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What is the capital of Kenya?	tc_230	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "Search" ], "filename": [ "Kenya.txt", "Nairobi.txt" ], "title": [ "Kenya", "Nairobi" ], "wiki_context": [ "Kenya (;), officially the Republic of Kenya, is a country in Africa and a founding member of the East African Community (EAC). Its capital and largest city is Nairobi. Kenya's territory lies on the equator and overlies the East African Rift covering a diverse and expansive terrain that extends roughly from Lake Victoria to Lake Turkana (formerly called Lake Rudolf) and further south-east to the Indian Ocean. It is bordered by Tanzania to the south, Uganda to the west, South Sudan to the north-west, Ethiopia to the north and Somalia to the north-east. Kenya covers , and had a population of approximately 45 million people in July 2014.\n\nKenya has a warm and humid tropical climate on its Indian Ocean coastline. The climate is cooler in the savannah grasslands around the capital city, Nairobi, and especially closer to Mount Kenya, which has snow permanently on its peaks. Further inland, in the Nyanza region, there is a hot and dry climate which becomes humid around Lake Victoria, the largest tropical fresh-water lake in the world. This gives way to temperate and forested hilly areas in the neighbouring western region. The north-eastern regions along the border with Somalia and Ethiopia are arid and semi-arid areas with near-desert landscapes. Kenya is known for its safaris, diverse climate and geography, and expansive wildlife reserves and national parks such as the East and West Tsavo National Park, the Maasai Mara, Lake Nakuru National Park, and Aberdares National Park. Kenya has several world heritage sites such as Lamu and numerous beaches, including in Diani, Bamburi and Kilifi, where international yachting competitions are held every year.\n\nThe African Great Lakes region, which Kenya is a part of, has been inhabited by humans since the Lower Paleolithic period. By the first millennium AD, the Bantu expansion had reached the area from West-Central Africa. The borders of the modern state consequently comprise the crossroads of the Niger-Congo, Nilo-Saharan and Afroasiatic areas of the continent, representing most major ethnolinguistic groups found in Africa. Bantu and Nilotic populations together constitute around 97% of the nation's residents. European and Arab presence in coastal Mombasa dates to the Early Modern period; European exploration of the interior began in the 19th century. The British Empire established the East Africa Protectorate in 1895, which starting in 1920 gave way to the Kenya Colony. Kenya obtained independence in December 1963. Following a referendum in August 2010 and adoption of a new constitution, Kenya is now divided into 47 semi-autonomous counties, governed by elected governors.\n\nThe capital, Nairobi, is a regional commercial hub. The economy of Kenya is the largest by GDP in East and Central Africa. Agriculture is a major employer; the country traditionally exports tea and coffee and has more recently begun to export fresh flowers to Europe. The service industry is also a major economic driver. Additionally, Kenya is a member of the East African Community trading bloc.\n\nEtymology\n\nThe Republic of Kenya is named after Mount Kenya. The origin of the name Kenya is not clear, but perhaps linked to the Kikuyu, Embu and Kamba words Kirinyaga, Kirenyaa, and Kiinyaa which mean \"God's resting place\" in all three languages. If so, then the British may not so much have mispronounced it ('Keenya'), as misspelled it. Prehistoric volcanic eruptions of Mount Kenya (now extinct) may have resulted in its association with divinity and creation among the indigenous Bantu ethnic groups, who are the native inhabitants of the agricultural land surrounding Mount Kenya.\n\nIn the 19th century, the German explorer Johann Ludwig Krapf was staying with the Bantu Kamba people when he first spotted the mountain. On asking for the name of the mountain, he was told \"Kĩ-Nyaa\" or \"Kĩĩma- Kĩĩnyaa\" probably because the pattern of black rock and white snow on its peaks reminded them of the feathers of the cock ostrich. The Agikuyu, who inhabit the slopes of Mt. Kenya, call it Kĩrĩma Kĩrĩnyaga in Kikuyu, which is quite similar to the Kamba name.\n\nLudwig Krapf recorded the name as both Kenia and Kegnia believed by most to be a corruption of the Kamba version. Others say that this was—on the contrary—a very precise notation of a correct African pronunciation. An 1882 map drawn by Joseph Thompsons, a Scottish geologist and naturalist, indicated Mt. Kenya as Mt. Kenia, 1862. Controversy over the actual meaning of the word Kenya notwithstanding, it is clear that the mountain's name became widely accepted, pars pro toto, as the name of the country.\n\nHistory\n\nPrehistory\n\nFossils found in Kenya suggest that primates roamed the area more than 20 million years ago. Recent findings near Lake Turkana indicate that hominids such as Homo habilis (1.8 and 2.5 million years ago) and Homo erectus (1.8 million to 350,000 years ago) are possible direct ancestors of modern Homo sapiens, and lived in Kenya in the Pleistocene epoch.\n\nDuring excavations at Lake Turkana in 1984, paleoanthropologist Richard Leakey assisted by Kamoya Kimeu discovered the Turkana Boy, a 1.6-million-year-old fossil belonging to Homo erectus. Previous research on early hominids is particularly identified with Mary Leakey and Louis Leakey, who were responsible for the preliminary archaeological research at Olorgesailie and Hyrax Hill. Later work at the former site was undertaken by Glynn Isaac. \n\nNeolithic\n\nThe first inhabitants of present-day Kenya were hunter-gatherer groups, akin to the modern Khoisan speakers. These people were later replaced by agropastoralist Cushitic speakers from the Horn of Africa. During the early Holocene, the regional climate shifted from dry to wetter climatic conditions, providing an opportunity for the development of cultural traditions, such as agriculture and herding, in a more favourable environment.\n\nAround 500 BC, Nilotic-speaking pastoralists (ancestral to Kenya's Nilotic speakers) started migrating from present-day Southern Sudan into Kenya. Nilotic groups in Kenya include the Samburu, Luo, Turkana, Maasai. \n\nBy the first millennium AD, Bantu-speaking farmers had moved into the region. The Bantus originated in West Africa along the Benue River in what is now eastern Nigeria and western Cameroon. The Bantu migration brought new developments in agriculture and iron working to the region. Bantu groups in Kenya include the Kikuyu, Luhya, Kamba, Kisii, Meru, Aembu, Ambeere, Wadawida-Watuweta, Wapokomo and Mijikenda among others.\n\nRemarkable prehistoric sites in the interior of Kenya include the archaeoastronomical site Namoratunga on the west side of Lake Turkana and the walled settlement of ThimLich Ohinga in Migori County.\n\nSwahili culture and trade (1st century–19th century)\n\nThe Kenyan coast had served host to communities of ironworkers and communities of Bantu subsistence farmers, hunters and fishers who supported the economy with agriculture, fishing, metal production and trade with foreign countries. These communities formed the earliest city states in the region which were collectively known as Azania. \n\nBy the 1st century CE, many of the city-states such as Mombasa, Malindi, and Zanzibar began to establish trade relations with Arabs. This led to the increase economic growth of the Swahili states, introduction of Islam, Arabic influences on the Swahili Bantu language, cultural diffusion, as well as the Swahili city-states becoming a member of a larger trade network. Many historians had long believed that the city states were established by Arab or Persian traders, but scholars now recognize the city states were an indigenous development where the apex of their development was around the 8th Century CE. \n\nThe Kilwa Sultanate was a medieval sultanate, centred at Kilwa in modern-day Tanzania. At its height, its authority stretched over the entire length of the Swahili Coast, including Kenya. It was said to be founded in the 10th century by Ali ibn al-Hassan Shirazi, a Persian Sultan from Shiraz in southern Iran. The subsequent Swahili rulers would go on to build elaborate coral mosques and introduce copper coinage. \n\nThe Swahili built Mombasa into a major port city and established trade links with other nearby city-states, as well as commercial centres in Persia, Arabia, and even India. By the 15th-century, Portuguese voyager Duarte Barbosa claimed that \"Mombasa is a place of great traffic and has a good harbour in which there are always moored small craft of many kinds and also great ships, both of which are bound from Sofala and others which come from Cambay and Melinde and others which sail to the island of Zanzibar.\" \n\nLater on in the 17th century, once the Swahili coast was conquered and came under direct rule of Omani Arabs, the slave trade was expanded by the Omani Arabs to meet the demands of plantations in Oman and Zanzibar. Initially these traders came mainly from Oman, but later many came from Zanzibar (such as Tippu Tip). In addition, the Portuguese started buying slaves from the Omani and Zanzibari traders in response to the interruption of the transatlantic slave trade by British abolitionists.\n\nSwahili, a Bantu language with Arabic, Persian, and other Middle Eastern and South Asian loanwords, later developed as a lingua franca for trade between the different peoples. Swahili now also has loan words from English.\n\nThroughout the centuries, the Kenyan Coast has played host to many merchants and explorers. Among the cities that line the Kenyan coast is the City of Malindi. It has remained an important Swahili settlement since the 14th century and once rivalled Mombasa for dominance in the African Great Lakes region. Malindi has traditionally been a friendly port city for foreign powers. In 1414, the Chinese trader and explorer Zheng He representing the Ming Dynasty visited the East African coast on one of his last 'treasure voyages'. Malindi authorities welcomed the Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama in 1498.\n\nBritish Kenya (1888–1962)\n\nThe colonial history of Kenya dates from the establishment of a German protectorate over the Sultan of Zanzibar's coastal possessions in 1885, followed by the arrival of the Imperial British East Africa Company in 1888. Incipient imperial rivalry was forestalled when Germany handed its coastal holdings to Britain in 1890. This was followed by the building of the Kenya–Uganda railway passing through the country. \n\nThis was resisted by some ethnic groups—notably the Nandi led by Orkoiyot Koitalel Arap Samoei for ten years from 1890 to 1900—however the British eventually built the railway. The Nandi were the first ethnic group to be put in a native reserve to stop them from disrupting the building of the railway. In 1920, the East Africa Protectorate was turned into a colony and renamed Kenya for its highest mountain.\n\nDuring the railway construction era, there was a significant inflow of Indian people, who provided the bulk of the skilled manpower required for construction. They and most of their descendants later remained in Kenya and formed the core of several distinct Indian communities such as the Ismaili Muslim and Sikh communities. \n\nWhile building the railway through Tsavo, a number of the Indian railway workers and local African labourers were attacked by two lions known as the Tsavo maneaters. \n\nAt the outbreak of World War I in August 1914, the governors of British East Africa (as the protectorate was generally known) and German East Africa agreed a truce in an attempt to keep the young colonies out of direct hostilities. Lt. Col. Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck took command of the German military forces, determined to tie down as many British resources as possible. Completely cut off from Germany, von Lettow conducted an effective guerrilla warfare campaign, living off the land, capturing British supplies, and remaining undefeated. He eventually surrendered in Northern Rhodesia (today Zambia) fourteen days after the Armistice was signed in 1918.\n\nTo chase von Lettow, the British deployed the British Indian Army troops from India but needed large numbers of porters to overcome the formidable logistics of transporting supplies far into the interior on foot. The Carrier Corps was formed and ultimately mobilised over 400,000 Africans, contributing to their long-term politicisation.\n\nDuring the early part of the 20th century, the interior central highlands were settled by British and other European farmers, who became wealthy farming coffee and tea. (One depiction of this period of change from one colonist's perspective is found in the memoir Out of Africa by Danish author Baroness Karen von Blixen-Finecke, published in 1937.) By the 1930s, approximately 30,000 white settlers lived in the area and gained a political voice because of their contribution to the market economy.\n\nThe central highlands were already home to over a million members of the Kikuyu people, most of whom had no land claims in European terms and lived as itinerant farmers. To protect their interests, the settlers banned the growing of coffee, introduced a hut tax, and the landless were granted less and less land in exchange for their labour. A massive exodus to the cities ensued as their ability to provide a living from the land dwindled. There were 80,000 white settlers living in Kenya in the 1950s. \n\nIn 1952, Princess Elizabeth and her husband Prince Philip were on holiday at the Treetops Hotel in Kenya when her father, King George VI, died in his sleep. The young princess cut short her trip and returned home immediately to take her throne. She was crowned Queen Elizabeth II at Westminster Abbey in 1953 and as British hunter and conservationist Jim Corbett (who accompanied the royal couple) put it, she went up a tree in Africa a princess and came down a queen. \n\nMau Mau Uprising (1952–1959)\n\nFrom October 1952 to December 1959, Kenya was in a state of emergency arising from the Mau Mau rebellion against British rule. The governor requested and obtained British and African troops, including the King's African Rifles. The British began counter-insurgency operations. In the May of 1953, General Sir George Erskine took charge as commander-in-chief of the colony's armed forces, with the personal backing of Winston Churchill. \n\nThe capture of Warũhiũ Itote (aka General China) on 15 January 1954 and the subsequent interrogation led to a better understanding of the Mau Mau command structure. Operation Anvil opened on 24 April 1954, after weeks of planning by the army with the approval of the War Council. The operation effectively placed Nairobi under military siege. Nairobi's occupants were screened and the Mau Mau supporters moved to detention camps. The Home Guard formed the core of the government's strategy as it was composed of loyalist Africans, not foreign forces such as the British Army and King's African Rifles. By the end of the emergency, the Home Guard had killed 4,686 Mau Mau, amounting to 42% of the total insurgents. The capture of Dedan Kimathi on 21 October 1956 in Nyeri signified the ultimate defeat of the Mau Mau and essentially ended the military offensive. During this period, substantial governmental changes to land tenure occurred. The most important of these was the Swynnerton Plan, which was used to both reward loyalists and punish Mau Mau.\n\nIndependent Kenya (1963)\n\nThe first direct elections for native Kenyans to the Legislative Council took place in 1957. Despite British hopes of handing power to \"moderate\" local rivals, it was the Kenya African National Union (KANU) of Jomo Kenyatta that formed a government. The Colony of Kenya and the Protectorate of Kenya each came to an end on 12 December 1963 with independence being conferred on all of Kenya. The United Kingdom ceded sovereignty over the Colony of Kenya. The Sultan of Zanzibar agreed that simultaneous with independence for the Colony of Kenya, the Sultan would cease to have sovereignty over the Protectorate of Kenya so that all of Kenya would be one sovereign, independent state. In this way, Kenya became an independent country under the Kenya Independence Act 1963 of the United Kingdom. Exactly 12 months later on 12 December 1964, Kenya became a republic under the name \"Republic of Kenya\".\n\nConcurrently, the Kenyan army fought the Shifta War against ethnic Somali rebels inhabiting the Northern Frontier District, who wanted to join their kin in the Somali Republic to the north. A cease fire was eventually reached with the signature of the Arusha Memorandum in October 1967, but relative insecurity prevailed through 1969. To discourage further invasions, Kenya signed a defence pact with Ethiopia in 1969, which is still in effect. \n\nOn 12 December 1964 the Republic of Kenya was proclaimed, and Jomo Kenyatta became Kenya's first president. \n\nMoi era (1978–2002)\n\nAt Kenyatta's death in 1978, Daniel arap Moi became President. Daniel arap Moi retained the Presidency, being unopposed in elections held in 1979, 1983 (snap elections) and 1988, all of which were held under the single party constitution. The 1983 elections were held a year early, and were a direct result of an abortive military coup attempt on 2 August 1982.\n\nThe abortive coup was masterminded by a low ranked Air Force serviceman, Senior Private Hezekiah Ochuka, and was staged mainly by enlisted men in the Air Force. The putsch was quickly suppressed by forces commanded by Chief of General Staff Mahamoud Mohamed, a veteran Somali military official. They included the General Service Unit (GSU)—a paramilitary wing of the police—and later the regular police.\n\nOn the heels of the Garissa Massacre of 1980, Kenyan troops committed the Wagalla massacre in 1984 against thousands of civilians in Wajir County. An official probe into the atrocities was later ordered in 2011. \n\nThe election held in 1988 saw the advent of the mlolongo (queuing) system, where voters were supposed to line up behind their favoured candidates instead of a secret ballot. This was seen as the climax of a very undemocratic regime and it led to widespread agitation for constitutional reform. Several contentious clauses, including one that allowed for only one political party were changed in the following years. In democratic, multiparty elections in 1992 and 1997, Daniel arap Moi won re-election. \n\n2000s\n\nIn 2002, Moi was constitutionally barred from running, and Mwai Kibaki, running for the opposition coalition \"National Rainbow Coalition\" (NARC), was elected President. Anderson (2003) reports the elections were judged free and fair by local and international observers, and seemed to mark a turning point in Kenya's democratic evolution.\n\nIn 2005, Kenyans rejected a plan to replace the 1963 independence constitution with a new one. \n\nIn mid-2011, two consecutive missed rainy seasons precipitated the worst drought in East Africa seen in 60 years. The northwestern Turkana region was especially affected, with local schools shut down as a result. The crisis was reportedly over by early 2012 because of coordinated relief efforts. Aid agencies subsequently shifted their emphasis to recovery initiatives, including digging irrigation canals and distributing plant seeds. \n\nGeography and climate\n\nAt 580367 km2, Kenya is the world's forty-seventh largest country (after Madagascar). It lies between latitudes 5°N and 5°S, and longitudes 34° and 42°E. From the coast on the Indian Ocean, the low plains rise to central highlands. The highlands are bisected by the Great Rift Valley, with a fertile plateau lying to the east.\n\nThe Kenyan Highlands comprise one of the most successful agricultural production regions in Africa. The highlands are the site of the highest point in Kenya and the second highest peak on the continent: Mount Kenya, which reaches 5199 m and is the site of glaciers. Mount Kilimanjaro (5895 m) can be seen from Kenya to the south of the Tanzanian border.\n\nClimate\n\nKenya's climate varies from tropical along the coast to temperate inland to arid in the north and northeast parts of the country. The area receives a great deal of sunshine every month, and summer clothes are worn throughout the year. It is usually cool at night and early in the morning inland at higher elevations.\n\nThe \"long rains\" season occurs from March/April to May/June. The \"short rains\" season occurs from October to November/December. The rainfall is sometimes heavy and often falls in the afternoons and evenings. The temperature remains high throughout these months of tropical rain. The hottest period is February and March, leading into the season of the long rains, and the coldest is in July, until mid August.\n\nWildlife\n\nKenya has considerable land area devoted to wildlife habitats, including the Masai Mara, where blue wildebeest and other bovids participate in a large scale annual migration. More than 1 million wildebeest and 200,000 zebras participate in the migration across the Mara River. \n\nThe \"Big Five\" game animals of Africa, that is the lion, leopard, buffalo, rhinoceros, and elephant, can be found in Kenya and in the Masai Mara in particular. A significant population of other wild animals, reptiles and birds can be found in the national parks and game reserves in the country. The annual animal migration occurs between June and September with millions of animals taking part, attracting valuable foreign tourism. Two million wildebeest migrate a distance of 2900 km from the Serengeti in neighbouring Tanzania to the Masai Mara in Kenya, in a constant clockwise fashion, searching for food and water supplies. This Serengeti Migration of the wildebeest is a curious spectacle listed among the Seven Natural Wonders of Africa.\n\nGovernment and politics\n\n \n\nKenya is a presidential representative democratic republic. The President is both the head of state and head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the National Assembly and the Senate. The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. There was growing concern especially during former president Daniel arap Moi's tenure that the executive was increasingly meddling with the affairs of the judiciary. \n\nKenya ranks low on Transparency International's Corruption Perception Index (CPI), a metric which attempts to gauge the prevalence of public sector corruption in various countries. In 2012, the nation placed 139th out of 176 total countries in the CPI, with a score of 27/100. However, there are several rather significant developments with regards to curbing corruption from the Kenyan government, for instance, the establishment of a new and independent Ethics and Anti-Corruption Commission (EACC). \n\nFollowing general elections held in 1997, the Constitution of Kenya Review Act designed to pave the way for more comprehensive amendments to the Kenyan constitution was passed by the national parliament. \n\nIn December 2002, Kenyans held democratic and open elections, most of which were judged free and fair by international observers. The 2002 elections marked an important turning point in Kenya's democratic evolution in that power was transferred peacefully from the Kenya African National Union (KANU), which had ruled the country since independence to the National Rainbow Coalition (NARC), a coalition of political parties.\n\nUnder the presidency of Mwai Kibaki, the new ruling coalition promised to focus its efforts on generating economic growth, combating corruption, improving education, and rewriting its constitution. A few of these promises have been met. There is free primary education. In 2007, the government issued a statement declaring that from 2008, secondary education would be heavily subsidised, with the government footing all tuition fees. \n\n2007 elections\n\nThe 2007 Kenyan general election was held on 27 December 2007. It comprised presidential, parliamentary and civic elections.\n\nThe parliamentary elections were considered to be free and generally fair (as opposed to the contested presidential elections). They were remarkable for a number of changes. Amongst these were:\n* Out of 190 outgoing MPs defending their seats only 71 were re-elected.\n* 20 ministers defending their seats were defeated\n* KANU the official opposition party of 2002 which later joined the government was reduced from 62 to 14 seats.\n* 15 female candidates were elected which is the highest number ever in Kenyan history (2002: 9)\nCampaign issues included:\n* Appropriations of Constituency Development Fund (CDF) money\n* MP's salary hikes\n* Legislation passed / not passed in the 9th Parliament\n* Changing the constitution.\n\nIn the presidential elections, President Kibaki under the Party of National Unity ran for re-election against the main opposition party, the Orange Democratic Movement (ODM). The elections were seen to have been flawed with international observers saying that they were below international standards. After a split which took a crucial 8% of the votes away from the ODM to the newly formed Orange Democratic Movement-Kenya (ODM-K)'s candidate, Kalonzo Musyoka, the race tightened between ODM candidate Raila Odinga and Kibaki. As the count came into the Electoral Commission of Kenya (ECK) headquarters, Odinga was shown to have a slight, and then substantial lead as the results from his strongholds came in early. As the ECK continued to count the votes, Kibaki closed the gap and then overtook his opponent by a substantial margin after votes from his stronghold arrived later. This led to protests and open discrediting of the ECK for complicity and to Odinga declaring himself the \"people's president\" and calling for a recount. \n\nThe protests escalated into ethnic violence and destruction of property; almost 1,000 people were killed and nearly 600,000 displaced. Samir Elhawary (2008) [http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/details.asp?id\n1522&titlecrisis-kenya-land-displacement Crisis in Kenya: land, displacement and the search for 'durable solutions'] Overseas Development Institute The dispute caused underlying tensions over land and its distribution to re-erupt, as it had in the 1992 and 1997 elections. Hundreds of thousands were forced off their land to relatives elsewhere in the country and some claim weapons are being bought in the region, perhaps in anticipation of the 2013 elections.\n\nA group of eminent persons of Africa, led by former United Nations secretary-general Kofi Annan, brokered a peaceful solution to the political stalemate.\n\nSince the election riots, the government and civil society organisations started programmes to avoid similar disasters in the future, said Agnes R. M. Aboum – executive director of TAABCO Research and Development Consultants in Nairobi – in the magazine [http://www.dandc.eu/articles/220704/index.en.shtml D+C Development and Cooperation]. For example, the Truth, Justice and Reconciliation Commission initiated community dialogues, the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Kenya started peace meetings and the Kenya National Dialogue and Reconciliation process was started.\n\n2008\n\nOn 28 February 2008, Kibaki and Odinga signed an agreement on the formation of a coalition government in which Odinga would become Kenya's second prime minister. Under the deal, the president would appoint cabinet ministers from both PNU and ODM camps depending on each party's strength in Parliament. The agreement stipulated that the cabinet would include a vice-president and two deputy prime ministers. After debates, it was passed by parliament; the coalition would hold until the end of the current parliament or if either of the parties withdraws from the deal before then. \n\nThe new office of the PM will have power and authority to co-ordinate and supervise the functions of the government and will be occupied by an elected MP who will be the leader of the party or coalition with majority members in Parliament. The world watched Annan and his UN-backed panel and African Union chairman Jakaya Kikwete as they brought together the former rivals to the signing ceremony, beamed live on national TV from the steps of Nairobi's Harambee House. On 29 February 2008, representatives of PNU and ODM began working on the finer details of the power-sharing agreement. Kenyan lawmakers unanimously approved a power-sharing deal 18 March 2008, aimed at salvaging a country usually seen as one of the most stable and prosperous in Africa. The deal brought Kibaki's PNU and Odinga's ODM together and heralded the formation of the grand coalition, in which the two political parties would share power equally. \n\nGrand coalition\n\nOn 13 April 2008, President Kibaki named a grand coalition cabinet of 41 Ministers- including the prime minister and his two deputies. The cabinet, which included 50 Assistant Ministers, was sworn in at the State House in Nairobi on Thursday, 17 April 2008, in the presence of Dr. Kofi Annan and other invited dignitaries.\n\nA constitutional change was considered that would eliminate the position of prime minister and simultaneously reduce the powers of the president. A referendum to vote on the proposed constitution was held on 4 August 2010, and the new constitution passed by a wide margin. Among other things, the new constitution delegates more power to local governments and gives Kenyans a bill of rights. It was promulgated on 27 August 2010 at a euphoric ceremony in Nairobi's Uhuru Park, accompanied by a 21-gun salute. The event was attended by various African leaders and praised by the international community. As of that day, the new constitution heralding the Second Republic came into force. \n\n2013 elections and new government\n\nUnder the new constitution and with President Kibaki prohibited by term limits from running for a third term, Deputy Prime Minister Uhuru Kenyatta ran for office. He won with 50.51% of the vote in March 2013.\n\nIn December 2014, President Uhuru Kenyatta signed a Security Laws Amendment Bill, which supporters of the law suggested was necessary to guard against armed groups. Opposition politicians, human rights groups, and nine Western countries criticised the security bill, arguing that it infringed on democratic freedoms. The governments of the United States, the United Kingdom, Germany, and France also collectively issued a press statement cautioning about the law's potential impact. Through the Jubilee Coalition, the Bill was later passed on 19 December in the National Assembly under acrimonious circumstances. \n\nForeign relations\n\nKenya has close ties with its fellow Swahili-speaking neighbours in the African Great Lakes region. Relations with Uganda and Tanzania are generally strong, as the three nations work toward economic and social integration through common membership in the East African Community.\n\nRelations with Somalia have historically been tense, although there has been some military co-ordination against Islamist insurgents. Kenya has good relations with the United Kingdom. Kenya is one of the most pro-American nations in Africa, and the wider world. \n\nWith International Criminal Court trial dates scheduled in 2013 for both President Kenyatta and Deputy President William Ruto related to the 2007 election aftermath, US President Barack Obama chose not to visit the country during his mid-2013 African trip. Later in the summer, Kenyatta visited China at the invitation of President Xi Jinping after a stop in Russia and not having visited the United States as president.Raghavan, Sudarsan, [http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/in-snub-to-washington-kenyan-president-visits-china-russia-in-first-official-visit-outside-africa/2013/08/17/baaed162-06a4-11e3-bfc5-406b928603b2_story.html \"In snub to Washington, Kenyan president visits China, Russia first\"], Washington Post, 17 August 2013. Ambassador Liu's comments at capitalfm.co.ke linked to here [http://www.capitalfm.co.ke/eblog/2013/08/16/kenya-and-china-achieving-shared-dreams-hand-in-hand/]. Retrieved 18 August 2013. In July 2015 Obama visited Kenya, the first American president to visit the country while in office. \n\nArmed forces\n\nThe Kenya Defence Forces are the armed forces of the Republic of Kenya. The Kenya Army, Kenya Navy and Kenya Air Force comprise the National Defence Forces. The current Kenya Defence Forces were established, and its composition laid out, in Article 241 of the 2010 Constitution of Kenya; the KDF is governed by the Kenya Defence Forces Act of 2012. The President of Kenya is the commander-in-chief of all the armed forces.\n\nThe armed forces are regularly deployed in peacekeeping missions around the world. Further, in the aftermath of the national elections of December 2007 and the violence that subsequently engulfed the country, a commission of inquiry, the Waki Commission, commended its readiness and adjudged it to \"have performed its duty well.\" Nevertheless, there have been serious allegations of human rights violations, most recently while conducting counter-insurgency operations in the Mt Elgon area and also in the district of Mandera central. \n\nKenya's armed forces, like many government institutions in the country, have been tainted by corruption allegations. Because the operations of the armed forces have been traditionally cloaked by the ubiquitous blanket of \"state security\", the corruption has been hidden from public view, and thus less subject to public scrutiny and notoriety. This has changed recently. In what are by Kenyan standards unprecedented revelations, in 2010, credible claims of corruption were made with regard to recruitment and procurement of Armoured Personnel Carriers. Further, the wisdom and prudence of certain decisions of procurement have been publicly questioned. \n\nAdministrative divisions\n \n\nKenya is divided into 47 semi-autonomous counties that are headed by governors. These 47 counties now form the first-order divisions of Kenya.\n\nThe smallest administrative units in Kenya are called locations. Locations often coincide with electoral wards. Locations are usually named after their central villages/towns. Many larger towns consist of several locations. Each location has a chief, appointed by the state.\n\nConstituencies are an electoral subdivision, with each county comprising a whole number of constituencies. An Interim Boundaries commission was formed in year 2010 to review the constituencies and in its report, it recommended creation of an additional 80 constituencies. Previous to the 2013 elections, there were 210 constituencies in Kenya. \n\nEconomy\n\nAlthough Kenya is the biggest and most advanced economy in east and central Africa, and has an affluent urban minority, it has a Human Development Index (HDI) of 0.519, ranked 145 out of 186 in the world. , 17.7% of Kenyans lived on less than $1.25 a day. A third of people's income goes towards paying bribes which averages sixteen bribes a month per Kenyan. The important agricultural sector is one of the least developed and largely inefficient, employing 75% of the workforce compared to less than 3% in the food secure developed countries. Kenya is usually classified as a frontier market or occasionally an emerging market, but it is not one of the least developed countries.\n\nThe economy has seen much expansion, seen by strong performance in tourism, higher education and telecommunications, and acceptable post-drought results in agriculture, especially the vital tea sector. Kenya's economy grew by more than 7% in 2007, and its foreign debt was greatly reduced. But this changed immediately after the disputed presidential election of December 2007, following the chaos which engulfed the country.\n\nEast and Central Africa's biggest economy has posted tremendous growth in the service sector, boosted by rapid expansion in telecommunication and financial activity over the last decade, and now contributes 62% of GDP. 22% of GDP still comes from the unreliable agricultural sector which employs 75% of the labour force (a consistent characteristic of under-developed economies that have not attained food security—an important catalyst of economic growth) A small portion of the population relies on food aid. Industry and manufacturing is the smallest sector, accounting for 16% of GDP. The service, industry and manufacturing sectors only employ 25% of the labour force but contribute 75% of GDP. \n\nPrivatisation of state corporations like the defunct Kenya Post and Telecommunications Company, which resulted in East Africa's most profitable company—Safaricom, has led to their revival because of massive private investment.\n\nAs of May 2011, economic prospects are positive with 4–5% GDP growth expected, largely because of expansions in tourism, telecommunications, transport, construction and a recovery in agriculture. The World Bank estimated growth of 4.3% in 2012.\n\nIn March 1996, the presidents of Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda re-established the East African Community (EAC). The EAC's objectives include harmonising tariffs and customs regimes, free movement of people, and improving regional infrastructures. In March 2004, the three East African countries signed a Customs Union Agreement.\n\nKenya is East and Central Africa's hub for financial services. The Nairobi Securities Exchange (NSE) is ranked 4th in Africa in terms of market capitalisation. The Kenyan banking system is supervised by the Central Bank of Kenya (CBK). As of late July 2004, the system consisted of 43 commercial banks (down from 48 in 2001), several non-bank financial institutions, including mortgage companies, four savings and loan associations, and several core foreign-exchange bureaus.\n\nTourism\n\nKenya's services sector, which contributes 61% of GDP, is dominated by tourism. The tourism sector has exhibited steady growth in most years since independence and by the late 1980s had become the country's principal source of foreign exchange. Tourists, the largest number being from Germany and the United Kingdom, are attracted mainly to the coastal beaches and the game reserves, notably, the expansive East and Tsavo West National Park 20808 km2 in the southeast.\n\nTourism has seen a substantial revival over the past several years and is the major contributor to the pick-up in the country's economic growth. Tourism is now Kenya's largest foreign exchange earning sector, followed by flowers, tea, and coffee. In 2006 tourism generated US$803 million, up from US$699 million the previous year. Presently, there are also numerous shopping malls in Kenya. In addition, there are four main hypermarket chains in Kenya.\n\nAgriculture\n\nAgriculture is the second largest contributor to Kenya's gross domestic product (GDP), after the service sector. In 2005 agriculture, including forestry and fishing, accounted for 24% of GDP, as well as for 18% of wage employment and 50% of revenue from exports. The principal cash crops are tea, horticultural produce, and coffee. Horticultural produce and tea are the main growth sectors and the two most valuable of all of Kenya's exports. The production of major food staples such as corn is subject to sharp weather-related fluctuations. Production downturns periodically necessitate food aid—for example, in 2004 aid for 1.8 million people because of one of Kenya's intermittent droughts.\n\nA consortium led by the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) has had some success in helping farmers grow new pigeon pea varieties, instead of maize, in particularly dry areas. Pigeon peas are very drought resistant, so can be grown in areas with less than 650 mm annual rainfall. Successive projects encouraged the commercialisation of legumes, by stimulating the growth of local seed production and agro-dealer networks for distribution and marketing. This work, which included linking producers to wholesalers, helped to increase local producer prices by 20–25% in Nairobi and Mombasa. The commercialisation of the pigeon pea is now enabling some farmers to buy assets, ranging from mobile phones to productive land and livestock, and is opening pathways for them to move out of poverty. \n\nTea, coffee, sisal, pyrethrum, corn, and wheat are grown in the fertile highlands, one of the most successful agricultural production regions in Africa. Livestock predominates in the semi-arid savanna to the north and east. Coconuts, pineapples, cashew nuts, cotton, sugarcane, sisal, and corn are grown in the lower-lying areas. Kenya has not attained the level of investment and efficiency in agriculture that can guarantee food security and coupled with resulting poverty (53% of the population lives below the poverty line), a significant portion of the population regularly starves and is heavily dependent on food aid. Poor roads, an inadequate railway network, under-used water transport and expensive air transport have isolated mostly arid and semi-arid areas and farmers in other regions often leave food to rot in the fields because they cannot access markets. This was last seen in August and September 2011 prompting the Kenyans for Kenya initiative by the Red Cross. \n\nKenya is the world's 3rd largest exporter of cut flowers. Roughly half of Kenya's 127 flower farms are concentrated around Lake Naivasha, 90 kilometers northwest of Nairobi. To speed their export, Nairobi airport has a terminal dedicated to the transport of flowers and vegetables.\n\nIndustry and manufacturing\n\nAlthough Kenya is the most industrially developed country in the African Great Lakes region, manufacturing still accounts for only 14% of the GDP. Industrial activity, concentrated around the three largest urban centres, Nairobi, Mombasa and Kisumu, is dominated by food-processing industries such as grain milling, beer production, and sugarcane crushing, and the fabrication of consumer goods, e.g., vehicles from kits.\n\nThere is a cement production industry. Kenya has an oil refinery that processes imported crude petroleum into petroleum products, mainly for the domestic market. In addition, a substantial and expanding informal sector commonly referred to as jua kali engages in small-scale manufacturing of household goods, auto parts, and farm implements. \n\nKenya's inclusion among the beneficiaries of the US Government's African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA) has given a boost to manufacturing in recent years. Since AGOA took effect in 2000, Kenya's clothing sales to the United States increased from US$44 million to US$270 million (2006). Other initiatives to strengthen manufacturing have been the new government's favourable tax measures, including the removal of duty on capital equipment and other raw materials. \n\nEnergy\n\nThe largest share of Kenya's electricity supply comes from hydroelectric stations at dams along the upper Tana River, as well as the Turkwel Gorge Dam in the west. A petroleum-fired plant on the coast, geothermal facilities at Olkaria (near Nairobi), and electricity imported from Uganda make up the rest of the supply. Kenya's installed capacity stood at 1,142 megawatts between 2001 and 2003. The state-owned Kenya Electricity Generating Company (KenGen), established in 1997 under the name of Kenya Power Company, handles the generation of electricity, while Kenya Power handles the electricity transmission and distribution system in the country. Shortfalls of electricity occur periodically, when drought reduces water flow. To become energy sufficient, Kenya aims to build a nuclear power plant by 2017. \n\nKenya has proven deposits of oil in Turkana and the commercial viability was just discovered. Tullow Oil estimates Kenya's oil reserves to be around 10 billion barrels. Exploration is still continuing to determine if there are more reserves. Kenya currently imports all crude petroleum requirements. Kenya, east Africa's largest economy, has no strategic reserves and relies solely on oil marketers' 21-day oil reserves required under industry regulations. Petroleum accounts for 20% to 25% of the national import bill. \n\nOverall Chinese investment and trade\n\nPublished comments on Kenya's Capital FM website by Liu Guangyuan, China's ambassador to Kenya, at the time of President Kenyatta's 2013 trip to Beijing, said, \"Chinese investment in Kenya ... reached $474 million, representing Kenya's largest source of foreign direct investment, and ... bilateral trade ... reached $2.84 billion\" in 2012. Kenyatta was \"[a]ccompanied by 60 Kenyan business people [and hoped to] ... gain support from China for a planned $2.5 billion railway from the southern Kenyan port of Mombasa to neighboring Uganda, as well as a nearly $1.8 billion dam\", according to a statement from the president's office also at the time of the trip.\n\nBase Titanium, a subsidiary of Base resources of Australia, shipped its first major consignment of minerals to China. About 25,000 tonnes of ilmenite was flagged off the Kenyan coastal town of Kilifi. The first shipment was expected to earn Kenya about Kshs1520 billion in earnings. China has been causing environmental and social problems that include the recent suspension of the railway project. \n\nVision 2030\n\nIn 2007, the Kenyan government unveiled Vision 2030, an economic development programme it hopes will put the country in the same league as the Asian Economic Tigers by the year 2030. In 2013, it launched a National Climate Change Action Plan, having acknowledged that omitting climate as a key development issue in Vision 2030 was an oversight. The 200-page Action Plan, developed with support from the Climate & Development Knowledge Network, sets out the Government of Kenya's vision for a 'low carbon climate resilient development pathway'. At the launch in March 2013, the Secretary of the Ministry of Planning, National Development and Vision 2030 emphasised that climate wold be a central issue in the renewed Medium Term Plan that would be launched in the coming months. This would create a direct and robust delivery framework for the Action Plan and ensure climate change is treated as an economy-wide issue. \n\nOil exploration\n\nKenya has proven oil deposits in Turkana County. President Mwai Kibaki announced on 26 March 2012 that Tullow Oil, an Anglo-Irish oil exploration firm, had struck oil but its commercial viability and subsequent production would take about three years to confirm. \n\nEarly in 2006 Chinese President Hu Jintao signed an oil exploration contract with Kenya, part of a series of deals designed to keep Africa's natural resources flowing to China's rapidly expanding economy.\n\nThe deal allowed for China's state-controlled offshore oil and gas company, CNOOC, to prospect for oil in Kenya, which is just beginning to drill its first exploratory wells on the borders of Sudan and Somalia and in coastal waters. There are formal estimates of the possible reserves of oil discovered. \n\nChild labour and prostitution\n\nChild labour is common in Kenya. Most working children are active in agriculture. In 2006, UNICEF estimated that up to 30% of girls in the coastal areas of Malindi, Mombasa, Kilifi, and Diani were subject to prostitution. Most of the prostitutes in Kenya are aged 9–18. The Ministry of Gender and Child Affairs employed 400 child protection officers in 2009. The causes of child labour include poverty, the lack of access to education and weak government institutions. Kenya has ratified Convention No. 81 on labour inspection in industries and Convention No. 129 on labour inspection in agriculture. \n\nMicrofinance in Kenya\n\n24 institutions offer business loans on a large scale, specific agriculture loans, education loans and for any other purpose loans. Additionally there are:\nemergency loans, which are more expensive in respect to interest rates, but are quickly available\ngroup loans for smaller groups (4–5 members) and larger groups (up to 30 members)\nwomen loans, which are also available to a group of women\n\nOut of approximately 40 million Kenyans, about 14 million Kenyans are not able to receive financial service through formal loan application service and an additional 12 million Kenyans have no access to financial service institutions at all. Further, 1 million Kenyans are reliant on informal groups for receiving financial aid. \n\nConditions for microfinance products\nEligibility criteria: the general criteria might include gender as in the case for special women loans, to be at least 18 years old, to own a valid Kenyan ID, have a business, demonstrate the ability to repay the loan, and to be a customer of the institution. \nCredit scoring: there is no advanced credit scoring system and the majority has not stated any official loan distribution system. However, some institutions require to have an existing business for at least 3 months, own a small amount of cash, provide the institution with a business plan or proposal, have at least one guarantor, or to attend group meetings or training. For group loans, almost half of the institutions require group members to guarantee for each other.\nInterest rate: they are mostly calculated on a flat basis and some at a declining balance. More than 90% of the institutions require monthly interest payments. The average interest rate is 30–40% for loans up to 500,000 Kenyan Shilling. For loans above 500,000 Kenyan Shilling, interest rates go up to 71%.\n\nDemographics\n\nKenya had a population of approximately 45 million people in July 2014. Kenya has a young population, with 73% of residents aged below 30 years because of rapid population growth; from 2.9 million to 40 million inhabitants over the last century. \n\nKenya's capital, Nairobi, is home to Kibera, one of the world's largest slums. The shanty town is believed to house between 170,000 and 1 million locals. The UNHCR base in Dadaab in the north also currently houses around 500,000 people. \n\nEthnic groups\n\nKenya has a diverse population that includes most major ethnoracial and linguistic groups found in Africa. There are an estimated 47 different communities, with Bantus (67%) and Nilotes (30%) constituting the majority of local residents. Cushitic groups also form a small ethnic minority, as do Arabs, Indians and Europeans. \n\nKenya's ethnic groups are represented as follows: Kikuyu 22%, Luhya 14%, Luo 13%, Kalenjin 12%, Kamba 11%, Kisii 6%, Meru 6%, other African 15%, non-African (Asian, European, and Arab) 1%.\n\nLanguages\n\nKenya's various ethnic groups typically speak their mother tongues within their own communities. The two official languages, English and Kiswahili, are used in varying degrees of fluency for communication with other populations. English is widely spoken in commerce, schooling and government. Peri-urban and rural dwellers are less multilingual, with many in rural areas speaking only their native languages. \n\nBritish English is primarily used in Kenya. Additionally, a distinct local dialect, Kenyan English, is used by some communities and individuals in the country, and contains features unique to it that were derived from local Bantu languages, such as Kiswahili and Kikuyu. It has been developing since colonisation and also contains certain elements of American English. Sheng is a Kiswahili-based cant spoken in some urban areas. Primarily consisting of a mixture of Kiswahili and English, it is an example of linguistic code-switching. \n\nThere are a total of 69 languages spoken in Kenya. Most belong to two broad language families: Niger-Congo (Bantu branch) and Nilo-Saharan (Nilotic branch), spoken by the country's Bantu and Nilotic populations, respectively. The Cushitic and Arab ethnic minorities speak languages belonging to the separate Afroasiatic family, with the Indian and European residents speaking languages from the Indo-European family. \n\nUrban centres\n\nReligion\n\nThe majority of Kenyans are Christian (83%), with 47.7% regarding themselves as Protestant and 23.5% as Roman Catholic of the Latin Rite. The Presbyterian Church of East Africa has 3 million followers in Kenya and the surrounding countries. There are smaller conservative Reformed churches, the Africa Evangelical Presbyterian Church, the Independent Presbyterian Church in Kenya, and the Reformed Church of East Africa. 621,200 of Kenyans are Orthodox Christians. Notably, Kenya has the highest number of Quakers in the world, with around 133,000 members. The only Jewish synagogue in the country is located in the capital, Nairobi.\n\nMinorities of other faiths exist (Muslim 11.2%, indigenous beliefs 1.7%), and nonreligious 2.4%. Sixty percent of the Muslim population lives in Kenya's Coastal Region, comprising 50% of the total population there. Roughly 4% of Muslims are Ahmadiyya, 8% Shia and another 8% are non-denominational Muslims, while 73% are Sunni. Western areas of the Coast Region are mostly Christian. The upper part of Kenya's Eastern Region is home to 10% of the country's Muslims, where they constitute the majority religious group. In addition, there is a large Hindu population in Kenya (around 300,000), who have played a key role in the local economy; they are mostly of Indian origin.\n\nHealth\n\nNurses treat 80% of the population who visit dispensaries, health centres and private clinics in rural and under-served urban areas. Complicated cases are referred to clinical officers, medical officers and medical practitioners. According to the Kenya National Bureau of Statistics, in 2011 there were 65,000 qualified nurses registered in the country; 8,600 clinical officers and 7,000 doctors for the population of 43 million people (These figures from official registers include those who have died or left the profession hence the actual number of these workers may be lower). \n\nDespite major achievements in the health sector, Kenya still faces many challenges. The life expectancy estimate has dropped to approximately 55 years in 2009—five years below 1990 levels. The infant mortality rate is high at approximately 44 deaths per 1,000 children in 2012. The WHO estimated in 2011 that only 42% of births were attended by a skilled health professional. \n\nDiseases of poverty directly correlate with a country's economic performance and wealth distribution: Half of Kenyans live below the poverty level. Preventable diseases like malaria, HIV/AIDS, pneumonia, diarrhoea and malnutrition are the biggest burden, major child-killers, and responsible for much morbidity; weak policies, corruption, inadequate health workers, weak management and poor leadership in the public health sector are largely to blame. According to 2009 estimates, HIV prevalence is about 6.3% of the adult population. However, the 2011 UNAIDS Report suggests that the HIV epidemic may be improving in Kenya, as HIV prevalence is declining among young people (ages 15–24) and pregnant women. Kenya had an estimated 15 million cases of malaria in 2006. \n\nThe total fertility rate in Kenya is estimated to be 4.49 children per woman in 2012. According to a 2008–09 survey by the Kenyan government, the total fertility rate was 4.6% and the contraception usage rate among married women was 46%. Maternal mortality is high, partly because of female genital mutilation, with about 27% of women having undergone it. \nThis practice is however on the decline as the country becomes more modernised and the practice was also banned in the country in 2011. \n\nEducation\n\nChildren attend nursery school, or kindergarten in the private sector until they are five years old. This lasts one to three years (KG1, KG2 and KG3) and is financed privately because there has been no government policy regarding it until recently. \n\nBasic formal education starts at age six years and lasts 12 years comprising eight years in primary school and four years in high school or secondary school. Primary school is free in public schools and those who exit at this level can join a vocational youth/village polytechnic or make their own arrangements for an apprenticeship program and learn a trade such as tailoring, carpentry, motor vehicle repair, brick-laying and masonry for about two years. \n\nThose who complete high school can join a polytechnic or other technical college and study for three years or proceed directly to the university and study for four years. Graduates from the polytechnics and colleges can then join the workforce and later obtain a specialized higher diploma qualification after a further one to two years of training, or join the university—usually in the second or third year of their respective course. The higher diploma is accepted by many employers in place of a bachelor's degree and direct or accelerated admission to post-graduate studies is possible in some universities.\n\nPublic universities in Kenya are highly commercialized institutions and only a small fraction of qualified high school graduates are admitted on limited government-sponsorship into programs of their choice. Most are admitted into the social sciences, which are cheap to run, or as self-sponsored students paying the full cost of their studies. Most qualified students who miss out opt for middle-level diploma programs in public or private universities, colleges, and polytechnics.\n\n38.5 percent of the Kenyan adult population is illiterate. There are very wide regional disparities; for example, Nairobi had the highest level of literacy, 87.1 per cent, compared to North Eastern Province, the lowest, at 8.0 per cent. Preschool, which targets children from age three to five, is an integral component of the education system and is a key requirement for admission to Standard One (First Grade). At the end of primary education, pupils sit the Kenya Certificate of Primary Education (KCPE), which determines those who proceed to secondary school or vocational training. The result of this examination is needed for placement at secondary school.\n\nPrimary school is for students aged 6/7-13/14 years. For those who proceed to secondary level, there is a national examination at the end of Form Four – the Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education (KCSE), which determines those proceeding to the universities, other professional training or employment. Students sit examinations in eight subjects of their choosing. However, English, Kiswahili (languages) and mathematics are compulsory subjects.\n\nThe Kenya Universities and Colleges Central Placement Service (KUCCPS), formerly the Joint Admissions Board (JAB), is responsible for selecting students joining the public universities. Other than the public schools, there are many private schools, mainly in urban areas. Similarly, there are a number of international schools catering for various overseas educational systems.\n\nCulture\n\nThe culture of Kenya consists of multiple traditions. Kenya has no single prominent culture that identifies it. It instead consists of the various cultures of the country's different communities.\n\nNotable populations include the Swahili on the coast, several other Bantu communities in the central and western regions, and Nilotic communities in the northwest. The Maasai culture is well known to tourism, despite constituting a relatively small part of Kenya's population. They are renowned for their elaborate upper body adornment and jewellery.\n\nAdditionally, Kenya has an extensive music, television and theatre scene.\n\nMedia\n\nKenya has a number of media outlets that broadcast domestically and globally. They cover news, business, sports and entertainment.\nPopular Kenyan newspapers include:\n\n* The Daily Nation; part of the Nation Media Group (NMG) (largest market share)\n* The Standard\n* The Star\n* The People\n* East Africa Weekly\n* Taifa Leo\n \nTelevision stations based in Kenya include:\n* Kenya Broadcasting Corporation (KBC)\n* Citizen TV\n* Kenya Television Network (KTN)\n* NTV (part of the Nation Media Group (NMG))\n* Kiss Television\n* K24 Television\n* Q-TV\n* Kass-TV\n\nAll of these terrestrial channels are transmitted via a DVB T2 digital TV signal.\n\nLiterature\n\nNgũgĩ wa Thiong'o is one of the best known writers of Kenya. His novel, Weep Not, Child, is an illustration of life in Kenya during the British occupation. The story details the effects of the Mau Mau on the lives of Kenyans. Its combination of themes—colonialism, education, and love—helped to make it one of the best-known novels in Africa.\n\nM.G. Vassanji's 2003 novel The In-Between World of Vikram Lall won the Giller Prize in 2003. It is the fictional memoir of a Kenyan of Indian heritage and his family as they adjust to the changing political climates in colonial and post-colonial Kenya.\n\nAdditionally, since 2003, the literary journal Kwani? has been publishing Kenyan contemporary literature.\n\nMusic\n\nKenya has a diverse assortment of popular music forms, in addition to multiple types of folk music based on the variety over 40 regional languages. \n\nThe drums are the most dominant instrument in popular Kenyan music. Drum beats are very complex and include both native rhythm and imported ones, especially the Congolese cavacha rhythm. Popular Kenyan music usually involves the interplay of multiple parts, and more recently, showy guitar solos as well. There are also a number of local hip hop artists, including Jua Cali.\n\nLyrics are most often in Kiswahili or English. There is also some emerging aspect of Lingala borrowed from Congolese musicians. Lyrics are also written in local languages. Urban radio generally only plays English music, though there also exist a number of vernacular radio stations.\n\nZilizopendwa is a genre of local urban music that was recorded in the 1960s, 70s and 80s by musicians such as Daudi Kabaka, Fadhili William and Sukuma Bin Ongaro, and is particularly revered and enjoyed by the older folks—having been popularised by the Kenya Broadcasting Corporation's Kiswahili service (formerly called Voice of Kenya or VOK).\n\nThe isukuti is a vigorous dance performed by the Luhya sub-tribes to the beat of a traditional drum called the Isukuti during many occasions such as the birth of a child, marriage and funerals. Other traditional dances include the Ohangla among the Luo, Nzele among the Mijikenda, Mugithi among the Kikuyu and Taarab among the Swahili.\n\nAdditionally, Kenya has a growing Christian gospel music scene. Prominent local gospel musicians include the Kenyan Boys Choir.\n\nBenga music has been popular since the late 1960s, especially in the area around Lake Victoria. The word benga is occasionally used to refer to any kind of pop music. Bass, guitar and percussion are the usual instruments.\n\nSports\n\nKenya is active in several sports, among them cricket, rallying, football, rugby union and boxing. The country is known chiefly for its dominance in middle-distance and long-distance athletics, having consistently produced Olympic and Commonwealth Games champions in various distance events, especially in 800 m, 1,500 m, 3,000 m steeplechase, 5,000 m, 10,000 m and the marathon. Kenyan athletes (particularly Kalenjin) continue to dominate the world of distance running, although competition from Morocco and Ethiopia has reduced this supremacy. Kenya's best-known athletes included the four-time women's Boston Marathon winner and two-time world champion Catherine Ndereba, 800m world record holder David Rudisha, former Marathon world record-holder Paul Tergat, and John Ngugi.\n\nKenya won several medals during the Beijing Olympics, six gold, four silver and four bronze, making it Africa's most successful nation in the 2008 Olympics. New athletes gained attention, such as Pamela Jelimo, the women's 800m gold medalist who went ahead to win the IAAF Golden League jackpot, and Samuel Wanjiru who won the men's marathon. Retired Olympic and Commonwealth Games champion Kipchoge Keino helped usher in Kenya's ongoing distance dynasty in the 1970s and was followed by Commonwealth Champion Henry Rono's spectacular string of world record performances. Lately, there has been controversy in Kenyan athletics circles, with the defection of a number of Kenyan athletes to represent other countries, chiefly Bahrain and Qatar. The Kenyan Ministry of Sports has tried to stop the defections, but they have continued anyway, with Bernard Lagat the latest, choosing to represent the United States. Most of these defections occur because of economic or financial factors. Decisions by the Kenyan government to tax athletes' earnings may also be a reason for defection. Some elite Kenyan runners who cannot qualify for their country's strong national team find it easier to qualify by running for other countries. \n\nKenya has been a dominant force in women's volleyball within Africa, with both the clubs and the national team winning various continental championships in the past decade. The women's team has competed at the Olympics and World Championships though without any notable success. Cricket is another popular sport, also ranking as the most successful team sport. Kenya has competed in the Cricket World Cup since 1996. They upset some of the world's best teams and reached the semi-finals of the 2003 tournament. They won the inaugural World Cricket League Division 1 hosted in Nairobi and participated in the World T20. They also participated in the ICC Cricket World Cup 2011. Their current captain is Rakep Patel. \n\nKenya is represented by Lucas Onyango as a professional rugby league player who plays with Oldham Roughyeds. Besides the former European Super League team, he has played for Widnes Vikings and rugby union with Sale Sharks. Rugby union is increasing in popularity, especially with the annual Safari Sevens tournament. The Kenya Sevens team ranked 9th in IRB Sevens World Series for the 2006 season. In 2016, the team beat Fiji at the Singapore Sevens finals, making Kenya the second African nation after South Africa to win a World Series championship. Kenya was also a regional powerhouse in football. However, its dominance has been eroded by wrangles within the now defunct Kenya Football Federation, leading to a suspension by FIFA which was lifted in March 2007.\n\nIn the motor rallying arena, Kenya is home to the world famous Safari Rally, commonly acknowledged as one of the toughest rallies in the world. It was a part of the World Rally Championship for many years until its exclusion after the 2002 event owing to financial difficulties. Some of the best rally drivers in the world have taken part in and won the rally, such as Björn Waldegård, Hannu Mikkola, Tommi Mäkinen, Shekhar Mehta, Carlos Sainz and Colin McRae. Although the rally still runs annually as part of the Africa rally championship, the organisers are hoping to be allowed to rejoin the World Rally championship in the next couple of years.\n\nNairobi has hosted several major continental sports events, including the FIBA Africa Championship 1993 where Kenya's national basketball team finished in the top four, its best performance to date. \n\nCuisine\n\nKenyans generally have three meals in a day—breakfast in the morning (kiamsha kinywa), lunch in the afternoon (chakula cha mchana) and supper in the evening (chakula cha jioni or known simply as \"chajio\"). In between, they have the 10 o'clock tea (chai ya saa nne) and 4 p.m. tea (chai ya saa kumi). Breakfast is usually tea or porridge with bread, chapati, mahamri, boiled sweet potatoes or yams. Ugali with vegetables, sour milk, meat, fish or any other stew is generally eaten by much of the population for lunch or supper. Regional variations and dishes also exist.\n\nIn western Kenya: among the Luo, fish is a common dish; among the Kalenjin who dominate much of the Rift Valley Region, mursik—sour milk—is a major drink. Lye is a common ingredient in many traditional dishes in these regions.\n\nIn cities such as Nairobi, there are fast food restaurants, including Steers, KFC, and Subway. There are also many fish and chip shops.", "Nairobi (;) is the capital and largest city of Kenya. It is famous for having the Nairobi National Park, the world's only game reserve found within a major city. The city and its surrounding area also form Nairobi County, whose current governor is Evans Kidero and Deputy Governor is Jonathan Mueke.\n\nThe name \"Nairobi\" comes from the Maasai phrase Enkare Nairobi, which translates to \"cool water\". The phrase is also the Maasai name of the Nairobi river, which in turn lent its name to the city. However, it is popularly known as the \"Green City in the Sun\", and is surrounded by several expanding villa suburbs. \n\nNairobi was founded in 1899 by the colonial authorities in British East Africa, as a rail depot on the Uganda Railway. The town quickly grew to replace Machakos as the capital of Kenya in 1907. After independence in 1963, Nairobi became the capital of the Republic of Kenya. During Kenya's colonial period, the city became a centre for the colony's coffee, tea and sisal industry. The city lies on the River Athi in the southern part of the country, and has an elevation of 1795 m above sea level. \n\nWith a population of 3.36 million in 2011, Nairobi is the second-largest city by population in the African Great Lakes region after Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. According to the 2009 census, in the administrative area of Nairobi, 3,138,295 inhabitants lived within 696 km2. Nairobi is the 14th-largest city in Africa, including the population of its suburbs.\n\nHome to thousands of Kenyan businesses and over 100 major international companies and organisations, including the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the United Nations Office at Nairobi (UNON), Nairobi is an established hub for business and culture. The Nairobi Securities Exchange (NSE) is one of the largest in Africa and the second-oldest exchange on the continent. It is Africa's fourth-largest exchange in terms of trading volume, capable of making 10 million trades a day. \n\nNairobi Metropolitan Region\n\nNairobi is found within the Greater Nairobi Metropolitan region, which consists of 4 out of 47 counties in Kenya, yet generates about 60% of the entire nation's wealth. The counties are:\n Source: NairobiMetro/ [http://www.scribd.com/doc/36672705/Kenya-Census-2009/ Kenya Census]\n\nHistory\n\nThe area was essentially uninhabited swamp until a supply depot of the Uganda Railway was built in 1899, which soon became the railway's headquarters. The city was named after a water hole known in Maasai as Enkare Nairobi, meaning \"place of cool waters\". It was completely rebuilt in the early 1900s after an outbreak of plague and the burning of the original town. The location of the Nairobi railway camp was chosen due to its central position between Mombasa and Kampala. It was also chosen because its network of rivers could supply the camp with water and its elevation would make it cool enough for residential purposes. However, malaria was a serious problem, leading to at least one attempt to have the town moved. \n\nIn 1905, Nairobi replaced Mombasa as capital of the British protectorate, and the city grew around administration and tourism, initially in the form of big game hunting. As the British occupiers started to explore the region, they started using Nairobi as their first port of call. This prompted the colonial government to build several spectacular grand hotels in the city. The main occupants were British game hunters.\n\nNairobi continued to grow under the British and many British subjects settled within the city's suburbs. In 1919, Nairobi was declared to be a municipality. In February 1926, E.A.T. Dutton passed through Nairobi on his way to Mount Kenya, and said of the city:\n\nThe continuous expansion of the city began to anger the Maasai, as the city was devouring their land to the south. It also angered the Kikuyu people, who wanted the land returned to them. After the end of World War II, this friction developed into the Mau Mau rebellion. Jomo Kenyatta, Kenya's future president, was jailed for his involvement even though there was no evidence linking him to the rebellion. Pressure exerted from the locals onto the British resulted in Kenyan independence in 1963, with Nairobi as the capital of the new republic.\n\nAfter independence, Nairobi grew rapidly and this growth put pressure on the city's infrastructure. Power cuts and water shortages were a common occurrence, though in the past few years better city planning has helped to put some of these problems in check.\n\nThe United States Embassy, then located in downtown Nairobi, was bombed in August 1998 by Al-Qaida, as one of a series of US embassy bombings. It is now the site of a memorial park. \n\nGeography\n\nThe city is situated at and and occupies 696 km2.\n\nNairobi is situated between the cities of Kampala and Mombasa. As Nairobi is adjacent to the eastern edge of the Rift Valley, minor earthquakes and tremors occasionally occur. The Ngong Hills, located to the west of the city, are the most prominent geographical feature of the Nairobi area. Mount Kenya is situated north of Nairobi, and Mount Kilimanjaro is towards the south-east. Both mountains are visible from Nairobi on a clear day. \n\nThe Nairobi River and its tributaries traverse through the Nairobi County. Nobel Peace Prize laureate Wangari Maathai has fought fiercely to save the indigenous Karura Forest in northern Nairobi which was under threat of being replaced by housing and other infrastructure.\n\nNairobi's western suburbs stretch all the way from the Kenyatta National Hospital in the south to the UN headquarters at Gigiri suburb in the north, a distance of about 20 km. The city is centred on the City Square, which is located in the Central Business District. The Kenyan Parliament buildings, the Holy Family Cathedral, Nairobi City Hall, Nairobi Law Courts, and the Kenyatta Conference Centre all surround the square.\n\nClimate\n\nUnder the Köppen climate classification, Nairobi has a subtropical highland climate (Cfb /Cwb). At 1795 m above sea level, evenings may be cool, especially in the June/July season, when the temperature can drop to 9 C. The sunniest and warmest part of the year is from December to March, when temperatures average the mid-twenties during the day. The mean maximum temperature for this period is 24 C. \n\nThere are two rainy seasons, but rainfall can be moderate. The cloudiest part of the year is just after the first rainy season, when, until September, conditions are usually overcast with drizzle. As Nairobi is situated close to the equator, the differences between the seasons are minimal. The seasons are referred to as the wet season and dry season. The timing of sunrise and sunset varies little throughout the year for the same reason. \n\nDistricts and neighbourhoods\n\nNairobi is divided into a series of constituencies with each being represented by members of Parliament in the National Assembly. These constituencies are: Makadara, Kamukunji, Starehe, Langata, Dagoretti, Westlands, Kasarani, and Embakasi. The main administrative divisions of Nairobi are Central, Dagoretti, Embakasi, Kasarani, Kibera, Makadara, Pumwani, and Westlands. Most of the upmarket suburbs are situated to the west and north-central of Nairobi, where most European settlers resided during the colonial times. These include Karen, Langata, Lavington, Gigiri, Muthaiga, Brookside, Spring Valley, Loresho, Kilimani, Kileleshwa, Hurlingham, Runda, Kitisuru, Nyari, Kyuna, Lower Kabete, Westlands, and Highridge, although Kangemi, Kawangware, and Dagoretti are lower income areas close to these affluent suburbs. The city's colonial past is commemorated by many English place-names. Most lower-middle and upper middle income neighbourhoods are located in the north-central areas such as Highridge, Parklands, Ngara, Pangani, and areas to the southwest and southeast of the metropolitan area near the Jomo Kenyatta International Airport. The most notable ones include Avenue Park, Fedha, Pipeline, Donholm, Greenfields, Nyayo, Taasia, Baraka, Nairobi West, Madaraka, Siwaka, South B, South C, Mugoya, Riverbank, Hazina, Buru Buru, Uhuru, Harambee Civil Servants', Akiba, Kimathi, Pioneer, and Koma Rock to the centre-east and Kasarani to northeast area among others. The low and lower income estates are located mainly in far eastern Nairobi. These include, Umoja, Kariokor, Dandora, Kariobangi, Embakasi, and Huruma. Kitengela suburb, though located further southeast, Ongata Rongai and Kiserian further southwest, and Ngong/Embulbul suburbs to the far west are considered part of the Greater Nairobi Metropolitan area. More than 90% of Nairobi residents work within the Nairobi Metropolitan area, in the formal and informal sectors. Many Somali immigrants have also settled in Eastleigh, nicknamed \"Little Mogadishu\". \n\nKibera slum\n\nThe Kibera slum in Nairobi (with an estimated population of at least 500,000 to over 1,000,000 people) was thought to be Africa's second largest slum. However, recent census results have shown that Kibera is indeed much smaller than originally thought. \n\nParks and gardens\n\nNairobi has many parks and open spaces throughout the city. Much of the city has dense tree-cover and plenty of green spaces. The most famous park in Nairobi is Uhuru Park. The park borders the central business district and the neighbourhood Upper Hill. Uhuru (Freedom in Swahili) Park is a centre for outdoor speeches, services, and rallies. The park was to be built over by former President Daniel arap Moi, who wanted the 62-storey headquarters of his party, the Kenya African National Union, situated in the park. However, the park was saved following a campaign by Nobel Peace Prize winner Wangari Maathai.\n\nCentral Park is adjacent to Uhuru Park, and includes a memorial for Jomo Kenyatta, the first president of Kenya. Other notable open spaces include Jeevanjee Gardens, City Park, 7 August Memorial Park, and Nairobi Arboretum.\n\nPolitical divisions\n\nThe City of Nairobi enjoys the status of a full administrative County.\n\nThe Nairobi province differs in several ways from other Kenyan regions. The county is entirely urban. It has only one local council, Nairobi City Council. Nairobi Province was not divided into \"districts\" until 2007, when three districts were created. In 2010, along with the new constitution, Nairobi was renamed a County.\n\nNairobi County has seventeen constituencies. Constituency name may differ from division name, such that Starehe Constituency is equal to Central Division, Lang'ata Constituency to Kibera division, and Kamukunji Constituency to Pumwani Division in terms of boundaries.\n\nConstituencies\n\nNairobi is divided into seventeen constituencies and eighty five wards, mostly named after residential estates. Kibera Division, for example, includes Kibera (Kenya's largest slum) as well as affluent estates of Karen and Langata.\n\nEconomy\n\nNairobi is home to the Nairobi Securities Exchange (NSE), one of Africa's largest. The NSE was officially recognised as an overseas stock exchange by the London Stock Exchange in 1953. The exchange is Africa's 4th largest in terms of trading volumes, and 5th largest in terms of Market Capitalization as a percentage of GDP. \n\nNairobi is the regional headquarters of several international companies and organisations. In 2007, General Electric, Young & Rubicam, Google, Coca-Cola, IBM Services, Airtel, and Cisco Systems relocated their African headquarters to the city. The United Nations Office at Nairobi hosts UNEP and UN-Habitat headquarters.\n\nSeveral of Africa's largest companies are headquartered in Nairobi. KenGen, which is the largest African stock outside South Africa, is based in the city. Kenya Airways, Africa's fourth largest airline, uses Nairobi's Jomo Kenyatta International Airport as a hub.\n\nGoods manufactured in Nairobi include clothing, textiles, building materials, processed foods, beverages, and cigarettes. Several foreign companies have factories based in and around the city. These include Goodyear, General Motors, Toyota Motors, and Coca Cola.\n\nNairobi has a large tourist industry, being both a tourist destination and a transport hub. \n\nCentral business district and skyline\n\nNairobi has grown around its central business district. This takes a rectangular shape, around the Uhuru Highway, Haille Selassie Avenue, Moi Avenue, and University Way. It features many of Nairobi's important buildings, including the City Hall and Parliament Building. The city square is also located within the perimeter.\n\nMost of the skyscrapers in this region are the headquarters of businesses and corporations, such as I&M and the Kenyatta International Conference Centre. The United States Embassy bombing took place in this district, prompting the building of a new embassy building in the suburbs.\n\nIn 2011, the city was considered to be about 4 million residents. A large beautification project took place in the Central Business District, as the city prepared to host the 2006 Afri-Cities summit. Iconic buildings such as the Kenyatta International Conference Centre had their exteriors cleaned and repainted. \n\nNairobi downtown area or central business district is bordered to the southwest by Uhuru Park and Central Park. The Mombasa to Kampala railway runs to the southeast of the district.\n\nUpper Hill\n\nToday, many businesses are considering relocating and /or establishing their headquarters outside the Central Business District area. This is because land is cheaper, and better facilities can easily be built and maintained elsewhere. Two areas that are seeing a growth in companies and office space are Upper Hill, which is located, approximately 4 km from the Central Business District and Westlands, which is also about the same distance, away from the city centre.\n\nCompanies that have moved from the Central Business District to Upper Hill include Citibank and in 2007, Coca-Cola began construction of their East and Central African headquarters in Upper Hill, cementing the district as the preferred location for office space in Nairobi. The largest office development in this area is UAP Tower, a recently completed 33-storey tower at 163 metres high. The World Bank and International Finance Corporation (part of the World Bank Group) are also located in Upper Hill at the Delta Center, Menegai Road. Earlier on, they were located in the Hill Park Building and CBA Building respectively(both also in Upper Hill), and prior to that in View Park towers in the Central Business District.\n\nTo accommodate the large demand for floorspace in Nairobi, various commercial projects are being constructed. New business parks are being built in the city, including the flagship Nairobi Business Park.\n\nConstruction boom and real estate development projectsNairobi is currently undergoing a construction boom. Major real estate projects and skyscrapers are coming up in the city. Among them are: Hass twin towers which will tower at 212m, Britam Tower (198m), Avic International Africa headquarters (176m), Prism tower (140m), Pan Africa insurance towers, Pallazzo offices, and many other projects. Shopping malls are also being constructed like the recently completed Garden city Mall, Centum's Two rivers Mall, The Hub in Karen, Karen waterfront, Thika Greens, and the recently reconstructed Westgate Mall. High-class residential apartments for living are coming up like Le Mac towers, a residential tower in Westlands Nairobi with 23 floors. Avic International is also putting up a total of four residential apartments on Waiyaki way: a 28-level tower, two 24-level towers, and a 25-level tower. Hotel towers are also being erected in the city. Avic International is putting up a 30-level hotel tower of 141m in the Westlands. The hotel tower will be operated by Marriot group. Jabavu limited is constructing a 35 floor hotel tower in Upper Hill which will be high over 140 metres in the city skyline. Arcon Group Africa has also announced plans to erect a skyscraper in Upper hill which will have 66 floors and tower over 290 metres, further cementing Upper hill as the preferred metropolis for multinational corporations launching their operations in the Kenyan capital.\n\nTourism\n\nNairobi is one of the few cities in the world with a national park within its boundaries, making it a prime tourist destination as well, with several other tourist attractions. The most famous is the Nairobi National Park, the only game reserve of this nature to border a capital city, or any major city. The park contains many animals including lions, giraffes, and black rhinos. The park is home to over 400 species of birds. The Nairobi Safari Walk is a major attraction to the Nairobi National Park as it offers a rare on-foot experience of the animals. \n\nNairobi is home to several museums, sites, and monuments. The Nairobi National Museum is the country's national museum and the largest in the city. It houses a large collection of artefacts portraying Kenya's rich heritage through history, nature, culture, and contemporary art. It also includes the full remains of a homo erectus popularly known as the Turkana boy. Other prominent museums include the Nairobi Gallery, Nairobi Railway Museum, and the Karen Blixen Museum located in the affluent Karen suburb. Uhuru Gardens, a national monument and the largest memorial park in Kenya, is also the place where the first Kenyan flag was raised at independence. It is located along Langata road near the Wilson Airport.\n\nNairobi is nicknamed the Safari Capital of the World or the City Under the Sun, and has many hotels to cater for safari-bound tourists. Five-star hotels in Nairobi include the Nairobi Serena, Laico Regency (formerly Grand Regency Hotel), Windsor (Karen), Holiday Inn, Nairobi Safari Club (Lilian Towers), The Sarova Stanley Hotel, Safari Park & Casino, InterContinental, Panari Hotel, Hilton, and the Norfolk Hotel. Other newer ones include the Crowne Plaza Hotel Nairobi in Upper Hill area, the Sankara Nairobi in Westlands, Tribe Hotel-Village Market, House of Wayne, The Eastland Hotel, Ole Sereni, and The Boma located along Mombasa Highway. International chains apart from the Hilton, the Intercontinental group, and Serena Hotels are also setting up properties in Nairobi city. Upcoming establishments include Radisson Blu and the upscale boutique Bidwood Suite Hotel in Westlands, which are nearing completion. The Best Western Premier-Nairobi and The Villa Rosa Kempinski have been completed and opened.\n\nNairobi is also home to the largest ice rink in Africa: the Solar Ice Rink at the Panari Hotel's Sky Centre. The rink, opened in 2005, covers 15000 sqft and can accommodate 200 people. \n\nShopping malls in Nairobi include the Greenspan Mall (Donholm), Yaya Centre (Hurlingham), Sarit Centre (Westlands), Westgate Shopping Mall (Westlands), ABC Place (Westlands), The Village Market (Gigiri), Junction Shopping Mall (Ngong Road), Prestige Plaza (Ngong Road), Crossroads Shopping Centre (Karen), T-Mall (Langata), Garden City Mall and Thika Road Mall (TRM). Nakumatt, Uchumi, and Tuskys, Naivas are the largest supermarket chains with modern stores throughout the city.\n\nThe Nairobi Java House is a coffee house and restaurant chain with branches located around the city including one at the Jomo Kenyatta International Airport. Other coffee chains include Art Caffe, Dormans Coffee House and Savannah, which is part of Sasini Tea.\n\nNairobi's night life is popular with tourists, young and old. From a collection of gourmet restaurants offering local and international cuisine, Nairobi has something to offer to every age and pocket. Most common known food establishments include The Carnivore and The Tamarind Restaurants which have outlets in Langata, City Centre, and the Village Market. For those more discerning travellers, one can choose from a wide array of local cuisine, Mediterranean, fast food, Ethiopian, and Arabian. The city's nightlife is mostly centred along friends and colleagues meeting after work especially on Fridays – commonly known as \"Furahiday\" (Happy Day), theme nights, events and concerts, and Shisha cafés. The most popular clubbing spots are centred in upmarket Westlands which has come to be known as \"Electric Avenue\", Karen, Langata, Hurlingham, and \"uptown\" venues in the city centre. Nairobians generally go out every day of the week and most establishments are open till late.\n\nOther sites include Jomo Kenyatta's Mausoleum, Kenya National Theatre, and the Kenya National Archives. Art galleries in Nairobi include the Rahimtulla Museum of Modern Art (Ramoma), the Mizizi Arts Centre, and the Nairobi National Museum.\n\nPlaces of interest\n\n* The Carnivore\n* Florida Discothèque (demolished)\n* Oloo's Children Center in Kibera Slum\n* Nairobi National Park\n* Nairobi National Museum\n* Uhuru Garden\n* David Sheldrick Centre\n* Giraffe Centre\n* Bomas of Kenya\n* Karen Blixen Museum\n* The National Council of Churches of Kenya HQ, Hurlingham\n* The Karura Forest\n* Kenyatta International Conference Centre\n\n* Arboretum\n* The Memorial Park Garden\n\nDemographics\n\nPopulation of Nairobi between 1906 and 2009.\n\nColors=\n id:lightgrey value:gray(0.9)\n id:darkgrey value:gray(0.7)\n id:sfondo value:rgb(1,1,1)\n id:barra value:rgb(0.3,0.5,0.7)\n\nImageSize = width:1000 height:300\nPlotArea = left: 60 bottom: 30 top: 20 right: 60\nDateFormat = x.y\nPeriod = from:0 till:3500\nTimeAxis = orientation:vertical\nAlignBars = late\nScaleMajor = gridcolor:darkgrey increment:500 start:0\nScaleMinor = gridcolor:lightgrey increment:100 start:0\nBackgroundColors = canvas:sfondo\n\nBarData=\n bar:1906 text:1906\n bar:1911 text:1911\n bar:1921 text:1921\n bar:1931 text:1931\n bar:1939 text:1939\n bar:1948 text:1948\n bar:1955 text:1955\n bar:1960 text:1960\n bar:1965 text:1965\n bar:1969 text:1969\n bar:1979 text:1979\n bar:1989 text:1989\n bar:1995 text:1995\n bar:1999 text:1999\n bar:2005 text:2005\n bar:2009 text:2009\n\nPlotData=\n color:barra width:20 align:left\n\n bar:1906 from: 0 till:11.500\n bar:1911 from: 0 till:14.000\n bar:1921 from: 0 till:24.300\n bar:1931 from: 0 till:47.800\n bar:1939 from: 0 till:61.300\n bar:1948 from: 0 till:119.000\n bar:1955 from: 0 till:186.000\n bar:1960 from: 0 till:251.000\n bar:1965 from: 0 till:380.000\n bar:1969 from: 0 till:509.300\n bar:1979 from: 0 till:827.775\n bar:1989 from: 0 till:1324.570\n bar:1995 from: 0 till:1810.000\n bar:1999 from: 0 till:2143.254\n bar:2005 from: 0 till:2750.561\n bar:2009 from: 0 till:3138.369\nPlotData=\n bar:1906 at:11.500 fontsize:M text: 11,500 shift:(-20,5)\n bar:1911 at:14.000 fontsize:M text: 14,000 shift:(-20,5)\n bar:1921 at:24.300 fontsize:M text: 24,300 shift:(-20,5)\n bar:1931 at:47.800 fontsize:M text: 47,800 shift:(-20,5)\n bar:1939 at:61.300 fontsize:M text: 61,300 shift:(-20,5)\n bar:1948 at:119.000 fontsize:M text: 119,000 shift:(-20,5)\n bar:1955 at:186.000 fontsize:M text: 186,000 shift:(-20,5)\n bar:1960 at:251.000 fontsize:M text: 251,000 shift:(-20,5)\n bar:1965 at:380.000 fontsize:M text: 380,000 shift:(-20,5)\n bar:1969 at:509.300 fontsize:M text: 509,300 shift:(-20,5)\n bar:1979 at:827.775 fontsize:M text: 827,775 shift:(-20,5)\n bar:1989 at:1324.570 fontsize:M text: 1,324,570 shift:(-30,5)\n bar:1995 at:1810.000 fontsize:M text: 1,810,000 shift:(-30,5)\n bar:1999 at:2143.254 fontsize:M text: 2,143,254 shift:(-30,5)\n bar:2005 at:2750.561 fontsize:M text: 2,750,561 shift:(-43,5)\n bar:2009 at:3138.369 fontsize:M text: 3,138,369 shift:(-43,5)\n\nTextData=\n fontsize:S pos:(60,10)\n text:Population of Nairobi City\n\nNairobi has experienced one of the highest growth rates of any city in Africa. Since its foundation in 1899, Nairobi has grown to become the second largest city in the African Great Lakes, despite being one of youngest cities in the region. The growth rate of Nairobi is currently 4.1% a year. It is estimated that Nairobi's population will reach 5 million in 2025. \n\nThese data fit remarkably closely (r^2 0.9994) to a logistic curve with t(0) \n 1900, P(0)8500, r \n 0.059 and K = 8,000,000. This suggests a current (2011) growth rate of 3.5% (the CIA estimate of 4.5% cited above would have been true in 2005). According to this curve, the population of the city will be below 4 million in 2015, and will reach 5 million in 2025.\n\nSociety and culture\n\nNairobi is a cosmopolitan and multicultural city. The names of some of its suburbs, including Hurlingham and Parklands reflect Nairobi's early history.