMembership\n\nWith the addition of South Sudan 14 July 2011, there are United Nations member states, including all undisputed independent states apart from Vatican City. \nThe UN Charter outlines the rules for membership:\n\nIn addition, there are two non-member observer states of the United Nations General Assembly: the Holy See (which holds sovereignty over Vatican City) and the State of Palestine. The Cook Islands and Niue, both states in free association with New Zealand, are full members of several UN specialized agencies and have had their \"full treaty-making capacity\" recognized by the Secretariat.\n\nGroup of 77\n\nThe Group of 77 at the UN is a loose coalition of developing nations, designed to promote its members' collective economic interests and create an enhanced joint negotiating capacity in the United Nations. Seventy-seven nations founded the organization, but by November 2013 the organization had since expanded to 133 member countries. The group was founded 15 June 1964 by the \"Joint Declaration of the Seventy-Seven Countries\" issued at the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD). The group held its first major meeting in Algiers in 1967, where it adopted the Charter of Algiers and established the basis for permanent institutional structures. \n\nObjectives\n\nPeacekeeping and security\n\nThe UN, after approval by the Security Council, sends peacekeepers to regions where armed conflict has recently ceased or paused to enforce the terms of peace agreements and to discourage combatants from resuming hostilities. Since the UN does not maintain its own military, peacekeeping forces are voluntarily provided by member states. These soldiers are sometimes nicknamed \"Blue Helmets\" for their distinctive gear. The peacekeeping force as a whole received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1988. \n\nIn September 2013, the UN had peacekeeping soldiers deployed on 15 missions. The largest was the United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (MONUSCO), which included 20,688 uniformed personnel. The smallest, United Nations Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan (UNMOGIP), included 42 uniformed personnel responsible for monitoring the ceasefire in Jammu and Kashmir. UN peacekeepers with the United Nations Truce Supervision Organization (UNTSO) have been stationed in the Middle East since 1948, the longest-running active peacekeeping mission.\n\nA study by the RAND Corporation in 2005 found the UN to be successful in two out of three peacekeeping efforts. It compared efforts at nation-building by the United Nations to those of the United States, and found that seven out of eight UN cases are at peace, as compared with four out of eight US cases at peace. Also in 2005, the Human Security Report documented a decline in the number of wars, genocides, and human rights abuses since the end of the Cold War, and presented evidence, albeit circumstantial, that international activism—mostly spearheaded by the UN—has been the main cause of the decline in armed conflict in that period. Situations in which the UN has not only acted to keep the peace but also intervened include the Korean War (1950–53) and the authorization of intervention in Iraq after the Gulf War (1990–91).\n\nThe UN has also drawn criticism for perceived failures. In many cases, member states have shown reluctance to achieve or enforce Security Council resolutions. Disagreements in the Security Council about military action and intervention are seen as having failed to prevent the Bangladesh genocide in 1971, the Cambodian genocide in the 1970s, and the Rwandan genocide in 1994. Similarly, UN inaction is blamed for failing to either prevent the Srebrenica massacre in 1995 or complete the peacekeeping operations in 1992–93 during the Somali Civil War. UN peacekeepers have also been accused of child rape, soliciting prostitutes, and sexual abuse during various peacekeeping missions in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Haiti, Liberia, Sudan and what is now South Sudan, Burundi, and Ivory Coast. Scientists cited UN peacekeepers from Nepal as the likely source of the 2010–13 Haiti cholera outbreak, which killed more than 8,000 Haitians following the 2010 Haiti earthquake. \n\nIn addition to peacekeeping, the UN is also active in encouraging disarmament. Regulation of armaments was included in the writing of the UN Charter in 1945 and was envisioned as a way of limiting the use of human and economic resources for their creation. The advent of nuclear weapons came only weeks after the signing of the charter, resulting in the first resolution of the first General Assembly meeting calling for specific proposals for \"the elimination from national armaments of atomic weapons and of all other major weapons adaptable to mass destruction\". The UN has been involved with arms-limitation treaties, such as the Outer Space Treaty (1967), the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (1968), the Seabed Arms Control Treaty (1971), the Biological Weapons Convention (1972), the Chemical Weapons Convention (1992), and the Ottawa Treaty (1997), which prohibits landmines. Three UN bodies oversee arms proliferation issues: the International Atomic Energy Agency, the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons, and the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization Preparatory Commission.\n\nHuman rights\n\nOne of the UN's primary purposes is \"promoting and encouraging respect for human rights and for fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion\", and member states pledge to undertake \"joint and separate action\" to protect these rights.\n\nIn 1948, the General Assembly adopted a Universal Declaration of Human Rights, drafted by a committee headed by Franklin D. Roosevelt's widow, Eleanor, and including the French lawyer René Cassin. The document proclaims basic civil, political, and economic rights common to all human beings, though its effectiveness toward achieving these ends has been disputed since its drafting. The Declaration serves as a \"common standard of achievement for all peoples and all nations\" rather than a legally binding document, but it has become the basis of two binding treaties, the 1966 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. In practice, the UN is unable to take significant action against human rights abuses without a Security Council resolution, though it does substantial work in investigating and reporting abuses.\n\nIn 1979, the General Assembly adopted the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, followed by the Convention on the Rights of the Child in 1989. With the end of the Cold War, the push for human rights action took on new impetus. The United Nations Commission on Human Rights was formed in 1993 to oversee human rights issues for the UN, following the recommendation of that year's World Conference on Human Rights. Jacques Fomerand, a scholar of the UN, describes this organization's mandate as \"broad and vague\", with only \"meager\" resources to carry it out. In 2006, it was replaced by a Human Rights Council consisting of 47 nations. Also in 2006, the General Assembly passed a Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, and in 2011 it passed its first resolution recognizing the rights of LGBT people. \n\nOther UN bodies responsible for women's rights issues include United Nations Commission on the Status of Women, a commission of ECOSOC founded in 1946; the United Nations Development Fund for Women, created in 1976; and the United Nations International Research and Training Institute for the Advancement of Women, founded in 1979. The United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues, one of three bodies with a mandate to oversee issues related to indigenous peoples, held its first session in 2002. \n\nEconomic development and humanitarian assistance\n\nAnother primary purpose of the UN is \"to achieve international co-operation in solving international problems of an economic, social, cultural, or humanitarian character\". Numerous bodies have been created to work towards this goal, primarily under the authority of the General Assembly and ECOSOC. In 2000, the 192 United Nations member states agreed to achieve eight Millennium Development Goals by 2015. \n\nThe UN Development Programme (UNDP), an organization for grant-based technical assistance founded in 1945, is one of the leading bodies in the field of international development. The organization also publishes the UN Human Development Index, a comparative measure ranking countries by poverty, literacy, education, life expectancy, and other factors. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), also founded in 1945, promotes agricultural development and food security. UNICEF (the United Nations Children's Fund) was created in 1946 to aid European children after the Second World War and expanded its mission to provide aid around the world and to uphold the Convention on the Rights of the Child. \n\nThe World Bank Group and International Monetary Fund (IMF) are independent, specialized agencies and observers within the UN framework, according to a 1947 agreement. They were initially formed separately from the UN through the Bretton Woods Agreement in 1944. The World Bank provides loans for international development, while the IMF promotes international economic co-operation and gives emergency loans to indebted countries.\n\nThe World Health Organization (WHO), which focuses on international health issues and disease eradication, is another of the UN's largest agencies. In 1980, the agency announced that the eradication of smallpox had been completed. In subsequent decades, WHO largely eradicated polio, river blindness, and leprosy. The Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS), begun in 1996, co-ordinates the organization's response to the AIDS epidemic. The UN Population Fund, which also dedicates part of its resources to combating HIV, is the world's largest source of funding for reproductive health and family planning services.\n\nAlong with the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, the UN often takes a leading role in co-ordinating emergency relief. The World Food Programme (WFP), created in 1961, provides food aid in response to famine, natural disasters, and armed conflict. The organization reports that it feeds an average of 90 million people in 80 nations each year. The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), established in 1950, works to protect the rights of refugees, asylum seekers, and stateless people. UNHCR and WFP programmes are funded by voluntary contributions from governments, corporations, and individuals, though the UNHCR's administrative costs are paid for by the UN's primary budget.\n\nOther\n\nSince the UN's creation, over 80 colonies have attained independence. The General Assembly adopted the Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples in 1960 with no votes against but abstentions from all major colonial powers. The UN works toward decolonization through groups including the UN Committee on Decolonization, created in 1962. The committee lists seventeen remaining \"Non-Self-Governing Territories\", the largest and most populous of which is Western Sahara. \n\nBeginning with the formation of the UN Environmental Programme (UNEP) in 1972, the UN has made environmental issues a prominent part of its agenda. A lack of success in the first two decades of UN work in this area led to the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, which sought to give new impetus to these efforts. In 1988, the UNEP and the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), another UN organization, established the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, which assesses and reports on research on global warming. The UN-sponsored Kyoto Protocol, signed in 1997, set legally binding emissions reduction targets for ratifying states.\n\nThe UN also declares and co-ordinates international observances, periods of time to observe issues of international interest or concern. Examples include World Tuberculosis Day, Earth Day, and the International Year of Deserts and Desertification. \n\nFunding\n\nThe UN is financed from assessed and voluntary contributions from member states. The General Assembly approves the regular budget and determines the assessment for each member. This is broadly based on the relative capacity of each country to pay, as measured by its gross national income (GNI), with adjustments for external debt and low per capita income. The two-year budget for 2012–13 was $5.512 billion in total. \n\nThe Assembly has established the principle that the UN should not be unduly dependent on any one member to finance its operations. Thus, there is a \"ceiling\" rate, setting the maximum amount that any member can be assessed for the regular budget. In December 2000, the Assembly revised the scale of assessments in response to pressure from the United States. As part of that revision, the regular budget ceiling was reduced from 25% to 22%. For the least developed countries (LDCs), a ceiling rate of 0.01% is applied. In addition to the ceiling rates, the minimum amount assessed to any member nation (or \"floor\" rate) is set at 0.001% of the UN budget ($55,120 for the two year budget 2013-2014).\n\nA large share of the UN's expenditure addresses its core mission of peace and security, and this budget is assessed separately from the main organizational budget. The peacekeeping budget for the 2015–16 fiscal year was $8.27 billion, supporting 82,318 troops deployed in 15 missions around the world. UN peace operations are funded by assessments, using a formula derived from the regular funding scale that includes a weighted surcharge for the five permanent Security Council members, who must approve all peacekeeping operations. This surcharge serves to offset discounted peacekeeping assessment rates for less developed countries. In 2013, the top 10 providers of assessed financial contributions to United Nations peacekeeping operations were the United States (28.38%), Japan (10.83%), France (7.22%), Germany (7.14%), the United Kingdom (6.68%), China (6.64%), Italy (4.45%), the Russian Federation (3.15%), Canada (2.98%), and Spain (2.97%). \n\nSpecial UN programmes not included in the regular budget, such as UNICEF and the World Food Programme, are financed by voluntary contributions from member governments, corporations, and private individuals. \n\nEvaluations, awards, and criticism\n\nA number of agencies and individuals associated with the UN have won the Nobel Peace Prize in recognition of their work. Two Secretaries-General, Dag Hammarskjöld and Kofi Annan, were each awarded the prize (in 1961 and 2001, respectively), as were Ralph Bunche (1950), a UN negotiator, René Cassin (1968), a contributor to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and the US Secretary of State Cordell Hull (1945), the latter for his role in the organization's founding. Lester B. Pearson, the Canadian Secretary of State for External Affairs, was awarded the prize in 1957 for his role in organizing the UN's first peacekeeping force to resolve the Suez Crisis. UNICEF won the prize in 1965, the International Labour Organization in 1969, the UN Peace-Keeping Forces in 1988, the International Atomic Energy Agency (which reports to the UN) in 2005, and the UN-supported Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons in 2013. The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees was awarded in 1954 and 1981, becoming one of only two recipients to win the prize twice. The UN as a whole was awarded the prize in 2001, sharing it with Annan. \n\nSince its founding, there have been many calls for reform of the United Nations but little consensus on how to do so. Some want the UN to play a greater or more effective role in world affairs, while others want its role reduced to humanitarian work. There have also been numerous calls for the UN Security Council's membership to be increased, for different ways of electing the UN's Secretary-General, and for a United Nations Parliamentary Assembly. Jacques Fomerand states the most enduring divide in views of the UN is \"the North–South split\" between richer Northern nations and developing Southern nations. Southern nations tend to favor a more empowered UN with a stronger General Assembly, allowing them a greater voice in world affairs, while Northern nations prefer an economically laissez-faire UN that focuses on transnational threats such as terrorism.\n\nAfter World War II, the French Committee of National Liberation was late to be recognized by the US as the government of France, and so the country was initially excluded from the conferences that created the new organization. The future French president Charles de Gaulle criticized the UN, famously calling it a machin (\"contraption\"), and was not convinced that a global security alliance would help maintain world peace, preferring direct defence treaties between countries. Throughout the Cold War, both the US and USSR repeatedly accused the UN of favoring the other. In 1953, the USSR effectively forced the resignation of Trygve Lie, the Secretary-General, through its refusal to deal with him, while in the 1950s and 1960s, a popular US bumper sticker read, \"You can't spell communism without U.N.\" In a sometimes-misquoted statement, President George W. Bush stated in February 2003 (referring to UN uncertainty towards Iraqi provocations under the Saddam Hussein regime) that \"free nations will not allow the United Nations to fade into history as an ineffective, irrelevant debating society.\" In contrast, the French President, François Hollande, stated in 2012 that \"France trusts the United Nations. She knows that no state, no matter how powerful, can solve urgent problems, fight for development and bring an end to all crises... France wants the UN to be the centre of global governance.\" Critics such as Dore Gold, an Israeli diplomat, Robert S. Wistrich, a British scholar, Alan Dershowitz, an American legal scholar, Mark Dreyfus, an Australian politician, and the Anti-Defamation League consider UN attention to Israel's treatment of Palestinians to be excessive. In September 2015, Saudi Arabia's Faisal bin Hassan Trad has been elected Chair of the United Nations Human Rights Council panel that appoints independent experts, a move criticized by human rights groups. \n\nCritics have also accused the UN of bureaucratic inefficiency, waste, and corruption. In 1976, the General Assembly established the Joint Inspection Unit to seek out inefficiencies within the UN system. During the 1990s, the US withheld dues citing inefficiency and only started repayment on the condition that a major reforms initiative was introduced. In 1994, the Office of Internal Oversight Services (OIOS) was established by the General Assembly to serve as an efficiency watchdog. In 1994, former Special Representative of the Secretary-General of the UN to Somalia Mohamed Sahnoun published \"Somalia: The Missed Opportunities\", a book in which he analyses the reasons for the failure of the 1992 UN intervention in Somalia, showing that, between the start of the Somali civil war in 1988 and the fall of the Siad Barre regime in January 1991, the UN missed at least three opportunities to prevent major human tragedies; when the UN tried to provide humanitarian assistance, they were totally outperformed by NGOs, whose competence and dedication sharply contrasted with the UN's excessive caution and bureaucratic inefficiencies. If radical reform was not undertaken, warned Mohamed Sahnoun, then the UN would continue to respond to such crisis with inept improvisation. In 2004, the UN faced accusations that its recently ended Oil-for-Food Programme—in which Iraq had been allowed to trade oil for basic needs to relieve the pressure of sanctions—had suffered from widespread corruption, including billions of dollars of kickbacks. An independent inquiry created by the UN found that many of its officials had been involved, as well as raising \"significant\" questions about the role of Kojo Annan, the son of Kofi Annan. \n\nIn evaluating the UN as a whole, Jacques Fomerand writes that the \"accomplishments of the United Nations in the last 60 years are impressive in their own terms. Progress in human development during the 20th century has been dramatic and the UN and its agencies have certainly helped the world become a more hospitable and livable place for millions.\" Evaluating the first 50 years of the UN's history, the author Stanley Meisler writes that \"the United Nations never fulfilled the hopes of its founders, but it accomplished a great deal nevertheless\", citing its role in decolonization and its many successful peacekeeping efforts. The British historian Paul Kennedy states that while the organization has suffered some major setbacks, \"when all its aspects are considered, the UN has brought great benefits to our generation and ... will bring benefits to our children's and grandchildren's generations as well.\"" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Nicarugua", "Nicuragua", "Administrative divisions of Nicaragua", "Bibliography of nicaragua", "Subdivisions of Nicaragua", "Health in Nicaragua", "Republica De Nicaragua", "Etymology of Nicaragua", "República de Nicaragua", "Sport in Nicaragua", "ISO 3166-1:NI", "Republic of Nicaragua", "The Republic of Nicaragua", "Nicaraguan", "Nicaragua", "Nicaragua, Central America" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "republic of nicaragua", "nicaragua central america", "nicarugua", "republica de nicaragua", "etymology of nicaragua", "bibliography of nicaragua", "health in nicaragua", "nicaragua", "subdivisions of nicaragua", "nicaraguan", "administrative divisions of nicaragua", "república de nicaragua", "nicuragua", "sport in nicaragua", "iso 3166 1 ni" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "nicaragua", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Nicaragua" }
What is the Alaskan terminus of the Alaskan Highway?	tc_712	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Alaska_Highway.txt" ], "title": [ "Alaska Highway" ], "wiki_context": [ "The Alaska Highway (also known as the Alaskan Highway, Alaska-Canadian Highway, or ALCAN Highway) was constructed during World War II for the purpose of connecting the contiguous United States to Alaska through Canada. It begins at the junction with several Canadian highways in Dawson Creek, British Columbia, and runs to Delta Junction, Alaska, via Whitehorse, Yukon. Completed in 1942 at a length of approximately 2700 km, it is 2232 km long. The difference in distance is due to constant reconstruction of the highway, which has rerouted and straightened out numerous sections. The highway was opened to the public in 1948. Legendary over many decades for being a rough, challenging drive, the highway is now paved over its entire length.\n\nAn informal system of historic mileposts developed over the years to denote major stopping points; Delta Junction, at the end of the highway, makes reference to its location at \"Historic Milepost 1422.\" It is at this point that the Alaska Highway meets the Richardson Highway, which continues 155 km to the city of Fairbanks. This is often regarded, though unofficially, as the northern portion of the Alaska Highway, with Fairbanks at Historic Milepost 1520. Mileposts on this stretch of highway are measured from Valdez, rather than the Alaska Highway. The Alaska Highway is popularly (but unofficially) considered part of the Pan-American Highway, which extends south (despite its discontinuity in Panama) to Argentina.\n\nHistory\n\nConstruction\n\nProposals for a highway to Alaska originated in the 1920s. Thomas MacDonald, director of the U.S. Bureau of Public Roads, dreamed of an international highway spanning the United States and Canada. In order to promote the highway, Slim Williams originally traveled the proposed route by dogsled. Since much of the route would pass through Canada, support from the Canadian government was crucial. However, the Canadian government perceived no value in putting up the required funds to build the road, since the only part of Canada that would benefit was not more than a few thousand people in Yukon.\n\nHowever, some route consideration was given. The preferred route would pass through the Rocky Mountain Trench from Prince George, British Columbia to Dawson City before turning west to Fairbanks, Alaska.\n\nIn 1929 the British Columbia government proposed a highway to Alaska to encourage economic development and tourism. American President Herbert Hoover appointed a board with American and three Canadian members to evaluate the idea. Its 1931 report supported the idea for economic reasons, but both American and Canadian members recognized that a highway would benefit the American military in Alaska; the Great Depression and the Canadian government's lack of support caused the project to not proceed. When the United States approached Canada again in February 1936, the Canadian government refused to commit to spending money on a road connecting the United States. The Canadians also worried about the military implications, fearing that in a war between Japan and North America, the United States would use the road to prevent Canadian neutrality. During a June 1936 visit to Canada, President Franklin D. Roosevelt told Prime Minister W. L. M. King that a highway to Alaska through Canada could be important in quickly reinforcing the American territory during a foreign crisis. Roosevelt became the first American to publicly discuss the military benefits of a highway in an August speech in Chautauqua, New York. He again mentioned the idea during King's visit to Washington in March 1937, suggesting that a $30 million highway would be helpful as part of a larger defense against Japan that included, the Americans hoped, a larger Canadian military presence on the Pacific coast. Roosevelt remained a supporter of the highway, telling Cordell Hull in August 1937 that he wanted a road built as soon as possible. \n\nThe attack on Pearl Harbor and beginning of the Pacific Theater in World War II, coupled with Japanese threats to the west coast of North America and the Aleutian Islands, changed the priorities for both nations. On February 6, 1942 the construction of the Alaska Highway was approved by the United States Army and the project received the authorization from the U.S. Congress and Roosevelt to proceed five days later. Canada agreed to allow construction as long as the United States bore the full cost, and that the road and other facilities in Canada be turned over to Canadian authority after the war ended.\n\nThe official start of construction took place on March 8, 1942 after hundreds of pieces of construction equipment were moved on priority trains by the Northern Alberta Railways to the northeastern part of British Columbia near Mile 0 at Dawson Creek. Construction accelerated through the spring as the winter weather faded away and crews were able to work from both the northern and southern ends; they were spurred on after reports of the Japanese invasion of Kiska Island and Attu Island in the Aleutians. During construction the road was nicknamed the \"oil can highway\" by the work crews due to the large number of discarded oil cans and fuel drums that marked the road's progress. On September 24, 1942 crews from both directions met at Mile 588 at what became named Contact Creek, at the British Columbia-Yukon border at the 60th parallel; the entire route was completed October 28, 1942 with the northern linkup at Mile 1202, Beaver Creek, and the highway was dedicated on November 20, 1942 at Soldier's Summit.\n\nThe needs of war dictated the final route, intended to link the airfields of the Northwest Staging Route that conveyed lend-lease aircraft from the United States to the Soviet Union. Thus the long, impractical route over difficult terrain was chosen.\n\nThe road was originally built mostly by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers as a supply route during World War II. In 1942, the Army Corps of Engineers assigned more than 10,000 men, about a third were black soldiers, members of three newly formed \"Negro regiments\". There were four main thrusts in building the route: southeast from Delta Junction, Alaska toward a linkup at Beaver Creek, Yukon; north then west from Dawson Creek (an advance group started from Fort Nelson, British Columbia after traveling on winter roads on frozen marshland from railway stations on the Northern Alberta Railways); both east and west from Whitehorse after being ferried in via the White Pass and Yukon Route railway. The Army commandeered equipment of all kinds, including local riverboats, railway locomotives, and housing originally meant for use in southern California.\n\nAlthough it was completed on October 28, 1942 and its completion was celebrated at Soldier's Summit on November 21 (and broadcast by radio, the exact outdoor temperature censored due to wartime concerns), the \"highway\" was not usable by general vehicles until 1943. Even then there were many steep grades, a poor surface, switchbacks to gain and descend hills, and few guardrails. Bridges, which progressed during 1942 from pontoon bridges to temporary log bridges, were replaced with steel bridges where necessary. A replica log bridge, the Canyon Creek bridge, can be seen at the Aishihik River crossing; the bridge was rebuilt in 1987 and refurbished in 2005 by the Yukon government as it is a popular tourist attraction. The easing of the Japanese invasion threat resulted in no more contracts being given to private contractors for upgrading of specific sections.\n\nSome 100 mi of route between Burwash Landing and Koidern, Yukon, became nearly impassable in May and June 1943, as the permafrost thawed, no longer protected by a layer of delicate vegetation. A corduroy road was built to restore the route, and corduroy still underlays old sections of highway in the area. Modern construction methods do not allow the permafrost to thaw, either by building a gravel berm on top or replacing the vegetation and soil immediately with gravel. The Burwash-Koidern section, however, is still a problem as the new highway built there in the late 1990s continues to experience frost heave.\n\nPincers on Japan and Look to the North both 1944 productions were National Film Board of Canada documentaries that depicted the construction of the Alaska Highway. \n\nPost war\n\nThe original agreement between Canada and the United States regarding construction of the highway stipulated that its Canadian portion be turned over to Canada six months after the end of the war. This took place on April 1, 1946 when the U.S. Army transferred control of the road through Yukon and British Columbia to the Canadian Army, Northwest Highway System. The Alaskan section was completely paved during the 1960s; largely gravel even in 1981, the Canadian portion of the Alaska Highway is now completely paved, mostly with bituminous surface treatment.\n\nThe Milepost, an extensive guide book to the Alaska Highway and other highways in Alaska and Northwest Canada, was first published in 1949 and continues to be published annually as the foremost guide to traveling the highway.