\n\nBy the mid twentieth century, many foreigners settled in Nairobi from other British-occupied regions, primarily India and parts of (present-day) Pakistan. These immigrants were workers who arrived to construct the Kampala – Mombasa railway, settling in Nairobi after its completion, and also merchants from Gujarat. Nairobi also has established communities from Somalia and Sudan. \n\nThere are a number of churches, mosques, temples, and gurdwaras within the city. Prominent places of worship in Nairobi include the Cathedral Basilica of the Holy Family, All Saints Cathedral, Ismaili Jamat Khana, and Jamia Mosque.\n\nNairobi has two informal nicknames. The first is \"The Green City in the Sun\", which is derived from the city's foliage and warm climate. The second is the \"Safari Capital of the World\", which is used due to Nairobi's prominence as a hub for safari tourism. \n\nThere are a number of shopping malls in the Nairobi Area. These include: Garden city mall, Thika road mall(TRM), the West Gate mall, Prestige Plaza, the Village Market, the Sarit Centre, the Junction. A variety of amenities are provided at these malls and include: cinemas, fashion and apparel retailers, bookshops, electronics and grocery stores, coffeehouses, restaurants and bars.\n\nLiterature and film\n\nKwani? is Kenya's first literary journal and was established by writers living in Nairobi. Nairobi's publishing houses have also produced the works of some of Kenya's authors, including Ngũgĩ wa Thiong'o and Meja Mwangi who were part of post-colonial writing.\n\nMany film makers also practice their craft out of Nairobi. Film-making is still young in the country, but people like producer Njeri Karago and director Judy Kibinge are paving the way for others.\n\nPerhaps the most famous book and film set in Nairobi is Out of Africa. The book was written by Karen Blixen, whose pseudonym was Isak Dinesen, and it is her account of living in Kenya. Karen Blixen lived in the Nairobi area from 1917 to 1931. The neighbourhood in which she lived, Karen, is named after her.\n\nIn 1985, Out of Africa was made into a film, directed by Sydney Pollack. The film won 28 awards, including 7 Academy Awards. The popularity of the film prompted the opening of Nairobi's Karen Blixen Museum.\n\nNairobi is also the setting of many of the novels of Ngũgĩ wa Thiong'o, Kenya's foremost writer.\n\nNairobi has been the set of several other American and British films. The most recent of these was The Constant Gardener (2005), a large part of which was filmed in the city. The story revolves around a British diplomat in Nairobi whose wife is murdered in northern Kenya. Much of the filming was in the Kibera slum.\n\nAmong the latest Kenyan actors in Hollywood who identify with Nairobi is Lupita Nyong'o. Lupita received an Oscar award for best supporting actress in her role as Patsy in the film 12 Years a Slave during the 86th Academy Awards at the Dolby theatre in Los Angeles. Lupita is the daughter of Kenyan politician Peter Anyang' Nyong'o\n\nMost new Hollywood films are nowadays screened at Nairobi's cinemas. Up until the early 1990s, there were only a few film theatres and the repertoire was limited. There are also two drive-in cinemas in Nairobi.\n\nFood\n\nIn Nairobi, there is a range of restaurants and, besides being home to nyama choma which is a local term used to refer to roasted meat, there are fast food restaurants such as KFC, which is popular,and the longer established South African chains, Galitos and Steers. Coffee houses, doubling up as restaurants, mostly frequented by the upper middle classes, such as Artcaffe, Java Coffee House and Dormans have become increasingly popular in recent days. Traditional food joints such as the popular K'osewe's in the city centre and Amaica, which specialise in African delicacies are also widepsread. The Kenchic franchise which specialises in old-school chicken and chips meals is also popular, particularly among the lower classes and students, with restaurants all over the city and its suburbs. Upscale restaurants specialising in specific cuisines, ranging from Italian, Lebanese, Ethiopian, French and seafood are more likely to be found in five star hotels and the wealthier suburbs in the West and South of the city.\n\nNairobi has an annual restaurant week (NRW) at the beginning of the year, January–February. Nairobi's restaurants offer dining packages at reduced prices. NRW is managed by Eatout Kenya which is an online platform that lists and reviews restaurants in Nairobi, and provides a platform for Kenyan foodies to congregate and share.\n\nMusic\n\nNairobi is the centre of Kenya's music scene. Benga is a Kenyan genre which was developed in Nairobi. The style is a fusion of jazz and Luo music forms. Mugithi is another popular genre in Kenya, with its origins in the central parts of the country. A majority of music videos of leading local musicians are also filmed in the city.\n\nIn the 1970s, Nairobi became the prominent centre for music in the African Great Lakes. During this period, Nairobi was established as a hub of soukous music. This genre was originally developed in Kinshasa and Brazzaville. After the political climate in the region deteriorated, many Congolese artists relocated to Nairobi. Artists such as Orchestra Super Mazembe moved from Congo to Nairobi and found great success. Virgin records became aware of the popularity of the genre and signed recording contracts with several soukous artists.\n\nMore recently, Nairobi has become the centre of the Kenyan hip hop scene, with Kalamashaka, Gidi Gidi Majimaji being the pioneers of urban music in Kenyan. The genre has become very popular amongst local youth, and domestic musicians have become some of the most popular in the region. Successful artists based in Nairobi include Jua Cali, Nonini, Camp Mulla, Juliani, Eric Wainaina, Suzanna Owinyo and Nameless. Popular Record labels include Ogopa DJs, Grand Pa Records, Main Switch, Red Black and Green Republik, Calif Records and Bornblack Music Group.\n\nMany foreign musicians who tour Africa perform in Nairobi. Bob Marley's first-ever visit to Africa started in Nairobi. Acts that have performed in Nairobi include Lost Boyz, Wyclef Jean, Shaggy, Akon, Eve, T.O.K, Sean Paul, Wayne Wonder, Alaine, Konshens, Ja Rule, and Morgan Heritage, and Cabo Snoop. Other international musicians who have performed in Nairobi include the rocking show by Don Carlos, Demarco, Busy Signal, Mr. Vegas and the Elephant man crew.\n\nNairobi, including the coastal towns of Mombasa and Diani, have recently become the centre of Electronic Dance Music (EDM) in Kenya, which includes Trance, Techno, House, Progressive, Drum & Bass, and Dubstep. Prominent international composers & DJs have graced their presence in these cities, including Kyau & Albert, Solarity, Ronski Speed, and Boom Jinx.\n\nMany nightclubs in and around the city have witnessed a growth in the population that exclusively listen to Electronic Dance Music, especially amongst the younger generations. These youth also support many local EDM producers & DJs, such as Jahawi, Mikhail Kuzi, Barney Barrow, Jack Rooster, HennessyLive, Trancephilic5 As well as up and comers such as L.A Dave, Eric K, Raj El Rey, Tom Parker and more.\n\nGospel music is also very popular in Nairobi just as in the rest of Kenya, with gospel artistes having a great impact in the mostly Christian city . Artistes such as Esther Wahome, Eunice Njeri, Daddy Owen, Emmy Kosgei and the late Angela Chibalonza, among others, have a great pull over the general population while others like MOG, Juliani, Ecko dyda, DK Kwenye Beat have great influence over the younger generation. Their concerts are also very popular and they have as much influence as the great secular artistes.The most popular being Groove tours,TSO(Totally Sold Out) new year concerts.\n\nSport\n\nNairobi is the African Great Lakes region's sporting centre. The premier sports facility in Nairobi and generally in Kenya is the Moi International Sports Centre in the suburb of Kasarani. The complex was completed in 1987, and was used to host the 1987 All Africa Games. The complex comprises a 60,000 seater stadium, the second largest in the African Great Lakes (after Tanzania's new national stadium), a 5,000 seater gymnasium, and a 2,000 seater aquatics centre. \n\nThe Nyayo National Stadium is Nairobi's second largest stadium renowned for hosting global rugby event under the \"Safaricom Sevens.\" Completed in 1983, the stadium has a capacity of 30,000. This stadium is primarily used for football. The facility is located close to the Central Business District, which makes it a convenient location for political gatherings.\n\nNairobi City Stadium is the city's first stadium, and used for club football. Nairobi Gymkhana is the home of the Kenyan cricket team, and was a venue for the 2003 Cricket World Cup. Notable annual events staged in Nairobi include Safari Rally (although it lost its World Rally Championship status in 2003), Safari Sevens rugby union tournament, and Nairobi Marathon.\n\nFootball is the most popular sport in the city by viewership and participation. This is highlighted by the number of football clubs in the city, including Kenyan Premier League sides Gor Mahia, A.F.C. Leopards, Tusker and Mathare United.\n\nThere are six golf courses within a 20 km radius of Nairobi. The oldest 18-hole golf course in the city is the Royal Nairobi Golf Club. It was established in 1906 by the British, just seven years after the city was founded. Other notable golf clubs include the Windsor Country Club, Karen Country Club, and Muthaiga Golf Club. The Kenya Open golf tournament, which is part of the Challenge Tour, takes place in Nairobi. The Ngong Racecourse in Nairobi is the centre of horse racing in Kenya. \n\nRugby is also a popular sport in Nairobi with 8 of the 12 top flight clubs based here.\n\nEducation\n\nThe majority of schools follow either the Kenyan Curriculum or the British Curriculum. There is also International School of Kenya which follows the North American Curriculum and the German school in Gigiri. Kenya High School, one of the schools in Kenya, is located in Nairobi.\n\nHigher education\n\nNairobi is home to several Universities.\n* The University of Nairobi is the largest and oldest university in Kenya. It was established in 1956, as part of the University of East Africa, but became an independent university in 1970. The university has approximately 84,000 students. \n* Kenyatta University is situated 16 km from Nairobi on the Nairobi – Thika dual carriageway on 1100 acre of land. The university was chartered in 1985, offering mainly education-related courses, but has since diversified, offering medicine, environmental studies, engineering, law, business, agriculture, and economics. It has a student body of about 32,000, the bulk of whom (17,000) are in the main (Kahawa) campus. Currently it is one of the fastest growing public universities.\n* Strathmore University started in 1961 as an Advanced Level (UK) Sixth Form College offering Science and Arts subjects. The college started to admit accountancy students in March 1966, and thus became a university. In January 1993, Strathmore College merged with Kianda College and moved to Ole Sangale Road, Madaraka Estate, Nairobi.\n* United States International University – Nairobi is a branch of the United States International University, which has campuses across the world. The Nairobi campus was established in 1969. The university has accreditation from the Western Association of Schools and Colleges, in USA, and the Government of Kenya. It is located in a quiet west side location of Kasarani area north-central Nairobi opposite the Safari Park Hotel.\n* In 2005, The Aga Khan Hospital, Nairobi was upgraded to a health sciences teaching hospital, providing post graduate education in medicine and surgery including nursing education, henceforth renamed the Aga Khan University Hospital.\n* The Catholic University of Eastern Africa located in Langata suburb, obtained its \"Letter of Interim Authority\" in 1989. Following negotiations between the Authority of the Graduate School of Theology and the Commission for Higher Education (CHIEA), the Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences was established three years later, culminating in the granting of the Civil Charter to CHIEA on 3 November 1992.\nKCA University (formerly the Kenya College of Accountancy), located in Ruaraka.\nPan African Christian University in Kasarani.\nSeveral universities have also opened satellite campuses in Nairobi.\n\nInfrastructure\n\nTransport\n\nMajor plans are being implemented in the need to decongest the city's traffic and the completion of Thika Road has given the city a much needed face-lift attributed to road's enhancement of global standards. Several projects have been completed (Syokimau Rail Station, the Eastern and Northern Bypasses) while numerous other projects are still underway. The country's head of state announced (when he opened Syokimau Rail Service) that Kenya was collaborating with other countries in the region to develop railway infrastructure to improve regional connectivity under the ambitious LAPPSET project which is the single largest and most expensive in the continent.\n\nKenya has signed a bilateral agreement with Uganda to facilitate joint development of the Mombasa-Malaba-Kampala standard gauge railway. A branch line will also be extended to Kisumu.\n\nSimilarly, Kenya signed a Memorandum of Understanding with the Government of Ethiopia for the development of Lamu-Addis Ababa standard gauge railway. Under the Lamu-South Sudan and Ethiopia Transport Corridor Project, the development of a railway component is among the priority projects.\n\nThe development of these critical transport facilities will, besides reducing transport costs due to faster movement of goods and people within the region, also increase trade, improve the socio-economic welfare of Northern Kenya and boost the country's potential in attracting investments from all over the world.\n\nAirports\n\nNairobi is served primarily by Jomo Kenyatta International Airport. It is the largest airport in East and Central Africa. The airport served 5,803,635 passengers in 2011, making it the ninth-busiest airport in Africa by total passengers. The airport is a major transit hub for passengers flying to the African Great Lakes' natural attractions, and other smaller cities in the region. The airport is situated 20 km from Nairobi's Central Business District. The airport directly serves intercontinental passengers from Europe and Asia. Recently, the airport was upgraded by the world aviation regulatory body, ICAO, and major plans are underway to expand the airport to accommodate growing air traffic and to cater for direct flights to far flung destinations such as the United States and Canada. Also, a debate is underway in government for a plan to add a second runway at the airport. However, this idea has not yet been ratified and approved by the Cabinet of the Kenya government. \n\nWilson Airport is a smaller and busy general aviation airport, which is located in a south-central suburb of Nairobi West. It handles small aircraft that generally operate within Kenya. Some airlines also offer flights to other destinations in East, Central and North-East Africa.\n\nEastleigh Airport was the original landing strip in the pre-jet airline era. It was used as a landing point in the 1930s and 1940s on the British passenger and mail route from Southampton to Cape Town. This route was served by flying boats between Britain and Kisumu and then by land-based aircraft on the routes to the south. The airport is now a military base.\n\nMatatu\n\nMatatus are the most common form of public transport in Nairobi.\nMatatu, which literally translates to \"three cents for a ride\" (nowadays much more) are privately owned minibuses, and the most popular form of local transport, and generally seat fourteen to twenty-four. Matatus ama (or) mathree operate within Nairobi, its environs and suburbs and from Nairobi to other towns around the country. The matatu's route is imprinted along a yellow stripe on the side of the bus, and matatus plying specific routes have specific route numbers. However, in November 2014 President Uhuru Kenyatta lifted the ban on the yellow stripe and allowed matatus to maintain the colourful graphics in an effort to support the youth in creating employment. Matatus in Nairobi were easily distinguishable by their extravagant paint schemes, as owners would paint their matatu with various colourful decorations, such as their favourite football team or hip hop artist. More recently, some have even painted Barack Obama's face on their vehicle. They are notorious for their poor safety records, which are a result of overcrowding and reckless driving. Due to the intense competition between matatus, many are equipped with powerful sound systems and television screens to attract more customers.\n\nHowever, in 2004, a law was passed requiring all matatus to include seat belts and speed governors and to be painted with a yellow stripe. At first, this caused a furore amongst Matatu operators, but they were pressured by government and the public to make the changes. Matatus are now limited to 80 km/h. However, many of the matatu vehicles have had their speed governors disabled, which is evident by them travelling at speeds well over 80 km/h.\n\nIn December 2010, the Government embarked on a policy to phase out matatus as a means of public transport. Consequently, no new matatus are licensed to operate from January 2011 while the current ones will be allowed to live out their lifespan; a move aimed at enhancing the safety of citizens and visitors as well. However, the matatus continue to occupy the road ways in large numbers contributing to the congestion of Nairobi.\n\nBuses\n\nBuses are increasingly becoming common in the city with some even going to the extents of installing complimentary WiFi systems in partnership with the leading mobile service provider. There are four major bus companies operating the city routes and are the traditional Kenya Bus Service (KBS), and newer private operators Citi Hoppa, Compliant MOA and Double M. The Citi Hoppa buses are distinguishable by their green livery, the Double M buses are painted purple, Compliant MOA by their distinctively screaming names and mix of white, blue colours while the KBS buses are painted blue.\n\nCompanies such as; Easy Coach, Crown Bus, Coast Bus, Modern Coast, Eldoret Express, Chania,the Guardian Angel,Spanish and Mash Poa run scheduled buses and luxury coaches to other cities and towns.\n\nSmartbus\n\nSmartbus-Kenya is the latest bus operator in Kenya and serves Nairobi and the areas around it. Presently, the company operates buses to Kitengela, Kiserian, Rongai, and Ngong. Passengers have a smartcard which they must swipe to gain access to the vehicle. Passengers top up their smartcard and the fare is deducted from the amount of money in the account. The fare is determined by the point at which the passenger enters and the point at which the passenger exits the bus.\n\nTrains\n\nNairobi was founded as a railway town, and the main headquarters of Kenya Railways (KR) is still situated at Nairobi railway station, which is located near the city centre. The line runs through Nairobi, from Mombasa to Kampala. Its main use is freight traffic, but regular nightly passenger trains connect Nairobi to Mombasa and Kisumu. A number of morning and evening commuter trains connect the centre with the suburbs, but the city has no proper light rail, tramway, or rapid transit lines. A proposal has been passed for the construction of a commuter rail line. The country's third president since independence, President Mwai Kibaki on Tuesday, 13 November 2012 launched the Syokimau Rail Service marking a major milestone in the history of railway development in the country. The opening of the station marked another milestone in efforts to realise various projects envisaged under the Vision 2030 Economic Blueprint. The new station has a train that ferries passengers from Syokimau to the city centre cutting travel time by half. Opening of the station marks the completion of the first phase of the Sh24b Nairobi Commuter Rail Network that is geared at easing traffic congestion in Nairobi, blamed for huge economic losses.\n\nAfter the completion of the Syokimau Station, focus will be put on building other nine modern stations including those on Jogoo Road, Imara Daima and Makadara Estate.\n\nTaxi\n\nTaxis are available in most parts of the city. They are costly in comparison to matatus and buses but are a safer and more convenient form of transport. They park outside most hotels, at taxi ranks in the city centre, and at shopping malls and the most recent introduced taxi services is the Uber.\n\nRoads\n\nNairobi is served by highways that link Mombasa to Kampala in Uganda and Arusha in Tanzania. These are earmarked to ease the daily motor traffic within and surrounding the metro area. However, driving in Nairobi is chaotic. Most of the roads are tarmacked and there are signs showing directions to certain neighbourhoods. The city is connected to the Jomo Kenyatta International Airport by the Mombasa Highway, which passes through Industrial Area, South B, South C and Embakasi. Ongata Rongai, Langata and Karen are connected to the city centre by Langata Road, which runs to the south. Lavington, Riverside, Westlands, etc. are connected by Waiyaki Way. Kasarani, Eastlands, and Embakasi are connected by Thika Road, Jogoo Road, and Outer Ring Road.\n\nHighways connect the city with other major towns such as Mombasa, Machakos, Voi, (A109), Kisumu, Nakuru, Eldoret, Namanga Border Tanzania(A104) etc.\n\nNairobi is currently undergoing major road constructions to update its infrastructure network. The new systems of roads, flyovers, and bridges would cut outrageous traffic levels caused the inability of the current infrastructure to cope with the soaring economic growth in the past few years. It is also a major component of Kenya's Vision 2030 and Nairobi Metropolis plans. Most roads now, though, are well lit and surfaced with adequate signage.\n\nThe proposed Nairobi Bypasses are currently under construction by the Kenyan government and financed by Chinese Government. Their construction seeks to ease congestion in Nairobi's downtown area and the surrounding suburbs.\nThe Bypasses will comprise the:\n* Northern bypass – linking Limuru road to Thika Road\n* Eastern bypass – linking Mombasa road to Ruiru-Kiambu road near Kamiti prison\n* Southern bypass – run from Kikuyu to Mombasa road via Ngong road & Langata\n\nWater supply and sanitation\n\n94% of the piped water supply for Nairobi comes from rivers and reservoirs in the Aberdare Range north of the city, of which the reservoir of the Thika Dam is the most important one. Water distribution losses – technically called non-revenue water – are 40%, and only 40% of those with house connections receive water continuously. Slum residents receive water through water kiosks and end up paying much higher water prices than those fortunate enough to have access to piped water at their residence. In the middle of a severe drought, the board of the Nairobi City Water and Sewerage Company was sacked July 2009 for \"malpractices\", following the publication of a report by Transparency International-Kenya and the Kenyan NGO Maji Na Ufanisi (Water and Development). The report had found cases of bribery for illegal connections, tampering with meter readings, and diversion of water from domestic users to industries in five cities, with the highest incidence of bribery in Nairobi. \n\nHousing\n\nThere is wide variety regarding standards of living in Nairobi. Most wealthy Kenyans live in Nairobi, but the majority of Nairobians are average and poor. Half of the population have been estimated to live in slums which cover just 5% of the city area. The growth of these slums is a result of urbanisation, poor town planning, and the unavailability of loans for low income earners. \n\nKibera is one of the largest slums in Africa, and is situated to the west of Nairobi. (Kibera comes from the Nubian word Kibra, meaning \"forest\" or \"jungle\"). The slums cover two square kilometres and are on government land. Kibera has been the setting for several films, the most recent being The Constant Gardener.\n\nOther notable slums include Mathare and Korogocho. Altogether, 66 areas are counted as slums within Nairobi. \n\nMany Nairobi non-slum-dwellers live in relatively good housing conditions. Large houses can be found in many of the upmarket neighbourhoods, especially to the west of Nairobi. Historically, British occupiers have settled in Gigiri, Muthaiga, Langata and Karen. Other middle and high income estates include Parklands, Westlands, Hurlingham, Kilimani, Milimani, Spring Valley, Lavington, Rosslyn, Kitisuru, and Nairobi Hill.\n\nTo accommodate the growing middle class, many new apartments and housing developments are being built in and around the city. The most notable development is Greenpark, at Athi River, Machakos County 25 km from Nairobi's Central Business District. Over 5,000 houses, villas and apartments are being constructed at this development, including leisure, retail and commercial facilities. The development is being marketed to families, as are most others within the city. Eastlands also houses most of the city's middle class and includes South C, South B, Embakasi, Buru Buru, Komarock, Donholm, Umoja, and various others.\n\nCrime and law enforcement\n\nThroughout the 1990s, Nairobi had struggled with rising crime, earning a reputation for being a dangerous city and the nickname \"Nairobbery,\" a name which persists today. On 7 August 1998, the US Embassy was bombed, killing 224 people and injuring 4000. In 2001, the United Nations International Civil Service Commission rated Nairobi as among the most insecure cities in the world, classifying the city as \"status C\". In the United Nations report, it was stated that in 2001, nearly one third of all Nairobi residents experienced some form of robbery in the city. The head of one development agency cited the notoriously high levels of violent armed robberies, burglaries, and carjackings. Crime had risen in Nairobi as a result of unplanned urbanisation, with a minimal number of police stations and a proper security infrastructure. However, many claim that the biggest factor for the city's alarming crime rate is police corruption, which leaves many criminals unpunished. As a security precaution, most large houses have a watch guard, burglar grills, and dogs to patrol their grounds during the night. Most crimes, however, occur around the poor neighbourhoods where it gets dangerous during night hours.\n\nIn 2006, crime decreased in the city, due to increased security and an improved police presence. Despite this, in 2007, the Kenyan government and US State Department have announced that Nairobi is experiencing a greater level of violent crime than in previous years. Since then, the government has taken measures to combat crime with heavy police presence in and around the city while US government has updated its travel warning for the country.\n\nFollowing a grenade attack in October 2011 by a local Kenyan man, with terrorist links, the city faced a heightened security presence. Fears spread over further promised retaliations by the Al-Shabaab group of rebels over Kenya's involvement in a coordinated operation with the Somalian military against the insurgent outfit.\n\nThere have been a spate of Blasts in Nairobi which started on 10 March 2012, where assailants threw grenades at a busy bus station and a blue-collar bar in Nairobi, killing nine and injuring more than 50. On 28 May 2012, 28 people were injured in an explosion in a shopping complex in downtown Nairobi, near Moi avenue. On 21 September 2013, Al-Shabaab-associated militants attacked the Westgate Mall. 67 people were killed. \n\nMedia\n\nNairobi is home to most of Kenya's news and media organisations. The city is also home to the African Great Lakes region's largest newspapers: the Daily Nation and The Standard. These are circulated within Kenya and cover a range of domestic and regional issues. Both newspapers are published in English.\n\nKenya Broadcasting Corporation, a state-run television and radio station, is headquartered in the city. Kenya Television Network is part of the Standard Group and was Kenya's first privately owned TV station. The Nation Media Group runs NTV which is based in Nairobi. East Africa Television Channel 5 is 24-hour music channel based in Dar es Salaam Tanzania and broadcasts in Uganda, Tanzania, and Kenya. There are also a number of prominent radio stations located in Kenya's capital including KISS 100, Capital FM, East FM, Kameme FM, Metro FM, and Family FM, among others.\n\nSeveral multinational media organisations have their regional headquarters in Nairobi. These include the BBC, CNN, Agence France-Presse, Reuters, Deutsche Welle, and the Associated Press. The East African bureau of CNBC Africa is located in Nairobi's city centre, while the Nairobi bureau of the New York Times is located in the suburb of Gigiri. The broadcast headquarters of CCTV Africa are located in Nairobi.\n\nNairobi is also home to the East African School of Media Studies due to its large media focus.\n\nTwin towns – Sister cities\n\nNairobi is twinned with:\n\nImage gallery\n\nFile:NBO5.jpg\| Nairobi at sunrise\nFile:Auditorium - Kenyatta International Conference Center.jpg\| KICC Auditorium\nFile:State House Nairobi.jpg\|State House\nFile:I&M Bank Tower.jpg\|I&M Bank Tower\nFile:Nairobi city hall.jpg\|Nairobi City Hall\nFile:Parliament Buildings, Nairobi, Kenya -entrance-15April2010.jpg\|Entrance to Parliament\nFile:University of Nairobi.JPG\|University of Nairobi\nFile:Times_tower.jpg\|Times Tower\nFile:JOMO KENYATTA.JPG\|Jomo Kenyatta Statue\nFile:Sunset in Nairobi.jpg\|Nairobi at sunset\nFile:NSSF Building, Nairobi.JPG\|NSSF Building\nFile:Anniversery towers.jpg\|Anniversary Towers" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Nairobi Province, Kenya", "KE-110", "Nairobi, KE-110", "Nyrobi", "Nairobi Municipality", "Nairobi, Kenya", "Safari Capital of the World", "Nairobi Province", "Demographics of Nairobi", "Capital of Kenya", "Nairobi Area", "Citi Hoppa", "Nairobi Area, Kenya", "Nairobi" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "nairobi municipality", "citi hoppa", "ke 110", "demographics of nairobi", "nairobi province kenya", "capital of kenya", "nairobi province", "safari capital of world", "nairobi kenya", "nairobi area kenya", "nairobi", "nairobi ke 110", "nairobi area", "nyrobi" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "nairobi", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Nairobi" }
From which European country did Angola achieve independence in 1975?	tc_231	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Ethnic_groups_in_Europe.txt", "Nation_state.txt", "Angola.txt" ], "title": [ "Ethnic groups in Europe", "Nation state", "Angola" ], "wiki_context": [ "The ethnic groups in Europe are the focus of European ethnology, the field of anthropology related to the various ethnic groups that reside in the nations of Europe. According to German monograph Minderheitenrechte in Europa co-edited by Pan and Pfeil (2002) there are 87 distinct peoples of Europe, of which 33 form the majority population in at least one sovereign state, while the remaining 54 constitute ethnic minorities. The total number of national minority populations in Europe is estimated at 105 million people, or 14% of 770 million Europeans. \n\nModern ethnic Europeans are a recent and ongoing evolution. The original anatomically modern human migrants to Europe from Africa arrived 40,000 years ago; these prehistoric Europeans were predominantly dark skinned, short of stature, lactose intolerant, and looked dramatically different in comparison to modern Europeans. The genetic lineage of Europe mysteriously transformed about 4,500 years ago, with changes in diet, body size and skin pigmentation, when Central Asian and West Asian migrants arrived with taller height and light skin genes, respectively. There is no precise or universally accepted definition of the terms \"ethnic group\" or \"nationality\". In the context of European ethnography in particular, the terms ethnic group, people (without nation state), nationality, national minority, ethnic minority, linguistic community, linguistic group, linguistic minority and genetic haplogroup are used as mostly synonymous, although preference may vary in usage with respect to the situation specific to the individual countries of Europe. \n\nOverview\n\nThere are eight peoples of Europe (defined by their language) with more than 30 million members residing in Europe. These eight groups between themselves account for some 465 million or about 65% of European population:\n# Russians (c. 95 million residing in Europe),\n# Germans (c. 82 million),\n# French (c. 60 million),\n# British (c. 60 million), \n# Italians (55 million), \n# Spanish (c. 50 million),\n# Ukrainians (38–55 million),\n# Poles (c. 38 million).\n\nAbout 20–25 million residents (3%) are members of diasporas of non-European origin. The population of the European Union, with some five hundred million residents, accounts for two thirds of the European population.\n\nBoth Spain and the United Kingdom are special cases, in that the designation of nationality, Spanish and British, may controversially take ethnic aspects, subsuming various regional ethnic groups, see nationalisms and regionalisms of Spain and native populations of the United Kingdom. Switzerland is a similar case, but the linguistic subgroups of the Swiss are not usually discussed in terms of ethnicity, and Switzerland is considered a \"multi-lingual state\" rather than a \"multi-ethnic state\".\n\nLinguistic classifications\n\nOf the total population of Europe of some 730 million (as of 2005), over 80% or some 600 million fall within three large branches of Indo-European languages, viz., Slavic, Italic (Romance) and Germanic. The largest groups that do not fall within these three are the Greeks (about 12 million) and the Albanians (about 8 million). Beside the Indo-European languages there are two other major language families on the European continent: Turkic languages and Uralic languages. The Semitic languages that dominate the coast of northern Africa as well as the Near East are preserved in Malta, a Mediterranean archipelago. Basque is a linguistic isolate unrelated to any other languages inside or outside of Europe.\n\nIndo-European languages\n\nThere are approximately 641 million residents in the family of the Indo-European languages divided into linguistic branches and peoples. \n\nLanguage isolates\n\nCaspian\n\nKartvelian\n\nPontic\n\nVasconic\n\nMongolic languages\n\nSemitic languages\n\nEurope has a population of about 2 million ethnic Jews (mostly also counted as part of the ethno-linguistic group of their respective home countries):\nAshkenazi Jews (about 1.4 million, mostly German and French)\nItalian Jews (some 50,000, mostly Italian)\nKaraites (less than 4,000 in Poland and Lithuania)\nMizrahi Jews (about 0.3 million, mostly French)\nRomaniotes (some 6,000, mostly Greek)\nSephardi Jews (about 0.3 million, mostly French and Italian)\n\nTurkic languages\n\nUralic languages\n\nBy country\n\nPan and Pfeil (2002) distinguish 33 peoples which form the majority population in at least one sovereign state geographically situated in Europe. These majorities range from nearly homogeneous populations as in Albania or Poland, to comparatively slight majorities as in Latvia or Belgium. Montenegro is multiethnic state in which no group forms a majority.\n\nHistory\n\nPrehistoric populations\n\nThe Basques are assumed to descend from the populations of the Atlantic Bronze Age directly. \nThe Indo-European groups of Europe (the Centum groups plus Balto-Slavic and Albanian) are assumed to have developed in situ by admixture of early Indo-European groups arriving in Europe by the Bronze Age (Corded ware, Beaker people). \nThe Finnic peoples are mostly assumed to be descended from populations that had migrated to their historical homelands by about 3,000 years ago.\n\nReconstructed languages of Iron Age Europe include Proto-Celtic, Proto-Italic and Proto-Germanic, all of these Indo-European languages of the centum group, and Proto-Slavic and Proto-Baltic, of the satem group. A group of Tyrrhenian languages appears to have included Etruscan, Rhaetian and perhaps also Eteocretan and Eteocypriot. A pre-Roman stage of Proto-Basque can only be reconstructed with great uncertainty.\n\nRegarding the European Bronze Age, the only secure reconstruction is that of Proto-Greek (ca. 2000 BC). A Proto-Italo-Celtic ancestor of both Italic and Celtic (assumed for the Bell beaker period), and a Proto-Balto-Slavic language (assumed for roughly the Corded Ware horizon) has been postulated with less confidence. Old European hydronymy has been taken as indicating an early (Bronze Age) Indo-European predecessor of the later centum languages.\n\nHistorical populations\n\nIron Age (pre-Great Migrations) populations of Europe known from Greco-Roman historiography, notably Herodotus, Pliny, Ptolemy and Tacitus:\nAegean: Greek tribes, Pelasgians/Tyrrhenians, and Anatolians.\nArmenian Highlands/Anatolia: Armenians \nBalkans: Illyrians (List of ancient tribes in Illyria), Dacians, and Thracians.\nCaucasus: Georgians\nItalian peninsula: Italic peoples, Etruscans, Adriatic Veneti, Ligurians and Greek colonies.\nWestern/Central Europe: Celts (list of peoples of Gaul, List of Celtic tribes), Rhaetians and Swabians, Vistula Veneti, Lugii and Balts.\nIberian peninsula: Pre-Roman peoples of the Iberian Peninsula (Iberians, Lusitani, Aquitani, Celtiberians) Basques and Phoenicians ( Carthaginians).\nSardinia: Nuragic people, comprising the Corsi, Balares and Ilienses tribes.\nBritish Isles: Celtic tribes in Britain and Ireland and Picts/Priteni.\nNorthern Europe: Finnic peoples, Germanic peoples (list of Germanic peoples).\nSouthern Europe: Sicani.\nEastern Europe: Scythians, Sarmatians.\n\nHistorical immigration\n\nEthno-linguistic groups that arrived from outside Europe during historical times are:\nPhoenician colonies in the Mediterranean, from about 1200 BC to the fall of Carthage after the Third Punic War in 146 BC.\nIranian influence: Achaemenid control of Thrace (512–343 BC) and the Bosporan Kingdom, Cimmerians, Scythians, Sarmatians, Alans, Ossetes.\nthe Jewish diaspora reached Europe in the Roman Empire period, the Jewish community in Italy dating to around AD 70 and records of Jews settling Central Europe (Gaul) from the 5th century (see History of the Jews in Europe). \nThe Hunnic Empire (5th century), converged with the Barbarian invasions, contributing to the formation of the First Bulgarian Empire\n* Avar Khaganate (c.560s-800), converged with the Slavic migrations, fused into the South Slavic states from the 9th century.\n* the Bulgars (or proto-Bulgarians), a semi-nomadic people, originally from Central Asia, eventually absorbed by the Slavs.\n* the Magyars (Hungarians), a Ugric people, and the Turkic Pechenegs and Khazars, arrived in Europe in about the 8th century (see Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin).\n* the Arabs conquered Cyprus, Crete, Sicily, some places along the coast of southern Italy, Malta, Hispania and, in the early 11th century, Emirate of Sicily (831–1072) and Al-Andalus (711–1492)\n* the Berber dynasties of the Almoravides and the Almohads ruled much of Spain and Portugal. \n* exodus of Maghreb Christians \n* the western Kipchaks known as Cumans entered the lands of present-day Ukraine in the 11th century.\n* the Mongol/Tatar invasions (1223–1480), and Ottoman control of the Balkans (1389–1878). These medieval incursions account for the presence of European Turks and Tatars.\nthe Romani people (Gypsies) arrived during the Late Middle Ages\n the Mongol Kalmyks arrived in Kalmykia in the 17th century.\n\nHistory of European ethnography\n\nThe earliest accounts of European ethnography date to Classical Antiquity. Herodotus described the Scythians and Thraco-Illyrians. Dicaearchus gave a description of Greece itself besides accounts of western and northern Europe. His work survives only fragmentarily, but was received by Polybius and others.\n\nRoman Empire period authors include Diodorus Siculus, Strabo and Tacitus.\nJulius Caesar gives an account of the Celtic tribes of Gaul, while Tacitus describes the Germanic tribes of Magna Germania.\n\nThe 4th century Tabula Peutingeriana records the names of numerous peoples and tribes.\nEthnographers of Late Antiquity such as Agathias of Myrina Ammianus Marcellinus, Jordanes or Theophylact Simocatta give early accounts of the Slavs, the Franks, the Alamanni and the Goths.\n\nBook IX of Isidore's Etymologiae (7th century) treats de linguis, gentibus, regnis, militia, civibus (of languages, peoples, realms, armies and cities).\nAhmad ibn Fadlan in the 10th century gives an account of the Bolghar and the Rus' peoples.\nWilliam Rubruck, while most notable for his account of the Mongols, in his account of his journey to Asia also gives accounts of the Tatars and the Alans.\nSaxo Grammaticus and Adam of Bremen give an account of pre-Christian Scandinavia. The Chronicon Slavorum (12th century) gives an account of the northwestern Slavic tribes.\n\nGottfried Hensel in his 1741 Synopsis Universae Philologiae published what is probably the earliest ethno-linguistic map of Europe, showing the beginning of the pater noster in the various European languages and scripts. \nIn the 19th century, ethnicity was discussed in terms of scientific racism, and the ethnic groups of Europe were grouped into a number of \"races\", Mediterranean, Alpine and Nordic, all part of a larger \"Caucasian\" group.\n\nThe beginnings of ethnic geography as an academic subdiscipline lie in the period following World War I, in the context of nationalism, and in the 1930s exploitation for the purposes of fascist and Nazi propaganda so that it was only in the 1960s that ethnic geography began to thrive as a bona fide academic subdiscipline. \n\nThe origins of modern ethnography are often traced to the work of Bronisław Malinowski who emphasized the importance of fieldwork. \nThe emergence of population genetics further undermined the categorisation of Europeans into clearly defined racial groups. A 2007 study on the genetic history of Europe found that the most important genetic differentiation in Europe occurs on a line from the north to the south-east (northern Europe to the Balkans), with another east-west axis of differentiation across Europe, separating the \"indigenous\" Basques and Sami from other European populations.\nDespite these stratifications it noted the unusually high degree of European homogeneity: \"there is low apparent diversity in Europe with the entire continent-wide samples only marginally more dispersed than single population samples elsewhere in the world.\" \n\nNational minorities\n\nThe total number of national minority populations in Europe is estimated at 105 million people, or 14% of Europeans.\n\nThe member states of the Council of Europe in 1995 signed the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities. The broad aims of the Convention are to ensure that the signatory states respect the rights of national minorities, undertaking to combat discrimination, promote equality, preserve and develop the culture and identity of national minorities, guarantee certain freedoms in relation to access to the media, minority languages and education and encourage the participation of national minorities in public life. The Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities defines a national minority implicitly to include minorities possessing a territorial identity and a distinct cultural heritage. By 2008, 39 member states have signed and ratified the Convention, with the notable exception of France.\n\nIndigenous minorities\n\nMost of Europe's indigenous peoples, or ethnic groups known to have the earliest known historical connection to a particular region, have gone extinct or been absorbed by (or, perhaps, contributed to) the dominant cultures. Those that survive are largely confined to remote areas. Groups that have been identified as indigenous include the Sami of northern Scandinavia, the Basques of northern Spain and southern France, the Bretons of western France and a many of the western indigenous peoples of Russia. Groups in Russia include Finno-Ugric peoples such as the Komi and Mordvins of the western Ural Mountains, Samoyedic peoples such as the Nenets people of northern Russia.\n\nNon-indigenous minorities\n\nMany non-European ethnic groups and nationalities have immigrated to Europe over the centuries. Some arrived centuries ago, while others immigrated more recently in the 20th century, often from former colonies of the British, French, and Spanish empires.\n\nWestern Asians\n* Jews: approx. 2.0 million, mostly in the UK, France and Germany. They are descended from the Israelites of the Middle East (Southwest Asia), originating from the historical kingdoms of Israel and Judah. Natural History 102:11 (November 1993): 12-19.\n*Ashkenazi Jews: approx. 1.4 million, mostly in Germany and France, probably via southern Europe in the Roman era and coalescing in France and Germany towards the end of the first millennium. The Nazi Holocaust wiped out the vast majority during World War II and forced many to flee.\nSephardi Jews: approx. 0.3 million, mostly in France. They arrived via Spain and Portugal in the pre-Roman and Roman eras, and were forcibly converted or expelled in the 15th and 16th centuries.\nMizrahi Jews: approx. 0.3 million, mostly in France, via Islamic-majority countries of the Middle East.\nItalqim: approx. 50,000, mostly in Italy, since the 2nd century BCE.\nRomaniotes: approx. 6,000, mostly in Greece, with communities dating at least from the 1st century CE.\nCrimean Karaites (Karaim): less than 4,000, mostly in Poland and Lithuania. They arrived in Crimea in the Middle Ages.\nAssyrians: mostly in Sweden and Germany, as well in Russia.\nKurds: approx. 2.5 million, mostly in the UK, Germany, Sweden and Turkey.\nIraqi diaspora: mostly in the UK, Germany and Sweden.\nLebanese diaspora: especially in France, Netherlands, Germany, Cyprus and the UK. \nSyrian diaspora: Largest number of Syrians live in Germany, the Netherlands and Sweden.\nAfricans\nNorth Africans (Arabs and Berbers): approx. 5 million, mostly in France, Spain, Italy, the Netherlands and Sweden. The bulk of North African migrants are Moroccans, although France also has a large number of Algerians.\nHorn Africans: approx. 200,000 Somalis, mostly in the UK, Netherlands and Scandinavia.\n*Sub-Saharan Africans (many ethnicities including Afro-Caribbeans and others by descent): approx. 5 million but rapidly growing, mostly in the UK and France, with smaller numbers in the Netherlands, Germany, Italy, Spain, Portugal and elsewhere. \nLatin Americans: approx. 2.2 million, mainly in Spain and to a lesser extent Italy and the UK. See also Latin American Britons (80,000 Latin American born in 2001). \nBrazilians: around 70,000 in Portugal and Italy each, and 50,000 in Germany.\n Chilean refugees escaping the Augusto Pinochet regime of the 1970s formed communities in France, Sweden, the UK, former East Germany and the Netherlands.\n*Venezuelans: around 520,000 mostly in Spain (200,000), Portugal (100,000), France (30,000), Germany (20,000), UK (15,000), Ireland (5,000), Italy (5,000) and the Netherlands (1,000). \nSouth Asians: approx. 3 - 4 million, mostly in the UK but reside in smaller numbers in Germany and France.\nRomani (Gypsies): approx. 4 or 10 million (although estimates vary widely), dispersed throughout Europe but with large numbers concentrated in the Balkans area, they are of ancestral South Asian and European origin.\nIndians: approx. 2 million, mostly in the UK, also in Germany and smaller numbers in Ireland.\nPakistanis: approx. 1,000,000, mostly in the UK, but also in Norway and Sweden.\nTamils: approx. 250,000, predominantly in the UK.\nBangladeshi residing in Europe estimated at over 500,000, the bulk live in the UK.\nAfghans, about 100,000 to 200,000, most happen to live in the UK, but Germany and Sweden are destinations for Afghan immigrants since the 1960s.\nEast Asians\nChinese: approx. 1.7 million, mostly in France, Russia, the UK, Spain, Italy and the Netherlands.\nFilipinos: above 1 million, mostly in the UK, France, Germany, Spain, and Italy.\nJapanese: mostly in the UK and a sizable community in Düsseldorf, Germany.\nKoreans: 100,000 estimated (excludes a possible 100,000 more in Russia), mainly in the UK, France and Germany. See also Koryo-saram.\nSoutheast Asians of multiple nationalities, ca. total 1 million, such as Indonesians in the Netherlands, Thais in the UK and Sweden, Vietnamese in France and former East Germany, and Cambodians in France. See also Vietnamese people in the Czech Republic.\nMongolians are a sizable community in Germany, Poland and the Czech Republic.\nNorth Americans\nU.S. and Canadian expatriates: American British and Canadian British, Canadiens and Acadians in France, as well Americans/Canadians of European ancestry residing elsewhere in Europe.\nAfrican Americans (i.e. African American British) who are Americans of black/African ancestry reside in other countries. In the 1920s, African-American entertainers established a colony in Paris (African American French) and descendants of World War II/Cold War-era black American soldiers stationed in France, Germany and Italy are well known.\nOthers\nEuropean diaspora - Australians, New Zealanders and South Africans (mostly White South Africans of Afrikaaner and British descent), mainly in the UK.\nPacific Islanders: A small population of Tahitians of Polynesian origin in mainland France, Fijians in the United Kingdom from Fiji and Māori in the United Kingdom of the Māori people of New Zealand.\n*Amerindians and Inuit, a scant few in the European continent of American Indian ancestry (often Latin Americans in Spain, France and the UK; Inuit in Denmark), but most may be children or grandchildren of U.S. soldiers from American Indian tribes by intermarriage with local European women. In Germany, the Native American Association of Germany founded in 1994 as a socio-cultural organization estimates 50,000 North American Indians (descendants) live in the country. \n\nEuropean identity\n\nHistorical\n\nMedieval notions of a relation of the peoples of Europe are expressed in terms of genealogy of mythical founders of the individual groups.\nThe Europeans were considered the descendants of Japheth from early times, corresponding to the division of the known world into three continents, the descendants of Shem peopling Asia and those of Ham peopling Africa. Identification of Europeans as \"Japhetites\" is also reflected in early suggestions for terming the Indo-European languages \"Japhetic\".\n\nIn this tradition, the Historia Brittonum (9th century) introduces a genealogy of the peoples of the Migration period (as it was remembered in early medieval historiography) as follows,\nThe first man that dwelt in Europe was Alanus, with his three sons, Hisicion, Armenon, and Neugio. Hisicion had four sons, Francus, Romanus, Alamanus, and Bruttus. Armenon had five sons, Gothus, Valagothus, Cibidus, Burgundus, and Longobardus. Neugio had three sons, Vandalus, Saxo, and Boganus.\nFrom Hisicion arose four nations—the Franks, the Latins, the Germans, and Britons; from Armenon, the Gothi, Valagothi, Cibidi, Burgundi, and Longobardi; from Neugio, the Bogari, Vandali, Saxones, and Tarincgi. The whole of Europe was subdivided into these tribes. \nThe text goes then on to list the genealogy of Alanus, connecting him to Japheth via eighteen generations.\n\nEuropean culture\n\nEuropean culture is largely rooted in what is often referred to as its \"common cultural heritage\". Due to the great number of perspectives which can be taken on the subject, it is impossible to form a single, all-embracing conception of European culture. Nonetheless, there are core elements which are generally agreed upon as forming the cultural foundation of modern Europe. One list of these elements given by K. Bochmann includes: \nA common cultural and spiritual heritage derived from Greco-Roman antiquity, Christianity, the Renaissance and its Humanism, the political thinking of the Enlightenment, and the French Revolution, and the developments of Modernity, including all types of socialism; \nA rich and dynamic material culture that has been extended to the other continents as the result of industrialization and colonialism during the \"Great Divergence\";\nA specific conception of the individual expressed by the existence of, and respect for, a legality that guarantees human rights and the liberty of the individual; \nA plurality of states with different political orders, which are condemned to live together in one way or another;\nRespect for peoples, states and nations outside Europe.\n\nBerting says that these points fit with \"Europe's most positive realisations\". \nThe concept of European culture is generally linked to the classical definition of the Western world. In this definition, Western culture is the set of literary, scientific, political, artistic and philosophical principles which set it apart from other civilizations. Much of this set of traditions and knowledge is collected in the Western canon. The term has come to apply to countries whose history has been strongly marked by European immigration or settlement during the 18th and 19th centuries, such as the Americas, and Australasia, and is not restricted to Europe.\n\nReligion\n\nSince the High Middle Ages, most of Europe used to be dominated by Christianity. There are three major denominations, Roman Catholic, Protestant and Eastern Orthodox, with Protestantism restricted mostly to Northern Europe, and Orthodoxy to Slavic regions, Romania, Greece and Georgia. Also The Armenian Apostolic Church, part of the Oriental Church, is in Europe - another branch of Christianity (world's oldest National Church). Part of the Catholicism, while centered in the Latin parts, has a significant following also in Germanic and Slavic regions, Hungary, and Ireland (with some in Great Britain).\n\nChristianity is still the largest religion in Europe; according to a 2011 survey, 76.2% of Europeans considered themselves Christians. Also according to a study on Religiosity in the European Union in 2012, by Eurobarometer, Christianity is the largest religion in the European Union, accounting for 72% of the EU's population. \n\nIslam has some tradition in the Balkans and Caucasus (the European dominions of the Ottoman Empire in the 16th to 19th centuries). Muslims account for the majority of the populations in Albania, Azerbaijan, Kosovo, Northern Cyprus and Turkey. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, 47% of the population is Muslim. Significant minorities are present in the rest of Europe. In addition to Turkey and Azerbaijan, Russia has one of the largest Muslim communities in Europe, including the Tatars of the Middle Volga and multiple groups in the Caucasus, including Chechens, Avars, Ingush and others. With 20th-century migrations, Muslims in Western Europe have become a noticeable minority. According to the Pew Forum, the total number of Muslims in Europe in 2010 was about 44 million (6%).Pew Forum, The Future of the Global Muslim Population, January 2011, [http://www.pewforum.org/2011/01/27/the-future-of-the-global-muslim-population/][http://www.pewforum.org/2011/01/27/the-future-of-the-global-muslim-population/][http://www.pewforum.org/2011/01/27/the-future-of-the-global-muslim-population/], [http://www.pewforum.org/2011/01/27/table-muslim-population-by-country/], [http://www.pewforum.org/2011/01/27/the-future-of-the-global-muslim-population/] excluding Turkey. While the total number of Muslims in the European Union in 2007 was about 16 million (3.2%). \n\nJudaism has a long history in Europe, but is a small minority religion, with France (1%) the only European country with a Jewish population in excess of 0.5%. The Jewish population of Europe is composed primarily of two groups, the Ashkenazi and the Sephardi. Ancestors of Ashkenazi Jews likely migrated to the middle of Europe at least as early as the 8th century, while Sephardi Jews established themselves in Spain and Portugal at least one thousand years before that. Jews originated in the Levant where they resided for thousands of years until the 2nd century AD, when they spread around the Mediterranean and into Europe, although small communities were known to exist in Greece since at least the 1st century BC. Jewish history was notably affected by the Holocaust and emigration (including Aliyah, as well as emigration to America) in the 20th century.\n\nIn modern times, significant secularization has taken place, notably in laicist France in the 19th century and in the 20th century such as Estonia and German Democratic Republic. Currently, distribution of theism in Europe is very heterogeneous, with more than 95% in Poland, and less than 20% in the Czech Republic and Estonia. The 2005 Eurobarometer poll[http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_225_report_en.pdf EC.Europa.eu] found that 52% of EU citizens believe in God.\n\nPan-European identity\n\n\"Pan-European identity\" or \"Europatriotism\" is an emerging sense of personal identification with Europe, or the European Union as a result of the gradual process European integration taking place over the last quarter of the 20th century, and especially in the period after the end of the Cold War, since the 1990s. The foundation of the OSCE following the 1990s Paris Charter has facilitated this process on a political level during the 1990s and 2000s.\n\nFrom the later 20th century, 'Europe' has come to be widely used as a synonym for the European Union even though there are millions of people living on the European continent in non-EU states. The prefix pan implies that the identity applies throughout Europe, and especially in an EU context, and 'pan-European' is often contrasted with national identity.", "A nation state is a type of state that conjoins the political entity of a state to the cultural entity of a nation, from which it aims to derive its political legitimacy to rule and potentially its status as a sovereign state if one accepts the declarative theory of statehood as opposed to the constitutive theory.Such a definition is a working one: \"All attempts to develop terminological consensus around \"nation\" resulted in failure\", concludes . Walker Connor, in [] discusses the impressions surrounding the characters of \"nation\", \"(sovereign) state\", \"nation state\", and \"nationalism\". Connor, who gave the term \"ethnonationalism\" wide currency, also discusses the tendency to confuse nation and state and the treatment of all states as if nation states. In Globalization and Belonging, Sheila L. Crouche discusses \"The Definitional Dilemma\" (pp. 85ff). \nA state is specifically a political and geopolitical entity, whilst a nation is a cultural and ethnic one. The term \"nation state\" implies that the two coincide, in that a state has chosen to adopt and endorse a specific cultural group as associated with it. \"Nation state\" formation can take place at different times in different parts of the world.\n\nThe concept of a nation state can be compared and contrasted with that of the multinational state, city state, empire, confederation, and other state formations with which it may overlap. The key distinction is the identification of a people with a polity in the \"nation state.\"\n\nHistory and origins \n\nThe origins and early history of nation states are disputed. A major theoretical question is: \"Which came first, the nation or the nation state?\" Scholars such as Steven Weber, David Woodward, and Jeremy Black have advanced the hypothesis that the nation state didn't arise out of political ingenuity or an unknown undetermined source, nor was it an accident of history or political invention; but is an inadvertent byproduct of 15th-century intellectual discoveries in political economy, capitalism, mercantilism, political geography, and geography combined together with cartography and advances in map-making technologies. It was with these intellectual discoveries and technological advances that the nation state arose. For others, the nation existed first, then nationalist movements arose for sovereignty, and the nation state was created to meet that demand. Some \"modernization theories\" of nationalism see it as a product of government policies to unify and modernize an already existing state. Most theories see the nation state as a 19th-century European phenomenon, facilitated by developments such as state-mandated education, mass literacy and mass media. However, historians also note the early emergence of a relatively unified state and identity in Portugal and the Dutch Republic.\n\nIn France, Eric Hobsbawm argues, the French state preceded the formation of the French people. Hobsbawm considers that the state made the French nation, not French nationalism, which emerged at the end of the 19th century, the time of the Dreyfus Affair. At the time of the 1789 French Revolution, only half of the French people spoke some French, and 12-13% spoke it \"fairly\", according to Hobsbawm.\n\nDuring the Italian unification, the number of people speaking the Italian language was even lower. The French state promoted the unification of various dialects and languages into the French language. The introduction of conscription and the Third Republic's 1880s laws on public instruction, facilitated the creation of a national identity, under this theory.\n\nSome nation states, such as Germany or Italy, came into existence at least partly as a result of political campaigns by nationalists, during the 19th century. In both cases, the territory was previously divided among other states, some of them very small. The sense of common identity was at first a cultural movement, such as in the Völkisch movement in German-speaking states, which rapidly acquired a political significance. In these cases, the nationalist sentiment and the nationalist movement clearly precede the unification of the German and Italian nation states.\n\nHistorians Hans Kohn, Liah Greenfeld, Philip White and others have classified nations such as Germany or Italy, where cultural unification preceded state unification, as ethnic nations or ethnic nationalities. However, 'state-driven' national unifications, such as in France, England or China, are more likely to flourish in multiethnic societies, producing a traditional national heritage of civic nations, or territory-based nationalities. Some authors deconstruct the distinction between ethnic nationalism and civic nationalism because of the ambiguity of the concepts. They argue that the paradigmatic case of Ernest Renan is an idealisation and it should be interpreted within the German tradition and not in opposition to it. For example, they argue that the arguments used by Renan at the conference What is a nation? are not consistent with his thinking. This alleged civic conception of the nation would be determined only by the case of the loss gives Alsace and Lorraine in the Franco-Prussian War. \n\nThe idea of a nation state was and is associated with the rise of the modern system of states, often called the \"Westphalian system\" in reference to the Treaty of Westphalia (1648). The balance of power, which characterized that system, depended on its effectiveness upon clearly defined, centrally controlled, independent entities, whether empires or nation states, which recognize each other's sovereignty and territory. The Westphalian system did not create the nation state, but the nation state meets the criteria for its component states (by assuming that there is no disputed territory).\n\nThe nation state received a philosophical underpinning in the era of Romanticism, at first as the 'natural' expression of the individual peoples (romantic nationalism: see Johann Gottlieb Fichte's conception of the Volk, later opposed by Ernest Renan). The increasing emphasis during the 19th century on the ethnic and racial origins of the nation, led to a redefinition of the nation state in these terms. Racism, which in Boulainvilliers's theories was inherently antipatriotic and antinationalist, joined itself with colonialist imperialism and \"continental imperialism\", most notably in pan-Germanic and pan-Slavic movements. \n\nThe relation between racism and ethnic nationalism reached its height in the 20th century fascism and Nazism. The specific combination of 'nation' ('people') and 'state' expressed in such terms as the Völkische Staat and implemented in laws such as the 1935 Nuremberg laws made fascist states such as early Nazi Germany qualitatively different from non-fascist nation states. Minorities were not considered part of the people (Volk), and were consequently denied to have an authentic or legitimate role in such a state. In Germany, neither Jews nor the Roma were considered part of the people, and were specifically targeted for persecution. German nationality law defined 'German' on the basis of German ancestry, excluding all non-Germans from the people.\n\nIn recent years, a nation state's claim to absolute sovereignty within its borders has been much criticized. A global political system based on international agreements and supra-national blocs characterized the post-war era. Non-state actors, such as international corporations and non-governmental organizations, are widely seen as eroding the economic and political power of nation states, potentially leading to their eventual disappearance.\n\nBefore the nation state \n\nIn Europe, during the 18th century, the classic non-national states were the multiethnic empires, the Austrian Empire, Kingdom of France, Kingdom of Hungary, the Russian Empire, the Ottoman Empire, the British Empire and smaller nations at what would now be called sub-state level. The multi-ethnic empire was a monarchy ruled by a king, emperor or sultan. The population belonged to many ethnic groups, and they spoke many languages. The empire was dominated by one ethnic group, and their language was usually the language of public administration. The ruling dynasty was usually, but not always, from that group.\n\nThis type of state is not specifically European: such empires existed on all continents, except Australasia and Antarctica. Some of the smaller European states were not so ethnically diverse, but were also dynastic states, ruled by a royal house. Their territory could expand by royal intermarriage or merge with another state when the dynasty merged. In some parts of Europe, notably Germany, very small territorial units existed. They were recognised by their neighbours as independent, and had their own government and laws. Some were ruled by princes or other hereditary rulers, some were governed by bishops or abbots. Because they were so small, however, they had no separate language or culture: the inhabitants shared the language of the surrounding region.\n\nIn some cases these states were simply overthrown by nationalist uprisings in the 19th century. Liberal ideas of free trade played a role in German unification, which was preceded by a customs union, the Zollverein. However, the Austro-Prussian War, and the German alliances in the Franco-Prussian War, were decisive in the unification. The Austro-Hungarian Empire and the Ottoman Empire broke up after the First World War, and the Russian Empire became the Soviet Union after the Russian Civil War.\n\nA few of the smaller states survived: the independent principalities of Liechtenstein, Andorra, Monaco, and the republic of San Marino. (Vatican City is a special case. All of the larger Papal State save the Vatican itself was occupied and absorbed by Italy by 1870. The resulting Roman Question, was resolved with the rise of the modern state under the 1929 Lateran treaties between Italy and the Holy See.)\n\nCharacteristics \n\n \n\"Legitimate states that govern effectively and dynamic industrial economies are widely regarded today as the defining characteristics of a modern nation-state.\" \n\nNation states have their own characteristics, differing from those of the pre-national states. For a start, they have a different attitude to their territory when compared with dynastic monarchies: it is semisacred and nontransferable. No nation would swap territory with other states simply, for example, because the king's daughter married. They have a different type of border, in principle defined only by the area of settlement of the national group, although many nation states also sought natural borders (rivers, mountain ranges). They are constantly changing in population size and power because of the limited restrictions of their borders.\n\nThe most noticeable characteristic is the degree to which nation states use the state as an instrument of national unity, in economic, social and cultural life.\n\nThe nation state promoted economic unity, by abolishing internal customs and tolls. In Germany, that process, the creation of the Zollverein, preceded formal national unity. Nation states typically have a policy to create and maintain a national transportation infrastructure, facilitating trade and travel. In 19th-century Europe, the expansion of the rail transport networks was at first largely a matter for private railway companies, but gradually came under control of the national governments. The French rail network, with its main lines radiating from Paris to all corners of France, is often seen as a reflection of the centralised French nation state, which directed its construction. Nation states continue to build, for instance, specifically national motorway networks. Specifically transnational infrastructure programmes, such as the Trans-European Networks, are a recent innovation.\n\nThe nation states typically had a more centralised and uniform public administration than its imperial predecessors: they were smaller, and the population less diverse. (The internal diversity of the Ottoman Empire, for instance, was very great.) After the 19th-century triumph of the nation state in Europe, regional identity was subordinate to national identity, in regions such as Alsace-Lorraine, Catalonia, Brittany and Corsica. In many cases, the regional administration was also subordinated to central (national) government. This process was partially reversed from the 1970s onward, with the introduction of various forms of regional autonomy, in formerly centralised states such as France.\n\nThe most obvious impact of the nation state, as compared to its non-national predecessors, is the creation of a uniform national culture, through state policy. The model of the nation state implies that its population constitutes a nation, united by a common descent, a common language and many forms of shared culture. When the implied unity was absent, the nation state often tried to create it. It promoted a uniform national language, through language policy. The creation of national systems of compulsory primary education and a relatively uniform curriculum in secondary schools, was the most effective instrument in the spread of the national languages. The schools also taught the national history, often in a propagandistic and mythologised version, and (especially during conflicts) some nation states still teach this kind of history. \n\nLanguage and cultural policy was sometimes negative, aimed at the suppression of non-national elements. Language prohibitions were sometimes used to accelerate the adoption of national languages and the decline of minority languages (see examples: Anglicisation, Czechization, Francisation, Italianization, Germanisation, Magyarisation, Polonisation, Russification, Serbization, Slovakisation).\n\nIn some cases, these policies triggered bitter conflicts and further ethnic separatism. But where it worked, the cultural uniformity and homogeneity of the population increased. Conversely, the cultural divergence at the border became sharper: in theory, a uniform French identity extends from the Atlantic coast to the Rhine, and on the other bank of the Rhine, a uniform German identity begins. To enforce that model, both sides have divergent language policy and educational systems, although the linguistic boundary is in fact well inside France, and the Alsace region changed hands four times between 1870 and 1945.\n\nIn practice \n\nIn some cases, the geographic boundaries of an ethnic population and a political state largely coincide. In these cases, there is little immigration or emigration, few members of ethnic minorities, and few members of the \"home\" ethnicity living in other countries.\n\nExamples of nation states where ethnic groups make up more than 95% of the population include the following:\n* Albania: The vast majority of the population is ethnically Albanian at about 98.6% of the population, with the remainder consisting of a few small ethnic minorities.\n* Armenia: The vast majority of Armenia's population consists of ethnic Armenians at about 98% of the population, with the remainder consisting of a few small ethnic minorities.\n* Bangladesh: The vast majority ethnic group of Bangladesh are the Bengali people, comprising 98% of the population, with the remainder consisting of mostly Bihari migrants and indigenous tribal groups. Therefore, Bangladeshi society is to a great extent linguistically and culturally homogeneous, with very small populations of foreign expatriates and workers, although there is a substantial number of Bengali workers living abroad.\n* Egypt: The vast majority of Egypt's population consists of ethnic Egyptians at about 99% of the population, with the remainder consisting of a few small ethnic minorities, as well as refugees or asylum seekers. Modern Egyptian identity is closely tied to the geography of Egypt and its long history; its development over the centuries saw overlapping or conflicting ideologies. Though today an Arabic-speaking people, that aspect constitutes for Egyptians a cultural dimension of their identity, not a necessary attribute of or prop for their national political being. Today most Egyptians see themselves, their history, culture and language (the Egyptian variant of Arabic) as specifically Egyptian and at the same time as part of the Arab world.\n* Estonia: Defined as a nation state in its 1920 constitution, up until the period of Soviet colonialisation, Estonia was historically a very homogenous state with 88.2% of residents being Estonians, 8.2% Russians, 1.5% Germans and 0.4% Jews according to the 1934 census. As a result of Soviet policies the demographic situation significantly changed with the arrival of Russian speaking settlers. Today Estonians form 69%, Russians 25.4%, Ukrainians 2.04% and Belarusians 1.1% of the population(2012). A significant proportion of the inhabitants (84.1%) are citizens of Estonia, around 7.3% are citizens of Russia and 7.0% as yet undefined citizenship (2010).\n* Hungary: The Hungarians (or Magyar) people consist of about 95% of the population, with a small Roma and German minority: see Demographics of Hungary.\n* Iceland: Although the inhabitants are ethnically related to other Scandinavian groups, the national culture and language are found only in Iceland. There are no cross-border minorities as the nearest land is too far away: see Demographics of Iceland\n\n* Japan: Japan is also traditionally seen as an example of a nation state and also the largest of the nation states, with population in excess of 120 million. It should be noted that Japan has a small number of minorities such as Ryūkyū peoples, Koreans and Chinese, and on the northern island of Hokkaidō, the indigenous Ainu minority. However, they are either numerically insignificant (Ainu), their difference is not as pronounced (though Ryukyuan culture is closely related to Japanese culture, it is nonetheless distinctive in that it historically received much more influence from China and has separate political and nonpolitical and religious traditions) or well assimilated (Zainichi population is collapsing due to assimilation/naturalisation).\n* Lebanon: The Arabic-speaking Lebanese consist at about 95% of the population, with the remainder consisting of a few small ethnic minorities, as well as refugees or asylum seekers. Modern Lebanese identity is closely tied to the geography of Lebanon and its history. Although they are now an Arabic-speaking people and ethnically homogeneous, its identity oversees overlapping or conflicting ideologies between its Phoenician heritage and Arab heritage. While many Lebanese regard themselves as Arab, other Lebanese regard themselves, their history, and their culture as Phoenician and not Arab, while still other Lebanese regard themselves as both.\n* Lesotho: Lesotho's ethno-linguistic structure consists almost entirely of the Basotho (singular Mosotho), a Bantu-speaking people; about 99.7% of the population are Basotho.\n* Maldives: The vast majority of the population is ethnically Dhivehi at about 98% of the population, with the remainder consisting of foreign workers; there are no indigenous ethnic minorities.\n* Malta: The vast majority of the population is ethnically Maltese at about 95.3% of the population, with the remainder consisting of a few small ethnic minorities.\n* Mongolia: The vast majority of the population is ethnically Mongol at about 95.0% of the population, with the remainder consisting of a few ethnic minorities included in Kazakhs.\n* North and South Korea are among the most ethnically and linguistically homogeneous in the world. Particularly in reclusive North Korea, there are very few ethnic minority groups and expatriate foreigners.\n* Poland: After World War II, with the genocide of the Jews by the invading German Nazis during the Holocaust, the expulsion of Germans after World War II and the loss of eastern territories (Kresy), 96.7% of the people of Poland claim Polish nationality, while 97.8% declare that they speak Polish at home (Census 2002).\n* Several Polynesian countries such as Tonga, Samoa, Tuvalu, etc.\n* Portugal: Although surrounded by other lands and people, the Portuguese nation has occupied the same territory since the romanization or latinization of the native population during the Roman era. The modern Portuguese nation is a very old amalgam of formerly distinct historical populations that passed through and settled in the territory of modern Portugal: native Iberian peoples, Celts, ancient Mediterraneans (Greeks, Phoenicians, Romans, Jews), invading Germanic peoples like the Suebi and the Visigoths, and Muslim Arabs and Berbers. Most Berber/Arab people and the Jews were expelled from the Iberian Peninsula during the Reconquista and the repopulation by Christians.\n* San Marino: The Sammarinese make up about 97% of the population and all speak Italian and are ethnically and linguisticially identical to Italians. San Marino is a landlocked enclave, completely surrounded by Italy. The state has a population of approximately 30,000, including 1,000 foreigners, most of whom are Italians.\n* Swaziland: The vast majority of the population is ethnically Swazi at about 98.6% of the population, with the remainder consisting of a few small ethnic minorities.\n\nThe notion of a unifying \"national identity\" also extends to countries that host multiple ethnic or language groups, such as India and China. For example, Switzerland is constitutionally a confederation of cantons, and has four official languages, but it has also a 'Swiss' national identity, a national history and a classic national hero, Wilhelm Tell. \n\nInnumerable conflicts have arisen where political boundaries did not correspond with ethnic or cultural boundaries.\n\nAfter World War II in the Josip Broz Tito era, nationalism was appealed to for uniting South Slav peoples. Later in the 20th century, after the break-up of the Soviet Union, leaders appealed to ancient ethnic feuds or tensions that ignited conflict between the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, as well Bosnians, Montenegrins and Macedonians, eventually breaking up the long collaboration of peoples and ethnic cleansing was carried out in the Balkans, resulting in the destruction of the formerly socialist republic and produced the civil wars in Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1992–95, resulted in mass population displacements and segregation that radically altered what was once a highly diverse and intermixed ethnic makeup of the region. These conflicts were largely about creating a new political framework of states, each of which would be ethnically and politically homogeneous. Serbians, Croatians and Bosnians insisted they were ethnically distinct although many communities had a long history of intermarriage. Presently Slovenia (89% Slovene), Croatia (90,4% Croat) and Serbia (83% Serb) could be classified as nation states per se, whereas Macedonia (66% Macedonian), Montenegro (42% Montenegrin) and Bosnia and Herzegovina (47% Bosniak) are multinational states.\n\nBelgium is a classic example of a state that is not a nation state. The state was formed by secession from the United Kingdom of the Netherlands in 1830, whose neutrality and integrity was protected by the Treaty of London 1839; thus it served as a buffer state after the Napoleonitic Wars between the European powers France, Prussia (after 1871 the German Empire) and the United Kingdom until World War I, when its neutrality was breached by the Germans. Currently, Belgium is divided between the Flemings in the north and the French-speaking or the German-speaking population in the south. The Flemish population in the north speaks Dutch, the Walloon population in the south speaks French and/or German. The Brussels population speaks French and/or Dutch.\n\nThe Flemish identity is also cultural, and there is a strong separatist movement espoused by the political parties, the right-wing Vlaams Belang and the Nieuw-Vlaamse Alliantie. The Francophone Walloon identity of Belgium is linguistically distinct and regionalist. There is also unitary Belgian nationalism, several versions of a Greater Netherlands ideal, and a German-speaking community of Belgium annexed from Germany in 1920, and re-annexed by Germany in 1940–1944. However these ideologies are all very marginal and politically insignificant during elections.\n\nChina covers a large geographic area and uses the concept of \"Zhonghua minzu\" or Chinese nationality, in the sense of ethnic groups, but it also officially recognizes the majority Han ethnic group which accounts for over 90% of the population, and no fewer than 55 ethnic national minorities.\n\nAccording to Philip G. Roeder, Moldova is an example of a Soviet era \"segment-state\" (Moldavian SSR), where the \"nation-state project of the segment-state trumped the nation-state project of prior statehood. In Moldova, despite strong agitation from university faculty and students for reunification with Romania, the nation-state project forged within the Moldavian SSR trumped the project for a return to the interwar nation-state project of Greater Romania.\" See Controversy over linguistic and ethnic identity in Moldova for further details.\n\nExceptional cases \n\nUnited Kingdom \n\nThe United Kingdom is an unusual example of a nation state, due to its claimed \"countries within a country\" status. The United Kingdom, which is formed by the union of England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland, is a unitary state formed initially by the merger of two independent kingdoms, the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland, but the Treaty of Union (1707) that set out the agreed terms has ensured the continuation of distinct features of each state, including separate legal systems and separate national churches.\n\nIn 2003, the British Government described the United Kingdom as \"countries within a country\". While the Office for National Statistics and others describe the United Kingdom as a \"nation state\", others, including a then Prime Minister, describe it as a \"multinational state\", and the term Home Nations is used to describe the four national teams that represent the four nations of the United Kingdom (England, Northern Ireland, Scotland, Wales). \n\nKingdom of the Netherlands \n\nA similar unusual example is the Kingdom of the Netherlands. As of 10 October 2010, the Kingdom of the Netherlands consists of four countries: \n* Netherlands proper\n* Aruba\n* Curaçao\n* Sint Maarten\n\nEach is expressly designated as a land in Dutch law by the Charter for the Kingdom of the Netherlands. Unlike the German Länder and the Austrian Bundesländer, landen is consistently translated as \"countries\" by the Dutch government. \n\nIsrael \n\nIsrael was founded as a Jewish state in 1948. Its \"Basic Laws\" describe it as both a Jewish and a democratic state. According to the Israel Central Bureau of Statistics, 75.7% of Israel's population is Jewish. Arabs, who make up 20.4% of the population, are the largest ethnic minority in Israel. Israel also has very small communities of Armenians, Circassians, Assyrians, Samaritans, and persons of some Jewish heritage. There are also some non-Jewish spouses of Israeli Jews. However, these communities are very small, and usually number only in the hundreds or thousands.\n\nPakistan \n\nPakistan, even being an ethnically diverse country and officially a federation, is regarded as a nation state due to its ideological basis on which it was given independence from British India as a separate nation rather than as part of a unified India. Different ethnic groups in Pakistan are strongly bonded by their common Muslim identity, common cultural and social values, common historical heritage, a national Lingua franca (Urdu) and joint political, strategic and economic interests. \n\nMinorities \n\nThe most obvious deviation from the ideal of 'one nation, one state', is the presence of minorities, especially ethnic minorities, which are clearly not members of the majority nation. An ethnic nationalist definition of a nation is necessarily exclusive: ethnic nations typically do not have open membership. In most cases, there is a clear idea that surrounding nations are different, and that includes members of those nations who live on the 'wrong side' of the border. Historical examples of groups, who have been specifically singled out as outsiders, are the Roma and Jews in Europe.\n\nNegative responses to minorities within the nation state have ranged from cultural assimilation enforced by the state, to expulsion, persecution, violence, and extermination. The assimilation policies are usually enforced by the state, but violence against minorities is not always state initiated: it can occur in the form of mob violence such as lynching or pogroms. Nation states are responsible for some of the worst historical examples of violence against minorities: minorities not considered part of the nation.\n\nHowever, many nation states accept specific minorities as being part of the nation, and the term national minority is often used in this sense. The Sorbs in Germany are an example: for centuries they have lived in German-speaking states, surrounded by a much larger ethnic German population, and they have no other historical territory. They are now generally considered to be part of the German nation and are accepted as such by the Federal Republic of Germany, which constitutionally guarantees their cultural rights. Of the thousands of ethnic and cultural minorities in nation states across the world, only a few have this level of acceptance and protection.\n\nMulticulturalism is an official policy in many states, establishing the ideal of peaceful existence among multiple ethnic, cultural, and linguistic groups. Many nations have laws protecting minority rights.\n\nWhen national boundaries that do not match ethnic boundaries are drawn, such as in the Balkans and Central Asia, ethnic tension, massacres and even genocide, sometimes has occurred historically (see Bosnian genocide and 2010 ethnic violence in southern Kyrgyzstan).\n\nIrredentism \n\n \n\nIdeally, the border of a nation state extends far enough to include all the members of the nation, and all of the national homeland. Again, in practice some of them always live on the 'wrong side' of the border. Part of the national homeland may be there too, and it may be governed by the 'wrong' nation. The response to the non-inclusion of territory and population may take the form of irredentism: demands to annex unredeemed territory and incorporate it into the nation state.\n\nIrredentist claims are usually based on the fact that an identifiable part of the national group lives across the border. However, they can include claims to territory where no members of that nation live at present, because they lived there in the past, the national language is spoken in that region, the national culture has influenced it, geographical unity with the existing territory, or a wide variety of other reasons. Past grievances are usually involved and can cause revanchism.\n\nIt is sometimes difficult to distinguish irredentism from pan-nationalism, since both claim that all members of an ethnic and cultural nation belong in one specific state. Pan-nationalism is less likely to specify the nation ethnically. For instance, variants of Pan-Germanism have different ideas about what constituted Greater Germany, including the confusing term Grossdeutschland, which, in fact, implied the inclusion of huge Slavic minorities from the Austro-Hungarian Empire.\n\nTypically, irredentist demands are at first made by members of non-state nationalist movements. When they are adopted by a state, they typically result in tensions, and actual attempts at annexation are always considered a casus belli, a cause for war. In many cases, such claims result in long-term hostile relations between neighbouring states. Irredentist movements typically circulate maps of the claimed national territory, the greater nation state. That territory, which is often much larger than the existing state, plays a central role in their propaganda.\n\nIrredentism should not be confused with claims to overseas colonies, which are not generally considered part of the national homeland. Some French overseas colonies would be an exception: French rule in Algeria unsuccessfully treated the colony as a département of France.\n\nFuture \n\nIt has been speculated by both proponents of globalization and various science fiction writers that the concept of a nation state may disappear with the ever-increasingly interconnected nature of the world. Such ideas are sometimes expressed around concepts of a world government. Another possibility is a societal collapse and move into communal anarchy or zero world government, in which nation states no longer exist and government is done on the local level based on a global ethic of human rights.\n\nThis falls into line with the concept of internationalism, which states that sovereignty is an outdated concept and a barrier to achieving peace and harmony in the world, thus also stating that nation states are also a similar outdated concept.\n\nGlobalization especially has helped to bring about the discussion about the disappearance of nation states, as global trade and the rise of the concepts of a 'global citizen' and a common identity have helped to reduce differences and 'distances' between individual nation states, especially with regards to the internet. \n\nClash of civilizations \n\nThe theory of the clash of civilizations lies in direct contrast to cosmopolitan theories about an ever more-connected world that no longer requires nation states. According to political scientist Samuel P. Huntington, people's cultural and religious identities will be the primary source of conflict in the post–Cold War world.\n\nThe theory was originally formulated in a 1992 lecture at the American Enterprise Institute, which was then developed in a 1993 Foreign Affairs article titled \"The Clash of Civilizations?\", in response to Francis Fukuyama's 1992 book, The End of History and the Last Man. Huntington later expanded his thesis in a 1996 book The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order.\n\nHuntington began his thinking by surveying the diverse theories about the nature of global politics in the post–Cold War period. Some theorists and writers argued that human rights, liberal democracy and capitalist free market economics had become the only remaining ideological alternative for nations in the post–Cold War world. Specifically, Francis Fukuyama, in The End of History and the Last Man, argued that the world had reached a Hegelian \"end of history\".