\n\nThe British Columbia government owns the first of the highway, the only portion paved during the late 1960s and 1970s. Public Works Canada manages the highway from Mile 82.6 (km 133) to Historic Mile 630. The Yukon government owns the highway from Historic Mile 630 to Historic Mile 1016 (from near Watson Lake to Haines Junction), and manages the remainder to the U.S. border at Historic Mile 1221. The State of Alaska owns the highway within that state (Mile 1221 to Mile 1422).\n\nThe Alaska Highway was built for military purposes and its route was not ideal for postwar development of northern Canada. Rerouting in Canada has shortened the highway by approximately 35 mi since 1947, mostly by eliminating winding sections and sometimes by bypassing residential areas. The historic milepost markings are therefore no longer accurate but are still important as local location references. Some old sections of the highway are still in use as local roads, while others are left to deteriorate and still others are plowed up. Four sections form local residential streets in Whitehorse and Fort Nelson, and others form country residential roadways outside of Whitehorse. Although Champagne, Yukon was bypassed in 2002, the old highway is still completely in service for that community until a new direct access road is built.\n\nRerouting continues, expected to continue in the Yukon through 2009, with the Haines Junction-Beaver Creek section covered by the Canada-U.S. Shakwak Agreement. The new Donjek River bridge was opened 26 September 2007, replacing a 1952 bridge. Under Shakwak, U.S. federal highway money is spent for work done by Canadian contractors who win tenders issued by the Yukon government. The Shakwak Project completed the Haines Highway upgrades in the 1980s between Haines Junction and the Alaska Panhandle, then funding was stalled by Congress for several years.\n\nThe Milepost shows the Canadian section of the highway now to be approximately 1187 mi, but the first milepost inside Alaska is 1222. The actual length of the highway inside Alaska is no longer clear because rerouting, as in Canada, has shortened the route, but unlike Canada, mileposts in Alaska are not recalibrated. The BC and Yukon governments and Public Works Canada have recalibrated kilometre posts. The latest BC recalibration was carried out in 1990; using its end-point at the border at Historic Mile 630, the Yukon government has recalibrated in three stages: in 2002, from Mile 630 to the west end of the Champagne revision; in fall 2005, to a point just at the southeast shore of Kluane Lake, and in fall 2008, to the border with Alaska.\n\nThere are historical mileposts along the B.C. and Yukon sections of the highway, installed in 1992, that note specific locations, although the posts no longer represent accurate driving distance. There are 80 mileposts in B.C., 70 in Yukon and 16 in Alaska with a simple number marker of the original mile distance. There are 31 \"historic signs\" in B.C., 22 in Yukon and 5 in Alaska, identifying the significance of the location. There are 18 interpretive panels in B.C., 14 in Yukon and 5 in Alaska which give detailed text information at a turn-off parking area.\n\nThe portion of the Alaska Highway in Alaska is designated Alaska Route 2. In Yukon, it is Highway 1 and in British Columbia, Highway 97. The portion of the Alaska Highway in Alaska was planned to become part of the United States Numbered Highway System, and to be signed as part of U.S. Route 97. The portion of the Alaska Highway in Alaska is also unsigned Interstate A-1 and unsigned Interstate A-2.\n\nRoute markings\n\nThe Canadian section of the road was delineated with mileposts, based on the road as it was in 1947, until 1978, and over the years, reconstruction steadily shortened the distance between some of those mileposts. That year, metric signs were placed on the highway, and the mileposts were replaced with kilometre posts at the approximate locations of a historic mileage of equal value, e.g. km post 1000 was posted approximately where historical Mile 621 would have been posted.\n\nReconstruction continues to shorten the highway, but the kilometre posts, at 2 km intervals, were recalibrated along the B.C. section of road in 1990 to reflect then-current driving distance. The section of highway covered by the 1990 recalibration has since been rendered shorter by further realignments, such as near Summit Pass and between Muncho Lake and Iron Creek.\n\nBased on where those values left off, new Yukon kilometre posts were erected in fall 2002 between the B.C. border and the west end of the new bypass around Champagne, Yukon; in 2005, additional recalibrated posts continued from there to the east shore of Kluane Lake near Silver City; and in fall 2008, from Silver City to the boundary with Alaska. Old kilometre posts, based on the historic miles, remained on the highway, after the first two recalibrations, from those points around Kluane Lake to the Alaska border. The B.C. and Yukon sections also have a small number of historic mileposts, printed on oval-shaped signs, at locations of historic significance; these special signs were erected in 1992 on the occasion of the highway's 50th anniversary.\n\nThe Alaska portion of the highway is still marked by mileposts at 1 mi intervals, although they no longer represent accurate driving distance, due to reconstruction.\n\nThe historic mileposts are still used by residents and businesses along the highway to refer to their location, and in some cases are also used as postal addresses.\n\nResidents and travelers, and the government of the Yukon, do not use \"east\" and \"west\" to refer to direction of travel on the Yukon section, even though this is the predominant bearing of the Yukon portion of the highway; \"north\" and \"south\" are used, referring to the south (Dawson Creek) and north (Delta Junction) termini of the highway. This is an important consideration for travelers who may otherwise be confused, particularly when a westbound travel routes southwestward or even due south to circumvent a natural obstacle such as Kluane Lake.\n\nSome B.C. sections west of Fort Nelson also route more east-to-west, with southwest bearings in some section; again, \"north\" is used in preference to \"west\".\n\nSince 1949 The Milepost, an exhaustive guide to the Alaska Highway and all other routes through the region, has been published each year.\n\nThe community Wonowon, British Columbia is named by its location at mile 101, spoken \"one-oh-one\".\n\nRoute description\n\nThe pioneer road completed in 1942 was approximately 1680 mi from Dawson Creek to Delta Junction. The Army then turned the road over to the Public Roads Administration, which then began putting out section contracts to private road contractors to upgrade selected sections of the road. These sections were upgraded, with removal of excess bends and steep grades; often, a traveler could identify upgraded sections by seeing the telephone line along the PRA-approved route alignment. When the Japanese invasion threat eased, the PRA stopped putting out new contracts. Upon hand-off to Canada in 1946, the route was 1422 mi from Dawson Creek to Delta Junction.\n\nThe route follows a northwest then northward course from Dawson Creek to Fort Nelson. On October 16, 1957, a suspension bridge crossing the Peace River just south of Fort St. John collapsed. A new bridge was built a few years later. At Fort Nelson, the road turns west and crosses the Rocky Mountains, before resuming a westward course at Coal River. The highway crossed the Yukon-BC border nine times from Mile 590 to Mile 773, six of those crossings were from Mile 590 to Mile 596. After passing the south end of Kluane Lake, the highway follows a north-northwest course to the Alaska border, then northwest to the terminus at Delta Junction.\n\nPostwar rebuilding has not shifted the highway more than 10 mi from the original alignment, and in most cases, by less than 3 mi. It is not clear if it still crosses the Yukon-BC border six times from Mile 590 to Mile 596.\n\nMajor intersections\n\n\|-\n\|British Columbia\n\|\n\|869\n\|540\n\|colspan=3\|See British Columbia Highway 97#Major intersections for the intersections of the British Columbia Highway 97 segment\n\|-\n\|rowspan=7\|Yukon\n\|Watson Lake\n\|965\n\|560\n\|\n\|Southern terminus of Highway 4\n\|-\n\|near Watson Lake\n\|986\n\|613\n\|\n\n\|Northern terminus of Highway 37, To British Columbia Highway 37\n\|-\n\|Johnsons Crossing\n\|1,275\n\|792\n\|\n\|Southern terminus of Highway 6\n\|-\n\|Jakes Crossing\n\|1,321\n\|821\n\|\n\|Eastern terminus of Highway 8\n\|-\n\|Carcross Cutoff\n\|bgcolor=DDFFDD\|1,383\n\|bgcolor=DDFFDD\|859\n\|bgcolor=DDFFDD\|\n\|bgcolor=DDFFDD\|Southern terminus of concurrency with Highway 2\n\|-\n\|Whitehorse\n\|bgcolor=DDFFDD\|1,415\n\|bgcolor=DDFFDD\|879\n\|bgcolor=DDFFDD\|\n\|bgcolor=DDFFDD\|Northern terminus of concurrency with Highway 2\n\|-\n\|Haines Junction\n\|1,555\n\|966\n\|\n\|Northern terminus of Highway 3\n\|-\n\|colspan=2\|International border\n\|1,878\n\|1,167\n\|colspan=3\|See Alaska Route 2#Major intersections for the intersections along the Alaska Route 2 section\n\|-\n\nBypassed road segments still in use\n\nFort Nelson\n\n* Mile 301 to 308, now local residential feeder roads Wildflower Drive, Highland Road, Valleyview Drive\n\nWhitehorse\n\n* Mile 898, now local residential road just west of Yukon River Bridge\n* Mile 920.3 to 922.5, now the southern and northern portions of Centennial Street; middle portion is Birch Street\n* Mile 922.5 to 922.7, now a portion of Azure Road\n* Mile 924, now a portion of Cousins Airfield Road\n* Mile 925.5 to 926.9, now Parent Road (east end overlooks Alaska Highway/Klondike Highway junction)\n* Mile 927.2 to 927.7, now Echo Valley Road\n* Mile 928 to 928.3, now Jackson Road\n* Mile 929 to 934, now Old Alaska Highway\n* Mile 968, now entrance road to Mendenhall River Subdivision\n\nChampagne-Aishihik traditional territory\n\n* Mile 969 to 981, Champagne loop (bypassed in fall 2002 by revision)\n* Mile 1016, Hume Street in Haines Junction including access to First Nation subdivision\n\nAlaska\n\n* Mile 1348, one bypassed section of the original route, about 37 mi southeast of Delta Junction, is listed on the National Register of Historic Places as \"one of the few sections of the road in Alaska virtually unchanged.\" Located at , the unpaved road is used by local residents to access Craig Lake, and is signed as Craig Lake Trail.\n\nOther former segments have deteriorated and are no longer usable. More recent construction projects have deliberately plowed up roadway to close it." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Fairbanks, AK", "Fairbanks, AL", "Fairbanks", "AK Fairbanks", "Fairbanks, ak", "Fairbanks, Alaska", "UN/LOCODE:USFAI", "Fairbanks alaska" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "fairbanks alaska", "fairbanks ak", "fairbanks", "un locode usfai", "fairbanks al", "ak fairbanks" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "fairbanks", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Fairbanks" }
What was Buster Keaton's actual first name?	tc_713	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Buster_Keaton.txt" ], "title": [ "Buster Keaton" ], "wiki_context": [ "Joseph Frank \"Buster\" Keaton (October 4, 1895 – February 1, 1966) was an American actor, director, producer, writer, and stunt performer. He was best known for his silent films, in which his trademark was physical comedy with a consistently stoic, deadpan expression, earning him the nickname \"The Great Stone Face\". Keaton was recognized as the seventh-greatest film director by Entertainment Weekly. In 1999, the American Film Institute ranked Keaton the 21st greatest male star of Classic Hollywood Cinema. Critic Roger Ebert wrote of Keaton's \"extraordinary period from 1920 to 1929, [when] he worked without interruption on a series of films that make him, arguably, the greatest actor-director in the history of the movies\". His career declined afterward with a dispiriting loss of his artistic independence when he was hired by MGM, which resulted in a crippling alcoholism that ruined his family life. He recovered in the 1940s, remarried, and revived his career to a degree as an honored comic performer for the rest of his life, earning an Academy Honorary Award in 1959.\n\nOrson Welles stated that Keaton's The General is \"the greatest comedy ever made, the greatest Civil War film ever made, and perhaps the greatest film ever made\". A 2012 worldwide poll by Sight & Sound ranked Keaton's The General as the 34th greatest film and the top comedy. The magazine's 2002 poll ranked it #15 and the highest-rated comedy. \n\nCareer\n\nEarly life in vaudeville\n\nKeaton was born into a vaudeville family in Piqua, Kansas, the small town where his mother, Myra Keaton (née Cutler), happened to go into labor. He was named \"Joseph\" to continue a tradition on his father's side (he was sixth in a line bearing the name Joseph Keaton) and \"Frank\" for his maternal grandfather, who disapproved of his parents' union. Later, Keaton changed his middle name to \"Francis\". His father was Joseph Hallie \"Joe\" Keaton, who owned a traveling show with Harry Houdini called the Mohawk Indian Medicine Company, which performed on stage and sold patent medicine on the side.\n\nAccording to a frequently repeated story, which may be apocryphal, Keaton acquired the nickname \"Buster\" at about 18 months of age. Keaton told interviewer Fletcher Markle that Houdini happened to be present one day when the young Keaton took a tumble down a long flight of stairs without injury. After the infant sat up and shook off his experience, Houdini remarked, \"That was a real buster!\" According to Keaton, in those days, the word \"buster\" was used to refer to a spill or a fall that had the potential to produce injury. After this, it was Keaton's father who began to use the nickname to refer to the youngster. Keaton retold the anecdote over the years, including a 1964 interview with the CBC's Telescope. \n\nAt the age of three, Keaton began performing with his parents in The Three Keatons. He first appeared on stage in 1899 in Wilmington, Delaware. The act was mainly a comedy sketch. Myra played the saxophone to one side, while Joe and Buster performed on center stage. The young Keaton would goad his father by disobeying him, and the elder Keaton would respond by throwing him against the scenery, into the orchestra pit, or even into the audience. A suitcase handle was sewn into Keaton's clothing to aid with the constant tossing. The act evolved as Keaton learned to take trick falls safely; he was rarely injured or bruised on stage. This knockabout style of comedy led to accusations of child abuse, and occasionally, arrest. However, Buster Keaton was always able to show the authorities that he had no bruises or broken bones. He was eventually billed as \"The Little Boy Who Can't Be Damaged,\" with the overall act being advertised as \"'The Roughest Act That Was Ever in the History of the Stage.\" Decades later, Keaton said that he was never hurt by his father and that the falls and physical comedy were a matter of proper technical execution. In 1914, Keaton told the Detroit News: \"The secret is in landing limp and breaking the fall with a foot or a hand. It's a knack. I started so young that landing right is second nature with me. Several times I'd have been killed if I hadn't been able to land like a cat. Imitators of our act don't last long, because they can't stand the treatment.\n\nKeaton claimed he was having so much fun that he would sometimes begin laughing as his father threw him across the stage. Noticing that this drew fewer laughs from the audience, he adopted his famous deadpan expression whenever he was working. \n\nThe act ran up against laws banning child performers in vaudeville. According to one biographer, Keaton was made to go to school while performing in New York, but only attended for part of one day. Despite tangles with the law and a disastrous tour of music halls in the United Kingdom, Keaton was a rising star in the theater. Keaton stated that he learned to read and write late, and was taught by his mother. By the time he was 21, his father's alcoholism threatened the reputation of the family act, so Keaton and his mother, Myra, left for New York, where Buster Keaton's career swiftly moved from vaudeville to film. \n\nKeaton served in the United States Army in France with the 40th Infantry Division during World War I. His unit remained intact and was not broken up to provide replacements, as happened to some other late-arriving divisions. During his time in uniform, he suffered an ear infection that permanently impaired his hearing. \n\nSilent film era\n\nIn February 1917, Keaton met Roscoe \"Fatty\" Arbuckle at the Talmadge Studios in New York City, where Arbuckle was under contract to Joseph M. Schenck. Joe Keaton disapproved of films, and Buster also had reservations about the medium. During his first meeting with Arbuckle, he asked to borrow one of the cameras to get a feel for how it worked. He took the camera back to his hotel room, dismantled and reassembled it. With this rough understanding of the mechanics of the moving pictures, he returned the next day, camera in hand, asking for work. He was hired as a co-star and gag man, making his first appearance in The Butcher Boy. Keaton later claimed that he was soon Arbuckle's second director and his entire gag department. He appeared in a total of 14 Arbuckle shorts, running into 1920. They were popular and, contrary to Keaton's later reputation as \"The Great Stone Face\", he often smiled and even laughed in them. Keaton and Arbuckle became close friends, and Keaton was one of few people to defend Arbuckle's character during accusations that he was responsible for the death of actress Virginia Rappe.\n\nIn 1920, The Saphead was released, in which Keaton had his first starring role in a full-length feature. It was based on a successful play, The New Henrietta, which had already been filmed once, under the title The Lamb, with Douglas Fairbanks playing the lead. Fairbanks recommended Keaton to take the role for the remake five years later, since the film was to have a comic slant.\n\nAfter Keaton's successful work with Arbuckle, Schenck gave him his own production unit, Buster Keaton Comedies. He made a series of two-reel comedies, including One Week (1920), The Playhouse (1921), Cops (1922), and The Electric House (1922). Keaton then moved to full-length features.\n\nKeaton's writers included Clyde Bruckman, Joseph Mitchell, and Jean Havez, but the most ingenious gags were generally conceived by Keaton himself. Comedy director Leo McCarey, recalling the freewheeling days of making slapstick comedies, said, \"All of us tried to steal each other's gagmen. But we had no luck with Keaton, because he thought up his best gags himself and we couldn't steal him!\" The more adventurous ideas called for dangerous stunts, performed by Keaton at great physical risk. During the railroad water-tank scene in Sherlock Jr., Keaton broke his neck when a torrent of water fell on him from a water tower, but he did not realize it until years afterward. A scene from Steamboat Bill Jr. required Keaton to run into the shot and stand still on a particular spot. Then, the facade of a two-story building toppled forward on top of Keaton. Keaton's character emerged unscathed, thanks to a single open window. The stunt required precision, because the prop house weighed two tons, and the window only offered a few inches of clearance around Keaton's body. The sequence furnished one of the most memorable images of his career. \n\nFilm critic David Thomson later described Keaton's style of comedy: \"Buster plainly is a man inclined towards a belief in nothing but mathematics and absurdity ... like a number that has always been searching for the right equation. Look at his face—as beautiful but as inhuman as a butterfly—and you see that utter failure to identify sentiment.\" Gilberto Perez commented on \"Keaton's genius as an actor to keep a face so nearly deadpan and yet render it, by subtle inflections, so vividly expressive of inner life. His large deep eyes are the most eloquent feature; with merely a stare he can convey a wide range of emotions, from longing to mistrust, from puzzlement to sorrow.\" Critic Anthony Lane also noted Keaton's body language: \"The traditional Buster stance requires that he remain upstanding, full of backbone, looking ahead... [in The General] he clambers onto the roof of his locomotive and leans gently forward to scan the terrain, with the breeze in his hair and adventure zipping toward him around the next bend. it is the angle that you remember: the figure perfectly straight but tilted forward, like the Spirit of Ecstasy on the hood of a Rolls-Royce... [in The Three Ages], he drives a low-grade automobile over a bump in the road, and the car just crumbles beneath him. Rerun it on video, and you can see Buster riding the collapse like a surfer, hanging onto the steering wheel, coming beautifully to rest as the wave of wreckage breaks.\" Film historian Jeffrey Vance writes, “Buster Keaton’s comedy endures not just because he had a face that belongs on Mount Rushmore, at once hauntingly immovable and classically American, but because that face was attached to one of the most gifted actors and directors who ever graced the screen. Evolved from the knockabout upbringing of the vaudeville stage, Keaton’s comedy is a whirlwind of hilarious, technically precise, adroitly executed, and surprising gags, very often set against a backdrop of visually stunning set pieces and locations—all this masked behind his unflinching, stoic veneer.” Keaton has inspired full academic study. \n\nAside from Steamboat Bill Jr. (1928), Keaton's most enduring feature-length films include Our Hospitality (1923), The Navigator (1924), Sherlock Jr. (1924), Seven Chances (1925), The Cameraman (1928), and The General (1926). The General, set during the American Civil War, combined physical comedy with Keaton's love of trains, including an epic locomotive chase. Employing picturesque locations, the film's storyline reenacted an actual wartime incident. Though it would come to be regarded as Keaton's greatest achievement, the film received mixed reviews at the time. It was too dramatic for some filmgoers expecting a lightweight comedy, and reviewers questioned Keaton's judgment in making a comedic film about the Civil War, even while noting it had a \"few laughs\". \n\nIt was an expensive misfire, and Keaton was never entrusted with total control over his films again. His distributor, United Artists, insisted on a production manager who monitored expenses and interfered with certain story elements. Keaton endured this treatment for two more feature films, and then exchanged his independent setup for employment at Hollywood's biggest studio, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM). Keaton's loss of independence as a filmmaker coincided with the coming of sound films (although he was interested in making the transition) and mounting personal problems, and his career in the early sound era was hurt as a result. \n\nUse of parody\n\nKeaton started experimenting with parody during his vaudeville years, where most frequently his performances involved impressions and burlesques of other performers' acts. Most of these parodies targeted acts with which Keaton had shared the bill. When Keaton transposed his experience in vaudeville to film, in many works he parodied melodramas. Other favorite targets were cinematic plots, structures and devices. \n\nOne of his most biting parodies is The Frozen North (1922), a satirical take on William S. Hart's Western melodramas, like Hell's Hinges (1916) and The Narrow Trail (1917). Keaton parodied the tired formula of the melodramatic transformation from bad guy to good guy, through which went Hart's character, known as \"the good badman\". He wears a small version of Hart's campaign hat from the Spanish–American War and a six-shooter on each thigh, and during the scene in which he shoots the neighbor and her husband, he reacts with thick glycerin tears, a trademark of Hart's. Audiences of the 1920s recognized the parody and thought the film hysterically funny. However, Hart himself was not amused by Keaton's antics, particularly the crying scene, and did not speak to Buster for two years after he had seen the film. The film's opening intertitles give it its mock-serious tone, and are taken from \"The Shooting of Dan McGrew\" by Robert W. Service.\n\nIn The Playhouse (1921), he parodied his contemporary Thomas H. Ince, Hart's producer, who indulged in over-crediting himself in his film productions. The short also featured the impression of a performing monkey which was likely derived from a co-biller's act (called Peter the Great). Three Ages (1923), his first feature-length film, is a parody of D. W. Griffith's Intolerance (1916), from which it replicates the three inter-cut shorts structure. Three Ages also featured parodies of Bible stories, like those of Samson and Daniel. Keaton directed the film, along with Edward F. Cline.\n\nSound era and television\n\nKeaton signed with MGM in 1928, a business decision that he would later call the worst of his life. He realized too late that the studio system MGM represented would severely limit his creative input. For instance, the studio refused his request to make his early project, Spite Marriage, as a sound film and after the studio converted, he was obliged to adhere to dialogue-laden scripts. However, MGM did allow Keaton some creative participation on his last originally developed/written silent film The Cameraman, 1928, which was his first project under contract with them, but hired Edward Sedgwick as the official director.\n\nKeaton was forced to use a stunt double during some of the more dangerous scenes, something he had never done in his heyday, as MGM wanted badly to protect its investment. \"Stuntmen don't get laughs,\" Keaton had said. Some of his most financially successful films for the studio were during this period. MGM tried teaming the laconic Keaton with the rambunctious Jimmy Durante in a series of films, The Passionate Plumber, Speak Easily, and What! No Beer? The latter would be Keaton's last starring feature in his home country. The films proved popular. (Thirty years later, both Keaton and Durante had cameo roles in It's a Mad Mad Mad Mad World, albeit not in the same scenes.)\n\nIn the first Keaton pictures with sound, he and his fellow actors would shoot each scene three times: one in English, one in Spanish, and one in either French or German. The actors would phonetically memorize the foreign-language scripts a few lines at a time and shoot immediately after. This is discussed in the TCM documentary Buster Keaton: So Funny it Hurt, with Keaton complaining about having to shoot lousy films not just once, but three times.\n\nKeaton was so demoralized during the production of 1933's What! No Beer? that MGM fired him after the filming was complete, despite the film being a resounding hit. In 1934, Keaton accepted an offer to make an independent film in Paris, Le Roi des Champs-Élysées. During this period, he made another film, in England, The Invader (released in the United States as An Old Spanish Custom in 1936).\n\nEducational Pictures\n\nUpon Keaton's return to Hollywood, he made a screen comeback in a series of 16 two-reel comedies for Educational Pictures. Most of these are simple visual comedies, with many of the gags supplied by Keaton himself, often recycling ideas from his family vaudeville act and his earlier films. The high point in the Educational series is Grand Slam Opera, featuring Buster in his own screenplay as an amateur-hour contestant. When the series lapsed in 1937, Keaton returned to MGM as a gag writer, including the Marx Brothers films At the Circus (1939) and Go West (1940), and providing material for Red Skelton. He also helped and advised Lucille Ball in her comedic work in films and television. \n\nColumbia Pictures\n\nIn 1939, Columbia Pictures hired Keaton to star in ten two-reel comedies, running for two years. The director was usually Jules White, whose emphasis on slapstick and farce made most of these films resemble White's Three Stooges comedies. Keaton's personal favorite was the series' debut entry, Pest from the West, a shorter, tighter remake of Keaton's little-viewed 1935 feature The Invader; it was directed not by White but by Del Lord, a veteran director for Mack Sennett. Moviegoers and exhibitors welcomed Keaton's Columbia comedies, proving that the comedian had not lost his appeal. However, taken as a whole, Keaton's Columbia shorts rank as the worst comedies he made, an assessment he concurred with in his autobiography. The final entry was She's Oil Mine, and Keaton swore he would never again \"make another crummy two-reeler.\"\n\n1940s and feature films\n\nKeaton's personal life had stabilized with his 1940 marriage, and now he was taking life a little easier, abandoning Columbia for the less strenuous field of feature films. Throughout the 1940s, Keaton played character roles in both \"A\" and \"B\" features. He made his last starring feature El Moderno Barba Azul (1946) in Mexico; the film was a low budget production, and it may not have been seen in the United States until its release on VHS in the 1980s, under the title Boom In The Moon. Critics rediscovered Keaton in 1949 and producers occasionally hired him for bigger \"prestige\" pictures. He had cameos in such films as In the Good Old Summertime (1949), Sunset Boulevard (1950), and Around the World in 80 Days (1956). In In The Good Old Summertime, Keaton personally directed the stars Judy Garland and Van Johnson in their first scene together where they bump into each other on the street. Keaton invented comedy bits where Johnson keeps trying to apologize to a seething Garland, but winds up messing up her hairdo and tearing her dress.\n\nKeaton also had a cameo as Jimmy, appearing near the end of the film It's a Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad World (1963). Jimmy assists Spencer Tracy's character, Captain C. G. Culpepper, by readying Culpepper's ultimately-unused boat for his abortive escape. (The restored version of that film, released in 2013, contains a restored scene where Jimmy and Culpeper talk on the telephone. Lost after the comedy epic's \"roadshow\" exhibition, the audio of that scene was discovered, and combined with still pictures to recreate the scene.) Keaton was given more screen time in A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum (1966). The appearance, since it was released after his death, was his posthumous swansong.\n\nKeaton also appeared in a comedy routine about two inept stage musicians in Charlie Chaplin's Limelight (1952), recalling the vaudeville of The Playhouse. With the exception of Seeing Stars, a minor publicity film produced in 1922, Limelight was the only time in which the two would ever appear together on film.\n\nIn 1949, comedian Ed Wynn invited Keaton to appear on his CBS Television comedy-variety show, The Ed Wynn Show, which was televised live on the West Coast. Kinescopes were made for distribution of the programs to other parts of the country since there was no transcontinental coaxial cable until September 1951.\n\n1950s-1960s and television\n\nHe had an essentially non-speaking role in Sunset Boulevard (1950), in the bridge-playing scene where he utters the word \"pass\" twice, providing additional weight to the silent era echoes of the movie.\n\nIn 1950, Keaton had a successful television series, The Buster Keaton Show, which was broadcast live on a local Los Angeles station. Life with Buster Keaton (1951), an attempt to recreate the first series on film and so allowing the program to be broadcast nationwide, was less well received. He also appeared in the early television series Faye Emerson's Wonderful Town. A theatrical feature film, The Misadventures of Buster Keaton, was fashioned from the series. Keaton said he canceled the filmed series himself because he was unable to create enough fresh material to produce a new show each week. Keaton also appeared on Ed Wynn's variety show. At the age of 55, he successfully recreated one of the stunts of his youth, in which he propped one foot onto a table, then swung the second foot up next to it, and held the awkward position in midair for a moment before crashing to the stage floor. I've Got a Secret host Garry Moore recalled, \"I asked (Keaton) how he did all those falls, and he said, 'I'll show you'. He opened his jacket and he was all bruised. So that's how he did it—it hurt—but you had to care enough not to care.\" In 1952 Keaton appeared with Charles Chaplin in Limelight.\n\nUnlike his contemporary Harold Lloyd, who kept his films from being televised, Keaton's periodic television appearances helped to revive interest in his silent films in the 1950s and 1960s. In 1954, Keaton played his first television dramatic role in \"The Awakening\", an episode of the syndicated anthology series Douglas Fairbanks, Jr., Presents. About this time, he also appeared on NBC's The Martha Raye Show.\n\nAlso in 1954, Keaton and his wife Eleanor met film programmer Raymond Rohauer, with whom the couple would develop a business partnership to re-release Keaton's films. Around the same time, after buying the comedian's house, the actor James Mason found numerous cans of Keaton's films. Among the re-discovered films was Keaton's long-lost classic The Boat. The Coronet Theatre art house in Los Angeles, with which Rohauer was involved, was showing The General which \"Buster hadn't seen ... in years and he wanted me to see it,\" Eleanor Keaton said in 1987. \"Raymond recognized Buster and their friendship started.\" Rohauer in that same article recalls, \"I was in the projection room. l got a ring that Buster Keaton was in the lobby. I go down and there he is with Eleanor. The next day I met with him at his home. I didn't realize we were going to join forces. But I realized he had this I-don't-care attitude about his stuff. He said, 'It's valueless. I don't own the rights.'\" Keaton had prints of the features Three Ages, Sherlock, Jr., Steamboat Bill, Jr., College (missing one reel) and the shorts \"The Boat\" and \"My Wife's Relations\", which Keaton and Rohauer had transferred to safety stock from deteriorating nitrate film stock. Unknown to them at the time, MGM also had saved some of Keaton's work: all his 1920-1926 features and his first eight two-reel shorts.\n\nOn April 3, 1957, Keaton was surprised by Ralph Edwards for the weekly NBC program This Is Your Life. The half-hour program, which also promoted the release of the biographical film The Buster Keaton Story with Donald O'Connor, summarized Keaton's life and career up to that point. \n\nIn December 1958, Keaton was a guest star as Charlie, a hospital janitor who provides gifts to sick children, in a special Christmas episode of The Donna Reed Show on ABC. The program was titled \"A Very Merry Christmas\". He returned to the program in 1965 in the episode \"Now You See It, Now You Don't\". The 1958 episode has been included in the DVD release of Donna Reed's television programs. Actor Paul Peterson, a regular on \"The Donna Reed Show,\" recalls in the book The Fall of Buster Keaton (2010, Scarecrow Press) that Keaton \"put together an incredible physical skit. His skills were amazing. I never saw anything like it before or since.\"\n\nIn August 1960, Keaton accepted the role of mute King Sextimus the Silent in the national touring company of Once Upon A Mattress, a successful Broadway musical. Eleanor Keaton was cast in the chorus, and during rehearsals, she fielded questions directed at her husband, creating difficulties in communication. After a few days, Keaton warmed up to the rest of the cast with his \"utterly delicious sense of humor\", according to Fritzi Burr, who played opposite him as his wife Queen Aggravaine. When the tour landed in Los Angeles, Keaton invited the entire cast and crew to a spaghetti party at his Woodland Hills home, and entertained them by singing vaudeville songs. \n\nIn 1960, Keaton returned to MGM for the final time, playing a lion tamer in a 1960 adaptation of Mark Twain's The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. Much of the film was shot on location on the Sacramento River, which doubled for the Mississippi River setting of Twain's original book. \n\nIn 1961, he starred in The Twilight Zone episode \"Once Upon a Time\", which included both silent and sound sequences. Keaton played time-traveler Mulligan, who traveled from 1890 to 1960, then back, by means of a special helmet.\n\nIn January 1962, he worked with comedian Ernie Kovacs on a television pilot tentatively titled \"Medicine Man,\" shooting scenes for it on January 12, 1962—the day before Kovacs died in a car crash. \"Medicine Man\" was completed but not aired. It can, however, be viewed, under its alternate title A Pony For Chris on an Ernie Kovacs DVD set.\n\nKeaton also found steady work as an actor in TV commercials, including a series of silent ads for Simon Pure Beer made in 1962 by Jim Mohr in Buffalo, New York in which he revisited some of the gags from his silent film days.\n\nIn 1964, Keaton appeared with Joan Blondell and Joe E. Brown in the final episode of ABC's circus drama, The Greatest Show on Earth, starring Jack Palance. In November, 1965, he appeared on the CBS television special A Salute To Stan Laurel which was a tribute to the late comedian (and friend of Keaton's) who had died earlier that year. The program was produced as a benefit for the Motion Picture Relief Fund and featured a plethora of celebrities, including Dick Van Dyke, Danny Kaye, Phil Silvers, Gregory Peck, Cesar Romero, and Lucille Ball. In one segment, Ball and Keaton do a silent sketch on a park bench with the two clowns wrestling over an oversized newspaper, until a policeman (played by Harvey Korman) breaks up the fun. The skit called \"A Day in the Park\" was filmed and broadcast in color. It marked the only time Ball and Keaton worked together in front of a camera. \n\nKeaton starred in four films for American International Pictures: 1964's Pajama Party and 1965's Beach Blanket Bingo, How to Stuff a Wild Bikini and Sergeant Deadhead. As he had done in the past, Keaton also provided gags for the four AIP films in which he appeared. Those films' director, William Asher, who cast Keaton, recalled,\n\nIn 1965, Keaton starred in the short film The Railrodder for the National Film Board of Canada. Wearing his traditional pork pie hat, he travelled from one end of Canada to the other on a motorized handcar, performing gags similar to those in films he made 50 years before. The film is also notable for being Keaton's last silent screen performance. The Railrodder was made in tandem with a behind-the-scenes documentary about Keaton's life and times, called Buster Keaton Rides Again, also made for the National Film Board, which is twice the length of the short film. He played the central role in Samuel Beckett's Film (1965), directed by Alan Schneider. Also in 1965, he traveled to Italy to play a role in Due Marines e un Generale, co-starring alongside the famous Italian comedian duo of Franco Franchi and Ciccio Ingrassia. In 1987 Italian singer-songwriters Claudio Lolli and Francesco Guccini wrote a song, \"Keaton\", about his work on that film.\n\nKeaton's last commercial film appearance was in A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum (1966), which was filmed in Spain in September–November 1965. He amazed the cast and crew by doing many of his own stunts, although Thames Television said his increasingly ill health did force the use of a stunt double for some scenes. His final appearance on film was a 1965 safety film produced in Toronto, Canada, by the Construction Safety Associations of Ontario in collaboration with Perini, Ltd. (now Tutor Perini Corporation), The Scribe. Keaton plays a lowly janitor at a newspaper. He intercepts a request from the editor to visit a construction site adjacent to the newspaper headquarters to investigate possible safety violations. Keaton died shortly after completing the film. \n\nPersonal life\n\nIn 1921, Keaton married Natalie Talmadge, sister-in-law of his boss, Joseph Schenck, and sister of actresses Norma Talmadge and Constance Talmadge. She co-starred with Keaton in Our Hospitality. The couple had two sons, Joseph, aka Buster Keaton Jr. (June 2, 1922– February 14, 2007), and Robert Talmadge Keaton (February 3, 1924– July 19, 2009), later both surnamed Talmadge. After the birth of Robert, the relationship began to suffer. Note: Source misspells Keaton's frequent appellation as \"Great Stoneface\".\n\nInfluenced by her family, Talmadge decided not to have more children, and this led to the couple staying in separate bedrooms. Her financial extravagance (she would spend up to a third of his salary on clothes) was another factor in the breakdown of the marriage. Keaton dated actress Dorothy Sebastian beginning in the 1920s and Kathleen Key in the early 1930s. After attempts at reconciliation, Talmadge divorced Keaton in 1932, taking his entire fortune and refusing to allow any contact between Keaton and his sons, whose last name she had changed to Talmadge. Keaton was reunited with them about a decade later when his older son turned 18. With the failure of his marriage and the loss of his independence as a filmmaker, Keaton lapsed into a period of alcoholism.\n\nIn 1926, Keaton spent $300,000 to build a 10000 sqft home in Beverly Hills designed by architect Gene Verge, Sr., which was later owned by James Mason and Cary Grant. Keaton's \"Italian Villa\" can be seen in Keaton's film Parlor, Bedroom and Bath. Keaton later said, \"I took a lot of pratfalls to build that dump.\"\n\nThe house suffered approximately $10,000 worth of damage from a fire in the nursery and dining room in 1931. Keaton was not at home at the time, and his wife and children escaped unharmed, staying at the home of Tom Mix until the following morning. \n\nKeaton was at one point briefly institutionalized; however, according to the TCM documentary So Funny it Hurt, Keaton escaped a straitjacket with tricks learned during his vaudeville days. In 1933, he married his nurse, Mae Scriven, during an alcoholic binge about which he afterwards claimed to remember nothing (Keaton himself later called that period an \"alcoholic blackout\"). Scriven herself would later claim that she didn't know Keaton's real first name until after the marriage. The singular event that triggered Scriven filing for divorce in 1935 was her finding Keaton with Leah Clampitt Sewell (libertine wife of millionaire Barton Sewell) on July 4 the same year in a hotel in Santa Barbara. When they divorced in 1936, it was again at great financial cost to Keaton. \n\nIn 1940, Keaton married Eleanor Norris (July 29, 1918 – October 19, 1998), who was 23 years his junior. She has been credited by Jeffrey Vance with saving Keaton's life by stopping his heavy drinking and helping to salvage his career. The marriage lasted until his death. Between 1947 and 1954, they appeared regularly in the Cirque Medrano in Paris as a double act. She came to know his routines so well that she often participated in them on TV revivals.\n\nDeath\n\nKeaton died of lung cancer on February 1, 1966, aged 70, in Woodland Hills, California. Despite being diagnosed with cancer in January 1966, he was never told that he was terminally ill or that he had cancer; Keaton thought that he was recovering from a severe case of bronchitis. Confined to a hospital during his final days, Keaton was restless and paced the room endlessly, desiring to return home. In a British television documentary about his career, his widow Eleanor told producers of Thames Television that Keaton was up out of bed and moving around, and even played cards with friends who came to visit the day before he died. Keaton was interred at the Forest Lawn Memorial Park Cemetery in Hollywood Hills, California.\n\nInfluence and legacy\n\nKeaton has two stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame: 6619 Hollywood Boulevard (for motion pictures); and 6321 Hollywood Boulevard (for television).\n\nJacques Tati is described as \"taking a page from Buster Keaton's playbook.\" \n\nA 1957 film biography, The Buster Keaton Story, starring Donald O'Connor as Keaton was released. The screenplay, by Sidney Sheldon, who also directed the film, was loosely based on Keaton's life but contained many factual errors and merged his three wives into one character. A 1987 documentary, Buster Keaton: A Hard Act to Follow, directed by Kevin Brownlow and David Gill, won two Emmy Awards. \n\nThe International Buster Keaton Society was founded on October 4, 1992 – Buster’s birthday. Dedicated to bringing greater public attention to Keaton’s life and work, the membership includes many individuals from the television and film industry: actors, producers, authors, artists, graphic novelists, musicians, and designers, as well as those who simply admire the magic of Buster Keaton. The Society’s nickname, the “Damfinos,” draws its name from a boat in Buster’s 1921 comedy, “The Boat.”\n\nIn 1994, caricaturist Al Hirschfeld penned a series of silent film stars for the United States Post Office, including Rudolph Valentino and Keaton. Hirschfeld said that modern film stars were more difficult to depict, that silent film comedians such as Laurel and Hardy and Keaton \"looked like their caricatures\". \n\nKeaton's physical comedy is cited by Jackie Chan in his autobiography documentary Jackie Chan: My Story as being the primary source of inspiration for his own brand of self-deprecating physical comedy.\n\nComedian Richard Lewis stated that Keaton was his prime inspiration, and spoke of having a close friendship with Keaton's widow Eleanor. Lewis was particularly moved by the fact that Eleanor said his eyes looked like Keaton's. \n\nAt the time of Eleanor Keaton's death, she was working closely with film historian Jeffrey Vance to donate her papers and photographs to the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. The book Buster Keaton Remembered, by Eleanor Keaton and Vance, published after her death, was favorably reviewed. \n\nIn 2012, Kino Lorber released The Ultimate Buster Keaton Collection, a 14-disc Blu-ray box set of Keaton's work, including 11 of his feature films. \n\nPork pie hats\n\nKeaton designed and modified his own pork pie hats during his career. In 1964, he told an interviewer that in making \"this particular pork pie\", he \"started with a good Stetson and cut it down\", stiffening the brim with sugar water. The hats were often destroyed during Keaton's wild film antics; some were given away as gifts and some were snatched by souvenir hunters. Keaton said he was lucky if he used only six hats in making a film. Keaton estimated that he and his wife Eleanor made thousands of the hats during his career. Keaton observed that during his silent period, such a hat cost him around two dollars; at the time of his interview, he said, they cost almost $13. \n\nFilmography" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Joseph", "Joseph (name)", "Yuseif", "Joseph (biblical)", "Yoseif", "Yoseph", "Joseph (given name)", "Yôseph", "Youssef", "Jospeh", "Joe (name)", "Josey (name)", "Jazeps", "يوسف", "Joeseph", "Giuseppe", "Joe (given name)", "Guiseppe", "Seosamh", "Jāzeps", "Ioseph", "Józef" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "josey name", "yuseif", "يوسف", "joseph", "jazeps", "ioseph", "joseph biblical", "guiseppe", "joeseph", "jospeh", "yoseph", "józef", "joseph given name", "joe given name", "seosamh", "joseph name", "yôseph", "yoseif", "giuseppe", "jāzeps", "joe name", "youssef" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "joseph", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Joseph" }
From 1903 to 1958, every Pope--bar one--took which name?	tc_714	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "Search" ], "filename": [ "Babe_Ruth.txt" ], "title": [ "Babe Ruth" ], "wiki_context": [ "George Herman Ruth Jr. (February 6, 1895 – August 16, 1948), better known as Babe Ruth, was an American professional baseball player whose career in Major League Baseball (MLB) spanned 22 seasons, from 1914 through 1935. Nicknamed \"The Bambino\" and \"The Sultan of Swat\", he began his MLB career as a stellar left-handed pitcher for the Boston Red Sox, but achieved his greatest fame as a slugging outfielder for the New York Yankees. Ruth established many MLB batting (and some pitching) records, including career home runs (714), runs batted in (RBIs) (2,213), bases on balls (2,062), slugging percentage (.690), and on-base plus slugging (OPS) (1.164); the latter two still stand today. Ruth is regarded as one of the greatest sports heroes in American culture and is considered by many to be the greatest baseball player of all time. In , Ruth was elected into the Baseball Hall of Fame as one of its \"first five\" inaugural members.\n\nAt age seven, Ruth was sent to St. Mary's Industrial School for Boys, a reformatory where he learned life lessons and baseball skills from Brother Matthias Boutlier of the Christian Brothers, the school's disciplinarian and a capable baseball player. In 1914, Ruth was signed to play minor-league baseball for the Baltimore Orioles but was soon sold to the Red Sox. By 1916, he had built a reputation as an outstanding pitcher who sometimes hit long home runs, a feat unusual for any player in the pre-1920 dead-ball era. Although Ruth twice won 23 games in a season as a pitcher and was a member of three World Series championship teams with Boston, he wanted to play every day and was allowed to convert to an outfielder. With regular playing time, he broke the MLB single-season home run record in 1919.\n\nAfter that season, Red Sox owner Harry Frazee controversially sold Ruth to the Yankees, an act that, coupled with Boston's subsequent championship drought, popularized the \"Curse of the Bambino\" superstition. In his 15 years with New York, Ruth helped the Yankees win seven American League (AL) championships and four World Series championships. His big swing led to escalating home run totals that not only drew fans to the ballpark and boosted the sport's popularity but also helped usher in the live-ball era of baseball, in which it evolved from a low-scoring game of strategy to a sport where the home run was a major factor. As part of the Yankees' vaunted \"Murderer's Row\" lineup of 1927, Ruth hit 60 home runs, extending his MLB single-season record. He retired in 1935 after a short stint with the Boston Braves. During his career, Ruth led the AL in home runs during a season twelve times.\n\nRuth's legendary power and charismatic personality made him a larger-than-life figure in the \"Roaring Twenties\". During his career, he was the target of intense press and public attention for his baseball exploits and off-field penchants for drinking and womanizing. His often reckless lifestyle was tempered by his willingness to do good by visiting children at hospitals and orphanages. He was denied a job in baseball for most of his retirement, most likely due to poor behavior during parts of his playing career. In his final years, Ruth made many public appearances, especially in support of American efforts in World War II. In 1946, he became ill with cancer, and died two years later.\n\nEarly years\n\nGeorge Herman Ruth Jr. was born in 1895 at 216 Emory Street in Pigtown, a working-class section of Baltimore, Maryland, named for its meat-packing plants. Its population included recent immigrants from Ireland, Germany and Italy, and African Americans. Ruth's parents, George Herman Ruth, Sr. (1871–1918), and Katherine Schamberger, were both of German American ancestry. According to the 1880 census, his parents were born in Maryland. The paternal grandparents of Ruth, Sr. were from Prussia and Hanover, respectively. Ruth, Sr. had a series of jobs, including lightning rod salesman and streetcar operator, before becoming a counterman in a family-owned combination grocery and saloon on Frederick Street. George Ruth Jr. was born in the house of his maternal grandfather, Pius Schamberger, a German immigrant and trade unionist. Only one of young George's seven siblings, his younger sister Mamie, survived infancy. \n\nMany aspects of Ruth's childhood are undetermined, including the date of his parents' marriage. When young George was a toddler, the family moved to 339 South Woodyear Street, not far from the rail yards; by the time the boy was 6, his father had a saloon with an upstairs apartment at 426 West Camden Street. Details are equally scanty about why young George was sent at the age of 7 to St. Mary's Industrial School for Boys, a reformatory and orphanage. As an adult, Babe Ruth suggested that not only had he been running the streets and rarely attending school, he was drinking beer when his father was not looking. Some accounts say that, after a violent incident at his father's saloon, the city authorities decided this environment was unsuitable for a small child. At St. Mary's, which George Jr. entered on June 13, 1902, he was recorded as \"incorrigible\"; he spent much of the next twelve years there. \n\nAlthough St. Mary's inmates received an education, students were also expected to learn work skills and help operate the school, particularly once the boys turned 12. Ruth became a shirtmaker, and was also proficient as a carpenter. He would adjust his own shirt collars, rather than having a tailor do it, even during his well-paid baseball career. The boys, aged 5 to 21, did most work around the facility, from cooking to shoemaking, and renovated St. Mary's in 1912. The food was simple, and the Xaverian Brothers who ran the school insisted on strict discipline; corporal punishment was common. Ruth's nickname there was \"Niggerlips\", as he had large facial features and was darker than most boys at the all-white reformatory. \n\nRuth was sometimes allowed to rejoin his family, or was placed at St. James's Home, a supervised residence with work in the community, but he was always returned to St. Mary's. He rarely was visited by his family; his mother died when he was 12 and by some accounts, he was permitted to leave St. Mary's only to attend the funeral. How Ruth came to play baseball there is uncertain: according to one account, his placement at St. Mary's was due in part to repeatedly breaking Baltimore's windows with long hits while playing street ball; by another, he was told to join a team on his first day at St. Mary's by the school's athletic director, Brother Herman, becoming a catcher even though left-handers rarely play that position. During his time there he also played third base and shortstop, again unusual for a left-hander, and was forced to wear mitts and gloves made for right-handers. He was encouraged in his pursuits by the school's Prefect of Discipline, Brother Matthias Boutlier, a native of Nova Scotia. A large man, Brother Matthias was greatly respected by the boys both for his strength and for his fairness. For the rest of his life, Ruth would praise Brother Matthias, and his running and hitting styles closely resembled his teacher's. Ruth stated, \"I think I was born as a hitter the first day I ever saw him hit a baseball.\" The older man became a mentor and role model to George; biographer Robert W. Creamer commented on the closeness between the two:\n\nThe school's influence remained with Ruth in other ways: a lifelong Catholic, he would sometimes attend Mass after carousing all night, and he became a well-known member of the Knights of Columbus. He would visit orphanages, schools, and hospitals throughout his life, often avoiding publicity. He was generous to St. Mary's as he became famous and rich, donating money and his presence at fundraisers, and spending $5,000 to buy Brother Matthias a Cadillac in 1926—subsequently replacing it when it was destroyed in an accident. Nevertheless, his biographer Leigh Montville suggests that many of the off-the-field excesses of Ruth's career were driven by the deprivations of his time at St. Mary's. \n\nMost of the boys at St. Mary's played baseball, with organized leagues at different levels of proficiency. Ruth later estimated that he played 200 games a year as he steadily climbed the ladder of success. Although he played all positions at one time or another (including infield positions generally reserved for right-handers), he gained stardom as a pitcher. According to Brother Matthias, Ruth was standing to one side laughing at the bumbling pitching efforts of fellow students, and Matthias told him to go in and see if he could do better. After becoming the best pitcher at St. Mary's, in 1913, when Ruth was 18, he was allowed to leave the premises to play weekend games on teams drawn from the community. He was mentioned in several newspaper articles, for both his pitching prowess and ability to hit long home runs. \n\nProfessional baseball\n\nMinor league, Baltimore Orioles\n\nIn early 1914, Ruth was signed to a professional baseball contract by Jack Dunn, owner and manager of the minor-league Baltimore Orioles, an International League team. The circumstances of Ruth's signing cannot be stated with certainty, with historical fact obscured by stories that cannot all be true. By some accounts, Dunn was urged to attend a game between an all-star team from St. Mary's and one from another Xaverian facility, Mount St. Mary's College. Some versions have Ruth running away before the eagerly awaited game, to return in time to be punished, and then pitching St. Mary's to victory as Dunn watched. Others have Washington Senators pitcher Joe Engel, a Mount St. Mary's graduate, pitching in an alumni game after watching a preliminary contest between the college's freshmen and a team from St. Mary's, including Ruth. Engel watched Ruth play, then told Dunn about him at a chance meeting in Washington. Ruth, in his autobiography, stated only that he worked out for Dunn for a half-hour, and was signed. According to biographer Kal Wagenheim, there were legal difficulties to be straightened out as Ruth was supposed to remain at the school until he turned 21. \n\nThe train journey to spring training in Fayetteville, North Carolina, in early March was likely Ruth's first outside the Baltimore area. The rookie ballplayer was the subject of various pranks by the veterans, who were probably also the source of his famous nickname. There are various accounts of how Ruth came to be called Babe, but most center on his being referred to as \"Dunnie's babe\" or a variant. \"Babe\" was at that time a common nickname in baseball, with perhaps the most famous to that point being Pittsburgh Pirates pitcher and 1909 World Series hero Babe Adams, who appeared younger than he was. \n\nBabe Ruth's first appearance as a professional ballplayer was in an intersquad game on March 7, 1914. Ruth played shortstop, and pitched the last two innings of a 15–9 victory. In his second at bat, Ruth hit a long home run to right, which was reported locally to be longer than a legendary shot hit in Fayetteville by Jim Thorpe. His first appearance against a team in organized baseball was an exhibition against the major-league Philadelphia Phillies: Ruth pitched the middle three innings, giving up two runs in the fourth, but then settling down and pitching a scoreless fifth and sixth. The following afternoon, Ruth was put in during the sixth inning against the Phillies and did not allow a run the rest of the way. The Orioles scored seven runs in the bottom of the eighth to overcome a 6–0 deficit, making Ruth the winning pitcher. \n\nOnce the regular season began, Ruth was a star pitcher who was also dangerous at the plate. The team performed well, yet received almost no attention from the Baltimore press. A third major league, the Federal League, had begun play, and the local franchise, the Baltimore Terrapins, restored that city to the major leagues for the first time since 1902. Few fans visited Oriole Park, where Ruth and his teammates labored in relative obscurity. Ruth may have been offered a bonus and a larger salary to jump to the Terrapins; when rumors to that effect swept Baltimore, giving Ruth the most publicity he had experienced to date, a Terrapins official denied it, stating it was their policy not to sign players under contract to Dunn. \n\nThe competition from the Terrapins caused Dunn to sustain large losses. Although by late June the Orioles were in first place, having won over two-thirds of their games, the paid attendance dropped as low as 150. Dunn explored a possible move by the Orioles to Richmond, Virginia, as well as the sale of a minority interest in the club. These possibilities fell through, leaving Dunn with little choice other than to sell his best players to major league teams to raise money. He offered Ruth to the reigning World Series champions, Connie Mack's Philadelphia Athletics, but Mack had his own financial problems. The Cincinnati Reds and New York Giants expressed interest in Ruth, but Dunn sold his contract, along with those of pitchers Ernie Shore and Ben Egan, to the Boston Red Sox of the American League (AL) on July 4. The sale price was announced as $25,000 but other reports lower the amount to half that, or possibly $8,500 plus the cancellation of a $3,000 loan. Ruth remained with the Orioles for several days while the Red Sox completed a road trip, and reported to the team in Boston on July 11. \n\nBoston Red Sox (1914–19)\n\nDeveloping star\n\nRuth arrived in Boston on July 11, 1914, along with Egan and Shore. Ruth later told of meeting the woman he would first marry, Helen Woodford, that morning—she was then a 16-year-old waitress at Landers Coffee Shop, and Ruth related that she served him when he had breakfast there. Other stories, though, suggest the meeting happened on another day, and perhaps under other circumstances. Regardless of when he began to woo his first wife, he won his first game for the Red Sox that afternoon, 4–3, over the Cleveland Naps. He pitched to catcher Bill Carrigan, who was also the Red Sox manager. Shore was given a start by Carrigan the next day; he won that and his second start and thereafter was pitched regularly. Ruth lost his second start, and was thereafter little used. As a batter, in his major-league debut, Ruth went 0-for-2 against left-hander Willie Mitchell, striking out in his first at bat, before being removed for a pinch hitter in the seventh inning. Ruth was not much noticed by the fans, as Bostonians watched the Red Sox's crosstown rivals, the Braves, begin a legendary comeback that would take them