\n\nHuntington believed that while the age of ideology had ended, the world had reverted only to a normal state of affairs characterized by cultural conflict. In his thesis, he argued that the primary axis of conflict in the future will be along cultural and religious lines.\n\nAs an extension, he posits that the concept of different civilizations, as the highest rank of cultural identity, will become increasingly useful in analyzing the potential for conflict.\n\nIn the 1993 Foreign Affairs article, Huntington writes:\n\nIt is my hypothesis that the fundamental source of conflict in this new world will not be primarily ideological or primarily economic. The great divisions among humankind and the dominating source of conflict will be cultural. Nation states will remain the most powerful actors in world affairs, but the principal conflicts of global politics will occur between nations and groups of different civilizations. The clash of civilizations will dominate global politics. The fault lines between civilizations will be the battle lines of the future.\n\nSandra Joireman suggests that Huntington may be characterised as a neo-primordialist, as, while he sees people as having strong ties to their ethnicity, he does not believe that these ties have always existed. \n\nHistoriography \n\nHistorians often look to the past to find the origins of a particular nation state. Indeed, they often put so much emphasis on the importance of the nation state in modern times, that they distort the history of earlier periods in order to emphasize the question of origins. Lansing and English argue that much of the medieval history of Europe was structured to follow the historical winners—especially the nation states that emerged around Paris and London. Important developments that did not directly lead to a nation state get neglected, they argue:\none effect of this approach has been to privilege historical winners, aspects of medieval Europe that became important in later centuries, above all the nation state.... Arguably the liveliest cultural innovation in the 13th century was Mediterranean, centered on Frederick II's polyglot court and administration in Palermo....Sicily and the Italian South in later centuries suffered a long slide into overtaxed poverty and marginality. Textbook narratives therefore focus not on medieval Palermo, with its Muslim and Jewish bureaucracies and Arabic-speaking monarch, but on the historical winners, Paris and London.", "Angola, officially the Republic of Angola (; Kikongo, Kimbundu and Umbundu: Repubilika ya Ngola), is a country in Southern Africa. It is the seventh-largest country in Africa, and is bordered by Namibia to the south, the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the north and east, Zambia to the east, and the Atlantic Ocean to west. The exclave province of Cabinda has borders with the Republic of the Congo and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The capital and largest city of Angola is Luanda.\n\nAlthough its territory has been inhabited since the Paleolithic Era, modern Angola originates in Portuguese colonization, which began with, and was for centuries limited to, coastal settlements and trading posts established beginning in the 16th century. In the 19th century, European settlers slowly and hesitantly began to establish themselves in the interior. As a Portuguese colony, Angola did not encompass its present borders until the early 20th century, following resistance by groups such as the Cuamato, the Kwanyama and the Mbunda. Independence was achieved in 1975 after the protracted liberation war. That same year, Angola descended into an intense civil war that lasted until 2002. It has since become a relatively stable unitary presidential republic.\n\nAngola has vast mineral and petroleum reserves, and its economy is among the fastest growing in the world, especially since the end of the civil war. In spite of this, the standard of living remains low for the majority of the population, and life expectancy and infant mortality rates in Angola are among the worst in the world. Angola's economic growth is highly uneven, with the majority of the nation's wealth concentrated in a disproportionately small sector of the population. \n\nAngola is a member state of the United Nations, OPEC, African Union, the Community of Portuguese Language Countries, the Latin Union and the Southern African Development Community. A highly multiethnic country, Angola's 24.3 million people span various tribal groups, customs, and traditions. Angolan culture reflects centuries of Portuguese rule, namely in the predominance of the Portuguese language and Roman Catholicism, combined with diverse indigenous influences.\n\nEtymology\n\nThe name Angola comes from the Portuguese colonial name Reino de Angola (Kingdom of Angola), appearing as early as Dias de Novais's 1571 charter. The toponym was derived by the Portuguese from the title ngola held by the kings of Ndongo. Ndongo was a kingdom in the highlands, between the Kwanza and Lukala Rivers, nominally tributary to the king of Kongo but which was seeking greater independence during the 16th century.\n\nHistory\n\nEarly migrations and political units\n\nKhoi and San hunter-gatherers are the earliest known modern human inhabitants of the area. They were largely absorbed or replaced by Bantu peoples during the Bantu migrations, though small numbers remain in parts of southern Angola to the present day. The Bantu came from the north, probably from somewhere near the present-day Republic of Cameroon.\n\nDuring this time, the Bantu established a number of political units (\"kingdoms\", \"empires\") in most parts of what today is Angola. The best known of these is the Kingdom of the Kongo that had its centre in the northwest of contemporary Angola, but included important regions in the west of present-day Democratic Republic and Republic of Congo and in southern Gabon. It established trade routes with other trading cities and civilisations up and down the coast of southwestern and West Africa and even with the Great Zimbabwe Mutapa Empire, but engaged in little or no transoceanic trade. To its south lay the Kingdom of Ndongo, from which the area of the later Portuguese colony was sometimes known as Dongo.\n\nPortuguese colonization\n\nThe region now known as Angola was reached by the Portuguese explorer Diogo Cão in 1484. The year before, the Portuguese had established relations with the Kingdom of Kongo, which stretched at the time from modern Gabon in the north to the Kwanza River in the south. The Portuguese established their primary early trading post at Soyo, which is now the northernmost city in Angola apart from the Cabinda enclave. Paulo Dias de Novais founded São Paulo de Loanda (Luanda) in 1575 with a hundred families of settlers and four hundred soldiers. Benguela was fortified in 1587 and elevated to a township in 1617.\n\nThe Portuguese established several other settlements, forts, and trading posts along the Angolan coast, principally trading in Angolan slaves for Brazilian plantations. Local slave dealers provided a large number of slaves for the Portuguese Empire, usually sold in exchange for manufactured goods from Europe. This part of the Atlantic slave trade continued until after Brazil's independence in the 1820s.\n\nDespite Portugal's nominal claims, as late as the 19th century, their control over the interior country of Angola was minimal. In the 16th century Portugal gained control of the coast through a series of treaties and wars. Life for European colonists was difficult and progress slow. Iliffe notes that \"Portuguese records of Angola from the 16th century show that a great famine occurred on average every seventy years; accompanied by epidemic disease, it might kill one-third or one-half of the population, destroying the demographic growth of a generation and forcing colonists back into the river valleys\". \n\nAmid the Portuguese Restoration War, the Dutch occupied Luanda in 1641, using alliances with local peoples against Portuguese holdings elsewhere. A fleet under Salvador de Sá retook Luanda for Portugal in 1648; reconquest of the rest of the territory was completed by 1650. New treaties with Kongo were signed in 1649; others with Njinga's Kingdom of Matamba and Ndongo followed in 1656. The conquest of Pungo Andongo in 1671 was the last major Portuguese expansion from Luanda, as attempts to invade Kongo in 1670 and Matamba in 1681 failed. Portugal also expanded inward from Benguela, but until the late 19th century the inroads from Luanda and Benguela were very limited. Portugal had neither the intention nor the means to carry out a large scale territorial occupation and colonization.\n\nDevelopment of the hinterland began after the Berlin Conference in 1885 fixed the colony's borders, and British and Portuguese investment fostered mining, railways, and agriculture based on various forced-labour and voluntary labour systems.(See also Chibalo.) Full Portuguese administrative control of the hinterland did not establish itself until the beginning of the 20th century. Portugal had a minimalist presence in Angola for nearly five hundred years, and early calls for independence provoked little reaction amongst the population who had no social identity related to the territory as a whole. More overtly political and \"nationalist\" organisations first appeared in the 1950s and began to make demands for self-determination, especially in international forums such as the Non-Aligned Movement.\n\nThe Portuguese régime, meanwhile, refused to accede to the demands for independence, provoking an armed conflict that started in 1961 when freedom fighters attacked both white and black civilians in cross-border operations in northeastern Angola. The war came to be known as the Colonial War. In this struggle, the principal protagonists included the People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA), founded in 1956, the National Front for the Liberation of Angola (FNLA), which appeared in 1961, and the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA), founded in 1966. After many years of conflict that weakened all of the insurgent parties, Angola gained its independence on 11 November 1975, after the 1974 coup d'état in Lisbon, Portugal, which overthrew the Portuguese régime headed by Marcelo Caetano.\n\nPortugal's new revolutionary leaders began in 1974 a process of political change at home and accepted independence for its former colonies abroad. In Angola a fight for dominance broke out immediately between the three nationalist movements. The events prompted a mass exodus of Portuguese citizens, creating up to 300 000 destitute Portuguese refugees—the retornados. The new Portuguese government tried to mediate an understanding between the three competing movements, and succeeded in getting them to agree, on paper, to form a common government. But in the end none of the African parties respected the commitments they had made, and military force resolved the issue.\n\nIndependence and civil war\n\nAfter it gained independence in November 1975, Angola experienced a devastating civil war which lasted several decades (with some interludes). It claimed millions of lives and produced many refugees; it didn't end until 2002. \n\nFollowing negotiations held in Portugal, itself experiencing severe social and political turmoil and uncertainty due to the April 1974 revolution, Angola's three main guerrilla groups agreed to establish a transitional government in January 1975. Within two months, however, the FNLA, MPLA and UNITA had started fighting each other and the country began splitting into zones controlled by rival armed political groups. The MPLA gained control of the capital Luanda and much of the rest of the country. With the support of the United States, Zaïre and South Africa intervened militarily in favour of the FNLA and UNITA with the intention of taking Luanda before the declaration of independence. In response, Cuba intervened in favor of the MPLA (see: Cuba in Angola), which became a flash point for the Cold War.\n\nWith Cuban support, the MPLA held Luanda and declared independence on 11 November 1975, with Agostinho Neto becoming the first president, though the civil war continued. At this time, most of the half-million Portuguese who lived in Angola – and who had accounted for the majority of the skilled workers in public administration, agriculture, industries and trade – fled the country, leaving its once prosperous and growing economy in a state of bankruptcy. \n\nFor most of 1975–1990, the MPLA organised and maintained a socialist régime. In 1990, when the Cold War ended, MPLA abandoned its ties to the Marxist–Leninist ideology and declared social democracy to be its official ideology, going on to win the 1992 general election. However, eight opposition parties rejected the elections as rigged,National Society for Human Rights, Ending the Angolan Conflict, Windhoek, Namibia, 3 July 2000 (opposition parties, massacres); John Matthew, Letters, The Times, UK, 6 November 1992 (election observer); NSHR, Press Releases, 12 September 2000, 16 May 2001 (MPLA atrocities). sparking the Halloween massacre.\n\nCeasefire with UNITA\n\nOn 22 March 2002, Jonas Savimbi, the leader of UNITA, was killed in combat with government troops. The two sides reached a cease-fire shortly afterwards. UNITA gave up its armed wing and assumed the role of major opposition party, although in the knowledge that under the present regime a legitimate democratic election was impossible. Although the political situation of the country began to stabilize, regular democratic processes were not established until the elections in Angola in 2008 and 2012 and the adoption of a new Constitution of Angola in 2010, all of which strengthened the prevailing Dominant-party system. MPLA head officials continue e.g. to be given senior positions in top-level companies or other fields, although a few outstanding UNITA figures are given some of the economic as well as the military share. \n\nAngola has a serious humanitarian crisis, the result of the prolonged war, the abundance of minefields, the continued political, and to a much lesser degree, military activities in favour of the independence of the northern exclave of Cabinda, carried out in the context of the protracted Cabinda Conflict by the Frente para a Libertação do Enclave de Cabinda, (FLEC), but most of all, the depradation of the country's rich mineral resources by the régime. While most of the internally displaced have now settled around the capital, in the so-called musseques, the general situation for Angolans remains desperate. \n\nDrought, in 2016, is the worst global food crisis in Southern Africa for 25 years. Drought affects 1.4 million people across seven of Angola’s 18 provinces. Food prices have risen and acute malnutrition rates have doubled, with more than 95,000 children being affected. Food insecurity is expected to worsen from July to the end of the year. \n\nGeography\n\nAt 481321 sqmi, Angola is the world's twenty-third largest country. It is comparable in size to Mali, or twice the size of France or Texas. It lies mostly between latitudes 4° and 18°S, and longitudes 12° and 24°E.\n\nAngola is bordered by Namibia to the south, Zambia to the east, the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the north-east, and the South Atlantic Ocean to the west. The coastal exclave of Cabinda in the north, borders the Republic of the Congo to the north, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the south. Angola's capital, Luanda, lies on the Atlantic coast in the northwest of the country.\n\nClimate\n\nAngola has three seasons, a dry season which lasts from May to October, a transitional season with some rain from November to January and a hot, rainy season from February to April. April is the wettest month. \n\nPolitics\n\nAngola's motto is Virtus Unita Fortior, a Latin phrase meaning \"Virtue is stronger when united\". The Angolan government is composed of three branches of government: executive, legislative, and judicial. The executive branch of the government is composed of the President, the Vice-Presidents and the Council of Ministers. The legislative branch comprises a 220-seat unicameral legislature elected from both provincial and nationwide constituencies. For decades, political power has been concentrated in the presidency.\n\nThe Constitution of 2010 establishes the broad outlines of government structure and delineates the rights and duties of citizens. The legal system is based on Portuguese and customary law but is weak and fragmented, and courts operate in only 12 of more than 140 municipalities. A Supreme Court serves as the appellate tribunal; a Constitutional Court does not hold the powers of judicial review. Governors of the 18 provinces are appointed by the president.\n\nAfter the end of the Civil War the regime came under pressure from within as well as from the international community to become more democratic and less authoritarian. Its reaction was to implement a number of changes without substantially changing its character. \n\nAngola is classified as 'not free' by Freedom House in the Freedom in the World 2014 report. The report noted that the August 2012 parliamentary elections, in which the ruling Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola won more than 70% of the vote, suffered from serious flaws, including outdated and inaccurate voter rolls. Voter turnout dropped from 80% in 2008 to 60%.\n\nAngola scored poorly on the 2013 Ibrahim Index of African Governance. It was ranked 39 out of 52 sub-Saharan African countries, scoring particularly badly in the areas of participation and human rights, sustainable economic opportunity, and human development. The Ibrahim Index uses a number of variables to compile its list which reflects the state of governance in Africa. \n\nThe new constitution, adopted in 2010, further sharpened the authoritarian character of the regime. In the future, there will be no presidential elections; the president and the vice-president of the political party which wins the parliamentary elections automatically become president and vice-president of Angola. Through a variety of mechanisms, the state president controls all the other organs of the state, so that separation of powers is not maintained. As a consequence, Angola no longer has a presidential system in the sense of the systems existing, e.g., in the USA or in France. In terms of the classifications used in constitutional law, its regime is considered one of several authoritarian regimes in Africa. \n\nOn 16 October 2014, Angola was elected for the second time as a non-permanent member of the UN Security Council, with 190 favourable votes out of 193. The mandate begins on 1 January 2015 and lasts for two years. \n\nAlso in that month, the country took on the leadership of the Group of African Ministers and Governors at the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank, following the debates at the annual meetings of both entities. \n\nSince January 2014 the Republic of Angola has held the presidency of the International Conference on the Great Lakes Region (ICGLR). In 2015, the executive secretary of ICGLR, Ntumba Luaba, said that Angola is the example to be followed by members of the organization, because of the significant progress made over the 12 years of peace, particularly in terms of socioeconomic and political-military stability. \n\nMilitary\n\nThe Angolan Armed Forces (AAF) is headed by a Chief of Staff who reports to the Minister of Defense. There are three divisions—the Army (Exército), Navy (Marinha de Guerra, MGA), and National Air Force (Força Aérea Nacional, FAN). Total manpower is about 110,000. Its equipment includes Russian-manufactured fighters, bombers, and transport planes. There are also Brazilian-made EMB-312 Tucano for training role, Czech-made L-39 for training and bombing role, Czech Zlin for training role and a variety of western made aircraft such as C-212\\Aviocar, Sud Aviation Alouette III, etc. A small number of AAF personnel are stationed in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (Kinshasa) and the Republic of the Congo (Brazzaville).\n\nPolice\n\nThe National Police departments are Public Order, Criminal Investigation, Traffic and Transport, Investigation and Inspection of Economic Activities, Taxation and Frontier Supervision, Riot Police and the Rapid Intervention Police. The National Police are in the process of standing up an air wing, which will provide helicopter support for operations. The National Police are developing their criminal investigation and forensic capabilities. The force has an estimated 6,000 patrol officers, 2,500 taxation and frontier supervision officers, 182 criminal investigators and 100 financial crimes detectives and around 90 economic activity inspectors.\n\nThe National Police have implemented a modernization and development plan to increase the capabilities and efficiency of the total force. In addition to administrative reorganization, modernization projects include procurement of new vehicles, aircraft and equipment, construction of new police stations and forensic laboratories, restructured training programs and the replacement of AKM rifles with 9 mm Uzis for officers in urban areas.\n\nJustice\n\nIn 2014, a new penal code took effect in Angola. The classification of money-laundering as a crime is one of the novelties in the new legislation. \n\nAdministrative divisions\n\n, Angola is divided into eighteen provinces (províncias) and 162 municipalities. The municipalities are further divided into 559 communes (townships). The provinces are:\n\nExclave of Cabinda\n\nWith an area of approximately 7283 km2, the Northern Angolan province of Cabinda is unusual in being separated from the rest of the country by a strip, some 60 km wide, of the Democratic Republic of Congo along the lower Congo river. Cabinda borders the Congo Republic to the north and north-northeast and the DRC to the east and south. The town of Cabinda is the chief population center.\n\nAccording to a 1995 census, Cabinda had an estimated population of 600,000, approximately 400,000 of whom live in neighboring countries. Population estimates are, however, highly unreliable. Consisting largely of tropical forest, Cabinda produces hardwoods, coffee, cocoa, crude rubber and palm oil. The product for which it is best known, however, is its oil, which has given it the nickname, \"the Kuwait of Africa\". Cabinda's petroleum production from its considerable offshore reserves now accounts for more than half of Angola's output. Most of the oil along its coast was discovered under Portuguese rule by the Cabinda Gulf Oil Company (CABGOC) from 1968 onwards.\n\nEver since Portugal handed over sovereignty of its former overseas province of Angola to the local independence groups (MPLA, UNITA, and FNLA), the territory of Cabinda has been a focus of separatist guerrilla actions opposing the Government of Angola (which has employed its military forces, the FAA—Forças Armadas Angolanas) and Cabindan separatists. The Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda-Armed Forces of Cabinda (FLEC-FAC) announced a virtual Federal Republic of Cabinda under the Presidency of N'Zita Henriques Tiago. One of the characteristics of the Cabindan independence movement is its constant fragmentation, into smaller and smaller factions.\n\nEconomy\n\nAngola has a rich subsoil heritage, from diamonds, oil, gold, copper, and a rich wildlife (dramatically impoverished during the civil war), forest, and fossils. Since independence, oil and diamonds have been the most important economic resource. Smallholder and plantation agriculture have dramatically dropped because of the Angolan Civil War, but have begun to recover after 2002. The transformation industry that had come into existence in the late colonial period collapsed at independence, because of the exodus of most of the ethnic Portuguese population, but has begun to reemerge with updated technologies, partly because of the influx of new Portuguese entrepreneurs. Similar developments can be verified in the service sector.\n\nOverall, Angola's economy has in recent years moved on from the disarray caused by a quarter-century of civil war to become the fastest-growing economy in Africa and one of the fastest in the world, with an average GDP growth of 20 percent between 2005 and 2007. In the period 2001–10, Angola had the world's highest annual average GDP growth, at 11.1 percent. In 2004, the Eximbank approved a $2 billion line of credit to Angola. The loan was to be used to rebuild Angola's infrastructure, and also to limited the influence of the International Monetary Fund in the country. China is Angola's biggest trade partner and export destination as well as the fourth-largest importer. Bilateral trade reached $27.67 billion in 2011, up 11.5% year-on-year. China's imports, mainly crude oil and diamonds, increased 9.1% to $24.89 billion while China's exports, including mechanical and electrical products, machinery parts and construction materials, surged 38.8%. The oil glut led to a local unleaded gasoline \"pricetag\" of £0.37 per gallon. \n\nThe Economist reported in 2008 that diamonds and oil make up 60% of Angola's economy, almost all of the country's revenue and are its dominant exports. Growth is almost entirely driven by rising oil production which surpassed in late 2005 and was expected to grow to 2 Moilbbl/d by 2007. Control of the oil industry is consolidated in Sonangol Group, a conglomerate owned by the Angolan government. In December 2006, Angola was admitted as a member of OPEC. However, operations in diamond mines include partnerships between state-run Endiama and mining companies such as ALROSA which continue operations in Angola. The economy grew 18% in 2005, 26% in 2006 and 17.6% in 2007. However, due to the global recession the economy contracted an estimated −0.3% in 2009. The security brought about by the 2002 peace settlement has led to the resettlement of 4 million displaced persons, thus resulting in large-scale increases in agriculture production.\n\nAlthough the country's economy has developed significantly since it achieved political stability in 2002, mainly thanks to the fast-rising earnings of the oil sector, Angola faces huge social and economic problems. These are in part a result of the almost continual state of conflict from 1961 onwards, although the highest level of destruction and socio-economic damage took place after the 1975 independence, during the long years of civil war. However, high poverty rates and blatant social inequality are chiefly the outcome of a combination of a persistent political authoritarianism, of \"neo-patrimonial\" practices at all levels of the political, administrative, military, and economic apparatuses, and of a pervasive corruption. The main beneficiary of this situation is a social segment constituted during the last decades, around the political, administrative, economic, and military power holders, which has accumulated (and continues accumulating) enormous wealth. \"Secondary beneficiaries\" are the middle strata which are about to become social classes. However, overall almost half the population has to be considered as poor, but in this respect there are dramatic differences between the countryside and the cities (where by now slightly more than 50% of the people live).\n\nAn inquiry carried out in 2008 by the Angolan Instituto Nacional de Estatística has it that in the rural areas roughly 58% must be classified as \"poor\", according to UN norms, but in the urban areas only 19%, while the overall rate is 37%. In the cities, a majority of families, well beyond those officially classified as poor, have to adopt a variety of survival strategies. At the same time, in urban areas social inequality is most evident, and assumes extreme forms in the capital, Luanda. In the Human Development Index Angola constantly ranks in the bottom group. \n\nAccording to The Heritage Foundation, a conservative American think tank, oil production from Angola has increased so significantly that Angola now is China's biggest supplier of oil. “China has extended three multibillion dollar lines of credit to the Angolan government; two loans of $2 billion from China Exim Bank, one in 2004, the second in 2007, as well as one loan in 2005 of $2.9 billion from China International Fund Ltd.” Growing oil revenues have also created opportunities for corruption: according to a recent Human Rights Watch report, 32 billion US dollars disappeared from government accounts from 2007 to 2010. Furthermore, Sonangol, the state run oil company, has control of 51% of Cabinda’s oil. Due to this market control the company ends up determining the profit given to the government and the taxes paid. The council of foreign affairs states that the World Bank mentioned that Sonangol \" is a taxpayer, it carries out quasi-fiscal activities, it invests public funds, and, as concessionaire, it is a sector regulator. This multifarious work program creates conflicts of interest and characterizes a complex relationship between Sonangol and the government that weakens the formal budgetary process and creates uncertainty as regards the actual fiscal stance of the state.\" \n\nBefore independence in 1975, Angola was a breadbasket of southern Africa and a major exporter of bananas, coffee and sisal, but three decades of civil war (1975–2002) destroyed fertile countryside, left it littered with landmines and drove millions into the cities. The country now depends on expensive food imports, mainly from South Africa and Portugal, while more than 90% of farming is done at thefamily and subsistence level. Thousands of Angolan small-scale farmers are trapped in poverty. \n\nThe enormous differences between the regions pose a serious structural problem for the Angolan economy, illustrated by the fact that about one third of economic activities are concentrated in Luanda and neighbouring Bengo province, while several areas of the interior suffer economic stagnation and even regression. \n\nOne of the economic consequences of the social and regional disparities is a sharp increase in Angolan private investments abroad. The small fringe of Angolan society where most of the accumulation takes place seeks to spread its assets, for reasons of security and profit. For the time being, the biggest share of these investments is concentrated in Portugal where the Angolan presence (including that of the family of the state president) in banks as well as in the domains of energy, telecommunications, and mass media has become notable, as has the acquisition of vineyards and orchards as well as of touristic enterprises. \n\nSub-Saharan Africa nations are globally achieving impressive improvements in well-being, according to a report by Tony Blair Africa Governance Initiative and The Boston Consulting Group. Angola has upgraded critical infrastructure, an investment made possible by funds from the nation's development of oil resources. According to this report, just slightly more than ten years after the end of the civil war Angola's standard of living has overall greatly improved. Life expectancy, which was just 46 years in 2002, reached 51 in 2011. Mortality rates for children fell from 25 percent in 2001 to 19 percent in 2010 and the number of students enrolled in primary school has tripled since 2001. However, at the same time the social and economic inequality that has characterised the country since long has not diminished, but on the contrary deepened in all respects.\n\nWith a stock of assets corresponding to 70 billion Kz (6.8 billion USD), Angola is now the third largest financial market in sub-Saharan Africa, surpassed only by Nigeria and South Africa. According to the Angolan Minister of Economy, Abraão Gourgel, the financial market of the country grew modestly from 2002 and now lies in third place at the level of sub-Saharan Africa. \n\nAngola's economy is expected to grow by 3.9 percent in 2014 said the International Monetary Fund (IMF). According to the Fund, robust growth in the non-oil economy, mainly driven by a very good performance in the agricultural sector, is expected to offset a temporary drop in oil production. \n\nAngola's financial system is maintained by the National Bank of Angola and managed by governor Jose de Lima Massano. According to a study on the banking sector, carried out by Deloitte, the monetary policy led by Banco Nacional de Angola (BNA), the Angolan national bank, allowed a decrease in the inflation rate put at 7.96% in December 2013, which contributed to the sector's growth trend. According to estimates released by Angola's central bank, the country's economy should grow at an annual average rate of 5 percent over the next four years, boosted by the increasing participation of the private sector. \n\nOn 19 December 2014, the Capital Market in Angola started. BODIVA (Angola Securities and Debt Stock Exchange, in English) received the secondary public debt market, and it is expected to start the corporate debt market by 2015, but the stock market should only be a reality in 2016. \n\nAgriculture \n\nAgriculture and forestry is an area of opportunity for the country. “Angola requires 4.5 million tonnes a year of grain but only grows about 55% of the corn it needs, 20% of the rice and just 5% of its required wheat”(African economic Outlook) but “less than 3 percent of Angola's abundant fertile land is cultivated and the economic potential of the forestry sector remains largely unexploited” (World Bank). From this fact we can appreciate the capacity that Angola has to increase production not only for the national market but also for the international one. Investing in this sector can help reduce unemployment and more specifically in the rural areas. This will undoubted have consequences on the living standard of rural civilians.\n\nTransport\n\nTransport in Angola consists of:\nThree separate railway systems totalling 2,761 km (1,715 mi)\n76626 km of highway of which 19156 km is paved\n1,295 navigable inland waterways\nEight major sea ports\n*243 airports, of which 32 are paved.\n\nTravel on highways outside of towns and cities in Angola (and in some cases within) is often not best advised for those without four-by-four vehicles. While a reasonable road infrastructure has existed within Angola, time and the war have taken their toll on the road surfaces, leaving many severely potholed, littered with broken asphalt. In many areas drivers have established alternate tracks to avoid the worst parts of the surface, although careful attention must be paid to the presence or absence of landmine warning markers by the side of the road. The Angolan government has contracted the restoration of many of the country's roads. The road between Lubango and Namibe, for example, was completed recently with funding from the European Union, and is comparable to many European main routes. Completing the road infrastructure is likely to take some decades, but substantial efforts are already being made.\n\nTransport is an important aspect in Angola because it is strategically located and it could become a regional logistics hub. In addition Angola has some of the most important and biggest ports and so it is vital to connect them to the interior of the country as well as to neighbouring countries.\n\nTelecommunications\n\nThe telecommunications industry is considered one of the main strategic sectors in Angola. \n\nIn October 2014, the building of an optic fiber underwater cable was announced. This project aims to turn Angola into a continental hub, thus improving Internet connections both nationally and internationally. \n\nOn 11 March 2015, the First Angolan Forum of Telecommunications and Information Technology was held, in Luanda under the motto \"The challenges of telecommunications in the current context of Angola\". The purpose of this forum was to promote the debate on topical issues on telecommunications in Angola and worldwide. A study about this sector was also presented at this forum, and some of its conclusions were: Angola had the first telecommunications operator in Africa to test the High Speed Internet technology (LTE-Advanced with speeds up to 400Mbit/s); It has a mobile penetration rate of about 75%; There are about 3.5 million smartphones in the Angolan market; There are about of optical fiber installed in the country. \n\nThe first Angolan satellite, AngoSat-1, will be ready for launch into orbit in 2017 and it will ensure telecommunications throughout the country. According to Aristides Safeca, Secretary of State for Telecommunications, the satellite will provide telecommunications services, TV, internet and e-government and will remain into orbit \"at best\" for 18 years. \n\nTechnology\n\nThe management of the domain '.ao' on web pages, will go from Portugal to Angola in 2015, following the approval of a new legislation by the Angolan Government. The joint decree of the minister of Telecommunications and Information Technologies, José Carvalho da Rocha, and the minister of Science and Technology, Maria Cândida Pereira Teixeira, states that \"under the massification\" of that Angolan domain, \"conditions are created for the transfer of the domain root '.ao' of Portugal to Angola\". \n\nDemographics\n\nAngola has a population of 24,383,301 inhabitants according to the preliminary results of its 2014 census, the first one conducted or carried out since 15 December 1970. It is composed of Ovimbundu (language Umbundu) 37%, Ambundu (language Kimbundu) 23%, Bakongo 13%, and 32% other ethnic groups (including the Chokwe, the Ovambo, the Ganguela and the Xindonga) as well as about 2% mestiços (mixed European and African), 1.6% Chinese and 1% European. The Ambundu and Ovimbundu nations combined form a majority of the population, at 62%. The population is forecast to grow to over 60 million people to 2050, 2.7 times the 2014 population. However, on March 23, 2016, official data revealed by Angola's National Statistic Institute - Instituto Nacional de Estatística (INE), states that Angola has a population of 25.789.024 inhabitants.\n\nIt is estimated that Angola was host to 12,100 refugees and 2,900 asylum seekers by the end of 2007. 11,400 of those refugees were originally from the Democratic Republic of Congo, who arrived in the 1970s. there were an estimated 400,000 Democratic Republic of the Congo migrant workers, at least 220,000 Portuguese, and about 259,000 Chinese living in Angola. \n\nSince 2003, more than 400,000 Congolese migrants have been expelled from Angola. Prior to independence in 1975, Angola had a community of approximately 350,000 Portuguese, but the vast majority left after independence and the ensuing civil war. However, Angola has recovered its Portuguese minority in recent years; currently, there are about 200,000 registered with the consulates, and increasing due to the debt crisis in Portugal and the relative prosperity in Angola. The Chinese population stands at 258,920, mostly composed of temporary migrants. Also, there is a small Brazilian community of about 5,000 people. \n\nThe total fertility rate of Angola is 5.54 children born per woman (2012 estimates), the 11th highest in the world.\n\nLanguages\n\nThe languages in Angola are those originally spoken by the different ethnic groups and Portuguese, introduced during the Portuguese colonial era. The indigenous languages with the largest usage are Umbundu, Kimbundu, and Kikongo, in that order. Portuguese is the official language of the country.\n\nMastery of the official language is probably more extended in Angola than it is elsewhere in Africa, and this certainly applies to its use in everyday life. Moreover, and above all, the proportion of native (or near-native) speakers of the language of the former colonizer, become official after independence, is no doubt considerably higher than in any other African country.\n\nThere are three intertwined historical reasons for this situation.\n#In the Portuguese \"bridgeheads\" Luanda and Benguela, which existed on the coast of what today is Angola since the 15th and 16th century, respectively, Portuguese was spoken not only by the Portuguese and their mestiço descendents, but—especially in and around Luanda—by a significant number of Africans, although these always remained native speakers of their local African language.\n#Since the Portuguese conquest of the present territory of Angola, and especially since its \"effective occupation\" in the mid-1920s, schooling in Portuguese was slowly developed by the colonial state as well as by Catholic and Protestant missions. The rhythm of this expansion was considerably accelerated during the late colonial period, 1961–1974, so that by the end of the colonial period children all over the territory (with relatively few exceptions) had at least some access to the Portuguese language. \n#In the same late colonial period, the legal discrimination of the black population was abolished, and the state apparatus in fields like health, education, social work, and rural development was enlarged. This entailed a significant increase in jobs for Africans, on condition that they spoke Portuguese.\n\nAs a consequence of all this, the African \"lower middle class\" which at that stage formed in Luanda and other cities began to prevent their children from learning the local African language, in order to guarantee that they learned Portuguese as their native language. At the same time, the white and \"mestiço\" population, where some knowledge of African languages could previously often be found, neglected this aspect more and more, to the point of frequently ignoring it totally.\nThese tendencies continued and grew under the rule of the MPLA whose main social roots are exactly in those social segments where the mastery of Portuguese as well as the proportion of native Portuguese speakers was highest. This became a political side issue, as FNLA and UNITA, given their regional constituencies, came out in favour of a greater attention to the African languages, and as the FNLA favoured French over Portuguese.\n\nThe dynamics of the language situation, as described above, were additionally fostered by the massive migrations triggered by the Civil War. Ovimbundu, the most populous ethnic group and the most affected by the war, appeared in great numbers in urban areas outside their areas, especially in Luanda and surroundings. At the same time, a majority of the Bakongo who had fled to the Democratic Republic of Congo in the early 1960s, or of their children and grandchildren, returned to Angola, but mostly did not settle in their original \"habitat\", but in the cities—and again above all in Luanda. As a consequence, more than half the population is now living in the cities which, from the linguistic point of view, have become highly heterogeneous. This means, of course, that Portuguese as the overall national language of communication is by now of paramount importance, and that the role of the African languages is steadily decreasing among the urban population—a trend which is beginning to spread into rural areas as well.\n\nThe exact numbers of those fluent in Portuguese or who speak Portuguese as a first language are unknown, although a census is expected to be carried out in July–August 2013. Quite a number of voices demand the recognition of \"Angolan Portuguese\" as a specific variant, comparable to those spoken in Portugal or in Brazil. However, while there exists a certain number of idiomatic particularities in everyday Portuguese, as spoken by Angolans, it remains to be seen whether or not the Angolan government comes to the conclusion that these particularities constitute a configuration that justifies the claim to be a new language variant.\n\nReligion\n\nThere are about 1000 mostly Christian religious communities in Angola. While reliable statistics are nonexistent, estimates have it that more than half of the population are Catholics, while about a quarter adhere to the Protestant churches introduced during the colonial period: the Congregationalists mainly among the Ovimbundu of the Central Highlands and the coastal region to its West, the Methodists concentrating on the Kimbundu speaking strip from Luanda to Malanje, the Baptists almost exclusively among the Bakongo of the Northwest (now present in Luanda as well) and dispersed Adventists, Reformed and Lutherans. In Luanda and region there subsists a nucleus of the \"syncretic\" Tocoists and in the northwest a sprinkling of Kimbanguism can be found, spreading from the Congo/Zaïre. Since independence, hundreds of Pentecostal and similar communities have sprung up in the cities, where by now about 50% of the population is living; several of these communities/churches are of Brazilian origin.\n\nThe U.S. Department of State estimates the Muslim population at 80,000–90,000, while the Islamic Community of Angola puts the figure closer to 500,000. Muslims consist largely of migrants from West Africa and the Middle East (especially Lebanon), although some are local converts. The Angolan government does not legally recognize any Muslim organizations and often shuts down mosques or prevents their construction.\n\nIn a study assessing nations' levels of religious regulation and persecution with scores ranging from 0 to 10 where 0 represented low levels of regulation or persecution, Angola was scored 0.8 on Government Regulation of Religion, 4.0 on Social Regulation of Religion, 0 on Government Favoritism of Religion and 0 on Religious Persecution. \n\nForeign missionaries were very active prior to independence in 1975, although since the beginning of the anti-colonial fight in 1961 the Portuguese colonial authorities expelled a series of Protestant missionaries and closed mission stations based on the belief that the missionaries were inciting pro-independence sentiments. Missionaries have been able to return to the country since the early 1990s, although security conditions due to the civil war have prevented them until 2002 from restoring many of their former inland mission stations. \n\nThe Catholic Church and some major Protestant denominations mostly keep to themselves in contrast to the \"New Churches\" which actively proselytize. Catholics, as well as some major Protestant denominations, provide help for the poor in the form of crop seeds, farm animals, medical care and education. \n\nLargest cities\n\nCulture\n\nIn Angola, there is a Culture Ministry that is managed by Culture Minister Rosa Maria Martins da Cruz e Silva. Portugal has been present in Angola for 400 years, occupied the territory in the 19th and early 20th century, and ruled over it for about 50 years. As a consequence, both countries share cultural aspects: language (Portuguese) and main religion (Roman Catholic Christianity). The substrate of Angolan culture is African, mostly Bantu, while Portuguese culture has been imported. The diverse ethnic communities – the Ovimbundu, Ambundu, Bakongo, Chokwe, Mbunda and other peoples – maintain to varying degrees their own cultural traits, traditions and languages, but in the cities, where slightly more than half of the population now lives, a mixed culture has been emerging since colonial times – in Luanda since its foundation in the 16th century. In this urban culture, the Portuguese heritage has become more and more dominant. An African influence is evident in music and dance, and is moulding the way in which Portuguese is spoken, but is almost disappearing from the vocabulary. This process is well reflected in contemporary Angolan literature, especially in the works of Pepetela and Ana Paula Ribeiro Tavares.\n\nLeila Lopes, Miss Angola 2011, was crowned Miss Universe 2011 in Brazil on 12 September 2011 making her the first Angolan to win the pageant.\n\nIn 2014, Angola resume the National Festival of Angolan Culture (FENACULT), after a 25-years break. The festival took place in all the provincial capitals of the country between 30 August and 20 September and had as theme \"Culture as a Factor of Peace and Development\". \n\nHealth\n\nEpidemics of cholera, malaria, rabies and African hemorrhagic fevers like Marburg hemorrhagic fever, are common diseases in several parts of the country. Many regions in this country have high incidence rates of tuberculosis and high HIV prevalence rates. Dengue, filariasis, leishmaniasis, and onchocerciasis (river blindness) are other diseases carried by insects that also occur in the region. Angola has one of the highest infant mortality rates in the world and one of the world's lowest life expectancies. A 2007 survey concluded that low and deficient niacin status was common in Angola. Demographic and Health Surveys is currently conducting several surveys in Angola on malaria, domestic violence and more. \n\nIn September 2014, the Angolan Institute for Cancer Control (IACC) was created by presidential decree, and it will integrate the National Health Service in Angola. The purpose of this new center is to ensure the health and medical care in oncology, policy implementation, programs and plans for prevention and specialized treatment. This cancer institute will be assumed as a reference institution in the central and southern regions of Africa. \n\nIn 2014, Angola launched a national campaign of vaccination against measles, extended to every child under ten years old and aiming to go to all 18 provinces in the country. The measure is part of the Strategic Plan for the Elimination of Measles 2014–2020 created by the Angolan Ministry of Health which includes strengthening routine immunization, a proper dealing with measles cases, national campaigns, introducing a second dose of vaccination in the national routine vaccination calendar and active epidemiological surveillance for measles. This campaign took place together with the vaccination against polio and vitamin A supplementation. \n\nThe yellow fever outbreak in Angola began in December 2015. More than 2,400 people have been infected since December, and 300 people have died from the yellow fever. The outbreak began in the capital of Luanda but now has spread to at least 14 of the 18 provinces in the country. This outbreak of the yellow fever is the worst in the southern African country in three decades. \n\nEducation\n\nAlthough by law education in Angola is compulsory and free for eight years, the government reports that a percentage of students are not attending due to a lack of school buildings and teachers.\"Botswana\". [http://web.archive.org/web/20140109071239/http://www.dol.gov/ilab/media/reports/iclp/tda2005/tda2005.pdf 2005 Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor]. Bureau of International Labor Affairs, U.S. Department of Labor (2006). This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. Students are often responsible for paying additional school-related expenses, including fees for books and supplies.\n\nIn 1999, the gross primary enrollment rate was 74 percent and in 1998, the most recent year for which data are available, the net primary enrollment rate was 61 percent. Gross and net enrollment ratios are based on the number of students formally registered in primary school and therefore do not necessarily reflect actual school attendance. There continue to be significant disparities in enrollment between rural and urban areas. In 1995, 71.2 percent of children ages 7 to 14 years were attending school. It is reported that higher percentages of boys attend school than girls. During the Angolan Civil War (1975–2002), nearly half of all schools were reportedly looted and destroyed, leading to current problems with overcrowding.\n\nThe Ministry of Education hired 20,000 new teachers in 2005 and continued to implement teacher trainings. Teachers tend to be underpaid, inadequately trained, and overworked (sometimes teaching two or three shifts a day). Some teachers may reportedly demand payment or bribes directly from their students. Other factors, such as the presence of landmines, lack of resources and identity papers, and poor health prevent children from regularly attending school. Although budgetary allocations for education were increased in 2004, the education system in Angola continues to be extremely under-funded.\n\nAccording to estimates by the UNESCO Institute for Statistics, the adult literacy rate in 2011 was 70.4%. 82.9% of males and 54.2% of women are literate as of 2001. Since independence from Portugal in 1975, a number of Angolan students continued to be admitted every year at high schools, polytechnical institutes, and universities in Portugal, Brazil and Cuba through bilateral agreements; in general, these students belong to the elites.\n\nIn September 2014, the Angolan Ministry of Education announced an investment of 16 million Euros in the computerization of over 300 classrooms across the country. The project also includes training teachers at a national level, \"as a way to introduce and use new information technologies in primary schools, thus reflecting an improvement in the quality of teaching.\" \n\nIn 2010, the Angolan government started building the Angolan Media Libraries Network, distributed throughout several provinces in the country to facilitate the people's access to information and knowledge. Each site has a bibliographic archive, multimedia resources and computers with Internet access, as well as areas for reading, researching and socializing. The plan envisages the establishment of one media library in each Angolan province by 2017. The project also includes the implementation of several media libraries, in order to provide the several contents available in the fixed media libraries to the most isolated populations in the country. At this time, the mobile media libraries are already operating in the provinces of Luanda, Malanje, Uíge, Cabinda and Lunda South. As for REMA, the provinces of Luanda, Benguela, Lubango and Soyo have currently working media libraries. \n\nSports\n\nAngola is the top basketball team of FIBA Africa, and a regular competitor at the Summer Olympic Games and the FIBA World Cup. The Angola national football team qualified for the 2006 FIFA World Cup, as this was their first appearance on the World Cup finals stage. They were eliminated after one defeat and two draws in the group stage. They won 3 COSAFA Cups and finished runner up in 2011 African Nations Championship. Angola has participated in the World Women's Handball Championship for several years. The country has also appeared in the Summer Olympics for seven years and both compete and have hosted the FIRS Roller Hockey World Cup. Angola is also often believed to have historic roots in the martial art \"Capoeira Angola\" and \"Batuque\" which were practiced by enslaved African Angolans transported as part of the Atlantic slave trade." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Portogało", "Republic of Portugal", "PORTUGAL", "Portekiz", "Portugallu", "O Papagaio", "ISO 3166-1:PT", "Portunga", "Phu-to-ga", "Potigal", "Portûnga", "Portugul", "An Phortaingéil", "Portugāle", "Portugale", "Portingale", "Potiti", "Portugali", "Portugall", "Portekîz", "Bo Dao Nha", "Portuguese Republic", "Portogallo", "Portugaul", "Portogalo", "Portyngal", "Yn Phortiugal", "Portugalio", "Portugál", "Portugual", "Portuga", "Portgual", "Portugalsko", "Portugaleje", "Phû-tô-gâ", "Portugalujo", "Portugalija", "Pertual", "Pòtigal", "Portugal", "Bồ Đào Nha", "Portugalska", "República Portuguesa", "Portiwgal", "Portugalėjė", "Portúgal", "Portegal", "An Phortaingeil", "Republica Portuguesa" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "portugul", "portugallu", "portugalska", "pòtigal", "portugaul", "portugalujo", "portuguese republic", "iso 3166 1 pt", "republic of portugal", "portugalsko", "portugual", "bồ đào nha", "portugall", "portûnga", "bo dao nha", "phortaingeil", "portugale", "portugal", "portugál", "portugalėjė", "portiwgal", "phu to ga", "portugalija", "portugalio", "portogallo", "phû tô gâ", "portegal", "república portuguesa", "portugāle", "phortaingéil", "yn phortiugal", "portogało", "portuga", "portugaleje", "portekiz", "o papagaio", "portunga", "potigal", "portekîz", "pertual", "portogalo", "portugali", "portyngal", "republica portuguesa", "portingale", "portúgal", "portgual", "potiti" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "portugal", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Portugal" }
Which country mainly makes up the Horn of Africa?	tc_232	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "Search" ], "filename": [ "Horn_of_Africa.txt", "Africa.txt" ], "title": [ "Horn of Africa", "Africa" ], "wiki_context": [ "The Horn of Africa (, , yäafrika qänd, al-qarn al-'afrīqī, ) (shortened to HOA) is a peninsula in Northeast Africa. It juts hundreds of kilometers into the Arabian Sea and lies along the southern side of the Gulf of Aden. The area is the easternmost projection of the African continent. Referred to in ancient and medieval times as Bilad al Barbar (\"Land of the Berbers\"), the Horn of Africa denotes the region containing the countries of Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia. \n\nIt covers approximately 2,000,000 km2 (770,000 sq mi) and is inhabited by roughly 115 million people (Ethiopia: 96.6 million, Somalia: 10.4 million, Eritrea: 6.4 million, and Djibouti: 0.81 million). Regional studies on the Horn of Africa are carried out, among others, in the fields of Ethiopian Studies as well as Somali Studies.\n\nHistory\n\nPrehistory\n\nShell middens 125,000 years old have been found in Eritrea, indicating the diet of early humans included seafood obtained by beachcombing.\n\nAccording to both genetic and fossil evidence, archaic Homo sapiens evolved to anatomically modern humans solely in Africa between 200,000 and 100,000 years ago. Evidence to support the theory that recent modern humans originated in East Africa is not conclusive. \n\nToday at the Bab-el-Mandeb straits, the Red Sea is about 12 miles (20 kilometres) wide, but 50,000 years ago it was much narrower and sea levels were 70 meters lower. Though the straits were never completely closed, there may have been islands in between which could be reached using simple rafts.\n\nIt has been estimated that from a population of 2,000 to 5,000 individuals in Africa, only a small group of possibly as few as 150 to 1,000 people crossed the Red Sea. \n\nAccording to linguists, the first Afro-Asiatic-speaking populations arrived in the region during the ensuing Neolithic era from the family's proposed urheimat (\"original homeland\") in the Nile Valley, or the Near East. Other scholars propose that the Afro-Asiatic family developed in situ in the Horn, with its speakers subsequently dispersing from there. Genetic analysis also indicates that, beginning in the pre-agricultural period, settlers from the Near East founded communities in Northeast Africa. These early settlements eventually gave rise to the Afro-Asiatic-speaking populations in the Horn and Maghreb as the groups spread. \n\nAncient history\n\nTogether with northern Somalia, Djibouti, the Red Sea coast of Sudan and Eritrea is considered the most likely location of the land known to the ancient Egyptians as Punt (or \"Ta Netjeru,\" meaning god's land), whose first mention dates to the 25th century BCE. The ancient Puntites were a nation of people that had close relations with Pharaonic Egypt during the times of Pharaoh Sahure and Queen Hatshepsut.\n\nDʿmt was a kingdom located in Eritrea and northern Ethiopia that existed during the 8th and 7th centuries BCE. With its capital at Yeha, the kingdom developed irrigation schemes, used plows, grew millet, and made iron tools and weapons. After the fall of Dʿmt in the 5th century BCE, the plateau came to be dominated by smaller successor kingdoms, until the rise of one of these kingdoms during the 1st century, the Aksumite Kingdom, which was able to reunite the area. \n\nThe Kingdom of Aksum (also known as the Aksumite Empire) was an ancient state located in the highlands of modern-day Ethiopia and Eritrea that thrived between the 1st and 7th centuries CE. A major player in the commerce between the Roman Empire and Ancient India, Aksum's rulers facilitated trade by minting their own currency. The state also established its hegemony over the declining Kingdom of Kush and regularly entered the politics of the kingdoms on the Arabian peninsula, eventually extending its rule over the region with the conquest of the Himyarite Kingdom. Under Ezana (fl. 320-360), Aksum became the first major empire to convert to Christianity, and was named by Mani as one of the four great powers of his time, along with Persia, Rome and China.\n\nNorthern Somalia was an important link in the Horn, connecting the region's commerce with the rest of the ancient world. Somali sailors and merchants were the main suppliers of frankincense, myrrh and spices, all of which were valuable luxuries to the Ancient Egyptians, Phoenicians, Mycenaeans, Babylonians and Romans. The Romans consequently began to refer to the region as Regio Aromatica. In the classical era, several flourishing Somali city-states such as Opone, Mosylon and Malao also competed with the Sabaeans, Parthians and Axumites for the rich Indo-Greco-Roman trade. \n\nThe birth of Islam opposite the Horn's Red Sea coast meant that local merchants and sailors living on the Arabian Peninsula gradually came under the influence of the new religion through their converted Arab Muslim trading partners. With the migration of Muslim families from the Islamic world to the Horn in the early centuries of Islam, and the peaceful conversion of the local population by Muslim scholars in the following centuries, the ancient city-states eventually transformed into Islamic Mogadishu, Berbera, Zeila, Barawa and Merka, which were part of the Berber civilization. The city of Mogadishu came to be known as the \"City of Islam\" and controlled the East African gold trade for several centuries. \n\nMiddle Ages and Early Modern era\n\nDuring the Middle Ages, several powerful empires dominated the regional trade, including the Adal Sultanate, the Ajuran Sultanate, the Warsangali Sultanate, the Zagwe dynasty and the Sultanate of the Geledi.\n\nThe Adal Sultanate was a medieval multi-ethnic Muslim state in the Horn. At its height, it controlled large parts of Somalia, Ethiopia, Djibouti and Eritrea. Many of the historic cities in the region, such as Amud, Maduna, Abasa, Berbera, Zeila and Harar, flourished during the kingdom's golden age, a period that left behind numerous courtyard houses, mosques, shrines and walled enclosures. After the death of Sa'ad ad-Din II, Adal succeeded the Sultanate of Ifat as the pre-eminent local Muslim power. Under the leadership of rulers such as Sabr ad-Din II, Mansur ad-Din, Jamal ad-Din II, Shams ad-Din, General Mahfuz and Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi, Adalite armies continued the struggle against the Solomonic dynasty, a campaign historically known as the Conquest of Abyssinia or Futuh al Habash.\n\nThe Warsangali Sultanate was a kingdom centered in northeastern and in some parts of southeastern Somalia. It was one of the largest sultanates ever established in the territory, and, at the height of its power, included the Sanaag region and parts of the northeastern Bari region of the country, an area historically known as Maakhir or the Maakhir Coast. The Sultanate was founded in the late 13th century in northern Somalia by a group of Somalis from the Warsangali branch of the Darod clan, and was ruled by the descendants of the Gerad Dhidhin.\n\nThrough a strong centralized administration and an aggressive military stance towards invaders, the Ajuran Sultanate successfully resisted an Oromo invasion from the west and a Portuguese incursion from the east during the Gaal Madow and the Ajuran-Portuguese wars. Trading routes dating from the ancient and early medieval periods of Somali maritime enterprise were also strengthened or re-established, and the state left behind an extensive architectural legacy. Many of the hundreds of ruined castles and fortresses that dot the landscape of Somalia today are attributed to Ajuran engineers, including a lot of the pillar tomb fields, necropolises and ruined cities built during that era. The royal family, the House of Gareen, also expanded its territories and established its hegemonic rule through a skillful combination of warfare, trade linkages and alliances. \n\nThe Zagwe dynasty ruled many parts of modern Ethiopia and Eritrea from approximately 1137 to 1270. The name of the dynasty comes from the Cushitic-speaking Agaw people of northern Ethiopia. From 1270 onwards for many centuries, the Solomonic dynasty ruled the Ethiopian Empire.\n\nIn the early 15th century, Ethiopia sought to make diplomatic contact with European kingdoms for the first time since Aksumite times. A letter from King Henry IV of England to the Emperor of Abyssinia survives. In 1428, the Emperor Yeshaq sent two emissaries to Alfonso V of Aragon, who sent return emissaries who failed to complete the return trip. \n\nThe first continuous relations with a European country began in 1508 with Portugal under Emperor Lebna Dengel, who had just inherited the throne from his father. This proved to be an important development, for when Abyssinia was subjected to the attacks of the Adal Sultanate General and Imam Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi (called \"Gurey\" or \"Grañ\", both meaning \"the Left-handed\"), Portugal assisted the Ethiopian emperor by sending weapons and four hundred men, who helped his son Gelawdewos defeat Ahmad and re-establish his rule. This Abyssinian–Adal War was also one of the first proxy wars in the region as the Ottoman Empire, and Portugal took sides in the conflict.\n\nWhen Emperor Susenyos converted to Roman Catholicism in 1624, years of revolt and civil unrest followed resulting in thousands of deaths. The Jesuit missionaries had offended the Orthodox faith of the local Ethiopians. On June 25, 1632, Susenyos's son, Emperor Fasilides, declared the state religion to again be Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity, and expelled the Jesuit missionaries and other Europeans. \n\nThe Sultanate of the Geledi was a Somali kingdom administered by the Gobroon dynasty, which ruled parts of the Horn of Africa during the 18th and 19th centuries. It was established by the Ajuran soldier Ibrahim Adeer, who had defeated various vassals of the Ajuran Empire and established the House of Gobroon. The dynasty reached its apex under the successive reigns of Sultan Yusuf Mahamud Ibrahim, who successfully consolidated Gobroon power during the Bardera wars, and Sultan Ahmed Yusuf, who forced regional powers such as the Omani Empire to submit tribute.\n\nThe Majeerteen Sultanate (Migiurtinia) was another prominent Somali sultanate based in the Horn region. Ruled by King Osman Mahamuud during its golden age, it controlled much of northeastern and central Somalia in the 19th and early 20th centuries. The polity had all of the organs of an integrated modern state and maintained a robust trading network. It also entered into treaties with foreign powers and exerted strong centralized authority on the domestic front. Much of the Sultanate's former domain is today coextensive with the autonomous Puntland region in northeastern Somalia. \n\nThe Sultanate of Hobyo was a 19th-century Somali kingdom founded by Sultan Yusuf Ali Kenadid. Initially, Kenadid's goal was to seize control of the neighboring Majeerteen Sultanate, which was then ruled by his cousin Boqor Osman Mahamuud. However, he was unsuccessful in this endeavor, and was eventually forced into exile in Yemen. A decade later, in the 1870s, Kenadid returned from the Arabian Peninsula with a band of Hadhrami musketeers and a group of devoted lieutenants. With their assistance, he managed to establish the kingdom of Hobyo, which would rule much of northeastern and central Somalia during the early modern period. \n\nModern history\n\nIn the period following the opening of the Suez canal in 1869, when European powers scrambled for territory in Africa and tried to establish coaling stations for their ships, Italy invaded and occupied Eritrea. On January 1, 1890, Eritrea officially became a colony of Italy. In 1896 further Italian incursion into the horn was decisively halted by Ethiopian forces. By 1936 however, Eritrea became a province of Italian East Africa (Africa Orientale Italiana), along with Ethiopia and Italian Somaliland. By 1941, Eritrea had about 760,000 inhabitants, including 70,000 Italians. The Commonwealth armed forces, along with the Ethiopian patriotic resistance, expelled those of Italy in 1941, and took over the area's administration. The British continued to administer the territory under a UN Mandate until 1951, when Eritrea was federated with Ethiopia, as per UN resolution 390(A) and under the prompting of the United States adopted in December 1950.\n\nThe strategic importance of Eritrea, due to its Red Sea coastline and mineral resources, was the main cause for the federation with Ethiopia, which in turn led to Eritrea's annexation as Ethiopia's 14th province in 1952. This was the culmination of a gradual process of takeover by the Ethiopian authorities, a process which included a 1959 edict establishing the compulsory teaching of Amharic, the main language of Ethiopia, in all Eritrean schools. The lack of regard for the Eritrean population led to the formation of an independence movement in the early 1960s (1961), which erupted into a 30-year war against successive Ethiopian governments that ended in 1991. Following a UN-supervised referendum in Eritrea (dubbed UNOVER) in which the Eritrean people overwhelmingly voted for independence, Eritrea declared its independence and gained international recognition in 1993. In 1998, a border dispute with Ethiopia led to the Eritrean-Ethiopian War. \n\nFrom 1862 until 1894, the land to the north of the Gulf of Tadjoura situated in modern-day Djibouti was called Obock and was ruled by Somali and Afar Sultans, local authorities with whom France signed various treaties between 1883 and 1887 to first gain a foothold in the region. In 1894, Léonce Lagarde established a permanent French administration in the city of Djibouti and named the region Côte française des Somalis (French Somaliland), a name which continued until 1967.\n\nIn 1958, on the eve of neighboring Somalia's independence in 1960, a referendum was held in the territory to decide whether or not to join the Somali Republic or to remain with France. The referendum turned out in favour of a continued association with France, partly due to a combined yes vote by the sizable Afar ethnic group and resident Europeans.Barrington, Lowell, After Independence: Making and Protecting the Nation in Postcolonial and Postcommunist States, (University of Michigan Press: 2006), p.115 There was also reports of widespread vote rigging, with the French expelling thousands of Somalis before the referendum reached the polls. The majority of those who voted no were Somalis who were strongly in favour of joining a united Somalia, as had been proposed by Mahmoud Harbi, Vice President of the Government Council. Harbi was killed in a plane crash two years later. Djibouti finally gained its independence from France in 1977, and Hassan Gouled Aptidon, a Somali politician who had campaigned for a yes vote in the referendum of 1958, eventually wound up as the nation's first president (1977–1999). In early 2011, the Djiboutian citizenry took part in a series of protests against the long-serving government, which were associated with the larger Arab Spring demonstrations. The unrest eventually subsided by April of the year, and Djibouti's ruling People's Rally for Progress party was re-elected to office.\n\nMohammed Abdullah Hassan's Dervish State successfully repulsed the British Empire four times and forced it to retreat to the coastal region. Due to these successful expeditions, the Dervish State was recognized as an ally by the Ottoman and German Empires. The Turks also named Hassan Emir of the Somali nation, and the Germans promised to officially recognize any territories the Dervishes were to acquire. After a quarter of a century of holding the British at bay, the Dervishes were finally defeated in 1920 as a direct consequence of Britain's new policy of aerial bombardment. As a result of this bombardment, former Dervish territories were turned into a protectorate of Britain. Italy faced similar opposition from Somali Sultans and armies, and did not acquire full control of parts of modern Somalia until the Fascist era in late 1927. This occupation lasted until 1941, and was replaced by a British military administration. Northern Somalia would remain a protectorate, while southern Somalia became a trusteeship. The Union of the two regions in 1960 formed the Somali Republic. A civilian government was formed, and on July 20, 1961, through a popular referendum, a new constitution that had first been drafted the year before was ratified. \n\nDue to its longstanding ties with the Arab world, Somalia was accepted in 1974 as a member of the Arab League. During the same year, the nation's former socialist administration also chaired the Organization of African Unity, the predecessor of the African Union. In 1991, the Somali Civil War broke out, which saw the collapse of the federal government and the emergence of numerous autonomous polities, including the Puntland administration in the northeast and Somaliland, an unrecognised self-declared sovereign state that is internationally recognised as an autonomous region of Somalia, in the northwest. Somalia's inhabitants subsequently reverted to local forms of conflict resolution, either secular, Islamic or customary law, with a provision for appeal of all sentences. A Transitional Federal Government was subsequently created in 2004. The Federal Government of Somalia was established on August 20, 2012, concurrent with the end of the TFG's interim mandate. It represents the first permanent central government in the country since the start of the civil war. The Federal Parliament of Somalia serves as the government's legislative branch. \n\nModern Ethiopia and its current borders are a result of significant territorial reduction in the north and expansion in the east and south toward its present borders, owing to several migrations, commercial integration, treaties as well as conquests, particularly by Emperor Menelik II and Ras Gobena. From the central province of Shoa, Menelik set off to subjugate and incorporate ‘the lands and people of the South, East and West into an empire.’ He did this with the help of Ras Gobena's Shewan Oromo militia, began expanding his kingdom to the south and east, expanding into areas that had not been held since the invasion of Ahmad ibn Ibrihim al-Ghazi, and other areas that had never been under his rule, resulting in the borders of Ethiopia of today. Menelik had signed the Treaty of Wichale with Italy in May 1889, in which Italy would recognize Ethiopia’s sovereignty so long as Italy could control a small area of northern Tigray (part of modern Eritrea). In return Italy, was to provide Menelik with arms and support him as emperor. The Italians used the time between the signing of the treaty and its ratification by the Italian government to further expand their territorial claims. Italy began a state funded program of resettlement for landless Italians in Eritrea, which increased tensions between the Eritrean peasants and the Italians. This conflict erupted in the Battle of Adwa on 1 March 1896, in which Italy’s colonial forces were defeated by the Ethiopians. \n\nThe early 20th century in Ethiopia was marked by the reign of Emperor Haile Selassie I, who came to power after Iyasu V was deposed. In 1935, Haile Selassie's troops fought and lost the Second Italo-Abyssinian War, after which point Italy annexed Ethiopia to Italian East Africa. Haile Selassie subsequently appealed to the League of Nations, delivering an address that made him a worldwide figure and 1935's Time magazine Man of the Year. Following the entry of Italy into World War II, British Empire forces, together with patriot Ethiopian fighters, liberated Ethiopia in the course of the East African Campaign in 1941. Haile Selassie's reign came to an end in 1974, when a Soviet-backed Marxist-Leninist military junta, the Derg led by Mengistu Haile Mariam, deposed him, and established a one-party communist state, which was called the People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia. In July 1977, the Ogaden War broke out after the government of President of Somalia Siad Barre sought to incorporate the predominantly Somali-inhabited Ogaden region into a Pan-Somali Greater Somalia. By September 1977, the Somali army controlled 90% of the Ogaden, but was later forced to withdraw after Ethiopia's Derg received assistance from the USSR, Cuba, South Yemen, East Germany and North Korea, including around 15,000 Cuban combat troops. In 1989, the Tigrayan Peoples' Liberation Front (TPLF) merged with other ethnically based opposition movements to form the Ethiopian Peoples' Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF), and eventually managed to overthrow Mengistu's dictatorial regime in 1991. A transitional government, composed of an 87-member Council of Representatives and guided by a national charter that functioned as a transitional constitution, was then set up. The first free and democratic election took place later in 1995, when Ethiopia's longest-serving Prime Minister Meles Zenawi was elected to office. As with other nations in the Horn region, Ethiopia maintained its historically close relations with countries in the Middle East during this period of change. Zenawi died in 2012, but his Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF) party remains the ruling political coalition in Ethiopia.\n\nGeography\n\nGeology and climate\n\nThe Horn of Africa is almost equidistant from the equator and the Tropic of Cancer. It consists chiefly of mountains uplifted through the formation of the Great Rift Valley, a fissure in the Earth's crust extending from Turkey to Mozambique and marking the separation of the African and Arabian tectonic plates. Mostly mountainous, the region arose through faults resulting from the Rift Valley.\n\nGeologically, the Horn and Yemen once formed a single landmass around 18 million years ago, before the Gulf of Aden rifted and separated the Horn region from the Arabian Peninsula. The Somali Plate is bounded on the west by the East African Rift, which stretches south from the triple junction in the Afar Depression, and an undersea continuation of the rift extending southward offshore. The northern boundary is the Aden Ridge along the coast of Saudi Arabia. The eastern boundary is the Central Indian Ridge, the northern portion of which is also known as the Carlsberg Ridge. The southern boundary is the Southwest Indian Ridge.\n\nExtensive glaciers once covered the Simien and Bale Mountains but melted at the beginning of the Holocene. The mountains descend in a huge escarpment to the Red Sea and more steadily to the Indian Ocean. Socotra is a small island in the Indian Ocean off the coast of Somalia. Its size is 3,600 km2 (1,390 sq mi) and it is a territory of Yemen.\n\nThe lowlands of the Horn are generally arid in spite of their proximity to the equator. This is because the winds of the tropical monsoons that give seasonal rains to the Sahel and the Sudan blow from the west. Consequently, they lose their moisture before reaching Djibouti and Somalia, with the result that most of the Horn receives little rainfall during the monsoon season.\n\nIn the mountains of Ethiopia, many areas receive over 2,000 mm (80 in) per year, and even Asmara receives an average of 570 mm (23 in). This rainfall is the sole source of water for many areas outside Ethiopia, including Egypt. In the winter, the northeasterly trade winds do not provide any moisture except in mountainous areas of northern Somalia, where rainfall in late autumn can produce annual totals as high as 500 mm (20 in). On the eastern coast, a strong upwelling and the fact that the winds blow parallel to the coast means annual rainfall can be as low as 50 mm (2 in).\n\nThe climate in Ethiopia varies considerably between regions. It is generally hotter in the lowlands and temperate on the plateau. At Addis Ababa, which ranges from 2200 to, maximum temperature is 26 C and minimum 4 C. The weather is usually sunny and dry, but the short (belg) rains occur from February to April and the big (meher) rains from mid-June to mid-September. The Danakil Desert stretches across 100,000 km2 of arid terrain in northeast Ethiopia, southern Eritrea, and northwestern Djibouti. The area is known for its volcanoes and extreme heat, with daily temperatures over 45 °C and often surpassing 50 °C. It has a number lakes formed by lava flows that dammed up several valleys. Among are Lake Asale (116 m below sea level) and Lake Giuletti/Afrera (80 m below sea level), both of which possess cryptodepressions in the Danakil Depression. The Afrera contains many active volcanoes, including the Maraho, Dabbahu, Afdera and Erta Ale. \n\nIn Somalia, there is not much seasonal variation in its climate. Hot conditions prevail year-round along with periodic monsoon winds and irregular rainfall. Mean daily maximum temperatures range from 28 to, except at higher elevations along the eastern seaboard, where the effects of a cold offshore current can be felt. Somalia has only two permanent rivers, the Jubba and the Shabele, both of which begin in the Ethiopian Highlands. \n\nEcology\n\nAbout 220 mammals are found in the Horn of Africa. Among threatened species of the region, there are several antelopes such as the beira, the dibatag, the silver dikdik and the Speke's gazelle. Other remarkable species include the Somali wild ass, the desert warthog, the hamadryas baboon, the Somali pygmy gerbil, the ammodile, and the Speke's pectinator. The Grevy's zebra is the unique wild equid of the region. There are predators such as spotted hyena, striped hyena and African leopard. The endangered painted hunting dog had populations in the Horn of Africa, but pressures from human exploitation of habitat along with warfare have reduced or extirpated this canid in this region. \n\nSome important bird species of the Horn are the Bulo Burti boubou, the golden-winged grosbeak, the Warsangli linnet, and the Djibouti francolin.\n\nThe Horn of Africa holds more endemic reptiles than any other region in Africa, with over 285 species total (and about 90 species found exclusively in the region). Among endemic reptile genera, there are Haackgreerius, Haemodracon, Ditypophis, Pachycalamus and Aeluroglena. Half of these genera are uniquely found on Socotra. Unlike reptiles, amphibians are poorly represented in the region.\n\nThere are about 100 species of freshwater fish in the Horn of Africa, about 10 of which are endemic. Among the endemic, the cave-dwelling Somali blind barb and the Somali cavefish can be found.\n\nIt is estimated that about 5,000 species of vascular plants are found in the Horn, about half of which are endemic. Endemism is most developed in Socotra and northern Somalia. The region has two endemic plant families: the Barbeyaceae and the Dirachmaceae. Among the other remarkable species, there are the cucumber tree found only on Socotra (Dendrosicyos socotrana), the Bankoualé palm, the yeheb nut, and the Somali cyclamen.\n\nDue to the Horn of Africa's semi-arid and arid climate, droughts are not uncommon. They are complicated by climate change and changes in agricultural practices. For centuries, the region's pastoral groups have observed careful rangeland management practices to mitigate the effects of drought, such as avoiding overgrazing or setting aside land only for young or ill animals. However, population growth has put pressure on limited land and led to these practices no longer being maintained. Droughts in 1983–85, 1991–92, 1998–99 and 2011 have disrupted periods of gradual growth in herd numbers, leading to a decrease of between 37% and 62% of the cattle population. Initiatives by ECHO and USAID have succeeded in reclaiming hundreds of hectares of pastureland through rangeland management, leading to the establishment of the Dikale Rangeland in 2004. \n\nEthnicity and languages\n\nBesides sharing similar geographic endowments, the countries of the Horn of Africa are, for the most part, linguistically and ethnically linked together, evincing a complex pattern of interrelationships among the various groups. \n\nAccording to Ethnologue, there are 10 individual languages spoken in Djibouti, 14 in Eritrea, 90 in Ethiopia, and 15 in Somalia. Most people in the Horn speak Afro-Asiatic languages of the Cushitic or Semitic branches. The former includes Oromo, spoken by the Oromo people in Ethiopia, and Somali, spoken by the Somali people in Somalia, Djibouti and Ethiopia; the latter includes Amharic, spoken by the Amhara people of Ethiopia, and Tigrinya, spoken by the Tigray-Tigrinya people of Eritrea and Ethiopia. Other Afro-Asiatic languages with a significant number of speakers include the Cushitic Afar, Saho, Hadiyya, Sidamo and Agaw languages, as well as the Semitic Tigre, Gurage, Harari, Silt'e and Argobba tongues. \n\nAdditionally, Omotic languages are spoken by Omotic communities inhabiting Ethiopia's southern regions. Among these idioms are Aari, Dizi, Gamo, Kafa, Hamer and Wolaytta. \n\nLanguages belonging to the Nilo-Saharan and Niger-Congo families are also spoken in some areas by Nilotic and Bantu ethnic minorities, respectively. These tongues include the Nilo-Saharan Me'en and Mursi languages used in southwestern Ethiopia, and Kunama and Nara idioms spoken in parts of southern Eritrea. In the riverine and littoral areas of southern Somalia, Bajuni, Barawani, and Bantu groups also speak variants of the Niger-Congo Swahili and Mushunguli languages. \n\nCulture\n\nThe countries of the Horn of Africa have been the birthplace of many ancient, as well as modern, cultural achievements in several fields including agriculture, architecture, art, cuisine, education, literature, music, technology and theology to name but a few.\n\nEthiopian agriculture established the earliest known use of the seed grass Teff (Poa abyssinica) between 4000-1000 BCE. Teff is used to make the flat bread injera/taita. Coffee also originated in Ethiopia and has since spread to become a worldwide beverage. Ethiopian art is renowned for the ancient tradition of Ethiopian Orthodox Christian iconography stretching back to wall paintings of the 7th century CE. Somali architecture includes the Fakr ad-Din Mosque, which was built in 1269 by the Fakr ad-Din, the first Sultan of the Sultanate of Mogadishu. Ethiopia, too is renowned for its ancient churches, such as at the UNESCO World Heritage Site at Lalibela. \n\nThe Horn has produced numerous indigenous writing systems, most notably the script known as Ge'ez ( '), (also controversially called Ethiopic) for 2000 years. It is an abugida script that was originally developed to write the Ge'ez language. In speech communities that use it, such as the Amharic and Tigrinya, the script is called ' (), which means \"script\" or \"alphabet\".\n\nIn the early 20th century, in response to a national campaign to settle on a writing script for the Somali language (which had long since lost its ancient script ), Osman Yusuf Kenadid, a Somali poet and leader in the Majeerteen Sultanate of Hobyo and nephew of Sultan Yusuf Ali Kenadid, also devised a phonetically sophisticated alphabet called Osmanya (also known as far soomaali; Osmanya: 𐒍𐒖𐒇 𐒈𐒝𐒑𐒛𐒐𐒘), for representing the sounds of Somali. Though no longer the official writing script in Somalia, the Osmanya script is available in the Unicode range 10480-104AF [from U+10480 - U+104AF (66688–66735)].\n\nThe Somali writer Nuruddin Farah has also garnered acclaim as perhaps the most celebrated writer ever to come out of the Horn of Africa. Having published many short stories, novels and essays, Farah's prose has earned him, among other accolades, the Premio Cavour in Italy, the Kurt Tucholsky Prize in Sweden, and in 1998, the prestigious Neustadt International Prize for Literature. In the same year, the French edition of his novel Gifts also won the St. Malo Literature Festival's prize. \n\nThe music of the Ethiopian highlands uses a unique modal system called qenet, of which there are four main modes: tezeta, bati, ambassel, and anchihoy. Three additional modes are variations on the above: tezeta minor, bati major, and bati minor. Some songs take the name of their qenet, such as tezeta, a song of reminiscence.\n\nIn the field of technology, the Great Stele of Axum, at over 100 ft long, was the largest single stone ever quarried in the ancient world. \n\nAdditionally, the glossy lifestyle magazine Sheeko is published quarterly for and by the Horn community.\n\nReligion\n\nMost residents in the Horn of Africa practice one of the three major Abrahamic faiths, religions that have had a longstanding presence in the region.\n\nAncient Axum produced coins and stelae associated with the disc and crescent symbols of the deity Ashtar. The kingdom later became one of the earliest states to adopt Christianity, following the conversion of King Ezana II in the 4th century.\n\nIslam was introduced to the region early on from the Arabian peninsula, shortly after the hijra. At Muhammad's urging, a band of persecuted Muslims had fled across the Red Sea into the Horn. There, the Muslims were granted protection by the Aksumite King Aṣḥama ibn Abjar. In the late 9th century, Al-Yaqubi wrote that Muslims were living along the northern Somali seaboard. He also mentioned that the Adal kingdom had its capital in Zeila, suggesting that the Adal Sultanate with Zeila as its headquarters dates back to at least the 9th or 10th centuries.\n\nAdditionally, Judaism has a long presence in the region. The Kebra Negast (\"Book of the Glory of Kings\") relates that Israelite tribes arrived in Ethiopia with Menelik I, purported to be the son of King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba (Makeda). The legend relates that Menelik as an adult returned to his father in Jerusalem, and then resettled in Ethiopia, and that he took with him the Ark of the Covenant. The Beta Israel today primarily follow the Orit (from Aramaic \"Oraita\" - \"Torah\"), which consists of the Five Books of Moses and the books Joshua, Judges and Ruth.\n\nA number of ethnic minority groups in southern Ethiopia also adhere to various traditional faiths. Among these belief systems are the Nilo-Saharan Surma people's acknowledgment of the sky god Tumu. \n\nSports\n\nIn the modern era, the Horn of Africa has produced several world-famous sports personalities, including long distance runners such as the world-record holder Kenenisa Bekele and Derartu Tulu, the first Ethiopian woman to win an Olympic gold medal and the only woman to have twice won the 10,000 meter Olympic gold in the short history of the event.\nOne of the most successful runners from the region has been Haile Gebrselassie who was acclaimed as \"Athlete of the Year 1998\" by the International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF). As well as numerous gold medals in various events, Gebrselassie achieved 15 world records and world bests in long and middle distance running, including world record marathon times in 2007 and 2008. Somali athlete Abdi Bile became a world champion when he won the 1500m for men at the 1987 World Championships in Athletics, running the final 800m of the race in 1:46.0, the fastest final 800m of any 1,500 meter track race in history.\n\nEritrea has established the cycling event the Tour of Eritrea.\n\nIn recent years, the Somali diaspora produced a football star in Ayub Daud, a midfielder who plays for Juventus in Italy's Serie A. Zahra Bani, a Somali-Italian javelin thrower, has garnered attention with her performances that so far have earned her adopted Italy a silver medal at the 2005 Mediterranean Games, as has Mo Farah, a Somali-British athlete that took gold for his adopted Great Britain in the 3000m at the 2009 European Indoor Championships in Turin and later golds in both the 10,000m and 5,000m at the 2012 London Olympics.