from last place on the Fourth of July to the 1914 World Series championship. \n\nEgan was traded to Cleveland after two weeks on the Boston roster. During his time as a Red Sox, he kept an eye on the inexperienced Ruth, much as Dunn had in Baltimore. When he was traded, no one took his place as supervisor. Ruth's new teammates considered him brash, and would have preferred him, as a rookie, to remain quiet and inconspicuous. When Ruth insisted on taking batting practice despite his being both a rookie who did not play regularly, and a pitcher, he arrived to find his bats sawn in half. His teammates nicknamed him \"the Big Baboon\", a name the swarthy Ruth, who had disliked the nickname \"Niggerlips\" at St. Mary's, detested. Ruth had received a raise on promotion to the major leagues, and quickly acquired tastes for fine food, liquor, and women, among other temptations. \n\nManager Carrigan allowed Ruth to pitch two exhibition games in mid-August. Although Ruth won both against minor-league competition, he was not restored to the pitching rotation. It is uncertain why Carrigan did not give Ruth additional opportunities to pitch. There are legends—filmed for the screen in The Babe Ruth Story (1948)—that the young pitcher had a habit of signaling his intent to throw a curveball by sticking out his tongue slightly, and that he was easy to hit until this changed. Creamer pointed out that it is common for inexperienced pitchers to display such habits, and the need to break Ruth of his would not constitute a reason to not use him at all. The biographer suggested that Carrigan was unwilling to use Ruth due to poor behavior by the rookie. \n\nOn July 30, 1914, Boston owner Joseph Lannin had purchased the minor-league Providence Grays, members of the International League. The Providence team had been owned by several people associated with the Detroit Tigers, including star hitter Ty Cobb, and as part of the transaction, a Providence pitcher was sent to the Tigers. To soothe Providence fans upset at losing a star, Lannin announced that the Red Sox would soon send a replacement to the Grays. This was intended to be Ruth, but his departure for Providence was delayed when Cincinnati Reds owner Garry Herrmann claimed him off waivers. After Lannin wrote to Herrmann explaining that the Red Sox wanted Ruth in Providence so he could develop as a player, and would not release him to a major league club, Herrmann allowed Ruth to be sent to the minors. Carrigan later stated that Ruth was not sent down to Providence to make him a better player, but to help the Grays win the International League pennant (league championship). \n\nRuth joined the Grays on August 18, 1914. What was left of the Baltimore Orioles after Dunn's deals had managed to hold on to first place until August 15, after which they continued to fade, leaving the pennant race between Providence and Rochester. Ruth was deeply impressed by Providence manager \"Wild Bill\" Donovan, previously a star pitcher with a 25–4 win–loss record for Detroit in 1907; in later years, he credited Donovan with teaching him much about pitching. Ruth was called upon often to pitch, in one stretch starting (and winning) four games in eight days. On September 5 in Toronto, Ruth pitched a one-hit 9–0 victory, and hit his first professional home run, his only one as a minor leaguer, off Ellis Johnson. Recalled to Boston after Providence finished the season in first place, he pitched and won a game for the Red Sox against the New York Yankees on October 2, getting his first major league hit, a double. Ruth finished the season with a record of 2–1 as a major leaguer and 23–8 in the International League (for Baltimore and Providence). Once the season concluded, Ruth married Helen in Ellicott City, Maryland. Creamer speculated that they did not marry in Baltimore, where the newlyweds boarded with George Ruth, Sr., to avoid possible interference from those at St. Mary's—both bride and groom were not yet of age and Ruth remained on parole from that institution until his 21st birthday. \n\nRuth reported to his first major league spring training in Hot Springs, Arkansas, in March 1915. Despite a relatively successful first season, he was not slated to start regularly for the Red Sox, who had two stellar left-handed pitchers already: the established stars Dutch Leonard, who had broken the record for the lowest earned run average (ERA) in a single season; and Ray Collins, a 20-game winner in both 1913 and 1914. Ruth was ineffective in his first start, taking the loss in the third game of the season. Injuries and ineffective pitching by other Boston pitchers gave Ruth another chance, and after some good relief appearances, Carrigan allowed Ruth another start, and he won a rain-shortened seven inning game. Ten days later, the manager had him start against the New York Yankees at the Polo Grounds. Ruth took a 3–2 lead into the ninth, but lost the game 4–3 in 13 innings. Ruth, hitting ninth as was customary for pitchers, hit a massive home run into the upper deck in right field off of Jack Warhop. At the time, home runs were rare in baseball, and Ruth's majestic shot awed the crowd. The winning pitcher, Warhop, would in August 1915 conclude a major league career of eight seasons, undistinguished but for being the first major league pitcher to give up a home run to Babe Ruth. \n\nCarrigan was sufficiently impressed by Ruth's pitching to give him a spot in the starting rotation. Ruth finished the 1915 season 18–8 as a pitcher; as a hitter, he batted .315 and had four home runs. The Red Sox won the AL pennant, but with the pitching staff healthy, Ruth was not called upon to pitch in the 1915 World Series against the Philadelphia Phillies. Boston won in five games; Ruth was used as a pinch hitter in Game Five, but grounded out against Phillies ace Grover Cleveland Alexander. Despite his success as a pitcher, Ruth was acquiring a reputation for long home runs; at Sportsman's Park against the St. Louis Browns, a Ruth hit soared over Grand Avenue, breaking the window of a Chevrolet dealership. \n\nIn 1916, there was attention focused on Ruth for his pitching, as he engaged in repeated pitching duels with the ace of the Washington Senators, Walter Johnson. The two met five times during the season, with Ruth winning four and Johnson one (Ruth had a no decision in Johnson's victory). Two of Ruth's victories were by the score of 1–0, one in a 13-inning game. Of the 1–0 shutout decided without extra innings, AL President Ban Johnson stated, \"That was one of the best ball games I have ever seen.\" For the season, Ruth went 23–12, with a 1.75 ERA and nine shutouts, both of which led the league. Ruth's nine shutouts in 1916 set a league record for left-handers that would remain unmatched until Ron Guidry tied it in 1978. The Red Sox won the pennant and World Series again, this time defeating the Brooklyn Superbas (as the Dodgers were then known) in five games. Ruth started and won Game 2, 2–1, in 14 innings. Until another game of that length was played in 2005, this was the longest World Series game, and Ruth's pitching performance is still the longest postseason complete game victory. \n\nCarrigan retired as player and manager after 1916, returning to his native Maine to be a businessman. Ruth, who played under four managers who are in the National Baseball Hall of Fame, always maintained that Carrigan, who is not enshrined there, was the best skipper he ever played for. There were other changes in the Red Sox organization that offseason, as Lannin sold the team to a three-man group headed by New York theatrical promoter Harry Frazee. Jack Barry was hired by Frazee as manager. \n\nEmergence as a hitter\n\nRuth went 24–13 with a 2.01 ERA and six shutouts in 1917, but the Sox finished in second place in the league, nine games behind the Chicago White Sox in the standings. On June 23 at Washington, Ruth made a memorable pitching start. When the home plate umpire 'Brick' Owens called the first four pitches as balls, Ruth threw a punch at him, and was ejected from the game and later suspended for ten days and fined $100. Ernie Shore was called in to relieve Ruth, and was allowed eight warm-up pitches. The runner who had reached base on the walk was caught stealing, and Shore retired all 26 batters he faced to win the game. Shore's feat was listed as a perfect game for many years; in 1991, Major League Baseball's (MLB) Committee on Statistical Accuracy caused it to be listed as a combined no-hitter. In 1917, Ruth was used little as a batter, other than his plate appearances while pitching, and hit .325 with two home runs. \n\nThe entry of the United States into World War I occurred at the start of the season, and overshadowed the sport. Conscription was introduced in September 1917, and most baseball players in the big leagues were of draft age. This included Barry, who was a player-manager, and who joined the Naval Reserve in an attempt to avoid the draft, only to be called up after the 1917 season. Frazee hired International League President Ed Barrow as Red Sox manager. Barrow had spent the previous 30 years in a variety of baseball jobs, though he never played the game professionally. With the major leagues shorthanded due to the war, Barrow had many holes in the Red Sox lineup to fill.\n\nRuth also noticed these vacancies in the lineup, and, dissatisfied in the role of a pitcher who appeared every four or five days, wanted to play every day at another position. Barrow tried Ruth at first base and in the outfield during the exhibition season, but as the team moved towards Boston and the season opener, restricted him to pitching. At the time, Ruth was possibly the best left-handed pitcher in baseball; allowing him to play another position was an experiment that could have backfired.\n\nInexperienced as a manager, Barrow had player Harry Hooper advise him on baseball game strategy. Hooper urged his manager to allow Ruth to play another position when he was not pitching, arguing to Barrow, who had invested in the club, that the crowds were larger on days when Ruth played, as they were attracted by his hitting. Barrow gave in early in May; Ruth promptly hit home runs in four consecutive games (one an exhibition), the last off of Walter Johnson. For the first time in his career (disregarding pinch-hitting appearances), Ruth was allowed a place in the batting order higher than ninth.\n\nAlthough Barrow predicted that Ruth would beg to return to pitching the first time he experienced a batting slump, that did not occur. Barrow used Ruth primarily as an outfielder in the war-shortened 1918 season. Ruth hit .300, with 11 home runs, enough to secure him a share of the major league home run title with Tillie Walker of the Philadelphia Athletics. He was still occasionally used as a pitcher, and had a 13–7 record with a 2.22 ERA. \n\nThe Red Sox won their third pennant in four years, and faced the Chicago Cubs in the 1918 World Series, beginning on September 5, the earliest in history. The season was shortened as the government had ruled that baseball players eligible for the military would have to be inducted or work in critical war industries, such as armaments plants. Ruth pitched Game One for the Red Sox, a 1–0 shutout. Before Game Four, Ruth injured his left hand in a fight; he pitched anyway. He gave up seven hits and six walks, but was helped by outstanding fielding behind him and by his own batting efforts, as a fourth-inning triple by Ruth gave his team a 2–0 lead. The Cubs tied the game in the eighth inning, but the Red Sox scored to take a 3–2 again in the bottom of that inning. After Ruth gave up a hit and a walk to start the ninth inning, he was relieved on the mound by Joe Bush. To keep Ruth and his bat in the game, he was sent to play left field. Bush retired the side to give Ruth his second win of the Series, and the third and last World Series pitching victory of his career, against no defeats, in three pitching appearances. Ruth's effort gave his team a three-games-to-one lead, and two days later the Red Sox won their third Series in four years, four games to two. Before allowing the Cubs to score in Game Four, Ruth pitched consecutive scoreless innings, a record for the World Series that stood for more than 40 years until 1961, broken by Whitey Ford after Ruth's death. Ruth was prouder of that record than he was of any of his batting feats. \n\nWith the World Series over, Ruth gained exemption from the war draft by accepting a nominal position with a Pennsylvania steel mill. Many industrial establishments took pride in their baseball teams and sought to hire major leaguers. The end of the war in November set Ruth free to play baseball without such contrivances. \n\nDuring the 1919 season, Ruth pitched in only 17 of his 130 games, compiling an 8–5 record as Barrow used him as a pitcher mostly in the early part of the season, when the Red Sox manager still had hopes of a second consecutive pennant. By late June, the Red Sox were clearly out of the race, and Barrow had no objection to Ruth concentrating on his hitting, if only because it drew people to the ballpark. Ruth had hit a home run against the Yankees on Opening Day, and another during a month-long batting slump that soon followed. Relieved of his pitching duties, Ruth began an unprecedented spell of slugging home runs, which gave him widespread public and press attention. Even his failures were seen as majestic—one sportswriter noted, \"When Ruth misses a swipe at the ball, the stands quiver\". \n\nTwo home runs by Ruth on July 5, and one in each of two consecutive games a week later, raised his season total to 11, tying his career best from 1918. The first record to fall was the AL single-season mark of 16, set by Ralph \"Socks\" Seybold in 1902. Ruth matched that on July 29, then pulled ahead toward the major league record of 24, set by Buck Freeman in 1899. Ruth reached this on September 8, by which time, writers had discovered that Ned Williamson of the 1884 Chicago White Stockings had hit 27—though in a ballpark where the distance to right field was only 215 ft. On September 20, \"Babe Ruth Day\" at Fenway Park, Ruth won the game with a home run in the bottom of the ninth inning, tying Williamson. He broke the record four days later against the Yankees at the Polo Grounds, and hit one more against the Senators to finish with 29. The home run at Washington made Ruth the first major league player to hit a home run at all eight ballparks in his league. In spite of Ruth's hitting heroics, the Red Sox finished sixth, games behind the league champion White Sox. \n\nSale to New York\n\nAs an out-of-towner from New York City, Frazee had been regarded with suspicion by Boston's sportswriters and baseball fans when he bought the team. He won them over with success on the field and a willingness to build the Red Sox by purchasing or trading for players. He offered the Senators $60,000 for Walter Johnson, but Washington owner Clark Griffith was unwilling. Even so, Frazee was successful in bringing other players to Boston, especially as replacements for players in the military. This willingness to spend for players helped the Red Sox secure the 1918 title. The 1919 season saw record-breaking attendance, and Ruth's home runs for Boston made him a national sensation. In March 1919 Ruth was reported as having accepted a three-year contract for a total of $27,000, after protracted negotiations Nevertheless, on December 26, 1919, Frazee sold Ruth's contract to the New York Yankees. \n\nNot all of the circumstances concerning the sale are known, but brewer and former congressman Jacob Ruppert, the New York team's principal owner, reportedly asked Yankee manager Miller Huggins what the team needed to be successful. \"Get Ruth from Boston\", Huggins supposedly replied, noting that Frazee was perennially in need of money to finance his theatrical productions. In any event, there was precedent for the Ruth transaction: when Boston pitcher Carl Mays left the Red Sox in a 1919 dispute, Frazee had settled the matter by selling Mays to the Yankees, though over the opposition of AL President Johnson. \n\nAccording to one of Ruth's biographers, Jim Reisler, \"why Frazee needed cash in 1919—and large infusions of it quickly—is still, more than 80 years later, a bit of a mystery\". The often-told story is that Frazee needed money to finance the musical No, No, Nanette, which was a Broadway hit and brought Frazee financial security. That play did not open until 1925, however, by which time Frazee had sold the Red Sox. Still, the story may be true in essence: No, No, Nanette was based on a Frazee-produced play, My Lady Friends, which opened in 1919. \n\nThere were other financial pressures on Frazee, despite his team's success. Ruth, fully aware of baseball's popularity and his role in it, wanted to renegotiate his contract, signed before the 1919 season for $10,000 per year through 1921. He demanded that his salary be doubled, or he would sit out the season and cash in on his popularity through other ventures. Ruth's salary demands were causing other players to ask for more money. Additionally, Frazee still owed Lannin as much as $125,000 from the purchase of the club. \n\nAlthough Ruppert and his co-owner, Colonel Tillinghast Huston, were both wealthy, and had aggressively purchased and traded for players in 1918 and 1919 to build a winning team, Ruppert faced losses in his brewing interests as Prohibition was implemented, and if their team left the Polo Grounds, where the Yankees were the tenants of the New York Giants, building a stadium in New York would be expensive. Nevertheless, when Frazee, who moved in the same social circles as Huston, hinted to the colonel that Ruth was available for the right price, the Yankees owners quickly pursued the purchase. \n\nFrazee sold the rights to Babe Ruth for $100,000, the largest sum ever paid for a baseball player. The deal also involved a $350,000 loan from Ruppert to Frazee, secured by a mortgage on Fenway Park. Once it was agreed, Frazee informed Barrow, who, stunned, told the owner that he was getting the worse end of the bargain. Cynics have suggested that Barrow may have played a larger role in the Ruth sale, as less than a year after, he became the Yankee general manager, and in the following years made a number of purchases of Red Sox players from Frazee.Reisler, p. 2 The $100,000 price included $25,000 in cash, and notes for the same amount due November 1 in 1920, 1921, and 1922; Ruppert and Huston assisted Frazee in selling the notes to banks for immediate cash.\n\nThe transaction was contingent on Ruth signing a new contract, which was quickly accomplished—Ruth agreed to fulfill the remaining two years on his contract, but was given a $20,000 bonus, payable over two seasons. The deal was announced on January 6, 1920. Reaction in Boston was mixed: some fans were embittered at the loss of Ruth; others conceded that the slugger had become difficult to deal with. The New York Times suggested presciently, \"The short right field wall at the Polo Grounds should prove an easy target for Ruth next season and, playing seventy-seven games at home, it would not be surprising if Ruth surpassed his home run record of twenty-nine circuit clouts next Summer.\" According to Reisler, \"The Yankees had pulled off the sports steal of the century.\"\n\nAccording to Marty Appel in his history of the Yankees, the transaction, \"changed the fortunes of two high-profile franchises for decades\". The Red Sox, winners of five of the first sixteen World Series, those played between 1903 and 1919, would not win another pennant until 1946, or another World Series until 2004, a drought attributed in baseball superstition to Frazee's sale of Ruth and sometimes dubbed the \"Curse of the Bambino\". The Yankees, on the other hand, had not won the AL championship prior to their acquisition of Ruth. They won seven AL pennants and four World Series with Ruth, and lead baseball with 40 pennants and 27 World Series titles in their history. \n\nNew York Yankees (1920–34)\n\nInitial success (1920–23)\n\nAs a Yankee, Ruth's transition from a pitcher to a power-hitting outfielder became complete. In his fifteen-season Yankee career, consisting of over 2,000 games, Ruth broke many batting records, while making only five widely scattered appearances on the mound, winning all of them.\n\nAt the end of April 1920, the Yankees were 4–7, with the Red Sox leading the league with a 10–2 mark. Ruth had done little, having injured himself swinging the bat. Both situations began to change on May 1, when Ruth hit a home run with the ball going completely out of the Polo Grounds, a feat believed only to have been previously accomplished by Shoeless Joe Jackson. The Yankees won, 6–0, taking three out of four from the Red Sox. Ruth hit his second home run on May 2, and by the end of the month had set a major league record for home runs in a month with 11, and promptly broke it with 13 in June. Fans responded with record attendance: on May 16, Ruth and the Yankees drew 38,600 to the Polo Grounds, a record for the ballpark, and 15,000 fans were turned away. Large crowds jammed stadiums to see Ruth play when the Yankees were on the road. \n\nThe home runs kept coming; Ruth tied his own record of 29 on July 15, and broke it with home runs in both games of a doubleheader four days later. By the end of July, he had 37, but his pace slackened somewhat after that. Nevertheless, on September 4, he both tied and broke the organized baseball record for home runs in a season, snapping Perry Werden's 1895 mark of 44 in the minor Western League. The Yankees played well as a team, battling for the league lead early in the summer, but slumped in August in the AL pennant battle with Chicago and Cleveland. The championship was won by Cleveland, surging ahead after the Black Sox Scandal broke on September 28 and led to the suspension of many of the team's top players, including Joe Jackson. The Yankees finished third, but drew 1.2 million fans to the Polo Grounds, the first time a team had drawn a seven figure attendance. The rest of the league sold 600,000 more tickets, many fans there to see Ruth, who led the league with 54 home runs, 158 runs, and 137 runs batted in (RBIs). \n\nRuth was aided in his exploits, in 1920 and afterwards, by the fact that the A.J. Reach Company, maker of baseballs used in the major leagues, was using a more efficient machine to wind the yarn found within the baseball. When these went into play in 1920, the start of the live-ball era, the number of home runs increased by 184 over the previous year across the major leagues. Baseball statistician Bill James points out that while Ruth was likely aided by the change in the baseball, there were other factors at work, including the gradual abolition of the spitball (accelerated after the death of Ray Chapman, struck by a pitched ball thrown by Mays in August 1920) and the more frequent use of new baseballs (also a response to Chapman's death). Nevertheless, James theorizes that Ruth's 1920 explosion might have happened in 1919, had a full season of 154 games been played rather than 140, had Ruth refrained from pitching 133 innings that season, and if he were playing with any other home field but Fenway Park, where he hit only 9 of 29 home runs. \n\nYankees business manager Harry Sparrow had died early in the 1920 season; to replace him, Ruppert and Huston hired Barrow. Ruppert and Barrow quickly made a deal with Frazee for New York to acquire some of the players who would be mainstays of the early Yankee pennant-winning teams, including catcher Wally Schang and pitcher Waite Hoyt. The 21-year-old Hoyt became close to Ruth:\n\nRuth hit home runs early and often in the 1921 season, during which he broke Roger Connor's mark for home runs in a career, 138. Each of the almost 600 home runs Ruth hit in his career after that extended his own record. After a slow start, the Yankees were soon locked in a tight pennant race with Cleveland, winners of the 1920 World Series. On September 15, Ruth hit his 55th home run, shattering his year-old single season record. In late September, the Yankees visited Cleveland and won three out of four games, giving them the upper hand in the race, and clinched their first pennant a few days later. Ruth finished the regular season with 59 home runs, batting .378 and with a slugging percentage of .846. \n\nThe Yankees had high expectations when they met the New York Giants in the 1921 World Series, and the Yankees won the first two games with Ruth in the lineup. However, Ruth badly scraped his elbow during Game 2, sliding into third base (he had walked and stolen both second and third bases). After the game, he was told by the team physician not to play the rest of the series. Despite this advice, he did play in the next three games, and pinch-hit in Game Eight of the best-of-nine series, but the Yankees lost, five games to three. Ruth hit .316, drove in five runs and hit his first World Series home run. \n\nAfter the Series, Ruth and teammates Bob Meusel and Bill Piercy participated in a barnstorming tour in the Northeast. A rule then in force prohibited World Series participants from playing in exhibition games during the offseason, the purpose being to prevent Series participants from replicating the Series and undermining its value. Baseball Commissioner Kenesaw Mountain Landis suspended the trio until May 20, 1922, and fined them their 1921 World Series checks. In August 1922, the rule was changed to allow limited barnstorming for World Series participants, with Landis's permission required.Pietrusza, p. 239\n\nOn March 6, 1922, Ruth signed a new contract, for three years at $52,000 a year. The largest sum ever paid a ballplayer to that point, it represented 40% of the team's player payroll. Despite his suspension, Ruth was named the Yankees' new on-field captain prior to the 1922 season. During the suspension, he worked out with the team in the morning, and played exhibition games with the Yankees on their off days. He and Meusel returned on May 20, to a sellout crowd at the Polo Grounds, but Ruth batted 0-for-4, and was booed. On May 25, he was thrown out of the game for throwing dust in umpire George Hildebrand's face, then climbed into the stands to confront a heckler. Ban Johnson ordered him fined, suspended, and stripped of his captaincy. In his shortened season, Ruth appeared in 110 games, batted .315, with 35 home runs, and drove in 99 runs, but compared to his previous two dominating years, the 1922 season was a disappointment. Despite Ruth's off-year, Yankees managed to win the pennant to face the New York Giants for the second straight year in the World Series. In the Series, Giants manager John McGraw instructed his pitchers to throw him nothing but curveballs, and Ruth never adjusted. Ruth had just two hits in seventeen at bats, and the Yankees lost to the Giants for the second straight year, by 4–0 (with one tie game). Sportswriter Joe Vila called him, \"an exploded phenomenon\". \n\nAfter the season, Ruth was a guest at an Elks Club banquet, set up by Ruth's agent with Yankee team support. There, each speaker, concluding with future New York mayor Jimmy Walker, censured him for his poor behavior. An emotional Ruth promised reform, and, to the surprise of many, followed through. When he reported to spring training, he was in his best shape as a Yankee, weighing only 210 lb.Stout, p. 104\n\nThe Yankees's status as tenants of the Giants at the Polo Grounds had become increasingly uneasy, and in 1922 Giants owner Charles Stoneham stated that the Yankees's lease, expiring after that season, would not be renewed. Ruppert and Huston had long contemplated a new stadium, and had taken an option on property at 161st Street and River Avenue in the Bronx. Yankee Stadium was completed in time for the home opener on April 18, 1923, at which the Babe hit the first home run in what was quickly dubbed \"the House that Ruth Built\".Stout, p. 105 The ballpark was designed with Ruth in mind: although the venue's left-field fence was further from home plate than at the Polo Grounds, Yankee Stadium's right-field fence was closer, making home runs easier to hit for left-handed batters. To spare Ruth's eyes, right field–his defensive position–was not pointed into the afternoon sun, as was traditional; left fielder Meusel was soon suffering headaches from squinting toward home plate.\n\nThe Yankees were never challenged, leading the league for most of the 1923 season and winning the AL pennant by 17 games. Ruth finished the season with a career-high .393 batting average and major-league leading 41 home runs (tied with Cy Williams). Another career high for Ruth in 1923 was his 45 doubles, and he reached base 379 times, then a major league record. For the third straight year, the Yankees faced the Giants in the World Series, which Ruth dominated. He batted .368, walked eight times, scored eight runs, hit three home runs and slugged 1.000 during the series, as the Yankees won their first World Series championship, four games to two.\n\nBatting title and \"bellyache\" (1924–25)\n\nIn 1924, the Yankees were favored to become the first team to win four consecutive pennants. Plagued by injuries, they found themselves in a battle with the Senators. Although the Yankees won 18 of 22 at one point in September, the Senators beat out the Yankees by two games. Ruth hit .378, winning his only AL batting title, with a league-leading 46 home runs. \n\nRuth had kept up his efforts to stay in shape in 1923 and 1924, but by early 1925 weighed nearly 260 lb. His annual visit to Hot Springs, Arkansas, where he exercised and took saunas early in the year, did him no good as he spent much of the time carousing in the resort town. He became ill while there, and suffered relapses during spring training. Ruth collapsed in Asheville, North Carolina, as the team journeyed north. He was put on a train for New York, where he was briefly hospitalized. A rumor circulated that he had died, prompting British newspapers to print a premature obituary. In New York, Ruth collapsed again and was found unconscious in his hotel bathroom. He was taken to a hospital where he suffered multiple convulsions. After sportswriter W. O. McGeehan wrote that Ruth's illness was due to binging on hot dogs and soda pop before a game, it became known as \"the bellyache heard 'round the world\". However, the exact cause of his ailment has never been confirmed and remains a mystery. Glenn Stout, in his history of the Yankees, notes that the Ruth legend is \"still one of the most sheltered in sports\"; he suggests that alcohol was at the root of Ruth's illness, pointing to the fact that Ruth remained six weeks at St. Vincent's Hospital but was allowed to leave, under supervision, for workouts with the team for part of that time. He concludes that the hospitalization was behavior-related. Playing just 98 games, Ruth had his worst season as a Yankee; he finished with a .290 average and 25 home runs. The Yankees finished next to last in the AL with a 69–85 record, their last season with a losing record until 1965. \n\nMurderer's Row (1926–28)\n\nRuth spent part of the offseason of 1925–26 working out at Artie McGovern's gym, getting back into shape. Barrow and Huggins had rebuilt the team, surrounding the veteran core with good young players like Tony Lazzeri and Lou Gehrig. But New York was not expected to win the pennant. \n\nBabe Ruth returned to his normal production during 1926, batting .372 with 47 home runs and 146 RBIs. The Yankees built a ten-game lead by mid-June, and coasted to win the pennant by three games. The St. Louis Cardinals had won the National League with the lowest winning percentage for a pennant winner to that point (.578) and the Yankees were expected to win the World Series easily. Although the Yankees won the opener in New York, St. Louis took Games Two and Three. In Game Four, Ruth hit three home runs, the first time this had been done in a World Series game, to lead the Yankees to victory; in the fifth game Ruth caught a ball as he crashed into the fence, described by baseball writers as a defensive gem. New York took that game, but Grover Cleveland Alexander won Game Six for St. Louis to tie the Series at three games each, then got very drunk. He was nevertheless inserted into Game Seven in the seventh inning and shut down the Yankees to win the game, 3–2, and win the Series. Ruth had hit his fourth home run of the Series earlier in the game, and was the only Yankee to reach base off Alexander, walking in the ninth inning before being caught stealing to end the game. Although Ruth's attempt to steal second is often deemed a baserunning blunder, Creamer pointed out that the Yankees' chances of tying the game would have been greatly improved with a runner in scoring position. \n\nThe 1926 Series was also known for Ruth's promise to Johnny Sylvester, a hospitalized 11-year-old, that he would hit a home run on his behalf. Sylvester had been injured in a fall from a horse, and a friend of Sylvester's father gave the boy two autographed baseballs signed by Yankees and Cardinals, and relayed a promise from Ruth, who did not know the boy, to hit a home run for him. After the Series, Ruth visited the boy in the hospital. When the matter became public, the press greatly inflated it, and by some accounts, Ruth saved a dying boy's life by visiting him, emotionally promising to hit a home run, and doing so. \nThe 1927 New York Yankees team is considered one of the greatest squads that ever took the field. Known as Murderer's Row because of the power of its lineup, the team won a then-AL-record 110 games, and took the AL pennant by 19 games, clinching first place on Labor Day. With little suspense as to the pennant race, the nation's attention turned to Ruth's pursuit of his own single-season home run record of 59. He was not alone in this chase: Gehrig proved to be a slugger capable of challenging Ruth for his home run crown, tying Ruth with 24 home runs late in June. Through July and August, they were never separated by more than two home runs. Gehrig took the lead, 45–44, in the first game of a doubleheader at Fenway Park early in September; Ruth responded with two of his own to take the lead, as it proved permanently—Gehrig finished with 47. Even so, as of September 6, Ruth was still several games off his 1921 pace, and going into the final series against the Senators, had only 57. He hit two in the first game of the series, including one off of Paul Hopkins, facing his first major league batter, to tie the record. The following day, September 30, he broke it with his 60th homer, in the eighth inning off Tom Zachary to break a 2–2 tie. \"Sixty! Let's see some son of a bitch try to top that one\", Ruth exulted after the game. In addition to his career-high 60 home runs, Ruth batted .356, drove in 164 runs and slugged .772. In the 1927 World Series, the Yankees swept the Pittsburgh Pirates in four games; the National Leaguers were disheartened after watching the Yankees take batting practice before Game One, with ball after ball leaving Forbes Field. According to Appel, \"The 1927 New York Yankees. Even today, the words inspire awe ... all baseball success is measured against the '27 team.\" \n\nBefore the 1928 season, Ruth signed a new contract for an unprecedented $80,000 per year. The season started off well for the Yankees, who led the league in the early going. But the Yankees were plagued by injuries, erratic pitching and inconsistent play. The Philadelphia Athletics, rebuilding after some lean years, erased the Yankees' big lead and even took over first place briefly in early September. The Yankees, however, regained first place when they beat the Athletics three out of four games in a pivotal series at Yankee Stadium later that month, and clinched the pennant in the final weekend of the season. Ruth's play in 1928 mirrored his team's performance. He got off to a hot start and on August 1, he had 42 home runs. This put him ahead of his 60 home run pace from the previous season. He then slumped for the latter part of the season, and he hit just twelve home runs in the last two months. Ruth's batting average also fell to .323, well below his career average. Nevertheless, he ended the season with 54 home runs. The Yankees swept the favored Cardinals in four games in the World Series, with Ruth batting .625 and hitting three home runs in Game Four, including one off Alexander. \n\n\"Called shot\" and final Yankee years (1929–34)\n\nBefore the 1929 season, Ruppert, who had bought out Huston in 1923, announced that the Yankees would wear uniform numbers to allow fans at cavernous Yankee Stadium to tell one player from another. The Cardinals and Indians had each experimented with uniform numbers; the Yankees were the first to use them on both home and away uniforms. As Ruth batted third, he was given number 3. According to a long-standing baseball legend, the Yankees adopted their now-iconic pinstriped uniforms in hopes of making Ruth look slimmer.Sherman, p. 9 In truth, though, they had been wearing pinstripes since Ruppert bought the team in 1915. \n\nAlthough the Yankees started well, the Athletics soon proved they were the better team in 1929, splitting two series with the Yankees in the first month of the season, then taking advantage of a Yankee losing streak in mid-May to gain first place. Although Ruth performed well, the Yankees were not able to catch the Athletics—Connie Mack had built another great team. Tragedy struck the Yankees late in the year as manager Huggins died of erysipelas, a bacterial skin infection, on September 25, only ten days after he had last led the team. Despite past differences, Ruth praised Huggins and described him as a \"great guy\". The Yankees finished second, 18 games behind the Athletics. Ruth hit .345 during the season, with 46 home runs and 154 RBIs.\n\nThe Yankees hired Bob Shawkey as manager, their fourth choice. Ruth politicked for the job of player-manager, but was not seriously considered by Ruppert and Barrow; Stout deems this the first hint Ruth would have no future with the Yankees once he was done as a player. Shawkey, a former Yankees player and teammate of Ruth, was unable to command the slugger's respect. The Athletics won their second consecutive pennant and World Series, as the Yankees finished in third place, sixteen games back. During that season Ruth was asked by a reporter what he thought of his yearly salary of $80,000 being more than President Hoover's $75,000. His response was, \"I know, but I had a better year than Hoover.\" In 1930, Ruth hit .359 with 49 home runs (his best in his years after 1928) and 153 RBIs, and pitched his first game in nine years, a complete game victory. At the end of the season, Shawkey was fired and replaced with Cubs manager Joe McCarthy, though Ruth again unsuccessfully sought the job. \n\nMcCarthy was a disciplinarian, but chose not to interfere with Ruth, and the slugger for his part did not seek conflict with the manager. The team improved in 1931, but was no match for the Athletics, who won 107 games, games in front of the Yankees.Stout, p. 148 Ruth, for his part, hit .373, with 46 home runs and 163 RBIs. He had 31 doubles, his most since 1924. In the 1932 season, the Yankees went 107–47 and won the pennant. Ruth's effectiveness had decreased somewhat, but he still hit .341 with 41 home runs and 137 RBIs. Nevertheless, he twice was sidelined due to injury during the season. \n\nThe Yankees faced the Cubs, McCarthy's former team, in the 1932 World Series. There was bad blood between the two teams as the Yankees resented the Cubs only awarding half a World Series share to Mark Koenig, a former Yankee. The games at Yankee Stadium had not been sellouts; both were won by the home team, with Ruth collecting two singles, but scoring four runs as he was walked four times by the Cubs pitchers. In Chicago, Ruth was resentful at the hostile crowds that met the Yankees's train and jeered them at the hotel. The crowd for Game Three included New York Governor Franklin D. Roosevelt, the Democratic candidate for president, who sat with Chicago Mayor Anton Cermak. Many in the crowd threw lemons at Ruth, a sign of derision, and others (as well as the Cubs themselves) shouted abuse at Ruth and other Yankees. They were briefly silenced when Ruth hit a three-run home run off Charlie Root in the first inning, but soon revived, and the Cubs tied the score at 4–4 in the fourth inning. When Ruth came to the plate in the top of the fifth, the Chicago crowd and players, led by pitcher Guy Bush, were screaming insults at Ruth. With the count at two balls and one strike, Ruth gestured, possibly in the direction of center field, and after the next pitch (a strike), may have pointed there with one hand. Ruth hit the fifth pitch over the center field fence; estimates were that it traveled nearly 500 ft. Whether or not Ruth intended to indicate where he planned to (and did) hit the ball, the incident has gone down in legend as Babe Ruth's called shot. The Yankees won Game Three, and the following day clinched the Series with another victory. During that game, Bush hit Ruth on the arm with a pitch, causing words to be exchanged and provoking a game-winning Yankee rally. \n\nRuth remained productive in 1933, as he batted .301, with 34 home runs, 103 RBIs, and a league-leading 114 walks, as the Yankees finished second, seven games behind the Senators. He was selected to play right field by Athletics manager Connie Mack in the first Major League Baseball All-Star Game, held on July 6, 1933, at Comiskey Park in Chicago. He hit the first home run in the All-Star Game's history, a two-run blast against Bill Hallahan during the third inning, which helped the AL win the game 4–2. During the final game of the 1933 season, as a publicity stunt organized by his team, Ruth was called upon and pitched a complete game victory against the Red Sox, his final appearance as a pitcher. Despite unremarkable pitching numbers, Ruth had a 5–0 record in five games for the Yankees, raising his career totals to 94–46.\n\nIn 1934, Ruth played in his last full season. By this time, years of high living were starting to catch up with him. His conditioning had deteriorated to the point that he could no longer field or run.Neyer, p. 42. He accepted a pay cut from Ruppert to $35,000, but was still the highest-paid player in the major leagues. He could still handle a bat, recording a .288 batting average with 22 home runs, statistics Reisler described as \"merely mortal\". Ruth was selected to the AL All-Star team for the second consecutive year. During the game, New York Giants pitcher Carl Hubbell struck out Ruth and four other future Hall-of-Famers consecutively. The Yankees finished second again, seven games behind the Tigers.Stout, p. 461\n\nBoston Braves (1935)\n\nAlthough Ruth knew he was nearly finished as a player, he desired to remain in baseball as a manager. He was often spoken of as a possible candidate as managerial jobs opened up, but in 1932, when he was mentioned as a contender for the Red Sox position, Ruth stated that he was not yet ready to leave the field. There were rumors that Ruth was a likely candidate each time when the Cleveland Indians, Cincinnati Reds, and Detroit Tigers were looking for a manager, but nothing came of them. \n\nJust before the 1934 season, Ruppert offered to make Ruth the manager of the Yankees' top minor-league team, the Newark Bears, but he was talked out of it by his wife, Claire, and his business manager, Christy Walsh. Shortly afterward, Tigers owner Frank Navin made a proposal to Ruppert and Barrow—if the Yankees traded Ruth to Detroit, Navin would name Ruth player-manager. Navin believed Ruth would not only bring a winning attitude to a team that had not finished higher than third since 1923, but would also revive the Tigers' sagging attendance figures. Navin asked Ruth to come to Detroit for an interview. However, Ruth balked, since Walsh had already arranged for him to take part in a celebrity golf tournament in Hawaii. Ruth and Navin negotiated over the phone while Ruth was in Hawaii, but those talks foundered when Navin refused to give Ruth a portion of the Tigers' box office proceeds. \n\nEarly in the 1934 season, Ruth began openly campaigning to become manager of the Yankees. However, the Yankee job was never a serious possibility. Ruppert always supported McCarthy, who would remain in his position for another 12 seasons. Ruth and McCarthy's relationship had been lukewarm at best, and Ruth's managerial ambitions further chilled their relations. By the end of the season, Ruth hinted that he would retire unless Ruppert named him manager of the Yankees. For his part, Ruppert wanted his slugger to leave the team without drama and hard feelings when the time came.\n\nDuring the 1934–35 offseason, Ruth circled the world with his wife, including a barnstorming tour of the Far East. At his final stop before returning home, in the United Kingdom, Ruth was introduced to cricket by Australian player Alan Fairfax, and after having little luck in a cricketer's stance, stood as a baseball batter and launched some massive shots around the field, destroying the bat in the process. Although Fairfax regretted that he could not have the time to make Ruth a cricket player, Ruth had lost any interest in such a career upon learning that the best batsmen made only about $40 per week. \n\nAlso during the offseason, Ruppert had been sounding out the other clubs in hopes of finding one that would be willing to take Ruth as a manager and/or a player. However, the only serious offer came from Athletics owner-manager Connie Mack, who gave some thought to stepping down as manager in favor of Ruth. However, Mack later dropped the idea, saying that Ruth's wife would be running the team in a month if Ruth ever took over. \n\nWhile the barnstorming tour was under way, Ruppert began negotiating with Boston Braves owner Judge Emil Fuchs, who wanted Ruth as a gate attraction. Although the Braves had enjoyed modest recent success, finishing fourth in the National League in both 1933 and 1934, the team performed poorly at the box office. Unable to afford the rent at Braves Field, Fuchs had considered holding dog races there when the Braves were not at home, only to be turned down by Landis. After a series of phone calls, letters, and meetings, the Yankees traded Ruth to the Braves on February 26, 1935. Ruppert had stated that he would not release Ruth to go to another team as a full-time player. For this reason, it was announced that Ruth would become a team vice president and would be consulted on all club transactions, in addition to playing. He was also made assistant manager to Braves skipper Bill McKechnie. In a long letter to Ruth a few days before the press conference, Fuchs promised Ruth a share in the Braves' profits, with the possibility of becoming co-owner of the team. Fuchs also raised the possibility of Ruth succeeding McKechnie as manager, perhaps as early as 1936. Ruppert called the deal \"the greatest opportunity Ruth ever had\". \n\nThere was considerable attention as Ruth reported for spring training. He did not hit his first home run of the spring until after the team had left Florida, and was beginning the road north in Savannah. He hit two in an exhibition against the Bears. Amid much press attention, Ruth played his first home game in Boston in over 16 years. Before an opening-day crowd of over 25,000, including five of New England's six state governors, Ruth accounted for all of the Braves' runs in a 4–2 defeat of the New York Giants, hitting a two-run home run, singling to drive in a third run and later in the inning scoring the fourth. Although age and weight had slowed him, he made a running catch in left field that sportswriters deemed the defensive highlight of the game. \n\nRuth had two hits in the second game of the season, but it quickly went downhill both for him and the Braves from there. The season soon settled down to a routine of Ruth performing poorly on the few occasions he even played at all, and the Braves losing most games. As April passed into May, Ruth's deterioration became even more pronounced. While he remained productive at the plate early on, he could do little else. His condition had deteriorated to the point that he could barely trot around the bases. His fielding had become so poor that three Braves pitchers told McKechnie that they would not take the mound if he was in the lineup. Before long, Ruth stopped hitting as well. He grew increasingly annoyed that McKechnie ignored most of his advice. For his part, McKechnie later said that Ruth's huge salary and refusal to stay with the team while on the road made it nearly impossible to enforce discipline. \n\nRuth soon realized that Fuchs had deceived him, and had no intention of making him manager or giving him any significant off-field duties. He later stated that his only duties as vice president consisted of making public appearances and autographing tickets. Ruth also found out that far from giving him a share of the profits, Fuchs wanted him to invest some of his money in the team in a last-ditch effort to improve its balance sheet.Neyer, p. 44. As it turned out, both Fuchs and Ruppert had known all along that Ruth's non-playing positions were meaningless. \n\nBy the end of the first month of the season, Ruth concluded he was finished even as a part-time player. As early as May 12, he asked Fuchs to let him retire. Ultimately, Fuchs persuaded Ruth to remain at least until after the Memorial Day doubleheader in Philadelphia. In the interim was a western road trip, at which the rival teams had scheduled days to honor him. In Chicago and St. Louis, Ruth performed poorly, and his batting average sank to .155, with only three home runs. In the first two games in Pittsburgh, Ruth had only one hit, though a long fly caught by Paul Waner probably would have been a home run in any other ballpark besides Forbes Field. \n\nRuth played in the third game of the Pittsburgh series on May 25, 1935, and added one more tale to his playing legend. Ruth went 4-for-4, including three home runs, though the Braves lost the game 11–7. The last two were off Ruth's old Cubs nemesis, Guy Bush. The final home run, both of the game and of Ruth's career, sailed over the upper deck in right field and out of the ballpark, the first time anyone had hit a fair ball completely out of Forbes Field. Ruth was urged to make this his last game, but he had given his word to Fuchs and played in Cincinnati and Philadelphia. The first game of the doubleheader in Philadelphia—the Braves lost both—was his final major league appearance. On June 2, after an argument with Fuchs, Ruth retired. He finished 1935 with a .181 average—easily his worst as a full-time position player—and the final six of his 714 home runs. The Braves, 10–27 when Ruth left, finished 38–115, at .248 the worst winning percentage in modern National League history. Insolvent like his team, Fuchs gave up control of the Braves before the end of the season; the National League took over the franchise at the end of the year. \n\nRetirement\n\n1935–46\n\nAlthough Fuchs had given Ruth his unconditional release, no major league team expressed an interest in hiring him in any capacity. Ruth still hoped to be hired as a manager if he could not play anymore, but only one managerial position, Cleveland, became available between Ruth's retirement and the end of the 1937 season. Asked if he had considered Ruth for the job, Indians owner Alva Bradley replied negatively.\n\nThe writer Creamer believed Ruth was unfairly treated in never being given an opportunity to manage a major league club. The author believed there was not necessarily a relationship between personal conduct and managerial success, noting that McGraw, Billy Martin, and Bobby Valentine were winners despite character flaws. Team owners and general managers assessed Ruth's flamboyant personal habits as a reason to exclude him from a managerial job; Barrow said of him, \"How can he manage other men when he can't even manage himself?\"\n\nRuth played much golf and in a few exhibition baseball games, demonstrating a continuing ability to draw large crowds. This appeal contributed to the Dodgers hiring him as first base coach in 1938. But Brooklyn general manager Larry MacPhail made it clear when Ruth was hired that he would not be considered for the manager's job if, as expected, Burleigh Grimes retired at the end of the season. Although much was said about what Ruth could teach the younger players, in practice, his duties were to appear on the field in uniform and encourage base runners—he was not called upon to relay signs. He got along well with everyone except team captain Leo Durocher, who was hired as Grimes' replacement at season's end. Ruth returned to retirement, never again to work in baseball.Creamer, pp. 399–405.\n\nOn July 4, 1939, Ruth spoke on Lou Gehrig Appreciation Day at Yankee Stadium as members of the 1927 Yankees and a sellout crowd turned out to honor the first baseman, forced into premature retirement by ALS disease, which would kill him in two years. The next week, Ruth went to Cooperstown, New York, for the formal opening of the Baseball Hall of Fame. Three years earlier he was one of the first five players elected to it. As radio broadcasts of baseball became popular, Ruth sought a job in that field, arguing that his celebrity and knowledge of baseball would assure large audiences, but he received no offers. During World War II, he made many personal appearances to advance the war effort, including his last appearance as a player at Yankee Stadium, in a 1943 exhibition for the Army–Navy Relief Fund. He hit a long fly ball off Walter Johnson; the blast left the field, curving foul, but Ruth circled the bases anyway. In 1946, he made a final effort to gain a job in baseball, contacting new Yankees boss MacPhail, but was sent a rejection letter. \n\nPersonal life\n\nRuth met Helen Woodford (1897–1929), by some accounts, in a coffee shop in Boston where she was a waitress, and they were married on October 17, 1914; he was 19 and she was 17. They adopted a daughter, Dorothy (1921–1989), in 1921. Ruth and Helen separated around 1925, reportedly due to his repeated infidelities. Their last public appearance together came during the 1926 World Series. Helen died in January 1929 at age 31 in a house fire in Watertown, Massachusetts, in a house owned by Edward Kinder, a dentist with whom she had been living as \"Mrs. Kinder\". In her book, My Dad, the Babe, Dorothy claimed that she was Ruth's biological child by a mistress named Juanita Jennings. She died in 1989. \n\nOn April 17, 1929, only three months after the death of his first wife, Ruth married actress and model Claire Merritt Hodgson (1897–1976) and adopted her daughter Julia; he was 34 and she was 31. It was the second and final marriage for both parties. By one account, Julia and Dorothy were, through no fault of their own, the reason for the seven-year rift in Ruth's relationship with teammate Lou Gehrig. Sometime in 1932, Gehrig's mother, during a conversation which she assumed was private, remarked, \"It's a shame [Claire] doesn't dress Dorothy as nicely as she dresses her own daughter.\" When the comment inevitably got back to Ruth, he angrily told Gehrig to tell his mother to mind her own business. Gehrig in turn took offense at what he perceived as Ruth's comment about his mother. The two men reportedly never spoke off the field until they reconciled at Yankee Stadium on Lou Gehrig Appreciation Day in 1939. \n\nAlthough Ruth was married through most of his baseball career, when Colonel Huston asked him to tone down his lifestyle, the player said, \"I'll promise to go easier on drinking and to get to bed earlier, but not for you, fifty thousand dollars, or two-hundred and fifty thousand dollars will I give up women. They're too much fun.\" \n\nCancer and death (1946–48)\n\nAs early as the war years, doctors had cautioned Ruth to take better care of his health, and he grudgingly followed their advice, limiting his drinking and not going on a proposed trip to support the troops in the South Pacific. In 1946, Ruth began experiencing severe pain over his left eye, and had difficulty swallowing. In November 1946, he entered French Hospital in New York for tests, which revealed that Ruth had an inoperable malignant tumor at the base of his skull and in his neck. It was a lesion known as nasopharyngeal carcinoma, or \"lymphoepithelioma.\" His name and fame gave him access to experimental treatments, and he was one of the first cancer patients to receive both drugs and radiation treatment simultaneously. He was discharged from the hospital in February, having lost 80 lb, and went to Florida to recuperate. He returned to New York and Yankee Stadium after the season started. The new commissioner, Happy Chandler (Judge Landis had died in 1944), proclaimed April 27, 1947, Babe Ruth Day around the major leagues, with the most significant observance to be at Yankee Stadium. A number of teammates and others spoke in honor of Ruth, who briefly addressed the crowd of almost 60,000. \n\nAround this time, developments in chemotherapy offered some hope. The doctors had not told Ruth that he had cancer because of his family's fear that he might do himself harm. They treated him with teropterin, a folic acid derivative; he may have been the first human subject. Ruth showed dramatic improvement during the summer of 1947, so much so that his case was presented by his doctors at a scientific meeting, without using his name. He was able to travel around the country, doing promotional work for the Ford Motor Company on American Legion Baseball. He appeared again at another day in his honor at Yankee Stadium in September, but was not well enough to pitch in an old-timers game as he had hoped.Montville, p. 360. \n\nThe improvement was only a temporary remission, and by late 1947, Ruth was unable to help with the writing of his autobiography, The Babe Ruth Story, which was almost entirely ghostwritten. In and out of the hospital in New York, he left for Florida in February 1948, doing what activities he could. After six weeks he returned to New York to appear at a book-signing party. He also traveled to California to witness the filming of the book. \n\nOn June 5, 1948, a \"gaunt and hollowed out\" Ruth visited Yale University to donate a manuscript of The Babe Ruth Story to its library. On June 13, Ruth visited Yankee Stadium for the final time in his life, appearing at the 25th anniversary celebrations of \"The House that Ruth Built\". By this time he had lost much weight and had difficulty walking. Introduced along with his surviving teammates from 1923, Ruth used a bat as a cane. Nat Fein's photo of Ruth taken from behind, standing near home plate and facing \"Ruthville\" (right field) became one of baseball's most famous and widely circulated photographs, and won the Pulitzer Prize. \n\nRuth made one final trip on behalf of American Legion Baseball, then entered Memorial Hospital, where he would die. He was never told he had cancer, but before his death, had surmised it. He was able to leave the hospital for a few short trips, including a final visit to Baltimore. On July 26, 1948, Ruth left the hospital to attend the premiere of the film The Babe Ruth Story. Shortly thereafter, Ruth returned to the hospital for the final time. He was barely able to speak. Ruth's condition gradually became worse; only a few visitors were allowed to see him, one of whom was National League president and future Commissioner of Baseball Ford Frick. \"Ruth was so thin it was unbelievable. He had been such a big man and his arms were just skinny little bones, and his face was so haggard\", Frick said years later. \n\nThousands of New Yorkers, including many children, stood vigil outside the hospital in Ruth's final days. On August 16, 1948, at 8:01 p.m., Ruth died in his sleep at the age of 53. Instead of a wake at a funeral home, his casket was taken to Yankee Stadium, where it remained for two days; 77,000 people filed past to pay him tribute. His funeral Mass took place at St. Patrick's Cathedral; a crowd estimated at 75,000 waited outside. Ruth was buried on a hillside in Section 25 at the Gate of Heaven Cemetery in Hawthorne, New York. An epitaph by Cardinal Spellman appears on his headstone. His second wife, Claire Merritt Ruth, would be interred with him 28 years later in 1976.\n\nMemorial and museum\n\nOn April 19, 1949, the Yankees unveiled a granite monument in Ruth's honor in center field of Yankee Stadium. The monument was located in the field of play next to a flagpole and similar tributes to Huggins and Gehrig until the stadium was remodeled from 1974–1975, which resulted in the outfield fences moving inward and enclosing the monuments from the playing field. This area was known thereafter as Monument Park. Yankee Stadium, \"the House that Ruth Built\", was replaced after the 2008 season with a new Yankee Stadium across the street from the old one; Monument Park was subsequently moved to the new venue behind the center field fence. Ruth's uniform number 3 has been retired by the Yankees, and he is one of five Yankees players or managers to have a granite monument within the stadium. \n\nThe Babe Ruth Birthplace Museum is located at 216 Emory Street, a Baltimore row house where Ruth was born, and three blocks west of Oriole Park at Camden Yards, where the AL's Baltimore Orioles play.[https://web.archive.org/web/20110419151458/http://www.baberuthmuseum.com/pagebank/index.html?id\n119 History: Babe Ruth Birthplace Museum] webpage. Official website of the Babe Ruth Birthplace Museum and the Sports Legends Museum at Camden Yards. Babe Ruth Birthplace Foundation, Inc. Retrieved August 4, 2014. The property was restored and opened to the public in 1973 by the non-profit Babe Ruth Birthplace Foundation, Inc. Ruth's widow, Claire, his two daughters, Dorothy and Julia, and his sister, Mamie, helped select and install exhibits for the museum.