\n\nEconomy\n\nAccording to the IMF, in 2010 the Horn of Africa region had a total GDP (PPP) of $106.224 billion and nominal of $35.819 billion. Per capita, the GDP in 2010 was $1061 (PPP) and $358 (nominal). \n\nStates of the region depend largely on a few key exports:\n* Economy of Ethiopia: Coffee 80% of total exports.\n* Economy of Somalia: Bananas and livestock over 50% of total exports.\nOver 95% of cross-border trade within the region is unofficial and undocumented, carried out by pastoralists trading livestock. The unofficial trade of live cattle, camels, sheep and goats from Ethiopia sold to other countries in the Horn and the wider Eastern Africa region, including Somalia and Djibouti, generates an estimated total value of between US$250 and US$300 million annually (100 times more than the official figure). This trade helps lower food prices, increase food security, relieve border tensions and promote regional integration. However, there are also risks as the unregulated and undocumented nature of this trade runs risks, such as allow disease to spread more easily across national borders. Furthermore, governments are unhappy with lost tax revenue and foreign exchange revenues.\n\nMuch of the Horn nations' trade links are with Middle Eastern countries. In 2011, an event hosted by the Arab Center for Research and Policy Studies in Doha, Qatar devoted several days of discussion to ways in which countries in the Horn region and the adjacent Arabian peninsula could further strengthen these historically close economic, social, cultural and religious ties.", "Africa is the world's second-largest and second-most-populous continent. At about 30.3 million km² (11.7 million square miles) including adjacent islands, it covers six percent of Earth's total surface area and 20.4 percent of its total land area.Sayre, April Pulley (1999), Africa, Twenty-First Century Books. ISBN 0-7613-1367-2. With 1.1 billion people as of 2013, it accounts for about 15% of the world's human population. The continent is surrounded by the Mediterranean Sea to the north, both the Suez Canal and the Red Sea along the Sinai Peninsula to the northeast, the Indian Ocean to the southeast, and the Atlantic Ocean to the west. The continent includes Madagascar and various archipelagos. It contains 54 fully recognized sovereign states (countries), nine territories and two de facto independent states with limited or no recognition. \n\nAfrica's population is the youngest amongst all the continents; the median age in 2012 was 19.7, when the worldwide median age was 30.4. Algeria is Africa's largest country by area, and Nigeria by population. Africa, particularly central Eastern Africa, is widely accepted as the place of origin of humans and the Hominidae clade (great apes), as evidenced by the discovery of the earliest hominids and their ancestors, as well as later ones that have been dated to around seven million years ago, including Sahelanthropus tchadensis, Australopithecus africanus, A. afarensis, Homo erectus, H. habilis and H. ergaster – with the earliest Homo sapiens (modern human) found in Ethiopia being dated to circa 200,000 years ago. Africa straddles the equator and encompasses numerous climate areas; it is the only continent to stretch from the northern temperate to southern temperate zones. \n\nAfrica hosts a large diversity of ethnicities, cultures and languages. In the late 19th century European countries colonized most of Africa. Most present states in Africa originate from a process of decolonization in the 20th century.\n\nEtymology\n\nAfri was a Latin name used to refer to the inhabitants of Africa, which in its widest sense referred to all lands south of the Mediterranean (Ancient Libya). This name seems to have originally referred to a native Libyan tribe; see Terence#Biography for discussion. The name is usually connected with Hebrew or Phoenician 'dust', but a 1981 hypothesis has asserted that it stems from the Berber ifri (plural ifran) \"cave\", in reference to cave dwellers. The same word may be found in the name of the Banu Ifran from Algeria and Tripolitania, a Berber tribe originally from Yafran (also known as Ifrane) in northwestern Libya. \n\nUnder Roman rule, Carthage became the capital of the province of Africa Proconsularis, which also included the coastal part of modern Libya. The Latin suffix \"-ica\" can sometimes be used to denote a land (e.g., in Celtica from Celtae, as used by Julius Caesar). The later Muslim kingdom of Ifriqiya, modern-day Tunisia, also preserved a form of the name.\n\nAccording to the Romans, Africa lay to the west of Egypt, while \"Asia\" was used to refer to Anatolia and lands to the east. A definite line was drawn between the two continents by the geographer Ptolemy (85–165 AD), indicating Alexandria along the Prime Meridian and making the isthmus of Suez and the Red Sea the boundary between Asia and Africa. As Europeans came to understand the real extent of the continent, the idea of \"Africa\" expanded with their knowledge.\n\nOther etymological hypotheses have been postulated for the ancient name \"Africa\":\n* The 1st-century Jewish historian Flavius Josephus (Ant. 1.15) asserted that it was named for Epher, grandson of Abraham according to Gen. 25:4, whose descendants, he claimed, had invaded Libya.\n* Isidore of Seville in Etymologiae XIV.5.2. suggests \"Africa comes from the Latin aprica, meaning \"sunny\".\n* Massey, in 1881, stated that Africa is derived from the Egyptian af-rui-ka, meaning \"to turn toward the opening of the Ka.\" The Ka is the energetic double of every person and the \"opening of the Ka\" refers to a womb or birthplace. Africa would be, for the Egyptians, \"the birthplace.\" \n* Michèle Fruyt proposed linking the Latin word with africus \"south wind\", which would be of Umbrian origin and mean originally \"rainy wind\".\n* Robert R. Stieglitz of Rutgers University proposed: \"The name Africa, derived from the Latin Aphir-ic-a, is cognate to Hebrew Ophir.\" \n\nHistory\n\nPrehistory\n\nAfrica is considered by most paleoanthropologists to be the oldest inhabited territory on Earth, with the human species originating from the continent. During the mid-20th century, anthropologists discovered many fossils and evidence of human occupation perhaps as early as 7 million years ago (BPbefore present). Fossil remains of several species of early apelike humans thought to have evolved into modern man, such as Australopithecus afarensis (radiometrically dated to approximately 3.9–3.0 million years BP, Paranthropus boisei (c. 2.3–1.4 million years BP) and Homo ergaster (c. 1.9 million–600,000 years BP) have been discovered.\n\nAfter the evolution of Homo sapiens sapiens approximately 150,000 to 100,000 years BP in Africa, the continent was mainly populated by groups of hunter-gatherers. These first modern humans left Africa and populated the rest of the globe during the Out of Africa II migration dated to approximately 50,000 years BP, exiting the continent either across Bab-el-Mandeb over the Red Sea, the Strait of Gibraltar in Morocco, or the Isthmus of Suez in Egypt. \n\nOther migrations of modern humans within the African continent have been dated to that time, with evidence of early human settlement found in Southern Africa, Southeast Africa, North Africa, and the Sahara. \n\nThe size of the Sahara has historically been extremely variable, with its area rapidly fluctuating and at times disappearing depending on global climactic conditions. At the end of the Ice ages, estimated to have been around 10,500 BC, the Sahara had again become a green fertile valley, and its African populations returned from the interior and coastal highlands in Sub-Saharan Africa, with rock art paintings depicting a fertile Sahara and large populations discovered in Tassili n'Ajjer dating back perhaps 10 millennia. However, the warming and drying climate meant that by 5000 BC, the Sahara region was becoming increasingly dry and hostile. Around 3500 BC, due to a tilt in the earth's orbit, the Sahara experienced a period of rapid desertification. The population trekked out of the Sahara region towards the Nile Valley below the Second Cataract where they made permanent or semi-permanent settlements. A major climatic recession occurred, lessening the heavy and persistent rains in Central and Eastern Africa. Since this time, dry conditions have prevailed in Eastern Africa and, increasingly during the last 200 years, in Ethiopia.\n\nThe domestication of cattle in Africa preceded agriculture and seems to have existed alongside hunter-gatherer cultures. It is speculated that by 6000 BC, cattle were domesticated in North Africa. In the Sahara-Nile complex, people domesticated many animals, including the donkey and a small screw-horned goat which was common from Algeria to Nubia.\n\nAround 4000 BC, the Saharan climate started to become drier at an exceedingly fast pace. This climate change caused lakes and rivers to shrink significantly and caused increasing desertification. This, in turn, decreased the amount of land conducive to settlements and helped to cause migrations of farming communities to the more tropical climate of West Africa.\n\nBy the first millennium BC, ironworking had been introduced in Northern Africa and quickly spread across the Sahara into the northern parts of sub-Saharan Africa, and by 500 BC, metalworking began to become commonplace in West Africa. Ironworking was fully established by roughly 500 BC in many areas of East and West Africa, although other regions didn't begin ironworking until the early centuries AD. Copper objects from Egypt, North Africa, Nubia, and Ethiopia dating from around 500 BC have been excavated in West Africa, suggesting that Trans-Saharan trade networks had been established by this date.\n\nEarly civilizations\n\nAt about 3300 BC, the historical record opens in Northern Africa with the rise of literacy in the Pharaonic civilization of Ancient Egypt. One of the world's earliest and longest-lasting civilizations, the Egyptian state continued, with varying levels of influence over other areas, until 343 BC. Egyptian influence reached deep into modern-day Libya and Nubia, and, according to Martin Bernal, as far north as Crete. \n\nAn independent center of civilization with trading links to Phoenicia was established by Phoenicians from Tyre on the north-west African coast at Carthage. \n\nEuropean exploration of Africa began with Ancient Greeks and Romans. In 332 BC, Alexander the Great was welcomed as a liberator in Persian-occupied Egypt. He founded Alexandria in Egypt, which would become the prosperous capital of the Ptolemaic dynasty after his death. \n\nFollowing the conquest of North Africa's Mediterranean coastline by the Roman Empire, the area was integrated economically and culturally into the Roman system. Roman settlement occurred in modern Tunisia and elsewhere along the coast. The first Roman emperor native to North Africa was Septimius Severus, born in Leptis Magna in present-day Libya—his mother was Italian Roman and his father was Punic. \n\nChristianity spread across these areas at an early date, from Judaea via Egypt and beyond the borders of the Roman world into Nubia; by AD 340 at the latest, it had become the state religion of the Aksumite Empire. Syro-Greek missionaries, who arrived by way of the Red Sea, were responsible for this theological development. \n\nIn the early 7th century, the newly formed Arabian Islamic Caliphate expanded into Egypt, and then into North Africa. In a short while, the local Berber elite had been integrated into Muslim Arab tribes. When the Umayyad capital Damascus fell in the 8th century, the Islamic center of the Mediterranean shifted from Syria to Qayrawan in North Africa. Islamic North Africa had become diverse, and a hub for mystics, scholars, jurists, and philosophers. During the above-mentioned period, Islam spread to sub-Saharan Africa, mainly through trade routes and migration.\n\nNinth to eighteenth centuries\n\nPre-colonial Africa possessed perhaps as many as 10,000 different states and polities characterized by many different sorts of political organization and rule. These included small family groups of hunter-gatherers such as the San people of southern Africa; larger, more structured groups such as the family clan groupings of the Bantu-speaking peoples of central, southern, and eastern Africa; heavily structured clan groups in the Horn of Africa; the large Sahelian kingdoms; and autonomous city-states and kingdoms such as those of the Akan; Edo, Yoruba, and Igbo people in West Africa; and the Swahili coastal trading towns of Southeast Africa.\n\nBy the ninth century AD, a string of dynastic states, including the earliest Hausa states, stretched across the sub-Saharan savannah from the western regions to central Sudan. The most powerful of these states were Ghana, Gao, and the Kanem-Bornu Empire. Ghana declined in the eleventh century, but was succeeded by the Mali Empire which consolidated much of western Sudan in the thirteenth century. Kanem accepted Islam in the eleventh century.\n\nIn the forested regions of the West African coast, independent kingdoms grew with little influence from the Muslim north. The Kingdom of Nri was established around the ninth century and was one of the first. It is also one of the oldest kingdoms in present-day Nigeria and was ruled by the Eze Nri. The Nri kingdom is famous for its elaborate bronzes, found at the town of Igbo-Ukwu. The bronzes have been dated from as far back as the ninth century. \n\nThe Kingdom of Ife, historically the first of these Yoruba city-states or kingdoms, established government under a priestly oba ('king' or 'ruler' in the Yoruba language), called the Ooni of Ife. Ife was noted as a major religious and cultural center in West Africa, and for its unique naturalistic tradition of bronze sculpture. The Ife model of government was adapted at the Oyo Empire, where its obas or kings, called the Alaafins of Oyo, once controlled a large number of other Yoruba and non-Yoruba city-states and kingdoms; the Fon Kingdom of Dahomey was one of the non-Yoruba domains under Oyo control.\n\nThe Almoravids were a Berber dynasty from the Sahara that spread over a wide area of northwestern Africa and the Iberian peninsula during the eleventh century. The Banu Hilal and Banu Ma'qil were a collection of Arab Bedouin tribes from the Arabian Peninsula who migrated westwards via Egypt between the eleventh and thirteenth centuries. Their migration resulted in the fusion of the Arabs and Berbers, where the locals were Arabized, and Arab culture absorbed elements of the local culture, under the unifying framework of Islam. \n\nFollowing the breakup of Mali, a local leader named Sonni Ali (1464–1492) founded the Songhai Empire in the region of middle Niger and the western Sudan and took control of the trans-Saharan trade. Sonni Ali seized Timbuktu in 1468 and Jenne in 1473, building his regime on trade revenues and the cooperation of Muslim merchants. His successor Askia Mohammad I (1493–1528) made Islam the official religion, built mosques, and brought to Gao Muslim scholars, including al-Maghili (d.1504), the founder of an important tradition of Sudanic African Muslim scholarship. By the eleventh century, some Hausa states – such as Kano, jigawa, Katsina, and Gobir – had developed into walled towns engaging in trade, servicing caravans, and the manufacture of goods. Until the fifteenth century, these small states were on the periphery of the major Sudanic empires of the era, paying tribute to Songhai to the west and Kanem-Borno to the east.\n\nHeight of slave trade\n\nSlavery had long been practiced in Africa. Between the 7th and 20th centuries, Arab slave trade (also known as slavery in the East) took 18 million slaves from Africa via trans-Saharan and Indian Ocean routes. Between the 15th and the 19th centuries (500 years), the Atlantic slave trade took an estimated 7–12 million slaves to the New World. More than 1 million Europeans were captured by Barbary pirates and sold as slaves in North Africa between the 16th and 19th centuries. \n\nIn West Africa, the decline of the Atlantic slave trade in the 1820s caused dramatic economic shifts in local polities. The gradual decline of slave-trading, prompted by a lack of demand for slaves in the New World, increasing anti-slavery legislation in Europe and America, and the British Royal Navy's increasing presence off the West African coast, obliged African states to adopt new economies. Between 1808 and 1860, the British West Africa Squadron seized approximately 1,600 slave ships and freed 150,000 Africans who were aboard. \n\nAction was also taken against African leaders who refused to agree to British treaties to outlaw the trade, for example against \"the usurping King of Lagos\", deposed in 1851. Anti-slavery treaties were signed with over 50 African rulers. The largest powers of West Africa (the Asante Confederacy, the Kingdom of Dahomey, and the Oyo Empire) adopted different ways of adapting to the shift. Asante and Dahomey concentrated on the development of \"legitimate commerce\" in the form of palm oil, cocoa, timber and gold, forming the bedrock of West Africa's modern export trade. The Oyo Empire, unable to adapt, collapsed into civil wars. \n\nColonialism and the \"Scramble for Africa\"\n\nIn the late 19th century, the European imperial powers engaged in a major territorial scramble and occupied most of the continent, creating many colonial territories, and leaving only two fully independent states: Ethiopia (known to Europeans as \"Abyssinia\"), and Liberia. Egypt and Sudan were never formally incorporated into any European colonial empire; however, after the British occupation of 1882, Egypt was effectively under British administration until 1922.\n\nBerlin Conference\n\nThe Berlin Conference held in 1884–85 was an important event in the political future of African ethnic groups. It was convened by King Leopold II of Belgium, and attended by the European powers that laid claim to African territories. It sought to end the European powers' Scramble for Africa, by agreeing on political division and spheres of influence. They set up the political divisions of the continent, by spheres of interest, that exist in Africa today.\n\nIndependence struggles\n\nImperial rule by Europeans would continue until after the conclusion of World War II, when almost all remaining colonial territories gradually obtained formal independence. Independence movements in Africa gained momentum following World War II, which left the major European powers weakened. In 1951, Libya, a former Italian colony, gained independence. In 1956, Tunisia and Morocco won their independence from France. Ghana followed suit the next year (March 1957), becoming the first of the sub-Saharan colonies to be granted independence. Most of the rest of the continent became independent over the next decade.\n\nPortugal's overseas presence in Sub-Saharan Africa (most notably in Angola, Cape Verde, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau and São Tomé and Príncipe) lasted from the 16th century to 1975, after the Estado Novo regime was overthrown in a military coup in Lisbon. Rhodesia unilaterally declared independence from the United Kingdom in 1965, under the white minority government of Ian Smith, but was not internationally recognized as an independent state (as Zimbabwe) until 1980, when black nationalists gained power after a bitter guerrilla war. Although South Africa was one of the first African countries to gain independence, the state remained under the control of the country's white minority through a system of racial segregation known as apartheid until 1994.\n\nPost-colonial Africa\n\nToday, Africa contains 54 sovereign countries, most of which have borders that were drawn during the era of European colonialism. Since colonialism, African states have frequently been hampered by instability, corruption, violence, and authoritarianism. The vast majority of African states are republics that operate under some form of the presidential system of rule. However, few of them have been able to sustain democratic governments on a permanent basis, and many have instead cycled through a series of coups, producing military dictatorships.\n\nGreat instability was mainly the result of marginalization of ethnic groups, and graft under these leaders. For political gain, many leaders fanned ethnic conflicts, some of which had been exacerbated, or even created, by colonial rule. In many countries, the military was perceived as being the only group that could effectively maintain order, and it ruled many nations in Africa during the 1970s and early 1980s. During the period from the early 1960s to the late 1980s, Africa had more than 70 coups and 13 presidential assassinations. Border and territorial disputes were also common, with the European-imposed borders of many nations being widely contested through armed conflicts.\n\nCold War conflicts between the United States and the Soviet Union, as well as the policies of the International Monetary Fund, also played a role in instability. When a country became independent for the first time, it was often expected to align with one of the two superpowers. Many countries in Northern Africa received Soviet military aid, while others in Central and Southern Africa were supported by the United States, France or both. The 1970s saw an escalation of Cold War intrigues, as newly independent Angola and Mozambique aligned themselves with the Soviet Union, and the West and South Africa sought to contain Soviet influence by supporting friendly regimes or insurgency movements. In Rhodesia, Soviet and Chinese-backed leftist guerrillas of the Zimbabwe Patriotic Front waged a brutal guerrilla war against the country's white government. There was a major famine in Ethiopia, when hundreds of thousands of people starved. Some claimed that Marxist economic policies made the situation worse. The most devastating military conflict in modern independent Africa has been the Second Congo War; this conflict and its aftermath has killed an estimated 5.5 million people. Since 2003 there has been an ongoing conflict in Darfur which has become a humanitarian disaster. Another notable tragic event is the 1994 Rwandan Genocide in which an estimated 800,000 people were murdered. AIDS in post-colonial Africa has also been a prevalent issue.\n\nIn the 21st century, however, the number of armed conflicts in Africa has steadily declined. For instance, the civil war in Angola came to an end in 2002 after nearly 30 years. This has coincided with many countries abandoning communist-style command economies and opening up for market reforms. The improved stability and economic reforms have led to a great increase in foreign investment into many African nations, mainly from China, which has spurred quick economic growth in many countries, seemingly ending decades of stagnation and decline. Several African economies are among the world's fastest growing as of 2016. A significant part of this growth, which is sometimes referred to as Africa Rising, can also be attributed to the facilitated diffusion of information technologies and specifically the mobile telephone. \n\nGeography\n\nAfrica is the largest of the three great southward projections from the largest landmass of the Earth. Separated from Europe by the Mediterranean Sea, it is joined to Asia at its northeast extremity by the Isthmus of Suez (transected by the Suez Canal), 163 km wide. (Geopolitically, Egypt's Sinai Peninsula east of the Suez Canal is often considered part of Africa, as well.) \n\nFrom the most northerly point, Ras ben Sakka in Tunisia (37°21' N), to the most southerly point, Cape Agulhas in South Africa (34°51'15\" S), is a distance of approximately ; from Cape Verde, 17°33'22\" W, the westernmost point, to Ras Hafun in Somalia, 51°27'52\" E, the most easterly projection, is a distance of approximately .(1998) Merriam-Webster's Geographical Dictionary (Index), Merriam-Webster, pp. 10–11. ISBN 0-87779-546-0 The coastline is long, and the absence of deep indentations of the shore is illustrated by the fact that Europe, which covers only – about a third of the surface of Africa – has a coastline of .\n\nAfrica's largest country is Algeria, and its smallest country is the Seychelles, an archipelago off the east coast.Hoare, Ben. (2002) The Kingfisher A-Z Encyclopedia, Kingfisher Publications. p. 11. ISBN 0-7534-5569-2 The smallest nation on the continental mainland is The Gambia.\n\nGeologically, Africa includes the Arabian Peninsula; the Zagros Mountains of Iran and the Anatolian Plateau of Turkey mark where the African Plate collided with Eurasia. The Afrotropic ecozone and the Saharo-Arabian desert to its north unite the region biogeographically, and the Afro-Asiatic language family unites the north linguistically.\n\nClimate\n\nThe climate of Africa ranges from tropical to subarctic on its highest peaks. Its northern half is primarily desert, or arid, while its central and southern areas contain both savanna plains and dense jungle (rainforest) regions. In between, there is a convergence, where vegetation patterns such as sahel and steppe dominate. Africa is the hottest continent on earth and 60% of the entire land surface consists of drylands and deserts. The record for the highest-ever recorded temperature, in Libya in 1922 (58 C), was discredited in 2013. (The 136 °F (57.8 °C), claimed by 'Aziziya, Libya, on 13 September 1922, has been officially deemed invalid by the World Meteorological Organization.) \n\nFauna\n\nAfrica boasts perhaps the world's largest combination of density and \"range of freedom\" of wild animal populations and diversity, with wild populations of large carnivores (such as lions, hyenas, and cheetahs) and herbivores (such as buffalo, elephants, camels, and giraffes) ranging freely on primarily open non-private plains. It is also home to a variety of \"jungle\" animals including snakes and primates and aquatic life such as crocodiles and amphibians. In addition, Africa has the largest number of megafauna species, as it was least affected by the extinction of the Pleistocene megafauna.\n\nEcology and biodiversity\n\nDeforestation is affecting Africa at twice the world rate, according to the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). According to the University of Pennsylvania African Studies Center, 31% of Africa's pasture lands and 19% of its forests and woodlands are classified as degraded, and Africa is losing over four million hectares of forest per year, which is twice the average deforestation rate for the rest of the world. Some sources claim that approximately 90% of the original, virgin forests in West Africa have been destroyed. Over 90% of Madagascar's original forests have been destroyed since the arrival of humans 2000 years ago. About 65% of Africa's agricultural land suffers from soil degradation. \n\nAfrica has over 3,000 protected areas, with 198 marine protected areas, 50 biosphere reserves, and 80 wetlands reserves. Significant habitat destruction, increases in human population and poaching are reducing Africa's biological diversity. Human encroachment, civil unrest and the introduction of non-native species threaten biodiversity in Africa. This has been exacerbated by administrative problems, inadequate personnel and funding problems.\n\nPolitics\n\nThere are clear signs of increased networking among African organizations and states. For example, in the civil war in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (former Zaire), rather than rich, non-African countries intervening, neighboring African countries became involved (see also Second Congo War). Since the conflict began in 1998, the estimated death toll has reached 5 million.\n\nThe African Union\n\nThe African Union (AU) is a 54-member federation consisting of all of Africa's states except Morocco. The union was formed, with Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, as its headquarters, on 26 June 2001. The union was officially established on 9 July 2002 as a successor to the Organisation of African Unity (OAU). In July 2004, the African Union's Pan-African Parliament (PAP) was relocated to Midrand, in South Africa, but the African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights remained in Addis Ababa. There is a policy in effect to decentralize the African Federation's institutions so that they are shared by all the states.\n\nThe African Union, not to be confused with the AU Commission, is formed by the Constitutive Act of the African Union, which aims to transform the African Economic Community, a federated commonwealth, into a state under established international conventions. The African Union has a parliamentary government, known as the African Union Government, consisting of legislative, judicial and executive organs. It is led by the African Union President and Head of State, who is also the President of the Pan-African Parliament. A person becomes AU President by being elected to the PAP, and subsequently gaining majority support in the PAP. The powers and authority of the President of the African Parliament derive from the Constitutive Act and the Protocol of the Pan-African Parliament, as well as the inheritance of presidential authority stipulated by African treaties and by international treaties, including those subordinating the Secretary General of the OAU Secretariat (AU Commission) to the PAP. The government of the AU consists of all-union (federal), regional, state, and municipal authorities, as well as hundreds of institutions, that together manage the day-to-day affairs of the institution.\n\nPolitical associations such as the African Union offer hope for greater co-operation and peace between the continent's many countries. Extensive human rights abuses still occur in several parts of Africa, often under the oversight of the state. Most of such violations occur for political reasons, often as a side effect of civil war. Countries where major human rights violations have been reported in recent times include the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Sudan, Zimbabwe, and Côte d'Ivoire.\n\nEconomy\n\nAlthough it has abundant natural resources, Africa remains the world's poorest and most underdeveloped continent, the result of a variety of causes that may include corrupt governments that have often committed serious human rights violations, failed central planning, high levels of illiteracy, lack of access to foreign capital, and frequent tribal and military conflict (ranging from guerrilla warfare to genocide). According to the United Nations' Human Development Report in 2003, the bottom 24 ranked nations (151st to 175th) were all African. \n\nPoverty, illiteracy, malnutrition and inadequate water supply and sanitation, as well as poor health, affect a large proportion of the people who reside in the African continent. In August 2008, the World Bank announced revised global poverty estimates based on a new international poverty line of $1.25 per day (versus the previous measure of $1.00). 80.5% of the Sub-Saharan Africa population was living on less than $2.50 (PPP) per day in 2005, compared with 85.7% for India. \n\nSub-Saharan Africa is the least successful region of the world in reducing poverty ($1.25 per day); some 50% of the population living in poverty in 1981 (200 million people), a figure that rose to 58% in 1996 before dropping to 50% in 2005 (380 million people). The average poor person in sub-Saharan Africa is estimated to live on only 70 cents per day, and was poorer in 2003 than in 1973, indicating increasing poverty in some areas. Some of it is attributed to unsuccessful economic liberalization programs spearheaded by foreign companies and governments, but other studies have cited bad domestic government policies more than external factors. \n\nFrom 1995 to 2005, Africa's rate of economic growth increased, averaging 5% in 2005. Some countries experienced still higher growth rates, notably Angola, Sudan and Equatorial Guinea, all of which had recently begun extracting their petroleum reserves or had expanded their oil extraction capacity. The continent is believed to hold 90% of the world's cobalt, 90% of its platinum, 50% of its gold, 98% of its chromium, 70% of its tantalite, 64% of its manganese and one-third of its uranium. The Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) has 70% of the world's coltan, a mineral used in the production of tantalum capacitors for electronic devices such as cell phones. The DRC also has more than 30% of the world's diamond reserves. Guinea is the world's largest exporter of bauxite. As the growth in Africa has been driven mainly by services and not manufacturing or agriculture, it has been growth without jobs and without reduction in poverty levels. In fact, the food security crisis of 2008 which took place on the heels of the global financial crisis has pushed back 100 million people into food insecurity. \n\nIn recent years, the People's Republic of China has built increasingly stronger ties with African nations and is Africa's largest trading partner. In 2007, Chinese companies invested a total of US$1 billion in Africa.[http://www.migrationinformation.org/Feature/display.cfm?id\n690 Malia Politzer, \"China and Africa: Stronger Economic Ties Mean More Migration\"], Migration Information Source. August 2008\n\nA Harvard University study led by professor Calestous Juma showed that Africa could feed itself by making the transition from importer to self-sufficiency. \"African agriculture is at the crossroads; we have come to the end of a century of policies that favored Africa's export of raw materials and importation of food. Africa is starting to focus on agricultural innovation as its new engine for regional trade and prosperity.\" \n\nDuring US President Barack Obama's visit to Africa in July 2013, he announced a US$7 billion plan to further develop infrastructure and work more intensively with African heads of state. He also announced a new program named Trade Africa, designed to boost trade within the continent as well as between Africa and the US. \n\nDemographics\n\nAfrica's population has rapidly increased over the last 40 years, and consequently, it is relatively young. In some African states, more than half the population is under 25 years of age. The total number of people in Africa increased from 229 million in 1950 to 630 million in 1990. As of 2014, the population of Africa is estimated at 1.2 billion. Africa's total population surpassing other continents is fairly recent; African population surpassed Europe in the 1990s, while the Americas was overtaken sometime around the year 2000; Africa's rapid population growth is expected to overtake the only two nations currently larger than its population, at roughly the same time - India and China's 1.4 billion people each will swap ranking around the year 2022. \n\nSpeakers of Bantu languages (part of the Niger–Congo family) are the majority in southern, central and southeast Africa. The Bantu-speaking peoples from The Sahel progressively expanded over most of Sub-Saharan Africa. But there are also several Nilotic groups in South Sudan and East Africa, the mixed Swahili people on the Swahili Coast, and a few remaining indigenous Khoisan (\"San\" or \"Bushmen\") and Pygmy peoples in southern and central Africa, respectively. Bantu-speaking Africans also predominate in Gabon and Equatorial Guinea, and are found in parts of southern Cameroon. In the Kalahari Desert of Southern Africa, the distinct people known as the Bushmen (also \"San\", closely related to, but distinct from \"Hottentots\") have long been present. The San are physically distinct from other Africans and are the indigenous people of southern Africa. Pygmies are the pre-Bantu indigenous peoples of central Africa. \n\nThe peoples of West Africa primarily speak Niger–Congo languages, belonging mostly to its non-Bantu branches, though some Nilo-Saharan and Afro-Asiatic speaking groups are also found. The Niger–Congo-speaking Yoruba, Igbo, Fulani, Akan and Wolof ethnic groups are the largest and most influential. In the central Sahara, Mandinka or Mande groups are most significant. Chadic-speaking groups, including the Hausa, are found in more northerly parts of the region nearest to the Sahara, and Nilo-Saharan communities, such as the Songhai, Kanuri and Zarma, are found in the eastern parts of West Africa bordering Central Africa.\n\nThe peoples of North Africa consist of three main indigenous groups: Berbers in the northwest, Egyptians in the northeast, and Nilo-Saharan-speaking peoples in the east. The Arabs who arrived in the 7th century AD introduced the Arabic language and Islam to North Africa. The Semitic Phoenicians (who founded Carthage) and Hyksos, the Indo-Iranian Alans, the Indo- European Greeks, Romans, and Vandals settled in North Africa as well. Significant Berber communities remain within Morocco and Algeria in the 21st century, while, to a lesser extent, Berber speakers are also present in some regions of Tunisia and Libya. The Berber-speaking Tuareg and other often-nomadic peoples are the principal inhabitants of the Saharan interior of North Africa. In Mauritania, there is a small but near-extinct Berber community in the north and Niger–Congo-speaking peoples in the south, though in both regions Arabic and Arab culture predominates. In Sudan, although Arabic and Arab culture predominate, it is mostly inhabited by groups that originally spoke Nilo-Saharan, such as the Nubians, Fur, Masalit and Zaghawa, who, over the centuries, have variously intermixed with migrants from the Arabian peninsula. Small communities of Afro-Asiatic-speaking Beja nomads can also be found in Egypt and Sudan.\n\nIn the Horn of Africa, some Ethiopian and Eritrean groups (like the Amhara and Tigrayans, collectively known as Habesha) speak languages from the Semitic branch of the Afro-Asiatic language family, while the Oromo and Somali speak languages from the Cushitic branch of Afro-Asiatic.\n\nPrior to the decolonization movements of the post-World War II era, Europeans were represented in every part of Africa. Decolonization during the 1960s and 1970s often resulted in the mass emigration of white settlers – especially from Algeria and Morocco (1.6 million pieds-noirs in North Africa), Kenya, Congo, Rhodesia, Mozambique and Angola. Between 1975 and 1977, over a million colonials returned to Portugal alone. Nevertheless, white Africans remain an important minority in many African states, particularly Zimbabwe, Namibia, Réunion, and the Republic of South Africa. The country with the largest white African population is South Africa. Dutch and British diasporas represent the largest communities of European ancestry on the continent today.\n\nEuropean colonization also brought sizable groups of Asians, particularly from the Indian subcontinent, to British colonies. Large Indian communities are found in South Africa, and smaller ones are present in Kenya, Tanzania, and some other southern and southeast African countries. The large Indian community in Uganda was expelled by the dictator Idi Amin in 1972, though many have since returned. The islands in the Indian Ocean are also populated primarily by people of Asian origin, often mixed with Africans and Europeans. The Malagasy people of Madagascar are an Austronesian people, but those along the coast are generally mixed with Bantu, Arab, Indian and European origins. Malay and Indian ancestries are also important components in the group of people known in South Africa as Cape Coloureds (people with origins in two or more races and continents). During the 20th century, small but economically important communities of Lebanese and Chinese have also developed in the larger coastal cities of West and East Africa, respectively. \n\nLanguages\n\nBy most estimates, well over a thousand languages (UNESCO has estimated around two thousand) are spoken in Africa. Most are of African origin, though some are of European or Asian origin. Africa is the most multilingual continent in the world, and it is not rare for individuals to fluently speak not only multiple African languages, but one or more European ones as well. There are four major language families indigenous to Africa:\n The Afroasiatic languages are a language family of about 240 languages and 285 million people widespread throughout the Horn of Africa, North Africa, the Sahel, and Southwest Asia.\n* The Nilo-Saharan language family consists of more than a hundred languages spoken by 30 million people. Nilo-Saharan languages are spoken by ethnic groups in Chad, Ethiopia, Kenya, Nigeria, Sudan, South Sudan, Uganda, and northern Tanzania.\n* The Niger–Congo language family covers much of Sub-Saharan Africa and is probably the largest language family in the world in terms of different languages.\n* The Khoisan languages number about fifty and are spoken in Southern Africa by approximately 120,000 people. Many of the Khoisan languages are endangered. The Khoi and San peoples are considered the original inhabitants of this part of Africa.\n\nFollowing the end of colonialism, nearly all African countries adopted official languages that originated outside the continent, although several countries also granted legal recognition to indigenous languages (such as Swahili, Yoruba, Igbo and Hausa). In numerous countries, English and French (see African French) are used for communication in the public sphere such as government, commerce, education and the media. Arabic, Portuguese, Afrikaans and Spanish are examples of languages that trace their origin to outside of Africa, and that are used by millions of Africans today, both in the public and private spheres. Italian is spoken by some in former Italian colonies in Africa. German is spoken in Namibia, as it was a former German protectorate.\n\nCulture\n\nSome aspects of traditional African cultures have become less practiced in recent years as a result of neglect and suppression by colonial and post-colonial regimes. For example, African customs were discouraged, and African languages were prohibited in mission schools. Leopold II of Belgium attempted to \"civilize\" Africans by discouraging polygamy and witchcraft.\n\nObidoh Freeborn posits that colonialism is one element that has created the character of modern African art. According to authors Douglas Fraser and Herbert M. Cole, \"The precipitous alterations in the power structure wrought by colonialism were quickly followed by drastic iconographic changes in the art.\" Fraser and Cole assert that, in Igboland, some art objects \"lack the vigor and careful craftsmanship of the earlier art objects that served traditional functions. Author Chika Okeke-Agulu states that \"the racist infrastructure of British imperial enterprise forced upon the political and cultural guardians of empire a denial and suppression of an emergent sovereign Africa and modernist art.\" In Soweto, the West Rand Administrative Board established a Cultural Section to collect, read, and review scripts before performances could occur. Editors F. Abiola Irele and Simon Gikandi comment that the current identity of African literature had its genesis in the \"traumatic encounter between Africa and Europe.\" On the other hand, Mhoze Chikowero believes that Africans deployed music, dance, spirituality, and other performative cultures to (re)asset themselves as active agents and indigenous intellectuals, to unmake their colonial marginalization and reshape their own destinies.\" \n\nThere is now a resurgence in the attempts to rediscover and revalue African traditional cultures, under such movements as the African Renaissance, led by Thabo Mbeki, Afrocentrism, led by a group of scholars, including Molefi Asante, as well as the increasing recognition of traditional spiritualism through decriminalization of Vodou and other forms of spirituality.\n\nVisual art and architecture\n\nAfrican art and architecture reflect the diversity of African cultures. The region's oldest known beads were made from Nassarius shells and worn as personal ornaments 72,000 years ago. The Great Pyramid of Giza in Egypt was the world's tallest structure for 4,000 years, until the completion of Lincoln Cathedral around the year 1300. The stone ruins of Great Zimbabwe are also noteworthy for their architecture, as are the monolithic churches at Lalibela, Ethiopia, such as the Church of Saint George.\n\nMusic and dance\n\nEgypt has long been a cultural focus of the Arab world, while remembrance of the rhythms of sub-Saharan Africa, in particular West Africa, was transmitted through the Atlantic slave trade to modern samba, blues, jazz, reggae, hip hop, and rock. The 1950s through the 1970s saw a conglomeration of these various styles with the popularization of Afrobeat and Highlife music. Modern music of the continent includes the highly complex choral singing of southern Africa and the dance rhythms of the musical genre of soukous, dominated by the music of the Democratic Republic of Congo. Indigenous musical and dance traditions of Africa are maintained by oral traditions, and they are distinct from the music and dance styles of North Africa and Southern Africa. Arab influences are visible in North African music and dance and, in Southern Africa, Western influences are apparent due to colonization.\n\nSports\n\nFifty-three African countries have football (soccer) teams in the Confederation of African Football. Egypt has won the African Cup seven times, and a record-making three times in a row. Cameroon, Nigeria, Senegal, Ghana, and Algeria have advanced to the knockout stage of recent FIFA World Cups. South Africa hosted the 2010 World Cup tournament, becoming the first African country to do so.\n\nCricket is popular in some African nations. South Africa and Zimbabwe have Test status, while Kenya is the leading non-test team and previously had One-Day International cricket (ODI) status (from 10 October 1997, until 30 January 2014). The three countries jointly hosted the 2003 Cricket World Cup. Namibia is the other African country to have played in a World Cup. Morocco in northern Africa has also hosted the 2002 Morocco Cup, but the national team has never qualified for a major tournament. Rugby is a popular sport in South Africa, Namibia, and Zimbabwe.\n\nReligion\n\nAfricans profess a wide variety of religious beliefs, and statistics on religious affiliation are difficult to come by since they are often a sensitive a topic for governments with mixed religious populations.[http://library.stanford.edu/africa/religion.html \"African Religion on the Internet\"], Stanford University According to the World Book Encyclopedia, Islam is the largest religion in Africa, followed by Christianity. According to Encyclopedia Britannica, 45% of the population are Christians, 40% are Muslims, and 10% follow traditional religions. A small number of Africans are Hindu, Buddhist, Confucianist, Baha'i, or have beliefs from the Judaic tradition. There is also a minority of Africans who are irreligious.\n\nTerritories and regions\n\nThe countries in this table are categorized according to the scheme for geographic subregions used by the United Nations, and data included are per sources in cross-referenced articles. Where they differ, provisos are clearly indicated.\n<!--" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Somali National Salvation Committee", "Somolia", "Soomaaliya", "Somaila", "Republic of Somalia", "Somalia, Africa", "The Independent Somali State", "ISO 3166-1:SO", "الصومال", "Coast of Somalia", "Somalia", "Somaliya", "Federal Republic of Somalia", "As-Sumal" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "somaliya", "independent somali state", "somali national salvation committee", "somaila", "somalia", "الصومال", "as sumal", "republic of somalia", "soomaaliya", "iso 3166 1 so", "coast of somalia", "somalia africa", "somolia", "federal republic of somalia" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "somalia", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Somalia" }
What is the capital of Sierra Leone?	tc_235	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "Search", "Search" ], "filename": [ "Sierra_Leone.txt", "Freetown.txt", "Capital_Radio_Sierra_Leone.txt" ], "title": [ "Sierra Leone", "Freetown", "Capital Radio Sierra Leone" ], "wiki_context": [ "Sierra Leone, officially the Republic of Sierra Leone, is a country in West Africa. It is bordered by Guinea on the north, Liberia in the south-east, and the Atlantic Ocean in the south-west. Sierra Leone has a tropical climate, with a diverse environment ranging from savannah to rainforests. Sierra Leone has a total area of 71740 km2 and an estimated population of 6 million (2011 United Nations estimate). Sierra Leone is divided into four geographical regions: the Northern Province, Eastern Province, Southern Province and the Western Area, which are subdivided into fourteen districts. Freetown is the capital, largest city and its economic and political centre. Bo is the second largest city. The other major cities are Kenema, Makeni, and Koidu Town.\n\nAbout sixteen ethnic groups inhabit Sierra Leone, each with its own language and customs. The two largest and most influential are the Temne and the Mende people. The Temne are predominantly found in the north of the country, while the Mende are predominant in the south-east. Although English is the official language spoken at schools and government administration, the Krio language is the most widely spoken language in Sierra Leone and unites all the different ethnic groups in the country, especially in their trade and social interaction with each other.\n\nSierra Leone is a predominantly Muslim country,[http://oluseguntoday.wordpress.com/2009/10/13/71-of-sierra-leoneans-are-muslims/ 71% of Sierra Leoneans are Muslims « Oluseguntoday's Blog]. Oluseguntoday.wordpress.com (13 October 2009). Retrieved on 15 August 2012. though with an influential Christian minority. Sierra Leone is regarded as one of the most religiously tolerant nations in the world. Muslims and Christians collaborate and interact with each other peacefully. Religious violence is very rare in the country.\n\nSierra Leone has relied on mining, especially diamonds, for its economic base. It is also among the largest producers of titanium and bauxite, a major producer of gold, and has one of the world's largest deposits of rutile. Sierra Leone is home to the third-largest natural harbour in the world. Despite exploitation of this natural wealth, 70% of its people live in poverty. \n\nSierra Leone became independent in 1961. Government corruption and mismanagement of the country's natural resources contributed to the Sierra Leone Civil War (1991 to 2002), which for more than a decade devastated the country. This proxy war left more than 50,000 people dead, much of the country's infrastructure destroyed, and over two million people displaced as refugees in neighbouring countries.\n\nMore recently, the 2014 Ebola outbreak overburdened the weak healthcare infrastructure, leading to more deaths from medical neglect than Ebola itself. It created a humanitarian crisis situation and a negative spiral of weaker economic growth. The country has an extremely low life expectancy at 57.8 years.\n\nSierra Leone is a member of many international organisations, including the United Nations, the African Union, the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), the Mano River Union, the Commonwealth of Nations, the African Development Bank, and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation.\n\nHistory \n\nEarly history \n\nArchaeological finds show that Sierra Leone has been inhabited continuously for at least 2,500 years, populated by successive cultures of peoples who migrated from other parts of Africa. The people adopted the use of iron by the 9th century, and by 1000 AD agriculture was being practised by coastal tribes. The climate changed considerably during that time, and boundaries among different ecological zones changed as well, affecting migration and conquest.\n\nSierra Leone's dense tropical rainforest and swampy environment was considered impenetrable; it was also host to the tsetse fly, which carried disease fatal to horses and zebu cattle used by the Mande people. This environmental factor protected its peoples from conquest by the Mande and other African empires. This also reduced the Islamic influence of the Mali Empire. But the Islamic faith, introduced by Susu traders, merchants and migrants from the north and east, became widely adopted in the 18th century. \n\nEuropean trading\n\nEuropean contacts within Sierra Leone were among the first in West Africa. In 1462, Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra mapped the hills surrounding what is now Freetown Harbour, naming the shaped formation Serra da Leoa or \"Serra Leoa\" (Portuguese for Lioness Mountains). The Spanish rendering of this geographic formation is Sierra Leona, which later was adapted and, misspelled, became the country's current name.\n\nSoon after Sintra's expedition, Portuguese traders arrived at the harbour. By 1495 they had built a fortified trading post. The Dutch and French also set up trade here, and each nation used Sierra Leone as a trading point for slaves brought by African traders from interior areas. In 1562, the English initiated the Triangle Trade when Sir John Hawkins transported 300 enslaved Africans – acquired \"by the sword and partly by other means\" – to the Spanish colony of Santo Domingo in the Caribbean, where he sold them. \n\nEarly colonies \n\nFollowing the American Revolutionary War, the British evacuated thousands of freed African-American slaves and resettled them in Canadian and Caribbean colonies and London which gave them new lives. In 1787 the British Crown founded a settlement in Sierra Leone in what was called the \"Province of Freedom\". It intended to resettle some of the \"Black Poor of London,\" mostly African Americans freed by the British during the war. About 400 blacks and 60 whites reached Sierra Leone on 15 May 1787. The group also included some West Indians of African descent from London. After they established Granville Town, most of the first group of colonists died, owing to disease and warfare with the indigenous African peoples (Temne and Mende), who resisted their encroachment. The 64 remaining colonists established a second Granville Town. \n\nFollowing the Revolution, more than 3,000 Black Loyalists had also been settled in Nova Scotia, where they were finally granted land. They founded Birchtown, Nova Scotia, but faced harsh winters and racial discrimination from nearby Shelburne, Nova Scotia. Thomas Peters pressed British authorities for relief and more aid; together with British abolitionist John Clarkson, the Sierra Leone Company was established to relocate Black Loyalists who wanted to take their chances in West Africa. In 1792 nearly 1200 persons from Nova Scotia crossed the Atlantic to build the second (and only permanent) Colony of Sierra Leone and the settlement of Freetown on 11 March 1792. In Sierra Leone they were called the Nova Scotian Settlers, the Nova Scotians, or the Settlers.\n\nThe Settlers built Freetown in the styles they knew from their lives in the American South; they also continued American fashion and American manners. In addition, many continued to practice Methodism in Freetown. The initial process of society-building in Freetown, however, was a harsh struggle. The Crown did not supply enough basic supplies and provisions, and the Settlers were continually threatened by illegal slave trading and the risk of re-enslavement. In the 1790s, the Settlers, including adult women, voted for the first time in elections. The Sierra Leone Company, controlled by London investors, refused to allow the settlers to take freehold of the land. In 1799 some of the Settlers revolted. The Crown subdued the revolt by bringing in forces of more than 500 Jamaican Maroon people, whom they transported from Trelawny Town via Nova Scotia in 1800.\n\nOn 1 January 1808, Thomas Ludlam, the Governor of the Sierra Leone Company and a leading abolitionist, surrendered the Company's charter. This ended its 16 years of running the Colony. The British Crown reorganised the Sierra Leone Company as the African Institution; it was directed to improve the local economy. Its members represented both British who hoped to inspire local entrepreneurs and those with interest in the Macauley & Babington Company, which held the (British) monopoly on Sierra Leone trade. \n\nAt about the same time (following the abolition of the slave trade in 1807), British crews delivered thousands of formerly enslaved Africans to Freetown, after liberating them from illegal slave ships. These Liberated Africans or recaptives were sold for $20 a head as apprentices to the white settlers, Nova Scotian Settlers, and the Jamaican Maroons. Some of the recaptives who were not sold as apprentices were forced to join the Navy. Though this apprentice system was not slavery, many recaptives were treated poorly and even abused because some of the original settlers considered them their property. Cut off from their various homelands and traditions, the Liberated Africans were forced to assimilate to the Western styles of Settlers and Maroons. For example, some of the recaptives were forced to change their name to a more Western sounding names. Though some people happily embraced these changes because they considered it as being part of the community, some were not happy with these changes and wanted to keep their own identity. Many recaptives were so unhappy that they risked the possibility of being sold back into slavery by leaving Sierra Leone and going back to their original villages. They built a flourishing trade in flowers and beads on the West African coast.\n\nThese returned Africans were from many areas of Africa, but principally the west coast. During the 19th century, freed black Americans, some Americo Liberian 'refugees', and particularly West Indians, also immigrated and settled in Freetown. Together these peoples created a new creole ethnicity called the Krio people (initially called Creoles) and a trading language, Krio, which became commonly used among many of the ethnicities in the country.\n\nColonial era (1800–1960) \n\nThe settlement of Sierra Leone in the 1800s was unique in that the population was composed of displaced Africans who were brought to the colony after the British abolition of the slave trade in 1807. Upon arrival in Sierra Leone, each “recaptive” was given a registration number and information on their physical qualities would be inputted into the Register of Liberated Africans. However, oftentimes the documentations of the recaptives would be overwhelmingly subjective and would result in inaccurate entries on the recaptives and would make them difficult to track. In addition, in the time between the Register of Liberated Africans of 1808 and the List of Captured Negroes of 1812 (which emulated the 1808 document) revealed some disparities in the entries of the recaptives, specifically in the names; many recaptives decided to change their given names to a more anglicized version which contributed to the difficulty in tracking the recaptives after they arrived in Sierra Leone.\n\nAccording to the British Act for the Abolition of the Slave Trade in 1807, the recaptives could be subject to apprenticeships led by British colonists in Sierra Leone and the males enlisted into the Army or Navy. In many instances, the recaptives who were assigned to apprenticeships were sold for $20, giving the apprenticeship system qualities similar to slavery. It is documented that the recaptive apprentices were unpaid and the settlers who they were appointed to had devices which could be used to discipline them i.e. sticks. According to Suzanne Schwartz, a historian on colonial Sierra Leone, in June 1808 a group of 21 men and women ran away to the nearby native settlement of Robiss and upon recapture were imprisoned by the settlers in Sierra Leone thus contributing to the slavery-like qualities of the apprenticeship system.\n\nIn the early 19th century, Freetown served as the residence of the British colonial governor of the region, who also administered the Gold Coast (now Ghana) and the Gambia settlements. Sierra Leone developed as the educational centre of British West Africa. The British established Fourah Bay College here in 1827, which rapidly became a magnet for English-speaking Africans on the West Coast. For more than a century, it was the only European-style university in western Sub-Saharan Africa.\n\nThe British interacted mostly with the Krios in Freetown. They did most of the trading with the indigenous peoples of the interior. In addition, educated Krios held numerous positions in the colonial government, giving them status and good-paying positions.\n\nFollowing the Berlin Conference of 1884-1885, the UK decided that it needed to establish more dominion over the inland areas, to satisfy what was described by the European powers as \"effective occupation\" of territories. In 1896 it annexed these areas, declaring them the Sierra Leone Protectorate. With this change, the British began to expand their administration in the region, recruiting British citizens to posts, and pushing Krios out of positions in government and even the desirable residential areas in Freetown.\n\nIn addition, the British annexation of the Protectorate interfered with the sovereignty of indigenous chiefs. They designated chiefs as units of local government, rather than dealing with them individually as had been previous practice. They did not maintain relationships even with longtime allies, such as Bai Bureh, chief of Kasseh, a community on the Small Scarcies River. He was later unfairly portrayed as a prime instigator of the Hut Tax war in 1898. \n\nColonel Frederic Cardew, military governor of the Protectorate, in 1898 established a new tax on dwellings and demanded that the chiefs use their peoples to maintain roads. The taxes were often higher than the value of the dwellings, and 24 chiefs signed a petition to Cardew, telling how destructive this was; their people could not afford to take time off from their subsistence agriculture. They resisted payment of taxes. Tensions over the new colonial requirements, and administration suspicions about the chiefs, led to the Hut Tax war of 1898, also called the Temne-Mende War. The British fired first. The Northern front of majority Temne people was led by Bai Bureh. The Southern front, consisting mostly of Mende people, entered conflict somewhat later and for different reasons.\n\nFor several months, Bureh's fighters had the advantage over the vastly more powerful British forces. Both the British troops and Bureh's warriors suffered hundreds of fatalities each. Bai Bureh finally surrendered on 11 November 1898 to end the destruction of his people's territory and dwellings. Although the British government recommended leniency, Cardew insisted on sending the chief and two allies into exile in the Gold Coast; his government hanged 96 of the chief's warriors. Bai Bureh was allowed to return in 1905, when he resumed his chieftaincy of Kasseh.\n\nThe defeat of the Temne and Mende in the Hut Tax war ended large-scale organised resistance to the Protectorate and colonial government. But, resistance continued throughout the colonial period in the form of intermittent, wide-scale rioting and chaotic labour disturbances. For instance, riots in 1955 and 1956 involved \"many tens of thousands\" of natives in the protectorate. \n\nDomestic slavery, which continued to be practised by local African elites, was abolished in 1928. One notable event in 1935 was the granting of a monopoly on mineral mining to the Sierra Leone Selection Trust, run by De Beers. The monopoly was scheduled to last 98 years. Mining of diamonds in the east and other minerals expanded, drawing labourers there from other parts of the country.\n\nIn 1924, the UK government divided Sierra Leone into a Colony and a Protectorate, with separate and different political systems constitutionally defined for each. The Colony was Freetown and its coastal area; the Protectorate was defined as inland areas dominated by tribal chiefs. Antagonism between the two entities escalated to a heated debate in 1947, when proposals were introduced to provide for a single political system for both the Colony and the Protectorate. Most of the proposals came from leaders of the Protectorate, whose population far outnumbered that in the colony. The Creoles (Krios), led by Isaac Wallace-Johnson, opposed the proposals, as they would have resulted in reducing the political power of the Krios in the Colony.\n\nIn 1951, the educated protectorate leaders from across different ethnic groups, including Sir Milton Margai, Lamina Sankoh, Siaka Stevens, Mohamed Sanusi Mustapha, John Karefa-Smart, Kande Bureh, Sir Albert Margai, Amadu Wurie and Sir Banja Tejan-Sie joined together united with the powerful paramount chiefs in the protectorate to form the Sierra Leone People's Party or SLPP as the party of the protectorate. The SLPP leadership, led by Sir Milton Margai, negotiated with the British and the educated Krio dominated colony based in Freetown to achieve independence [http://www.sierra-leone.org/Heroes/heroes8.html].\n\nOwing to the astute politics of Sir Milton Margai, an ethnic Mende, the educated Protectorate elite was won over to join forces with the paramount chiefs in the face of Krio intransigence. Later, Sir Milton used the same skills to win over opposition leaders and moderate Krio elements to achieve independence from the UK. \n\nIn November 1951, Margai oversaw the drafting of a new constitution, which united the separate Colonial and Protectorate legislatures and – most importantly – provided a framework for decolonisation. In 1953, Sierra Leone was granted local ministerial powers, and Sir Milton Margai, was elected Chief Minister of Sierra Leone. The new constitution ensured Sierra Leone a parliamentary system within the Commonwealth of Nations.\n\nIn May 1957, Sierra Leone held its first parliamentary election. The Sierra Leone People's Party (SLPP), which was then the most popular political party in the colony of Sierra Leone, and was supported by the powerful paramount chiefs in the provinces, won the most seats in Parliament; and Margai was re-elected as Chief Minister by a landslide.\n\n1960 Independence Conference \n\nOn 20 April 1960, Sir Milton Margai led a twenty four member Sierra Leonean delegation at constitutional conferences that were held with Queen Elizabeth II and British Colonial Secretary Iain Macleod in negotiations for independence held in London. \n\nOn the conclusion of talks in London on 4 May 1960, the United Kingdom agreed to grant Sierra Leone Independence on 27 April 1961.\n\nIndependence (1961) \n\nOn 27 April 1961, Sir Milton Margai led Sierra Leone to independence from Great Britain and became the country's first Prime Minister. Thousands of Sierra Leoneans took to the streets in celebration. Sierra Leone retained a parliamentary system of government and was a member of the Commonwealth of Nations. The leader of the main opposition All People's Congress (APC), Siaka Stevens, along with Isaac Wallace-Johnson, another outspoken critic of the SLPP government, were arrested and placed under house arrest in Freetown, along with sixteen others charged with disrupting the independence celebration. \n\nIn May 1962, Sierra Leone held its first general election as an Independent nation. The Sierra Leone People's Party (SLPP) won a plurality of seats in parliament, and Sir Milton Margai was re-elected as prime minister.\n\nSir Milton was known for his self-effacement. He was neither corrupt nor did he make a lavish display of his power or status. He based the government on the rule of law and the separation of powers, with multiparty political institutions and fairly viable representative structures. Margai used his conservative ideology to lead Sierra Leone without much strife. He appointed government officials to represent various ethnic groups. Margai employed a brokerage style of politics, by sharing political power among political parties and interest groups; and with the powerful paramount chiefs in the provinces, most of whom were key allies of his government .\n\nFinal years of democracy (1964–1967)\n\nUpon Sir Milton's unexpected death in 1964, his half-brother, Sir Albert Margai, was appointed as Prime Minister by parliament. Sir Albert's leadership was briefly challenged by Sierra Leone's Foreign Minister John Karefa-Smart, who questioned Sir Albert's succession to the SLPP leadership position. Karefa-Smart received little support in Parliament in his attempt to have Margai stripped of the SLPP leadership. Soon after Margai was sworn in as Prime Minister, he immediately dismissed several senior government officials who had served under his elder brother Sir Milton's government, as he viewed them as a threat to his administration.\n\nSir Albert resorted to increasingly authoritarian actions in response to protests and enacted several laws against the opposition All People's Congress (APC), whilst attempting to establish a one-party state. Sir Albert was opposed to the colonial legacy of allowing executive powers to the Paramount Chiefs, many of whom had been key allies of his late brother Sir Milton. Accordingly, they began to consider Sir Albert as a threat to the ruling houses across the country.\n\nIn 1967, riots broke out in Freetown against Sir Albert's policies; in response Margai declared a state of emergency across the country. Sir Albert was accused of corruption and of a policy of affirmative action in favour of his own Mende ethnic group. Although Sir Albert had the full backing of the country's security forces, he called for free and fair elections.\n\nMilitary coups (1967–1968) \n\nThe APC, with its leader Siaka Stevens, narrowly won a small majority of seats in Parliament over the SLPP in a closely contested 1967 Sierra Leone general election. Stevens was sworn in as Prime Minister on 21 March 1967.\n\nWithin hours after taking office, Stevens was ousted in a bloodless military coup led by Brigadier General David Lansana, the commander of the Sierra Leone Armed Forces. He was a close ally of Sir Albert Margai, who had appointed him to the position in 1964. Brigadier Lansana placed Stevens under house arrest in Freetown and insisted that the determination of the Prime Minister should await the election of the tribal representatives to the House.\n\nOn 23 March 1967, a group of military officers in the Sierra Leone Army led by Brigadier General Andrew Juxon-Smith, overrode this action by a coup d'état; they seized control of the government, arresting Brigadier Lansana, and suspending the constitution. The group set up the National Reformation Council (NRC), with Brigadier Andrew Juxon-Smith as its chairman and Head of State of the country. \n\nOn 18 April 1968 a group of senior military officers in the Sierra Leone Army who called themself the Anti-Corruption Revolutionary Movement (ACRM), led by Brigadier General John Amadu Bangura, overthrew the NRC junta. The ACRM junta arrested many senior NRC members. They reinstated the constitution and returned power to Stevens, who at last assumed the office of Prime Minister. \n\nOne-party state (1968–1991) \n\nStevens assumed power again in 1968 with a great deal of hope and ambition. Much trust was placed upon him as he championed multi-party politics. Stevens had campaigned on a platform of bringing the tribes together under socialist principles. During his first decade or so in power, Stevens renegotiated some of what he called \"useless prefinanced schemes\" contracted by his predecessors, both Albert Margai of the SLPP and Juxon-Smith of the NRC. Some of these policies by the SLPP and the NRC were said to have left the country in an economically deprived state.\n\nStevens reorganised the country's refinery, the government-owned Cape Sierra Hotel, and a cement factory. He cancelled Juxon-Smith's construction of a church and mosque on the grounds of Victoria Park. Stevens began efforts that would later bridge the distance between the provinces and the city. Roads and hospitals were constructed in the provinces, and Paramount Chiefs and provincial peoples became a prominent force in Freetown.\n\nUnder pressure of several coup attempts, real and perceived, Stevens' rule grew more and more authoritarian, and his relationship with some of his ardent supporters deteriorated. He removed the SLPP party from competitive politics in general elections, some believed, through the use of violence and intimidation. To maintain the support of the military, Stevens retained the popular John Amadu Bangura as the head of the Sierra Leone Armed Forces.\n\nAfter the return to civilian rule, by-elections were held (beginning in autumn 1968) and an all-APC cabinet was appointed. Calm was not completely restored. In November 1968, unrest in the provinces led Stevens to declare a state of emergency across the country. Many senior officers in the Sierra Leone Army were greatly disappointed with Stevens' policies; but none could confront Stevens. Brigadier General Bangura, who had reinstated Stevens as Prime Minister, was widely considered the only person who could put the brakes on Stevens.\n\nThe army was devoted to Bangura, and it was believed in some quarters that this made him potentially dangerous to Stevens. In January 1970, Bangura was arrested and charged with conspiracy and plotting to commit a coup against the Stevens' government. After a trial that lasted a few months, Bangura was convicted and sentenced to death. On 29 March 1970, Brigadier Bangura was executed by hanging in Freetown.\n\nOn 23 March 1971, a group of soldiers loyal to the executed Brigadier Bangura held a mutiny in the capital Freetown and in some other parts of the country in opposition of Stevens' government. Several soldiers were arrested for their involvement in the mutiny, including Corporal Foday Sankoh who was convicted and jailed for seven years at Freetown's Pademba Road Prison.\n\nIn April 1971, a new republican constitution was adopted under which Stevens became President. In the 1972 by-elections the opposition SLPP complained of intimidation and procedural obstruction by the APC and militia. These problems became so severe that the SLPP boycotted the 1973 general election; as a result the APC won 84 of the 85 elected seats. \n\nAn alleged plot to overthrow president Stevens failed in 1974 and its leaders were executed. In March 1976, Stevens was elected without opposition for a second five-year term as president. On 19 July 1975, 14 senior army and government officials including Brigadier David Lansana, former cabinet minister Mohamed Sorie Forna (father of writer Aminatta Forna), Brigadier General Ibrahim Bash Taqi and Lieutenant Habib Lansana Kamara were executed after being convicted for allegedly attempting a coup to topple president Stevens' government.\n\nIn 1977, a nationwide student demonstration against the government disrupted Sierra Leone politics. The demonstration was quickly put down by the army and Stevens' own personal Special Security Division (SSD) force, a heavily armed paramilitary force he had created to protect him and to maintain his hold on power. The SSD officers were very loyal to Stevens and were deployed across Sierra Leone to put down any rebellion against Stevens' government. General election was called later that year in which corruption was again endemic; the APC won 74 seats and the SLPP 15. In 1978, the APC dominant parliament approved a new constitution making the country a one-party state. The 1978 constitution made the APC the only legal political party in Sierra Leone.Gberie, Lansana (1998). [http://scholars.wlu.ca/etd/30/ War and state collapse: The case of Sierra Leone] (M.A. thesis) Wilfrid Laurier University\n\nThis move led to another major demonstration against the government in many parts of the country but again it was put down by the army and Stevens' SSD forces. Stevens is generally criticised for dictatorial methods and government corruption, but on a positive note, he kept the country stable and from going into civil war. He built several government instititutions that are used by the government today. Stevens also reduced ethnic polarisation in government by incorporating members of various ethnic groups into his all-dominant APC government.\n\nSiaka Stevens retired from politics in November 1985 after being in power for eighteen years. The APC named a new presidential candidate to succeed Stevens at their last delegate conference held in Freetown in November 1985. He was Major General Joseph Saidu Momoh, the commander of the Republic of Sierra Leone Armed Forces and Stevens' own choice to succeed him. As head of the Sierra Leone Armed Forces, Major General Momoh was very loyal to Stevens who had appointed him to the position. Like Stevens, Momoh was also a member of the minority Limba ethnic group.\n\nMomoh was elected President as the only contesting candidate and was sworn in as Sierra Leone's second president on 28 November 1985 in Freetown. A one party parliamentary election between APC members was held in May 1986. President Momoh's strong links with the army and his verbal attacks on corruption earned him much needed initial support among Sierra Leoneans. With the lack of new faces in the new APC cabinet under president Momoh and the return of many of the old faces from Stevens government, criticisms soon arose that Momoh was simply perpetuating the rule of Stevens.\n\nThe next couple of years under the Momoh administration were characterised by corruption, which Momoh defused by sacking several senior cabinet ministers. To formalise his war against corruption, President Momoh announced a \"Code of Conduct for Political Leaders and Public Servants.\" After an alleged attempt to overthrow President Momoh in March 1987, more than 60 senior government officials were arrested, including Vice-President Francis Minah, who was removed from office, convicted for plotting the coup, and executed by hanging in 1989 along with 5 others.\n\nSierra Leone Civil War (1991–2002) \n\nIn October 1990, owing to mounting pressure from both within and outside the country for political and economic reform, president Momoh set up a constitutional review commission to assess the 1978 one-party constitution. Based on the commission's recommendations a constitution re-establishing a multi-party system was approved by the exclusive APC Parliament by a 60% majority vote, becoming effective on 1 October 1991. There was great suspicion that president Momoh was not serious about his promise of political reform, as APC rule continued to be increasingly marked by abuses of power.\n\nThe brutal civil war that was going on in neighbouring Liberia played a significant role in the outbreak of fighting in Sierra Leone. Charles Taylor – then leader of the National Patriotic Front of Liberia – reportedly helped form the Revolutionary United Front (RUF) under the command of former Sierra Leonean army corporal Foday Saybana Sankoh, an ethnic Temne from Tonkolili District in Northern Sierra Leone. Sankoh was a British trained former army corporal who had also undergone guerrilla training in Libya. Taylor's aim was for the RUF to attack the bases of Nigerian dominated peacekeeping troops in Sierra Leone who were opposed to his rebel movement in Liberia.\n\nOn 29 April 1992, a 25-year-old Captain Valentine Strasser, an ethnic Creole, led his fellow six junior officers in the Sierra Leone army, all in their mid to late twenties: Lieutenant Sahr Sandy, Sargent Solomon Musa, Captain Komba Mondeh, Lieutenant Tom Nyuma, Captain Julius Maada Bio and Captain Komba Kambo that launched a military coup, which sent president Momoh into exile in Guinea and the young soldiers established the National Provisional Ruling Council (NPRC) with Strasser as its chairman and Head of State of the country. \n\nSargent Solomon Musa, a childhood friend of Strasser, became the deputy chairman and deputy leader of the NPRC junta government. Strasser became the world's youngest Head of State when he seized power just three days after his 25th birthday. The NPRC junta established the National Supreme Council of State as the military highest command and final authority in all matters, and was exclusively made up of the highest ranking NPRC soldiers, included Strasser himself and the original soldiers who toppled president Momoh.\n\nSenior NPRC commander Lieutenant Sahr Sandy, a trusted ally of Strasser, was assassinated, allegedly by Major S.I.M. Turay, a key loyalist of ousted president Momoh. A heavily armed military manhunt took place across the country to find Lieutenant Sandy's killer - the main suspect Major S.I.M Turay went into hiding and fled the country to Guinea, fearing for his life. Dozens of soldiers loyal to the ousted president Momoh were arrested.\n\nThe NPRC Junta immediately suspended the constitution, banned all political parties, limited freedom of speech and freedom of the press and enacted a rule-by-decree policy, in which soldiers were granted unlimited powers of administrative detention without charge or trial, and challenges against such detentions in court were precluded.\n\nThe NPRC Junta maintained relations with the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) and strengthened support for Sierra Leone-based ECOMOG troops fighting in Liberia. In December 1992, an alleged coup attempt against the NPRC administration of Strasser, aimed at freeing the detained Colonel Yahya Kanu, Colonel Kahota M.S. Dumbuya and former inspector general of police Bambay Kamara was foiled. Junior army officers were identified as being behind the coup plot. The coup plot led to the execution of seventeen soldiers. Several prominent members of the Momoh government who had been in detention at the Pa Demba Road prison, including former inspector general of police Bambay Kamara were also executed. \n\nOn 5 July 1994 the deputy NPRC leader Seargent Solomon Musu, who was very popular with the general population, particularly in Freetown, was arrested and sent into exile after he was accused of planning a coup to topple Strasser. An accusation Seargent Musa denied. Strasser replaced Musa as deputy NPRC chairman with Captain Julius Maada Bio, who was instantly promoted by Strasser to Brigadier.\n\nThe NPRC proved to be nearly as ineffectual as the Momoh-led APC government in repelling the RUF. More and more of the country fell to RUF fighters, and by 1994 they held much of the diamond-rich Eastern Province and were at the edge of Freetown. In response, the NPRC hired several hundred mercenaries from the private firm Executive Outcomes. Within a month they had driven RUF fighters back to enclaves along Sierra Leone's borders, and cleared the RUF from the Kono diamond producing areas of Sierra Leone.\n\nWith Strasser's two most senior NPRC allies and commanders Lieutenant Sahr Sandy and Lieutenant Solomon Musa no longer around to defend him, Strasser's leadership within the NPRC Supreme Council of State was not considered much stronger. On 16 January 1996, after about four years in power, Strasser was arrested in a palace coup at the Defence Headquarter in Freetown by his fellow NPRC soldiers Strasser was immediately flown into exile in a military helicopter to Conakry, Guinea.\n\nIn his first public broadcast to the nation following the 1996 coup, Brigadier Bio stated that his support for returning Sierra Leone to a democratically elected civilian government and his commitment to ending the civil war were his motivations for the coup. Promises of a return to civilian rule were fulfilled by Bio, who handed power over to Ahmad Tejan Kabbah, of the Sierra Leone People's Party (SLPP), after the conclusion of elections in early 1996. President Kabbah took power with a great promise of ending the civil war. President Kabbah opened dialogue with the RUF and invited RUF leader Foday Sankoh for peace negotiations.\n\nOn 25 May 1997, seventeen soldiers in the Sierra Leone army led by Corporal Tamba Gborie, loyal to the detained Major General Johnny Paul Koroma, launched a military coup which sent President Kabbah into exile in Guinea and they established the Armed Forces Revolutionary Council (AFRC). Corporal Gborie quickly went to the SLBS FM 99.9 headquarters in Freetown to announce the coup to a shocked nation and to alert all soldiers across the country to report for guard duty. The soldiers immediately released Koroma from prison and installed him as their chairman and Head of State.\n\nKoroma suspended the constitution, banned demonstrations, shut down all private radio stations in the country and invited the RUF to join the new junta government, with its leader Foday Sankoh as the Vice-Chairman of the new AFRC-RUF coalition junta government. Within days, Freetown was overwhelmed by the presence of the RUF combatants who came to the city in thousands. The Kamajors, a group of traditional fighters mostly from the Mende ethnic group under the command of deputy Defence Minister Samuel Hinga Norman, remained loyal to President Kabbah and defended the Southern part of Sierra Leone from the soldiers.\n\nKabbah's government and the end of civil war (2002–2014) \n\nAfter 9 months in office, the junta was overthrown by the Nigerian-led ECOMOG forces, and the democratically elected government of president Kabbah was reinstated in February 1998. On 19 October 1998 twenty-four soldiers in the Sierra Leone army were executed after they were convicted at a court martial in Freetown, some for orchestrating the 1997 coup that overthrew President Kabbah and others for failure to reverse the mutiny. \n\nIn October 1999, the United Nations agreed to send peacekeepers to help restore order and disarm the rebels. The first of the 6,000-member force began arriving in December, and the UN Security Council voted in February 2000 to increase the force to 11,000, and later to 13,000. But in May, when nearly all Nigerian forces had left and UN forces were trying to disarm the RUF in eastern Sierra Leone, Sankoh's forces clashed with the UN troops, and some 500 peacekeepers were taken hostage as the peace accord effectively collapsed. The hostage crisis resulted in more fighting between the RUF and the government as UN troops launched Operation Khukri to end the siege. The Operation was successful with Indian and British Special Forces being the main contingents.\n\nThe situation in the country deteriorated to such an extent that British troops were deployed in Operation Palliser, originally simply to evacuate foreign nationals. However, the British exceeded their original mandate, and took full military action to finally defeat the rebels and restore order. The British were the catalyst for the ceasefire that ended the civil war. Elements of the British Army, together with administrators and politicians, remain in Sierra Leone to this day, helping train the armed forces, improve the infrastructure of the country and administer financial and material aid. Tony Blair, the Prime Minister of Britain at the time of the British intervention, is regarded as a hero by the people of Sierra Leone, many of whom are keen for more British involvement. Sierra Leoneans have been described as \"The World's Most Resilient People\". \n\nBetween 1991 and 2001, about 50,000 people were killed in Sierra Leone's civil war. Hundreds of thousands of people were forced from their homes and many became refugees in Guinea and Liberia. In 2001, UN forces moved into rebel-held areas and began to disarm rebel soldiers. By January 2002, the war was declared over. In May 2002, Kabbah was re-elected president by a landslide. By 2004, the disarmament process was complete. Also in 2004, a UN-backed war crimes court began holding trials of senior leaders from both sides of the war. In December 2005, UN peacekeeping forces pulled out of Sierra Leone.\n\nIn August 2007, Sierra Leone held presidential and parliamentary elections. However, no presidential candidate won the 50% plus one vote majority stipulated in the constitution on the first round of voting. A runoff election was held in September 2007, and Ernest Bai Koroma, the candidate of the main opposition APC, was elected president. Koroma was re-elected president for a second (and final) term in November 2012.\n\nStruggle with epidemic (2014–present) \n\nIn 2014 an Ebola virus epidemic in Sierra Leone began, which had widespread impact on the country. By the end of 2014 there were nearly 3000 deaths and 10 thousand cases of the disease in Sierra Leone. The epidemic also led to the Ouse to Ouse Tock in September 2014, a nationwide three-day quarantine. The epidemic occurred as part of the wider Ebola virus epidemic in West Africa. In early August 2014 Sierra Leone cancelled league football (soccer) matches because of the Ebola epidemic. \n\nGeography and climate \n\nSierra Leone is located on the west coast of Africa, lying mostly between latitudes 7° and 10°N (a small area is south of 7°), and longitudes 10° and 14°W. The country is bordered by Guinea to the north and northeast, Liberia to the south and southeast, and the Atlantic Ocean to the west. \n\nSierra Leone has a total area of 71740 km2, divided into a land area of 71620 km2 and water of 120 km2. The country has four distinct geographical regions. In eastern Sierra Leone the plateau is interspersed with high mountains, where Mount Bintumani reaches 1948 m, the highest point in the country. The upper part of the drainage basin of the Moa River is located in the south of this region.\n\nThe centre of the country is a region of lowland plains, containing forests, bush and farmland, that occupies about 43% of Sierra Leone's land area. The northern section of this has been categorised by the World Wildlife Fund as part of the Guinean forest-savanna mosaic ecoregion, while the south is rain-forested plains and farmland.\n\nIn the west, Sierra Leone has some 400 km of Atlantic coastline, giving it both bountiful marine resources and attractive tourist potential. The coast has areas of low-lying Guinean mangroves swamp. The national capital Freetown sits on a coastal peninsula, situated next to the Sierra Leone Harbour, the world's third largest natural harbour.\n\nThe climate is tropical, with two seasons determining the agricultural cycle: the rainy season from May to November, and a dry season from December to May, which includes harmattan, when cool, dry winds blow in off the Sahara Desert and the night-time temperature can be as low as 16 °C. The average temperature is 26 °C and varies from around 26 to during the year. \n\nEnvironment \n\nHuman activities claimed to be responsible or contributing to land degradation in Sierra Leone include unsustainable agricultural land use, poor soil and water management practices, deforestation, removal of natural vegetation, fuelwood consumption and to a lesser extent overgrazing and urbanisation. \n\nDeforestation, both for commercial timber and to make room for agriculture, is the major concern and represents an enormous loss of natural economic wealth to the nation. Mining and slash and burn for land conversion – such as cattle grazing – dramatically diminished forested land in Sierra Leone since the 1980s. It is listed among countries of concern for emissions, as having Low Forest Cover with High Rates of Deforestation (LFHD). \n\nThere are concerns that heavy logging continues in the Tama-Tonkoli Forest Reserve in the north. Loggers have extended their operations to Nimini, Kono District, Eastern Province; Jui, Western Rural District, Western Area; Loma Mountains National Park, Koinadougu, Northern Province; and with plans to start operations in the Kambui Forest reserve in the Kenema District, Eastern Province.\n\nHabitat degradation for the African wild dog, Lycaon pictus, has been increased, such that this canid is deemed to have been extirpated in Sierra Leone. \n\nUntil 2002, Sierra Leone lacked a forest management system because of the civil war that caused tens of thousands of deaths. Deforestation rates have increased 7.3% since the end of the civil war. On paper, 55 protected areas covered 4.5% of Sierra Leone as of 2003. The country has 2,090 known species of higher plants, 147 mammals, 626 birds, 67 reptiles, 35 amphibians, and 99 fish species.