\n\nContemporary impact\n\nRuth was the first baseball star to be the subject of overwhelming interest by the public. Baseball had developed star players before, such as Cobb and \"Shoeless Joe\" Jackson, but both men had uneasy relations with fans, in Cobb's case sometimes marked by violence. Ruth's biographers agree that he benefited from the timing of his ascension to \"Home Run King\", with an America hit hard by both the war and the 1918 flu pandemic longing for something to help put these traumas behind it. He also resonated in a country which felt, in the aftermath of the war, that it took second place to no one. Montville argues that as a larger-than-life figure capable of unprecedented athletic feats in the nation's largest city, Ruth became an icon of the significant social changes which marked the early 1920s. Glenn Stout notes in his history of the Yankees, \"Ruth was New York incarnate—uncouth and raw, flamboyant and flashy, oversized, out of scale, and absolutely unstoppable\".Stout, p. 86\n\nRuth became such a symbol of the United States during his lifetime that during World War II, Japanese soldiers yelled in English, \"To hell with Babe Ruth\", to anger American soldiers. (Ruth replied that he hoped that \"every Jap that mention[ed] my name gets shot\"). Creamer recorded that \"Babe Ruth transcended sport, moved far beyond the artificial limits of baselines and outfield fences and sports pages\". Wagenheim stated, \"He appealed to a deeply rooted American yearning for the definitive climax: clean, quick, unarguable.\" According to Glenn Stout, \"Ruth's home runs were exalted, uplifting experience that meant more to fans than any runs they were responsible for. A Babe Ruth home run was an event unto itself, one that meant anything was possible.\"\n\nRuth's penchant for hitting home runs altered how baseball is played. Prior to 1920, home runs were unusual, and managers tried to win games by getting a runner on base and bringing him around to score through such means as the stolen base, the bunt, and the hit and run. Advocates of what was dubbed \"inside baseball\", such as Giants manager McGraw, disliked the home run, considering it a blot on the purity of the game. According to sportswriter W. A. Phelon after the 1920 season, Ruth's breakout performance that season and the response in excitement and attendance, \"settled, for all time to come, that the American public is nuttier over the Home Run than the Clever Fielding or the Hitless Pitching. Viva el Home Run and two times viva Babe Ruth, exponent of the home run, and overshadowing star.\" Bill James noted, \"When the owners discovered that the fans liked to see home runs, and when the foundations of the games were simultaneously imperiled by disgrace [in the Black Sox Scandal], then there was no turning back.\" While a few, such as McGraw and Cobb, decried the passing of the old-style play, teams quickly began to seek and develop sluggers. \n\nAccording to contemporary sportswriter Grantland Rice, only two sports figures of the 1920s approached Ruth in popularity—boxer Jack Dempsey and racehorse Man o' War. One of the factors that contributed to Ruth's broad appeal was the uncertainty about his family and early life. Ruth appeared to exemplify the American success story, that even an uneducated, unsophisticated youth, without any family wealth or connections, can do something better than anyone else in the world. Montville notes that \"the fog [surrounding his childhood] will make him forever accessible, universal. He will be the patron saint of American possibility.\" Similarly, the fact that Ruth played when a relatively small portion of his fans had the opportunity to see him play, in the era before television coverage of baseball, allowed his legend to grow through word of mouth and the hyperbole of sports reporters. Reisler notes that recent sluggers who surpassed Ruth's 60-home run mark, such as Mark McGwire and Barry Bonds, generated much less excitement than when Ruth repeatedly broke the single-season home run record in the 1920s; Ruth dominated a relatively small sports world, while Americans of the present era have many sports available to watch. \n\nLegacy\n\nCreamer termed Ruth \"a unique figure in the social history of the United States\". Ruth has even entered the language: a dominant figure in a field, whether within or outside sports, is often referred to as \"the Babe Ruth\" of that field. Similarly, \"Ruthian\" has come to mean in sports, \"colossal, dramatic, prodigious, magnificent; with great power.\" \n\nMore books, Montville noted in 2006, have been written about Ruth than about any other member of the Baseball Hall of Fame. At least five of these books (including Creamer's and Wagenheim's) were written in 1973 and 1974, timed to capitalize on the increase in public interest in Ruth as Henry Aaron approached his career home run mark, which he broke on April 8, 1974. Aaron stated as he approached Ruth's record, \"I can't remember a day this year or last when I did not hear the name of Babe Ruth.\"\n\nMontville suggests that Ruth is probably even more popular today than he was when his career home run record was broken by Aaron. The longball era that Ruth started continues in baseball, to the delight of the fans. Owners build ballparks to encourage home runs, which are featured on SportsCenter and Baseball Tonight each evening during the season. The questions of performance-enhancing drug use, which have dogged recent home run hitters such as McGwire and Bonds, do nothing to diminish Ruth's reputation; his overindulgences with beer and hot dogs seem part of a simpler time. \n\nRuth has been named the greatest baseball player of all time in various surveys and rankings. In 1998, The Sporting News ranked him number one on the list of \"Baseball's 100 Greatest Players\". In 1999, baseball fans named Ruth to the Major League Baseball All-Century Team. He was named baseball's Greatest Player Ever in a ballot commemorating the 100th anniversary of professional baseball, in 1969. The Associated Press reported in 1993 that Muhammad Ali was tied with Babe Ruth as the most recognized athletes in America. In a 1999 ESPN poll, he was ranked as the second-greatest U.S. athlete of the century, behind Michael Jordan. In 1983, the United States Postal Service honored Ruth with the issuance of a twenty-cent stamp. \n\nOne long-term survivor of the craze over Ruth may be the Baby Ruth candy bar. The original company to market the confectionery, the Curtis Candy Company, maintained that the bar was named after Ruth Cleveland, daughter of former president Grover Cleveland. She died in 1904 and the bar was first marketed in 1921, at the height of the craze over the slugger. The slugger later sought to market candy bearing his name; he was refused a trademark because of the Baby Ruth bar. Corporate files from 1921 are no longer extant; the brand has changed hands several times and is now owned by the Nestlé company. The Ruth estate licensed his likeness for use in an advertising campaign for Baby Ruth in 1995. Due to a marketing arrangement, in 2005, the Baby Ruth bar became the official candy bar of Major League Baseball. \n\nMontville notes the continuing relevance of Babe Ruth in American culture, over three-quarters of a century after he last swung a bat in a major league game:" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Pius", "Pius (disambiguation)" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "pius", "pius disambiguation" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "pius", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Pius" }
What was the title of Kitty Kelley's book about Elizabeth Taylor?	tc_720	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Kitty_Kelley.txt" ], "title": [ "Kitty Kelley" ], "wiki_context": [ "Kitty Kelley (born April 4, 1942) is an American journalist and author of several best-selling unauthorized biographies of Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis, Rock Hudson, Elizabeth Taylor, Frank Sinatra, Nancy Reagan, the British Royal Family, the Bush family, and Oprah Winfrey.\n\nAlthough Kelley has been called \"the consummate gossip monger, a vehicle for all the rumor and innuendo surrounding her illustrious subjects\" she maintains, \"I am an unabashed admirer of transparency and believe in the freedom guaranteed by the First Amendment\" and, to that end, her writing is about \"moving an icon out of the moonlight and into the sunlight\". However, as her work endured more scrutiny, many of the facts she reported did not hold up.\n\nEarly life\n\nKelley was raised in Spokane, Washington, the eldest child of Adele and William Vincent Kelley, a lawyer who served as president of the city's bar association. Growing up Kelley helped take care of her five sisters, Mary Cary, Ellen, Margaret, Adele Monica and Madeleine Sophie, as well as her brother, John. The family vacationed in Europe and spent summers at their two lakeside cottages in western Idaho. Kelley graduated from St. Augustine's Elementary School and then attended the private prep school Holy Names Academy In 1962 Kelley allegedly left the University of Arizona in lieu of criminal charges for suspected theft being filed against her, according to the biography Poison Pen by George Carpozi Jr. Her parents refused to let her live with them and sent her to live in Seattle with her maternal grandparents, the Martins. It was here that Kelley suffered a breakdown and used a wheelchair during some of that time. After this eight-month hiatus, Kelley surfaced at the University of Washington where she received a B.A. in English. She worked at the 1964 New York World's Fair and went on to become a receptionist/press secretary for Senator Eugene McCarthy.\n\nFollowing four years as a press assistant to McCarthy, Kelley worked for two years as the editorial page researcher for the Washington Post. Since then she has had a full-time career as a freelance writer. Her articles have appeared in the New York Times, Wall Street Journal, Newsweek, The Washington Post, People, Ladies Home Journal, McCall's, Los Angeles Times and The Chicago Tribune. \n\nBooks\n\nJacqueline Onassis and Elizabeth Taylor biographies\n\nKelley's first celebrity biography was Jackie Oh! (1978), a life of Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis, which was written at the request of Lyle Stuart, who launched the book into the New York Times Best Seller List. In the book, Kelley describes John F. Kennedy's womanizing and includes \"revelations\" about Onassis's love life, her depression and electric shock treatment. Kelley's publisher Lyle Stuart was later quoted saying \"at the time I believed her shock-treatment story. Looking back, I feel I was had and the whole thing was a fable. I doubt that it ever happened. And knowing how she makes things up, I believe she was sure she could get away with it because no one would sue.\" Journalist Michael Crowley stated Jackie Oh! contained \"core truths—including an unflinching look at JFK that showed him to have been 'more of a Romeo than has been previously revealed.'\"\n\nThis book was followed by Elizabeth Taylor: The Last Star (1981).\n\nHis Way \n\nKelley's next book, His Way: The Unauthorized Biography of Frank Sinatra (1986) was declared \"an act of bravery.\" Kelley discussed Sinatra's marriages, affairs and his links to the Mob. Sinatra filed a $2 million lawsuit to prevent it from being published but subsequently dropped it. \n\nThe book was number one on the New York Times Best Seller List and hit best-seller lists in England, Canada, Australia and France. William Safire of the New York Times said \"His Way...turns out to be the most eye-opening celebrity biography of our time.\" In the Washington Post, Jonathan Yardley, wrote that \"His Way is such an improvement over her two previous books ... that comparisons border on the pointless.\"\n\nPeople magazine story\n\nIn 1990, Kelley wrote a piece for People magazine based on interviews she had conducted with Judith Campbell Exner, a former girlfriend of Frank Sinatra's who claimed to have had an affair with John F. Kennedy. Exner told Kelley that she had arranged ten meetings between Kennedy and Mafia gangster Sam Giancana, and they discussed having the \"mob\" kill Fidel Castro. It was subsequently revealed that Exner had been paid $50,000 to talk with Kelley and had not mentioned these \"revelations\" in her own autobiography, published years earlier. A former FBI agent said that Giancana had been under a federal wiretap, so these multiple meetings with Kennedy would have been impossible to cover up.\n\nNancy Reagan biography\n\nIn 1991 Kelley published Nancy Reagan: The Unauthorized Biography. She was paid $3.5 million to write the book. The book claimed that Nancy Reagan had had affairs with Frank Sinatra, that she frequently relied on astrology, that she had lied about her age, and that she had a very poor relationship with her children, even alleging that she hit her daughter, Patti.\" According to Newsweek, \"Despite her wretched excesses, Kelley has the core of the story right. Even her staunchest defenders concede that Nancy Reagan is more Marie Antoinette than Mother Teresa.\". However Newsweek also criticized the book's basic factual accuracy, noting that Kelley had reported that Ronald Reagan had allegedly date raped a 19-year-old, when the accuser would have actually been 25 at the time.\n\nFormer President Ronald Reagan issued a statement saying the book \"has no basis in fact and serves no decent purpose.\" \n\nBritish royal family and the Bush family\n\nIn September 1997, Kelley wrote The Royals (Warner Books, New York, ISBN 0-446-51712-7) about the British royal family. Kelley stated that the Windsors obscured their German ancestry and described scandals surrounding the members of the royal family.\n\nThe Family: The Real Story of the Bush Dynasty was published in September 2004. Kelley announced plans for the book shortly after George W. Bush's election in 2000 and worked on it for four years. \n\nOprah Winfrey biography\n\nIn December 2006, Crown announced it would publish Kelley's unauthorized biography of Oprah Winfrey. The book, Oprah: A Biography, was released on April 13, 2010. The New Yorker declared the biography \"one of those King Kong vs. Godzilla events in celebrity culture.\" Oprah dismissed the book as a \"so-called biography\". \n\nCapturing Camelot\n\nKelley's most recent book, Capturing Camelot: Stanley Tretick's Iconic Images of the Kennedys, was published by Thomas Dunne Books in November 2012. \n\nPerception of Kelley\n\nBarbara Walters said books like Kelley’s are all about finding dirt, not the truth. The New York Times claimed that Kelley \"just aims for the jugular.\" Time magazine reported that most journalists believe Kelley \"too frequently fails to bring perspective or analysis to the fruits of her reporting and at times lards her work with dollops of questionable inferences and innuendos.\" Joe Klein described Kelley as a \"professional sensationalist.\" \n\nAwards and honors\n\nKelley won the 2005 PEN Oakland Censorship Award and the Outstanding Author Award from the American Society of Journalists and Authors for her “courageous writing on popular culture.” She received the Medal of Merit from the Lotos Club of New York City.\n\nKelley is on the boards of Washington Independent Review of Books, Reading is Fundamental, and Healthy Women. \n\nBibliography\n\n* Jackie Oh!: An Intimate Biography (1978)\n* Elizabeth Taylor: The Last Star (1981)\n* His Way: Unauthorised Biography of Frank Sinatra (1986)\n* Nancy Reagan: The Unauthorised Biography (1991)\n* The Royals (1997)\n* The Family: The Real Story of the Bush Dynasty (2004)\n* Oprah: A Biography (2010)\n* Capturing Camelot: Stanley Tretick's Iconic Images of the Kennedys (2012)" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Elizabeth Taylor: The Last Star" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "elizabeth taylor last star" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "elizabeth taylor last star", "type": "FreeForm", "value": "Elizabeth Taylor: The Last Star" }
What are the international registration letters for a vehicle form Jordan?	tc_722	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Jordan.txt" ], "title": [ "Jordan" ], "wiki_context": [ "Jordan (; '), officially The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan ( '), is an Arab kingdom in Western Asia, on the East Bank of the Jordan River. Jordan is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the east and south, Iraq to the north-east, Syria to the north, Israel, Palestine and the Dead Sea to the west and the Red Sea in its extreme south-west. Jordan is strategically located at the crossroads of Asia, Africa and Europe. The capital, Amman, is Jordan's most populous city as well as the country's economic and cultural centre. \n\nWhat is now Jordan has been inhabited by humans since the Paleolithic period. Three stable kingdoms emerged there at the end of the Bronze Age: Ammon, Moab and Edom. Later rulers include the Nabataean Kingdom, the Roman Empire, and the Ottoman Empire. After the Great Arab Revolt against the Ottomans in 1916 during World War I, the Ottoman Empire was partitioned by Britain and France. The Emirate of Transjordan was established in 1921 by the then Emir Abdullah I and became a British protectorate. In 1946, Jordan became an independent state officially known as The Hashemite Kingdom of Transjordan. Jordan captured the West Bank during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War and the name of the state was changed to The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan in 1949. Jordan is a founding member of the Arab League and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, and is one of two Arab states to have signed a peace treaty with Israel. The country is a constitutional monarchy, where the king holds wide executive and legislative powers.\n\nJordan is a relatively small semi-arid almost landlocked country with a population numbering at 9.5 million. Sunni Islam, practiced by around 92% of the population, is the dominant religion in Jordan. It coexists with an indigenous Christian minority. Jordan is considered to be among the safest of Arab countries in the Middle East, and has historically managed to keep itself away from terrorism and instability. In the midst of surrounding turmoil, it has been greatly hospitable, accepting refugees from almost all surrounding conflicts as early as 1948, with most notably the estimated 2 million Palestinians and the 1.4 million Syrian refugees residing in the country. The kingdom is also a refuge to thousands of Iraqi Christians fleeing the Islamic State. While Jordan continues to accept refugees, the recent large influx from Syria placed substantial strain on national resources and infrastructure. \n\nJordan is classified as a country of \"high human development\" with an \"upper middle income\" economy. The Jordanian economy is attractive to foreign investors based upon a skilled workforce. The country is a major tourist destination, and also attracts medical tourism due to its well developed health sector. A lack of natural resources, large flow of refugees and regional turmoil have crippled economic growth.\n\nEtymology\n\nJordan is named after the Jordan River. The origin of the river's name is debated, but the most common explanation is that it derives from the word \"yarad\" (the descender, \"Yarden\" is the Hebrew name for the river), found in Hebrew, Aramaic, and other Semitic languages. Others regard that the name as having an Indo-Aryan origin, combining the words \"yor\" (year) and \"don\" (river), reflecting the river's perennial nature. Another theory is that it is from the Arabic root word \"wrd\" (to come to), as in people coming to a major source of water. \n\nThe name Jordan appears in an ancient Egyptian papyrus called Papyrus Anastasi I, dating back to around 1000 BC. The lands of modern-day Jordan were historically called \"Transjordan\", meaning \"beyond the Jordan River\". During crusader rule, it was called \"Oultrejordain\". The name was Arabized into \"Al-Urdunn\" during the Muslim conquest of the Levant. In 1921, the Emirate of Transjordan was established and after it gained its independence in 1946, it became \"The Hashemite Kingdom of Transjordan\". The name was changed in 1949 into \"The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan\". \"Hashemite\" is the house name of the royal family. \n\nHistory \n\nAncient period\n\nJordan is rich in Paleolithic remains, holding evidence of inhabitance by Homo erectus, Neanderthal and modern humans. The oldest evidence of inhabitants by humans dates back around 200,000 years. The Kharanah area in eastern Jordan has evidence of human huts from about 20,000 years ago. Other Paleolithic sites include Pella and Al-Azraq. In the Neolithic period, several settlements began to develop, most notably an agricultural community called 'Ain Ghazal in what is now Amman, one of the largest known prehistoric settlements in the Near East. Plaster statues estimated to date back to around 7250 BC were uncovered there, and are among the oldest large human statues ever found. Villages of Bab edh-Dhra in the Dead Sea area, Tal Hujayrat Al-Ghuzlan in Aqaba and Tulaylet Ghassul in the Jordan Valley all date to the Chalcolithic period. \n\nThe prehistoric period of Jordan ended at around 2000 BC when the Semitic nomads known as the Amorites entered the region. During the Bronze Age and Iron Age, present-day Jordan was home to several ancient kingdoms, whose populations spoke Semitic languages of the Canaanite group. Among them were Ammon, Edom and Moab, which are described as tribal kingdoms rather than states. They are mentioned in ancient texts such as the Old Testament. Archaeology finds have shown that Ammon was in the area of the modern city of Amman, Moab controlled the highlands east of the Dead Sea and Edom controlled the area around Wadi Araba. \n\nThese Transjordanian kingdoms were in continuous conflict with the neighboring Hebrew kingdoms of Israel and Judah, centered west of the Jordan River, though Israel was known to have at times controlled small parts east of the River. Frequent confrontations ensued and tensions between them increased. One record of this is the Mesha Stele erected by the Moabite king Mesha around 840 BC on which he lauds himself for the building projects that he initiated in Moab and commemorates his glory and victory against the Israelites. The stele constitutes one of the most important direct accounts of Biblical history. Subsequently the Assyrian Empire reduced these kingdoms to vassals. When the region was later under the influence of the Babylonians, the Old Testament mentions that these kingdoms aided them in the 597 BC sack of Jerusalem. \n\nThese kingdoms are believed to have existed throughout fluctuations in regional rule and influence. They passed through the control of several distant empires, including the Akkadian Empire (2335–2193 BC), Ancient Egypt (1500–1300 BC), the Hittite Empire (1400–1300 BC), the Middle Assyrian Empire (1365–1020 BC), the Neo-Assyrian Empire (911–605 BC), the Neo-Babylonian Empire (604–539 BC), the Achaemenid Empire (539–332 BC) and the Hellenistic Empire of Macedonia. However, by the time of Roman rule in the Levant around 63 BC, the people of Ammon, Edom and Moab had lost their distinct identities, and were assimilated into Roman culture.\n\nClassical period\n\nAlexander the Great's conquest of the Achaemenid Empire in 332 BC introduced Hellenistic culture to the Middle East. After Alexander's death in 323 BC, his empire split among his generals and in the end, much of the land of modern-day Jordan was disputed between the Ptolemies based in Egypt and the Seleucids based in Syria. In the south and east, the Nabataeans had an independent kingdom. Campaigns by different Greek generals aspiring to annex the Nabataean Kingdom were unsuccessful.\n\nThe Nabataeans were nomadic Arabs who derived wealth from their capital Petra, whose proximity to major trade routes led to it becoming a regional hub. The Ptolemies were eventually displaced from the region by the Seleucid Empire. The conflict between these two groups enabled the Nabataeans to extend their kingdom northwards well beyond Petra in Edom. The Nabataeans are known for their great ability in constructing efficient water collecting methods in the barren deserts and their talent for carving structures such as the Al-Khazneh temple into solid rocks. These nomads spoke Arabic and wrote in Nabataean alphabets, which were developed from Aramaic script during the 2nd century BC, and are regarded by scholars to have evolved into the Arabic alphabet around the 4th century AD. \n\nThe Greeks founded new cities in Jordan including Philadelphia (Amman), Gerasa (Jerash), Gedara (Umm Qays), Pella (Tabaqat Fahl) and Arbila (Irbid). Later, under Roman rule, these joined other Hellenistic cities in Palestine and Syria to form the Decapolis League, a loose confederation linked by economic and cultural interests: Scythopolis, Hippos, Capitolias, Canatha and Damascus were among its members. The most notable Hellenistic site in Jordan is at Iraq Al-Amir, just west of modern-day Amman. \n\nRoman legions under Pompey conquered much of the Levant in 63 BC, inaugurating a period of Roman rule that lasted for centuries. In 106 AD, Emperor Trajan annexed the nearby Nabataean Kingdom without any opposition, and rebuilt the King's Highway which became known as the Via Traiana Nova road. During Roman rule the Nabataeans continued to flourish and replaced their local gods with Christianity. Roman remains include, in Amman, the Temple of Hercules at the Amman Citadel and the Roman theater. Jerash contains a well-preserved Roman city that had 15,000 inhabitants at its height. Jerash was visited by Emperor Hadrian during his journey to Palestine. In 324 AD, the Roman Empire split, and the Eastern Roman Empire (later known as the Byzantine Empire) continued to control or influence the region until 636 AD. Christianity had become legal within the empire in 313 AD and the official state religion in 390 AD, after Emperor Constantine converted to Christianity.\n\nAyla city (modern day Aqaba) in southern Jordan also came under Byzantine Empire rule. The Aqaba Church was built around 300 AD, and is considered the world's first purpose built Christian church. The Byzantines built 16 churches just south of Amman in Umm ar-Rasas. Administratively the area of Jordan fell under the Diocese of the East, and was divided between the provinces of Palaestina Secunda in the north-west and Arabia Petraea in the south and east. Palaestina Salutaris in the south was split off from Arabia Petraea in the late 4th century. The Sassanian Empire in the east became the Byzantines' rivals, and frequent confrontations sometimes led to the Sassanids controlling some parts of the region, including Transjordan. \n\nIslamic era\n\nMuslims from what is now Saudi Arabia invaded the region from the south. The Arab Christian Ghassanids, clients of the Byzantines, were defeated despite imperial support. While the Muslim forces lost to the Byzantines in their first direct engagement during the Battle of Mu'tah in 629, in what is now the Karak Governorate, the Byzantines lost control of the Levant when they were defeated by the Rashidun army in 636AD at the Battle of Yarmouk just north of modern-day Jordan. The region was Arabized, and the Arabic language became widespread.\n\nTransjordan was an essential territory for the conquest of nearby Damascus. The first, or Rashidun, caliphate was followed by that of the Ummayad (661–750). Under Umayyads rule, several desert castles were constructed, such as Qasr Al-Mshatta, Qasr Al-Hallabat, Qasr Al-Kharanah, Qasr Tuba, Qasr Amra, and a large administrative palace in Amman. The Abbasid campaign to take over the Umayyad empire began in the region of Transjordan. After the decline of the Abbasid Caliphate, the area was ruled by the Fatimids, then by the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem (1115–1189).\n\nThe Crusaders constructed about nine Crusader castles as part of the lordship of Oultrejordain, including those of Montreal, Al-Karak and Wu'ayra (in Petra). In the 12th century, the Crusaders were defeated by Saladin, the founder of the Ayyubids dynasty (1189–1260). The Ayyubids built a new castle at Ajloun and rebuilt the former Roman fort of Qasr Azraq. Several of these castles were used and expanded by the Mamluks (1260-1516), who divided Jordan between the provinces of Karak and Damascus. During the next century Transjordan experienced Mongol attacks, but the Mongols were ultimately repelled by the Mamluks after the Battle of Ain Jalut (1260). \n\nIn 1516, Ottoman forces conquered Mamluk territory. Agricultural villages in Jordan witnessed a period of relative prosperity in the 16th century, but were later abandoned. For the next centuries, Ottoman rule in the region, at times, was virtually absent and reduced to annual tax collection visits. This led to a short-lived occupation by the Wahhabi forces (1803-1812), an ultraorthodox Islamic movement that emerged in Najd in modern-day Saudi Arabia. Ibrahim Pasha, son of the governor of the Egypt Eyalet under the request of the Ottoman sultan, rooted out the Wahhabis between 1811 and 1818. In 1833 Ibrahim Pasha turned on the Ottomans and established his rule over the Levant. His oppressive policies led to the unsuccessful peasants' revolt in Palestine in 1834. The cities of Al-Salt and Al-Karak were destroyed by Ibrahim Pasha's forces for harboring a peasants' revolt leader. Egyptian rule was later forcibly ended, with Ottoman rule restored. \n\nRussian persecution of Sunni Muslim Circassians and Chechens led to their immigration into the region in 1867, where today they form a small part of the country's ethnic fabric. Overall population however declined due to oppression and neglect. Urban settlements with small populations included: Al-Salt, Irbid, Jerash and Al-Karak. The under-development of urban life in Jordan was exacerbated by the settlements being sometimes raided by Bedouins. Ottoman oppression provoked the region's both non-Bedouin and Bedouin tribes to revolt, Bedouin tribes like; Adwan, Bani Hassan, Bani Sakhr and the Howeitat. The most notable revolts were the Shoubak Revolt (1905) and the Karak Revolt (1910), which were brutally suppressed. Jordan's location lies on a pilgrimage route taken by Muslims going to Mecca, which helped the population economically when the Ottomans constructed the Hejaz Railway linking Mecca with Istanbul in 1908. Before the construction of the railway, the Ottomans built fortresses along the Hajj route to secure pilgrims' caravans. \n\nModern era\n\nFour centuries of stagnation during Ottoman rule ended during World War I when the Arab Army of the Great Arab Revolt took over present-day Jordan with the support of local Bedouin tribes, Circassians and Christians. The revolt was launched by the Hashemites and led by Sharif Hussein of Mecca, emerging from increasing Arab nationalism and resentment towards the Ottoman authorities. The revolt was supported by the Allies of World War I including Britain and France. \n\nThe Great Arab Revolt successfully gained control of most of territories of the Hejaz and the Levant, including the region east of the Jordan River. However, it failed to gain international recognition as an independent state, due mainly to the secret Sykes–Picot Agreement of 1916 and the Balfour Declaration of 1917. This was seen by the Hashemites and the Arabs as a betrayal of their previous agreements with the British, including the McMahon–Hussein Correspondence of 1915, in which the British stated their willingness to recognize the independence of a unified Arab state stretching from Aleppo to Aden under the rule of the Hashemites. The region was divided and Abdullah I, the second son of Sharif Hussein arrived from Hejaz by train in Ma'an in southern Jordan, where he was greeted by Transjordanian leaders. Abdullah established the Emirate of Transjordan, which then became a British protectorate. \n\nThe first organized army in Jordan was established on 22 October 1920, and was named the \"Arab Legion\". The Legion grew from 150 men in 1920 to 8,000 in 1946. Multiple difficulties emerged upon the assumption of power in the region by the Hashemite leadership. In Transjordan, small local rebellions at Kura in 1921 and 1923 were suppressed by Emir Abdullah with the help of British forces. Wahhabis from Najd regained strength and repeatedly raided the southern parts of his territory in (1922-1924), seriously threatening the Emir's position. The Emir was unable to repel those raids without the aid of the local Bedouin tribes and the British, who maintained a military base with a small RAF detachment close to Amman.\n\nIn September 1922, the Council of the League of Nations recognized Transjordan as a state under the British Mandate for Palestine and the Transjordan memorandum, and excluded the territories east of the Jordan River from the provisions of the mandate dealing with Jewish settlement. Transjordan remained a British mandate until 1946. \n\nPost-independence\n\nThe Treaty of London, signed by the British Government and the Emir of Transjordan on 22 March 1946, recognised the independence of Transjordan upon ratification by both countries parliaments. On 25 May 1946 the Emirate of Transjordan became \"The Hashemite Kingdom of Transjordan\", as the ruling Emir was re-designated as \"King\" by the parliament of Transjordan on the day it ratified the Treaty of London. The name was changed to \"The Hashemite Kingdom of the Jordan\" in 1949. Jordan became a member of the United Nations on 14 December 1955. \n\nOn 15 May 1948, as part of the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, Jordan invaded Palestine together with other Arab states. Following the war, Jordan occupied the West Bank and on 24 April 1950 Jordan formally annexed these territories. In response, some Arab countries demanded Jordan's expulsion from the Arab League. On 12 June 1950, the Arab League declared the annexation was a temporary, practical measure and that Jordan was holding the territory as a \"trustee\" pending a future settlement. \n\nKing Abdullah was assassinated at the Al-Aqsa Mosque in 1951 by a Palestinian militant, amid rumors he intended to sign a peace treaty with Israel. Abdullah was succeeded by his son Talal, however Talal soon abdicated due to illness in favor of his eldest son Hussein, who ascended the throne in 1953. On 1 March 1956, King Hussein sacked a number of British personnel serving in the Jordanian Army, an act of Arabization made to ensure the complete sovereignty of Jordan. Neighboring Iraq was also ruled by a Hashemite monarchy; Faisal II of Iraq, who was Hussein's cousin. 1958 witnessed the emergence of the Arab Federation between the two kingdoms, as a response to the formation of the United Arab Republic between Egypt and Syria. The union lasted only six months, being dissolved after Faisal II was deposed by a military coup. \n\nJordan signed a military pact with Egypt just before Israel launched a preemptive strike on Egypt to begin the Six-Day War in June 1967, where Jordan and Syria joined the war. It ended in an Arab defeat and the West Bank came under Israeli control. Jordan also fought in the War of Attrition, which included the 1968 Battle of Karameh where the combined forces of the Jordanian Armed Forces and the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) repelled an Israeli attack on the Karameh camp on the Jordanian border with the West Bank. Despite the fact that the Palestinians had limited involvement against the Israeli forces, the events at Karameh gained wide recognition and acclaim in the Arab world. As a result, the time period following the battle witnessed an upsurge of support for Palestinian paramilitary elements (the fedayeen) within Jordan from other Arab countries, the fedayeen soon became a threat to Jordan's rule of law. In September 1970, the Jordanian army targeted the fedayeen and the resultant fighting led to the expulsion of Palestinian fighters from various PLO groups into Lebanon, in a civil war that became known as Black September. \n\nDuring the Yom Kippur War in 1973, Arab league forces waged a war on Israel and fighting occurred along the 1967 Jordan River cease-fire line. Jordan sent a brigade to Syria to attack Israeli units on Syrian territory but did not engage Israeli forces from Jordanian territory. At the Rabat summit conference in 1974, Jordan agreed, along with the rest of the Arab League, that the PLO was the \"sole legitimate representative of the Palestinian people\". Subsequently, Jordan renounced its claims to the West Bank in 1988.\n\nAt the 1991 Madrid Conference, Jordan agreed to negotiate a peace treaty sponsored by the US and the Soviet Union. The Israel-Jordan Treaty of Peace was signed on 26 October 1994. In 1997, Israeli agents allegedly entered Jordan using Canadian passports and poisoned Khaled Meshal, a senior Hamas leader. Israel provided an antidote to the poison and released dozens of political prisoners, including Sheikh Ahmed Yassin after King Hussein threatened to annul the peace treaty.\n\nOn 7 February 1999, Abdullah II ascended the throne upon the death of his father Hussein. Jordan's economy has improved since then. Abdullah II has been credited with increasing foreign investment, improving public-private partnerships and providing the foundation for Aqaba's free-trade zone and Jordan's flourishing information and communication technology (ICT) sector. He also set up five other special economic zones. As a result of these reforms, Jordan's economic growth has doubled to 6% annually compared to the latter half of the 1990s. However, the Great Recession and regional turmoil in the 2010s has severely crippled the Jordanian economy and its growth, making it increasingly reliant on foreign aid. \n\nAl-Qaeda under Abu Musab al-Zarqawi's leadership launched coordinated explosions in three hotel lobbies in Amman on 9 November 2005, resulting in 60 deaths and 115 injured. The bombings, which targeted civilians, caused widespread outrage among Jordanians. The attack is considered to be a rare event in the country, and Jordan's internal security was dramatically improved afterwards. No major terrorist attacks have occurred since then.\n\nThe Arab Spring began sweeping the Arab world in 2011, where large scale protests erupted demanding economic and political reforms. However, many of these protests in some countries turned into civil wars and more instability. In Jordan, in response to domestic unrest, Abdullah II replaced his prime minister and introduced a number of reforms including; amending the Constitution and establishing a number of governmental commissions. The King told the new prime minister to \"take quick, concrete and practical steps to launch a genuine political reform process, to strengthen democracy and provide Jordanians with the dignified life they deserve\". \n\nGeography \n\nJordan sits strategically at the crossroads of the continents of Asia, Africa and Europe, in the Levant area of the Fertile Crescent, a cradle of civilization. It is 89341 sqkm large, and 400 km long between its northernmost and southernmost points; Umm Qais and Aqaba respectively. The kingdom lies between 29° and 34° N, and 34° and 40° E. The east is an arid plateau irrigated by oases and seasonal water streams. Major cities are overwhelmingly located on the north-western part of the kingdom due to its fertile soils and relatively abundant rainfall. These include Irbid, Jerash and Zarqa in the northwest, the capital Amman and Al-Salt in the central west, and Madaba, Al-Karak and Aqaba in the southwest. Major towns in the eastern part of the country are the oasis towns of Azraq and Ruwaished. \n\nIn the west a highland area of arable land and Mediterranean evergreen forestry drops suddenly into the Jordan Rift Valley. The rift valley contains the Jordan River and the Dead Sea, which separates Jordan from Israel and the Palestinian Territories. Jordan has a 26 km shoreline on the Gulf of Aqaba in the Red Sea, but is otherwise landlocked. The Yarmouk River, an eastern tributary of the Jordan, forms part of the boundary between Jordan and Syria (including the occupied Golan Heights) to the north. The other boundaries are formed by several international and local agreements and do not follow well-defined natural features. The highest point is Jabal Umm al Dami, at 1854 m above sea level, while the lowest is the Dead Sea , the lowest land point on earth.\n\nJordan has a diverse range of habitats, ecosystems and biota due, to its varied landscapes and environments. The Royal Society for the Conservation of Nature was set up in 1966 to protect and manage Jordan's natural resources. Nature reserves in Jordan include the Dana Biosphere Reserve, the Azraq Wetland Reserve, the Shaumari Wildlife Reserve and the Mujib Nature Reserve. \n\nOver two thousand plant species have been recorded in Jordan. Many of the flowering plants bloom in the spring after the winter rains and the type of vegetation depends largely on the levels of precipitation. The mountainous regions in the northwest are clothed in forests, while further south and east the vegetation becomes more scrubby and transitions to steppe-type vegetation. Forests cover 1.5 million dunums (1500000 dunam), less than 2% of Jordan, making Jordan among the world's least forested countries, the internationally average being 15%. \n\nClimate\n\nThe climate in Jordan varies greatly. Generally, the further inland from the Mediterranean, greater contrasts in temperature occur and the less rainfall there is. The country's average elevation is 812 m (SL). The highlands above the Jordan Valley, mountains of the Dead Sea and Wadi Araba and as far south as Ras Al-Naqab are dominated by a Mediterranean climate, while the eastern and northeastern areas of the country are arid desert. Although the desert parts of the kingdom reach high temperatures, the heat is usually moderated by low humidity and a daytime breeze, while the nights are cool. \n\nSummers, lasting from May to September, are hot and dry, with temperatures averaging around 32 °C and sometimes exceeding 40 °C between July and August. The winter, lasting from November to March, is relatively cool, with temperatures averaging around 13 °C. Winter also sees frequent showers and occasional snowfall in some western elevated areas. \n\nPolitics and government \n\nJordan is a constitutional monarchy, and the King holds wide executive and legislative powers. He serves as Head of State and Commander-in-Chief and appoints the prime minister and heads of security directorates. The prime minister is free to choose his own cabinet and regional governors. However, the king may dissolve parliament and dismiss the government. The capital city of Jordan is Amman, located in north-central Jordan. \n\nJordan is divided into 12 governorates (muhafazah) (informally grouped into three regions: northern, central, southern). These are subdivided into a total of 52 nawahi, which are further divided into neighborhoods in urban areas or into towns in rural ones. The Parliament of Jordan consists of two chambers: the lower Chamber of Deputies ( ) and the upper Senate ( ). All 75 members of the Senate are directly appointed by the King, they are usually veteran politicians or are known to have held previous positions in the Chamber of Deputies or in the government. The 130 members of the Chamber of Deputies are elected through proportional representation in 23 constituencies on nationwide party lists for a 4-year election cycle. Minimum quotas exist in the Chamber of Deputies for women (15 seats, though they won 19 seats in the 2013 election), Christians (9 seats), Circassians (3 seats) and Chechens (1 seat). Three constituencies are allocated for the Bedouins of the northern, central and southern Badias. \n\nJordan has multiple political parties though they formerly contested fewer than a fifth of the seats; the remainder belonged to independent politicians, due to the one-man one-vote system. The system was changed in 2015 and this is expected to empower political parties, which number around 30 parties. The government can be dismissed by a two-thirds vote of \"no confidence\" by the Chamber of Deputies. Political parties come under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Interior, and may not be established on the basis of religion. \n\nThe Constitution of Jordan was adopted in 1952 and has been amended a number of times, most recently in 2016. Article 97 of Jordan's constitution guarantees the independence of the judicial branch, stating that judges are \"subject to no authority but that of the law.\" Article 99 divides the courts into three categories: civil, religious, and special. The civil courts deal with civil and criminal matters, and have jurisdiction over all persons in all matters civil and criminal, including cases brought against the government. The civil courts include Magistrate Courts, Courts of First Instance, Courts of Appeal, High Administrative Courts which hear cases relating to administrative matters, and the Constitutional Court which was set up in 2012 in order to hear cases regarding the constitutionality of laws. The religious court system's jurisdiction extends to matters of personal status such as divorce and inheritance, and is partially based on Sharia Islamic law. The special court deals with cases forwarded by the civil one. \n\nThe current monarch, Abdullah II, ascended the throne in February 1999 after the death of his father Hussein. Abdullah reaffirmed Jordan's commitment to the peace treaty with Israel and its relations with the United States. He refocused the government's agenda on economic reform, during his first year. King Abdullah's eldest son, Prince Hussein is the current Crown Prince of Jordan. The current prime minister is Hani Al-Mulki who received his position on 29 May 2016. \n\nThe 2010 Arab Democracy Index from the Arab Reform Initiative ranked Jordan first in the state of democratic reforms out of fifteen Arab countries. Jordan ranked first among the Arab states and 78th globally in the Human Freedom Index in 2015, and ranked 55th out of 175 countries in the Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI) issued by Transparency International in 2014, where 175th is most corrupt. In the 2016 Press Freedom Index maintained by Reporters Without Borders, Jordan ranked 135th out of 180 countries worldwide, and 5th of 19 countries in the Middle East and North Africa region. Jordan's score was 44 on a scale from 0 (most free) to 105 (least free). The report added \"the Arab Spring and the Syrian conflict have led the authorities to tighten their grip on the media and, in particular, the Internet, despite an outcry from civil society\". Jordanian media consists of public and private institutions. Popular Jordanian newspapers include: Ammon News, Ad-Dustour and Jordan Times. The most two watched local TV stations are Ro'ya TV and Jordan TV. Internet penetration in Jordan reached 76% in 2015. \n\nAdministrative divisions\n\nForeign relations\n\nThe kingdom has followed a pro-Western foreign policy and maintained close relations with the United States and the United Kingdom. During the first Gulf War (1990), these relations were damaged by Jordan's neutrality and its maintenance of relations with Iraq. Later, Jordan restored its relations with Western countries through its participation in the enforcement of UN sanctions against Iraq and in the Southwest Asia peace process. After King Hussein's death in 1999, relations between Jordan and the Persian Gulf countries greatly improved. \n\nJordan is a key ally of the USA and UK and, together with Egypt, is one of only two Arab nations to have signed peace treaties with Israel, Jordan's direct neighbour. Jordan supports Palestinian statehood through the Two-state solution. The ruling Hashemite family has had custodianship over holy sites in Jerusalem since the beginning of the 20th century, a position reinforced in the Israel–Jordan peace treaty. Turmoil in Jerusalem's Al-Aqsa mosque between Israelis and Palestinians created tensions between Jordan and Israel concerning the former's role in protecting the Muslim and Christian sites in Jerusalem. \n\nJordan is a founding member of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation and of the Arab League. It enjoys \"advanced status\" with the European Union and is part of the European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP), which aims to increase links between the EU and its neighbours. Jordan and Morocco tried to join the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) in 2011, but the Gulf countries offered a five-year development aid programme instead. \n\nMilitary, crime and law enforcement\n\nThe first organized army in Jordan was established on 22 October 1920, and was named the \"Arab Legion\". Jordan's capture of the West Bank during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War proved that the Arab Legion, known today as the Jordan Armed Forces, was the most effective among the Arab troops involved in the war. The Royal Jordanian Army, which boasts around 110,000 personnel, is considered to be among the most professional in the region, due to being particularly well-trained and organized. The Jordanian military enjoys strong support and aid from the United States, the United Kingdom and France. This is due to Jordan's critical position in the Middle East. The development of Special Operations Forces has been particularly significant, enhancing the capability of the military to react rapidly to threats to homeland security, as well as training special forces from the region and beyond. Jordan provides extensive training to the security forces of several Arab countries. \n\nThere are about 50,000 Jordanian troops working with the United Nations in peacekeeping missions across the world. Jordan ranks third internationally in participation in U.N. peacekeeping missions, with one of the highest levels of peacekeeping troop contributions of all U.N. member states. Jordan has dispatched several field hospitals to conflict zones and areas affected by natural disasters across the region. \n\nIn 2014, Jordan joined an aerial bombardment campaign by an international coalition lead by the United States against the Islamic State as part of its intervention in the Syrian Civil War. In 2015, Jordan participated in the Saudi Arabian-led military intervention in Yemen against the Shia Houthis and forces loyal to former President Ali Abdullah Saleh, who was deposed in the 2011 uprising. \n\nJordan's law enforcement is under the purview of the Public Security Directorate (which includes approximately 40,000 persons). The Jordanian national police is subordinate to the Public Security Directorate of the Ministry of Interior. The first police force in the Jordanian state was organized after the fall of the Ottoman Empire on 11 April 1921. Until 1956 police duties were carried out by the Arab Legion and the Transjordan Frontier Force. After that year the Public Safety Directorate was established. The number of female police officers is increasing. In the 1970s, it was the first Arab country to include females in its police force. Jordan's law enforcement was ranked 37th in the world and 3rd in the Middle East, in terms of police services' performance, by the 2016 World Internal Security and Police Index. \n\nEconomy \n\nJordan is classified by the World Bank as an \"upper-middle income\" country; however, approximately 14.4% () of the population lives below the national poverty line. The economy, which boasts a GDP of $38.210 billion (), grew at an average rate of 4.3% per annum between 2005 and 2010, and around 2.5% 2010 onwards. GDP per capita rose by 351% in the 1970s, declined 30% in the 1980s, and rose 36% in the 1990s. \n\nJordan's economy is relatively well diversified. Trade and finance combined account for nearly one-third of GDP; transportation and communication, public utilities, and construction account for one-fifth, and mining and manufacturing constitute nearly another fifth. Despite plans to expand the private sector, the state remains the dominant force in Jordan's economy. Net official development assistance to Jordan in 2009 totalled USD 761 million; according to the government, approximately two-thirds of this was allocated as grants, of which half was direct budget support.\n\nThe official currency is the Jordanian dinar, which is pegged to the IMF's special drawing rights (SDRs), equivalent to an exchange rate of 0.709 dinar, or approximately 1.41044 dollars. In 2000, Jordan joined the World Trade Organization and signed the Jordan–United States Free Trade Agreement, thus becoming the first Arab country to establish a free trade agreement with the United States. Jordan also has free trade agreements with Turkey and Canada. Jordan enjoys advanced status with the EU, which has facilitated greater access to export to European markets. Due to slow domestic growth, high energy and food subsidies and a bloated public-sector workforce, Jordan usually runs annual budget deficits. These are partially offset by international aid.\n\nThe Great Recession and the turmoil caused by the Arab Spring have depressed Jordan's GDP growth, impacting trade, industry, construction and tourism. Tourist arrivals have dropped sharply since 2011. Jordan's finances have also been severely strained by 32 attacks on the natural gas pipeline in Sinai supplying Jordan from Egypt by Islamic State affiliates, causing it to substitute more expensive heavy-fuel oils to generate electricity. In November 2012, the government cut subsidies on fuel, increasing its price. The decision, which was later revoked, caused large scale protests to break out across the country.\n\nJordan's total foreign debt in 2012 was $22 billion, representing 72% of its GDP. In 2016, the debt reached $35.1 billion representing 90.6% of its GDP. This substantial increase is attributed to effects of regional instability causing; decrease in tourist activity, decreased foreign investments, increased military expenditure, electrical company debts due to attacks on Egyptian pipeline, accumulated interests from loans, the collapse of trade with Iraq and Syria and expenses from hosting Syrian refugees. According to the World Bank, Syrian refugees have cost Jordan more than $2.5 billion a year, amounting to 6% of the GDP and 25% of the government's annual revenue. Foreign aid covers only a small part of these costs, 63% of the total costs is covered by Jordan. \n\nThe proportion of skilled workers in Jordan is among the highest in the region in sectors such as ICT and industry, due to a relatively modern educational system. This has attracted large foreign investments to Jordan and has enabled the country to export its workforce to Persian Gulf countries. Flows of remittances to Jordan grew rapidly, particularly during the end of the 1970s and 1980s, and remains an important source of external funding. Remittances from Jordanian expatriates were $3.8 billion in 2015, a notable rise in the amount of transfers compared to 2014 where remittances reached over $3.66 billion listing Jordan as fourth largest recipient in the region. \n\nIndustry\n\nJordan's well developed industrial sector, which includes mining, manufacturing, construction, and power, accounted for approximately 26% of the GDP in 2004 (including manufacturing, 16.2%; construction, 4.6%; and mining, 3.1%). More than 21% of Jordan's labor force was employed in industry in 2002. In 2014, industry accounted for 6% of the GDP. The main industrial products are potash, phosphates, cement, clothes, and fertilizers. The most promising segment of this sector is construction. Petra Engineering Industries Company which is considered to be one of the main pillars of Jordanian industry, has gained international recognition with its air-conditioning units reaching NASA. Jordan is now considered to be a leading pharmaceuticals manufacturer in the MENA region led by Jordanian pharmaceutical company Hikma. The Group is the only Arab company listed on the London Stock Exchange. \n\nJordan's military industry thrived after the King Abdullah Design and Development Bureau (KADDB) defence company was established by King Abdullah II in 1999, to provide an indigenous capability for the supply of scientific and technical services to the Jordanian Armed Forces, and to become a global hub in security research and development. It manufactures all types of military products, many of which are presented at the bi-annually held international military exhibition SOFEX. In 2015, KADDB exported $72 million worth of industries to over 42 countries. \n\nTourism\n\nThe tourism sector is considered a cornerstone of the economy, being a large source of employment, hard currency and economic growth. In 2010, there were 8 million visitors to Jordan. The result was $3.4 billion in tourism revenues, $4.4 billion with the inclusion of medical tourists. The majority of tourists coming to Jordan are from European and Arab countries. The tourism sector in Jordan has been severely affected by regional turbulence. The most recent impact to the tourism sector was caused by the Arab Spring, which scared off tourists from the entire region. Jordan experienced a 70% decrease in the number of tourists from 2010 to 2015.\n\nAccording to the Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities, Jordan is home to around 100,000 archaeological and tourist sites. Some very well preserved historical cities include Petra and Jerash, the former being Jordan's most popular tourist attraction and an icon of the kingdom. Jordan is part of the Holy Land and has several biblical attractions that attract pilgrimage activities. Biblical sites include: Al-Maghtas where Jesus was baptized by John the Baptist, Mount Nebo, Umm ar-Rasas, Madaba and Machaerus. Islamic sites include shrines of the prophet Muhammad's companions such as 'Abd Allah ibn Rawahah, Zayd ibn Harithah and Muadh ibn Jabal. Ajlun Castle built by Muslim Ayyubid leader Saladin in the 12th century AD during his wars with the Crusaders, is also a popular tourist attraction. \n\nModern entertainment and recreation in urban areas, mostly in Amman, also attract tourists. Recently, the nightlife in Amman, Aqaba and Irbid has started to emerge and the number of bars, discos and nightclubs is on the rise. However, most nightclubs have a restriction on unescorted males. Alcohol is widely available in tourist restaurants, liquor stores and even some supermarkets. Valleys like Wadi Mujib and hiking trails in different parts of the country attract adventurers. Moreover, seaside recreation is present in on the shores of Aqaba and the Dead Sea through several international resorts. \n\nJordan has been a medical tourism destination in the Middle East since the 1970s. A study conducted by Jordan's Private Hospitals Association found that 250,000 patients from 102 countries received treatment in Jordan in 2010, compared to 190,000 in 2007, bringing over $1 billion in revenue. Jordan is the region's top medical tourism destination, as rated by the World Bank, and fifth in the world overall. The majority of patients come from Yemen, Libya and Syria due to the ongoing civil wars in those countries. Jordanian doctors and medical staff have gained experience in dealing with war patients through years of receiving such cases from various conflict zones in the region. Jordan also is a hub for natural treatment methods in both Ma'in Hot Springs and the Dead Sea. The Dead Sea is often described as a 'natural spa'. It contains 10 times more salt than the average ocean, which makes it impossible to sink in. The high salt concentration of the Dead Sea has been proven as therapeutic for many skin diseases. The uniqueness of this lake attracts several Jordanian and foreign vacationers, which boosted investments in the hotel sector in the area. \n\nNatural resources\n\nThe country is the world's second poorest country in terms of water resources per capita, scarce water resources were aggravated further by influx of Syrian refugees. Water from Disi aquifer and ten major dams play a large role in providing Jordan's need for fresh water. \n\nPhosphate mines in the south have made Jordan one of the largest producers and exporters of this mineral in the world. Jordan aims to benefit from its large uranium reserves with two nuclear plants scheduled for completion in 2023 and 2025. Natural gas was discovered in Jordan in 1987. The estimated size of the reserve discovered was about 230 billion cubic feet, a modest quantity compared with its other Arabian neighbours. The Risha field, in the eastern desert beside the Iraqi border, produces nearly 35 million cubic feet of gas a day, which is sent to a nearby power plant to produce nearly 10% of Jordan's electricity needs. \n\nDespite the fact that reserves of crude oil are non-commercial, Jordan has the 5th largest oil-shale reserves in the world that could be commercially exploited in the central and northern regions west of the country. Official figures estimate the kingdom's oil shale reserves at more than 70 billion tonnes. Attarat Power Plant is a $2.2 billion oil shale-dependent power plant which will be completed in 2019 with a total capacity of 470 megawatts. The project is part of the kingdom's 2025 vision that aims at diversifying its energy resources. The extraction of oil shale had been delayed by a couple of years due to the advanced level of technology that is required to extract it and its relatively higher cost. \n\nJordan receives 330 days of sunshine per year, and wind speeds reach over 7 m/s over the mountainous areas. For this reason, the Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources launched several projects like Tafila Wind Farm and have set a target to obtain 10% of Jordan's electrical consumption from renewable resources by 2020. \n\nTransportation\n\nJordan ranked as having the 35th best infrastructure in the world, one of the highest rankings in the developing world, according to the World Economic Forum's Index of Economic Competitiveness. This high infrastructural development is necessitated by its role as a transit country for goods and services to the Palestine and Iraq. Palestinians use Jordan as a transit country due to the Israeli restrictions and Iraqis use Jordan due to the instability in Iraq. \n\nAccording to data from the Jordanian Ministry of Public Works and Housing, , the Jordanian road network consisted of 2878 km of main roads; 2592 km of rural roads and 1733 km of side roads. The Hejaz Railway built during the Ottoman Empire which extended from Damascus to Mecca will act as a base for future railway expansion plans. Currently, the railway has barely any civilian activity, it is primarily used for transporting goods. A national railway project is currently undergoing studies and seeking funding sources. \n\nJordan has three commercial airports, all receiving and dispatching international flights. Two are in Amman and the third is in Aqaba, King Hussein International Airport. Amman Civil Airport serves several regional routes and charter flights while Queen Alia International Airport is the major international airport in Jordan and is the hub for Royal Jordanian, the flag carrier. Queen Alia International Airport expansion was completed in 2013 with new terminals costing $700 million, to handle over 16 million passengers annually. It is now considered a state-of-the-art airport and was awarded 'the best airport by region: Middle East' for 2014 and 2015 by Airport Service Quality (ASQ) survey, the world's leading airport passenger satisfaction benchmark program. \n\nThe Port of Aqaba is the only port in Jordan. In 2006, the port was ranked as being the \"Best Container Terminal\" in the Middle East by Lloyd's List. The port was chosen due to it being a transit cargo port for other neighboring countries, its location between four countries and three continents, being an exclusive gateway for the local market and for the improvements it has recently witnessed. \n\nScience and technology\n\nScience and technology is the country's fastest developing economic sector. This growth occurs across multiple industries including Information and Communications Technology (ICT) and nuclear technology. Jordan contributes to 75% of the Arabic content on the Internet. In 2014, the ICT sector accounted for more than 84,000 jobs, and contributed to 12% of the GDP. More than 400 companies are active in telecom, IT and video game development. While there are 600 companies operating in active technologies and 300 startup companies. \n\nNuclear science and technology is also expanding; nuclear facilities are undergoing construction. Jordan Research and Training Reactor is a 5MW training reactor located in Jordan University of Science and Technology; the reactor is expected to start operations in 2017 and will be used by the university to train their students in the already existing nuclear engineering program. Jordan signed a contract with Russian company Rosatom in 2014 for the construction of two $5 billion nuclear reactors which are currently under planning and are expected to start delivering electricity in 2023 and 2025. \n\nJordan was also selected as the location for the Synchrotron-Light for Experimental Science and Applications in the Middle East (SESAME) facility, which is supported by UNESCO and CERN. This particle accelerator, which is expected to start operations in 2017, will allow collaboration between scientists across the Middle East despite the political conflicts. \n\nDemographics \n\nThe latest census, taken in 2015, showed the population numbered some 9.5 million. 