\n\nThe Environmental Justice Foundation has documented how the number of illegal fishing vessels in Sierra Leone's waters has multiplied in recent years. The amount of illegal fishing has significantly depleted fish stocks, depriving local fishing communities of an important resource for survival. The situation is particularly serious as fishing provides the only source of income for many communities in a country still recovering from over a decade of civil war. \n\nIn June 2005, the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB) and BirdLife International agreed to support a conservation-sustainable development project in the Gola Forest in south eastern Sierra Leone, an important surviving fragment of rainforest in Sierra Leone.\n\nGovernment and politics \n\nSierra Leone is a constitutional republic with a directly elected president and a unicameral legislature. The current system of national government in Sierra Leone, established under the 1991 Constitution, is modelled on the following structure of government: the Legislature, the Executive and the Judiciary. \n\nWithin the confines of the 1991 Constitution, supreme legislative powers are vested in Parliament, which is the law making body of the nation. Supreme executive authority rests in the president and members of his cabinet and judicial power with the judiciary of which the Chief Justice is head.\n\nThe president is the head of state, the head of government and the commander-in-chief of the Sierra Leone Armed Forces and the Sierra Leone Police. The president appoints and heads a cabinet of ministers, which must be approved by the Parliament. The president is elected by popular vote to a maximum of two five-year terms. The president is the highest and most influential position within the government of Sierra Leone.\n\nTo be elected president of Sierra Leone, a candidate must gain at least 55% of the vote. If no candidate gets 55%, there is a second-round runoff between the top two candidates.\n\nThe current president of Sierra Leone is Ernest Bai Koroma, who was sworn in on 17 September 2007. The first person of Temne ancestry to be elected president, he won a tense run-off election, defeating incumbent Vice-president, Solomon Berewa of the Sierra Leone People's Party (SLPP). \n\nKoroma was re-elected as President for his second and final term, on 23 November 2012, with 58.7%, in the 2012 Sierra Leone Presidential election, defeating his main opponent, Retired Brigadier Julius Maada Bio of the main opposition Sierra Leone People's Party (SLPP), who got 37.4% \n\nKoroma was sworn in as President for his second and final term by Chief Justice Umu Hawa Tejan Jalloh at State House in Freetown; the same day he was declared the winner of the election. \n\nNext to the president is the Vice-president, who is the second-highest ranking government official in the executive branch of the Sierra Leone Government. As designated by the Sierra Leone Constitution, the vice-president is to become the new president of Sierra Leone upon the death, resignation, or removal of the president by parliament and to assume the Presidency temporarily while the president is otherwise temporarily unable to fulfil his or her duties. The vice-president is elected jointly with the president as his or her running mate. Sierra Leone's current vice-president is Victor Bockarie Foh, who was sworn in on March 19, 2015 [http://www.voanews.com/content/sierra-leone-president-swears-in-a-new-vice-president/2688017.html][http://theafricapaper.com/2015/03/23/sierra-leones-president-swears-in-new-vp-despite-legal-challenge/][http://slconcordtimes.com/victor-foh-appointed-vp/].\n\nParliament \n\nThe Parliament of Sierra Leone is unicameral, with 124 seats. Each of the country's fourteen districts is represented in parliament. 112 members are elected concurrently with the presidential elections; the other 12 seats are filled by paramount chiefs from each of the country's 12 administrative districts. The Sierra Leone parliament is led by the Speaker of Parliament, who is the overall leader of Parliament and is directly elected by sitting members of parliament. The current speaker of the Sierra Leone parliament is Sheku Badara Bashiru Dumbuya, who was elected by members of parliament on January 21, 2014.\n\nThe current members of Parliament of Sierra Leone were elected in the 2012 Sierra Leone parliamentary election. The All People's Congress (APC) currently has 70 of the 112 elected parliamentary seats and the Sierra Leone People's Party (SLPP) has 42 of the elected 112 parliamentary seats. Sierra Leone's two most dominant parties, the APC and the SLPP, collectively won every elected seats in Parliament in the 2012 Sierra Leone parliamentary election. To be qualified as Member of Parliament, the person must be a citizen of Sierra Leone, must be at least 21 years old, must be able to speak, read and write the English language with a degree of proficiency to enable him to actively take part in proceedings in Parliament; and must not have any criminal conviction.\n\nSince independence in 1961, Sierra Leone's politics has been dominated by two major political parties: the SLPP and the ruling APC. Other minor political parties have also existed but with no significant support. \n\nJudiciary \n\nThe judicial power of Sierra Leone is vested in the judiciary, headed by the Chief Justice and comprising the Sierra Leone Supreme Court, which is the highest court in the country and its ruling therefore cannot be appealed; the High Court of Justice; the Court of Appeal; the magistrate courts; and traditional courts in rural villages. The president appoints and parliament approves Justices for the three courts. The Judiciary have jurisdiction in all civil and criminal matters throughout the country. The current acting Chief Justice of Sierra Leone is Valicious Thomas [http://www.newctzen.com/index.php/11-news/2289-acting-chief-justice-appeals-to-colleagues]\n\nForeign relations \n\nThe Sierra Leone Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation is responsible for foreign policy of Sierra Leone. Sierra Leone has diplomatic relations that include China, Libya, Iran, and Cuba. Sierra Leone has good relations with the West, including the United States, and has maintained historical ties with the United Kingdom and other former British colonies through membership in the Commonwealth of Nations. The United Kingdom has played a major role in providing aid to the former colony, together with administrative help and military training since intervening to end the Civil War in 2000.\n\nFormer President Siaka Stevens' government had sought closer relations with other West African countries under the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) a policy continued by the current government. Sierra Leone, along with Liberia and Guinea, form the Mano River Union (MRU). It is primarily designed to implement development projects and promote regional economic integration between the three countries. \n\nSierra Leone is also a member of the United Nations and its specialised agencies, the African Union, the African Development Bank (AFDB), the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), and the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM). Sierra Leone is a member of the International Criminal Court with a Bilateral Immunity Agreement of protection for the US military (as covered under Article 98).\n\nAdministrative divisions \n\nThe Republic of Sierra Leone is composed of four regions: the Northern Province, Southern Province, the Eastern Province, and the Western Area. The first three provinces are further divided into 12 districts.\n\nThe districts are divided into 149 chiefdoms, which have traditionally been led by hereditary paramount chiefs, recognised by the British administration in 1896 at the time of organising the Protectorate of Sierra Leone. Each chiefdom has ruling families that were recognised at that time; the Tribal Authority, made up of local notables, elects the paramount chief from the ruling families. Typically, chiefs have the power to \"raise taxes, control the judicial system, and allocate land, the most important resource in rural areas.\" \n\nSierra Leone also designates units of government called localities. To broaden representative government, each has a directly elected local district council to exercise authority and carry out functions at a local level. There are 13 district councils, one for each of the 12 districts and one for the Western Area Rural. Six municipalities also have elected local councils: Freetown, Bo, Bonthe, Kenema, Koidu, and Makeni.\n\nMilitary \n\nThe Military of Sierra Leone, officially the Republic of Sierra Leone Armed Forces (RSLAF), are the unified armed forces of Sierra Leone responsible for the territorial security of Sierra Leone's border and defending the national interests of Sierra Leone within the framework of its international obligations. The armed forces were formed after independence in 1961, on the basis of elements of the former British Royal West African Frontier Force present in the country. The Sierra Leone Armed Forces consists of around 15,500 personnel, comprising the largest Sierra Leone Army, the Sierra Leone Navy and the Sierra Leone Air Wing. \n\nThe president of Sierra Leone is the Commander in Chief of the military, with the Minister of Defence responsible for defence policy and the formulation of the armed forces. The current Sierra Leone Defence Minister is retired Major Alfred Paolo Conteh. The Military of Sierra Leone also has a Chief of the Defence Staff who is a uniformed military official responsible for the administration and the operational control of the Sierra Leone military. Brigadier General Alfred Nelson-Williams who was appointed by president Koroma succeeded the retired Major General Edward Sam M’boma on 12 September 2008 as the Chief of Defence Staff of the Military. \n\nBefore Sierra Leone gained independence in 1961, the military was known as the Royal Sierra Leone Military Force. The military seized control in 1968, bringing the National Reformation Council into power. On 19 April 1971, when Sierra Leone became a republic, the Royal Sierra Leone Military Forces were renamed the Republic of Sierra Leone Military Force (RSLMF). The RSLMF remained a single-service organisation until 1979, when the Sierra Leone Navy was established. In 1995 Defence Headquarters was established, and the Sierra Leone Air Wing formed. The RSLMF was renamed as the Armed Forces of the Republic of Sierra Leone (AFRSL).\n\nLaw enforcement \n\nLaw enforcement in Sierra Leone is primarily the responsibility of the Sierra Leone Police (SLP). Sierra Leone Police was established by the British colony in 1894; it is one of the oldest police forces in West Africa. It works to prevent crime, protect life and property, detect and prosecute offenders, maintain public order, ensure safety and security, and enhance access to justice. The Sierra Leone Police is headed by the Inspector General of Police, the professional head of the Sierra Leone Police force, who is appointed by the President of Sierra Leone.\n\nEach one of Sierra Leone's 14 districts is headed by a district police commissioner who is the professional head of their respective district. These Police Commissioners report directly to the Inspector General of Police at the Sierra Leone Police headquarters in Freetown. The current Inspector General of Police is Brima Acha Kamara, who was appointed to the position by former president Ahmad Tejan Kabbah.\n\nEconomy \n\nBy the 1990s economic activity was declining and economic infrastructure had become seriously degraded. Over the next decade much of the formal economy was destroyed in the country's civil war. Since the end of hostilities in January 2002, massive infusions of outside assistance have helped Sierra Leone begin to recover.\n\nMuch of the recovery will depend on the success of the government's efforts to limit corruption by officials, which many feel was the chief cause for the civil war. A key indicator of success will be the effectiveness of government management of its diamond sector.\n\nThere is high unemployment, particularly among the youth and ex-combatants. Authorities have been slow to implement reforms in the civil service, and the pace of the privatisation programme is also slackening and donors have urged its advancement.\n\nThe currency is the leone. The central bank is the Bank of Sierra Leone. Sierra Leone operates a floating exchange rate system, and foreign currencies can be exchanged at any of the commercial banks, recognised foreign exchange bureaux and most hotels. Credit card use is limited in Sierra Leone, though they may be used at some hotels and restaurants. There are a few internationally linked automated teller machines that accept Visa cards in Freetown operated by ProCredit Bank.\n\nAgriculture \n\nTwo-thirds of the population of Sierra Leone are directly involved in subsistence agriculture. Agriculture accounted for 58 percent of gross domestic product (GDP) in 2007.\n\nAgriculture is the largest employer with 80 percent of the population working in the sector. Rice is the most important staple crop in Sierra Leone with 85 percent of farmers cultivating rice during the rainy season and an annual consumption of 76 kg per person.\n\nMining \n\nRich in minerals, Sierra Leone has relied on mining, especially diamonds, for its economic base. The country is among the top ten diamond producing nations. Mineral exports remain the main currency earner. Sierra Leone is a major producer of gem-quality diamonds. Though rich in diamonds, it has historically struggled to manage their exploitation and export.\n\nSierra Leone is known for its blood diamonds that were mined and sold to diamond conglomerates during the civil war, to buy the weapons that fuelled its atrocities. In the 1970s and early 1980s, economic growth rate slowed because of a decline in the mining sector and increasing corruption among government officials.\n\nAnnual production of Sierra Leone's diamond estimates range between US$250 million–$300 million. Some of that is smuggled, where it is possibly used for money laundering or financing illicit activities. Formal exports have dramatically improved since the civil war, with efforts to improve the management of them having some success. In October 2000, a UN-approved certification system for exporting diamonds from the country was put in place and led to a dramatic increase in legal exports. In 2001, the government created a mining community development fund (DACDF), which returns a portion of diamond export taxes to diamond mining communities. The fund was created to raise local communities' stake in the legal diamond trade.\n\nSierra Leone has one of the world's largest deposits of rutile, a titanium ore used as paint pigment and welding rod coatings.\n\nTransport infrastructure \n\nThere are a number of systems of transport in Sierra Leone, which has a road, air and water infrastructure, including a network of highways and several airports. There are 11,300 kilometres of highways in Sierra Leone, of which 904 km are paved (about 8% of the roads). Sierra Leone highways are linked to Conakry, Guinea, and Monrovia, Liberia.\n\nSierra Leone has the largest natural harbour on the African continent, allowing international shipping through the Queen Elizabeth II Quay in the Cline Town area of eastern Freetown or through Government Wharf in central Freetown. There are 800 km of waterways in Sierra Leone, of which 600 km are navigable year-round. Major port cities are Bonthe, Freetown, Sherbro Island and Pepel.\n\nThere are ten regional airports in Sierra Leone, and one international airport. The Lungi International Airport located in the coastal town of Lungi in Northern Sierra Leone is the primary airport for domestic and international travel to or from Sierra Leone. Passengers cross the river to Aberdeen Heliports in Freetown by hovercraft, ferry or a helicopter. Helicopters are also available from the airport to other major cities in the country. The airport has paved runways longer than 3,047m. The other airports have unpaved runways, and seven have runways 914 to 1,523 metres long; the remaining two have shorter runways.\n\nSierra Leone appears on the EU list of prohibited countries with regard to the certification of airlines. This means that no airline registered in Sierra Leone may operate services of any kind within the European Union. This is due to substandard safety standards. \n\nAs of May, 2014 the country's only international airport had regularly scheduled direct flights to London, Paris, Brussels and most major cities in West Africa.\n\nIn September 2014 there were many Districts with travel restrictions including Kailahun, Kenema, Bombali, Tonkolili, and Port Loko because of Ebola. \n\nSociety \n\nDemographics \n\nIn 2013 Sierra Leone has an officially projected population of 6,190,280 and a growth rate of 2.216% a year. The country's population is mostly young, with an estimated 41.7% under 15, and rural, with an estimated 62% of people living outside the cities. As a result of migration to cities, the population is becoming more urban with an estimated rate of urbanisation growth of 2.9% a year. \n\nPopulation density varies greatly within Sierra Leone. The Western Area Urban District, including Freetown, the capital and largest city, has a population density of 1,224 persons per square km. The largest district geographically, Koinadugu, has a much lower density of 21.4 persons per square km.\n\nEnglish is the official language, spoken at schools, government administration and in the media. Krio (derived from English and several indigenous African languages, and the language of the Sierra Leone Krio people) is the most widely spoken language in virtually all parts of Sierra Leone. As the Krio language is spoken by 90% of the country's population, it unites all the different ethnic groups, especially in their trade and interaction with each other.\nIn December 2002, Sierra Leone’s President Ahmad Tejan Kabbah named Bengali as an honorary \"official language\" in recognition of the work of 5,300 troops from Bangladesh in the peace-keeping force. \n\nAccording to the World Refugee Survey 2008, published by the US Committee for Refugees and Immigrants, Sierra Leone had a population of 8,700 refugees and asylum seekers at the end of 2007. Nearly 20,000 Liberian refugees voluntarily returned to Liberia over the course of 2007. Of the refugees remaining in Sierra Leone, nearly all were Liberian. \n\nThe populations quoted above for the five largest cities are from the 2004 census. Other figures are estimates from the source cited. Different sources give different estimates. Some claim that Magburaka should be included in the above list, but there is considerable difference among sources. One source estimates the population at 14,915, whilst another puts it as high as 85,313. \"Pandebu-Tokpombu\" is presumably the extended town of Torgbonbu, which had a population of 10,716 in the 2004 census. \"Gbendembu\" had a larger population of 12,139 in that census. In the 2004 census, Waterloo had a population of 34,079.\n\nReligion \n\n \nSierra Leone is a predominantly Muslim country; with a significant Christian minority. The Inter-Religious Council of Sierra Leone, estimated that 77% of Sierra Leone's population are Muslims; 21% are Christians; and 2% are followers of traditional African religion. According to a 2009 estimate, 71.3% of Sierra Leone's population are muslim; 26.8% are Christian and 1.9% of the population is either animist or follows other religious beliefs.\n\nMost of Sierra Leone's ethnic groups are Muslim majority, including the two largest ethnic groups, the Temne and Mende. Sierra Leone is one of the most religiously tolerant countries in the world. Muslims and Christians collaborate and interact with each other peacefully in Sierra Leone [http://www.stevedennie.com/muslims-and-christians-in-sierra-leone/]. Religious violence is very rare in the country. \n\nSierra Leone is officially a secular state, although Islam and Christianity are dominant in the country. The constitution of Sierra Leone provides for freedom of religion and the government generally protects this right and does not tolerate its abuse. The country is home to the Sierra Leone Inter-Religious Council, which is made up of both Christian and Muslim religious leaders to promote peace and tolerance throughout the country. The Islamic holidays of Eid al-Fitr, Eid al-Adha and Maulid-un-Nabi (Birthday of the Prophet Muhammad) are observed as national holidays in Sierra Leone, as are the Christian holidays of Christmas, Boxing Day, Good Friday and Easter.\n\nThe large majority of Sierra Leonean Muslims are adherent to the Sunni doctrine. Significant portions of Sierra Leonean Muslims are Ahmadi, non-denominational Muslims; and a much smaller population of Shia Muslims [http://sierraleone365.com/feature-stories/ahmadiyya-movement-goes-mainstream-in-sierra-leone][http://ahmadiyyatimes.blogspot.com/2010/03/bo-ahmadiya-muslim-secondary-school.html]. Most of the Islamic madrassa schools of thought across Sierra Leone are based within Sunni Islam.\n\nThe largest mosque in Sierra Leone is the Freetown Central Mosque, located in the capital Freetown. Sitting Sierra Leonean Heads of State, regardless of their religions, have traditionally made occasional visits to the Freetown Central Mosque, especially during Friday jummah prayer.[http://news.sl/drwebsite/exec/view.cgi?archive2&num\n531&printer=1][http://news.sl/drwebsite/publish/article_200523683.shtml]. The chief imam of the Freetown Central Mosque is Sheikh Ahmad Tejan Sillah, a prominent Muslim cleric, who is also the spiritual leader of the Sierra Leonean Shia muslim community.The United Council of Imams, is the highest ranking Islamic religious organisation in Sierra Leone, and is made up of imams across Sierra Leone. The president of the United Council of Imam is Shekh Alhaji Yayah Deen Kamara.\n\nThe large majority of Sierra Leonean Christians are Evangelical Protestant, of which the largest groups are Wesleyan-Methodists. Other Christian Protestant denominations with significant presence in the country include Presbyterian, Baptist, Seventh-day Adventist Anglicans, Lutheran. and Pentecostals. The Council of Churches is the Christian religious organisation that is made up of Protestant churches across Sierra Leone.\n\nNon-denominational Christians form a significant minority of Sierra Leone's Christian population. Catholics are the largest group of non-Protestant Christians in Sierra Leone, and they form about 8% of Sierra Leone's population; and 26 percent of the Christian population in Sierra Leone. The Jehovah’s Witnesses and Mormons are the two most prominent non Trinitarian Christians in Sierra Leone, and they form a small but significant minority of the Christian population in Sierra Leone. A small community of Orthodox Christians resides in the capital Freetown. \n\nEthnic groups \n\nSierra Leone is home to about sixteen ethnic groups, each with its own language. The largest and most influential are the Temne at about 35%, and the Mende at about 31%. The Temne predominate in the Northern Sierra Leone and the areas around the capital of Sierra Leone. The Mende predominate in South-Eastern Sierra Leone (with the exception of Kono District).\n\nThe vast majority of Temne are Muslims; and with a small Christian minority. The Mende are also Muslim majority, though with a large Christian minority. Sierra Leone's national politics centres on the competition between the north-west, dominated by the Temne, and the south-east dominated by the Mende. The vast majority of the Mende support the Sierra Leone People's Party (SLPP); while the majority of the Temne support the All People's Congress (APC). \n\nThe Mende, who are believed to be descendants of the Mane, originally occupied the Liberian hinterland. They began moving into Sierra Leone slowly and peacefully in the eighteenth century. The Temne are thought to have come from Futa Jallon, which is in present-day Guinea. Sierra Leone's current president Ernest Bai Koroma is the first ethnic Temne to be elected to the office.\n\nThe third-largest ethnic group are the Limba at about 8% of the population. The Limba are native people of Sierra Leone. They have no tradition of origin, and it is believed that they have lived in Sierra Leone since before the European encounter. The Limba are primarily found in Northern Sierra Leone, particularly in Bombali, Kambia and Koinadugu District. The Limba are about equally divided between Muslims and Christians. The Limba are close political allies of the neighbouring Temne.\n\nSince Independence, the Limba have traditionally been very influential in Sierra Leone's politics, along with the Mende. The vast majority of Limba support the All People's Congress (APC) political party. Sierra Leone's first and second presidents, Siaka Stevens and Joseph Saidu Momoh, respectively, were both ethnic Limba. Sierra Leone's current Defense Minister Alfred Paolo Conteh is an ethnic Limba.\n \nThe fourth largest ethnic group are the Fula at around 7% of the population. Descendants of seventeenth- and eighteenth-century Fulani migrant settlers from the Fouta Djalon region of Guinea, they live primarily in the northeast and the western area of Sierra Leone. The Fula are virtually all Muslims. The Fula are primarily traders, and many live in middle-class homes. Because of their trading, the Fulas are found in nearly all parts of the country.\n\nThe other ethnic groups are the Mandingo (also known as Mandinka). They are descendants of traders from Guinea who migrated to Sierra Leone during the late nineteenth to mid-twentieth centuries. The Mandika are predominantly found in the east and the northern part of the country. They predominate in the large towns, most notably Karina, in Bombali District in the north; Kabala and Falaba in Koinadugu District in the north; and Yengema, Kono District in the east of the country. Like the Fula, the Mandinka are virtually all Muslims. Sierra Leone's third president Ahmad Tejan Kabbah, and Sierra Leone's first Vice-President Sorie Ibrahim Koroma were both ethnic Mandingo.\n\nNext in proportion are the Kono, who live primarily in Kono District in Eastern Sierra Leone. The Kono are descendants of migrants from Guinea; today their workers are known primarily as diamond miners. The majority of the Kono ethnic group are Christians, though with an influential Muslim minority. Sierra Leone's current Vice-President Alhaji Samuel Sam-Sumana is an ethnic Kono.\n\nThe small but significant Krio people (descendants of freed African American, West Indian and Liberated African slaves who settled in Freetown between 1787 and about 1885) make up about 3% of the population. They primarily occupy the capital city of Freetown and its surrounding Western Area. Krio culture reflects the Western culture and ideals within which many of their ancestors originated - they also had close ties with British officials and colonial administration during years of development.\n\nThe Krio have traditionally dominated Sierra Leone's judiciacy and Freetown's elected city council. One of the first ethnic groups to become educated according to Western traditions, they have traditionally been appointed to positions in the civil service, beginning during the colonial years. They continue to be influential in the civil service. The vast majority of Krios are Christians, though with a significant Muslim minority.\n\nOther minority ethnic groups are the Kuranko, who are related to the Mandingo, and are largely Muslims. The Kuranko are believed to have begun arriving in Sierra Leone from Guinea in about 1600 and settled in the north, particularly in Koinadugu District. The Kuranko are primarily farmers; leaders among them have traditionally held several senior positions in the Military. Sierra Leone current Finance Minister Kaifala Marah is an ethnic Kuranko.\n\nThe Loko in the north are native people of Sierra Leone, believed to have lived in Sierra Leone since the time of European encounter. Like the neighbouring Temne, the Loko are Muslim majority. The Susu and their related Yalunka are traders; both groups are primarily found in the far north in Kambia and Koinadugu District close to the border with Guinea. The Susu and Yalunka are both descendants of migrants from Guinea; and they are virtually all Muslims.\n\nThe Kissi live further inland in South-Eastern Sierra Leone. They predominate in the large town of Koindu and its surrounding areas in Kailahun District. The vast majority of Kissi are Christians. The much smaller Vai and Kru peoples are primarily found in Kailahun and Pujehun Districts near the border with Liberia. The Kru predominate in the Kroubay neighbourhood in the capital Freetown. The Vai are largely Muslim, while the Kru are largely Christian.\n\nOn the coast in Bonthe District in the south are the Sherbro. Native to Sierra Leone, they have occupied Sherbro Island since it was founded. The Sherbro are primarily fisherman and farmers, and they are predominantly found in Bonthe District. The Sherbro are virtually all Christians, and their paramount chiefs had a history of intermarriage with British colonists and traders.\n\nA small number of Sierra Leoneans are of partial or full Lebanese ancestry, descendants of traders who first came to the nation in the 19th century. They are locally known as Sierra Leonean-Lebanese. The Sierra Leonean-Lebanese community are primarily traders and they mostly live in middle-class households in the urban areas, primarily in Freetown, Bo, Kenema, Koidu Town and Makeni.\n\nEducation \n\nEducation in Sierra Leone is legally required for all children for six years at primary level (Class P1-P6) and three years in junior secondary education, but a shortage of schools and teachers has made implementation impossible. Two thirds of the adult population of the country are illiterate. \n\nThe Sierra Leone Civil War resulted in the destruction of 1,270 primary schools, and in 2001, 67% of all school-age children were out of school. The situation has improved considerably since then with primary school enrolment doubling between 2001 and 2005 and the reconstruction of many schools since the end of the war. Students at primary schools are usually 6 to 12 years old, and in secondary schools 13 to 18. Primary education is free and compulsory in government-sponsored public schools.\n\nThe country has three universities: Fourah Bay College, founded in 1827 (the oldest university in West Africa), University of Makeni (established initially in September 2005 as The Fatima Institute, the college was granted university status in August 2009, and assumed the name University of Makeni, or UNIMAK), and Njala University, primarily located in Bo District. Njala University was established as the Njala Agricultural Experimental Station in 1910 and became a university in 2005. Teacher training colleges and religious seminaries are found in many parts of the country.\nIsrael grants scholarships to Sierra Leone students as part of its international development cooperation program. \n\nHealth \n\nThe CIA estimated average life expectancy in Sierra Leone was 57.39 years.\n\nThe prevalence of HIV/AIDS in the population is 1.6%, higher than the world average of 1% but lower than the average of 6.1% across Sub-Saharan Africa. \n\nMedical care is not readily accessible, with doctors and hospitals out of reach for many villagers. While free health care may be provided in some villages, the medical staff is poorly paid and sometimes charge for their services, taking advantage of the fact that the villagers are not aware of their right to free medical care. \n\nA dialysis machine, the first of its kind in the country, was donated by Israel.\n\nAccording to an Overseas Development Institute report, private health expenditure accounts for 85.7% of total spending on health. \n\nEndemic and infectious diseases\n\nSierra Leone suffers from epidemic outbreaks of diseases, including yellow fever, cholera, lassa fever and meningitis. Yellow fever and malaria are endemic to Sierra Leone.\n\n2014 Ebola outbreak \n\nEbola is prevalent in Africa where social and economic inequalities are common. The central African countries are the most prevalent of EVD; like Democratic Republic of Congo, Sudan, Uganda, and Gabon \n\nIn 2014 there was an outbreak of the Ebola virus in West Africa. As of 19 October 2014, there had been 3,706 cases of Ebola in Sierra Leone, and 1,259 deaths, including that of the leading physician trying to control the outbreak, Sheik Umar Khan. In early August 2014 Guinea closed its borders to Sierra Leone to help contain the spreading of the virus, which originated in Guinea, as more new cases of the disease were being reported in Sierra Leone than in Guinea. Aside from the human cost, the outbreak was severely eroding the economy. By September 2014, with the closure of borders, the cancellation of airline flights, the evacuation of foreign workers and a collapse of cross-border trade, the national deficit of Sierra Leone and other affected countries was widening to the point where the IMF was considering expanding its financial support. \n\nMental health \n\nMental healthcare in Sierra Leone is almost non-existent. Many sufferers try to cure themselves with the help of traditional healers. During the Civil War (1991–2002), many soldiers took part in atrocities and many children were forced to fight. This left them traumatised, with an estimated 400,000 people (by 2009) being mentally ill. Thousands of former child soldiers have fallen into substance abuse as they try to blunt their memories. \n\nMaternal and child health \n\nAccording to 2010 estimates, Sierra Leone has the 5th highest maternal mortality rate in the world. According to a 2013 UNICEF report,[http://www.unicef.org/media/files/FGCM_Lo_res.pdf UNICEF 2013], p. 27. 88% of women in Sierra Leone have undergone female genital mutilation. , Sierra Leone was estimated as having the 11th highest infant mortality rate in the world. \n\nDrinking water supply \n\nWater supply in Sierra Leone is characterised by limited access to safe drinking water. Despite efforts by the government and numerous non-governmental organisations, access has not much improved since the end of the Sierra Leone Civil War in 2002, stagnating at about 50% and even declining in rural areas. It is hoped that a new dam in Orugu, for which China committed financing in 2009, will alleviate water scarcity. \n\nAccording to a national survey carried out in 2006, 84% of the urban population and 32% of the rural population had access to an improved water source. Those with access in rural areas were served almost exclusively by protected wells. The 68% of the rural population without access to an improved water source relied on surface water (50%), unprotected wells (9%) and unprotected springs (9%). Only 20% of the urban population and 1% of the rural population had access to piped drinking water in their home. Compared to the 2000 survey access has increased in urban areas, but has declined in rural areas, possibly because facilities have broken down because of a lack of maintenance. \n\nWith a new decentralisation policy, embodied in the Local Government Act of 2004, responsibility for water supply in areas outside the capital was passed from the central government to local councils. In Freetown the Guma Valley Water Company remains in charge of water supply.\n\nCulture \n\nPolygamy \n\n37 percent of married women in Sierra Leone were in polygamous marriages in 2008. \n\nFood and customs \n\nRice is the staple food of Sierra Leone and is consumed at virtually every meal daily. The rice is prepared in numerous ways, and topped with a variety of sauces made from some of Sierra Leone's favourite toppings, including potato leaves, cassava leaves, crain crain, okra soup, fried fish and groundnut stew. \n\nAlong the streets of towns and cities across Sierra Leone one can find foods consisting of fruit, vegetables and snacks such as fresh mangoes, oranges, pineapple, fried plantains, ginger beer, fried potato, fried cassava with pepper sauce; small bags of popcorn or peanuts, bread, roasted corn, or skewers of grilled meat or shrimp.\n\nPoyo is a popular Sierra Leonean drink. It is a sweet, lightly fermented palm wine, and is found in bars in towns and villages across the country. Poyo bars are areas of lively informal debate about politics, football, basketball, entertainment and other issues.\n\nMedia \n\nMedia in Sierra Leone began with the introduction of the first printing press in Africa at the start of the 19th century. A strong free journalistic tradition developed with the creation of a number of newspapers. In the 1860s, the country became a journalist hub for Africa, with professionals travelling to the country from across the continent. At the end of the 19th century, the industry went into decline, and when radio was introduced in the 1930s, it became the primary communication media in the country.\n\nThe Sierra Leone Broadcasting Service (SLBS) was created by the colonial government in 1934 making it the earliest English language radio broadcaster service in West Africa. The service began broadcasting television in 1963, with coverage extended to all the districts in the country in 1978. In April 2010, the SLBS merged with the United Nations peacekeeping radio station in Sierra Leone to form the Sierra Leone Broadcasting Corporation, the government-owned current national broadcaster in Sierra Leone.\n\nThe Sierra Leone constitution guarantees freedom of speech, and freedom of the press; however, the government maintains strong control of media, and at times restricts these rights in practice. Some subjects are seen as taboo by society and members of the political elite; imprisonment and violence have been used by the political establishment against journalists.\n\nUnder legislation enacted in 1980, all newspapers must register with the Ministry of Information and pay sizeable registration fees. The Criminal Libel Law, including Seditious Libel Law of 1965, is used to control what is published in the media. In 2006, President Ahmad Tejan Kabbah committed to reforming the laws governing the press and media to create a freer system for journalists to work in. Sierra Leone is ranked 61st (up two slots from 63rd in 2012) out of 179 countries on Reporters Without Borders' Press Freedom Index. \n\nPrint media is not widely read in Sierra Leone, especially outside Freetown and other major cities, partially due to the low levels of literacy in the country. In 2007 there were 15 daily newspapers in the country, as well as those published weekly. Among newspaper readership, young people are likely to read newspapers weekly and older people daily. The majority of newspapers are privately run and are often critical of the government. The standard of print journalism tends to be low owing to lack of training, and people trust the information published in newspapers less than that found on the radio. \n\nRadio is the most-popular and most-trusted media in Sierra Leone, with 85% of people having access to a radio and 72% of people in the country listening to the radio daily. These levels do vary between areas of the country, with the Western Area having the highest levels and Kailahun the lowest. Stations mainly consist of local commercial stations with a limited broadcast range, combined with a few stations with national coverage – Capital Radio Sierra Leone being the largest of the commercial stations.\n\nThe United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone (UNIOSIL) ran one of the most popular stations in the country, broadcasting programs in a range of languages. The UN mission were restructured in 2008 and it was decided that the UN Radio would be merged with SLBS to form the new Sierra Leone Broadcasting Corporation (SLBC). This merger eventually happened in 2011 after the necessary legislation was enacted. SLBC transmits radio on FM and has two television services, one of which is uplinked by satellite for international consumption. FM relays of BBC World Service (in Freetown, Bo, Kenema and Makeni), Radio France Internationale (Freetown only) and Voice of America (Freetown only) are also broadcast.\n\nOutside the capital Freetown and other major cities, television is not watched by a great many people, although Bo, Kenema and Makeni are served by their own relays of the main SLBC service. There are two free terrestrial television stations in Sierra Leone, one run by the government SLBC and the other a private station in Freetown, Star TV which is run by the owner of the Standard Times newspaper. There are a number of religious funded TV stations that operate intermittently. Two other commercial TV operators (ABC and AIT) closed after they were not profitable. In 2007, a pay-per-view service was also introduced by GTV as part of a pan-African television service in addition to the nine-year-old sub-Saharan Digital satellite television service (DStv) originating from Multichoice Africa in South Africa. GTV subsequently went out of business, leaving DStv as the only provider of pay-per-view television in the country. A number of organisations are competing for the rights to operate digital TV services, with Multichoice's Go TV having built infrastructure ahead of getting a license.\n\nInternet access in Sierra Leone has been sparse but is on the increase, especially since the introduction of 3G cellular phone services across the country. There are several main internet service providers (ISPs) operating in the country. Freetown has internet cafes and other businesses offering internet access. Problems experienced with access to the Internet include an intermittent electricity supply and a slow connection speed in the country outside Freetown.\n\nArts \n\nThe arts in Sierra Leone are a mixture of tradition and hybrid African and western styles. \n\nSports \n\nFootball is by far the most popular sport in Sierra Leone. Children, youth and adult are frequently seen playing street football across Sierra Leone. There are organised youth and adult football tournaments across the country, and there are various primary and secondary schools with football teams across Sierra Leone.\n\nThe Sierra Leone national football team, popularly known as the Leone Stars, represents the country in international competitions. It has never qualified for the FIFA World Cup but participated in the 1994 and 1996 African Cup of Nations. When the national football team, the Leone Stars, have a match, Sierra Leoneans across the country come together united in support of the national team and people rush to their local radio and television stations to follow the live match. The country's national television network, The Sierra Leone Broadcasting Corporation (SLBC) broadcasts the national football team live match, along with many local radio stations across the country.\n\nWhen the Leone Stars win an important match, many youth across the county rush to the street to celebrate. Many of the Sierra Leone national team footballers play for teams based in Europe although virtually all of them started professional football in the Sierra Leone National Premier League. Many of the national team footballers are celebrities across Sierra Leone and they are often well known by the general population. Some of Sierra Leonean international footballers include Mohamed Kallon, Mohamed Bangura, Rodney Strasser, Kei Kamara, Ibrahim Teteh Bangura, Mustapha Dumbuya, Christian Caulker, Alhassan Bangura, Sheriff Suma, Mohamed Kamara, Umaru Bangura and Julius Gibrilla Woobay\n.\n\nThe Sierra Leone National Premier League is the top professional football league in Sierra Leone and is controlled by the Sierra Leone Football Association. Fourteen clubs from across the country compete in the Sierra Leone Premier League. The two biggest and most successful football clubs are East End Lions and Mighty Blackpool. East End Lions and Mighty Blackpool have an intense rivalry and when they play each other the national stadium in Freetown is often sold out and supporters of both clubs often clash with each other before and after the game. There is a huge police presence inside and outside the national stadium during a match between the two great rivals to prevent a clash. Many Sierra Leonean youth follow the local football league.\n\nMany Sierra Leonean youth, children and adults follow the major football leagues in Europe, particularly the English Premier League, Italian Serie A, Spanish La Liga, German Bundesliga and French Ligue 1.\nThe Sierra Leone cricket team represents Sierra Leone in international cricket competitions, and is among the best in West Africa. It became an affiliate member of the International Cricket Council in 2002. It made its international debut at the 2004 African Affiliates Championship, where it finished last of eight teams. But at the equivalent tournament in 2006, Division Three of the African region of the World Cricket League, it finished as runner-up to Mozambique, and just missed a promotion to Division Two.\n\nIn 2009 the Sierra Leone Under-19 team finished second in the African Under-19 Championship in Zambia, thus qualifying for the Under-19 World Cup qualifying tournament with nine other teams. However, the team was unable to obtain Canadian visas to play in the tournament, which was held in Toronto. \n\nBasketball is not a very popular sport in Sierra Leone. The Sierra Leone national basketball team represents Sierra Leone in international men's basketball competitions and is controlled by the Sierra Leone Basketball Federation.\n\nThe National Basketball Association (NBA) is popular among a small portion of the youth population. NBA superstars LeBron James, Kobe Bryant and Kevin Durant are popular among Sierra Leone's youthful population. Former NBA stars, in particular Michael Jordan, Shaquille O'Neal, Allen Iverson and Magic Johnson are popular in the country. Michael Jordan in particular is the most famous basketball player in the country and he is very popular among the general population. Current NBA youngstar Victor Oladipo is of Sierra Leonean descent, as his father is a native of Sierra Leone.", "Freetown is the capital and largest city of Sierra Leone. It is a major port city on the Atlantic Ocean and is located in the Western Area of the country. Freetown is Sierra Leone's major urban, economic, financial, cultural, educational and political centre. The city proper had a population of 951,000 at the 2014 census. \n\nThe city's economy revolves largely around its harbor, which occupies a part of the estuary of the Sierra Leone River in one of the world's largest natural deep water harbors.\n\nAs the capital of Sierra Leone, Freetown is the seat of the Government of Sierra Leone, as the city is home to the State House, the House of Parliament, and the Supreme Court.\n\nThe population of Freetown is ethnically, culturally, and religiously diverse, primarily among Muslims and Christians. The city is home to a significant population of virtually all of the Sierra Leone's ethnic groups, with no single ethnic group forming a majority of the city's population. As in virtually all parts of Sierra Leone, the Krio language is Freetown's primary language of communication and is by far the most widely spoken language in the city.\n\nThe city of Freetown was founded on March 11, 1792 by Lieutenant John Clarkson and African American ex-slaves and free people called the Nova Scotian Settlers, who were transported to Sierra Leone by the Sierra Leone Company in 1792. Freetown is the oldest capital to be founded by African Americans, having been founded thirty years before Monrovia, Liberia.\n\nThe city of Freetown is locally governed by a directly elected city council municipality, known as the Freetown City Council, headed by a mayor. The current mayor of Freetown is Franklyn Bode Gibson, of the APC, who was elected mayor with 68.25% of the votes, in the 2012 Freetown municipal mayoral election.\n\nThe City of Freetown is divided into three municipal regions; the East End, Central, and the West End. The East End is both the most populous, and the most densely populous of the three regions within Freetown. The East End is home to the country's harbor. Central Freetown is home to the State House, the House of Parliament, the Supreme Court, the National Stadium, Bank of Sierra Leone, and the historic Cotton Tree. The West of Freetown is the least populous of the three regions within Freetown. The West End is home to the country 's Lumley Beach, Fourah Bay College, and the State Lodge.\n\nHistory \n\nProvince of Freedom (1787–1789) \n\nThe area was first settled in 1787 by 400 formerly enslaved blacks sent from London, England, under the auspices of the Committee for the Relief of the Black Poor, an organisation set up by Jonah Hanway and the British abolitionist, Granville Sharp. These blacks were African Americans, Afro-Caribbeans, Africans, Southeast Asians, and blacks born in Britain. They established the 'Province of Freedom' and the settlement of Granville Town on land purchased from local Koya Temne subchief King Tom and regent Naimbana. The British understood the purchase was to mean that their new settlers had the land \"for ever.\" Although the established arrangement between Europeans and the Koya Temne included provisions for permanent settlement, some historians question how well the Koya leaders understood the agreement, as they had a different conception of the uses of property.\n\nDisputes soon broke out. King Tom's successor, King Jimmy, burnt the settlement to the ground in 1789. Alexander Falconbridge was sent to Sierra Leone in 1791 to collect the remaining Black Poor settlers, and they re-established Granville Town around the area now known as Cline Town, Sierra Leone near Fourah Bay. These 1787 settlers did not formally establish Freetown, even though the bicentennial of Freetown was celebrated in 1987. But formally, Freetown was founded in 1792.Shaw, Rosalind, Memories of the Slave Trade: Ritual and the Historical Imagination in Sierra Leone. Reconstructed by Mohamed Sheriff, Memphis, Tennessee, University of Chicago Press (2002), p. 37.\n\nFreetown Colony (1792–1808) \n\n \n\nIn 1791, Thomas Peters, an African American who had served in the Black Pioneers, went to England to report the grievances of the black population in Nova Scotia. Some of these African Americans were ex-slaves who had escaped to the British forces who had been given their freedom and resettled there by the Crown after the American Revolution. Land grants and assistance in starting the settlements had been intermittent and slow.\n\nDuring his visit, Peters met with the directors of the Sierra Leone Company and learned of proposals for a new settlement at Sierra Leone. Despite the collapse of the 1787 colony, the directors were eager to recruit settlers to Sierra Leone. Lieutenant John Clarkson, RN, who was an abolitionist, was sent to Nova Scotia in British North America to register immigrants to take to Sierra Leone for a new settlement.\n\nTired of the harsh weather and racial discrimination in Nova Scotia, more than 1,100 former American slaves chose to go to Sierra Leone. They sailed in 15 ships and arrived in St. George Bay between February 26 – March 9, 1792. Sixty-four settlers died en route to Sierra Leone, and Lieutenant Clarkson was among those taken ill during the voyage. Upon reaching Sierra Leone, Clarkson and some of the Nova Scotian 'captains' \"dispatched on shore to clear or make roadway for their landing\". The Nova Scotians were to build Freetown on the former site of the first Granville Town, where jungle had taken over since its destruction in 1789. Its surviving Old Settlers had relocated to Fourah Bay in 1791.\n\nAt Freetown, the women remained in the ships while the men worked to clear the land. Lt. Clarkson told the men to clear the land until they reached a large cotton tree. After the work had been done and the land cleared, all the Nova Scotians, men and women, disembarked and marched towards the thick forest and to the cotton tree, and their preachers (all African Americans) began singing \"Awake and Sing Of Moses and the Lamb.\"\n\nIn March 1792, Nathaniel Gilbert, a white preacher, prayed and preached a sermon under the large Cotton Tree, and Reverend David George, from South Carolina, preached the first recorded Baptist service in Africa. The land was dedicated and christened 'Free Town,' as ordered by the Sierra Leone Company Directors. This was the first thanksgiving service.\n\nJohn Clarkson was sworn in as first governor of Sierra Leone. Small huts were erected before the rainy season. The Sierra Leone Company surveyors and the settlers built Freetown on the American grid pattern, with parallel streets and wide roads, with the largest being Water Street. On August 24, 1792, the Black Poor or Old Settlers of the second Granville Town were incorporated into the new Sierra Leone Colony, but remained at Granville Town.\n\nIn 1793, the settlers sent a petition to the Sierra Leone Company expressing concerns about the treatment that they were enduring. The settlers in particular objected to being issued currency that was only redeemable at a company owned store. They also claimed that the governor, Mr. Dawes ruled in an almost tyrannical fashion, favoring certain people over others when ruling the settlement. The writers then argued that they had not received the amount of land that Lt. Clarkson had promised them on leaving Nova Scotia. The letter expressed anxiety that the company was not treating them as freemen, but as slaves and requested that Lt. Clarkson return as governor. \n \n \nFreetown survived being pillaged by the French in 1794, and was rebuilt by the settlers. By 1798, Freetown had between 300–400 houses with architecture resembling that of the United States – stone foundations with wooden superstructures. Eventually this style of housing, built by the Nova Scotians, would be the model for the 'bod oses' of their Creole descendants.\n\nIn 1800, the Black migrants from Nova Scotians rebelled. The British authorities used the arrival of 500 Jamaican Maroons to suppress the insurrection. Thirty-four Nova Scotians were banished and sent to either the Sherbro or a penal colony at Gore. Some of the Nova Scotians were eventually allowed back into Freetown. After the Maroons captured the Nova Scotian rebels, they were granted their land. Eventually the Maroons had their own district at Maroon Town.\n\nFreetown as a Crown Colony (1808–1961) \n\nIndigenous Africans attacked the colony in 1801 and were repulsed. The British eventually took control of Freetown, making it a Crown Colony in 1808. This act accompanied expansion that led to the creation of Sierra Leone.\n\nFrom 1808 to 1874, the city served as the capital of British West Africa. It also served as the base for the Royal Navy's West Africa Squadron, which was charged with enforcing the ban on the slave trade. When the squadron liberated slaves on trading ships, they brought most to Sierra Leone, and Freetown in particular. The grew to include descendants of many different peoples from all over the west coast of Africa. The British also situated three of their Mixed Commission Courts in Freetown.\n\nThe liberated Africans established the suburbs of Freetown Peninsula. They were the largest group of immigrants to make up the Creole people of Freetown. The city expanded rapidly. The freed slaves were joined by West Indian and African soldiers, who had fought for Britain in the Napoleonic Wars and settled here afterward. Descendants of the freed slaves who settled in Sierra Leone between 1787 and 1792, are called the Creoles. The Creoles play a leading role in the city, although they are a minority of the overall Sierra Leone population.\n\nDuring World War II, Britain maintained a naval base at Freetown. The base was a staging post for Allied traffic in the South Atlantic and the assembly point for SL convoys to Britain. An RAF base was maintained at nearby Lungi airfield.\n\nCivil war, 1990s \n\nThe city was the scene of fierce fighting in the late 1990s during the Sierra Leone Civil War. It was captured by ECOWAS troops seeking to restore President Ahmad Tejan Kabbah in 1998. Later it was unsuccessfully attacked by rebels of the Revolutionary United Front.\n\nGovernment and politics\n\nThe city of Freetown is one of Sierra Leone's six municipalities and is governed by a directly elected city council, headed by a mayor, in whom executive authority is vested. The mayor is responsible for the general management of the city. The mayor and members of the Freetown Municipality are elected directly by the residents of Freetown in every four years.\n\nThe government of the Freetown Municipality has been dominated by All People's Congress (APC) since 2004. The APC won the city's mayorship and majority seats in the Freetown city council in both 2004 and 2008 local elections.\n\nIn November 2011, Freetown Mayor Herbert George-Williams was removed from office and replaced by council member Alhaji Gibril Kanu as acting mayor. Mayor Herbert George-Williams and eight others, including the Chief Administrator of the Freetown city council Bowenson Fredrick Philips; and the Freetown city council Treasurer Sylvester Momoh Konnehi, were arrested and indicted by the Sierra Leone Anti-corruption Commission on twenty-five counts on graft charges, ranging with conspiracy to commit corruption and misappropriation of public funds[http://af.reuters.com/article/topNews/idAFJOE7AS0AR20111129]. Mayor Herbert George-Williams was acquitted of seventeen of the nineteen charges against him. He was convicted of two less serious charges by the Freetown High Court judge Jon Bosco Katutsi and sentenced to pay a fine. \n\nActing Mayor Kanu lost the APC nomination for the mayor of Freetown in the 2012 Mayoral elections by 56 votes; council member Sam Franklyn Bode Gibson won 106 in a landslide victory \n\nIn the national presidential and Parliamentary elections, Freetown is similar to swing states in American politics. As the city is so ethnically diverse, no single ethnic group forms a majority of the population of the city. Traditionally, the APC and the SLPP, two of the country's major political parties, have about equal support in the city. In the 2007 Sierra Leone Presidential election, the APC candidate and then main opposition leader, Ernest Bai Koroma, won just over 60% of the votes in the Western Area Urban District, including the city of Freetown, where almost the entire District population reside.\n\nGeography \n\nFreetown shares border with the Atlantic Ocean and the Western Area Rural District. Freetown municipality is politically divided into three regions: East End, Central and West End of Freetown. The wards in the East End of Freetown (East I, East II, and East III) contain the city's largest population centre and generally the poorest part of the city. The Queen Elizabeth II Quay is located within East End.\n\nThe two central wards (Central I and Central II) make up Central Freetown, which includes Downtown Freetown and the central business district (Central II). Most of the tallest and most important national government building and foreign embassies are based in Central Freetown.\n\nSierra Leone's House of Parliament and the State House, the principal workplace of the president of Sierra Leone, are on Tower Hill in central Freetown. The National Stadium, the home stadium of the Sierra Leone national football team (popularly known as the Leone Stars) is in the Brookfield neighborhood.\n\nThe three westernmost wards (West I, West II, and West III) of the city constitute the West End of Freetown. These wards are relatively affluent. Most of the city's luxury hotels, a number of casinos, and the Lumley Beach are in the west end of the city. The west end neighbourhood of Hill Station is home to the State Lodge, the official residence of the president of Sierra Leone.\n\nSights and attractions \n\nFreetown has an abundance of historical landmarks connected to its founding by African-Americans, liberated African slaves, and West Indians. The Cotton Tree represents the christening of Freetown in March 1792. In downtown Freetown is the Connaught Hospital, the first hospital constructed in West Africa that incorporated Western medical practices.\n\nNearby is \"King's Gate\", built in stone with a statement inscribed which reads \"any slave who passes through this gate is declared a free man\", and it was this gate through which liberated Africans passed. Down by the Naval Wharf are slave steps carved out of stone. Before Freetown was established, this was where the Portuguese slave traders transported Africans as slaves to ships.\n\nFreetown is home to Fourah Bay College, the oldest university in West Africa, founded in 1827. The university played a key role in Sierra Leone’s colonial history. The college’s first student, Samuel Ajayi Crowther, went on to be named as the first indigenous Bishop of West Africa. National Railway Museum has a coach car built for the state visit of Elizabeth II in 1961. The Big Market on Wallace Johnson Street is the showcase for local artisans’ work.\n\nThe Freetown peninsula is ringed by long stretches of white sand. Lumley Beach, on the western side of the peninsula, is a popular location for local parties and festivals. Freetown is the seat of St John's Maroon Church (built around 1820), St. George Cathedral (completed in 1828), and Foulah Town Mosque (built in the 1830s). Also in Freetown are assorted beaches and markets, and the Sierra Leone Museum featuring the Ruiter Stone.\n\nEconomy \n\nFreetown is the economic and financial centre of Sierra Leone. The country's state television and radio station, the Sierra Leone Broadcasting Corporation, is primarily based in Freetown. They have regional headquarters in the country's other primary cities of Bo, Kailahun, Kenema, Koidu Town, Magburaka and Makeni. The other national broadcasters, such as Capital Radio, are also based in Freetown. Many of the country's largest corporations locate their headquarters' home offices in Freetown as well as the majority of international companies.\n\nThe city's economy revolves largely around its final natural harbour, which is the largest natural harbour on the continent of Africa. Queen Elizabeth II Quay is capable of receiving oceangoing vessels and handles Sierra Leone's main exports.\n\nIndustries include food and beverage processing, fish packing, rice milling, petroleum refining, diamond cutting, and the manufacture of cigarettes, paint, shoes, and beer. the Fula and Sierra Leonean-Lebanese play a major role in local trade in the city.\n\nThe city is served by the Lungi International Airport, located in the city of Lungi, across the river estuary from Freetown.\n\nClimate \n\nLike the rest of Sierra Leone, Freetown has a tropical climate with a rainy season from May through to October; the balance of the year represents the dry season. The beginning and end of the rainy season is marked by strong thunderstorms. Under the Köppen climate classification, Freetown has a tropical monsoon climate primarily due to the heavy amount of precipitation it receives during the rainy season.\n\nFreetown's high humidity is somewhat relieved November through to February by the famous Harmattan, a wind blowing from the Sahara Desert affording Freetown its coolest period of the year. Temperature extremes recorded in Freetown are from 17 C to 41 C all year. The average annual temperature is around 27 C}}.", "Capital Radio is a Sierra Leone radio station based at the Mammy Yoko Business Park in Aberdeen, Freetown.\n\nHistory\n\nCapital Radio was established as a company in Sierra Leone in 2005. The station has 3 directors - Adonis Abboud, Colin Mason and David Stanley. Test programmes commenced in May 2006 from the Cape Sierra Hotel using the newly installed transmitter at Leicester Peak. The full service started from studios in Wilkinson Road on 3 July 2006. The station fully relocated to the Mammy Yoko Hotel complex in December 2011.\n\nThe station transmits from the SLBC Leicester Peak transmitting station using 104.9 MHz. A relay in Bo, Sierra Leone, provides coverage of the city on 102.3 MHz. A relay was launched in Makeni in January 2012 using 103.3 MHz and for Kenema in May 2016 using 104.9 MHz. The station also started streaming its broadcasts in July 2016.\n\nCurrent Presenters/DJs\n\nDouglas Davies\nEsther Farrell\nJessie Tucker\nJulian Strasser-King (also Technical Assistant)\nKhomba Saffa\nNicky Spencer-Coker\nSavannah Serry\nShola Bello\n*Uzo Desmond" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Freetown Colony", "Freetown", "History of Freetown, Sierra Leone", "Free Town", "Freetown settlement", "Freetown, Sierra Leone", "Capital of Sierra Leone" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "freetown sierra leone", "history of freetown sierra leone", "freetown colony", "freetown", "free town", "freetown settlement", "capital of sierra leone" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "freetown", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Freetown" }
Which country is the island of Zanzibar part of?	tc_236	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Zanzibar.txt" ], "title": [ "Zanzibar" ], "wiki_context": [ "Zanzibar (; Zanjibār), is a semi-autonomous part of Tanzania in East Africa. It is composed of the Zanzibar Archipelago in the Indian Ocean, 25 - off the coast of the mainland, and consists of many small islands and two large ones: Unguja (the main island, referred to informally as Zanzibar) and Pemba. The capital is Zanzibar City, located on the island of Unguja. Its historic centre is Stone Town, which is a World Heritage Site.\n\nZanzibar's main industries are spices, raffia, and tourism. In particular, the islands produce cloves, nutmeg, cinnamon, and black pepper. For this reason, the islands, together with Tanzania's Mafia Island, are sometimes called the Spice Islands (a term also associated with the Maluku Islands in Indonesia). Zanzibar is the home of the endemic Zanzibar red colobus monkey, the Zanzibar servaline genet, and the (possibly extinct) Zanzibar leopard.\n\nEtymology\n\nThe word Zanzibar comes from Arabic Zanjibār (), which is in turn from Persian Zang-bār (), a compound of Zang (, \"Black\") + bār (, \"coast\"). \n\nHistory \n\nBefore 1498\n\nThe presence of microlithic tools suggest that it has been home to humans for at least 20,000 years, which was the beginning of the Later Stone Age.\n\nA Greco-Roman text between the 1st and 3rd centuries AD, the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, mentioned the island of Menuthias (), which is probably Unguja. Little is known about the history of Zanzibar between the time of the Periplus and the death of Muhammad in 632 CE. From that point forward, wars in Asia and increasing trade motivated Persians, Arabs, and Indians to visit or migrate to Zanzibar.\n\nPersian traders used Zanzibar as a base for voyages between the Middle East, India, and Africa. Unguja, the larger island, offered a protected and defensible harbor, so although the archipelago offered few products of value, the Persians settled at what became Zanzibar City (\"Stone Town\") a convenient point from which to trade with the Swahili Coast towns. They established garrisons on the islands and built the first Zoroastrian fire temples and mosques in the Southern Hemisphere. \n\nThe impact of these traders and immigrants on the Swahili culture is uncertain. During the Middle Ages, Zanzibar and other settlements on the Swahili Coast were advanced. The littoral contained a number of autonomous trade cities. These towns grew in wealth as the Bantu Swahili people served as intermediaries and facilitators to local, Arab, Persian, Indonesian, Malaysian, Indian, and Chinese merchants. This interaction contributed in part to the evolution of the Swahili culture, which developed its own written language. Although a Bantu language, Swahili as a consequence today includes some elements that were borrowed from other civilizations, particularly Arabic loanwords. With the wealth that they had acquired through trade, some of the Arab traders also became rulers of the coastal cities. \n\nVasco da Gama's visit in 1498 marked the beginning of European influence. In 1503 or 1504, Zanzibar became part of the Portuguese Empire when Captain Ruy Lourenço Ravasco Marques landed and demanded and received tribute from the sultan in exchange for peace. Zanzibar remained a possession of Portugal for almost two centuries. It initially became part of the Portuguese province of Arabia and Ethiopia and was administered by a governor general. Around 1571, Zanzibar became part of the western division of the Portuguese empire and was administered from Mozambique. It appears, however, that the Portuguese did not closely administer Zanzibar. The first English ship to visit Unguja, the Edward Bonaventure in 1591, found that there was no Portuguese fort or garrison. The extent of their occupation was a trade depot where produce was purchased and collected for shipment to Mozambique. \"In other respects, the affairs of the island were managed by the local 'king', the predecessor of the Mwinyi Mkuu of Dunga.\" This hands-off approach ended when Portugal established a fort on Pemba around 1635 in response to the Sultan of Mombasa's slaughter of Portuguese residents several years earlier. Portugal had long considered Pemba to be a troublesome launching point for rebellions in Mombasa against Portuguese rule.\n\nThe precise origins of the sultans of Unguja are uncertain. However, their capital at Unguja Kuu is believed to have been an extensive town. Possibly constructed by locals, it was composed mainly of perishable materials.\n\nSultanate of Zanzibar\n\nThe older settlements are quite distinct from the later lordship of Oman and Maskat. When the Portuguese arrived in 1498 they found on the coast a series of independent towns, peopled by Arabs, but not united to Arabia by any political tie. Their relations with these Arabs were mostly hostile, but during the sixteenth century they firmly established their power, and ruled with the aid of tributary Arab sultans. This system lasted till 1631, when the Sultan of Mombasa massacred the European inhabitants. In the remainder of their rule[,] the Portuguese appointed European governors, who were apparently most distasteful to the natives, for they invited the Arabs of Oman, who now appear on the scene for the first time, to assist them in driving the foreigners out. \n\nIn 1698, Zanzibar fell under the control of the Sultanate of Oman. \n\nIn 1832, or 1840 (the date varies among sources), Said bin Sultan moved his capital from Muscat, Oman to Stone Town in Zanzibar City. After Said's death in June 1856, two of his sons, Thuwaini bin Said and Majid bin Said, struggled over the succession. Said's will divided his dominions into two separate principalities, with Thuwaini to become the Sultan of Oman and Majid to become the first Sultan of Zanzibar. The brothers quarrelled about the will, which was eventually upheld by Lord Charles Canning, Great Britain's Viceroy and Governor-General of India.\n\nUntil around 1890, the sultans of Zanzibar controlled a substantial portion of the Swahili Coast, known as Zanj, which included Mombasa and Dar es Salaam. Beginning in 1886, Great Britain and Germany plotted to obtain parts of the Zanzibar sultanate for their own empires. \nIn October 1886, a British-German border commission established the Zanj as a 10 nmi strip along most of the African Great Lakes region's coast, an area stretching from Cape Delgado (now in Mozambique) to Kipini (now in Kenya), including Mombasa and Dar es Salaam. Over the next few years, however, almost all of these mainland possessions were lost to European imperial powers.\n\nThe sultans developed an economy of trade and cash crops in the Zanzibar Archipelago with a ruling Arab elite. Ivory was a major trade good. The archipelago, also known as the Spice Islands, was famous worldwide for its cloves and other spices, and plantations were developed to grow them. The archipelago's commerce gradually fell into the hands of traders from the Indian subcontinent, whom Said bin Sultan encouraged to settle on the islands.\n\nDuring his 14-year reign as sultan, Majid bin Said consolidated his power around the local slave trade. Malindi in Zanzibar City was the Swahili Coast's main port for the slave trade with the Middle East. In the mid-19th century, as many as 50,000 slaves passed annually through the port.\n\nMany were captives of Tippu Tib, a notorious Arab slave trader and ivory merchant. Tib led huge expeditions, some 4,000 strong, into the African interior, where chiefs sold him their villagers for next to nothing. These Tib used to caravan ivory back to Zanzibar, then sold them in the slave market for large profits. In time Tib became one of the wealthiest men in Zanzibar, the owner of multiple plantations and 10,000 slaves. \n\nOne of Majid's brothers, Barghash bin Said, succeeded him and helped abolish the slave trade in the Zanzibar Archipelago and largely developed Unguja's infrastructure. Another brother of Majid, Khalifa bin Said, was the third sultan of Zanzibar and furthered the archipelago's progress toward abolishing slavery.\n\nBritish protectorate\n\nControl of Zanzibar eventually came into the hands of the British Empire; part of the political impetus for this was the 19th century movement for the abolition of the slave trade. Zanzibar was the centre of the Arab slave trade, and in 1822, the British counsel in Muscat put pressure on Sultan Said to end the slave trade. The first of a series of anti-slavery treaties with Britain was signed by Said which prohibited slave transport south and east of the Moresby Line, from Cape Delgado in Africa to Diu Head on the coast of India. Said lost the revenue he would have received as duty on all slaves sold, so to make up for this shortfall he encouraged the development of the slave trade in Zanzibar itself. Said came under increasing pressure from the British to abolish slavery, and in 1842 the British government told the Zanzibari ruler it wished to abolish the slave trade to Arabia, Oman, Persia, and the Red Sea. \n\nShips from the Royal Navy were employed to enforce the anti-slavery treaties by capturing any dhows carrying slaves, but with only four ships patrolling a huge area of sea, the British navy found it hard to enforce the treaties as ships from France,Spain, Portugal, and the United States continued to carry slaves. In 1856, Sultan Majid consolidated his power around the African Great Lakes slave trade, and in 1873 Sir John Kirk informed his successor, Sultan Barghash, that a total blockade of Zanzibar was imminent, and Barghash reluctantly signed the Anglo-Zanzibari treaty which abolished the slave trade in the sultan's territories, the closing of all slave markets and the protection of liberated slaves. \n\nThe relationship between Britain and the German Empire, at that time the nearest relevant colonial power, was formalized by the 1890 Heligoland-Zanzibar Treaty, in which Germany agreed to \"recognize the British protectorate over ... the islands of Zanzibar and Pemba\". \n\nIn 1890 Zanzibar became a protectorate (not a colony) of Britain. This status meant it continued to be under the sovereignty of the Sultan of Zanzibar. Prime minister Salisbury explained his position:\nThe condition of a protected dependency is more acceptable to the half civilised races, and more suitable for them than direct dominion. It is cheaper, simpler, less wounding to their self-esteem, gives them more career as public officials, and spares of unnecessary contact with white men. \n\nFrom 1890 to 1913, traditional viziers were in charge; they were supervised by advisors appointed by the Colonial Office. However, in 1913 a switch was made to a system of direct rule through residents (effectively governors) from 1913. The death of the pro-British Sultan Hamad bin Thuwaini on 25 August 1896 and the succession of Sultan Khalid bin Barghash, whom the British did not approve of, led to the Anglo-Zanzibar War. On the morning of 27 August 1896, ships of the Royal Navy destroyed the Beit al Hukum Palace. A cease fire was declared 38 minutes later, and to this day the bombardment stands as the shortest war in history. \n\nBritish Protectorate ended, self-government, and subsequent merger with Tanganyika\n\nOn 10 December 1963, the Protectorate that had existed over Zanzibar since 1890 was terminated by the United Kingdom. The United Kingdom did not grant Zanzibar independence, as such, because the UK had never had sovereignty over Zanzibar. Rather, by the Zanzibar Act 1963 of the United Kingdom, the UK ended the Protectorate and made provision for full self-government in Zanzibar as an independent country within the Commonwealth. Upon the Protectorate being abolished, Zanzibar became a constitutional monarchy under the Sultan. However, just a month later, on 12 January 1964 Sultan Jamshid bin Abdullah was deposed during the Zanzibar Revolution. The Sultan fled into exile, and the Sultanate was replaced by the People's Republic of Zanzibar and Pemba. In April 1964, the republic merged with mainland Tanganyika. This United Republic of Tanganyika and Zanzibar was soon renamed, blending the two names, as the United Republic of Tanzania, within which Zanzibar remains a semi-autonomous region.\n\nDemography\n\nThe 2002 census is the most recent census for which results have been reported. The total population of Zanzibar was 984,625 – with an annual growth rate of 3.1 percent. The population of Zanzibar City, which was the largest city, was 205,870.\n\nAround two thirds of the people, 622,459, lived on Unguja (Zanzibar Island), with most settled in the densely populated west. Besides Zanzibar City, other towns on Unguja include Chaani, Mbweni, Mangapwani, Chwaka, and Nungwi. Outside of these towns, most people live in small villages and are engaged in farming or fishing.\n\nThe population of Pemba Island was 362,166. The largest town on the island was Chake-Chake, with a population of 19,283. The smaller towns are Wete and Mkoani.\n\nMafia Island, the other major island of the Zanzibar Archipelago but administered by mainland Tanzania (Tanganyka), had a total population of 40,801. \n\nEthnic origins and languages \n\nThe people of Zanzibar are of diverse ethnic origins. The first permanent residents of Zanzibar seem to have been the ancestors of the Bantu Hadimu and Tumbatu, who began arriving from the African Great Lakes mainland around AD 1000. They belonged to various mainland ethnic groups and on Zanzibar, lived in small villages, and did not coalesce to form larger political units.\n\nZanzibar is today inhabited mostly by ethnic Swahili, a Bantu population. There are also a number of Arabs as well as some Indians. \n\nZanzibaris speak Swahili (Kiswahili), a Bantu language that is extensively spoken in the African Great Lakes region. Alongside English, Swahili is one of the two official languages of Tanzania. Many local residents also speak French and/or Italian. \n\nReligion \n\nAccording to the CIA World Factbook, Zanzibar's population is almost entirely Muslim. with a small Christian and indigenous minority.\n\nThe Catholic minority is served by the Roman Catholic Diocese of Zanzibar\n\nGovernment \n\nAs a semi-autonomous part of Tanzania, Zanzibar has its own government, known as the Revolutionary Government of Zanzibar. It is made up of the Revolutionary Council and House of Representatives.\n\nThe House of Representatives has a similar composition to the National Assembly of Tanzania. 50 members are elected directly from electoral constituencies to serve five-year terms; 10 members are appointed by the President of Zanzibar; 15 special seats are for women members of political parties that have representation in the House of Representatives; 6 members serve ex officio, including all regional commissioners and the attorney general. Five of these 81 members are then elected to represent Zanzibar in the National Assembly. \n\nUnguja has three administrative regions: Zanzibar Central/South, Zanzibar North and Zanzibar Urban/West. Pemba has two: Pemba North and Pemba South. \n\nConcerning the independence and sovereignty of Zanzibar, Tanzania Prime Minister Mizengo Pinda said on 3 July 2008 that there was \"nothing like the sovereignty of Zanzibar in the Union Government unless the Constitution is changed in future\". Zanzibar House of Representatives members from both the ruling party, Chama Cha Mapinduzi, and the opposition party, Civic United Front, disagreed and stood firmly in recognizing Zanzibar as a fully autonomous state. \n\nPolitics \n\nZanzibar has a government of national unity, with the current president of Zanzibar being Ali Mohamed Shein, since 1 November 2010.\n\nThere are many political parties in Zanzibar, but the most popular parties are the Chama Cha Mapinduzi (CCM) and the Civic United Front (CUF). Since the early 1990s, the politics of the archipelago have been marked by repeated clashes between these two parties.\n\nContested elections in October 2000 led to a massacre on 27 January 2001 when, according to Human Rights Watch, the army and police shot into crowds of protestors, killing at least 35 and wounding more than 600. Those forces, accompanied by ruling party officials and militias, also went on a house-to-house rampage, indiscriminately arresting, beating, and sexually abusing residents. Approximately 2,000 temporarily fled to Kenya. \n\nViolence erupted again after another contested election on 31 October 2005, with the CUF claiming that its rightful victory had been stolen from it. Nine people were killed. \n\nFollowing 2005, negotiations between the two parties aiming at the long-term resolution of the tensions and a power-sharing accord took place, but they suffered repeated setbacks. The most notable of these took place in April 2008, when the CUF walked away from the negotiating table following a CCM call for a referendum to approve of what had been presented as a done deal on the power-sharing agreement. \n\nIn November 2009, the then-president of Zanzibar, Amani Abeid Karume, met with CUF secretary-general Seif Sharif Hamad at the State House to discuss how to save Zanzibar from future political turmoil and to end the animosity between them. This move was welcomed by many, including the United States. It was the first time since the multi-party system was introduced in Zanzibar that the CUF agreed to recognize Karume as the legitimate president of Zanzibar.\n\nA proposal to amend Zanzibar's constitution to allow rival parties to form governments of national unity was adopted by 66.2 percent of voters on 31 July 2010. \n\nGeography \n\nZanzibar is one of the Indian Ocean islands. It is situated on the Swahili Coast, adjacent to Tanganyika (mainland Tanzania).\n\nThe northern tip of Unguja island is located at 5.72 degrees south, 39.30 degrees east, with the southernmost point at 6.48 degrees south, 39.51 degrees east. The island is separated from the Tanzanian mainland by a channel, which at its narrowest point is across. The island is about 85 km long and 39 km wide, with an area of 1464 km2. Unguja is mainly low lying, with its highest point being 120 m. Unguja is characterised by beautiful sandy beaches with fringing coral reefs. The reefs are rich in marine biodiversity. \n\nThe northern tip of Pemba island is located at 4.87 degrees south, 39.68 degrees east, and the southernmost point is located at 5.47 degrees south, 39.72 degrees east. The island is separated from the Tanzanian mainland by a channel some 56 km wide. The island is about 67 km long and 23 km wide, with an area of 985 km2. Pemba is also mainly low lying, with its highest point being 95 m. \n\nClimate \n\nThe heat of summer (corresponding to the Northern Hemisphere winter) is often cooled by strong sea breezes associated with the northeast monsoon (known as Kaskazi in Kiswahili), particularly on the north and east coasts. Being near to the equator, the islands are warm year round. Rains occur in November but are characterised by brief showers. Longer rains normally occur in March, April, and May in association with the southwest monsoon (known locally as Kusi in Kiswahili). \n\nWildlife \n\nUnguja\n\nThe main island of Zanzibar, Unguja, has a fauna reflecting its connection to the African mainland during the last Ice Age. \n\nEndemic mammals with continental relatives include the Zanzibar red colobus, one of Africa's rarest primates, with perhaps only 1,500 existing. Isolated on this island for at least 1,000 years, the Zanzibar red colobus (Procolobus kirkii) is recognized as a distinct species, with different coat patterns, calls, and food habits than related colobus species on the mainland. The Zanzibar red colobus live in a wide variety of drier areas of coastal thickets and coral rag scrub, as well as mangrove swamps and agricultural areas. About one third of them live in and around Jozani Forest. The easiest place to see the colubus are on farm land adjacent to the reserve. They are accustomed to people and the low vegetation means they come close to the ground.\n\nRare native animals include the Zanzibar leopard, which is critically endangered and possibly extinct, and the recently described Zanzibar servaline genet. There are no large wild animals in Unguja. Forested areas such as Jozani are inhabited by monkeys, bush-pigs, small antelopes, civets, and, rumor has it, the elusive leopard. Various species of mongoose can also be found on the island. There is a wide variety of birdlife and a large number of butterflies in rural areas.\n\nPemba\n\nPemba Island is separated from Unguja island and the African continent by deep channels and has a correspondingly restricted fauna, reflecting its comparative isolation from the mainland. The island is home to the Pemba flying fox.\n\nStandard of living and health \n\nConsiderable disparities exist in the standard of living for inhabitants of Pemba and Unguja, as well as the disparity between urban and rural populations. The average annual income is US$250. About half the population lives below the poverty line.\n\nDespite a relatively high standard of primary health care and education, infant mortality in Zanzibar is 54 out of 1,000 live births, which is 10.0 percent lower than the rate in mainland Tanzania. The child mortality rate in Zanzibar is 73 out of 1,000 live births, which is 21.5 percent lower than the rate in mainland Tanzania. \n\nIt is estimated that 12% of children on Zanzibar have acute malnutrition. \n\nLife expectancy at birth is 57 years, which is significantly lower than the 2010 world average of 67.2.\n\nThe general prevalence of HIV/AIDS in the sexually active population of Zanzibar is 0.6 percent, with the rate slightly higher in females (0.7 percent) than males (0.5 percent). The rate for divorced women, however, is 10 percent and is even higher for injecting drug users (16 percent), men who have sex with men (MSM) (12.3 percent), and female sex workers (10.8 percent). Among MSM, 13.9 percent reported injecting drugs within the previous three months, 77.5 percent reported being paid for sex within the previous year, and 71.2 percent reported having female sex partners within the previous year. \n\nEconomy \n\nAncient pottery implies trade routes with Zanzibar as far back as the time of the ancient Assyrians. Traders from the Arabian Peninsula, the Persian Gulf region of modern-day Iran (especially Shiraz), and west India probably visited Zanzibar as early as the 1st century. They used the monsoon winds to sail across the Indian Ocean to land at the sheltered harbor located on the site of present-day Zanzibar City.\n\nThe clove, originating from the Moluccan Islands (today in Indonesia), was introduced in Zanzibar by the Omani sultans in the first half of the 19th century. Zanzibar, mainly Pemba Island, was once the world's leading clove producer, but annual clove sales have plummeted by 80 percent since the 1970s. Zanzibar's clove industry has been crippled by a fast-moving global market, international competition, and a hangover from Tanzania's failed experiment with socialism in the 1960s and 1970s, when the government controlled clove prices and exports. Zanzibar now ranks a distant third with Indonesia supplying 75 percent of the world's cloves compared to Zanzibar's 7 percent.\n\nZanzibar exports spices, seaweed and fine raffia. It also has a large fishing and dugout canoe production. Tourism is a major foreign currency earner. \n\nThe Government of Zanzibar legalized foreign exchange bureaux on the islands before mainland Tanzania moved to do so. The effect was to increase the availability of consumer commodities. The government has also established a free port area, which provides the following benefits: contribution to economic diversification by providing a window for free trade as well as stimulating the establishment of support services; administration of a regime that imports, exports, and warehouses general merchandise; adequate storage facilities and other infrastructure to cater for effective operation of trade; and creation of an efficient management system for effective re-exportation of goods. \n\nThe island's manufacturing sector is limited mainly to import substitution industries, such as cigarettes, shoes, and processed agricultural products. In 1992, the government designated two export-producing zones and encouraged the development of offshore financial services. Zanzibar still imports much of its staple requirements, petroleum products, and manufactured articles.\n\nThere is also a possibility of oil availability in Zanzibar on the island of Pemba, and efforts have been made by the Tanzanian Government and Zanzibar revolutionary Government to exploit what could be one of the most significant discoveries in recent memory. Oil would help boost the economy of Zanzibar, but there have been disagreements about dividends between the Tanzanian mainland and Zanzibar, the latter claiming the oil should be excluded in Union matters.\n\nIn 2007, a Norwegian consultancy firm went to Zanzibar to determine how the region could develop its oil potential. The firm recommended that Zanzibar follow neo-liberal economist Hernando de Soto Polar's ideas about the formalization of property rights for persons living on ancestral land for which they probably do not have a legal deed. \n\nEnergy \n\nThe energy sector in Zanzibar consists of unreliable electric power, petroleum and petroleum products; it is also supplemented by firewood and its related products. Coal and gas are rarely used for either domestic and industrial purposes.\n\nUnguja (Zanzibar Island) gets most of its electric power from mainland Tanzania through a 39-kilometer, 100-megawatt submarine cable from Ras Kiromoni (near Dar es Salaam) to Ras Fumba on Unguja. The laying of the cable was begun on 10 October 2012 by the Viscas Corporation of Japan and was funded by a US$28.1 million grant from the United States through the Millennium Challenge Corporation. The cable became operational on 13 April 2013. The previous 45-megawatt cable, which was seldom-maintained, was completed by Norway in 1980. \n\nSince May 2010, Pemba Island has had a 75-kilometer, 25-megawatt, subsea electrical link directly to mainland Tanzania. The cable project was financed through a 45 million euro grant from Norway and contributions of 8 million euros from the Zanzibar government and 4 million euros from the Tanzanian national government. The project ended years of dependence on unreliable and erratic diesel generation subject to frequent power cuts. Only about 20 percent of the cable's capacity was being used in January 2011, so it is anticipated that the cable will meet the island's needs for 20 to 25 years. \n\nBetween 70 and 75 percent of the electricity generated is used domestically while less than 20 percent is used industrially. Fuel wood, charcoal and kerosene are widely used as sources of energy for cooking and lighting for most rural and urban areas. The consumption capacity of petroleum, gas, oil, kerosene and industrial diesel oil is increasing annually, going from a total of 5,650 tons consumed in 1997 to more than 7,500 tons in 1999.\n\nFrom 21 May to 19 June 2008, Unguja suffered a major failure of its electricity system, which left the island without electrical service and mostly dependent on diesel generators. The failure originated in mainland Tanzania. Another blackout happened from 10 December 2009 to 23 March 2010, caused by a problem with the submarine cable that formerly supplied electricity from mainland Tanzania. This led to a serious shock to Unguja's fragile economy, which is heavily dependent on foreign tourism.\n\nTransport \n\nRoads\n\nZanzibar has 1,600 kilometres of roads, of which 85 percent are tarmacked or semi-tarmacked. The remainder are earth roads, which are rehabilitated annually to make them passable throughout the year.. Zanzibar, to ensure the roads are passable at all times and are maintained had established a Road Fund Board, situated at maisala which collects funds and disburses to Ministry of Communication, whom is the Road Agency at this time through the Department of Road Maintenance, known as UUB.\n\nThe Road Fund Board, oversees a Performance Agreement entered between the Ministry of Communication and Infrastructure, while all the procurements and maintenances are assumed by the later.\n\nPublic transportation\n\nThere is no government-owned public transportation in Zanzibar. The privately owned Daladala, as it is officially known in Zanzibar, is the only kind of public transportation. The term Daladala originated from the Kiswahili word DALA or five shillings during the 1970s and 1980s when public transport cost five shillings.\n\nPorts\n\nThere are five ports in the islands of Unguja and Pemba, all operated and developed by the Zanzibar Ports Corporation.\n\nThe main port at Malindi, which handles 90 percent of Zanzibar's trade, was built in 1925. The port was rehabilitated between 1989 and 1992 with financial assistance from the European Union. The Italian contractor, Salini Impregilo S.p.A., was supposed to build wharves that lasted 60 years; however, the wharves lasted only 11 years before crumbling and degenerating because the company deviated from the specifications. After a long legal battle, the company was required in 2005 by the International Court of Arbitration to pay Zanzibar US$11.6 million in damages. The port was again rehabilitated between 2004 and 2009 with a 31 million euro grant from the European Union. The contract was awarded to M/S E. Phil and Sons of Denmark. The then-director of the contractor suggested that the rehabilitation would last a minimum of 50 years. But the port is again facing problems, including sinking.\n\nFerry accidents\n\nThe MV Faith, which began its final journey at the port of Dar es Salaam, sank in May 2009 shortly before docking at the port of Malindi. Six of the 25 people aboard lost their lives. \n\nThe MV Skagit, which also began its final journey at the port of Dar es Salaam, capsized in rough seas near Chumbe island on 18 July 2012. The ferry had 447 passengers, with 81 dead, 212 missing and presumed drowned, and 154 rescued. The ferry left port despite warnings from the Tanzania Meteorological Agency for ships not to attempt the crossing from Dar es Salaam to Unguja island because of the rough seas. A presidential commission reported in October 2012 that overloading was the cause of the disaster. \n\nWorst maritime disaster in Tanzanian history\n\nThe MV Spice Islander I sank on 10 September 2011 after departing from Unguja island for Pemba Island. In a report to the Zanzibar House of Representatives on 14 October 2011, Zanzibar's Second Vice President, Ambassador Seif Ali Iddi, said that 2,764 people were missing, 203 bodies had been recovered, and 619 passengers were rescued. It was the worst maritime disaster in Tanzanian history. A presidential commission, however, reported three months later that 1,370 people were missing, 203 bodies had been recovered, and 941 passengers survived. Severe overloading caused the ferry to sink. \n\nAirport\n\nZanzibar's main airport, Zanzibar International Airport, can handle large passenger planes since 2011, which has resulted in an increase in passenger and cargo inflows and outflows. Since another increase in capacity by the end of 2013, it can serve up to 1.5 million passengers per year. The island can be reached by flights operated by Auric Air, Kenya Airways, Qatar Airways, FlyDubai and Coastal Aviation \n\nCulture \n\nZanzibar's most famous event is the Zanzibar International Film Festival, also known as the Festival of the Dhow Countries. Every July, this event showcases the best of the Swahili Coast arts scene, including Zanzibar's favorite music, Taarab. \n\nImportant architectural features in Stone Town are the Livingstone house, The Old dispensary of Zanzibar, the Guliani Bridge, Ngome kongwe (The Old fort of Zanzibar) and the House of Wonders. The town of Kidichi features the Hamamni Persian Baths, built by immigrants from Shiraz, Iran during the reign of Barghash bin Said.\n\nZanzibar also is the only place in Eastern African countries to have the longest settlement houses formally known as Michenzani flats which were built by the aid from East Germany during the 1970s to solve housing problems in Zanzibar.\n\nMedia and communication\n\nIn 1973, Zanzibar introduced the first colour television in sub-Saharan Africa. Because of longstanding opposition to television by President Julius Nyerere, the first television service on mainland Tanzania was not introduced until 1994. The broadcaster in Zanzibar called Television Zanzibar (TVZ) had recently changed name to Zanzibar Broadcasting Corporation (ZBC). following an enactment of an act to make it a public corporation, monitored under the Ministry of Finance by the treasurer registrar Among the famous reporters of TVZ during the 1980s and 1990s were the late Alwiya Alawi 1961–1996 (the elder sister of Inat Alawi, famous Taarab singer during the 1980s), Neema Mussa, Sharifa Maulid, Fatma Mzee, Zaynab Ali, Ramadhan Ali, and Khamis.\n\nZanzibar has one AM radio station and 21 FM radio stations. \n\nIn terms of landline communications, Zanzibar is served by the Tanzania Telecommunications Company Limited and Zantel Tanzania.\n\nAlmost all mobile and Internet companies serving mainland Tanzania are also available in Zanzibar.\n\nEducation \n\nIn 2000 there were 207 government schools and 118 privately owned schools in Zanzibar. There are also two universities and one college: Zanzibar University, the State University of Zanzibar (SUZA) and the Chukwani College of Education. \n\nSUZA was established in 1999, and is located in Stone Town, in the buildings of the former Institute of Kiswahili and Foreign Language (TAKILUKI). It is the only public institution for higher learning in Zanzibar, the other two institutions being private. In 2004, the three institutions had a total enrollment of 948 students, of whom 207 were female. \n\nThe primary and secondary education system in Zanzibar is slightly different from that of the Tanzanian mainland. On the mainland, education is only compulsory for the seven years of primary education, while in Zanzibar an additional three years of secondary education are compulsory and free. Students in Zanzibar score significantly less on standardized tests for reading and mathematics than students on the mainland. \n\nIn the 1970s, 1980s and 1990s, national service after secondary education was necessary, but it is now voluntary and few students volunteer. Most choose to seek employment or attend teacher's colleges.\n\nSports \n\nFootball is the most popular Sport in Zanzibar, overseen by the Zanzibar Football Association. Zanzibar is an associate member of the Confederation of African Football (CAF), but not of FIFA. This means that the Zanzibar national football team is not eligible to enter national CAF competitions, such as the African Nations Cup, but Zanzibar's Football Clubs get representation at the CAF Confederation Cup and the CAF Champions League.\n\nThe national team participates in non-FIFA Football tournaments such as the FIFI Wild Cup, and the ELF Cup. Because Zanzibar is not a member of FIFA, their team is not eligible for the FIFA World Cup.\n\nThe Zanzibar Football Association also has a Premier League for the top clubs, which was created in 1981.\n\nSince 1992, there has also been Judo in Zanzibar. The founder, Mr. Tsuyoshi Shimaoka established a strong team which participates in national and international competitions. In 1999, Zanzibar Judo Association (Z.J.A.) was registered and became an active member of Tanzania Olympic Committee and [http://www.intjudo.eu/MembersCurrent International Judo Federation].\n\nMarch 2013 the Zanzibar Shotokan Karate (ZASHOKA) has joined the International Shotokan Karate Federation (ISKF).\n\nNotable people \n\n* Freddie Mercury (born Farrokh Bulsara) of the rock band Queen was born in Stone Town, Zanzibar.\n* Farouque Abdillahi, who was Princess Diana's designer \n\nGallery \n\nFile:ZanzibarBeach.jpg\|A Zanzibar beach\nFile:Zanzibar from sea.jpg\|Stone Town\nFile:Zanzibar sultan palace.jpg\|Stone Town with Sultan's Palace\nFile:Zanzibar Red Colobus Monkey.jpg\|The red colobus of Zanzibar (Procolobus kirkii), taken at Jozani Forest, Zanzibar, Tanzania.\nFile:Cloves-spice.jpg\|Cloves have played a significant role in the history of Zanzibar's economy\nFile:Zanzibarsultanpalace22.JPG\|House of Wonders\nFile:Zanzibar east coast pristine beach.JPG\|Zanzibar East Coast beach\nFile:Red-Knobbed_Starfish_Nungwi.jpg\|Red-knobbed starfish on the beach in Nungwi, northern Zanzibar\nFile:TipputipPortrait.jpg\|Zanzibari slave trader Tippu Tip\nFile:ZanzibarOmaniRuler.jpg\|Omani Sultan of Zanzibar\nFile:View of ferry docked at Zanzibar Old Town's Ferry Terminal.JPG\|View of ferry docked at the Zanzibar Ferry Terminal" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Tanzanian", "United Republic of Tanzania", "Tanzania, United Republic of", "Jamhuri ya Muungano wa Tanzania", "Tanzania", "Tansania", "Tanzanie", "United Republic of Tanganyika and Zanzibar", "ISO 3166-1:TZ", "Republic of Tanzania", "Tanganyika and Zanzibar", "The United Republic of Tanzania", "TNZ", "Tanznia" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "iso 3166 1 tz", "tanznia", "tanzanie", "tanzania united republic of", "jamhuri ya muungano wa tanzania", "tanzania", "united republic of tanganyika and zanzibar", "tansania", "united republic of tanzania", "republic of tanzania", "tanganyika and zanzibar", "tnz", "tanzanian" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "tanzania", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Tanzania" }
What is Africa's largest country?	tc_237	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Africa.txt" ], "title": [ "Africa" ], "wiki_context": [ "Africa is the world's second-largest and second-most-populous continent. At about 30.3 million km² (11.7 million square miles) including adjacent islands, it covers six percent of Earth's total surface area and 20.4 percent of its total land area.Sayre, April Pulley (1999), Africa, Twenty-First Century Books. ISBN 0-7613-1367-2. With 1.1 billion people as of 2013, it accounts for about 15% of the world's human population. The continent is surrounded by the Mediterranean Sea to the north, both the Suez Canal and the Red Sea along the Sinai Peninsula to the northeast, the Indian Ocean to the southeast, and the Atlantic Ocean to the west. The continent includes Madagascar and various archipelagos. It contains 54 fully recognized sovereign states (countries), nine territories and two de facto independent states with limited or no recognition. \n\nAfrica's population is the youngest amongst all the continents; the median age in 2012 was 19.7, when the worldwide median age was 30.4. Algeria is Africa's largest country by area, and Nigeria by population. Africa, particularly central Eastern Africa, is widely accepted as the place of origin of humans and the Hominidae clade (great apes), as evidenced by the discovery of the earliest hominids and their ancestors, as well as later ones that have been dated to around seven million years ago, including Sahelanthropus tchadensis, Australopithecus africanus, A. afarensis, Homo erectus, H. habilis and H. ergaster – with the earliest Homo sapiens (modern human) found in Ethiopia being dated to circa 200,000 years ago. Africa straddles the equator and encompasses numerous climate areas; it is the only continent to stretch from the northern temperate to southern temperate zones. \n\nAfrica hosts a large diversity of ethnicities, cultures and languages. In the late 19th century European countries colonized most of Africa. Most present states in Africa originate from a process of decolonization in the 20th century.\n\nEtymology\n\nAfri was a Latin name used to refer to the inhabitants of Africa, which in its widest sense referred to all lands south of the Mediterranean (Ancient Libya). This name seems to have originally referred to a native Libyan tribe; see Terence#Biography for discussion. The name is usually connected with Hebrew or Phoenician 'dust', but a 1981 hypothesis has asserted that it stems from the Berber ifri (plural ifran) \"cave\", in reference to cave dwellers. The same word may be found in the name of the Banu Ifran from Algeria and Tripolitania, a Berber tribe originally from Yafran (also known as Ifrane) in northwestern Libya. \n\nUnder Roman rule, Carthage became the capital of the province of Africa Proconsularis, which also included the coastal part of modern Libya. The Latin suffix \"-ica\" can sometimes be used to denote a land (e.g., in Celtica from Celtae, as used by Julius Caesar). The later Muslim kingdom of Ifriqiya, modern-day Tunisia, also preserved a form of the name.\n\nAccording to the Romans, Africa lay to the west of Egypt, while \"Asia\" was used to refer to Anatolia and lands to the east. A definite line was drawn between the two continents by the geographer Ptolemy (85–165 AD), indicating Alexandria along the Prime Meridian and making the isthmus of Suez and the Red Sea the boundary between Asia and Africa. As Europeans came to understand the real extent of the continent, the idea of \"Africa\" expanded with their knowledge.\n\nOther etymological hypotheses have been postulated for the ancient name \"Africa\":\n* The 1st-century Jewish historian Flavius Josephus (Ant. 1.15) asserted that it was named for Epher, grandson of Abraham according to Gen. 25:4, whose descendants, he claimed, had invaded Libya.\n* Isidore of Seville in Etymologiae XIV.5.2. suggests \"Africa comes from the Latin aprica, meaning \"sunny\".\n* Massey, in 1881, stated that Africa is derived from the Egyptian af-rui-ka, meaning \"to turn toward the opening of the Ka.\" The Ka is the energetic double of every person and the \"opening of the Ka\" refers to a womb or birthplace. Africa would be, for the Egyptians, \"the birthplace.\" \n* Michèle Fruyt proposed linking the Latin word with africus \"south wind\", which would be of Umbrian origin and mean originally \"rainy wind\".\n* Robert R. Stieglitz of Rutgers University proposed: \"The name Africa, derived from the Latin Aphir-ic-a, is cognate to Hebrew Ophir.\" \n\nHistory\n\nPrehistory\n\nAfrica is considered by most paleoanthropologists to be the oldest inhabited territory on Earth, with the human species originating from the continent. During the mid-20th century, anthropologists discovered many fossils and evidence of human occupation perhaps as early as 7 million years ago (BPbefore present). Fossil remains of several species of early apelike humans thought to have evolved into modern man, such as Australopithecus afarensis (radiometrically dated to approximately 3.9–3.0 million years BP, Paranthropus boisei (c. 2.3–1.4 million years BP) and Homo ergaster (c. 1.9 million–600,000 years BP) have been discovered.\n\nAfter the evolution of Homo sapiens sapiens approximately 150,000 to 100,000 years BP in Africa, the continent was mainly populated by groups of hunter-gatherers. These first modern humans left Africa and populated the rest of the globe during the Out of Africa II migration dated to approximately 50,000 years BP, exiting the continent either across Bab-el-Mandeb over the Red Sea, the Strait of Gibraltar in Morocco, or the Isthmus of Suez in Egypt. \n\nOther migrations of modern humans within the African continent have been dated to that time, with evidence of early human settlement found in Southern Africa, Southeast Africa, North Africa, and the Sahara. \n\nThe size of the Sahara has historically been extremely variable, with its area rapidly fluctuating and at times disappearing depending on global climactic conditions. At the end of the Ice ages, estimated to have been around 10,500 BC, the Sahara had again become a green fertile valley, and its African populations returned from the interior and coastal highlands in Sub-Saharan Africa, with rock art paintings depicting a fertile Sahara and large populations discovered in Tassili n'Ajjer dating back perhaps 10 millennia. However, the warming and drying climate meant that by 5000 BC, the Sahara region was becoming increasingly dry and hostile. Around 3500 BC, due to a tilt in the earth's orbit, the Sahara experienced a period of rapid desertification. The population trekked out of the Sahara region towards the Nile Valley below the Second Cataract where they made permanent or semi-permanent settlements. A major climatic recession occurred, lessening the heavy and persistent rains in Central and Eastern Africa. Since this time, dry conditions have prevailed in Eastern Africa and, increasingly during the last 200 years, in Ethiopia.\n\nThe domestication of cattle in Africa preceded agriculture and seems to have existed alongside hunter-gatherer cultures. It is speculated that by 6000 BC, cattle were domesticated in North Africa. In the Sahara-Nile complex, people domesticated many animals, including the donkey and a small screw-horned goat which was common from Algeria to Nubia.\n\nAround 4000 BC, the Saharan climate started to become drier at an exceedingly fast pace. This climate change caused lakes and rivers to shrink significantly and caused increasing desertification. This, in turn, decreased the amount of land conducive to settlements and helped to cause migrations of farming communities to the more tropical climate of West Africa.\n\nBy the first millennium BC, ironworking had been introduced in Northern Africa and quickly spread across the Sahara into the northern parts of sub-Saharan Africa, and by 500 BC, metalworking began to become commonplace in West Africa. Ironworking was fully established by roughly 500 BC in many areas of East and West Africa, although other regions didn't begin ironworking until the early centuries AD. Copper objects from Egypt, North Africa, Nubia, and Ethiopia dating from around 500 BC have been excavated in West Africa, suggesting that Trans-Saharan trade networks had been established by this date.\n\nEarly civilizations\n\nAt about 3300 BC, the historical record opens in Northern Africa with the rise of literacy in the Pharaonic civilization of Ancient Egypt. One of the world's earliest and longest-lasting civilizations, the Egyptian state continued, with varying levels of influence over other areas, until 343 BC. Egyptian influence reached deep into modern-day Libya and Nubia, and, according to Martin Bernal, as far north as Crete. \n\nAn independent center of civilization with trading links to Phoenicia was established by Phoenicians from Tyre on the north-west African coast at Carthage. \n\nEuropean exploration of Africa began with Ancient Greeks and Romans. In 332 BC, Alexander the Great was welcomed as a liberator in Persian-occupied Egypt. He founded Alexandria in Egypt, which would become the prosperous capital of the Ptolemaic dynasty after his death. \n\nFollowing the conquest of North Africa's Mediterranean coastline by the Roman Empire, the area was integrated economically and culturally into the Roman system. Roman settlement occurred in modern Tunisia and elsewhere along the coast. The first Roman emperor native to North Africa was Septimius Severus, born in Leptis Magna in present-day Libya—his mother was Italian Roman and his father was Punic. \n\nChristianity spread across these areas at an early date, from Judaea via Egypt and beyond the borders of the Roman world into Nubia; by AD 340 at the latest, it had become the state religion of the Aksumite Empire. Syro-Greek missionaries, who arrived by way of the Red Sea, were responsible for this theological development. \n\nIn the early 7th century, the newly formed Arabian Islamic Caliphate expanded into Egypt, and then into North Africa. In a short while, the local Berber elite had been integrated into Muslim Arab tribes. When the Umayyad capital Damascus fell in the 8th century, the Islamic center of the Mediterranean shifted from Syria to Qayrawan in North Africa. Islamic North Africa had become diverse, and a hub for mystics, scholars, jurists, and philosophers. During the above-mentioned period, Islam spread to sub-Saharan Africa, mainly through trade routes and migration.\n\nNinth to eighteenth centuries\n\nPre-colonial Africa possessed perhaps as many as 10,000 different states and polities characterized by many different sorts of political organization and rule. These included small family groups of hunter-gatherers such as the San people of southern Africa; larger, more structured groups such as the family clan groupings of the Bantu-speaking peoples of central, southern, and eastern Africa; heavily structured clan groups in the Horn of Africa; the large Sahelian kingdoms; and autonomous city-states and kingdoms such as those of the Akan; Edo, Yoruba, and Igbo people in West Africa; and the Swahili coastal trading towns of Southeast Africa.\n\nBy the ninth century AD, a string of dynastic states, including the earliest Hausa states, stretched across the sub-Saharan savannah from the western regions to central Sudan. The most powerful of these states were Ghana, Gao, and the Kanem-Bornu Empire. Ghana declined in the eleventh century, but was succeeded by the Mali Empire which consolidated much of western Sudan in the thirteenth century. Kanem accepted Islam in the eleventh century.\n\nIn the forested regions of the West African coast, independent kingdoms grew with little influence from the Muslim north. The Kingdom of Nri was established around the ninth century and was one of the first. It is also one of the oldest kingdoms in present-day Nigeria and was ruled by the Eze Nri. The Nri kingdom is famous for its elaborate bronzes, found at the town of Igbo-Ukwu. The bronzes have been dated from as far back as the ninth century. \n\nThe Kingdom of Ife, historically the first of these Yoruba city-states or kingdoms, established government under a priestly oba ('king' or 'ruler' in the Yoruba language), called the Ooni of Ife. Ife was noted as a major religious and cultural center in West Africa, and for its unique naturalistic tradition of bronze sculpture. The Ife model of government was adapted at the Oyo Empire, where its obas or kings, called the Alaafins of Oyo, once controlled a large number of other Yoruba and non-Yoruba city-states and kingdoms; the Fon Kingdom of Dahomey was one of the non-Yoruba domains under Oyo control.\n\nThe Almoravids were a Berber dynasty from the Sahara that spread over a wide area of northwestern Africa and the Iberian peninsula during the eleventh century. The Banu Hilal and Banu Ma'qil were a collection of Arab Bedouin tribes from the Arabian Peninsula who migrated westwards via Egypt between the eleventh and thirteenth centuries. Their migration resulted in the fusion of the Arabs and Berbers, where the locals were Arabized, and Arab culture absorbed elements of the local culture, under the unifying framework of Islam. \n\nFollowing the breakup of Mali, a local leader named Sonni Ali (1464–1492) founded the Songhai Empire in the region of middle Niger and the western Sudan and took control of the trans-Saharan trade. Sonni Ali seized Timbuktu in 1468 and Jenne in 1473, building his regime on trade revenues and the cooperation of Muslim merchants. His successor Askia Mohammad I (1493–1528) made Islam the official religion, built mosques, and brought to Gao Muslim scholars, including al-Maghili (d.1504), the founder of an important tradition of Sudanic African Muslim scholarship. By the eleventh century, some Hausa states – such as Kano, jigawa, Katsina, and Gobir – had developed into walled towns engaging in trade, servicing caravans, and the manufacture of goods. Until the fifteenth century, these small states were on the periphery of the major Sudanic empires of the era, paying tribute to Songhai to the west and Kanem-Borno to the east.\n\nHeight of slave trade\n\nSlavery had long been practiced in Africa. Between the 7th and 20th centuries, Arab slave trade (also known as slavery in the East) took 18 million slaves from Africa via trans-Saharan and Indian Ocean routes. Between the 15th and the 19th centuries (500 years), the Atlantic slave trade took an estimated 7–12 million slaves to the New World. More than 1 million Europeans were captured by Barbary pirates and sold as slaves in North Africa between the 16th and 19th centuries. \n\nIn West Africa, the decline of the Atlantic slave trade in the 1820s caused dramatic economic shifts in local polities. The gradual decline of slave-trading, prompted by a lack of demand for slaves in the New World, increasing anti-slavery legislation in Europe and America, and the British Royal Navy's increasing presence off the West African coast, obliged African states to adopt new economies. Between 1808 and 1860, the British West Africa Squadron seized approximately 1,600 slave ships and freed 150,000 Africans who were aboard. \n\nAction was also taken against African leaders who refused to agree to British treaties to outlaw the trade, for example against \"the usurping King of Lagos\", deposed in 1851. Anti-slavery treaties were signed with over 50 African rulers. The largest powers of West Africa (the Asante Confederacy, the Kingdom of Dahomey, and the Oyo Empire) adopted different ways of adapting to the shift. Asante and Dahomey concentrated on the development of \"legitimate commerce\" in the form of palm oil, cocoa, timber and gold, forming the bedrock of West Africa's modern export trade. The Oyo Empire, unable to adapt, collapsed into civil wars. \n\nColonialism and the \"Scramble for Africa\"\n\nIn the late 19th century, the European imperial powers engaged in a major territorial scramble and occupied most of the continent, creating many colonial territories, and leaving only two fully independent states: Ethiopia (known to Europeans as \"Abyssinia\"), and Liberia. Egypt and Sudan were never formally incorporated into any European colonial empire; however, after the British occupation of 1882, Egypt was effectively under British administration until 1922.\n\nBerlin Conference\n\nThe Berlin Conference held in 1884–85 was an important event in the political future of African ethnic groups. It was convened by King Leopold II of Belgium, and attended by the European powers that laid claim to African territories. It sought to end the European powers' Scramble for Africa, by agreeing on political division and spheres of influence. They set up the political divisions of the continent, by spheres of interest, that exist in Africa today.\n\nIndependence struggles\n\nImperial rule by Europeans would continue until after the conclusion of World War II, when almost all remaining colonial territories gradually obtained formal independence. Independence movements in Africa gained momentum following World War II, which left the major European powers weakened. In 1951, Libya, a former Italian colony, gained independence. In 1956, Tunisia and Morocco won their independence from France. Ghana followed suit the next year (March 1957), becoming the first of the sub-Saharan colonies to be granted independence. Most of the rest of the continent became independent over the next decade.\n\nPortugal's overseas presence in Sub-Saharan Africa (most notably in Angola, Cape Verde, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau and São Tomé and Príncipe) lasted from the 16th century to 1975, after the Estado Novo regime was overthrown in a military coup in Lisbon. Rhodesia unilaterally declared independence from the United Kingdom in 1965, under the white minority government of Ian Smith, but was not internationally recognized as an independent state (as Zimbabwe) until 1980, when black nationalists gained power after a bitter guerrilla war. Although South Africa was one of the first African countries to gain independence, the state remained under the control of the country's white minority through a system of racial segregation known as apartheid until 1994.\n\nPost-colonial Africa\n\nToday, Africa contains 54 sovereign countries, most of which have borders that were drawn during the era of European colonialism. Since colonialism, African states have frequently been hampered by instability, corruption, violence, and authoritarianism. The vast majority of African states are republics that operate under some form of the presidential system of rule. However, few of them have been able to sustain democratic governments on a permanent basis, and many have instead cycled through a series of coups, producing military dictatorships.\n\nGreat instability was mainly the result of marginalization of ethnic groups, and graft under these leaders. For political gain, many leaders fanned ethnic conflicts, some of which had been exacerbated, or even created, by colonial rule. In many countries, the military was perceived as being the only group that could effectively maintain order, and it ruled many nations in Africa during the 1970s and early 1980s. During the period from the early 1960s to the late 1980s, Africa had more than 70 coups and 13 presidential assassinations. Border and territorial disputes were also common, with the European-imposed borders of many nations being widely contested through armed conflicts.\n\nCold War conflicts between the United States and the Soviet Union, as well as the policies of the International Monetary Fund, also played a role in instability. When a country became independent for the first time, it was often expected to align with one of the two superpowers. Many countries in Northern Africa received Soviet military aid, while others in Central and Southern Africa were supported by the United States, France or both. The 1970s saw an escalation of Cold War intrigues, as newly independent Angola and Mozambique aligned themselves with the Soviet Union, and the West and South Africa sought to contain Soviet influence by supporting friendly regimes or insurgency movements. In Rhodesia, Soviet and Chinese-backed leftist guerrillas of the Zimbabwe Patriotic Front waged a brutal guerrilla war against the country's white government. There was a major famine in Ethiopia, when hundreds of thousands of people starved. Some claimed that Marxist economic policies made the situation worse. The most devastating military conflict in modern independent Africa has been the Second Congo War; this conflict and its aftermath has killed an estimated 5.5 million people. Since 2003 there has been an ongoing conflict in Darfur which has become a humanitarian disaster. Another notable tragic event is the 1994 Rwandan Genocide in which an estimated 800,000 people were murdered. AIDS in post-colonial Africa has also been a prevalent issue.\n\nIn the 21st century, however, the number of armed conflicts in Africa has steadily declined. For instance, the civil war in Angola came to an end in 2002 after nearly 30 years. This has coincided with many countries abandoning communist-style command economies and opening up for market reforms. The improved stability and economic reforms have led to a great increase in foreign investment into many African nations, mainly from China, which has spurred quick economic growth in many countries, seemingly ending decades of stagnation and decline. Several African economies are among the world's fastest growing as of 2016. A significant part of this growth, which is sometimes referred to as Africa Rising, can also be attributed to the facilitated diffusion of information technologies and specifically the mobile telephone. \n\nGeography\n\nAfrica is the largest of the three great southward projections from the largest landmass of the Earth. Separated from Europe by the Mediterranean Sea, it is joined to Asia at its northeast extremity by the Isthmus of Suez (transected by the Suez Canal), 163 km wide. (Geopolitically, Egypt's Sinai Peninsula east of the Suez Canal is often considered part of Africa, as well.) \n\nFrom the most northerly point, Ras ben Sakka in Tunisia (37°21' N), to the most southerly point, Cape Agulhas in South Africa (34°51'15\" S), is a distance of approximately ; from Cape Verde, 17°33'22\" W, the westernmost point, to Ras Hafun in Somalia, 51°27'52\" E, the most easterly projection, is a distance of approximately .(1998) Merriam-Webster's Geographical Dictionary (Index), Merriam-Webster, pp. 10–11. ISBN 0-87779-546-0 The coastline is long, and the absence of deep indentations of the shore is illustrated by the fact that Europe, which covers only – about a third of the surface of Africa – has a coastline of .\n\nAfrica's largest country is Algeria, and its smallest country is the Seychelles, an archipelago off the east coast.Hoare, Ben. (2002) The Kingfisher A-Z Encyclopedia, Kingfisher Publications. p. 11. ISBN 0-7534-5569-2 The smallest nation on the continental mainland is The Gambia.\n\nGeologically, Africa includes the Arabian Peninsula; the Zagros Mountains of Iran and the Anatolian Plateau of Turkey mark where the African Plate collided with Eurasia. The Afrotropic ecozone and the Saharo-Arabian desert to its north unite the region biogeographically, and the Afro-Asiatic language family unites the north linguistically.\n\nClimate\n\nThe climate of Africa ranges from tropical to subarctic on its highest peaks. Its northern half is primarily desert, or arid, while its central and southern areas contain both savanna plains and dense jungle (rainforest) regions. In between, there is a convergence, where vegetation patterns such as sahel and steppe dominate. Africa is the hottest continent on earth and 60% of the entire land surface consists of drylands and deserts. The record for the highest-ever recorded temperature, in Libya in 1922 (58 C), was discredited in 2013. (The 136 °F (57.8 °C), claimed by 'Aziziya, Libya, on 13 September 1922, has been officially deemed invalid by the World Meteorological Organization.) \n\nFauna\n\nAfrica boasts perhaps the world's largest combination of density and \"range of freedom\" of wild animal populations and diversity, with wild populations of large carnivores (such as lions, hyenas, and cheetahs) and herbivores (such as buffalo, elephants, camels, and giraffes) ranging freely on primarily open non-private plains. It is also home to a variety of \"jungle\" animals including snakes and primates and aquatic life such as crocodiles and amphibians. In addition, Africa has the largest number of megafauna species, as it was least affected by the extinction of the Pleistocene megafauna.\n\nEcology and biodiversity\n\nDeforestation is affecting Africa at twice the world rate, according to the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). According to the University of Pennsylvania African Studies Center, 31% of Africa's pasture lands and 19% of its forests and woodlands are classified as degraded, and Africa is losing over four million hectares of forest per year, which is twice the average deforestation rate for the rest of the world. Some sources claim that approximately 90% of the original, virgin forests in West Africa have been destroyed. Over 90% of Madagascar's original forests have been destroyed since the arrival of humans 2000 years ago. About 65% of Africa's agricultural land suffers from soil degradation. \n\nAfrica has over 3,000 protected areas, with 198 marine protected areas, 50 biosphere reserves, and 80 wetlands reserves. Significant habitat destruction, increases in human population and poaching are reducing Africa's biological diversity. Human encroachment, civil unrest and the introduction of non-native species threaten biodiversity in Africa. This has been exacerbated by administrative problems, inadequate personnel and funding problems.\n\nPolitics\n\nThere are clear signs of increased networking among African organizations and states. For example, in the civil war in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (former Zaire), rather than rich, non-African countries intervening, neighboring African countries became involved (see also Second Congo War). Since the conflict began in 1998, the estimated death toll has reached 5 million.\n\nThe African Union\n\nThe African Union (AU) is a 54-member federation consisting of all of Africa's states except Morocco. The union was formed, with Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, as its headquarters, on 26 June 2001. The union was officially established on 9 July 2002 as a successor to the Organisation of African Unity (OAU). In July 2004, the African Union's Pan-African Parliament (PAP) was relocated to Midrand, in South Africa, but the African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights remained in Addis Ababa. There is a policy in effect to decentralize the African Federation's institutions so that they are shared by all the states.\n\nThe African Union, not to be confused with the AU Commission, is formed by the Constitutive Act of the African Union, which aims to transform the African Economic Community, a federated commonwealth, into a state under established international conventions. The African Union has a parliamentary government, known as the African Union Government, consisting of legislative, judicial and executive organs. It is led by the African Union President and Head of State, who is also the President of the Pan-African Parliament. A person becomes AU President by being elected to the PAP, and subsequently gaining majority support in the PAP. The powers and authority of the President of the African Parliament derive from the Constitutive Act and the Protocol of the Pan-African Parliament, as well as the inheritance of presidential authority stipulated by African treaties and by international treaties, including those subordinating the Secretary General of the OAU Secretariat (AU Commission) to the PAP. The government of the AU consists of all-union (federal), regional, state, and municipal authorities, as well as hundreds of institutions, that together manage the day-to-day affairs of the institution.\n\nPolitical associations such as the African Union offer hope for greater co-operation and peace between the continent's many countries. Extensive human rights abuses still occur in several parts of Africa, often under the oversight of the state. Most of such violations occur for political reasons, often as a side effect of civil war. Countries where major human rights violations have been reported in recent times include the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Sudan, Zimbabwe, and Côte d'Ivoire.\n\nEconomy\n\nAlthough it has abundant natural resources, Africa remains the world's poorest and most underdeveloped continent, the result of a variety of causes that may include corrupt governments that have often committed serious human rights violations, failed central planning, high levels of illiteracy, lack of access to foreign capital, and frequent tribal and military conflict (ranging from guerrilla warfare to genocide). According to the United Nations' Human Development Report in 2003, the bottom 24 ranked nations (151st to 175th) were all African. \n\nPoverty, illiteracy, malnutrition and inadequate water supply and sanitation, as well as poor health, affect a large proportion of the people who reside in the African continent. In August 2008, the World Bank announced revised global poverty estimates based on a new international poverty line of $1.25 per day (versus the previous measure of $1.00). 80.5% of the Sub-Saharan Africa population was living on less than $2.50 (PPP) per day in 2005, compared with 85.7% for India. \n\nSub-Saharan Africa is the least successful region of the world in reducing poverty ($1.25 per day); some 50% of the population living in poverty in 1981 (200 million people), a figure that rose to 58% in 1996 before dropping to 50% in 2005 (380 million people). The average poor person in sub-Saharan Africa is estimated to live on only 70 cents per day, and was poorer in 2003 than in 1973, indicating increasing poverty in some areas. Some of it is attributed to unsuccessful economic liberalization programs spearheaded by foreign companies and governments, but other studies have cited bad domestic government policies more than external factors. \n\nFrom 1995 to 2005, Africa's rate of economic growth increased, averaging 5% in 2005. Some countries experienced still higher growth rates, notably Angola, Sudan and Equatorial Guinea, all of which had recently begun extracting their petroleum reserves or had expanded their oil extraction capacity. The continent is believed to hold 90% of the world's cobalt, 90% of its platinum, 50% of its gold, 98% of its chromium, 70% of its tantalite, 64% of its manganese and one-third of its uranium. The Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) has 70% of the world's coltan, a mineral used in the production of tantalum capacitors for electronic devices such as cell phones. The DRC also has more than 30% of the world's diamond reserves. Guinea is the world's largest exporter of bauxite. As the growth in Africa has been driven mainly by services and not manufacturing or agriculture, it has been growth without jobs and without reduction in poverty levels. In fact, the food security crisis of 2008 which took place on the heels of the global financial crisis has pushed back 100 million people into food insecurity. \n\nIn recent years, the People's Republic of China has built increasingly stronger ties with African nations and is Africa's largest trading partner. In 2007, Chinese companies invested a total of US$1 billion in Africa.[http://www.migrationinformation.org/Feature/display.cfm?id\n690 Malia Politzer, \"China and Africa: Stronger Economic Ties Mean More Migration\"], Migration Information Source. August 2008\n\nA Harvard University study led by professor Calestous Juma showed that Africa could feed itself by making the transition from importer to self-sufficiency. \"African agriculture is at the crossroads; we have come to the end of a century of policies that favored Africa's export of raw materials and importation of food. Africa is starting to focus on agricultural innovation as its new engine for regional trade and prosperity.\" \n\nDuring US President Barack Obama's visit to Africa in July 2013, he announced a US$7 billion plan to further develop infrastructure and work more intensively with African heads of state. He also announced a new program named Trade Africa, designed to boost trade within the continent as well as between Africa and the US. \n\nDemographics\n\nAfrica's population has rapidly increased over the last 40 years, and consequently, it is relatively young. In some African states, more than half the population is under 25 years of age. The total number of people in Africa increased from 229 million in 1950 to 630 million in 1990. As of 2014, the population of Africa is estimated at 1.2 billion. Africa's total population surpassing other continents is fairly recent; African population surpassed Europe in the 1990s, while the Americas was overtaken sometime around the year 2000; Africa's rapid population growth is expected to overtake the only two nations currently larger than its population, at roughly the same time - India and China's 1.4 billion people each will swap ranking around the year 2022. \n\nSpeakers of Bantu languages (part of the Niger–Congo family) are the majority in southern, central and southeast Africa. The Bantu-speaking peoples from The Sahel progressively expanded over most of Sub-Saharan Africa. But there are also several Nilotic groups in South Sudan and East Africa, the mixed Swahili people on the Swahili Coast, and a few remaining indigenous Khoisan (\"San\" or \"Bushmen\") and Pygmy peoples in southern and central Africa, respectively. Bantu-speaking Africans also predominate in Gabon and Equatorial Guinea, and are found in parts of southern Cameroon. In the Kalahari Desert of Southern Africa, the distinct people known as the Bushmen (also \"San\", closely related to, but distinct from \"Hottentots\") have long been present. The San are physically distinct from other Africans and are the indigenous people of southern Africa. Pygmies are the pre-Bantu indigenous peoples of central Africa. \n\nThe peoples of West Africa primarily speak Niger–Congo languages, belonging mostly to its non-Bantu branches, though some Nilo-Saharan and Afro-Asiatic speaking groups are also found. The Niger–Congo-speaking Yoruba, Igbo, Fulani, Akan and Wolof ethnic groups are the largest and most influential. In the central Sahara, Mandinka or Mande groups are most significant. Chadic-speaking groups, including the Hausa, are found in more northerly parts of the region nearest to the Sahara, and Nilo-Saharan communities, such as the Songhai, Kanuri and Zarma, are found in the eastern parts of West Africa bordering Central Africa.\n\nThe peoples of North Africa consist of three main indigenous groups: Berbers in the northwest, Egyptians in the northeast, and Nilo-Saharan-speaking peoples in the east. The Arabs who arrived in the 7th century AD introduced the Arabic language and Islam to North Africa. The Semitic Phoenicians (who founded Carthage) and Hyksos, the Indo-Iranian Alans, the Indo- European Greeks, Romans, and Vandals settled in North Africa as well. Significant Berber communities remain within Morocco and Algeria in the 21st century, while, to a lesser extent, Berber speakers are also present in some regions of Tunisia and Libya. The Berber-speaking Tuareg and other often-nomadic peoples are the principal inhabitants of the Saharan interior of North Africa. In Mauritania, there is a small but near-extinct Berber community in the north and Niger–Congo-speaking peoples in the south, though in both regions Arabic and Arab culture predominates. In Sudan, although Arabic and Arab culture predominate, it is mostly inhabited by groups that originally spoke Nilo-Saharan, such as the Nubians, Fur, Masalit and Zaghawa, who, over the centuries, have variously intermixed with migrants from the Arabian peninsula. Small communities of Afro-Asiatic-speaking Beja nomads can also be found in Egypt and Sudan.\n\nIn the Horn of Africa, some Ethiopian and Eritrean groups (like the Amhara and Tigrayans, collectively known as Habesha) speak languages from the Semitic branch of the Afro-Asiatic language family, while the Oromo and Somali speak languages from the Cushitic branch of Afro-Asiatic.\n\nPrior to the decolonization movements of the post-World War II era, Europeans were represented in every part of Africa. Decolonization during the 1960s and 1970s often resulted in the mass emigration of white settlers – especially from Algeria and Morocco (1.6 million pieds-noirs in North Africa), Kenya, Congo, Rhodesia, Mozambique and Angola. Between 1975 and 1977, over a million colonials returned to Portugal alone. Nevertheless, white Africans remain an important minority in many African states, particularly Zimbabwe, Namibia, Réunion, and the Republic of South Africa. The country with the largest white African population is South Africa. Dutch and British diasporas represent the largest communities of European ancestry on the continent today.\n\nEuropean colonization also brought sizable groups of Asians, particularly from the Indian subcontinent, to British colonies. Large Indian communities are found in South Africa, and smaller ones are present in Kenya, Tanzania, and some other southern and southeast African countries. The large Indian community in Uganda was expelled by the dictator Idi Amin in 1972, though many have since returned. The islands in the Indian Ocean are also populated primarily by people of Asian origin, often mixed with Africans and Europeans. The Malagasy people of Madagascar are an Austronesian people, but those along the coast are generally mixed with Bantu, Arab, Indian and European origins. Malay and Indian ancestries are also important components in the group of people known in South Africa as Cape Coloureds (people with origins in two or more races and continents). During the 20th century, small but economically important communities of Lebanese and Chinese have also developed in the larger coastal cities of West and East Africa, respectively. \n\nLanguages\n\nBy most estimates, well over a thousand languages (UNESCO has estimated around two thousand) are spoken in Africa. Most are of African origin, though some are of European or Asian origin. Africa is the most multilingual continent in the world, and it is not rare for individuals to fluently speak not only multiple African languages, but one or more European ones as well. There are four major language families indigenous to Africa:\n The Afroasiatic languages are a language family of about 240 languages and 285 million people widespread throughout the Horn of Africa, North Africa, the Sahel, and Southwest Asia.\n* The Nilo-Saharan language family consists of more than a hundred languages spoken by 30 million people. Nilo-Saharan languages are spoken by ethnic groups in Chad, Ethiopia, Kenya, Nigeria, Sudan, South Sudan, Uganda, and northern Tanzania.\n* The Niger–Congo language family covers much of Sub-Saharan Africa and is probably the largest language family in the world in terms of different languages.\n* The Khoisan languages number about fifty and are spoken in Southern Africa by approximately 120,000 people. Many of the Khoisan languages are endangered. The Khoi and San peoples are considered the original inhabitants of this part of Africa.\n\nFollowing the end of colonialism, nearly all African countries adopted official languages that originated outside the continent, although several countries also granted legal recognition to indigenous languages (such as Swahili, Yoruba, Igbo and Hausa). In numerous countries, English and French (see African French) are used for communication in the public sphere such as government, commerce, education and the media. Arabic, Portuguese, Afrikaans and Spanish are examples of languages that trace their origin to outside of Africa, and that are used by millions of Africans today, both in the public and private spheres. Italian is spoken by some in former Italian colonies in Africa. German is spoken in Namibia, as it was a former German protectorate.\n\nCulture\n\nSome aspects of traditional African cultures have become less practiced in recent years as a result of neglect and suppression by colonial and post-colonial regimes. For example, African customs were discouraged, and African languages were prohibited in mission schools. Leopold II of Belgium attempted to \"civilize\" Africans by discouraging polygamy and witchcraft.\n\nObidoh Freeborn posits that colonialism is one element that has created the character of modern African art. According to authors Douglas Fraser and Herbert M. Cole, \"The precipitous alterations in the power structure wrought by colonialism were quickly followed by drastic iconographic changes in the art.\" Fraser and Cole assert that, in Igboland, some art objects \"lack the vigor and careful craftsmanship of the earlier art objects that served traditional functions. Author Chika Okeke-Agulu states that \"the racist infrastructure of British imperial enterprise forced upon the political and cultural guardians of empire a denial and suppression of an emergent sovereign Africa and modernist art.\" In Soweto, the West Rand Administrative Board established a Cultural Section to collect, read, and review scripts before performances could occur. Editors F. Abiola Irele and Simon Gikandi comment that the current identity of African literature had its genesis in the \"traumatic encounter between Africa and Europe.\" On the other hand, Mhoze Chikowero believes that Africans deployed music, dance, spirituality, and other performative cultures to (re)asset themselves as active agents and indigenous intellectuals, to unmake their colonial marginalization and reshape their own destinies.\" \n\nThere is now a resurgence in the attempts to rediscover and revalue African traditional cultures, under such movements as the African Renaissance, led by Thabo Mbeki, Afrocentrism, led by a group of scholars, including Molefi Asante, as well as the increasing recognition of traditional spiritualism through decriminalization of Vodou and other forms of spirituality.\n\nVisual art and architecture\n\nAfrican art and architecture reflect the diversity of African cultures. The region's oldest known beads were made from Nassarius shells and worn as personal ornaments 72,000 years ago. The Great Pyramid of Giza in Egypt was the world's tallest structure for 4,000 years, until the completion of Lincoln Cathedral around the year 1300. The stone ruins of Great Zimbabwe are also noteworthy for their architecture, as are the monolithic churches at Lalibela, Ethiopia, such as the Church of Saint George.\n\nMusic and dance\n\nEgypt has long been a cultural focus of the Arab world, while remembrance of the rhythms of sub-Saharan Africa, in particular West Africa, was transmitted through the Atlantic slave trade to modern samba, blues, jazz, reggae, hip hop, and rock. The 1950s through the 1970s saw a conglomeration of these various styles with the popularization of Afrobeat and Highlife music. Modern music of the continent includes the highly complex choral singing of southern Africa and the dance rhythms of the musical genre of soukous, dominated by the music of the Democratic Republic of Congo. Indigenous musical and dance traditions of Africa are maintained by oral traditions, and they are distinct from the music and dance styles of North Africa and Southern Africa. Arab influences are visible in North African music and dance and, in Southern Africa, Western influences are apparent due to colonization.\n\nSports\n\nFifty-three African countries have football (soccer) teams in the Confederation of African Football. Egypt has won the African Cup seven times, and a record-making three times in a row. Cameroon, Nigeria, Senegal, Ghana, and Algeria have advanced to the knockout stage of recent FIFA World Cups. South Africa hosted the 2010 World Cup tournament, becoming the first African country to do so.\n\nCricket is popular in some African nations. South Africa and Zimbabwe have Test status, while Kenya is the leading non-test team and previously had One-Day International cricket (ODI) status (from 10 October 1997, until 30 January 2014). The three countries jointly hosted the 2003 Cricket World Cup. Namibia is the other African country to have played in a World Cup. Morocco in northern Africa has also hosted the 2002 Morocco Cup, but the national team has never qualified for a major tournament. Rugby is a popular sport in South Africa, Namibia, and Zimbabwe.\n\nReligion\n\nAfricans profess a wide variety of religious beliefs, and statistics on religious affiliation are difficult to come by since they are often a sensitive a topic for governments with mixed religious populations.[http://library.stanford.edu/africa/religion.html \"African Religion on the Internet\"], Stanford University According to the World Book Encyclopedia, Islam is the largest religion in Africa, followed by Christianity. According to Encyclopedia Britannica, 45% of the population are Christians, 40% are Muslims, and 10% follow traditional religions. A small number of Africans are Hindu, Buddhist, Confucianist, Baha'i, or have beliefs from the Judaic tradition. There is also a minority of Africans who are irreligious.\n\nTerritories and regions\n\nThe countries in this table are categorized according to the scheme for geographic subregions used by the United Nations, and data included are per sources in cross-referenced articles. Where they differ, provisos are clearly indicated.\n<!--" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Sudan", "Islamic Republic of Sudan", "Sport in Sudan", "Government of the Sudan", "The Sudan", "Republic of Sudan", "Republic of North Sudan", "Northern Sudan", "Environmental issues in Sudan", "Sudan proper", "North Sudan", "Environmental issues in sudan", "As-Sūdān", "Administrative divisions of Sudan", "ISO 3166-1:SD", "جمهورية السودان", "Sudanese culture", "As-Sudan", "Republic of the Sudan", "السودان", "Islamic Republic of the Sudan", "Clothing in Sudan", "Official language of Southern Sudan", "Sudanese", "Environment of Sudan", "Culture of Sudan", "Sudan Foundation" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "sudan proper", "republic of sudan", "iso 3166 1 sd", "sudanese", "north sudan", "sudan", "sport in sudan", "السودان", "islamic republic of sudan", "as sudan", "environment of sudan", "جمهورية السودان", "official language of southern sudan", "clothing in sudan", "administrative divisions of sudan", "as sūdān", "sudan foundation", "environmental issues in sudan", "government of sudan", "northern sudan", "sudanese culture", "culture of sudan", "republic of north sudan" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "sudan", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Sudan" }
Which African country is bordered by Benin, Ghana, Ivory Coast, Niger, and Mali?	tc_238	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe", "TagMe", "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Benin.txt", "Ghana.txt", "Ivory_Coast.txt", "Niger.txt", "Mali.txt" ], "title": [ "Benin", "Ghana", "Ivory Coast", "Niger", "Mali" ], "wiki_context": [ "Benin ( or ; ), officially the Republic of Benin () and formerly Dahomey, is a country in West Africa. It is bordered by Togo to the west, Nigeria to the east, and Burkina Faso and Niger to the north. A majority of the population live on its small southern coastline on the Bight of Benin, part of the Gulf of Guinea in the northernmost tropical portion of the Atlantic Ocean. The capital of Benin is Porto-Novo, but the seat of government is in Cotonou, the country's largest city and economic capital. Benin covers an area of 114,763 square kilometers and its population in 2015 was estimated to be approximately 10.88 million. Benin is a tropical, sub-Saharan nation, highly dependent on agriculture, with substantial employment and income arising from subsistence farming. \n\nThe official language of Benin is French. However, indigenous languages such as Fon and Yoruba are commonly spoken. The largest religious group in Benin is Roman Catholicism, followed closely by Islam, Vodun and Protestantism. Benin is a member of the United Nations, the African Union, the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, the South Atlantic Peace and Cooperation Zone, La Francophonie, the Community of Sahel-Saharan States, the African Petroleum Producers Association and the Niger Basin Authority. \n\nFrom the 17th to the 19th century, the main political entities in the area were the Kingdom of Dahomey along with the city-state of Porto-Novo and a large area with many different tribes to the north. This region was referred to as the Slave Coast from as early as the 17th century due to the large number of slaves shipped to the New World during the Trans-Atlantic slave trade. After slavery was abolished, France took over the country and renamed it French Dahomey. In 1960, Dahomey gained full independence from France, and had a tumultuous period with many different democratic governments, many military coups and military governments.\n\nA Marxist–Leninist state called the People's Republic of Benin existed between 1975 and 1990. In 1991, it was replaced by the current multi-party Republic of Benin. \n\nEtymology\n\nDuring the colonial period and at independence, the country was known as Dahomey. On 30 November 1975 it was renamed to Benin, after the body of water on which the country lies—the Bight of Benin—which, in turn, had been named after the Benin Empire (nowadays Nigeria). The country of Benin has no connection to Benin City in modern Nigeria, nor to the Benin bronzes.\n\nThe new name, Benin, was chosen for its neutrality. Dahomey was the name of the former Kingdom of Dahomey, which covered only most of the southern third of the present country and therefore did not represent Porto-Novo (a rival state in the south), the northwestern sector Atakora, nor the kingdom of Borgu, which covered the northeastern third. \n\nHistory\n\nPrecolonial history\n\nThe current country of Benin combines three areas which had different political and ethnic systems prior to French colonial control. Before 1700, there were a few important city states along the coast (primarily of the Aja ethnic group, but also including Yoruba and Gbe peoples) and a mass of tribal regions inland (composed of Bariba, Mahi, Gedevi, and Kabye peoples). The Oyo Empire, located primarily to the east of modern Benin, was the most significant large-scale military force in the region and it would regularly conduct raids and exact tribute from the coastal kingdoms and the tribal regions. The situation changed in the 1600s and early 1700s as the Kingdom of Dahomey, which was of Fon ethnicity, was founded on the Abomey plateau and began taking over areas along the coast. By 1727, king Agaja of the Kingdom of Dahomey had conquered the coastal cities of Allada and Whydah, but it had become a tributary of the Oyo empire and did not directly attack the Oyo allied city-state of Porto-Novo. The rise of the kingdom of Dahomey, the rivalry between the kingdom and the city of Porto-Novo, and the continued tribal politics of the northern region, persisted into the colonial and post-colonial periods. \n\nThe Dahomey Kingdom was known for its culture and traditions. Young boys were often apprenticed to older soldiers, and taught the kingdom's military customs until they were old enough to join the army. Dahomey was also famous for instituting an elite female soldier corps, called Ahosi i.e. the king's wives or Mino, \"our mothers\" in the Fon language Fongbe, and known by many Europeans as the Dahomean Amazons. This emphasis on military preparation and achievement earned Dahomey the nickname of \"black Sparta\" from European observers and 19th century explorers like Sir Richard Burton. \n\nPortuguese Empire\n\nThe kings of Dahomey sold their war captives into transatlantic slavery; otherwise the captives would have been killed in a ceremony known as the Annual Customs. By about 1750, the King of Dahomey was earning an estimated £250,000 per year by selling Africans to the European slave-traders. Though the leaders of Dahomey appeared initially to resist the slave trade, it flourished in the region of Dahomey for almost three hundred years, beginning in 1472 with a trade agreement with Portuguese merchants, leading to the area's being named \"the Slave Coast\". Court protocols, which demanded that a portion of war captives from the kingdom's many battles be decapitated, decreased the number of enslaved people exported from the area. The number went from 102,000 people per decade in the 1780s to 24,000 per decade by the 1860s. The decline was partly due to the banning of the trans-Atlantic slave trade by Britain and other countries. This decline continued until 1885, when the last slave ship departed from the coast of the present-day Benin Republic bound for Brazil, a former Portuguese colony that had yet to abolish slavery.\n\nThe capital's name Porto-Novo is of Portuguese origin, meaning \"New Port\". It was originally developed as a port for the slave trade.\n\nColonial period (1900 until 1958)\n\nBy the middle of the nineteenth century, Dahomey had begun to lose its status as the regional power. This enabled the French to take over the area in 1892. In 1899, the French included the land called French Dahomey within the larger French West Africa colonial region. In 1958, France granted autonomy to the Republic of Dahomey, and full independence on 1 August 1960. The president who led them to independence was Hubert Maga. \n\nPost-colonial period\n\nFor the next twelve years after 1960, ethnic strife contributed to a period of turbulence. There were several coups and regime changes, with the figures of Hubert Maga, Sourou Apithy, Justin Ahomadegbé, and Emile Derlin Zinsou dominating; the first three each represented a different area and ethnicity of the country. These three agreed to form a Presidential Council after violence marred the 1970 elections.\n\nOn 7 May 1972, Maga ceded power to Ahomadegbe. On 26 October 1972, Lt. Col. Mathieu Kérékou overthrew the ruling triumvirate, becoming president and stating that the country would not \"burden itself by copying foreign ideology, and wants neither Capitalism, Communism, nor Socialism\". On 30 November 1974 however, he announced that the country was officially Marxist, under control of the Military Council of the Revolution (CNR), which nationalized the petroleum industry and banks. On 30 November 1975, he renamed the country to the People's Republic of Benin. \n\nThe CNR was dissolved in 1979, and Kérékou arranged show elections where he was the only allowed candidate. Establishing relations with China, North Korea, and Libya, he put nearly all businesses and economic activities under state control, causing foreign investment in Benin to dry up. Kérékou attempted to reorganize education, pushing his own aphorisms such as \"Poverty is not a fatality\", resulting in a mass exodus of teachers, along with a large number of other professionals. The regime financed itself by contracting to take nuclear waste first from the Soviet Union and later from France.\n\nIn 1980, Kérékou converted to Islam and changed his first name to Ahmed, then changed his name back after claiming to be a born-again Christian.\n\nIn 1989, riots broke out after the regime did not have money to pay its army. The banking system collapsed. Eventually Kérékou renounced Marxism and a convention forced Kérékou to release political prisoners and arrange elections. Marxism-Leninism was also abolished as the nation's form of government. \n\nThe country's name was officially changed to the Republic of Benin on 1 March 1990, after the newly formed government's constitution was complete. \n\nIn a 1991 election, Kérékou lost to Nicéphore Soglo. Kérékou returned to power after winning the 1996 vote. In 2001, a closely fought election resulted in Kérékou winning another term, after which his opponents claimed election irregularities.\n\nIn 1999, Kérékou issued a national apology for the substantial role Africans had played in the Atlantic slave trade. \n\nKérékou and former president Soglo did not run in the 2006 elections, as both were barred by the constitution's restrictions on age and total terms of candidates.\n\nOn 5 March 2006, an election was held that was considered free and fair. It resulted in a runoff between Yayi Boni and Adrien Houngbédji. The runoff election was held on 19 March and was won by Boni, who assumed office on 6 April. The success of the fair multi-party elections in Benin won praise internationally. Boni was reelected in 2011, taking 53.18% of the vote in the first round—enough to avoid a runoff election, becoming the first president to win an election without a runoff since the restoration of democracy in 1991.\n\nIn the March 2016 presidential elections, in which Boni Yayi was barred by the constitution from running for a third term, businessman Patrice Talon won the second round with 65.37% of the vote, defeating investment banker and former Prime Minister Lionel Zinsou. Talon was sworn in on 6 April 2016. Speaking on the same day that the Constitutional Court confirmed the results, Talon said that he would \"first and foremost tackle constitutional reform\", discussing his plan to limit presidents to a single term of five years in order to combat \"complacency\". He also said that he planned to slash the size of the government from 28 to 16 members. \n\nPolitics\n\nBenin's politics take place in a framework of a presidential representative democratic republic, where the President of Benin is both head of state and head of government, within a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the legislature. The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. The political system is derived from the 1990 Constitution of Benin and the subsequent transition to democracy in 1991.\n\nBenin scored highly in the 2013 Ibrahim Index of African Governance, which comprehensively measures the state of governance across the continent. Benin was ranked 18th out of 52 African countries, and scored best in the categories of Safety & Rule of Law and Participation & Human Rights.\n\nIn its 2007 Worldwide Press Freedom Index, Reporters Without Borders ranked Benin 53rd out of 169 countries.\n\nBenin has been rated equal-88th out of 159 countries in a 2005 analysis of police, business and political corruption. \n\nDepartments and communes\n\nFile:Benin departments named.png\|thumb\|right\|Departments of Benin.\npoly 452.13 201.00 432.37 175.00 432.37 175.00 429.41 171.04 424.48 166.29 425.49 161.00 425.49 161.00 430.99 145.17 430.99 145.17 430.99 145.17 434.73 139.91 434.73 139.91 434.73 139.91 437.47 133.00 437.47 133.00 438.73 130.04 441.97 126.19 440.84 123.09 440.84 123.09 437.00 117.84 437.00 117.84 437.00 117.84 435.46 114.25 435.46 114.25 435.46 114.25 427.78 103.48 427.78 103.48 423.94 99.85 421.52 100.59 418.00 99.08 418.00 99.08 412.00 95.94 412.00 95.94 407.56 94.53 403.87 97.80 399.21 93.69 393.54 88.68 389.49 74.63 388.41 73.22 386.74 71.06 384.29 70.27 382.33 68.51 382.33 68.51 376.63 61.45 376.63 61.45 376.63 61.45 367.91 53.63 367.91 53.63 367.91 53.63 361.27 49.37 361.27 49.37 358.02 46.48 356.56 40.31 353.39 37.60 350.60 35.21 347.18 36.57 343.28 33.20 338.92 29.44 339.95 23.09 331.00 19.63 323.94 16.91 317.88 24.78 310.00 24.00 310.00 24.00 305.70 33.03 305.70 33.03 305.70 33.03 294.00 34.21 294.00 34.21 294.00 34.21 286.00 36.09 286.00 36.09 286.00 36.09 281.00 36.67 281.00 36.67 281.00 36.67 274.00 39.28 274.00 39.28 274.00 39.28 261.00 42.00 261.00 42.00 264.45 68.19 264.13 56.05 268.00 73.00 275.10 74.53 277.32 79.66 270.00 82.00 268.11 85.35 267.76 85.37 264.00 86.00 264.82 97.35 264.58 93.94 261.00 104.00 259.83 107.27 259.88 108.74 257.86 112.00 257.86 112.00 251.03 121.00 251.03 121.00 248.70 125.78 252.41 127.54 246.93 131.96 232.52 143.59 230.29 142.17 216.58 158.00 214.22 160.72 209.02 165.50 208.65 169.00 208.26 172.72 216.24 185.20 218.42 189.00 218.42 189.00 235.30 219.00 235.30 219.00 240.56 228.57 243.98 230.73 244.00 242.00 244.00 242.00 244.00 291.00 244.00 291.00 244.00 292.99 243.77 296.81 245.02 298.40 246.38 300.12 260.71 301.03 263.00 300.38 266.22 299.47 267.09 297.41 272.00 297.06 280.71 296.45 282.90 301.51 287.17 303.70 289.24 304.76 293.61 305.42 296.00 305.53 298.65 306.04 301.42 306.13 304.00 305.53 308.54 303.99 312.26 300.21 316.00 298.52 319.81 296.63 330.39 296.04 333.86 298.52 335.71 299.95 336.06 301.09 337.00 303.00 337.00 303.00 355.00 303.00 355.00 303.00 355.00 303.00 373.00 301.00 373.00 301.00 373.00 301.00 404.00 292.44 404.00 292.44 404.00 292.44 431.00 290.00 431.00 290.00 431.00 290.00 445.00 288.21 445.00 288.21 445.00 288.21 460.00 288.82 460.00 288.82 460.00 288.82 474.00 284.78 474.00 284.78 474.00 284.78 483.00 283.00 483.00 283.00 482.50 274.60 480.55 277.64 476.39 273.57 474.00 271.25 473.50 268.53 471.93 266.37 470.45 264.35 468.05 263.00 467.11 260.90 465.21 256.64 470.40 249.79 470.70 245.00 470.84 242.80 468.02 232.09 467.01 230.00 465.75 227.38 464.06 226.13 463.31 223.00 462.41 219.20 463.69 215.50 465.00 212.00 458.09 210.88 456.07 206.26 452.13 201.00 Alibori\npoly 37.46 246.00 37.46 252.00 37.46 252.00 37.46 252.00 35.31 258.00 35.31 258.00 35.31 258.00 34.40 265.00 34.40 265.00 32.65 269.76 26.21 273.58 24.01 278.00 22.52 281.03 24.08 291.52 24.01 296.00 23.82 305.84 20.15 302.44 20.00 313.00 20.00 313.00 20.00 323.00 20.00 323.00 20.00 325.41 19.78 328.58 21.02 330.70 22.40 333.07 26.70 335.76 29.00 337.42 29.00 337.42 45.00 349.37 45.00 349.37 45.00 349.37 82.00 373.20 82.00 373.20 82.00 373.20 107.00 388.27 107.00 388.27 111.81 390.32 114.39 389.60 118.00 390.63 130.19 394.14 122.76 395.20 140.00 395.00 145.96 394.93 151.03 393.89 156.00 390.36 160.95 386.85 170.76 377.10 176.00 375.13 180.62 373.39 183.60 376.89 194.00 376.76 194.00 376.76 214.00 376.76 214.00 376.76 219.13 375.48 220.35 373.34 230.00 371.40 233.97 370.60 241.83 370.30 243.98 366.77 245.17 364.82 245.08 361.23 244.82 359.00 244.34 354.97 239.47 338.13 237.30 335.17 234.48 331.32 229.02 329.01 229.16 323.00 229.33 316.13 237.71 311.47 240.40 307.72 242.31 305.05 241.99 302.12 241.84 299.00 241.84 299.00 241.84 241.00 241.84 241.00 242.00 238.76 242.09 236.16 241.83 234.00 240.65 230.85 237.02 225.12 235.30 222.00 235.30 222.00 222.42 199.00 222.42 199.00 222.42 199.00 211.72 180.00 211.72 180.00 210.41 177.70 207.70 172.35 205.61 171.02 203.63 169.77 200.33 170.06 198.00 169.83 198.00 169.83 179.00 168.01 179.00 168.01 172.75 168.17 171.85 169.55 167.00 170.24 167.00 170.24 159.00 170.24 159.00 170.24 154.87 170.68 148.54 174.29 145.00 173.97 140.61 173.58 139.06 169.50 137.20 167.84 135.56 166.35 130.21 164.35 128.00 163.80 124.03 162.80 116.29 163.66 113.75 167.22 112.30 169.25 112.92 171.08 110.65 173.37 108.55 175.49 104.72 176.40 103.92 180.04 103.92 180.04 105.00 189.00 105.00 189.00 105.00 189.00 95.00 188.00 95.00 188.00 95.20 190.02 95.78 192.77 94.31 194.45 91.55 197.61 77.91 193.83 74.00 193.00 74.12 200.87 77.74 199.74 75.00 211.00 69.72 208.52 68.74 210.16 64.00 213.00 66.47 221.45 72.00 221.45 70.00 232.00 70.00 232.00 63.00 228.56 63.00 228.56 63.00 228.56 57.00 226.73 57.00 226.73 57.00 226.73 49.00 223.00 49.00 223.00 46.19 229.10 45.52 230.06 49.00 236.00 49.00 236.00 40.00 237.00 40.00 237.00 40.00 237.00 37.46 246.00 37.46 246.00 Atakora\npoly 457.00 290.83 444.00 290.06 444.00 290.06 444.00 290.06 435.00 291.86 435.00 291.86 435.00 291.86 425.00 291.21 425.00 291.21 425.00 291.21 410.00 293.79 410.00 293.79 410.00 293.79 402.00 294.46 402.00 294.46 390.01 296.62 381.24 303.72 369.00 302.73 362.03 302.17 363.46 303.89 358.00 304.89 358.00 304.89 344.00 304.89 344.00 304.89 338.12 304.96 336.10 304.95 334.00 299.00 330.07 299.00 319.10 298.57 316.00 299.74 311.61 301.39 307.49 307.15 301.00 307.70 297.78 307.97 288.94 306.59 286.17 304.93 282.96 303.00 281.61 300.23 277.00 299.28 267.48 297.31 266.77 302.05 261.99 302.66 261.99 302.66 244.00 302.00 244.00 302.00 243.08 313.35 229.57 314.00 231.24 325.00 232.04 330.24 236.64 331.99 239.44 336.01 241.19 338.53 242.02 342.05 242.86 345.00 244.32 350.15 247.94 360.01 246.57 364.98 244.30 373.20 230.96 372.34 224.00 374.25 215.51 376.59 216.42 381.17 221.00 387.00 215.50 390.69 219.79 394.05 219.41 399.00 219.07 403.42 213.76 408.39 216.95 418.00 221.36 431.25 229.17 432.89 228.89 442.00 228.89 442.00 225.42 471.00 225.42 471.00 224.95 474.53 225.04 479.91 223.07 482.85 220.31 486.96 210.88 486.90 206.10 489.56 200.51 492.67 199.71 502.20 200.09 508.00 200.34 511.83 201.45 517.74 203.85 520.78 206.80 524.50 211.02 524.42 212.39 530.00 213.73 535.43 206.59 553.24 211.74 560.95 217.97 570.28 236.41 563.79 236.00 577.00 236.00 577.00 310.00 577.00 310.00 577.00 312.73 576.99 316.25 577.33 318.43 575.40 320.92 573.20 320.80 569.99 321.32 567.00 322.73 558.85 321.71 561.34 322.24 556.00 322.24 556.00 323.91 547.00 323.91 547.00 324.35 540.98 322.25 532.46 331.00 531.69 332.81 531.53 334.28 532.10 336.00 532.28 341.27 532.85 343.12 529.82 349.00 529.06 353.86 528.43 354.56 530.23 358.00 530.54 361.32 530.83 370.70 528.20 372.73 525.49 374.30 523.40 376.92 513.91 377.58 511.00 377.58 511.00 381.66 497.83 381.66 497.83 381.66 497.83 380.98 486.00 380.98 486.00 380.68 476.61 375.81 477.30 379.29 470.00 383.12 461.98 385.40 466.33 391.98 456.00 396.68 448.63 393.76 447.02 397.31 443.39 401.48 439.14 406.55 441.71 408.94 436.93 410.67 433.46 407.81 429.38 406.94 426.00 405.90 421.94 407.23 418.17 410.22 415.27 412.84 412.73 424.28 408.25 428.00 407.56 433.00 406.65 435.16 409.44 439.24 404.85 441.02 402.86 448.74 392.17 449.44 390.00 452.26 381.29 445.08 373.83 458.00 370.00 458.00 366.84 458.47 359.88 456.98 357.32 455.80 355.29 446.60 348.06 445.26 343.00 444.26 339.23 447.43 333.31 449.10 330.00 452.77 322.74 449.55 322.09 458.00 317.29 459.54 316.42 461.17 315.40 463.00 315.34 465.90 315.25 472.14 319.47 475.00 321.00 475.00 321.00 477.68 312.00 477.68 312.00 477.68 312.00 478.63 305.00 478.63 305.00 478.63 305.00 483.05 295.00 483.05 295.00 483.05 295.00 483.05 285.00 483.05 285.00 483.05 285.00 457.00 290.83 457.00 290.83 Borgou\npoly 204.00 378.09 198.00 378.82 198.00 378.82 195.22 379.01 189.99 378.26 187.00 377.91 183.64 377.52 180.15 375.88 177.00 376.43 168.76 377.87 159.89 391.57 150.00 395.14 145.58 396.38 131.55 396.56 127.00 395.14 119.22 393.40 119.53 391.49 109.00 391.00 109.00 391.00 109.00 409.00 109.00 409.00 109.00 409.00 110.00 424.00 110.00 424.00 110.00 424.00 110.00 444.00 110.00 444.00 109.87 453.63 106.71 453.36 105.91 458.00 105.45 460.61 107.25 464.32 108.00 467.00 114.17 468.97 113.93 474.31 114.00 480.00 114.03 482.98 113.74 487.26 114.72 490.00 116.12 493.90 128.70 508.73 132.09 511.78 135.10 514.48 137.49 514.98 139.44 517.27 139.44 517.27 145.51 528.00 145.51 528.00 147.02 531.73 147.68 545.12 148.17 550.00 148.17 550.00 149.00 608.00 149.00 608.00 152.74 607.83 162.55 606.68 166.00 605.70 170.07 604.54 173.60 601.66 178.00 602.89 181.90 603.99 184.73 607.28 188.00 608.84 191.81 610.65 193.97 609.29 198.00 611.73 201.82 614.05 205.90 619.16 213.00 621.59 221.08 624.36 228.08 622.78 236.00 621.00 236.00 621.00 236.86 599.00 236.86 599.00 236.86 599.00 234.51 587.04 234.51 587.04 234.51 587.04 233.07 582.58 233.07 582.58 232.54 579.04 234.93 575.89 233.77 573.14 232.45 570.01 227.92 569.43 225.00 568.79 219.30 567.55 214.40 566.93 210.64 561.96 202.86 551.69 211.67 541.18 209.85 530.04 208.90 524.19 203.33 524.76 199.99 517.00 196.43 508.71 197.14 494.28 205.04 488.70 209.60 485.47 216.59 484.97 222.00 484.00 222.00 484.00 225.28 454.00 225.28 454.00 225.75 450.23 227.35 441.23 226.58 438.00 224.89 430.85 215.61 424.73 214.21 414.00 213.33 407.25 216.93 404.33 217.52 400.00 217.95 396.84 216.60 394.67 216.66 392.00 216.29 389.21 217.38 387.80 216.66 385.00 216.46 382.76 215.64 382.31 215.00 378.09 208.25 379.58 209.49 378.17 204.00 378.09 Donga\npoly 318.42 730.00 311.02 715.00 311.02 715.00 311.02 715.00 313.71 704.00 313.71 704.00 313.71 704.00 314.30 696.00 314.30 696.00 314.30 696.00 315.83 688.00 315.83 688.00 315.83 688.00 316.39 680.00 316.39 680.00 316.39 680.00 319.72 668.00 319.72 668.00 319.72 668.00 313.56 646.00 313.56 646.00 313.56 646.00 315.37 640.00 315.37 640.00 315.37 640.00 316.64 633.00 316.64 633.00 316.64 633.00 320.82 619.00 320.82 619.00 320.82 619.00 320.00 612.00 320.00 612.00 320.00 612.00 320.00 603.00 320.00 603.00 320.00 603.00 319.00 591.00 319.00 591.00 319.00 591.00 317.98 580.60 317.98 580.60 317.98 580.60 310.00 579.00 310.00 579.00 310.00 579.00 235.00 579.00 235.00 579.00 235.26 586.63 236.56 584.73 237.67 590.00 239.34 597.46 238.85 605.57 237.67 613.00 237.01 616.76 238.31 618.16 237.10 620.07 234.94 623.47 229.59 623.95 226.00 624.00 221.06 624.06 215.54 624.49 211.00 622.33 205.31 619.62 201.44 614.89 198.00 613.17 194.55 611.45 192.14 612.51 188.00 610.16 184.89 608.40 182.82 605.80 179.00 604.65 173.86 603.11 169.76 606.21 165.00 607.51 158.90 609.18 155.15 609.00 149.00 609.00 149.00 609.00 153.66 623.42 153.66 623.42 153.66 623.42 148.64 636.00 148.64 636.00 148.64 636.00 151.00 649.00 151.00 649.00 151.00 649.00 151.00 722.00 151.00 722.00 151.00 722.00 152.00 735.00 152.00 735.00 152.00 735.00 152.00 755.94 152.00 755.94 166.40 753.42 176.18 756.23 181.00 755.94 187.22 755.43 189.92 751.17 198.00 754.13 201.28 755.33 204.30 757.44 206.59 760.08 208.54 762.34 209.03 764.62 212.12 765.57 217.89 767.35 223.35 763.69 226.00 763.61 228.52 763.53 229.97 765.05 233.00 765.70 235.57 766.25 238.37 765.71 240.90 766.73 240.90 766.73 255.70 777.45 255.70 777.45 257.51 779.06 259.10 781.50 261.30 782.43 263.15 783.21 267.83 783.00 270.00 783.00 272.03 774.71 276.57 773.19 278.40 768.00 279.76 764.17 277.20 755.85 284.10 752.02 286.30 750.80 289.53 751.00 292.00 751.00 292.00 751.00 319.00 751.00 319.00 751.00 319.00 751.00 318.42 730.00 318.42 730.00 Collines\npoly 292.30 753.00 286.57 752.61 284.39 754.02 281.46 755.92 281.10 759.84 281.08 763.00 281.04 774.80 270.91 774.76 272.27 785.00 272.27 785.00 273.76 791.00 273.76 791.00 275.77 801.74 275.37 806.88 280.47 817.96 283.01 823.47 285.98 822.81 287.98 826.21 288.89 827.76 289.44 832.73 290.00 835.00 292.46 844.84 293.99 846.60 294.00 857.00 294.00 857.00 286.00 857.00 286.00 857.00 286.23 859.87 287.62 869.61 289.01 871.72 290.95 874.68 294.33 874.42 296.69 876.56 298.98 878.65 298.94 881.14 299.00 884.00 299.00 884.00 299.00 913.00 299.00 913.00 299.00 913.00 315.00 912.00 315.00 912.00 315.76 917.70 316.21 927.45 321.00 931.00 321.00 931.00 322.37 924.00 322.37 924.00 322.93 917.23 320.61 905.79 329.00 903.00 329.00 903.00 328.00 894.00 328.00 894.00 318.78 891.20 322.04 885.32 322.64 880.00 322.64 880.00 322.64 872.01 322.64 872.01 322.64 866.54 319.80 866.88 319.03 862.96 317.84 856.92 322.79 851.79 328.00 850.00 326.01 846.41 321.84 843.26 321.74 840.00 321.64 836.40 325.42 834.71 325.69 830.00 325.69 830.00 323.14 814.00 323.14 814.00 323.14 814.00 323.14 796.00 323.14 796.00 323.04 790.35 322.85 788.03 329.00 787.00 329.00 787.00 328.02 776.51 328.02 776.51 328.02 776.51 319.58 765.91 319.58 765.91 319.58 765.91 319.00 753.00 319.00 753.00 319.00 753.00 295.00 753.00 295.00 753.00 Plateau\npoly 206.34 763.93 205.43 757.98 198.00 755.65 191.50 753.61 187.31 756.49 184.00 757.05 184.00 757.05 174.00 757.05 174.00 757.05 174.00 757.05 169.00 757.05 169.00 757.05 164.61 756.98 153.74 754.41 152.33 760.22 151.73 762.72 153.77 772.55 154.89 775.00 154.89 775.00 158.36 781.00 158.36 781.00 158.36 781.00 166.66 799.00 166.66 799.00 167.87 801.99 168.54 806.16 170.20 808.63 170.20 808.63 174.52 813.21 174.52 813.21 174.52 813.21 183.37 825.01 183.37 825.01 187.45 831.76 184.90 833.76 187.92 839.99 187.92 839.99 197.31 852.00 197.31 852.00 198.71 854.11 208.31 865.01 210.09 865.98 211.94 866.98 213.96 866.99 216.00 866.83 216.00 866.83 238.00 863.41 238.00 863.41 240.99 862.91 246.45 862.26 249.00 861.03 251.65 859.76 254.75 856.94 257.00 855.00 261.30 861.61 263.82 856.19 272.00 851.00 272.00 851.00 272.00 855.00 272.00 855.00 272.00 855.00 292.00 855.00 292.00 855.00 292.00 855.00 288.00 835.00 288.00 835.00 288.00 835.00 286.41 827.21 286.41 827.21 286.41 827.21 279.70 819.96 279.70 819.96 279.70 819.96 274.37 806.00 274.37 806.00 274.37 806.00 269.43 786.60 269.43 786.60 269.43 786.60 260.30 783.98 260.30 783.98 260.30 783.98 253.83 777.87 253.83 777.87 253.83 777.87 241.55 769.00 241.55 769.00 241.55 769.00 233.00 767.69 233.00 767.69 233.00 767.69 226.00 764.00 226.00 764.00 221.54 767.25 214.37 769.95 209.30 766.15 Zou\npoly 153.00 804.00 153.00 859.00 153.00 859.00 153.00 859.00 139.00 859.00 139.00 859.00 140.12 869.52 144.79 869.08 146.70 874.04 146.70 874.04 148.00 891.00 148.00 891.00 148.00 891.00 167.00 887.01 167.00 887.01 173.25 884.66 179.78 879.51 187.00 881.43 192.57 882.92 192.27 886.99 195.43 890.37 199.86 895.12 204.70 896.92 211.00 897.00 211.10 886.84 212.56 890.16 215.29 883.00 215.29 883.00 217.11 877.00 217.11 877.00 218.73 873.21 219.32 873.47 220.00 869.07 220.00 869.07 213.00 869.07 213.00 869.07 206.74 868.26 197.27 854.10 193.37 849.09 190.23 845.06 187.66 844.48 185.56 839.00 183.47 833.53 184.76 830.30 182.35 826.01 182.35 826.01 168.00 807.99 168.00 807.99 168.00 807.99 160.57 789.00 160.57 789.00 160.57 789.00 155.00 778.00 155.00 778.00 151.88 784.13 153.00 796.83 153.00 804.00 Couffo\npoly 257.00 858.00 248.00 863.30 248.00 863.30 248.00 863.30 222.00 868.00 222.00 868.00 221.30 877.09 214.05 887.68 213.30 891.00 213.30 891.00 212.78 897.00 212.78 897.00 212.78 897.00 210.56 904.00 210.56 904.00 210.56 904.00 210.03 909.00 210.03 909.00 209.27 912.47 207.53 913.55 207.11 918.00 206.62 923.23 208.88 928.13 207.61 934.00 206.40 939.60 201.12 945.73 201.38 952.00 201.38 952.00 206.00 968.00 206.00 968.00 222.41 965.82 240.46 961.05 257.00 961.00 262.31 950.04 272.23 953.79 277.61 950.02 281.43 947.33 282.20 940.30 281.95 936.00 281.83 933.85 281.57 933.02 281.00 931.00 274.36 932.39 273.12 930.44 273.00 924.00 273.00 924.00 273.00 901.00 273.00 901.00 273.00 901.00 271.88 889.00 271.88 889.00 271.88 889.00 271.88 880.00 271.88 880.00 270.65 874.76 266.10 871.72 265.57 868.00 265.10 864.74 268.71 860.40 270.00 855.00 262.76 858.36 261.92 862.80 257.00 858.00 Atlantique\npoly 265.94 871.63 272.70 873.14 274.03 882.00 274.03 882.00 276.00 930.06 276.00 930.06 277.77 929.74 280.02 929.17 281.69 930.06 286.93 933.10 282.45 945.82 281.00 950.00 290.46 952.22 290.49 955.31 294.09 956.25 296.22 956.80 307.99 954.73 311.00 954.27 312.59 954.03 315.15 953.84 316.43 952.83 318.46 951.21 317.93 947.36 318.04 945.00 318.18 941.90 319.74 936.26 319.27 934.17 318.66 931.45 316.47 930.61 315.04 925.00 314.39 922.44 314.16 916.52 312.26 915.00 309.68 912.91 300.38 914.73 297.00 915.00 297.00 915.00 297.00 885.00 297.00 885.00 297.00 885.00 295.98 878.56 295.98 878.56 295.98 878.56 286.74 871.95 286.74 871.95 286.74 871.95 284.00 857.00 284.00 857.00 276.19 857.00 270.53 855.71 267.85 865.00 Ouémé\npoly 190.28 887.88 191.51 885.48 187.86 884.18 179.49 881.23 172.19 887.47 165.00 890.03 161.26 891.37 159.48 890.71 156.00 891.21 156.00 891.21 149.00 893.00 149.00 893.00 149.00 893.00 144.00 907.00 144.00 907.00 150.92 912.00 146.25 912.89 149.18 917.78 150.76 920.42 153.53 920.93 155.83 922.69 160.20 926.05 161.69 929.71 162.00 935.00 172.27 940.14 174.95 959.54 178.00 970.00 178.00 970.00 161.00 974.00 161.00 974.00 157.16 974.77 154.35 974.62 152.00 978.00 152.00 978.00 204.00 968.00 204.00 968.00 204.00 968.00 199.26 951.00 199.26 951.00 199.26 951.00 205.79 933.00 205.79 933.00 205.79 933.00 205.06 919.00 205.06 919.00 205.06 919.00 210.00 900.00 210.00 900.00 204.65 899.12 198.01 895.52 194.14 891.70 Mono\npoly 278.09 952.30 265.26 954.83 262.14 957.00 260.19 958.36 260.03 959.06 259.00 961.00 259.00 961.00 274.00 960.00 274.00 960.00 274.00 960.00 275.00 956.00 275.00 956.00 275.00 956.00 275.00 960.00 275.00 960.00 275.00 960.00 290.00 957.00 290.00 957.00 290.00 957.00 290.00 955.00 290.00 955.00 287.42 953.90 284.83 952.87 282.00 952.63 Littoral\n\nBenin is divided into twelve departments (French: départements) which, in turn, are subdivided into 77 communes. In 1999, the previous six departments were each split into two halves, forming the current twelve. The six new departments were assigned official capitals in 2008.\n\nGeography\n\nBenin, a narrow, north–south strip of land in West Africa, lies between latitudes 6° and 13°N, and longitudes 0° and 4°E. Benin is bounded by Togo to the west, Burkina Faso and Niger to the north, Nigeria to the east, and the Bight of Benin to the south. The distance from the Niger River in the north to the Atlantic Ocean in the south is about 650 km. Although the coastline measures 121 km the country measures about 325 km at its widest point.\n\nBenin shows little variation in elevation and can be divided into four areas from the south to the north, starting with the low-lying, sandy, coastal plain (highest elevation 10 m) which is, at most, 10 km wide. It is marshy and dotted with lakes and lagoons communicating with the ocean. Behind the coast lies the Guinean forest-savanna mosaic-covered plateaus of southern Benin (altitude between 20 and), which are split by valleys running north to south along the Couffo, Zou, and Oueme Rivers.\n\nThen an area of flat lands dotted with rocky hills whose altitude seldom reaches 400 m extends around Nikki and Save. Finally, a range of mountains extends along the northwest border and into Togo; this is the Atacora, with the highest point, Mont Sokbaro, at 658 m.\n\nBenin has fields of lying fallow, mangroves, and remnants of large sacred forests. In the rest of the country, the savanna is covered with thorny scrubs and dotted with huge baobab trees. Some forests line the banks of rivers. In the north and the northwest of Benin the Reserve du W du Niger and Pendjari National Park attract tourists eager to see elephants, lions, antelopes, hippos, and monkeys.[http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/6761.htm \"Background Note: Benin\"]. U.S. Department of State (June 2008). Pendjari National Park together with the bordering Parks Arli and W in Burkina Faso and Niger are among the most important strongholds for the endangered West African lion. With an estimated 356 (range: 246–466) lions, W-Arli-Pendjari harbours the largest remaining population of lions in West Africa. Historically Benin has served as habitat for the endangered painted hunting dog, Lycaon pictus; however, this canid is thought to have been locally extirpated.\n\nBenin's climate is hot and humid. Annual rainfall in the coastal area averages 1300 mm or about 51 inches. Benin has two rainy and two dry seasons per year. The principal rainy season is from April to late July, with a shorter less intense rainy period from late September to November. The main dry season is from December to April, with a short cooler dry season from late July to early September. Temperatures and humidity are high along the tropical coast. In Cotonou, the average maximum temperature is 31 °C; the minimum is 24 °C.\n\nVariations in temperature increase when moving north through a savanna and plateau toward the Sahel. A dry wind from the Sahara called the Harmattan blows from December to March, during which grass dries up, the vegetation turns reddish brown, and a veil of fine dust hangs over the country, causing the skies to be overcast. It also is the season when farmers burn brush in the fields.\n\nEconomy\n\n]\n\nThe economy of Benin is dependent on subsistence agriculture, cotton production, and regional trade. Cotton accounts for 40% of GDP and roughly 80% of official export receipts. Growth in real output has averaged around 5% in the past seven years, but rapid population growth has offset much of this increase. Inflation has subsided over the past several years. Benin uses the CFA franc, which is pegged to the euro.\n\nBenin’s economy has continued to strengthen over the past years, with real GDP growth estimated at 5.1 and 5.7% in 2008 and 2009, respectively. The main driver of growth is the agricultural sector, with cotton being the country’s main export, while services continue to contribute the largest part of GDP largely because of Benin’s geographical location, enabling trade, transportation, transit and tourism activities with its neighbouring states. \n\nIn order to raise growth still further, Benin plans to attract more foreign investment, place more emphasis on tourism, facilitate the development of new food processing systems and agricultural products, and encourage new information and communication technology. Projects to improve the business climate by reforms to the land tenure system, the commercial justice system, and the financial sector were included in Benin's US$307 million Millennium Challenge Account grant signed in February 2006.\n\nThe Paris Club and bilateral creditors have eased the external debt situation, with Benin benefiting from a G8 debt reduction announced in July 2005, while pressing for more rapid structural reforms. An insufficient electrical supply continues to adversely affect Benin's economic growth though the government recently has taken steps to increase domestic power production.\n\nAlthough trade unions in Benin represent up to 75% of the formal workforce, the large informal economy has been noted by the International Trade Union Confederation (ITCU) to contain ongoing problems, including a lack of women's wage equality, the use of child labour, and the continuing issue of forced labour. \n\nBenin is a member of the Organization for the Harmonization of Business Law in Africa (OHADA). \n\nCotonou has the country's only seaport and international airport. A new port is currently under construction between Cotonou and Porto Novo. Benin is connected by two-lane asphalted roads to its neighboring countries (Togo, Burkina Faso, Niger, and Nigeria). Mobile telephone service is available across the country through various operators. ADSL connections are available in some areas. Benin is connected to the Internet by way of satellite connections (since 1998) and a single submarine cable SAT-3/WASC (since 2001), keeping the price of data extremely high. Relief is expected with initiation of the Africa Coast to Europe cable in 2011.