2.9 million (30%) were non-citizens, a figure including refugees and illegal immigrants. There were 1,977,534 households in Jordan in 2015, with an average of 4.8 persons per household (compared to 6.7 persons per household for the census of 1979). The vast majority of Jordanians are Arabs, accounting for 98% of the population. The rest is attributed to Circassians, Chechens and Armenians. As the population has increased, it has become more settled and urban. In 1922 almost half the population (around 103,000) were nomadic, whereas nomads made up only 6% of the population in 2015. The population in Amman, 65,754 in 1946, has grown to over 4 million in 2015. \n\nImmigrants and refugees\n\nJordan was home to 2,117,361 Palestinians in 2015, most of them Jordanian citizens. The first wave of Palestinian refugees began arriving during the 1948 Arab Israeli war and peaked in the 1967 Six Day War and the 1990 Gulf War. In the past, Jordan had given many Palestinian refugees citizenship, however recently Jordanian citizenship is given only in rare cases. 370,000 of these Palestinians live in UNRWA refugee camps. Following the capture of the West Bank by Israel in 1967, Jordan revoked the citizenship of thousands of Palestinians to thwart any attempt to permanently resettle from the West Bank to Jordan. West Bank Palestinians with family in Jordan or Jordanian citizenship were issued yellow cards guaranteeing them all the rights of Jordanian citizenship if requested. \n\nWhile some 700,000–1,000,000 Iraqis came to Jordan following the Iraq War in 2003, most have returned. Many Iraqi Christians (Assyrians/Chaldeans) however settled temporarily or permanently in Jordan. Immigrants also include 15,000 Lebanese who arrived following the 2006 Lebanon War. Since 2010, over 1.4 million Syrian refugees have fled to Jordan to escape the violence in Syria. The kingdom has continued to demonstrate hospitality, despite the substantial strain the flux of Syrian refugees places on the country. The effects are largely affecting Jordanian communities, as the vast majority of Syrian refugees do not live in camps. The refugee crisis effects include competition for job opportunities, water resources and other state provided services, along with the strain on the national infrastructure.\n\nIn 2007, Assyrian Christians accounted for up to 150,000 persons, most are Eastern Aramaic speaking refugees from Iraq. Kurds number some 30,000 people, and like the Assyrians, many are refugees from Iraq, Iran and Turkey. Descendants of Armenians that sought refuge in the Levant during the 1915 Armenian Genocide number approximately 5,000 persons, mainly residing in Amman. A small number of ethnic Mandeans also reside in Jordan, again mainly refugees from Iraq. Several thousand Libyans, Yemenis and Sudanese have also sought asylum in Jordan to escape instability and violence in their respective countries. The 2015 Jordanian census recorded that there are 1,265,000 Syrians, 636,270 Egyptians, 634,182 Palestinians, 130,911 Iraqis, 31,163 Yemenis, 22,700 Libyans and 197,385 from other nationalities residing in the country.\n\nThere are around 1.2 million illegal and some 500,000 legal migrant workers in the kingdom. Thousands of foreign women, mostly from Greater Middle East and Eastern Europe, work in nightclubs, hotels and bars across the kingdom. American and European expatriate communities are concentrated in the capital, as the city is home to many international organizations and diplomatic missions.\n\nReligion and languages\n\nSunni Islam is the dominant religion in Jordan. Muslims make up about 92% of the country's population; in turn, 93% of those self-identify as Sunnis—the highest percentage in the world. There are also a small number of Ahmadi Muslims, and some Shiites. Many Shia are Iraqi and Lebanese refugees. \n\nMuslims who convert to another religion as well as missionaries from other religions face societal and legal discrimination. \n\nJordan contains some of the oldest Christian communities in the world, dating as early as the 1st century AD after the crucifixion of Jesus Christ. Christians today make up about 4% of the population, down from 20% in 1930. This is due to high immigration rates of Muslims into Jordan, higher emigration rates of Christians to the west and higher birth rates for Muslims. Jordanian Christians number around 250,000, all of whom are Arabic-speaking, according to a 2014 estimate by the Orthodox Church. The study excluded minority Christian groups and the thousands of western, Iraqi and Syrian Christians residing in Jordan. Christians are exceptionally well integrated in the Jordanian society and enjoy a high level of freedom, though they are not free to evangelize Muslims. Christians traditionally occupy two cabinet posts, and are reserved 9 seats out of the 130 in the parliament. The highest political position reached by a Christian is deputy prime minister, held by Marwan al-Muasher in 2005. Christians are also influential in media. Smaller religious minorities include Druze and Bahá'ís. Most Jordanian Druze live in the eastern oasis town of Azraq, some villages on the Syrian border, and the city of Zarqa, while most Jordanian Bahá'ís live in the village of Adassiyeh bordering the Jordan Valley. \n\nThe official language is Modern Standard Arabic, a literary language taught in the schools. Most Jordanians natively speak one of the non-standard Arabic dialects known as Jordanian Arabic. Jordanian Sign Language is the language of the deaf community. English, though without official status, is widely spoken throughout the country and is the de facto language of commerce and banking, as well as a co-official status in the education sector; almost all university-level classes are held in English and almost all public schools teach English along with Standard Arabic. Chechen, Circassian, Armenian, Tagalog, and Russian are popular among their communities. French is elective in many schools, mainly in the private sector. German is an increasingly popular language among the elite and the educated; it's been most likely introduced at a larger scale after the début of the German-Jordanian University in 2005. \n\nCulture \n\nWhile religion and tradition play an important part in the modern Jordanian society, the country is considered liberal relative to other Arab countries. \n\nArts, cinema, museums and music\n\nMany institutions in Jordan aim to increase cultural awareness of Jordanian Art and to represent Jordan's artistic movements in fields such as paintings, sculpture, graffiti and photography. The art scene has been developing in the past few years and Jordan has been a haven for artists from surrounding countries. In January 2016, for the first time ever, a Jordanian film called Theeb was nominated for the Academy Awards for Best Foreign Language Film. \n\nMusic in Jordan is now developing with a lot of new bands and artists, who are now popular in the Middle East. Artists such as Omar Al-Abdallat, Toni Qattan and Hani Metwasi have increased the popularity of Jordanian music. The Jerash Festival is an annual music event that features popular Arab singers. Pianist and composer Zade Dirani has gained wide international popularity. There is also an increasing growth of alternative Arabic music bands, who are dominating the scene in the Arab World, including; El Morabba3, Autostrad, JadaL, Akher Zapheer and Ayloul. \n\nThe largest museum in Jordan is The Jordan Museum. It contains much of the valuable archaeological findings in the country, including some of the Dead Sea Scrolls, the Neolithic limestone statues of 'Ain Ghazal and a copy of the Mesha Stele. Most museums in Jordan are located in Amman including the The Children's Museum Jordan, The Martyr's Memorial and Museum and the Royal Automobile Museum. Museums outside Amman include the Aqaba Archaeological Museum. The Jordan National Gallery of Fine Arts is a major contemporary art museum located in Amman. \n\nSports\n\nFootball is the most popular sport in Jordan. The national football team has improved in recent years, though it has yet to qualify for the World Cup. In 2013, Jordan lost a chance to play at the 2014 World Cup when they lost to Uruguay during inter-confederation play-offs. This was the highest that Jordan had advanced in the World Cup qualifying rounds since 1986. The women's football team is also gaining reputation, and in March 2016 ranked 58th in the world. Jordan is hosting the 2016 FIFA U-17 Women's World Cup in September, the first women's sports tournament in the Middle East. \n\nLess common sports are gaining popularity. Rugby is increasing in popularity, a Rugby Union is recognized by the Jordan Olympic Committee which supervises three national teams. Although cycling is not widespread in Jordan, the sport is developing rapidly as a lifestyle and a new way to travel especially among the youth. In 2014, a NGO Make Life Skate Life completed construction of the 7Hills Skatepark, the first skatepark in the country located in Downtown Amman. Jordan's national basketball team is participating in various international and Middle Eastern tournaments. Local basketball teams include: Al-Orthodoxi Club, Al-Riyadi, Zain, Al-Hussein and Al-Jazeera. \n\nCuisine\n\nAs the 8th largest producer of olives in the world, olive oil is the main cooking oil in Jordan. A common appetizer is hummus, which is a puree of chick peas blended with tahini, lemon, and garlic. Ful Medames is another well-known appetiser. A typical worker's meal, it has since made its way to the tables of the upper class. A typical Jordanian meze often contains koubba maqliya, labaneh, baba ghanoush, tabbouleh, olives and pickles. Meze is generally accompanied by the Levantine alcoholic drink arak, which is made from grapes and aniseed and is similar to ouzo, rakı and pastis. Jordanian wine and beer are also sometimes used. The same dishes, served without alcoholic drinks, can also be termed \"muqabbilat\" (starters) in Arabic. \n\nThe most distinctive Jordanian dish is mansaf, the national dish of Jordan. The dish is a symbol for Jordanian hospitality and is influenced by the Bedouin culture. Mansaf is eaten on different occasions such as funerals, weddings and on religious holidays. It consists of a plate of rice with meat that was boiled in thick yogurt, sprayed with nuts and sometimes herbs. As an old tradition, the dish is eaten using one's hands, but the tradition is not always used. Simple fresh fruit is often served towards the end of a Jordanian meal, there is also dessert, such as baklava, hareeseh, knafeh, halva and qatayef, a dish made specially for Ramadan. In Jordanian cuisine, drinking coffee and tea flavored with na'na or meramiyyeh is almost a ritual. \n\nHealth and education\n\nLife expectancy in Jordan is around 74.35 years. The leading cause of death is cardiovascular diseases, followed by cancer. Childhood immunization rates have increased steadily over the past 15 years; by 2002 immunizations and vaccines reached more than 95% of children under five. Water and sanitation, available to only 10% of the population in 1950, now reach 98% of Jordanians. \n\nJordan prides itself on its health services, some of the best in the region. Qualified medics, favorable investment climate and Jordan's stability has contributed to the success of this sector. The country's health care system is divided between public and private institutions. On 1 June 2007, Jordan Hospital (as the biggest private hospital) was the first general specialty hospital to gain the international accreditation JCAHO. The King Hussein Cancer Center is a leading cancer treatment center. 66% of Jordanians have medical insurance.\n\nThe Jordanian educational system consists of a two-year cycle of pre-school education, ten years of compulsory basic education, and two years of secondary academic or vocational education, after which the students sit for the Tawjihi exams. 79% of children go through primary education, while secondary school enrollment has increased from 63% to 97% of high school aged students in Jordan. Between 79% and 85% of high school students in Jordan move on to higher education. According to the CIA World Factbook, the literacy rate in 2015 was 95.4%. UNESCO ranked Jordan's education system 18th out of 94 nations for providing gender equality in education. Education is not free in Jordan. \n\nJordan has 10 public universities, 16 private universities and 54 community colleges, of which 14 are public, 24 private and others affiliated with the Jordanian Armed Forces, the Civil Defense Department, the Ministry of Health and UNRWA. There are over 200,000 Jordanian students enrolled in universities each year. An additional 20,000 Jordanians pursue higher education abroad primarily in the United States and Europe. According to the Webometrics Ranking of World Universities, the top-ranking universities in the country are the University of Jordan (UJ) (1,010th worldwide), Jordan University of Science & Technology (JUST) (1,907th) and Yarmouk University (1,969th). UJ and JUST occupy 8th and 10th between Arab universities. Jordan has 2,000 researchers per million people, and as of 2015 was the third-most innovative economy in the Middle East, behind Lebanon and the United Arab Emirates." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Jordan (country)", "Al-Urdunn", "أردنّ", "JOrdan", "Urdun", "Hashemite Kingdom of Transjordan", "Urdunn", "The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan", "Administrative divisions of Jordan", "HKJ", "State of Jordan", "Jordan", "Jordanian Kingdom", "Languages of Jordan", "Hashemite Kingdom of the Jordan", "Jordanie", "Al-Mamlakah al", "Al-'Urdun", "Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan", "ISO 3166-1:JO", "الأردن", "Kingdom of the Jordan", "Ottoman Jordon", "Al-Urdun", "H.K of Jordan", "Etymology of Jordan", "المملكة الأردنّيّة الهاشميّة", "Kingdom of Jordan" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "urdunn", "kingdom of jordan", "al mamlakah al", "languages of jordan", "h k of jordan", "jordanian kingdom", "administrative divisions of jordan", "jordanie", "state of jordan", "الأردن", "hashemite kingdom of transjordan", "أردنّ", "المملكة الأردنّيّة الهاشميّة", "jordan country", "urdun", "ottoman jordon", "iso 3166 1 jo", "al urdun", "jordan", "al urdunn", "etymology of jordan", "hkj", "hashemite kingdom of jordan" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "hkj", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "HKJ" }
In which country was Julie Christie born?	tc_726	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Julie_Christie.txt" ], "title": [ "Julie Christie" ], "wiki_context": [ "Julie Frances Christie (born 14 April 1940)Although most sources cite 1941 as Christie's year of birth, she was in fact born in 1940 and baptised that year.First name(s) Julie FrancesLast name ChristieBaptism year:1940Birth year: 1940Place: DibrugarhPresidency BengalMother's first name(s)-Mother's last name-Father's first name(s)-Father's last name ChristieBaptism date: 1940Birth date: 1940Archive reference: N-1-606&607Folio: #93Catalogue descriptions: Parish register transcripts from the Presidency of BengalRecords: British India Office births & baptismsCategory: Birth, Marriage, Death & Parish RecordsRecord collection: Births & baptisms[http://search.findmypast.co.uk/record?idbl%2fbind%2fb%2f685327&refreshingcookie\ntrue Collections from Great Britain] is a British actress. A pop icon of the \"swinging London\" era of the 1960s, she has won the Academy, Golden Globe, BAFTA, and Screen Actors Guild Awards, and in 1997 she received the BAFTA Fellowship.\n\nChristie's breakthrough film role was in Billy Liar (1963). She came to international attention in 1965 for her performances in Darling, for which she won the Academy Award for Best Actress, and Doctor Zhivago, the eighth highest-grossing film of all time after adjustment for inflation. In the following years, she starred in Fahrenheit 451 (1966), Far from the Madding Crowd (1967), Petulia (1968), The Go-Between (1970), McCabe & Mrs. Miller (1971), for which she received her second Oscar nomination, Don't Look Now (1973), Shampoo (1975), and Heaven Can Wait (1978). Since the early 1980s, Christie reduced her appearances in mainstream films. She has continued to receive significant critical recognition for her work, including Oscar nominations for the independent films Afterglow (1997) and Away from Her (2007). \n\nEarly life\n\nChristie was born on 14 April 1940 at Singlijan Tea Estate, Chabua, Assam, British India, the elder child of Rosemary (née Ramsden), a painter, and Francis \"Frank\" St. John Christie.[http://www.dailymail.co.uk/femail/article-513285/The-secret-Indian-sister-haunts-actress-Julie-Christie.html \"The secret Indian sister who haunts actress Julie Christie\"], dailymail.co.uk, 11 February 2008. Her father ran the tea plantation where she was raised. She has a younger brother, Clive, and an older (now deceased) half-sister, June, from her father's relationship with an Indian woman, who worked as a tea picker on his plantation. Frank and Rosemary Christie separated when Julie was a child.\n\nShe was baptised in the Church of England and studied as a boarder at the independent Convent of Our Lady school in St. Leonards-on-Sea, East Sussex, after being expelled from another convent school for telling a risqué joke that reached a wider audience than originally anticipated. After being asked to leave the Convent of Our Lady as well, she later attended Wycombe Court School, High Wycombe, Buckinghamshire, during which time she lived with a foster mother from the age of six. \n\nAfter her parents' divorce, Christie spent time with her mother in rural Wales. As a teenager at the all-girls' Wycombe Court School, she played \"the Dauphin\" in a production of Shaw's Saint Joan. She later studied at the Central School of Speech and Drama. \n\nCareer\n\nChristie made her professional stage debut in 1957, and her first screen roles were on British television. Her big break came in the 1961 BBC serial A for Andromeda. She was a contender for the role of Honey Rider in the first James Bond film, Dr. No, but producer Albert R. Broccoli reportedly thought her breasts were too small. \n\nIn 1962, Christie appeared in feature films with co-starring roles in a pair of comedies for Independent Artists: Crooks Anonymous and The Fast Lady. Her breakthrough role, however, was as Liz, the friend and would-be lover of the eponymous character played by Tom Courtenay in Billy Liar (1963), which earned her a BAFTA Award nomination. The director, John Schlesinger, had cast Christie only after another actress dropped out of the film. \n\nLife magazine hailed 1965 as \"The Year of Julie Christie\" when the young actress became known internationally for her role as an amoral model in Darling, directed by Schlesinger. Christie, who had obtained the lead role after the casting of Shirley MacLaine fell through, won numerous accolades for her performance, including the Academy Award for Best Actress.\n\nChristie starred in two other films released in 1965, first appearing as Daisy Battles in Young Cassidy, a biopic of Irish playwright Seán O'Casey, co-directed by Jack Cardiff and (uncredited) John Ford. Her last film of the year was David Lean's Doctor Zhivago, adapted from the epic/romance novel by Boris Pasternak. The film was a box office smash, and Christie's role as Lara Antipova would become her most famous. As of 2016, Doctor Zhivago is the 8th highest-grossing film of all time, adjusted for inflation. \n\nIn 1966, Christie played a dual role in François Truffaut's adaptation of the Ray Bradbury novel Fahrenheit 451, where she starred opposite Oskar Werner. Later, she played Thomas Hardy's heroine Bathsheba Everdene in Schlesinger's Far from the Madding Crowd (1967), and the title role, Petulia Danner, in Richard Lester's Petulia (1968), opposite George C. Scott.\n\nChristie's persona as the \"swinging 60s British bird\" she had embodied in Billy Liar and Darling was further cemented by her appearance in the documentary Tonite Let's All Make Love in London. In 1967, Time magazine said of her: \"What Julie Christie wears has more real impact on fashion than all the clothes of the ten best-dressed women combined.\" \n\nIn 1971, Christie co-starred with Alan Bates in Joseph Losey's romantic drama The Go-Between, which won the Palme d'Or at the Cannes Film Festival. She earned a second Best Actress Oscar nomination the same year for her role as a brothel madame in Robert Altman's postmodern western McCabe & Mrs. Miller. The film marked the first of three collaborations between Christie and Warren Beatty, who described her as \"the most beautiful and at the same time the most nervous person I had ever known.\" The two had a high-profile but intermittent relationship between 1967 and 1974. After the relationship ended, they worked together again in the hit comedies Shampoo (1975) and Heaven Can Wait (1978). Her other films during the decade were Nicolas Roeg's controversial thriller Don't Look Now (1973), in which she had a graphic sex scene with Donald Sutherland, and the science-fiction/horror film Demon Seed (1977), based on the novel of the same name by Dean Koontz and directed by Donald Cammell.\n\nHaving moved to Los Angeles in 1967 (\"I was there because of a lot of American boyfriends\" ) Christie returned to the United Kingdom in 1977, where she lived on a farm in Wales. In 1979, she was a member of the jury at the 29th Berlin International Film Festival. Never a prolific actress, even at the height of her fame and bankability, Christie turned down many high-caliber film roles, including Anne of the Thousand Days, They Shoot Horses, Don't They?, Nicholas and Alexandra, and Reds, all of which earned Oscar nominations for the actresses who eventually played them. \n\nIn the 1980s, Christie appeared in non-mainstream films such as The Return of the Soldier (1982) and Heat and Dust (1983). She had a major supporting role in Sidney Lumet's Power (1986) alongside Richard Gere, Gene Hackman and Denzel Washington, but other than that, Christie avoided large budget films. In 1988, she starred in the television film Dadah Is Death, based on the Barlow and Chambers execution, as Barlow's mother Barbara, who desperately fought to save her son from being hanged for drug trafficking in Malaysia. \n\nIn 1996, after a somewhat lengthy absence from the screen, Christie co-starred in the fantasy adventure film DragonHeart, and appeared as Gertrude in Kenneth Branagh's Hamlet. Her next critically acclaimed role was the unhappy wife in Alan Rudolph's 1997 domestic comedy-drama Afterglow, which gained her a third Oscar nomination. Also in 1997, she received the British Academy's highest honour, the BAFTA Fellowship.\n\nIn 2004, Christie made a brief cameo appearance in the third Harry Potter film, Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban, playing Madam Rosmerta. That same year, she also appeared in two other high-profile films: Wolfgang Petersen's Troy and Marc Forster's Finding Neverland, playing the mother of Brad Pitt and Kate Winslet, respectively. The latter performance earned Christie a BAFTA nomination as supporting actress in film.\n\nChristie portrayed the female lead in Away from Her, a film about a long-married Canadian couple coping with the wife's Alzheimer's disease. Based on the Alice Munro short story \"The Bear Came Over the Mountain\", the movie was the first feature film directed by Christie's sometime co-star, Canadian actress Sarah Polley. She took the role, she says, only because Polley is her friend. Polley has said Christie liked the script but initially turned it down as she was ambivalent about acting. It took several months of persuasion by Polley before Christie finally accepted the role. \n\nIn July 2006 she was a member of the jury at the 28th Moscow International Film Festival. Debuting at the Toronto International Film Festival on 11 September 2006 as part of the TIFF's Gala showcase, Away from Her drew rave reviews from the trade press, including The Hollywood Reporter, and the four Toronto dailies. The critics singled out the performances of Christie and her co-star, Canadian actor Gordon Pinsent, and Polley's direction. Christie's performance generated Oscar buzz, leading the distributor, Lions Gate Entertainment, to buy the film at the festival to release the film in 2007 to build momentum during the awards season.\n\nOn 5 December 2007, she won the Best Actress Award from the National Board of Review for her performance in Away from Her. She also won the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress - Motion Picture Drama, the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Leading Role and the Genie Award for Best Actress for the same film. On 22 January 2008, Christie received her fourth Oscar nomination for Best Performance by an Actress in a Leading Role at the 80th Academy Awards. She appeared at the ceremony wearing a pin calling for the closure of the prison in Guantanamo Bay. \n\nIn 2008, Christie narrated Uncontacted Tribes, a short film for the British-based charity Survival International, featuring previously unseen footage of remote and endangered peoples. She has been a long-standing supporter of the charity, and in February 2008, was named as its first 'Ambassador'. She appeared in a segment of the 2008 film, New York, I Love You, written by Anthony Minghella, directed by Shekhar Kapur and co-starring Shia LaBeouf, as well as in Glorious 39, about a British family at the start of World War II. \n\nIn 2011, Christie played a \"sexy, bohemian\" version of the grandmother role in Catherine Hardwicke's gothic retelling of Red Riding Hood. Her most recent role was in the political thriller The Company You Keep (2012), where she co-starred with Robert Redford and Sam Elliot.\n\nPersonal life\n\nIn the early 1960s, Christie dated actor Terence Stamp. She was engaged to Don Bessant, a lithographer and art teacher, in 1965, before dating actor Warren Beatty for several years. She is married to The Guardian journalist Duncan Campbell; they have lived together since 1979, but the date they wed is disputed. In January 2008, several news outlets reported that the couple had quietly married in India two months earlier, in November 2007, which Christie called \"nonsense\", adding, \"I have been married for a few years. Don't believe what you read in the papers.\" \n\nIn the late 1960s, her advisers adopted a very complex scheme in an attempt to reduce her tax liability, giving rise to the leading case of Black Nominees Ltd v Nicol (Inspector of Taxes). The case was heard by Templeman J (who later became Lord Templeman), who gave judgment in favour of the Inland Revenue, ruling that the scheme was ineffective. \n\nShe is also active in various causes, including animal rights, environmental protection, and the anti-nuclear power movement and is also a Patron of the Palestine Solidarity Campaign, as well as Reprieve, and CFS/ME charity Action for ME. \n\nFilmography\n\nTheatre" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "ഭാരത മഹാരാജ്യം", "هندستانڀارت،", "भारतीय गणराज्याच्या", "Bhārtiya Prajāsattāk", "Indian Republic", "ভারতরাষ্টৃ", "Indian republic", "ಭಾರತ ಗಣರಾಜ್ಯ", "Union of India", "இந்தியக் குடியரசு", "भारतीय प्रजासत्ताक", "India (country)", "ISO 3166-1:IN", "Indea", "Etymology of India", "ভারত গণরাজ্য", "Republic Of India", "INDIA", "ભારતીય ગણતંત્ર", "ভারত", "Republic of India", "Les Indes", "Bhārat Gaṇarājya", "جمہوٗرِیت بًارت", "भारतमहाराज्यम्", "Indya", "Bharat Ganrajya", "جمہوریہ بھارت", "இந்திய", "ଭାରତ ଗଣରାଜ୍ଯ", "भारत गणराज्य", "Republic of india", "जुम्हूरियत भारत", "Hindio", "The Republic of India", "భారత గణతంత్ర రాజ్యము", "India's", "Hindistan", "ਭਾਰਤ ਗਣਤੰਤਰ", "Bhart", "India", "భారత రిపబ్లిక్", "India.", "ভাৰত গণৰাজ্য", "Indian State", "ISO 3166-1 alpha-3/IND", "ভারতীয় প্রজাতন্ত্র" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "భారత గణతంత్ర రాజ్యము", "భారత రిపబ్లిక్", "bhārtiya prajāsattāk", "republic of india", "ভারত", "hindio", "ਭਾਰਤ ਗਣਤੰਤਰ", "भारतीय प्रजासत्ताक", "ભારતીય ગણતંત્ર", "indea", "ভারত গণরাজ্য", "இந்தியக் குடியரசு", "india country", "les indes", "هندستانڀارت،", "etymology of india", "भारतमहाराज्यम्", "india", "جمہوٗرِیت بًارت", "भारतीय गणराज्याच्या", "ভারতরাষ্টৃ", "india s", "ভারতীয় প্রজাতন্ত্র", "ഭാരത മഹാരാജ്യം", "bhārat gaṇarājya", "ভাৰত গণৰাজ্য", "ଭାରତ ଗଣରାଜ୍ଯ", "இந்திய", "जुम्हूरियत भारत", "union of india", "hindistan", "indya", "bhart", "iso 3166 1 in", "bharat ganrajya", "भारत गणराज्य", "indian republic", "ಭಾರತ ಗಣರಾಜ್ಯ", "indian state", "جمہوریہ بھارت", "iso 3166 1 alpha 3 ind" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "india", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "India" }

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