\n\nCurrently, about a third of the population live below the international poverty line of US$1.25 per day. \n\nTransport\n\nTransport in Benin includes road, rail, water and air transportation. Benin possesses a total of 6,787 km of highway, of which 1,357 km are paved. Of the paved highways in the country, there are 10 expressways. This leaves 5,430 km of unpaved road. The Trans–West African Coastal Highway crosses Benin, connecting it to Nigeria to the east, and Togo, Ghana and Ivory Coast to the west. When construction in Liberia and Sierra Leone is finished, the highway will continue west to seven other Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) nations. A paved highway also connects Benin northwards to Niger, and through that country to Burkina Faso and Mali to the north-west. Rail transport in Benin consists of 578 km of single track, railway. Benin does not, at this time, share railway links with adjacent countries – Niger possesses no railways to connect to, and while the other surrounding countries, Nigeria, Togo and Burkina Faso, do have railway networks, no connections have been built. In 2006, an Indian proposal appeared, which aims to link the railways of Benin with Niger and Burkina Faso. Benin will be a participant in the AfricaRail project.\n\nCadjehoun Airport located at Cotonou, has direct international jet service to Accra, Niamey, Monrovia, Lagos, Ouagadougou, Lomé, and Douala, as well as other cities in Africa. Direct services also link Cotonou to Paris, Brussels and Istanbul.\n\nDemographics\n\nThe majority of Benin's population lives in the south. The population is young, with a life expectancy of 59 years. About 42 African ethnic groups live in this country; these various groups settled in Benin at different times and also migrated within the country. Ethnic groups include the Yoruba in the southeast (migrated from Nigeria in the 12th century); the Dendi in the north-central area (who came from Mali in the 16th century); the Bariba and the Fula (; ) in the northeast; the Betammaribe and the Somba in the Atacora Range; the Fon in the area around Abomey in the South Central and the Mina, Xueda, and Aja (who came from Togo) on the coast.\n\nRecent migrations have brought other African nationals to Benin that include Nigerians, Togolese, and Malians. The foreign community also includes many Lebanese and Indians involved in trade and commerce. The personnel of the many European embassies and foreign aid missions and of nongovernmental organizations and various missionary groups account for a large part of the European population. A small part of the European population consists of Beninese citizens of French ancestry, whose ancestors ruled Benin and left after independence.\n\nLargest cities\n\nHealth \n\nThe HIV/AIDS rate in Benin was estimated in 2013 at 1.13% of adults aged 15–49 years. Malaria is a problem in Benin, being a leading cause of morbidity and mortality among children younger than five years.\n\nDuring the 1980s, less than 30% of the country's population had access to primary health care services. Benin had one of the highest death rates for children under the age of five in the world. Its infant mortality rate stood at 203 deaths for every live births. Only one in three mothers had access to child health care services. The Bamako Initiative changed that dramatically by introducing community-based health care reform, resulting in more efficient and equitable provision of services. , Benin had the 34th highest rate of maternal mortality in the world. According to a 2013 UNICEF report, 13% of women had undergone female genital mutilation.[http://www.unicef.org/media/files/FGCM_Lo_res.pdf UNICEF 2013], p. 27 A comprehensive approach strategy was extended to all areas of health care, with subsequent improvement in the health care indicators and improvement in health care efficiency and cost. Demographic and Health Surveys has completed three surveys in Benin since 1996. \n\nCulture\n\nArts\n\nBeninese literature had a strong oral tradition long before French became the dominant language. Félix Couchoro wrote the first Beninese novel, L'Esclave, in 1929.\n\nPost-independence, the country was home to a vibrant and innovative music scene, where native folk music combined with Ghanaian highlife, French cabaret, American rock, funk and soul, and Congolese rumba.\n\nSinger Angélique Kidjo and actor Djimon Hounsou were born in Cotonou, Benin. Composer Wally Badarou and singer Gnonnas Pedro are also of Beninese descent.\n\nBiennale Benin, continuing the projects of several organizations and artists, started in the country in 2010 as a collaborative event called \"Regard Benin\". In 2012, the project become a Biennial coordinated by the Consortium, a federation of local associations. The international exhibition and artistic program of the 2012 Biennale Benin are curated by Abdellah Karroum and the Curatorial Delegation.\n\nCustomary names\n\nMany Beninese in the south of the country have Akan-based names indicating the day of the week on which they were born. This is due to influence of the Akan people like the Akwamu and others. \n\nLanguage\n\nLocal languages are used as the languages of instruction in elementary schools, with French only introduced after several years. In wealthier cities, however, French is usually taught at an earlier age. Beninese languages are generally transcribed with a separate letter for each speech sound (phoneme), rather than using diacritics as in French or digraphs as in English. This includes Beninese Yoruba, which in Nigeria is written with both diacritics and digraphs. For instance, the mid vowels written é è, ô, o in French are written ' in Beninese languages, whereas the consonants written ng and sh or ch in English are written ŋ and c. However, digraphs are used for nasal vowels and the labial-velar consonants kp and gb, as in the name of the Fon language Fon gbe, and diacritics are used as tone marks. In French-language publications, a mixture of French and Beninese orthographies may be seen.\n\nReligion\n\nIn the 2002 census, 42.8% of the population of Benin were Christian (27.1% Roman Catholic, 5% Celestial Church of Christ, 3.2% Methodist, 7.5% other Christian denominations), 24.4% were Muslim, 17.3% practiced Vodun, 6% practiced other local traditional religions, 1.9% practiced other religions, and 6.5% claimed no religious affiliation.[http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007/90082.htm International Religious Freedom Report 2007: Benin]. United States Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor (14 September 2007). This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.\n\nTraditional religions include local animistic religions in the Atakora (Atakora and Donga provinces), and Vodun and Orisha veneration among the Yoruba and Tado peoples in the center and south of the nation. The town of Ouidah on the central coast is the spiritual center of Beninese Vodun.\n\nThe major introduced religions are Christianity, followed throughout the south and center of Benin and in Otammari country in the Atakora, and Islam, introduced by the Songhai Empire and Hausa merchants, and now followed throughout Alibori, Borgou and Donga provinces, as well as among the Yoruba (who also follow Christianity). Many, however, continue to hold Vodun and Orisha beliefs and have incorporated the pantheon of Vodun and Orisha into Christianity. The Ahmadiyya Muslim Community, a sect originating in the 19th century, is also present in a significant minority.\n\nEducation\n\nThe literacy rate in Benin is among the lowest in the world: in 2006 it was estimated to be 28.7% (40.6% for males and 18.4% for females).\n\nAlthough at one time the education system was not free, Benin has abolished school fees and is carrying out the recommendations of its 2007 Educational Forum.\n\nCuisine\n\nBeninese cuisine is known in Africa for its exotic ingredients and flavorful dishes. Beninese cuisine involves fresh meals served with a variety of key sauces. In southern Benin cuisine, the most common ingredient is corn, often used to prepare dough which is mainly served with peanut- or tomato-based sauces. Fish and chicken are the most common meats used in southern Beninese cuisine, but beef, goat, and bush rat are also consumed. The main staple in northern Benin is yams, often served with sauces mentioned above. The population in the northern provinces use beef and pork meat which is fried in palm or peanut oil or cooked in sauces. Cheese is used in some dishes. Couscous, rice, and beans are commonly eaten, along with fruits such as mangoes, oranges, avocados, bananas, kiwi fruit, and pineapples.\n\nMeat is usually quite expensive, and meals are generally light on meat and generous on vegetable fat. Frying in palm or peanut oil is the most common meat preparation, and smoked fish is commonly prepared in Benin. Grinders are used to prepare corn flour, which is made into a dough and served with sauces. \"Chicken on the spit\" is a traditional recipe in which chicken is roasted over fire on wooden sticks. Palm roots are sometimes soaked in a jar with saltwater and sliced garlic to tenderize them, then used in dishes. Many people have outdoor mud stoves for cooking.\n\nSports\n\nSoccer (Football) is generally considered the most popular sport in Benin. However, in the past 5 years, American baseball has been introduced to the country.", "Ghana, officially the Republic of Ghana, is a sovereign unitary presidential constitutional democracy, located along the Gulf of Guinea and Atlantic Ocean, in the subregion of West Africa. Spanning a land mass of 238,535 km, Ghana is bordered by the Ivory Coast in the west, Burkina Faso in the north, Togo in the east and the Gulf of Guinea and Atlantic Ocean in the south. The word Ghana means \"Warrior King\" in the Soninke language. \n\nThe territory of present-day Ghana has been inhabited for millennia, with the first permanent state dating back to the 11th century. Numerous kingdoms and empires emerged over the centuries, of which the most powerful was the Kingdom of Ashanti. Beginning in the 15th century, numerous European powers contested the area for trading rights, with the British ultimately establishing control of the coast by the late 19th century. Following over a century of native resistance, Ghana's current borders were established by the 1900s as the British Gold Coast. In 1957, it became the first sub-saharan African nation to declare independence from European colonisation. \n\nA multicultural nation, Ghana has a population of approximately 27 million, spanning a variety of ethnic, linguistic and religious groups. Five percent of the population practices traditional faiths, 71.2% adhere to Christianity and 17.6% are Muslim. Its diverse geography and ecology ranges from coastal savannahs to tropical jungles. Ghana is a democratic country led by a president who is both head of state and head of the government. Ghana's economy is one of the strongest and most diversified in Africa, following a quarter century of relative stability and good governance. Ghana's growing economic prosperity and democratic political system has made it a regional power in West Africa. It is a member of the Non-Aligned Movement, the African Union, the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) and the Group of 24 (G24). \n\nEtymology\n\nThe etymology of the word Ghana means \"warrior king\" and was the title accorded to the kings of the medieval Ghana Empire in West Africa, although this empire was further north than the modern-day country of Ghana in the region of Guinea. \n\nThe name \"Ghana\" was a possible source of the name \"Guinea\" (via French Guinoye) used to refer to the West African coast off Ghana (as in Gulf of Guinea). \n\nGhana was adopted as the legal name for the area comprising four separate parts, which immediately before independence enjoyed distinct constitutional positions: \n* the Colony of the Gold Coast;\n* the Colony of Ashanti;\n* the Protectorate of the Northern Territories; and\n* the Trust Territory of Togoland (under British administration).\nThe minister responsible for shepherding through the independence legislation Charles Arden-Clarke Lord Listowel explained that the name was chosen \"in accordance with local wishes\". \n\nHistory\n\nPrehistory\n\nArchaeological evidence suggests that humans have lived in present-day Ghana since the Bronze Age. \n\nMedieval kingdoms\n\nGhana was inhabited in the Middle Ages and the Age of Discovery by a number of ancient predominantly Akan kingdoms in the Southern and Central territories. This included the Ashanti Empire, the Akwamu, the Bonoman, the Denkyira, and the Mankessim Kingdom. \n\nUntil the 11th century, the majority of modern Ghana's territorial area was largely unoccupied and uninhabited by humans. Although the area of present-day Ghana in West Africa has experienced many population movements, the Akans were firmly settled by the 5th century BC. By the early 11th century, the Akans were firmly established in the Akan state called Bonoman, for which the Brong-Ahafo Region is named. \n\nFrom the 13th century, Akans emerged from what is believed to have been the Bonoman area, to create several Akan states of Ghana, mainly based on gold trading. These states included Bonoman (Brong-Ahafo Region), Ashanti (Ashanti Region), Denkyira (Central region), Mankessim Kingdom (Western region), and Akwamu Eastern region. By the 19th century; the territory of the southern part of Ghana was included in the Kingdom of Ashanti, one of the most influential states in sub-saharan Africa prior to the onset of colonialism.\n\nThe Kingdom of Ashanti government operated first as a loose network, and eventually as a centralised kingdom with an advanced, highly specialised bureaucracy centred in the capital city of Kumasi. Prior to Akan contact with Europeans, the Akan Ashanti people created an advanced economy based on principally gold and gold bar commodities then traded with the states of Africa. \n\nThe earliest known kingdoms to emerge in modern Ghana were the Mole-Dagbani states. The Mole-Dagombas came on horse-backs from present day Burkina Faso under a single leader, Naa Gbewaa. With their advanced weapons and the presence of a central authority they easily invaded and occupied the lands of the local people ruled by the Tendamba (land god priests), established themselves as rulers over them and made Gambaga their capital. The death of Naa Gbewaa caused civil war among his children, some of whom broke off and founded separate states including Dagbon, Mamprugu, Mossi, Nanumba and Wala. \n\nEuropean contact (15th century)\n\nAkan trade with European states began after contact with Portuguese in the 15th century. Early European contact by the Portuguese people, who came to the Gold Coast region in the 15th century to trade then established the Portuguese Gold Coast (Costa do Ouro), focused on the extensive availability of gold. The Portuguese first landed at a south coastal city, and named the place Elmina as the Portuguese Gold Coast's capital city. \n\nIn 1481, King John II of Portugal commissioned Diogo d'Azambuja to build Elmina Castle, which was completed in three years. By 1598, the Dutch people had joined the Portuguese people in gold trading, establishing the Dutch Gold Coast (Nederlandse Bezittingen ter Kuste van Guinea) and building forts at Komenda and Kormantsi. In 1617, the Dutch captured the Olnini Castle from the Portuguese, and Axim in 1642 (Fort St Anthony).\n\nOther European traders had joined in gold trading by the mid-17th century, most notably the Swedish people, establishing the Swedish Gold Coast (Svenska Guldkusten), and Denmark-Norway, establishing the Danish Gold Coast (Danske Guldkyst or Dansk Guinea). Portuguese merchants, impressed with the gold resources in the area, named it Costa do Ouro or Gold Coast. \n\nMore than thirty forts and castles were built by the Portuguese, Swedish, Dano-Norwegians, Dutch and German merchants; the latter German people establishing the German Gold Coast (Brandenburger Gold Coast or Groß Friedrichsburg). In 1874 Great Britain established control over some parts of the country assigning these areas the status of British Gold Coast. Many military engagements occurred between the British colonial powers and the various Akan nation-states and the Akan Kingdom of Ashanti defeated the British a few times in the Anglo-Ashanti wars against the United Kingdom that lasted for 100 years, but eventually lost with the War of the Golden Stool in the early 1900s. \n\nIn 1947, the newly formed United Gold Coast Convention (UGCC) by The Big Six called for \"self-government within the shortest possible time\" following the Gold Coast legislative election, 1946. Dr.h.c. Kwame Nkrumah is the first Prime Minister of Ghana and President of Ghana and formed the Convention People's Party (CPP) with the motto \"self-government now\".\n\nThe first Prime Minister of Ghana and President of Ghana Osagyefo Kwame Nkrumah won a majority in the Gold Coast legislative election, 1951 for the Gold Coast Legislative Assembly in 1952, Nkrumah was appointed leader of the Gold Coast's government business. The Gold Coast region declared independence from the United Kingdom on 6 March 1957 and established the nation of Ghana.\n\nIndependence (1957)\n\nOn 6 March 1957 at 12 a.m Kwame Nkrumah declared Ghana's establishment and autonomy as the first Prime Minister of Ghana and on 1 July 1960, following the Ghanaian constitutional referendum, 1960 and Ghanaian presidential election, 1960 Nkrumah declared Ghana as a republic as the first President of Ghana.\n\nThe flag of Ghana, consisting of the colours red, gold, green, and a black star, became the new flag in 1957 when Gold Coast gained its name Ghana. Designed by Theodosia Salome Okoh; the red represents the blood that was shed towards independence, the gold represents the industrial minerals wealth of Ghana, the green symbolises the rich grasslands of Ghana, and the black star is the symbol of the Ghanaian people and African emancipation. \n\nKwame Nkrumah, first Prime Minister of Ghana, and then President of Ghana, was the first African head of state to promote Pan-Africanism, an idea he came into contact with during his studies at Lincoln University, Pennsylvania in the United States, at the time when Marcus Garvey was becoming famous for his \"Back to Africa Movement\". Nkrumah merged the teachings of Marcus Garvey, Martin Luther King, Jr. and the naturalised Ghanaian scholar W. E. B. Du Bois into the formation of 1960s Ghana.\n\nOsagyefo Dr. Kwame Nkrumah, as he became known, played an instrumental part in the founding of the Non-Aligned Movement, and in establishing the Kwame Nkrumah Ideological Institute to teach his ideologies of communism and socialism. His life achievements were recognised by Ghanaians during his centenary birthday celebration, and the day was instituted as a public holiday in Ghana (Founder's Day). \n\nOperation Cold Chop and aftermath\n\nOsagyefo Dr. Kwame Nkrumah and his government was subsequently overthrown by a GAF military operation codenamed \"Operation Cold Chop\" coup while Nkrumah was abroad with Zhou Enlai in the People's Republic of China for a fruitless mission to Hanoi in Vietnam to help end the Vietnam War on 24 February 1966 by GAF led by Col. Emmanuel K. Kotoka. National Liberation Council (N.L.C.) formed and chaired by Lt. General Joseph A. Ankrah. \n\nA series of alternating military and civilian governments from 1966 to 1981 ended with the ascension to power of Flight Lieutenant Jerry John Rawlings of the Provisional National Defense Council (PNDC) in 1981. These changes resulted in the suspension of the Constitution of Ghana in 1981, and the banning of political parties in Ghana. The economy suffered a severe decline soon after, Kwame Darko negotiated a structural adjustment plan changing many old economic policies, and economic growth soon recovered from the mid–2000s. A new Constitution of Ghana restoring multi-party system politics was promulgated in Ghanaian presidential election, 1992; Rawlings was elected as president of Ghana then, and again in Ghanaian general election, 1996.\n\n21st century\n\nWinning the 2000 Ghanaian elections, John Agyekum Kufuor of the New Patriotic Party (NPP) was sworn into office as president of Ghana on 7 January 2001, and attained the presidency again in the 2004 Ghanaian elections, thus also serving two term of office term limit as president of Ghana and thus marking the first time under the fourth republic of Ghana that power had been transferred from one legitimately elected head of state and head of government to another.\n\nKufuor was succeeded to the presidency of the Republic of Ghana by John Atta Mills of the National Democratic Congress (NDC) following the Ghanaian presidential election, 2008 and John Atta Mills was inaugurated as the third president of the fourth republic of Ghana and eleventh president of Ghana on 7 January 2009, prior to John Atta Mills being succeeded as president of Ghana by then vice-president of Ghana John Dramani Mahama on 24 July 2012. \n\nFollowing the Ghanaian presidential election, 2012 John Dramani Mahama became supreme commander-in-chief, and he was inaugurated as the 4th President of the Fourth Republic of Ghana and 12th President of Ghana on 7 January 2013 to serve a one term of office of four-year term length as supreme commander-in-chief and president of Ghana until 7 January 2017, and securing Ghana's status as a stable democracy. \n\nHistorical timeline\n\nImageSize = width:800 height:auto barincrement:20\nPlotArea = top:10 bottom:50 right:130 left:20\nAlignBars = late\n\nDateFormat = dd/mm/yyyy\nPeriod = from:01/01/1960 till:31/12/2012\nTimeAxis = orientation:horizontal\nScaleMajor = unit:year increment:10 start:1960\n\nColors =\n id:military value:rgb(0,1,1) legend: Military\n id:liberal value:rgb(0,0,1) legend: Liberal\n id:democrat value:rgb(1,0.6,0) legend: Social_Democrat\n id:socialist value:rgb(1,0,0) legend: _Socialist\nLegend = columns:4 left:150 top:24 columnwidth:110\n\nTextData =\n pos:(20,27) textcolor:black fontsize:M\n text:\"Political parties:\"\n\nBarData =\n barset:PM\n\nPlotData=\n width:5 align:left fontsize:S shift:(5,-4) anchor:till\n barset:PM\n\n from: 01/07/1960 till: 24/02/1966 color:socialist text:\"Osagyefo-Kwame Nkrumah\" fontsize:10\n from: 24/02/1966 till: 02/04/1969 color:military text:\"Major-Joseph Arthur Ankrah\" fontsize:10\n from: 02/04/1969 till: 07/08/1970 color:military text:\"Brigadier Akwasi Amankwa Afrifa\" fontsize:10\n from: 07/08/1970 till: 31/08/1970 color: liberal text:\"Nii Amaa Ollennu\" fontsize:10\n from: 31/08/1970 till: 13/01/1972 color: liberal text:\"Edward Akufo-Addo\" fontsize:10\n from: 13/01/1972 till: 05/07/1978 color:military text:\" Colonel Ignatius Kutu Acheampong\" fontsize:10\n from: 05/07/1978 till: 04/06/1979 color: military text:\"Lieutenant-General Frederick Fred William Kwasi Akuffo\" fontsize:10\n from: 04/06/1979 till: 24/09/1979 color: military text:\"Flight Lieutenant Jerry John Rawlings\" fontsize:10\n from: 24/09/1979 till: 31/12/1981 color:democrat text:\"Hilla Limann\" fontsize:10\n from: 31/12/1981 till: 07/01/1992 color:military text:\"Flight Lieutenant Jerry John Rawlings\" fontsize:10\n from: 07/01/1992 till: 07/01/2001 color: democrat text:\"Flight Lieutenant Jerry John Rawlings\" fontsize:10\n from: 07/01/2001 till: 07/01/2009 color:liberal text:\"John Agyekum Kufuor\" fontsize:10\n from: 07/01/2009 till: 24/07/2012 color: democrat text:\"Professor John Evans Atta Mills\" fontsize:10\n from: 24/07/2012 till: end color: democrat text:\"John Dramani Mahama\" fontsize:10\n\nGeography\n\nGhana is located on the Gulf of Guinea, only a few degrees north of the Equator, therefore giving it a warm climate. Ghana spans an area of 238535 km2, and has an Atlantic coastline that stretches 560 km on the Gulf of Guinea in Atlantic Ocean to its south. It lies between latitudes 4° and 12°N, and longitudes 4°W and 2°E; and the Prime Meridian passes through Ghana, specifically through the industrial port town of Tema.\nGhana is geographically closer to the \"centre\" of the Earth than any other country in the World; even though the notional centre, (0°, 0°) is located in the Atlantic Ocean approximately 614 km off the south-east coast of Ghana on the Gulf of Guinea. \n\nGrasslands mixed with south coastal shrublands and forests dominate Ghana, with forest extending northward from the south-west coast of Ghana on the Gulf of Guinea in the Atlantic Ocean 320 km and eastward for a maximum of about 270 km with the Kingdom of Ashanti or the southern part of Ghana being a primary location for mining of industrial minerals and timber.\n\nGhana encompasses plains, waterfalls, low hills, rivers, Lake Volta, the world's largest artificial lake, Dodi Island and Bobowasi Island on the south Atlantic Ocean coast of Ghana. The northernmost part of Ghana is Pulmakong and the southernmost part of Ghana is Cape Three Points.\n\nClimate\n\nThe climate of Ghana is tropical and there are two main seasons: the wet season and the dry season.\n\nRivers\n\nGhana has a vast river system with an array of tributaries.\n\nWildlife\n\nGhana has an array of wildlife that can be seen at zoos and national parks in Ghana, although populations have been drastically reduced by habitat loss and poaching.\n\nGovernment\n\nGhana is a unitary presidential constitutional democracy with a parliamentary multi-party system and former alternating military occupation. Following alternating military and civilian governments in January 1993, the Ghana military government gave way to the Fourth Republic of Ghana after presidential elections and parliamentary elections in late 1992. The 1992 constitution of Ghana divides powers among a Commander-in-Chief of the Ghana Armed Forces (President of Ghana), parliament (Parliament of Ghana), cabinet (Ministers of the Ghanaian Government), council of state (Ghanaian Council of State), and an independent judiciary (Judiciary of Ghana). The Government of Ghana is elected by universal suffrage after every four years.\"Government and Politics\". [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/ghtoc.html A Country Study: Ghana] (La Verle Berry, editor). Library of Congress Federal Research Division (November 1994). This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/about.html Lcweb2.loc.gov].\n\nThe Electoral Commission of Ghana announced that former Vice President of Ghana, John Dramani Mahama won the Ghana presidential election, 2012 on 7 December 2012 and John Dramani Mahama was sworn in, amidst announcement of electoral fraud, as the reigning President of Ghana on 7 January 2013 to serve a four-year term that expires on Saturday, 7 January 2017. \n\nThe 2012 Fragile States Index indicated that Ghana is ranked the 67th least fragile state in the world and the 5th least fragile state in Africa after Mauritius, 2nd Seychelles, 3rd Botswana, and 4th South Africa. Ghana ranked 112th out of 177 countries on the index. Ghana ranked as the 64th least corrupt and politically corrupt country in the world out of all 174 countries ranked and Ghana ranked as the 5th least corrupt and politically corrupt country in Africa out of 53 countries in the 2012 Transparency International Corruption Perception Index. Ghana was ranked 7th in Africa out of 53 countries in the 2012 Ibrahim Index of African Governance. The Ibrahim Index is a comprehensive measure of African government, based on a number of different variables which reflect the success with which governments deliver essential political goods to its citizens. \n\nForeign relations\n\nSince independence, Ghana has been devoted to ideals of nonalignment and is a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement. Ghana favours international and regional political and economic co-operation, and is an active member of the United Nations and the African Union. \n\nGhana has a great relationship with the United States, all of the last three U.S presidents- Bill Clinton, George W Bush, and Barack Obama- have made diplomatic trips to Ghana. Many Ghanaian diplomats and politicians hold positions in international organisations. These include Ghanaian diplomat and former Secretary-General of the United Nations Kofi Annan, International Criminal Court Judge Akua Kuenyehia, former President Jerry John Rawlings and former President John Agyekum Kuffour who have both served as diplomats of the United Nations.\n\nIn September 2010, Ghana's former President John Atta Mills visited China on an official visit. Mills and China's former President Hu Jintao, marked the 50th anniversary of diplomatic ties between the two nations, at the Great Hall of the People on 20 September 2010. China reciprocated with an official visit in November 2011, by the Vice-Chairman of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress of China, Zhou Tienong who visited Ghana and met with Ghana's President John Dramani Mahama. \n\nThe Islamic Republic of Iran and the 6th President of Iran, Mahmoud Ahmadinejad met with the 12th President of Ghana, John Dramani Mahama on 16 April 2013 to hold discussions with President John Dramani Mahama on strengthening the Non-Aligned Movement and also co–chair a bilateral meeting between the two countries Ghana and Iran at the Ghanaian presidential palace Flagstaff House. Government of Ghana reciprocated with an official state visit on 5 August 2013, by the Vice-President of Ghana, Kwesi Amissah-Arthur whom met with the Vice-President of Iran, Eshaq Jahangiri on the basis of autarky and possible bilateral trade at the Islamic Republic of Iran's presidential palace, Sa'dabad Palace. \n\nFile:Fokker F-28-3000 Fellowship, Ghana - Air Force AN0193478.jpg\|Fokker F28 Fellowship of the President of Ghana arrives on State visit at the Beijing Capital International Airport in Beijing, People's Republic of China\nFile:Vladimir Putin with Kofi Annan-3.jpg\|Diplomat Kofi Annan meeting with Vladimir Putin in Saint Petersburg, Russian Federation.\nFile:LuladaSilvaeJohnKufuor.JPG\|Presidents John Kufuor of Ghana and Lula da Silva of Brazil meet in Accra.\nFile:Obama family departure from Ghana.jpg\|Barack Obama and Michelle Obama, along with Malia Obama and Sasha Obama, participate in State Arrival Ceremony at Kotoka International Airport.\nFile:Map of diplomatic missions of Ghana (3).PNG\|Diplomatic missions of Ghana.\n\nLaw enforcement and Police\n\nThe Ghana Police Service (GPS) and the Criminal Investigation Department (CID) are the main law enforcement agencies of the Republic of Ghana and responsible for the detection of crime, maintenance of law and order and the maintenance of internal peace and security. The Ghana Police Service has eleven specialised police units including a Militarized Police Rapid deployment force (RDF) and Marine Police Unit (MPU). The Ghana Police Service operates in 12 divisions: ten covering the ten regions of Ghana, one assigned specifically to the seaport and industrial hub of Tema, and the twelfth being the Railways, Ports and Harbours Division. The Ghana Police Service's Marine Police Unit and Division handles issues that arise from the country's offshore oil and gas industry.\n\nThe Ghana Prisons Service and the sub-division Borstal Institute for Juveniles administers incarceration in Ghana. Ghana retains and exercises the death penalty for treason, corruption, robbery, piracy, drug trafficking, rape, and homicide. 27 convicts (all men) were sentenced to death in Ghana in 2012 and the Ghana Prisons Service statistics of the total number of convicts sentenced to death in Ghana as at December 2012 was 162 men and 4 women, with a total prison inmate population of 13,983 convicts as at 22 July 2013. \"The new sustainable development goals adopted by the United Nations call for the international community to come together to promote the rule of law; support equal access to justice for all; reduce corruption; and develop effective, accountable, and transparent institutions at all levels.\" \n\nGhanaian Drug War and The Narcotic Control Board\n\nGhana is used as a key narcotics industry transshipment point by traffickers, usually from South America as well as some from other African nations. \"West Africa is completely weak in terms of border control and the big drug cartels from Colombia and Latin America have chosen Africa as a way to reach Europe.\" \n\nThere is not a wide or popular knowledge about the narcotics industry and intercepted narcotics within Ghana itself, due to the industry's operations and involvement in the underground economy. The social context within which narcotic trafficking, storage, transportation, and repacking systems exist in Ghana and the state's location along the Gulf of Guinea within the Atlantic Ocean - only a few degrees north of the Equator - makes Ghana an attractive country for the narcotics business. \n\nThe Narcotic Control Board (NACOB), in collaboration with an internal counterpart, has impounded container ships at the Sekondi Naval Base within the Takoradi Harbour. These ships were carrying thousands of kilograms of cocaine, with a street value running into billions of Ghana cedis. However, drug seizures saw a decline in 2011.\n\nDrug cartels are using new methods in narcotics production and narcotics exportation, to avoid Ghanaian security agencies. Underdeveloped institutions, porous open borders, and the existence of established smuggling organisations contribute to Ghana's position in the narcotics industry. John Atta Mills, president between 2009 and 2012, initiated ongoing efforts to reduce the role of airports in Ghana's drug trade.\n\nMilitary\n\nIn 1957, the Ghana Armed Forces (GAF) consisted of its headquarters, support services, three battalions of infantry and a reconnaissance squadron with armoured vehicles. Ghanaian Prime Minister and President Kwame Nkrumah aimed at rapidly expanding the GAF to support the United States of Africa ambitions. Thus in 1961, 4th and 5th Battalions were established, and in 1964 6th Battalion was established, from a parachute airborne unit originally raised in 1963. \n\nToday, Ghana is a regional power and regional hegemon. In his book Shake Hands with the Devil, Canadian Forces commander Roméo Dallaire highly rated the GAF soldiers and military personnel.\n\nThe military operations and military doctrine of the GAF are conceptualised on the Constitution of Ghana, Ghana's Law on Armed Force Military Strategy, and Kofi Annan International Peacekeeping Training Centre (KAIPTC) agreements to which GAF is attestator. GAF military operations are executed under the auspices and imperium of the Ministry of Defense (MoD) Minister for Defence. \n\nWeapons of mass destruction and tactical nuclear weapons\n\nGhana adheres to a common credo ethos of the IAEA. The Ghana atomic agency currently holds no intent for the production of Weapons of Mass Destruction. Although Ghana has no military use of its nuclear assets, options for scientific research into modern nuclear propelled submarine and aircraft carrier ships, design and development of same technology and its transfer from partner OECD for its military use are imminent. Ghana currently has a prototype nuclear power plant and is opened to nuclear investors for the development of high tech nuclear power plants for a West Africa Electric Power Pool project. Although fragments of anti-nuclear power groups might critique nuclear proliferation, Ghana remains the safest and most trustworthy country in sub-Saharan Africa to pioneer it. Some people state that Ghana maintains several research reactors ready on standby for the processing of highly enriched uranium (HEU) into tactical nuclear weapons (TNW). In an article entitled \"We're still vulnerable\", renowned political scientist, bioterrorism and nuclear weapons specialist Graham T. Allison for the Boston Globe, speculates that Ghana's orphaned research reactor (at Kwabenya, Greater Accra) contains highly enriched uranium (HEU) sufficient enough to make a number of nuclear weapons. \n\nAdministrative divisions\n\nGhana is divided into 10 administrative regions, sub-divided into 275 districts: \n\nTransportation\n\nTransport and modes of transport in Ghana is accomplished by road transport (bus-based mass transit system), railway, air transport (civil aviation) and water transport (ferry).\n\nEconomy\n\nKey sectors\n\nGhana is an average natural resource enriched country possessing industrial minerals, hydrocarbons and precious metals. It is an emerging designated digital economy with mixed economy hybridisation and an emerging market with 8.7% GDP growth in 2012. It has an economic plan target known as the \"Ghana Vision 2020\". This plan envisions Ghana as the first African country to become a developed country between 2020 and 2029 and a newly industrialised country between 2030 and 2039. This excludes fellow Group of 24 member and Sub-Saharan African country South Africa, which is a newly industrialised country. The economy of Ghana also has ties to the Chinese yuan renminbi along with Ghana's vast gold reserves. In 2013, the Bank of Ghana began circulating the renminbi throughout Ghanaian state-owned banks and to the Ghana public as hard currency along with the national Ghana cedi for second national trade currency. \n\nThe state-owned Volta River Authority and Ghana National Petroleum Corporation are the two major electricity producers. The Akosombo Dam, built on the Volta River in 1965, along with Bui Dam, Kpong Dam, and several other hydroelectric dams provide hydropower. In addition, the Government of Ghana has sought to build the second nuclear power plant in Africa.\n\nThe Stock exchange of Ghana (Ghana Stock Exchange) is the 5th largest on continental Africa and 3rd largest in sub-saharan Africa with a market capitalisation of GH¢ 57.2 billion or CN¥ 180.4 billion in 2012 with the South Africa JSE Limited as first. The Ghana Stock Exchange (GSE) was the 2nd best performing stock exchange in sub-saharan Africa in 2013. \n\nGhana also produces high quality cocoa, is the 2nd largest producer of cocoa globally, and is projected to become the largest producer of cocoa in the world in 2015. \n\nGhana is classified as a middle income country. Services account for 50% of GDP, followed by manufacturing (24.1%), extractive industries (5%), and taxes (20.9%).\n\nManufacturing\n\nThe Ghana economy is an emerging digital-based mixed economy hybrid similarly to that of Taiwan with an increasing primary manufacturing and exportation of digital technology goods along with assembling and exporting automobiles and ships, diverse resource rich exportation of industrial minerals, agricultural products primarily cocoa, petroleum and natural gas, and industries such as information and communications technology primarily via Ghana's state digital technology corporation Rlg Communications which manufactures tablet computers with smart phones and various consumer electronics. \n\nPetroleum and natural gas production\n\nGhana produces and exports an abundance of hydrocarbons such as sweet crude oil and natural gas. The 100% state-owned filling station company of Ghana, Ghana Oil Company (GOIL) is the number 1 petroleum and gas filling station of Ghana and the 100% state-owned state oil company Ghana National Petroleum Corporation (GNPC) administrates hydrocarbon exploration and production of Ghana's entire petroleum and natural gas reserves and Ghana aims to further increase output of oil to per day and gas to per day. \n\nGhana's Jubilee Oilfield which contains up to 3 Goilbbl of sweet crude oil was discovered in 2007, among the many other offshore and inland oilfields in Ghana. Ghana is believed to have up to 5 Goilbbl to 7 Goilbbl of petroleum in reserves, which is the fifth largest in Africa and the 21st to 25th largest proven reserves in the world. It also has up to 6 e12cuft of natural gas in reserves, which is the sixth largest in Africa and the 49th largest natural gas proven reserves in the world. Oil and gas exploration off Ghana's eastern coast on the Gulf of Guinea is ongoing, and the amount of both crude oil and natural gas continues to increase. The Government of Ghana has drawn up plans to nationalise Ghana's entire petroleum and natural gas reserves to increase government revenue. \n\nIndustrial minerals mining\n\nKnown for its industrial minerals, Ghana is the world's 7th largest producer of gold; producing over 102 metric tons of gold and the 10th largest producer of gold in the world in 2012; producing 89 metric tons of gold and Ghana is the designated 2nd largest producer of gold on the Africa continent behind the designated first South Africa. Ghana has the 9th largest reserves of diamonds in the world and Ghana is the 9th largest producer of diamonds in the world with Brazil having the 10th largest reserves of diamonds in the world and being the 10th largest producer of diamonds in the world. Industrial minerals and exports from South Ghana are gold, silver, timber, diamonds, bauxite, and manganese; South Ghana also has a great deposit of barites; basalts; clays; dolomites; feldspars; granites; gravels; gypsums; iron ores; kaolins; laterites; limestones; magnesites; marbles; micas; phosphates; phosphorus; rocks; salts; sands; sandstones; silver; slates; talcs; and uranium that are yet to be fully exploited. The Government of Ghana has drawn up plans to nationalise Ghana's entire mining industry to increase government revenues. \n\nReal estate\n\nThe real estate and housing market of Ghana has become an important and strategic economic sector, particularly in the urban centres of south Ghana such as Accra, Kumasi, Sekondi-Takoradi and Tema. Kumasi is growing at a faster rate than Accra, and there is less competition in its real estate market. The gross rental income tax of Ghana is withheld at 10%, capital gains are taxed at 15% with a 5% gift tax imposed on the transfer of properties and Ghana's real estate market is divided into 3 areas: public sector real estate development, emerging private sector real estate development, and private individuals. The activities of these 3 groups are facilitated by the Ghanaian banks and the primary mortgage market which has demonstrated enormous growth potential. Recent developments in the Ghanaian economy has given birth to a boom in the construction sector, including the housing and public housing sector generating and injecting billions of dollars annually into the Ghanaian economy. The real estate market investment perspective and attraction comes from Ghana's tropical location and robust political stability. An increasing number of the Ghanaian populace are investing in properties and the Ghana government is empowering the private sector in\nthe real estate direction. \n\nTrade and exports\n\n]\n\nIn July 2013, International Enterprise Singapore opened its 38th global office in Accra, Ghana to develop trade and investment on logistics, oil and gas, aviation, transportation and consumer sectors. Singapore and Ghana also signed four bilateral agreements to promote public sector and private sector collaboration, as Ghana aims to predominantly shift its economic trade partnership to East Asia and Southeast Asia. The economic centre is IE Singapore's second office in Africa, coming six months after opening in Johannesburg, South Africa in January 2013. Ghana's labour force in 2008 totalled 11.5 million Ghanaian citizens. Tema Harbour is Africa's largest harbour and Takoradi Harbour along with Tema harbour in Ghana handles goods and exports for Ghana, they are also a traffic junctions, where goods are transhipped, the Tema harbour handles the majority of the nation's export cargo and most of the country's chief exports is shipped from Takoradi harbour. The Takoradi harbour and Tema harbour are operated by the state-owned Ghana Ports and Harbours Authority. \n\nElectricity generation sector\n\nShortages of electricity have led to dumsor, increasing the interest in renewables. Ghana plans to become a major regional exporter of electrical power using oil from the Jubilee oil field. \n\nEconomic transparency\n\nAccording to Transparency International's Corruption Perception Index of 2013, out of 177 countries, Ghana ranked 63rd with Cuba and Saudi Arabia. Ghana had a score of 46 on a scale where a 0–9 score means highly corrupt, and a 90–100 score means very clean. This was based on perceived levels of public sector corruption. Previously in 2012, the country ranked 64 and scored 45. Thus, Ghana's public sector scored lower in 2013 than in 2012, according to CPI's scores.\n\nLocal reports have claimed that Ghana loses US$4.5 billion every year (annually) from nominal gross domestic product (Nominal GDP) growth as a result of economic corruption and economic crime by the incumbent National Democratic Congress (NDC) government of Ghana led by John Dramani Mahama. It is also said Ghana has lost an additional US$2.5 billion from nominal gross domestic product (Nominal GDP) growth between the months of January 2013 to October 2013 through economic corrupt practices under the Mahama administration. \n\nThe incumbent president is however seen to be fighting corruption by some government members, and a fellow politician of an opposition party, after ordering investigations into scandals. Nonetheless others believe his actions aren't satisfactory in some cases. \n\nScience and technology\n\nGhana was the first country in sub-Saharan Africa to launch a cellular mobile network in 1992. It was also one of the first countries in Africa to be connected to the internet and to introduce ADSL broadband services. \n\nInnovations and HOPE City\n\nHope City is a technology park to be built and based in Ghana. Hope City is being undertaken by Ghanaian information and communications technology company Rlg Communications. Hope City is an acronym for Home, Office, People and Environment. The Hope City project is expected to be completed in 2016 and is estimated to cost $US 10 billion in construction; and one of its towers will become Africa's tallest building. Hope City will host a cluster of buildings and telecommunications facilities to serve as an information and communications technology park.\n\nSpace and satellite programmes\n\nThe Ghana Space Science and Technology Centre (GSSTC) and Ghana Space Agency (GhsA) oversees the space exploration and space programmes of Ghana and GSSTC and GhsA officials are to have a national security observational satellite launched into orbit in 2015. The first practical step in its endeavor was a CanSat launched on 15 May 2013, a space programme spearheaded by the All Nations University College (ANUC) in Koforidua. The CanSat was deployed 200 m high from a helium-filled balloon and took some aerial images as well as temperature readings. As its next step in advancing space science and satellite technology in the sub-region, an amateur ground station has been designed and built by the university. It has successfully tracked and communicated with several amateur radio satellites in orbit including the International Space Station, receiving slow-scan TV images on 18 and 20 December 2014. The miniaturized earth observational satellite is to be launched into orbit in 2017.\n\nGhana's annual space exploration expenditure has been 1% of its gross domestic product (GDP) for support research in science and technology and in 2012 Ghana was elected to chairman the Commission on Science and Technology for Sustainable Development in the South (Comsats) and Ghana has a joint effort in space exploration with South Africa's South African National Space Agency (SANSA).\n\nCybernetics and cyberwarfare\n\nThe use of computer technology for teaching and learning began to receive government of Ghana's attention from the late 1990s. The information and communications technology in education policy of Ghana requires the use of information and communications technology for teaching and learning at all levels of the education of Ghana system. The Ministry of Education (MOE) supports institutions in teaching of information and communications technology literacy. Majority of secondary, and some basic schools of Ghana have computer laboratories. \n\nGhana's intention of becoming the information technology hub of West Africa has led the government of Ghana to enact cyber crime legislation and enhance cyber security practices. Acting on that goal, in 2008 Ghana passed the Electronic Communications Act and the Electronic Transactions Act, which established the legal framework for governing information technology. In November 2011, the Deputy Minister for Communications and Technology announced the development of a national cyber security strategy, aimed at combating cyber crime and securing critical infrastructure.\n\nIn June 2012, the National Information Technology Agency (NITA) announced a national computer emergency response team \"strategy\" designed to co-ordinate government response to cyberattacks, both internal and external. The Agency also establish computer emergency response teams for each municipal, metropolitan, and district assembly to improve co-ordination and information-sharing on cyberspace threats. Ghana is ranked 2nd on continental Africa and 7th globally in cyber warfare, cyberterrorism, cyber crime, and internet crime. \n\nHealth and biotechnology\n\nThe Centre for Scientific Research into Plant Medicine is an agency of the Ministry of Health that was set up in the 1970s for both R&D and as a practical resource (product production & distribution/provision) primarily in areas of biotechnology related to medicinal plants. This includes both herbal medicine and work on more advanced applications. It also has a secondary role as an educational resource for foreign students in health, biotechnology and related fields. The two most known diseases in Ghana are malaria and HIV/AIDS. These diseases are very easy to catch but also very easy to avoid or prevent from having. \n\nEducation\n\nOverview\n\nGhanaian Education system is divided in three parts: \"Basic Education\", secondary cycle and tertiary education. \"Basic Education\" lasts 11 years (ages 4‒15). It is divided into Kindergarten (2 years), Primary School (2 module of 3 years) and Junior High (3 years). Junior High School (JHS) ends with the Basic Education Certificate Examination (BECE). Once the BECE achieved, the pupil can pursue into secondary cycle. Hence, the pupil has the choice between general education (assumed by Senior High School) and vocational education (assumed by technical Senior High School, Technical and Vocational Institutes, completed by a massive private and informal offer). Senior High School lasts three years and ends on the West African Secondary School Certificate Examination (WASSCE). The WASSCE is needed to join a university bachelor's degree programme. Polytechnics are opened to vocational students, from SHS or from TVI. \n\nA Bachelor's degree usually lasts 4 years, can be followed by a 1- or 2-year master's degree, which can be concluded in 3 years by a Ph.D. A polytechnic lasts 2 or 3 years. Ghana also possesses numerous colleges of education. The Ghanaian education system from Kindergarten up to an undergraduate degree level takes 20 years.\n\nThe academic year usually goes from August to May inclusive. The school year in primary education lasts 40 weeks in Primary School and SHS, and 45 weeks in JHS.\n\nEnrollment\n\nWith over 95% of its children in school, Ghana currently has one of the highest school enrollment rates in all of Africa. The ratio of females to males in the total education system was 0.98, in 2014. \n\nForeign students\n\nGhana's education system annually attracts a large number of foreign students particularly in the university sector. One noted product of the Ghana education system is Robert Mugabe who completed both his elementary school education and high school education at the prestigious Achimota School. \n\nFunding of education\n\nThe government largely funds basic education comprising public primary schools and public junior high schools. Senior high schools are highly subsidised by the government. At the higher education level, the government funds more than 80% of resources provided to public universities, polytechnics and teacher training colleges.\n\nProvision of educational material\n\nAs part of the Free Compulsory Universal Basic Education, Fcube, the government supplies all basic education schools with all their textbooks and other educational supplies like exercise books. Senior high schools are also provided with all their textbook requirement by the government. Private schools acquire their educational material from private suppliers. Ghana has the largest bookshop in Africa, EPP Books Services located at the University of Ghana.\n\nKindergarten and education structure\n\nThe female and male ages 15–24 years literacy rate in Ghana was 81% in 2010, with males at 82%, and females at 80%. \n\nGhanaian children begin their education at the age of three or four starting from kindergarten (nursery school and preschool), then to elementary school (primary school), high school (junior high school and senior high school) and finally university. The average age at which a Ghanaian child enters primary school is 6 years.\n\nGhana has a free education 6-year primary school education system beginning at age six, and, under the educational reforms implemented in 1987 and reformed in 2007, they pass on to a 3-year junior high school system. At the end of the third year of junior high, there is a mandatory \"Basic Education Certificate Examination\". Those continuing must complete the 4-year senior high school programme (which has been changed to three years) and take an admission exam to enter any university or tertiary programme. The Ghanaian education system from nursery school up to an undergraduate degree level takes 20 years.\n\nIn 2005, Ghana had 12,130 primary schools, 5,450 junior secondary schools, 503 senior secondary schools, 21 public training colleges, 18 technical institutions, two diploma-awarding institutions and 6 universities. \n\nIn 2010, there were relatively more females (53.0%) than males (40.5%) with Primary school and JSS (Junior Secondary School) / JHS (Junior High School) as their highest level of education.\n\nElementary\n\nThe Ghanaian Ministry of Education and the Ghanaian National Accreditation Board provide Free education at Elementary school (Primary school Education) level, and most Ghanaians have relatively easy access to High school Education (Junior high school Education and Senior high school Education). These numbers can be contrasted with the single university and handful of secondary and primary schools that existed at the time of independence in 1957. Ghana's spending on education has varied between 28–40% of its annual budget in the past decade. All teaching is done in English, mostly by qualified Ghanaian educators.\n\nThe courses taught at the primary or basic school level include English, Ghanaian language and culture, mathematics, environmental studies, social studies, Mandarin and French as an OIF associated-member; as further languages are added, integrated or general science, pre-vocational skills and pre-technical skills, religious and moral education, and physical activities such as Ghanaian music and dance, and physical education.\n\nHigh school\n\nThe senior high level school curriculum has core subjects and elective subjects of which students must take four the core subjects of English language, mathematics, integrated science (including science, agriculture and environmental studies) and social studies (economics, geography, history and government).\n\nThe high school students also choose 4 elective subjects from 5 available programmes: agriculture programme, general programme (arts or science option), business programme, vocational programme and technical programme. Apart from most primary and secondary schools which choose the Ghanaian system of schooling, there are also international schools such as the Takoradi International School, Tema International School, Galaxy International School, The Roman Ridge School, Lincoln Community School, Faith Montessori School, American International School, Association International School, New Nation School, SOS Hermann Gmeiner International College, North Legon Little Campus and International Community School, which offer the International Baccalaureat, Advanced Level General Certificate of Education and the International General Certificate of Secondary Education (IGCSE).\n\nUniversity\n\nThere are eight national public universities in Ghana — the University of Ghana, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, University of Cape Coast, University of Education, University for Development Studies, University of Mines and Technology, University of Professional Studies, Accra, University of Energy and Natural Resources, and University of Health and Allied Sciences. \n\nGhana has a growing number of accredited private universities including Ghana Technology University College, Ashesi University College, Methodist University College Ghana, Central University College, Accra Institute of Technology, Regent University College of Science and Technology, Valley View University and Zenith University College. \n\nThe oldest university in Ghana, the University of Ghana, was founded in 1948. It had 29,754 students in 2008. Its programmes in the arts, humanities, business, and the social sciences, as well as medicine are among of the best in the country. Many top universities — including Harvard University, Cornell University, and Oxford University — have special study abroad programmes with Ghanaian schools and provide their students the opportunity to study abroad at Ghanaian universities. New York University has a campus in Accra. \n\nThe University of Ghana has seen a shift of its traditionally best students to the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology. Since Ghana's independence, the country has been one of the most educational in sub-Saharan Africa. Former UN Secretary General Kofi Annan has been chancellor of the University of Ghana since 2008.\n\nKwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, the second university to be established in the country, is the premier university of science and technology in Ghana and West Africa.\n\nDemographics\n\nThe vast majority of Ghana's population — 98% percent — are Black Africans Ghana is a multiethnic country. The largest ethnic group is the Ashanti people. Ghana's territorial area within West Africa was unoccupied and uninhabited by humans until the 10th century BC. By the 10th century AD. The Guans were the first settlers in Ghana long before the other tribes came. (Akans) had established Bonoman (Brong Ahafo region) and were joined by the current settlers and inhabitants in the 16th century.\n\nIn 2010 the inhabiting population of Ghana was 71.2% Christian (28.3% are Pentecostal, 18.4% Protestant, 13.1% Catholic and 11.4% other). Approximately 17.6% of the inhabiting population of Ghana were Muslims, (51% Sunni, 16% Ahmadiyya, and 8% Shia). \n\nAs of the year 2014, there are 375,000 registered legal skilled workers (permanent residents) or foreign workers/students (i.e. Ghana Card holders) inhabitants with an annually 1.5 million transited airport layovers. In its first post-colonial census in 1960, Ghana had a population of 6.7 million. The median age of Ghanaian citizens is 30 years old and the average household size is 3.6 persons. The Government of Ghana states that the official language of Ghana is English, and is spoken by 67.1% of the inhabiting population of Ghana.\n\nPopulation\n\nIn 2010, most of the 24.2 million inhabitants were predominantly citizens of the Ashanti (Akan) territories or Ashantiland (Kingdom of Ashanti) (4.7 million in Ashanti, 2.3 million in Brong-Ahafo, 2.2 million in Central, 2.6 million in Eastern, 2.3 million in Western, and 4 million in the seat of government in Greater Accra geographically and legally part of Eastern then administered separately on 23 July 1982). \n, 4.1 million persons reside in the Dagbani territories or Kingdom of Dagbon (2.4 million in Northern, 1 million in Upper East, and 0.7 million in Upper West).\n\n, 2.1 million persons reside in Ewe territory Volta.\n\nLegal immigration\n\nDue to recent legal immigration of skilled workers who possess Ghana Cards, there is a small population of Chinese, Malaysian, Indian, Middle Eastern and European nationals.\n\nIllegal immigration\n\nIn 2010, the Ghana Immigration Service reported that there was a large number of economic migrants and Illegal immigrants inhabiting Ghana 14.6% (or 3.1 million) of Ghana's 2010 population (predominantly Nigerians, Burkinabe citizens, Togolese citizens, and Malian citizens). In 1969, under the \"Ghana Aliens Compliance Order\" (GACO) enacted by the Prime Minister of Ghana Kofi Abrefa Busia; Government of Ghana with BGU (Border Guard Unit) deported over 3 million aliens and illegal immigrants in 3 months as they made up 20% of the inhabiting population at the time. In 2013, there was a mass deportation of illegal miners, more than 4,000 of whom were Chinese nationals. \n\nLanguage\n\nThere are eleven languages that have the status of government-sponsored languages: four are Akan ethnic languages (Asante Twi, Akuapem Twi, Mfantse and Nzema), two are Mole-Dagbani ethnic languages (Dagaare and Dagbanli). The rest are Ewe, Dangme, Ga, Gonja, and Kasem. \n\nEnglish is the language of the state and is widely used as a lingua franca.\n\nReligion\n\nGhana is a largely Christian country, although a sizable Muslim minority exists. Traditional (indigenous) beliefs are also practiced.\n\nFertility and reproductive health\n\nFertility rate of Ghana declined from 3.99 (2000) to 3.28 (2010) with 2.78 in urban region and 3.94 in rural region. \n\n, the maternal mortality rate was 350 deaths/100,000 live births, and the infant mortality rate was 38.52 deaths/1,000 live births.\n\nAccording to a 2013 UNICEF report,[http://www.unicef.org/media/files/FGCM_Lo_res.pdf UNICEF 2013], p. 27. 4% of women in Ghana have undergone female genital mutilation (FGM). The practice has been made illegal in the country. \nGhana is also the birth country of anti-FGM campaigner Efua Dorkenoo.\n\nUniversal health care and health care provision\n\nGhana has a universal health care system strictly designated for Ghanaian nationals, National Health Insurance Scheme (NHIS). Health care is very variable throughout Ghana and in 2012, over 12 million Ghanaian nationals were covered by the National Health Insurance Scheme (Ghana) (NHIS). Urban centres are well served, and contain most of the hospitals, clinics, and pharmacies in Ghana. There are over 200 hospitals in Ghana and Ghana is a destination for medical tourism. \n\nIn 2013, life expectancy at birth had increased to an average of 66 years with males at 66 years and females at 67 years, and in 2013 infant mortality decreased to 39 per 1,000 live births. There was an estimation of 15 physicians and 93 nurses per 100,000 persons in 2010. 5.2% of Ghana's GDP was spent on health in 2010, and all Ghanaian citizens have the right to access primary health care. \n\n, the HIV/AIDS prevalence was estimated at 1.40% among adults aged 15–49. \n\nCulture\n\nGhanaian culture is a diverse mixture of the practices and beliefs of many different Ghanaian ethnic groups.\n\nFood and drink\n\nGhanaian cuisine and gastronomy is diverse, and includes an assortment of soups and stews with varied seafoods and most Ghanaian soups are prepared with vegetables, meat, poultry or fish. Fish is important in the Ghanaian diet with tilapia, roasted and fried whitebait, smoked fish and crayfish all being common components of Ghanaian dishes.\n\nBanku is a common Ghanaian starchy food made from ground corn (maize), and cornmeal based staples, dokonu (kenkey) and banku are usually accompanied by some form of fried fish (chinam) or grilled tilapia and a very spicy condiment made from raw red and green chillies, onions and tomatoes (pepper sauce). Banku and tilapia is a combo served in most Ghanaian restaurants. Fufu is the most common exported Ghanaian dish in that it is a delicacy across the African diaspora.\n\nLiterature\n\nThe Ghanaian national literature radio programme and accompanying publication Voices of Ghana was one of the earliest on the African continent. The most prominent Ghanaian authors are novelists; J. E. Casely Hayford, Ayi Kwei Armah and Nii Ayikwei Parkes, who gained international acclaim with the books, Ethiopia Unbound (1911), The Beautyful Ones Are Not Yet Born (1968) and Tail of the Blue Bird (2009), respectively. In addition to novels, other literature arts such as Ghanaian theatre and poetry have also had a very good development and support at the national level with prominent Ghanaian playwrights and poets Joe de Graft and Efua Sutherland.\n\nAdinkra\n\nDuring the 13th century, Ghanaians developed their unique art of adinkra printing. Hand-printed and hand-embroidered adinkra clothes were made and used exclusively by the then Ghanaian royalty for devotional ceremonies. Each of the motifs that make up the corpus of adinkra symbolism has a name and meaning derived from a proverb, a historical event, human attitude, ethology, plant life-form, or shapes of inanimate and man-made objects. These are graphically rendered in stylised geometric shapes. The meanings of the motifs may be categorised into aesthetics, ethics, human relations, and concepts.\n\nThe Adinkra symbols have a decorative function as tattoos but also represent objects that encapsulate evocative messages that convey traditional wisdom, aspects of life or the environment. There are many different symbols with distinct meanings, often linked with proverbs. In the words of Anthony Appiah, they were one of the means in a pre-literate society for \"supporting the transmission of a complex and nuanced body of practice and belief\". \n\nTraditional clothing\n\nAlong with the Adinkra cloth Ghanaians use many different cloth fabrics for their traditional attire. The different ethnic groups have their own individual cloth. The most well known is the Kente cloth. Kente is a very important Ghanaian national costume and clothing and these cloths are used to make traditional and modern Ghanaian Kente attire. \n\nDifferent symbols and different colours mean different things. Kente is the most famous of all the Ghanaian cloths. Kente is a ceremonial cloth hand-woven on a horizontal treadle loom and strips measuring about 4 inches wide are sewn together into larger pieces of cloths. Cloths come in various colours, sizes and designs and are worn during very important social and religious occasions.\n\nIn a cultural context, kente is more important than just a cloth and it is a visual representation of history and also a form of written language through weaving. The term kente has its roots in the Akan word kɛntɛn which means a basket and the first kente weavers used raffia fibres to weave cloths that looked like kenten (a basket); and thus were referred to as kenten ntoma; meaning basket cloth. The original Akan name of the cloth was nsaduaso or nwontoma, meaning \"a cloth hand-woven on a loom\"; however, \"kente\" is the most frequently used term today.\n\nModern clothing\n\nContemporary Ghanaian fashion include traditional and modern styles and fabrics and has made its way into the African and global fashion scene. The cloth known as African print fabric was created out of Dutch wax textiles, it is believed that in the late 1800s, Dutch ships on their way to Asia stocked with machine-made textiles that mimicked Indonesian Batik stopped at many West African ports on the way. The fabrics did not do well in Asia. However, in West Africa mainly Ghana where there was an already established market for cloths and textiles, the client base grew and it was changed to include local and traditional designs, colors and patterns to cater to the taste of the new consumers. \nToday outside of Africa it is being called \"Ankara\" and it has a client base well beyond Ghana and Africa as a whole. It is very popular among Caribbean peoples and African Americans – celebrities such as Solange Knowles and sister Beyoncé have been seen wearing African print attire. Many European and American designers are now using African prints and it has gained a Global interest. European luxury fashion house Burberry created a collection around Ghanaian styles. American musician Gwen Stefani has repeatedly incorporated African prints into her clothing line and can often be seen wearing it. Internationally acclaimed Ghanaian-British designer Ozwald Boateng introduced African print suits in his 2012 collection. \n\nMusic and dance\n\nThe music of Ghana is diverse and varies between different ethnic groups and regions. Ghanaian music incorporates several distinct types of musical instruments such as the talking drum ensembles, Akan Drum, goje fiddle and koloko lute, court music, including the Akan Seperewa, the Akan atumpan, the Ga kpanlogo styles, and log xylophones used in asonko music. The most well known genres to have come from Ghana are African jazz which was created by Ghanaian artist Kofi Ghanaba. and its earliest form of secular music is called highlife. Highlife originated in the late 19th century and early 20th century and spread throughout West Africa. In the 1990s a new genre of music was created by the youth incorporating the influences of highlife, Afro-reggae, dancehall and hiphop. This hybrid was called Hiplife. Ghanaian artists such as \"Afro Roots\" singer, activist and songwriter Rocky Dawuni, R&B and soul singer Rhian Benson and Sarkodie have had international success. In December 2015, Rocky Dawuni became the first Ghanaian musician to be nominated for a Grammy award in the Grammy Award for Best Reggae Album category for his 6th studio album titled Branches of The Same Tree released 31 March 2015.\n\nGhanaian dance is as diverse as its music, and there are traditional dances and different dances for different occasions. The most known Ghanaian dances are those for celebrations. These dances include the Adowa, Kpanlogo, Azonto, Klama, and Bamaya.\n\nFilm\n\nGhana has a budding and thriving film industry. Ghana's film industry dates as far back as 1948 when the Gold Coast Film Unit was set up in the Information Services Department. Some internationally recognised films have come from Ghana. In 1970, I Told You So was one of the first Ghanaian films to receive international acknowledgement and great reviews by The New York Times. It was followed by the 1973 Ghanaian and Italian production The African Deal also known as \"Contratto carnale\" featuring Bahamian American actor Calvin Lockhart. 1983's Kukurantumi: the Road to Accra, a Ghanaian and German production directed by King Ampaw was written about by famous American film critic Vincent Canby. In 1987, Cobra Verde another Ghanaian and German production directed by Werner Herzog received international acclamation and in 1988, Heritage Africa won more than 12 film awards.\n\nIn recent times there has been some collaboration between Ghanaian and Nigerian crew and cast with a number of productions being turned out. Many Ghanaian films are co-produced with Nollywood, the Nigerian film industry and some are distributed by Nigerian marketers. Also, Nigerian filmmakers usually feature Ghanaian actors and actresses in their movies and Ghanaian filmmakers feature Nigerian actors and actresses in theirs. Nadia Buari, Yvonne Nelson, Lydia Forson and Jackie Appiah all popular Ghanaian actresses and Van Vicker and Majid Michel both popular Ghanaian actors, have starred in many Nigerian movies. As a result of these collaborations, Western viewers oftentimes confused Ghanaian movies with Nollywood and count their sales as one; however, they are two independent industries that sometimes share the colloquial Nollywood. In 2009, Unesco described Nollywood as being the second-biggest film industry in the world after Bollywood. \n\nMedia\n\nThe media of Ghana are amongst the most free in Africa. Chapter 12 of the 1992 Constitution of Ghana guarantees freedom of the press and independence of the media, while Chapter 2 prohibits censorship., Government of Ghana. Post-independence, the government and media often had a tense relationship, with private outlets closed during the military governments and strict media laws that prevent criticism of government.Anokwa, K. (1997). In Press Freedom and Communication in Africa. Erbio, F. & Jong-Ebot, W. (Eds.) Africa World Press. ISBN 978-0-86543-551-3.\n\nMedia freedoms were restored in 1992, and after the election in 2000 of John Agyekum Kufuor the tensions between the private media and government decreased. Kufuor was a supporter of press freedom and repealed a libel law, though maintained that the media had to act responsibly.[http://www.pressreference.com/Fa-Gu/Ghana.html Basic Data]. pressreference.com The Ghanaian media has been described as \"one of the most unfettered\" in Africa, operating with little restriction on private media. The private press often carries criticism of government policy.[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1023355.stm#media BBC Country Profile: Ghana], BBC News.\n\nSports\n\nAssociation soccer (or Football) is the most spectated sport in Ghana and the national men's football team is known as the Black Stars, with the under-20 team known as the Black Satellites. Ghana has won the African Cup of Nations four times, the FIFA U-20 World Cup once, and has participated in three consecutive FIFA World Cups dating back to 2006. In the 2010 FIFA World Cup, Ghana became the third African country to reach the quarter-final stage of the World Cup after Cameroon in 1990 and Senegal in 2002. Ghana national U-20 football team, known as the Black Satellites, is considered to be the feeder team for the Ghana national football team. Ghana is the first and only country on the Africa continent to be crowned FIFA U-20 World Cup Champions, and two-time runners up in 1993 and 2001. The Ghana national U-17 football team known as the Black Starlets are two-time FIFA U-17 World Cup champions in 1991 and 1995, two-time runners up in 1993 and 1997. \n\nGhanaian football teams Asante Kotoko SC and Accra Hearts of Oak SC are the 5th and 9th best football teams on the Africa continent and have won a total of five Africa continental association football and Confederation of African Football trophies; Ghanaian football club Asante Kotoko SC has been crowned two-time CAF Champions League winners in 1970, 1983 and five-time CAF Champions League runners up, and Ghanaian football club Accra Hearts of Oak SC has been crowned 2000 CAF Champions League winner and two-time CAF Champions League runners up, 2001 CAF Super Cup champions and 2004 CAF Confederation Cup champions. The International Federation of Football History and Statistics crowned Asante Kotoko SC as the African club of the 20th century. There are several club football teams in Ghana that play in the Ghana Premier League and Division One League, both administered by the Ghana Football Association. \n\nGhana competed in the Winter Olympics in 2010 for the first time, Ghana qualified for the 2010 Winter Olympics, scoring 137.5 International Ski Federation points, within the qualifying range of 120–140 points. \nGhanaian skier, Kwame Nkrumah-Acheampong, nicknamed \"The Snow Leopard\", became the first Ghanaian to take part in the Winter Olympics, at the 2010 Winter Olympics held in Vancouver, Canada, taking part in the slalom skiing. \n\nGhana finished 47th out of 102 participating nations, of whom 54 finished in the Alpine skiing slalom. Kwame Nkrumah-Acheampong broke on the international skiing circuit, being the second black African skier to do so. \n\nGhanaian athletes have won a total of four Olympics medals in thirteen appearances at the Summer Olympics, three in boxing, and a bronze medal in association football, and thus became the first country on the Africa continent to win a medal at association football. \n\nThe country has also produced quite a few quality boxers, including Azumah Nelson a three-time world champion and considered as Africa's greatest boxer, Nana Yaw Konadu also a three-time world champion, Ike Quartey, and Joshua Clottey. \n\nCultural heritage and architecture\n\nThere are two types of Ghanaian traditional construction; The series of adjacent buildings in an enclosure around a common are common and the traditional round huts with grass roof. The round huts with grass roof architecture are situated in the northern regions of Ghana (Northern, Upper East and Upper West regions), while the series of adjacent buildings are in the southern regions of Ghana (Ashanti, Brong-Ahafo, Central, Eastern, Greater Accra and Western regions).\n\nGhanaian postmodern architecture and high-tech architecture buildings are predominant in the Ghanaian southern regions, while the Ghanaian heritage sites are most evident by the more than thirty forts and castles built in Ghana. Some of these forts are Fort William and Fort Amsterdam. Ghana has museums that are situated inside castles, and two are situated inside a fort. The Military Museum and the National Museum organise temporary exhibitions. \n\nGhana has museums that show a in-depth look at specific Ghanaian regions, there are a number of museums that provide insight into the traditions and history of their own geographical area in Ghana. The Cape Coast Castle Museum and St. Georges Castle (Elmina Castle) Museum offer guided tours. The Museum of Science and Technology provides its visitors with a look into the domain of Ghanaian scientific development, through exhibits of objects of scientific and technological interest.\n\nNational symbols\n\nThe coat of arms depicts two animals: the tawny eagle (Aquila rapax, a very large bird that lives in the savannas and deserts; 35% of Ghana's landmass is desert, 35% is forest, 30% is savanna) and the lion (Panthera leo, a big cat); a ceremonial sword, an heraldic castle on an heraldic sea, a cocoa tree and a mine shaft representing the industrial mineral wealth of Ghana, and a five-pointed black star rimmed with gold representing the mineral gold wealth of Ghana and the lodestar of the Ghanaian people. It also has the legend Freedom and Justice. \n\nThe flag of Ghana consists of three horizontal bands (strips) of red (top), gold (middle) and green (bottom); the three bands are the same height and width; the middle band bears a five-pointed black star in the centre of the gold band, the colour red band stands for the blood spilled to achieve the nation's independence: gold stands for Ghana's industrial mineral wealth, and the color green symbolises the rich tropical rainforests and natural resources of Ghana. \n\nTourism\n\nIn 2011, 1,087,000 tourists visited Ghana. \n\nTourist arrivals to Ghana include: South Americans, Asians, Europeans, and North Americans. The attractions and major tourist destinations of Ghana include a warm, tropical climate year-round; diverse wildlife; exotic waterfalls such as Kintampo Waterfalls and the largest waterfall in west Africa, Wli Waterfalls; Ghana's coastal palm-lined sandy beaches; caves; mountains, rivers; meteorite impact crater and reservoirs and lakes such as Lake Bosumtwi or Bosumtwi meteorite crater and the largest man-made lake in the world by surface area, Lake Volta; dozens of castles and forts; UNESCO World Heritage Sites; nature reserves and national parks. \n\nThe World Economic Forum statistics in 2010 showed that out of the world's favourite tourist destinations, Ghana was ranked 108th out of 139 countries. The country had moved two places up from the 2009 rankings. In 2011, Forbes magazine, published that Ghana was ranked the eleventh most friendly country in the world. The assertion was based on a survey in 2010 of a cross-section of travellers. Of all the African countries that were included in the survey, Ghana ranked highest. Tourism is the fourth highest earner of foreign exchange for the country. In 2015, Ghana ranks as the 54th–most peaceful country in the world. \n\nTo enter Ghana, it is necessary to have a visa authorised by the Government of Ghana. Travelers must apply for this visa at a Ghanaian embassy; this process can take approximately two weeks. By law, visitors entering Ghana must be able to produce a yellow fever vaccination certificate.", "Ivory Coast, officially named the Republic of Côte d'Ivoire (, ; ,), is a country located in West Africa. Ivory Coast's political capital is Yamoussoukro, and its economic capital and largest city is the port city of Abidjan. Its bordering countries are Guinea and Liberia in the west, Burkina Faso and Mali in the north, and Ghana in the east. The Gulf of Guinea (Atlantic Ocean) is located south of Ivory Coast.\n\nPrior to its colonization by Europeans, Ivory Coast was home to several states, including Gyaaman, the Kong Empire, and Baoulé. Two Anyi kingdoms, Indénié and Sanwi, attempted to retain their separate identity through the French colonial period and after independence. Ivory Coast became a protectorate of France in 1843–44 and was later formed into a French colony in 1893 amid the European scramble for Africa. Ivory Coast achieved independence in 1960, they were led by Félix Houphouët-Boigny, who ruled the country until 1993. It maintained close political and economic association with its West African neighbors while at the same time maintaining close ties to the West, especially France. Since the end of Houphouët-Boigny's rule in 1993, Ivory Coast has experienced one coup d'état, in 1999, and two religion-grounded civil wars. The first took place between 2002 and 2007 and the second during 2010-2011.\n\nIvory Coast is a republic with a strong executive power invested in its President. Through the production of coffee and cocoa, the country was an economic powerhouse in West Africa during the 1960s and 1970s. Ivory Coast went through an economic crisis in the 1980s, contributing to a period of political and social turmoil. Changing into the 21st-century Ivorian economy is largely market-based and still relies heavily on agriculture, with smallholder cash-crop production being dominant.\n\nThe official language is French, with local indigenous languages also widely used, including Baoulé, Dioula, Dan, Anyin, and Cebaara Senufo. In total there are around 78 languages spoken in Ivory Coast. The main religions are Islam, Christianity (primarily Roman Catholicism), and various indigenous religions.\n\nNames \n\nOriginally, Portuguese and French merchant-explorers in the 15th and 16th centuries divided the west coast of Africa, very roughly, into five \"coasts\" reflecting local economies. The coast that the French named the Côte d'Ivoire and the Portuguese named the Costa do Marfim—both, literally, being \"Ivory Coast\"—lay between what was known as the Guiné de Cabo Verde, so-called \"Upper Guinea\" at Cabo Verde, and Lower Guinea. There was also a \"Grain Coast\", a \"Gold Coast\", and a \"Slave Coast\". Like those three, the name \"Ivory Coast\" reflected the major trade that occurred on that particular stretch of the coast, the export of ivory.\n\nOther names for the coast of ivory included the Côte de Dents, literally \"Teeth Coast\", again reflecting the trade in ivory; the Côte de Quaqua, after the people whom the Dutch named the Quaqua (alternatively Kwa Kwa); the Coast of the Five and Six Stripes, after a type of cotton fabric also traded there; and the Côte du Vent, the Windward Coast, after perennial local off-shore weather conditions. One can find the name Cote de(s) Dents regularly used in older works. It was used in Duckett's Dictionnaire and by Nicolas Villault de Bellefond, for examples, although Antoine François Prévost used Côte d'Ivoire. In the 19th century, it died out in favor of Côte d'Ivoire.\n\nThe coastline of the modern state is not quite coterminous with what the 15th- and 16th-century merchants knew as the \"Teeth\" or \"Ivory\" coast, which was considered to stretch from Cape Palmas to Cape Three Points and which is thus now divided between the modern states of Ghana and Ivory Coast (with a minute portion of Liberia). It retained the name through French rule, though, and independence in 1960. The name had long since been translated literally into other languages, which the postindependence government considered to be increasingly troublesome whenever its international dealings extended beyond the Francophone sphere. Therefore, in April 1986, the government declared Côte d'Ivoire (or, more fully, République de Côte d'Ivoire) to be its formal name for the purposes of diplomatic protocol, and officially refuses to recognize or accept any translation from French to another language in its international dealings.\n\nDespite the Ivorian government's request, the English translation \"Ivory Coast\" (often \"the Ivory Coast\") is still frequently used in English, by various media outlets and publications.\n\nHistory\n\nLand migration\n\nThe first human presence in Ivory Coast has been difficult to determine because human remains have not been well preserved in the country's humid climate. However, the presence of newly found weapon and tool fragments (specifically, polished axes cut through shale and remnants of cooking and fishing) has been interpreted as a possible indication of a large human presence during the Upper Paleolithic period (15,000 to 10,000 BC), or at the minimum, the Neolithic period. \n\nThe earliest known inhabitants of Ivory Coast have left traces scattered throughout the territory. Historians believe that they were all either displaced or absorbed by the ancestors of the present indigenous inhabitants, who migrated south into the area before the 16th century. Such groups included the Ehotilé (Aboisso), Kotrowou (Fresco), Zéhiri (Grand Lahou), Ega and Diès (Divo). \n\nPre-Islamic and Islamic periods\n\nThe first recorded history is found in the chronicles of North African (Berber) traders, who, from early Roman times, conducted a caravan trade across the Sahara in salt, slaves, gold, and other goods. The southern terminals of the trans-Saharan trade routes were located on the edge of the desert, and from there supplemental trade extended as far south as the edge of the rain forest. The more important terminals—Djenné, Gao, and Timbuctu—grew into major commercial centres around which the great Sudanic empires developed.\n\nBy controlling the trade routes with their powerful military forces, these empires were able to dominate neighbouring states. The Sudanic empires also became centres of Islamic education. Islam had been introduced in the western Sudan (today's Mali) by Muslim Berber traders from North Africa; it spread rapidly after the conversion of many important rulers. From the 11th century, by which time the rulers of the Sudanic empires had embraced Islam, it spread south into the northern areas of contemporary Ivory Coast.\n\nThe Ghana empire, the earliest of the Sudanic empires, flourished in present-day eastern Mauritania from the fourth to the 13th centuries. At the peak of its power in the 11th century, its realms extended from the Atlantic Ocean to Timbuctu. After the decline of Ghana, the Mali Empire grew into a powerful Muslim state, which reached its apogee in the early part of the 14th century. The territory of the Mali Empire in Ivory Coast was limited to the north-west corner around Odienné.\n\nIts slow decline starting at the end of the 14th century followed internal discord and revolts by vassal states, one of which, Songhai, flourished as an empire between the 14th and 16th centuries. Songhai was also weakened by internal discord, which led to factional warfare. This discord spurred most of the migrations of peoples southward toward the forest belt. The dense rain forest, covering the southern half of the country, created barriers to the large-scale political organizations that had arisen in the north. Inhabitants lived in villages or clusters of villages; their contacts with the outside world were filtered through long-distance traders. Villagers subsisted on agriculture and hunting.\n\nPre-European era\n\nFive important states flourished in Ivory Coast during the pre-European era. The Muslim Kong Empire was established by the Joola in the early 18th century in the north-central region inhabited by the Sénoufo, who had fled Islamization under the Mali Empire. Although Kong became a prosperous center of agriculture, trade, and crafts, ethnic diversity and religious discord gradually weakened the kingdom. The city of Kong was destroyed in 1895 by Samori Ture.\n\nThe Abron kingdom of Gyaaman was established in the 17th century by an Akan group, the Abron, who had fled the developing Ashanti confederation of Asanteman in what is present-day Ghana. From their settlement south of Bondoukou, the Abron gradually extended their hegemony over the Dyula people in Bondoukou, who were recent émigrés from the market city of Begho. Bondoukou developed into a major center of commerce and Islam. The kingdom's Quranic scholars attracted students from all parts of West Africa. In the mid-17th century in east-central Ivory Coast, other Akan groups fleeing the Asante established a Baoulé kingdom at Sakasso and two Agni kingdoms, Indénié and Sanwi.\n\nThe Baoulé, like the Ashanti, developed a highly centralized political and administrative structure under three successive rulers. It finally split into smaller chiefdoms. Despite the breakup of their kingdom, the Baoulé strongly resisted French subjugation. The descendants of the rulers of the Agni kingdoms tried to retain their separate identity long after Ivory Coast's independence; as late as 1969, the Sanwi attempted to break away from Ivory Coast and form an independent kingdom. The current king of Sanwi is Nana Amon Ndoufou V (since 2002).\n\nEstablishment of French rule\n\nCompared to neighboring Ghana, Ivory Coast suffered little from the slave trade, as European slaving and merchant ships preferred other areas along the coast with better harbors. The earliest recorded European voyage to West Africa was made by the Portuguese in 1482. The first West African French settlement, Saint Louis, was founded in the mid-17th century in Senegal, while at about the same time, the Dutch ceded to the French a settlement at Goree Island, off Dakar. A French mission was established in 1637 Assinie near the border with the Gold Coast (now Ghana).\n\nAssinie's survival was precarious, however; the French were not firmly established in Ivory Coast until the mid-19th century. In 1843–4, French admiral Bouët-Willaumez signed treaties with the kings of the Grand Bassam and Assinie regions, making their territories a French protectorate. French explorers, missionaries, trading companies, and soldiers gradually extended the area under French control inland from the lagoon region. Pacification was not accomplished until 1915.\n\nActivity along the coast stimulated European interest in the interior, especially along the two great rivers, the Senegal and the Niger. Concerted French exploration of West Africa began in the mid-19th century, but moved slowly, based more on individual initiative than on government policy. In the 1840s, the French concluded a series of treaties with local West African rulers that enabled the French to build fortified posts along the Gulf of Guinea to serve as permanent trading centres.\n\nThe first posts in Ivory Coast included one at Assinie and another at Grand Bassam, which became the colony's first capital. The treaties provided for French sovereignty within the posts, and for trading privileges in exchange for fees or coutumes paid annually to the local rulers for the use of the land. The arrangement was not entirely satisfactory to the French, because trade was limited and misunderstandings over treaty obligations often arose. Nevertheless, the French government maintained the treaties, hoping to expand trade.\n\nFrance also wanted to maintain a presence in the region to stem the increasing influence of the British along the Gulf of Guinea coast. The French built naval bases to keep out non-French traders and began a systematic conquest of the interior. (They accomplished this only after a long war in the 1890s against Mandinka forces, mostly from Gambia. Guerrilla warfare by the Baoulé and other eastern groups continued until 1917).\n\nThe defeat of France in the Franco-Prussian War in 1871 and the subsequent annexation by Germany of the French province of Alsace-Lorraine caused the French government to abandon its colonial ambitions and withdraw its military garrisons from its French West African trading posts, leaving them in the care of resident merchants. The trading post at Grand Bassam in Ivory Coast was left in the care of a shipper from Marseille, Arthur Verdier, who in 1878 was named Resident of the Establishment of Ivory Coast. \n\nIn 1886, to support its claims of effective occupation, France again assumed direct control of its West African coastal trading posts and embarked on an accelerated program of exploration in the interior. In 1887, Lieutenant Louis Gustave Binger began a two-year journey that traversed parts of Ivory Coast's interior. By the end of the journey, he had concluded four treaties establishing French protectorates in Ivory Coast. Also in 1887, Verdier's agent, Marcel Treich-Laplène, negotiated five additional agreements that extended French influence from the headwaters of the Niger River Basin through Ivory Coast.\n\nFrench colonial era\n\nBy the end of the 1880s, France had established what came through for control over the coastal regions of Ivory Coast, and in 1889 Britain recognized French sovereignty in the area. That same year, France named Treich-Laplène titular governor of the territory. In 1893, Ivory Coast was made a French colony, and then Captain Binger was appointed governor. Agreements with Liberia in 1892 and with Britain in 1893 determined the eastern and western boundaries of the colony, but the northern boundary was not fixed until 1947 because of efforts by the French government to attach parts of Upper Volta (present-day Burkina Faso) and French Sudan (present-day Mali) to Ivory Coast for economic and administrative reasons.\n\nFrance's main goal was to stimulate the production of exports. Coffee, cocoa, and palm oil crops were soon planted along the coast. Ivory Coast stood out as the only West African country with a sizeable population of settlers; elsewhere in West and Central Africa, the French and British were largely bureaucrats. As a result, French citizens owned one-third of the cocoa, coffee, and banana plantations and adopted a forced-labour system.\n\nThroughout the early years of French rule, French military contingents were sent inland to establish new posts. Some of the native population resisted French penetration and settlement. Among those offering greatest resistance was Samori Ture, who in the 1880s and 1890s was establishing the Wassoulou Empire, which extended over large parts of present-day Guinea, Mali, Burkina Faso, and Ivory Coast. Samori Ture's large, well-equipped army, which could manufacture and repair its own firearms, attracted strong support throughout the region. The French responded to Samori Ture's expansion of regional control with military pressure. French campaigns against Samori Ture, which were met with fierce resistance, intensified in the mid-1890s until he was captured in 1898.\n\nFrance's imposition of a head tax in 1900 to support the colony in a public works program provoked a number of revolts. Many Ivoirians viewed the tax as a violation of the terms of the protectorate treaties because they thought that France was demanding the equivalent of a coutume from the local kings, rather than the reverse. Many of the population, especially in the interior, considered the tax a humiliating symbol of submission. In 1905, the French officially abolished slavery in most of French West Africa. \n\nFrom 1904 to 1958, Ivory Coast was a constituent unit of the Federation of French West Africa. It was a colony and an overseas territory under the Third Republic. In World War I, France organized regiments from Ivory Coast to fight in France, and colony resources were rationed from 1917-1919. Some 150,000 men from Ivory Coast died in World War I. Until the period following World War II, governmental affairs in French West Africa were administered from Paris. France's policy in West Africa was reflected mainly in its philosophy of \"association\", meaning that all Africans in Ivory Coast were officially French \"subjects\", but without rights to representation in Africa or France.\n\nFrench colonial policy incorporated concepts of assimilation and association. Based on an assumption of the superiority of French culture over all others, in practice the assimilation policy meant the extension of French language, institutions, laws, and customs to the colonies. The policy of association also affirmed the superiority of the French in the colonies, but it entailed different institutions and systems of laws for the colonizer and the colonized. Under this policy, the Africans in Ivory Coast were allowed to preserve their own customs insofar as they were compatible with French interests.\n\nAn indigenous elite trained in French administrative practice formed an intermediary group between the French and the Africans. Assimilation was practiced in Ivory Coast to the extent that after 1930, a small number of Westernized Ivoirians were granted the right to apply for French citizenship. Most Ivoirians, however, were classified as French subjects and were governed under the principle of association. As subjects of France, they had no political rights. They were drafted for work in mines, on plantations, as porters, and on public projects as part of their tax responsibility. They were expected to serve in the military and were subject to the indigénat, a separate system of law.\n\nIn World War II, the Vichy regime remained in control until 1942, when British troops invaded without much resistance. Winston Churchill gave power back to members of General Charles de Gaulle's provisional government. By 1943, the Allies had returned French West Africa to the French. The Brazzaville Conference of 1944, the first Constituent Assembly of the Fourth Republic in 1946, and France's gratitude for African loyalty during World War II, led to far-reaching governmental reforms in 1946. French citizenship was granted to all African \"subjects\", the right to organize politically was recognized, and various forms of forced labor were abolished.\n\nUntil 1958, governors appointed in Paris administered the colony of Ivory Coast, using a system of direct, centralized administration that left little room for Ivoirian participation in policy making. Whereas British colonial administration adopted divide-and-rule policies elsewhere, applying ideas of assimilation only to the educated elite, the French were interested in ensuring that the small but influential elite was sufficiently satisfied with the status quo to refrain from any anti-French sentiment. Although strongly opposed to the practices of association, educated Ivoirians believed that they would achieve equality with their French peers through assimilation rather than through complete independence from France. After the assimilation doctrine was implemented entirely through the postwar reforms, though, Ivoirian leaders realized that even assimilation implied the superiority of the French over the Ivoirians, and that discrimination and political inequality would end only with independence.\n\nIndependence\n\nFélix Houphouët-Boigny,the son of a Baoulé chief, was to become Ivory Coast's father of independence. In 1944, he formed the country's first agricultural trade union for African cocoa farmers like himself. Angered that colonial policy favoured French plantation owners, they united to recruit migrant workers for their own farms. Houphouët-Boigny soon rose to prominence and within a year was elected to the French Parliament in Paris. A year later, the French abolished forced labour. Houphouët-Boigny established a strong relationship with the French government, expressing a belief that the country would benefit from it, which it did for many years. France appointed him as the first African to become a minister in a European government.\n\nA turning point in relations with France was reached with the 1956 Overseas Reform Act (Loi Cadre), which transferred a number of powers from Paris to elected territorial governments in French West Africa and also removed remaining voting inequalities. In 1958, Ivory Coast became an autonomous member of the French Community (which replaced the French Union).\n\nAt the time of Ivory Coast's independence (1960), the country was easily French West Africa's most prosperous, contributing over 40% of the region's total exports. When Houphouët-Boigny became the first president, his government gave farmers good prices for their products to further stimulate production. This was further boosted by a significant immigration of workers from surrounding countries. Coffee production increased significantly, catapulting Ivory Coast into third place in world output (behind Brazil and Colombia). By 1979, the country was the world's leading producer of cocoa.\n\nIt also became Africa's leading exporter of pineapples and palm oil. French technicians contributed to the \"Ivoirian miracle\". In other African nations, the people drove out the Europeans following independence, but in Ivory Coast, they poured in. The French community grew from only 30,000 prior to independence to 60,000 in 1980, most of them teachers, managers, and advisors. For 20 years, the economy maintained an annual growth rate of nearly 10%—the highest of Africa's non-oil-exporting countries.\n\nHouphouët-Boigny administration\n\nHouphouët-Boigny's one-party rule was not amenable to political competition. Laurent Gbagbo, who would become the president of Ivory Coast in 2000, had to flee the country in the 1980s, as he incurred the ire of Houphouët-Boigny when Gbagbo founded the Front Populaire Ivoirien. Houphouët-Boigny banked on his broad appeal to the population who continually elected him. He was also criticized for his emphasis on developing large-scale projects.\n\nMany felt the millions of dollars spent transforming his home village, Yamoussoukro, into the new political capital were wasted; others supported his vision to develop a centre for peace, education, and religion in the heart of the country. In the early 1980s, the world recession and a local drought sent shock waves through the Ivoirian economy. Due to the overcutting of timber and collapsing sugar prices, the country's external debt increased three-fold. Crime rose dramatically in Abidjan.\n\nIn 1990, hundreds of civil servants went on strike, joined by students protesting institutional corruption. The unrest forced the government to support multiparty democracy. Houphouët-Boigny became increasingly feeble, and died in 1993. He favoured Henri Konan Bédié as his successor.\n\nBédié administration\n\nIn October 1995, Bédié overwhelmingly won re-election against a fragmented and disorganised opposition. He tightened his hold over political life, jailing several hundred opposition supporters. In contrast, the economic outlook improved, at least superficially, with decreasing inflation and an attempt to remove foreign debt.\n\nUnlike Houphouët-Boigny, who was very careful in avoiding any ethnic conflict and left access to administrative positions open to immigrants from neighbouring countries, Bedié emphasized the concept of \"Ivority\" (Ivoirité) to exclude his rival Alassane Ouattara, who had two northern Ivorian parents, from running for future presidential election. As people originating from foreign countries are a large part of the Ivoirian population, this policy excluded many people from Ivoirian nationality, and the relationship between various ethnic groups became strained, which resulted in two civil wars in the following decades.\n\n1999 coup\n\nSimilarly, Bedié excluded many potential opponents from the army. In late 1999, a group of dissatisfied officers staged a military coup, putting General Robert Guéï in power. Bedié fled into exile in France. The new leadership reduced crime and corruption, and the generals pressed for austerity and openly campaigned in the streets for a less wasteful society.\n\nGbagbo administration\n\nA presidential election was held in October 2000 in which Laurent Gbagbo vied with Guéï, but it was peaceful. The lead-up to the election was marked by military and civil unrest. Following a public uprising that resulted in around 180 deaths, Guéï was swiftly replaced by Gbagbo. Alassane Ouattara was disqualified by the country's Supreme Court, due to his alleged Burkinabé nationality. The existing and later reformed constitution [under Guéï] did not allow noncitizens to run for the presidency. This sparked violent protests in which his supporters, mainly from the country's north, battled riot police in the capital, Yamoussoukro.\n\nIvorian Civil War\n\nIn the early hours of 19 September 2002, while the President was in Italy, an armed uprising occurred. Troops who were to be demobilised mutinied, launching attacks in several cities. The battle for the main gendarmerie barracks in Abidjan lasted until mid-morning, but by lunchtime, the government forces had secured the main city, Abidjan. They had lost control of the north of the country, and the rebel forces made their stronghold in the northern city of Bouaké.\n\nThe rebels threatened to move on Abidjan again, and France deployed troops from its base in the country to stop any rebel advance. The French said they were protecting their own citizens from danger, but their deployment also aided the government forces. That the French were helping either side was not established as a fact, but each side accused them of being on the opposite side. Whether the French actions improved or worsened the situation in the long term is disputed.\n\nWhat exactly happened that night is disputed. The government claimed that former president Robert Guéï had led a coup attempt, and state TV showed pictures of his dead body in the street; counter-claims stated that he and 15 others had been murdered at his home, and his body had been moved to the streets to incriminate him. Alassane Ouattara took refuge in the German embassy; his home had been burned down.\n\nPresident Gbagbo cut short his trip to Italy and on his return stated, in a television address, that some of the rebels were hiding in the shanty towns where foreign migrant workers lived. Gendarmes and vigilantes bulldozed and burned homes by the thousands, attacking the residents.\n\nAn early ceasefire with the rebels, which had the backing of much of the northern populace, proved short-lived, and fighting over the prime cocoa-growing areas resumed. France sent in troops to maintain the cease-fire boundaries, and militias, including warlords and fighters from Liberia and Sierra Leone, took advantage of the crisis to seize parts of the west.\n\n2002 Unity Government\n\nIn January 2003, Gbagbo and rebel leaders signed accords creating a \"government of national unity\". Curfews were lifted, and French troops patrolled the western border of the country. The unity government was unstable, and the central problems remained, with neither side achieving its goals. In March 2004, 120 people were killed in an opposition rally, and subsequent mob violence led to foreign nationals being evacuated. A later report concluded the killings were planned.\n\nThough UN peacekeepers were deployed to maintain a \"Zone of Confidence\", relations between Gbagbo and the opposition continued to deteriorate.\n\nEarly in November 2004, after the peace agreement had effectively collapsed following the rebels' refusal to disarm, Gbagbo ordered airstrikes against the rebels. During one of these airstrikes in Bouaké, on 6 November 2004, French soldiers were hit, and nine were killed; the Ivorian government has said it was a mistake, but the French have claimed it was deliberate. They responded by destroying most Ivoirian military aircraft (two Su-25 planes and five helicopters), and violent retaliatory riots against the French broke out in Abidjan. \n\nGbagbo's original mandate as president expired on 30 October 2005, but due to the lack of disarmament, holding an election was deemed impossible, so his term in office was extended for a maximum of one year, according to a plan worked out by the African Union; this plan was endorsed by the United Nations Security Council. With the late-October deadline approaching in 2006, the election was regarded as very unlikely to be held by that point, and the opposition and the rebels rejected the possibility of another term extension for Gbagbo. The UN Security Council endorsed another one-year extension of Gbagbo's term on 1 November 2006; however, the resolution provided for the strengthening of Prime Minister Charles Konan Banny's powers. Gbagbo said the next day that elements of the resolution deemed to be constitutional violations would not be applied. \n\nA peace accord between the government and the rebels, or New Forces, was signed on 4 March 2007, and subsequently Guillaume Soro, leader of the New Forces, became prime minister. These events were seen by some observers as substantially strengthening Gbagbo's position. \n\nAccording to UNICEF, after the Civil War ended, the water and sanitation situation was greatly damaged. Communities across the country required repairs to their water supply infrastructure.\n \n\n2010 election\n\nThe presidential elections that should have been organized in 2005 were postponed until November 2010. The preliminary results announced independently by the president of the Electoral Commission from the headquarters of Allasane due to controversies about fraud in that commission, consisting in majority and presided by Allasane supporters, showed a loss for Gbagbo in favour of his rival, former prime minister Alassane Ouattara.\n\nThe ruling FPI contested the results before the Constitutional Council, charging massive fraud in the northern departments controlled by the rebels of the Forces Nouvelles de Côte d'Ivoire. These charges were contradicted by United Nations' observers (differently from Africa Union Observers). The report of the results led to severe tension and violent incidents. The Constitutional Council, which consists of Gbagbo supporters, declared the results of seven northern departments unlawful and that Gbagbo had won the elections with 51% of the vote - instead of Ouattara winning with 54%, as reported by the Electoral Commission.\n\nAfter the inauguration of Gbagbo, Ouattara—who was recognized as the winner by most countries and the United Nations—organized an alternative inauguration. These events raised fears of a resurgence of the civil war; thousands of refugees fled the country.\n\nThe African Union sent Thabo Mbeki, former President of South Africa, to mediate the conflict. The United Nations Security Council adopted a common resolution recognising Alassane Ouattara as winner of the elections, based on the position of the Economic Community of West African States, which suspended Ivory Coast from all its decision-making bodies while the African Union also suspended the country's membership. \n\nIn 2010, a colonel of the Ivory Coast armed forces, Nguessan Yao, was arrested in New York in a year-long U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement operation charging for procuring and illegal export of weapons and munitions of 4,000 9 mm handguns, 200,000 rounds of ammunition, and 50,000 tear-gas grenades, in violation of a UN embargo. Several other Ivory Coast officers were released on their diplomatic passports. His accomplice, Michael Barry Shor, an international trader, was located in Virginia. \n\n2011 Civil War\n\nThe 2010 presidential election led to the 2010–2011 Ivorian crisis and the Second Ivorian Civil War. International organizations reported numerous human-rights violations by both sides. In the city of Duékoué, hundreds of people were killed. In nearby Bloléquin, dozens were killed. UN and French forces took military action against Gbagbo. Gbagbo was taken into custody after a raid into his residence on 11 April. The country was severely damaged by the war, and observers consider that it will be a challenge for Ouattara to rebuild the economy and reunite Ivorians. \n\nGeography\n\nIvory Coast is a country of western sub-Saharan Africa. It borders Liberia and Guinea in the west, Mali and Burkina Faso in the north, Ghana in the east, and the Gulf of Guinea (Atlantic Ocean) in the south. The country lies between latitudes 4° and 11°N, and longitudes 2° and 9°W. Around 64.8% of the land is agricultural land, Arable land taking up 9.1%, permanent pasture with 41.5%, and permanent crops occupying 14.2%. Water pollution is amongst one of the biggest issues that the country is currently facing. \n\nAdministrative divisions\n\nSince 2011, Ivory Coast has been administratively organised into 12 districts plus two district-level autonomous cities. The districts are divided into 31 regions; the regions are divided into 108 departments; and the departments are divided into 510 sub-prefectures. In some instances, multiple villages are organised into communes. The autonomous districts are not divided into regions, but they do contain departments, sub-prefectures, and communes.\n\nSince 2011, governors for the 12 non-autonomous districts have not been appointed, and as a result these districts have not yet begun to function as governmental entities.\n\nThe following is the list of districts, district capitals and each district's regions:\n\nEnvironment\n\nPolitics \n\nSince 1983, Ivory Coast's capital has been Yamoussoukro. Abidjan is the administrative center. Most countries maintain their embassies in Abidjan. The Ivoirian population continues to suffer because of an ongoing civil war. International human-rights organizations have noted problems with the treatment of captive noncombatants by both sides and the re-emergence of child slavery among workers in cocoa production.\n\nAlthough most of the fighting ended by late 2004, the country remained split in two, with the north controlled by the New Forces. A new presidential election was expected to be held in October 2005, and an agreement was reached among the rival parties in March 2007 to proceed with this, but it continued to be postponed until November 2010 due to delays in its preparation.\n\nElections were finally held in 2010. The first round of elections was held peacefully, and widely hailed as free and fair. Runoffs were held 28 November 2010, after being delayed one week from the original date of 21 November. Laurent Gbagbo as president ran against former Prime Minister Alassane Ouattara. \n\nOn 2 December, the Electoral Commission declared that Ouattara had won the election by a margin of 54% to 46%. In response, the Gbagbo-aligned Constitutional Council rejected the declaration, and the government announced that country's borders had been sealed. An Ivorian military spokesman said, \"The air, land, and sea border of the country are closed to all movement of people and goods.\" \n\nForeign relations \n\nIvory Coast is a member of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, African Union, La Francophonie, Latin Union, Economic Community of West African States and South Atlantic Peace and Cooperation Zone.\nIvory Coast have also partnered with various nations within the Sub-Saharan region in strengthening water and sanitation infrastructure. This has been done mainly with the help of organizations such as UNICEF and Nestle. \n\nIn 2015, the United Nations engineered the Sustainable Development Goals, replacing the Millennium Development Goals. The goals focus on health, education, poverty, hunger, climate change, water sanitation, and hygiene. A goal focused on majorly was the Clean Water and Sanitation. Experts working on this field have designed the WASH concept. WASH focuses on safe drinkable water, hygiene, and proper sanitation.The group has had a major impact on the Sub-Saharan region of Africa, particularly the Ivory Coast. By 2030, they plan to have universal and equal access to safe and affordable drinking water. \n\nMilitary \n\n, major equipment items reported by the Ivory Coast Army included 10 T-55 tanks (marked as potentially unserviceable), five AMX-13 light tanks, 34 reconnaissance vehicles, 10 BMP-½ armoured infantry fighting vehicles, 41 wheeled APCs, and 36+ artillery pieces. \n\nIn 2012, the Ivory Coast Airforce consisted of one Mil Mi-24 attack helicopter and three SA330L Puma transports (marked as potentially unserviceable). \n\nEconomy\n\nIvory Coast has, for the region, a relatively high income per capita (US$1014.4 in 2013) and plays a key role in transit trade for neighboring, landlocked countries. The country is the largest economy in the West African Economic and Monetary Union, constituting 40% of the monetary union’s total GDP. The country is the world's largest exporter of cocoa beans, and the fourth-largest exporter of goods, in general, in sub-Saharan Africa (following South Africa, Nigeria, and Angola). \n\nIn 2009, the cocoa-bean farmers earned $2.53 billion for cocoa exports and were expected to produce 630,000 metric tons in 2013. According to the Hershey Company, the price of cocoa beans is expected to rise dramatically in upcoming years. The Ivory Coast also has 100,000 rubber farmers who earned a total of $105 million in 2012. \n\nThe maintenance of close ties to France since independence in 1960, diversification of agriculture for export, and encouragement of foreign investment have been factors in the economic growth of Ivory Coast. In recent years, Ivory Coast has been subject to greater competition and falling prices in the global marketplace for its primary agricultural crops: coffee and cocoa. That, compounded with high internal corruption, makes life difficult for the grower, those exporting into foreign markets, and the labor force, inasmuch as instances of indentured labor have been reported in the cocoa and coffee production in every edition of the U.S. Department of Labor's List of Goods Produced by Child Labor or Forced Labor since 2009. \n\nSociety \n\nDemographics\n\nThe country's population was 15,366,672 in 1998, and was estimated to be 20,617,068 in 2009, and 23,919,000 in July 2014. Ivory Coast's first national census in 1975 counted 6.7 million inhabitants. \n\nAccording to 2012 government survey, the fertility rate was 5.0 children born per woman, with 3.7 in urban areas and 6.3 in rural areas. \n\nLanguages \n\nFrench, the official language, is taught in schools and serves as a lingua franca in the country. An estimated 65 languages are spoken in Ivory Coast. One of the most common is the Dyula language, which acts as a trade language, as well as a language commonly spoken by the Muslim population.\n\nEthnic groups \n\nEthnic groups include Akan 42.1%, Voltaiques or Gur 17.6%, Northern Mandes 16.5%, Krous 11%, Southern Mandes 10%, other 2.8% (includes 30,000 Lebanese and 45,000 French; 2004). About 77% of the population is considered Ivoirian.\n\nSince Ivory Coast has established itself as one of the most successful West African nations, about 20% of the population (about 3.4 million) consists of workers from neighbouring Liberia, Burkina Faso, and Guinea.\n\nAbout 4% of the population is of non-African ancestry. Many are French, Lebanese, Vietnamese and Spanish citizens, as well as Protestant missionaries from the United States and Canada. In November 2004, around 10,000 French and other foreign nationals evacuated Ivory Coast due to attacks from progovernment youth militias. Aside from French nationals, native-born descendants of French settlers who arrived during the country's colonial period are present.\n\nLargest cities\n\nReligion\n\nReligion in Ivory Coast remains very heterogeneous, with Islam (almost all Sunni Muslims, with some Ahmadi Muslims ) and Christianity (mostly Roman Catholic with smaller numbers of Protestants, primarily Methodists) being the major religions. Muslims dominate the north, while Christians dominate the south. In 2009, according to U.S. Department of State estimates, Christians and Muslims each made up 35 to 40% of the population, while an estimated 25% of the population practiced traditional (animist) religions. \n\nIvory Coast's capital, Yamoussoukro, is home to the largest church building in the world, the Basilica of Our Lady of Peace of Yamoussoukro.\n\nHealth\n\nLife expectancy at birth was 41 for males in 2004; for females it was 47. Infant mortality was 118 of 1000 live births. Twelve physicians are available per 100,000 people. About a quarter of the population lives below the international poverty line of US$1.25 a day. About 36% of women have undergone female genital mutilation. According to 2010 estimates, Ivory Coast has the 27th-highest maternal mortality rate in the world. The HIV/AIDS rate was 19th-highest in the world, estimated in 2012 at 3.20% among adults aged 15–49 years. \n\nEducation\n\nA large part of the adult population, in particular women, are illiterate. Many children between 6 and 10 years are not enrolled in school.\n The majority of students in secondary education are male. At the end of secondary education, students can sit the baccalauréat examination. The country has universities in Abidjan (Université de Cocody) and Bouaké (Université de Bouaké).\n\nCulture\n\nMusic\n\nEach of the ethnic groups in Ivory Coast has its own music genres, most showing strong vocal polyphony. Talking drums are also common, especially among the Appolo, and polyrhythms, another African characteristic, are found throughout Ivory Coast and are especially common in the southwest.\n\nPopular music genres from Ivory Coast include zoblazo, zouglou, and Coupé-Décalé. A few Ivorian artists who have known international success are Magic Système, Alpha Blondy, Meiway, Dobet Gnahore, Tiken Dja Fakoly, and Christina Goh from Ivorian descent.\n\nSport\n\nThe country has been the host for several major African sporting events, with the most recent being the 2013 African Basketball Championship. In the past, the country hosted the 1984 Africa Cup of Nations, in which its football team finished fifth, and the 1985 African Basketball Championship, where its basketball team won the gold medal.\n\nIvory Coast won an Olympic silver medal for men's 400-metre in the 1984 games, where it competed as \"Côte d'Ivoire\".\n\nThe most popular sport in Ivory Coast is association football. The national football team has played in the World Cup three times, in Germany 2006, in South Africa 2010, and Brazil in 2014. The woman's football team played in the 2015 Women's World Cup in Canada. Ivory Coast notable footballers are Didier Drogba, Yaya Touré, and Gervinho. Rugby union is also popular, and the national rugby union team qualified to play at the Rugby World Cup in South Africa in 1995. Ivory Coast also won two Africa Cups one 1992 and the other 2015.\n\nCuisine\n\nThe traditional cuisine of Ivory Coast is very similar to that of neighboring countries in West Africa in its reliance on grains and tubers. Cassava and plantains are significant parts of Ivorian cuisine. A type of corn paste called aitiu is used to prepare corn balls, and peanuts are widely used in many dishes. Attiéké is a popular side dish in Ivory Coast made with grated cassava and is a vegetable-based couscous. A common street food is alloco, which is ripe banana fried in palm oil, spiced with steamed onions and chili and eaten alone or with grilled fish. Chicken is commonly consumed and has a unique flavor due to its lean, low-fat mass in this region. Seafood includes tuna, sardines, shrimp, and bonito, which is similar to tuna. Mafé is a common dish consisting of meat in a peanut sauce. \n\nSlow-simmered stews with various ingredients are another common food staple in Ivory Coast. Kedjenou is a dish consisting of chicken and vegetables that are slow-cooked in a sealed pot with little or no added liquid, which concentrates the flavors of the chicken and vegetables and tenderizes the chicken. It is usually cooked in a pottery jar called a canary, over a slight fire, or cooked in an oven. Bangui is a local palm wine.\n\nIvorians have a particular kind of small, open-air restaurant called a maquis, which is unique to the region. A maquis normally features braised chicken and fish covered in onions and tomatoes, served with attiéké or kedjenou.", "Niger ( or; ), officially the Republic of Niger, is a landlocked country in Western Africa, named after the Niger River. Niger is bordered by Libya to the northeast, Chad to the east, Nigeria and Benin to the south, Burkina Faso and Mali to the west, and Algeria to the northwest. Niger covers a land area of almost 1,270,000 km2, making it the largest country in West Africa, with over 80 percent of its land area covered by the Sahara Desert. The country's predominantly Islamic population of 17,138,707 is mostly clustered in the far south and west of the country. The capital city is Niamey, located in the far-southwest corner of Niger.\n\nNiger is a developing country, and is consistently one of the lowest-ranked in the United Nations' Human Development Index (HDI); it was ranked last at 188th for 2014. Much of the non-desert portions of the country are threatened by periodic drought and desertification. The economy is concentrated around subsistence and some export agriculture clustered in the more fertile south, and the export of raw materials, especially uranium ore. Niger faces serious challenges to development due to its landlocked position, desert terrain, high fertility rates and resulting overpopulation without birth control, poor education and poverty of its people, lack of infrastructure, poor health care, and environmental degradation.\n\nNigerien society reflects a diversity drawn from the long independent histories of its several ethnic groups and regions and their relatively short period living in a single state. Historically, what is now Niger has been on the fringes of several large states. Since independence, Nigeriens have lived under five constitutions and three periods of military rule. Following a military coup in 2010, Niger has become a democratic, multi-party state. A majority live in rural areas, and have little access to advanced education.\n\nHistory\n\nPrehistory \n\nEarly human settlement in Niger is evidenced by numerous archaeological remains. In prehistoric times, the climate of the Sahara (Tenere desert in Niger) was wet and provided favorable conditions for agriculture and livestock herding in a fertile grassland environment five thousand years ago. \n\nIn 2005–06, a graveyard in the Tenere desert was discovered by Paul Sereno, a paleontologist from the University of Chicago. His team discovered 5,000-year-old remains of a woman and two children in the Tenere Desert. The evidence along with remains of animals that do not typically live in desert are among the strongest evidence of the 'green' Sahara in Niger. It is believed that progressive desertification around 5000 BCE pushed sedentary populations to the south and south-east (Lake Chad). \n\nEmpires and kingdoms in pre-colonial Niger \n\nBy at least the 5th century BCE, Niger became an area of trans-Saharan trade, led by the Berber tribes from the north, using camels as an adapted mean of transportation through the desert. This trade has made Agadez a pivotal place of the trans-Saharan trade. This mobility, which would continue in waves for several centuries, was accompanied with further migration to the south and interbreeding between southern black and northern white populations. It was also aided by the introduction of Islam to the region at the end of the 7th century. Several empires and kingdoms also flourished during this era up to the beginning of colonization in Africa.\n\nSonghai Empire (600–1591) \n\nThe Songhai Empire was an empire bearing the name of its main ethnic group, Songhai or Sonrai, and located in western Africa on the bend of the Niger River in present-day Niger, Mali and Burkina Faso. In the 7th century, Songhai tribes settled down north of modern-day Niamey and founded the Songhai city-states of Koukia and Gao. By the 11th century, Gao had become the capital of the Songhai Empire. \n\nFrom 1000 to 1325, The Songhai Empire prospered and managed to maintain peace with its neighboring empires including the Mali Empire. In 1325, the Songhai Empire was conquered by the Mali Empire, but was freed in 1335 by prince Ali Kolen and his brother, Songhai princes held captive by Moussa Kankan, the ruler of the Mali Empire. From the mid-15th to the late 16th century, Songhai was one of the largest Islamic empires in history. \n\nHausa kingdoms (mid-14th century – 1808) \n\nBetween the Niger River and the Lake Chad lay a fertile area and Hausa kingdoms. These kingdoms flourished from the mid-14th century up until the early 19th century when they were conquered by Usman dan Fodio, founder of the Sokoto Empire. The Hausa kingdoms were not a compact entity but several federations of kingdoms more or less independent of each other. Their organization was somewhat democratic: the Hausa kings were elected by the notables of the country and could be removed by the latter.\n\nThe Hausa Kingdoms began as seven states founded according to the Bayajidda legend by the six sons of Bawo. Bawo was the unique son of the hausa queen Daurama and Bayajidda or (Abu Yazid by certain Nigerien historians) who came from Baghdad. The seven original hausa states were: Daoura (state of queen Daurama), Kano, Rano, Zaria, Gobir, Katsena and Biram.\n\nMali Empire \n\nThe Mali Empire was a Mandinka empire founded by Sundiata Keita around 1230 that existed up to 1600. At its peak around 1350, the empire extended as far west as Senegal and Guinee Conkary and as far east as western Niger.\n\nKanem-Bornu Empire \n\nThe Kanem-Bornu Empire was an empire that existed in modern-day Chad, Nigeria, Cameroon, Niger and Libya. The empire first existed and prospered as the Kanem Empire as early as the 9th century and later as the kingdom of Bornu until 1900.\n\nFrench Niger (1900–58) \n\nIn the 19th century, contact with Europe began with the first European explorers—notably Monteil (French) and Barth (German)—to travel to Niger.\n\nFollowing the 1885 Berlin conference during which colonial powers outlined the division of Africa into colonial spheres, French military efforts to conquer existing African states were intensified in all French colonies including Niger. This included several military expeditions including the Voulet Chanoine Mission, which became notorious for pillaging, looting, raping and killing many local civilians on its passage. On 8 May 1899, in retaliation for the resistance of queen Sarraounia, captain Voulet and his men murdered all the inhabitants of the village of Birni-N'Konni in what is regarded as one of the worst massacres in French colonial history. French military expeditions met great resistance from several ethnic groups, especially Hausa and Tuareg groups. The most notable Tuareg revolt was the Kaocen Revolt. The French authorities also abolished the widespread slavery among Tuareg communities.\n\nBy 1922, all resistance to colonial rule was eliminated and Niger became a French colony. Niger's colonial history and development parallel that of other French West African territories. France administered her West African colonies through a governor general at Dakar, Senegal, and governors in the individual territories, including Niger. In addition to conferring a limited form of French citizenship on the inhabitants of the territories, the 1946 French constitution provided for decentralization of power and limited participation in political life for local advisory assemblies.\n\nThe end of the colonial era was characterized by a transformation of the political environment in French West Africa and Niger. The Nigerien Progressive Party, the Nigerien section of the African Democratic Rally Party, founded in May 1946, united various tendencies of Nigerien people in the movement for national independence. In alliance with progressive French elements and other independence African movements, the movements acquired the suppression of forced labor and arbitrary requisitions as well as legal equality between the African and the French citizens.\n\nIndependence (1958) \n\nFollowing the Overseas Reform Act (Loi Cadre) of 23 July 1956 and the establishment of the Fifth French Republic on 4 December 1958, Niger became an autonomous state within the French Community. On 18 December 1958, the Republic of Niger was officially created with Hamani Diori as the head of the Counsel of Ministers of the Republic of Niger. On 11 July 1960, Niger decided to leave the French Community and acquired full independence on 3 August 1960 with Diori as its first president. \n\nFor its first fourteen years as an independent state, Niger was run by a single-party civilian regime under the presidency of Diori. In 1974, a combination of devastating drought and accusations of rampant corruption resulted in a coup d'état that overthrew the Diori regime.\n\nFirst military regime: The Supreme Military Council \n\nCol. Seyni Kountché and a small military group under the name of Supreme Military Council deposed Diori in April 1974 following a military coup, the first of many in the post-colonial history of Niger. President Seyni Kountché ruled the country with iron fist until his death in 1987. \n\nThe first action of the Kountché's military government was to address the food crisis which was one of the catalysts of the military coup. While political prisoners of the Diori regime were released after the coup and the country was stabilized, political and individual freedom deteriorated in general during this period. Political parties were banned. Several attempted coups (1975, 1976 and 1983) were thwarted and authors and associates were severely punished.\nDespite the restriction in freedom, the country had improved economic development with the creation of new companies, the construction of major infrastructure (building and new roads, schools, health centers) and minimal corruption in government agencies, which Kountché did not hesitate to punish severely. \n\nThis economic development was helped by the uranium boom as well as optimal usage of public funds. \nKountché was succeeded by his Chief of Staff, Col. Ali Saibou, who was confirmed as Chief of the Supreme Military Council on 14 November 1987, four days after Kountché's death. He introduced political reforms and drafted a new constitution, with the creation of a single party. He went on to rule the country as the Chief of the Supreme Military Council.\n\nSecond republic \n\nThe 1989 referendum led to the adoption a new constitution and the creation of the Second Republic of Niger. General Saibou became the first president of the Second Republic after winning the presidential election on 10 December 1989. His presidency started during the Second Republic largely following his efforts at the end of the previous military regime with attempts at normalizing the political situation in the country with the release of political prisoners, liberalization of laws and policies.\n\nPresident Saibou's efforts to control political reforms failed in the face of trade union and student demands to institute a multi-party democratic system. The Saibou regime acquiesced to these demands by the end of 1990 and organized the National Conference of 1991, which heralded a new era of multi-party democracy in Niger.\n\nNational Sovereign Conference \n\nThe National Sovereign Conference of 1991 marked a turning point in the post-independence era of Niger and brought about multi-party democracy. Following a violently repressed student march that led to the death of three students, President Saibou agreed to hold a National Conference under pressure from national and international forces. From 29 July to 3 November, a national conference gathered all fringes of society to examine the political, economic and social situation of the country and make recommendations for the future direction of the country. The conference was presided over by Prof. André Salifou and developed a plan for a transitional government. This transitional government was installed in November 1991 to manage the affairs of state until the institutions of the Third Republic were put into place in April 1993.\n\nWhile the economy deteriorated over the course of the transition, there were certain notable accomplishments, including the successful conduct of a constitutional referendum; the adoption of key legislation such as the electoral and rural codes; and the holding of several free, fair, and non-violent nationwide elections. Freedom of the press flourished, with the appearance of several new independent newspapers.\n\nThird republic \n\nAfter the National Sovereign Conference, the transitional government drafted a new constitution that eliminated the previous single-party system of the 1989 Constitution and guaranteed more freedom. The new constitution was adopted by a referendum on 26 December 1992. Following this, presidential elections were held and Mahamane Ousmane became the first president of the Third Republic on 27 March 1993. The presidency of Mahamane Ousmane was characterized by political turbulence, with four government changes and early legislative elections called in 1995.\n\nThe parliamentary election forced cohabitation between a rival president and prime minister and ultimately led to governmental paralysis. As part of an initiative started under the National Sovereign Conference the government signed peace accords in April 1995 with Tuareg and Toubou groups that had been in rebellion since 1990. These groups claimed they lacked attention and resources from the central government. The government agreed to absorb some of the former rebels into the military and, with French assistance, to help others return to a productive civilian life.\n\nSecond military regime: The National Salvation Council \n\nThe government paralysis and the political tension was used as a motivation for a second military coup. On 27 January 1996, Col. Ibrahim Baré Maïnassara led a military coup that deposed President Ousmane and ended the Third Republic. Col. Maïnassara created the National Salvation Council composed of military officials, which he headed. The Council carried out a six-month transition period during which a new constitution was drafted and adopted on 12 May 1996.\n\nPresidential campaigns were organized in the months that followed. General Mainassara entered the campaign as an independent candidate and won the election on 8 July 1996. The elections were viewed nationally and internationally as irregular since the electoral commission was replaced during the campaign.\n\nFourth republic \n\nIbrahim Baré Maïnassara became the first president of the Fourth Republic. His efforts to justify questionable elections failed to convince donors to restore multilateral and bilateral economic assistance; a desperate Maïnassara ignored an international embargo against Libya and sought Libyan funds to aid Niger's economy. In repeated violations of basic civil liberties by the regime, opposition leaders were imprisoned and journalists often arrested, and deported by an unofficial militia composed of police and military.\n\nThird military regime: The National Reconciliation Council \n\nOn 9 April 1999, Maïnassara was assassinated during a military coup led by Maj. Daouda Malam Wanké, who established a transitional National Reconciliation Council to oversee the drafting of a constitution for the Fifth Republic with a French-style semi-presidential system. The new constitution was adopted on 9 August 1999 and was followed by presidential and legislative elections in October and November of the same year. The elections were generally found to be free and fair by international observers. Wanké withdrew himself from government affairs after the new and democratically elected president was sworn in office.\n\nFifth republic \n\nAfter winning the election in November 1999, President Tandja Mamadou was sworn in office on 22 December 1999 as the first president of the Fifth Republic. The first mandate of Tandja Mamadou brought about many administrative and economic reforms that had been halted due to the military coups since the Third Republic. In August 2002, serious unrest within military camps occurred in Niamey, Diffa, and Nguigmi, but the government was able to restore order within several days. On 24 July 2004, the first municipal elections in the history of Niger were held to elect local representatives, previously appointed by the government. These elections were followed by presidential elections. President Tandja Mamadou was re-elected for a second term, thus becoming the first president of the republic to win consecutive elections without being deposed by military coups. The legislative and executive configuration remained quite similar to that of the first term of the President: Hama Amadou was reappointed as Prime Minister and Mahamane Ousmane, the head of the CDS party, was re-elected as the President of the National Assembly (parliament) by his peers.\n\nBy 2007, the relationship between President Tandja Mamadou and his prime minister had deteriorated, leading to the replacement of the latter in June 2007 by Seyni Oumarou following a successful vote of no confidence at the Assembly. From 2007 to 2008, the Second Tuareg Rebellion took place in northern Niger, worsening economic prospects at a time of political limited progress. The political environment worsened in the following year as President Tandja Mamadou sought out to extend his presidency by modifying the constitution which limited presidential terms in Niger. Proponents of the extended presidency, rallied behind the Tazartche movement, were countered by opponents (anti-Tazartche) composed of opposition party militants and civil society activists.\n\nSixth republic \n\nIn 2009, President Tandja Mamadou decided to organize a constitutional referendum seeking to extend his presidency claiming to respond to the desire of the people of Niger. Despite opposition from opposition political parties and against the decision of the Constitutional Court which ruled earlier that the referendum would be unconstitutional, President Tandja Mamadou modified and adopted a new constitution by referendum. It was declared illegal by the Constitutional Court but the President dissolved the Court and assumed emergency powers. The opposition boycotted the referendum and the new constitution was adopted with 92.5% of voters and a 68% turnout, according to official results. The adoption of the new constitution created a Sixth Republic, with a presidential system, as well as the suspension of the 1999 Constitution and a three-year interim government with Tandja Mamadou as president. Political and social unrest spiraled before, during and after the referendum project and ultimately led to a military coup in 2010 that ended the brief existence of the 6th Republic.\n\nFourth military regime: The Supreme Council for the Restoration of Democracy \n\nIn a February 2010 coup d'état, a military junta led by captain Salou Djibo was established in response to Tandja's attempted extension of his political term by modifying the constitution. The Supreme Council for the Restoration of Democracy led by General Salou Djibo carried out a one-year transition plan, drafted a new constitution and held elections in 2011 that were judged internationally as free and fair.\n\nSeventh republic \n\nFollowing the adoption of the newest constitution of 2010 and the presidential elections, Mahamadou Issoufou was elected as the first president of the Seventh Republic.\n\nGeography, climate, and ecology\n\nNiger is a landlocked nation in West Africa located along the border between the Sahara and Sub-Saharan regions. It borders Nigeria and Benin to the south, Burkina Faso and Mali to the west, Algeria and Libya to the north and Chad to the east.\n\nNiger lies between latitudes 11° and 24°N, and longitudes 0° and 16°E. Niger's area is 1267000 km2 of which 300 km2 is water. This makes it slightly less than twice the size of France, and the world's twenty-second largest country.\n\nNiger borders seven countries and has a total perimeter of 5697 km. The longest border is with Nigeria to the south (1497 km). This is followed by Chad to the east, at 1175 km, Algeria to the north-northwest (956 km), and Mali at 821 km. Niger also has small borders in its far southwest with Burkina Faso at 628 km and Benin at 266 km and to the north-northeast Libya at 354 km.\n\nThe lowest point is the Niger River, with an elevation of 200 m. The highest point is Mont Idoukal-n-Taghès in the Aïr Mountains at 2022 m.\n\nClimate\n\nNiger's subtropical climate is mainly very hot and very dry, with much desert area. In the extreme south there is a tropical climate on the edges of the Niger River basin. The terrain is predominantly desert plains and sand dunes, with flat to rolling savanna in the south and hills in the north.\n\nEnvironment \n\nThe north of Niger is covered by large deserts and semi deserts. The typical mammal fauna consists of Addax antelopes, Scimitar-horned oryx, gazelles and in mountains Barbary sheep. One of the largest reserves of the world, the Aïr and Ténéré National Nature Reserve, was founded in the northern parts of the Niger to protect these rare species.\n\nThe southern parts of Niger are naturally dominated savannahs. The W National Park, situated in the bordering area to Burkina Faso and Benin, belongs to one of the most important areas for wildlife in Western Africa, which is called the WAP (W–Arli–Pendjari) Complex. It has the most important population of the rare West African lion and one of the last populations of the Northwest African cheetah.\n\nOther wildlife includes elephants, buffaloes, roan antelopes, kob antelopes and warthogs. The West African giraffe is currently not found in the W National Park, but further north in Niger, where it has its last relict population.\n\nEnvironmental issues in Niger include destructive farming practices as a result of population pressure. Illegal hunting, bush fires in some areas and human encroachment upon the flood plains of the Niger River for paddy cultivation are environmental issues. Dams constructed on the Niger River in the neighbouring countries of Mali and Guinea and also within Niger itself are also cited as a reason for a reduction of water flow in the Niger River—which has a direct effect upon the environment. A lack of adequate staff to guard wildlife in the parks and reserves is another factor cited for loss of wildlife.\n\nGovernance and politics\n\nNiger's new constitution was approved on 31 October 2010. It restored the semi-presidential system of government of the 1999 constitution (Fifth Republic) in which the president of the republic, elected by universal suffrage for a five-year term, and a prime minister named by the president share executive power.\n\nAs a reflection of Niger's increasing population, the unicameral National Assembly was expanded in 2004 to 113 deputies elected for a five-year term under a majority system of representation. Political parties must attain at least 5 percent of the vote in order to gain a seat in the legislature.\n\nThe constitution also provides for the popular election of municipal and local officials, and the first-ever successful municipal elections took place on 24 July 2004. The National Assembly passed in June 2002 a series of decentralization bills. As a first step, administrative powers will be distributed among 265 communes (local councils); in later stages, regions and departments will be established as decentralized entities. A new electoral code was adopted to reflect the decentralization context. The country is currently divided into 8 regions, which are subdivided into 36 districts (departments). The chief administrator (Governor) in each department is appointed by the government and functions primarily as the local agent of the central authorities.\n\nOn 26 May 2009, President Tandja dissolved parliament after the country's constitutional court ruled against plans to hold a referendum on whether to allow him a third term in office. According to the constitution, a new parliament was elected within three months. This began a political struggle between Tandja, trying to extend his term-limited authority beyond 2009 through the establishment of a Sixth Republic, and his opponents who demanded that he step down at the end of his second term in December 2009. See 2009 Nigerien constitutional crisis. The military took over the country and President Tandja was put in prison, charged with corruption.\n\nThe military kept their promise to return the country to democratic civilian rule. A constitutional referendum and national elections were held. A presidential election was held on 31 January 2011, but as no clear winner emerged, run-off elections were held on 12 March 2011. Mahamadou Issoufou of the Nigerien Party for Democracy and Socialism was elected president. A parliamentary election was held at the same time. \n\nForeign relations\n\nNiger pursues a moderate foreign policy and maintains friendly relations with the West and the Islamic world as well as non-aligned countries. It belongs to the UN and its main specialized agencies and in 1980–81 served on the UN Security Council. Niger maintains a special relationship with former colonial power France and has close relations with its West African neighbors.\n\nIt is a charter member of the African Union and the West African Monetary Union and also belongs to the Niger Basin Authority and Lake Chad Basin Commission, the Economic Community of West African States, the Non-Aligned Movement, the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation and the Organization for the Harmonization of Business Law in Africa (OHADA). The westernmost regions of Niger are joined with contiguous regions of Mali and Burkina Faso under the Liptako-Gourma Authority.\n\nThe border dispute with Benin, inherited from colonial times and concerning inter alia Lété Island in the Niger River, was solved by the International Court of Justice in 2005 to Niger's advantage.\n\nGovernment finance \n\nGovernment finance is derived revenue exports (Mining, oil and agricultural exports) as well as various forms of taxes collected by the government. In the past, foreign aid has contributed to large percentages of the budget. In 2013, Niger's government has adopted a zero-deficit budget of 1.279 trillion CFA francs ($2.53 billion) which is claimed to balance revenues and expenditures by an 11% reduction in the budget from the previous year. \n\nThe 2014 budget was 1.867 trillion CFA which is distributed as follows according to: public debt (76,703,692,000 CFA), personnel expenditures (210,979,633,960 CFA), operating expenditures (128,988,777,711 CFA); subsidies and transfers: 308,379,641,366 CFA) and Investment (1,142,513,658,712 CFA). \n\nForeign aid \n\nThe importance of external support for Niger's development is demonstrated by the fact that about 45% of the government's FY 2002 budget, including 80% of its capital budget, derives from donor resources. The most important donors in Niger are France, the European Union, the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, and various United Nations agencies (UNDP, UNICEF, FAO, World Food Program, and United Nations Population Fund).\n\nOther principal donors include the United States, Belgium, Germany, Switzerland, Canada, and Saudi Arabia. While USAID does not have an office in Niger, the United States is a major donor, contributing nearly $10 million each year to Niger's development. The U.S. also is a major partner in policy coordination in such areas as food security and HIV/AIDS.\n\nJudicial system \n\nThe current Judiciary of Niger was established with the creation of the Fourth Republic in 1999. The constitution of December 1992 was revised by national referendum on 12 May 1996 and, again, by referendum, revised to the current version on 18 July 1999. It is based on the Code Napoleon \"Inquisitorial system\", established in Niger during French colonial rule and the 1960 Constitution of Niger. The Court of Appeals reviews questions of fact and law, while the Supreme Court reviews application of the law and constitutional questions. The High Court of Justice (HCJ) deals with cases involving senior government officials. The justice system also includes civil criminal courts, customary courts, traditional mediation, and a military court.[http://www.etat.sciencespobordeaux.fr/institutionnel/niger.html#Syst%E8me%20judiciaire Niger:Système judiciaire]. NIGER Situation institutionnelle. Sory Baldé, CEAN, IEP-Université Montesquieu-Bordeaux IV (2007) Accessed 2009-04-13 The military court provides the same rights as civil criminal courts; however, customary courts do not. The military court cannot try civilians.[http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2008/af/119017.htm 2008 Human Rights Report: Niger] in 2008 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices. United States Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor. (25 February 2009) As a publication of the United States Federal Government, this report is in the Public Domain. Portions of it may be used here verbatim.\n\nLaw enforcement \n\nLaw enforcement in Niger is the responsibility of the Ministry of Defense through the National Gendarmerie and the Ministry of the Interior through the National Police and the National Guard. The National Police is primarily responsible for law enforcement in urban areas. Outside big cities and in rural areas, this responsibility falls on the National Gendarmerie and the National Guard.\n\nMilitary\n\nThe Niger Armed Forces (Forces armées nigériennes) are the military and paramilitary forces of Niger, under the president as supreme commander. They consist of the Niger Army (Armée de Terre), the Niger Air Force (Armée de l'Air) and the auxiliary paramilitary forces, such as the National Gendarmerie (Gendarmerie nationale) and the National Guard (Garde Nationale). Both paramilitary forces are trained in military fashion and have some military responsibilities in wartime. In peace time their duties are mostly policing duties.\n\nThe armed forces are composed of approximately 12,900 personnel, including 3,700 gendarmes, 3200 national guards, 300 air force personnel, and 6,000 army personnel. The armed forces of Niger have been involved several military coups over the years with the most recent in 2010. Niger's armed forces have a long history of military cooperation with France and the United States. , Niamey is home to a U.S. drone base.\n\nAdministrative divisions\n\nNiger is divided into 7 Regions and one capital district. These Regions are subdivided into 36 departments. The 36 Departments are currently broken down into Communes of varying types. there were 265 communes, including communes urbaines (Urban Communes: as subdivisions of major cities), communes rurales (Rural Communes), in sparsely populated areas and postes administratifs (Administrative Posts) for largely uninhabited desert areas or military zones.\n\nRural communes may contain official villages and settlements, while Urban Communes are divided into quarters. Niger subvisions were renamed in 2002, in the implementation of a decentralisation project, first begun in 1998. Previously, Niger was divided into 7 Departments, 36 Arrondissements, and Communes. These subdivisions were administered by officials appointed by the national government. These offices will be replaced in the future by democratically elected councils at each level.\n\nThe pre-2002 departments (renamed as regions) and capital district are:\nAgadez Region\nDiffa Region\nDosso Region\nMaradi Region\nTahoua Region\nTillabéri Region\nZinder Region\nNiamey \n\nEconomy\n\nThe economy of Niger centers on subsistence crops, livestock, and some of the world's largest uranium deposits. Drought cycles, desertification, a 2.9% population growth rate, and the drop in world demand for uranium have undercut the economy.\n\nNiger shares a common currency, the CFA franc, and a common central bank, the Central Bank of West African States (BCEAO), with seven other members of the West African Monetary Union. Niger is also a member of the Organization for the Harmonization of Business Law in Africa (OHADA).\n\nIn December 2000, Niger qualified for enhanced debt relief under the International Monetary Fund program for Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) and concluded an agreement with the Fund for Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility (PRGF). Debt relief provided under the enhanced HIPC initiative significantly reduces Niger's annual debt service obligations, freeing funds for expenditures on basic health care, primary education, HIV/AIDS prevention, rural infrastructure, and other programs geared at poverty reduction.\n\nIn December 2005, it was announced that Niger had received 100% multilateral debt relief from the IMF, which translates into the forgiveness of approximately $86 million USD in debts to the IMF, excluding the remaining assistance under HIPC. Nearly half of the government's budget is derived from foreign donor resources. Future growth may be sustained by exploitation of oil, gold, coal, and other mineral resources. Uranium prices have recovered somewhat in the last few years. A drought and locust infestation in 2005 led to food shortages for as many as 2.5 million Nigeriens.\n\nEconomic sectors\n\nAgriculture \n\nThe agricultural economy is based largely upon internal markets, subsistence agriculture, and the export of raw commodities: foodstuffs and cattle to neighbors. Foreign exchange earnings from livestock, although difficult to quantify, are considered the second source of export revenue behind mining and oil exports. Actual exports far exceed official statistics, which often fail to detect large herds of animals informally crossing into Nigeria. Some hides and skins are exported, and some are transformed into handicrafts. \n[http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5474.htm Background Notes for Niger: January 2009] Bureau of African Affairs, United States State Department. Retrieved 26 February 2009. Portions of the \"Economy\" section are here used verbatim, as this document is in the public domain.\n\nNiger's agricultural and livestock sectors are the mainstay of all but 18% of the population. 14% of Niger's GDP is generated by livestock production (camels, goats, sheep and cattle), said to support 29% of the population. Thus 53% of the population is actively involved in crop production. The 15% of Niger's land that is arable is found mainly along its southern border with Nigeria.\n\nIn these areas, Pearl millet, sorghum, and cassava are the principal rain-fed subsistence crops. Irrigated rice for internal consumption is grown in parts of the Niger River valley in the west. While expensive, it has, since the devaluation of the CFA franc, sold for below the price of imported rice, encouraging additional production. Cowpeas and onions are grown for commercial export, as are small quantities of garlic, peppers, potatoes, and wheat. Oasis farming in small patches of the north of the country produces onions, dates, and some market vegetables for export.\n\nBut for the most part, rural residents engaged in crop tending are clustered in the south centre and south west of the nation, in those areas (the Sahel) which can expect to receive between 300 to of rainfall annually. A small area in the southern tip of the nation, surrounding Gaya can expect to receive 700 to or rainfall. Northern areas which support crops, such as the southern portions of the Aïr Massif and the Kaouar oasis, rely upon oases and a slight increase in rainfall due to mountain effects. Large portions of the northwest and far east of the nation, while within the Sahara desert, see just enough seasonal rainfall to support semi-nomadic animal husbandry. The populations of these areas, mostly Tuareg, Wodaabe – Fula, and Toubou, travel south (a process called transhumance) to pasture and sell animals in the dry season, north into the Sahara in the brief rainy season.\n\nRainfall varies and when it is insufficient, Niger has difficulty feeding its population and must rely on grain purchases and food aid to meet food requirements. Rains, as in much of the Sahel, have been marked by annual variability. This has been especially true in the 20th century, with the most severe drought on record beginning in the late 1960s and lasting, with one break, well into the 1980s. The long-term effect of this, especially to pastoralist populations, remains in the 21st century, with those communities which rely upon cattle, sheep, and camels husbandry losing entire herds more than once during this period. Recent rains remain variable. For instance, the rains in 2000 were not good, while those in 2001 were plentiful and well distributed.\n\nSoils that have become degraded, for example by intensive cereal production, cover 50 per cent of Niger's land. Laterite soils have a high clay content, which means they have higher Cation Exchange Capacity and water-holding capacity than sandy soils. If laterite soils become degraded, a hard crust can form on the surface, which hinders water infiltration and the emergence of seedlings. It is possible to rehabilitate such soils, using a system called the Bioreclamation of Degraded Lands. \n\nThis involves using indigenous water-harvesting methods (such as planting pits and trenches), applying animal and plant residues, and planting high-value fruit trees and indigenous vegetable crops that are tolerant of drought conditions. The International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) has employed this system to rehabilitate degraded laterite soils in Niger and increase smallholder farmers' incomes. Trials have demonstrated that a 200 m² plot can yield an income of around US$100, which is what men traditionally earn from millet production per hectare (10000m²). As women are often given degraded soils, using this practice has helped to improve livelihoods for women in Niger.\n\nThe Kandadji Dam on the Niger River, whose construction started in August 2008, is expected to improve agricultural production in the Tillaberi Department by providing water for the irrigation of 6,000 hectares initially and of 45,000 hectares by 2034. \n\nDrought and food crisis \n\n \nAs one of the Sahelian nations in West Africa, Niger has faced several droughts which led to food shortages and, in some cases, famines since its independence in 1963. This includes a series of droughts in the 1970s and 1980s and more recently in 2005–2006 and again in 2010. The existence of widespread famine in 2005–2006 was debated by the government of Niger as well some local NGOs. \n\nMining \n\nThe Niger mining industry is the main source of national exports, of which uranium is the largest export. Niger has been a uranium exporter since the 1960s and has had substantial export earnings and rapid economic growth during the 1960s and 1970s. The persistent uranium price slump has brought lower revenues for Niger's uranium sector, although it still provides 72% of national export proceeds. When the uranium-led boom ended in the early 1980s the economy stagnated, and new investment since then has been limited. Niger's two uranium mines—SOMAIR's open pit mine and COMINAK's underground mine—are owned by a French-led consortium and operated by French company Areva. \n\n, many licences have been sold to other companies from countries such as India, China, Canada and Australia in order to exploit new deposits. In 2013, the government of Niger sought to increase its uranium revenue by subjecting the two mining companies to a 2006 Mining Law. The government argued that the application of the new law will balance an otherwise unfavorable partnership between the government and Areva. The company resisted the application of the new law that it feared would jeopardize the financial health of the companies, citing declining market uranium prices and unfavorable market conditions. In 2014, following nearly a year long negotiation with the government of Niger, Areva agreed to the application of 2006 Mining Law of Niger, which would increase the government's uranium revenues from 5 to 12%.\n\nIn addition to uranium, exploitable deposits of gold are known to exist in Niger in the region between the Niger River and the border with Burkina Faso. In 2004, the first Nigerien gold ingot was produced from the Samira Hill Gold Mine, in Tera Department. The Samira Hill Gold Mine thus became the first commercial gold production in the country. The reserves at the location were estimated at 10,073,626 tons at an average grade of per ton from which will be recovered over a six-year mine life. Other gold deposits are believed to be in nearby areas known as the \"Samira Horizon\", which is located between Gotheye and Ouallam. \n\nSONICHAR (Société Nigerienne de Charbon) in Tchirozerine (north of Agadez) extracts coal from an open pit and fuels an electricity generating plant that supplies energy to the uranium mines. Based on 2012 reports by the government of Niger, 246016 tons of coal were extracted by SONICHAR in 2011. There are additional coal deposits to the south and west that are of a higher quality and may be exploitable. Substantial deposits of phosphates, coal, iron, limestone, and gypsum have also been found in Niger.\n\nOil \n\nThe history of oil prospecting and discovery goes back to the independence era with the first discovery of Tintouma oil field in Madama in 1975. It is the Agadem basin that has attracted much attention since 1970 with Texaco and then Esso prospecting in the basin until 1980. Exploration permits on the same basin were held successively by Elf aquitaine (1980–1985), Esso-Elf (1985–1998), Esso (1998–2002) and Esso-Petronas (2002–2006). While the reserves were estimated at 324 millions barrels for oil and 10 billion m3 for gas, Esso-Petronas relinquished the permit because it deemed the quantities too small for production.\n\nWith the sudden increase in oil price, this assessment was no longer true by 2008. the government transferred the Agadem block rights to CNPC. Niger announced that in exchange for the US$5 billion investment, the Chinese company would build wells, 11 of which would open by 2012, a 20000 oilbbl/d refinery near Zinder and a pipeline out of the nation. The government estimates the area has reserves of 324 Moilbbl, and is seeking further oil in the Tenere Desert and near Bilma. Niger began producing its first barrels of oil in 2011. \n\nGrowth rates\n\nThe economic competitiveness created by the January 1994 devaluation of the Communauté Financière Africaine (CFA) franc contributed to an annual average economic growth of 3.5% throughout the mid-1990s. But the economy stagnated due to the sharp reduction in foreign aid in 1999 (which gradually resumed in 2000) and poor rains in 2000. Reflecting the importance of the agricultural sector, the return of good rains was the primary factor underlying economic growth of 5.1% in 2000, 3.1% in 2001, 6.0% in 2002, and 3.0% in 2003.\n\nIn recent years, the Government of Niger drafted revisions to the investment code (1997 and 2000), petroleum code (1992), and mining code (1993), all with attractive terms for investors. The present government actively seeks foreign private investment and considers it key to restoring economic growth and development. With the assistance of the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), it has undertaken a concerted effort to revitalize the private sector.\n\nEconomic reforms\n\nIn January 2000, Niger's newly elected government inherited serious financial and economic problems including a virtually empty treasury, past-due salaries (11 months of unpaid salaries) and scholarship payments, increased debt, reduced revenue performance, and lower public investment. In December 2000, Niger qualified for enhanced debt relief under the International Monetary Fund program for Highly Indebted Poor Countries and concluded an agreement with the Fund on a Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility (PRGF).\n\nIn addition to changes in the budgetary process and public finances, the new government has pursued economic restructuring towards the IMF promoted privatization model. This has included the privatization of water distribution and telecommunications and the removal of price protections for petroleum products, allowing prices to be set by world market prices. Further privatizations of public enterprises are in the works.\n\nIn its effort to comply with the IMF's Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility plan, the government is also taking action to reduce corruption and, as the result of a participatory process encompassing civil society, has devised a Poverty Reduction Strategy Plan that focuses on improving health, primary education, rural infrastructure, and judicial restructuring.\n\nA long planned privatization of the Nigerien power company, NIGELEC, failed in 2001 and again in 2003 due to a lack of buyers. SONITEL, the nation's telephone operator which was separated from the post office and privatised in 2001, was renationalised in 2009. Critics have argued that the obligations to creditor institutions and governments have locked Niger into a process of trade liberalization that is harmful for small farmers and in particular, rural women. \n\nTransportation infrastructure\n\nTransport is crucial to the economy and culture of this vast landlocked nation, with cities separated by huge uninhabited deserts, mountain ranges, and other natural features. Niger's transport system was little developed during the colonial period (1899–1960), relying upon animal transport, human transport, and limited river transport in the far south west and south east. No railways were constructed in the colonial period. \nConstruction of a network of paved roads linking major cities began after the independence reaching its heights during the uranium boom in the 1970s and 1980s. Primary or paved road systems are limited to bigger cities or connection between major cities. Road connections or networks in rural areas are mostly unpaved, all-weather laterite surfaces to grated dirt or sand plowed roads with various degrees of maintenance. In 2012, there was of road network throughout Niger, of which were paved. \n\nThe Niger River, which crosses the southwestern part of the country, is unsuitable for river transport of any large scale, as it lacks depth for most of the year, and is broken by rapids at many spots. Camel caravan transport was historically important in the Sahara desert and Sahel regions which cover most of the north.\n\nAir transport is mainly concentrated in Niamey. Niger's only international airport is Diori Hamani International Airport, is located in the capital, Niamey. Other airports in Niger include the Mano Dayak International Airport in Agadez city and Zinder Airport in Zinder city but as of January 2015, they were not regularly serviced by any carriers.\n\nIn 2014, construction for the railway extension connecting Niamey (Niger) to Cotonou via Parakou (Benin) began and is expected to be completed by 2016. It includes the construction of 574 km new railway from Niamey to connect to the existing line in Parakou (Benin). Besides Niamey, the railway line will go through Dosso city and Gaya.\n\nSociety \n\nDemographics\n\n, the population of Niger was 15,730,754. Expanding from a population of 1.7 million in 1960, Niger's population has rapidly increased with a current growth rate of 3.3% (7.1 children per mother ).\n\nThis growth rate is one of the highest in the world and is a source of concern for the government and international agencies. The population is predominantly young, with 49.2% under 15 years old and 2.7% over 65 years, and predominantly rural with only 21% living in urban areas.\n\nA 2005 study stated that over 800,000 people (nearly 8 per cent of the population) in Niger are enslaved. \n\nEthnic groups \n\nNiger has a wide variety of ethnic groups as in most West African countries. The ethnic makeup of Niger is as follows: Hausa (53.0%), Zarma-Sonrai (21.2%), Tuareg (10.4%), Fula (; ) (9.9%), Kanuri Manga (4.4%), Tubu (0.4%), Arab (0.3%), Gourmantche (0.3%), other (0.2%).\n.\n\nLanguages \n\nFrench, inherited from the colonial period, is the official language. It is spoken mainly as a second language by people who have received a formal western education and serves as the administrative language. Niger has been a member of the Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie since 1970.\n\nNiger has eight main indigenous languages which are also classified as \"national languages\": Hausa (Hausa group), Zarma (Zarma-Sonrai group), Tamasheq (Tuareg group), Fulfulde (Fula group), Kanuri (Kanuri group), Tubu (Tubu group), Arabic (Arabic group) and Gourmanchéma (Gourmanché group). Each is spoken as a first language primarily by the ethnic group with which it is associated. Hausa and Zarma-Sonrai, the two most spoken languages, are widely spoken throughout the country as first or second languages.\n\nLargest cities \n\nReligion\n\nNiger is a secular country and separation of state and religion is guaranteed by Article 3 of the 2010 Constitution as well as Article 175 which dictate that future amendments or revisions may not modify the secular nature of the republic of Niger. Religious freedom is protected by Article 30 of the same constitution. Islam, widespread in the region since the 10th century, has greatly shaped the culture and morals of the people of Niger. Islam is the most dominant religion, practiced by 80% of the population.\n\nThe second most practiced religion is Christianity, this by less than 20% of the population. Christianity was established earlier in the country by missionaries during the French colonial years. Other urban Christian expatriate communities from Europe and West Africa are also presented. Religious persecution is rare in Niger which is ranked last (#50) on the World Watch List for severity of persecution that Christians face for actively pursuing their faith.\n\nIslam\n\nApproximately 59 percent of Muslims in Niger are Sunni, 7 percent are Shi'a, 6% are Ahmadiyya and 20% Non-denominational. [http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007/90113.htm International Religious Freedom Report 2007: Niger]. United States Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor (14 September 2007). This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. Islam was spread into what is now Niger beginning in the 15th century, by both the expansion of the Songhai Empire in the west, and the influence of the Trans-Saharan trade traveling from the Maghreb and Egypt. Tuareg expansion from the north, culminating in their seizure of the far eastern oases from the Kanem-Bornu Empire in the 17th centuries, spread distinctively Berber practices.\n\nBoth Zarma and Hausa areas were greatly influenced by the 18th and 19th century Fula led Sufi brotherhoods, most notably the Sokoto Caliphate (in today's Nigeria). Modern Muslim practice in Niger is often tied to the Tijaniya Sufi brotherhoods, although there are small minority groups tied to Hammallism and Nyassist Sufi orders in the west, and the Sanusiya in the far northeast.Decalo, James. Historical Dictionary of Niger. Scarecrow Press, Metuchen, New Jersey – London, 1979. ISBN 0-8108-1229-0. pp. 156–7, 193–4.\n\nA small center of Wahhabite followers have appeared in the last thirty years in the capital and in Maradi. These small groups, linked to similar groups in Jos, Nigeria, came to public prominence in the 1990s during a series of religious riots. \n\nDespite this, Niger maintains a tradition as a secular state, protected by law. Interfaith relations are deemed very good, and the forms of Islam traditionally practiced in most of the country is marked by tolerance of other faiths and lack of restrictions on personal freedom. Divorce and polygyny are unremarkable, women are not secluded, and head coverings are not mandatory—they are often a rarity in urban areas. Alcohol, such as the locally produced Bière Niger, is sold openly in most of the country.\n\nAnimism\n\nA small percentage of the population practices traditional indigenous religious beliefs. The numbers of Animist practitioners are a point of contention. As recently as the late 19th century, much of the south center of the nation was unreached by Islam, and the conversion of some rural areas has been only partial. There are still areas where animist based festivals and traditions (such as the Bori religion) are practiced by syncretic Muslim communities (in some Hausa areas as well as among some Toubou and Wodaabe pastoralists), as opposed to several small communities who maintain their pre-Islamic religion. These include the Hausa-speaking Maouri (or Azna, the Hausa word for \"pagan\") community in Dogondoutci in the south-southwest and the Kanuri speaking Manga near Zinder, both of whom practice variations of the pre-Islamic Hausa Maguzawa religion. There are also some tiny Boudouma and Songhay animist communities in the southwest.\n\nEducation\n\nThe literacy rate of Niger is among the lowest in the world; in 2005 it was estimated to be only 28.7% (42.9% male and 15.1% female). Primary education in Niger is compulsory for six years.[http://www.dol.gov/ilab/media/reports/iclp/tda2001/Niger.htm \"Niger\"]. 2001 Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor. Bureau of International Labor Affairs, U.S. Department of Labor (2002). This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. The primary school enrollment and attendance rates are low, particularly for girls. In 1997, the gross primary enrollment rate was 29.3 percent, and in 1996, the net primary enrollment rate was 24.5 percent.\n\nAbout 60 percent of children who finish primary schools are boys, as the majority of girls rarely attend school for more than a few years. Children are often forced to work rather than attend school, particularly during planting or harvest periods. Nomadic children in the north of the country often do not have access to schools.\n\nHealth\n\nThe child mortality rate in Niger (deaths among children between the ages of 1 and 4) is high (248 per 1,000) due to generally poor health conditions and inadequate nutrition for most of the country's children. According to the organization Save the Children, Niger has the world's highest infant mortality rate. \n\nNiger also has the highest fertility rate in the world (7.03 births per woman according to 2013 estimates ); this means that nearly half (49%) of the Nigerien population is under age 15. Niger has the 11th highest maternal mortality rate in the world at 820 deaths/100,000 live births. There were 3 physicians and 22 nurses per 100,000 persons in 2006. \n\nCulture\n\nNigerien culture is marked by variation, evidence of the cultural crossroads which French colonialism formed into a unified state from the beginning of the 20th century. What is now Niger was created from four distinct cultural areas in the pre-colonial era: the Zarma dominated Niger River valley in the southwest; the northern periphery of Hausaland, made mostly of those states which had resisted the Sokoto Caliphate, and ranged along the long southern border with Nigeria; the Lake Chad basin and Kaouar in the far east, populated by Kanuri farmers and Toubou pastoralists who had once been part of the Kanem-Bornu Empire; and the Tuareg nomads of the Aïr Mountains and Saharan desert in the vast north.\n\nEach of these communities, along with smaller ethnic groups like the pastoral Wodaabe Fula, brought their own cultural traditions to the new state of Niger. While successive post-independence governments have tried to forge a shared national culture, this has been slow forming, in part because the major Nigerien communities have their own cultural histories, and in part because Nigerien ethnic groups such as the Hausa, Tuareg and Kanuri are but part of larger ethnic communities which cross borders introduced under colonialism.\n\nUntil the 1990s, government and politics was inordinately dominated by Niamey and the Zarma people of the surrounding region. At the same time the plurality of the population, in the Hausa borderlands between Birni-N'Konni and Maine-Soroa, have often looked culturally more to Hausaland in Nigeria than Niamey. Between 1996 and 2003, primary school attendance was around 30%, including 36% of males and only 25% of females. Additional education occurs through madrasas.\n\nFestivals and cultural events\n\nGuérewol festival \n\nThe Guérewol festival is a traditional Wodaabe cultural event that takes place in Abalak in Tahoua region or In'Gall in Agadez Region. It is an annual traditional courtship ritual practiced by the Wodaabe (Fula) people of Niger. During this ceremony, young men dressed in elaborate ornamentation and made up in traditional face painting gather in lines to dance and sing, vying for the attention of marriageable young women. The Guérewol festival is an internationally attraction and was featured in films and magazines as prominent as the National Geographic.\n\nCure Salée festival \n\n\"La Cure salée\" (English: Salt Cure) is a yearly festival of Tuareg and Wodaabe nomads in In'Gall in Agadez Region traditionally to celebrate the end of the rainy season. For three days, the festival features a parade of Tuareg camel riders followed with camel and horse races, songs, dances, and storytelling.\n\nMedia\n\nNiger began developing diverse media in the late 1990s. Prior to the Third Republic, Nigeriens only had access to tightly controlled state media.[http://africa.ifj.org/pdfs/sainforeport2002fr.pdf SEMINAIRE-ATELIER DE FORMATION ET DE SENSIBILISATION \"Mission de service public dans les entreprises de presse d’Etat et privée\"]. Historical introduction to Press Laws, in conference proceedings, Organised by FIJ/SAINFO/LO-TCO CCOG. NIAMEY, June 2002. Now Niamey contains scores of newspapers and magazines; some, like Le Sahel, are government operated, while many are critical of the government. Radio is the most important medium, as television sets are beyond the buying power of many of the rural poor, and illiteracy prevents print media from becoming a mass medium. \n\nIn addition to the national and regional radio services of the state broadcaster ORTN, there are four privately owned radio networks which total more than 100 stations. Three of them—the Anfani Group, Sarounia and Tenere—are urban-based commercial-format FM networks in the major towns.U.S. Department of State. Report on Human Rights Practices – Niger. [http://dosfan.lib.uic.edu/ERC/democracy/hrp_index.html 1993–1995] to [http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2006/78750.htm 2006]. There is also a network of over 80 community radio stations spread across all seven regions of the country, governed by the Comité de Pilotage de Radios de Proximité (CPRP), a civil society organisation. The independent-sector radio networks are collectively estimated by CPRP officials to cover some 7.6 million people, or about 73% of the population (2005).\n\nAside from Nigerien radio stations, the BBC's Hausa service is listened to on FM repeaters across wide parts of the country, particularly in the south, close to the border with Nigeria. Radio France Internationale also rebroadcasts in French through some of the commercial stations, via satellite. Tenere FM also runs a national independent television station of the same name.\n\nDespite relative freedom at the national level, Nigerien journalists say they are often pressured by local authorities.[http://www.panos-ao.org/ipao/spip.php?article39 Niger : Conseil de presse. Les journalistes refusent la mise sous tutelle]. Ousseini Issa. Médi@ctions n°37, Institut PANOS Afrique de l'Ouest. March 2004. The state ORTN network depends financially on the government, partly through a surcharge on electricity bills, and partly through direct subsidy. The sector is governed by the Conseil Supérieur de Communications, established as an independent body in the early 1990s, since 2007 headed by Daouda Diallo. International human rights groups have criticised the government since at least 1996 as using regulation and police to punish criticism of the state.[http://cpj.org/2007/02/attacks-on-the-press-2006-niger.php Attacks on the press: Niger 2006]. Committee to Protect Journalists (2007). Retrieved 23 February 2009.", "Mali (;), officially the Republic of Mali (), is a landlocked country in West Africa. Mali is the eighth-largest country in Africa, with an area of just over 1240000 sqkm. The population of Mali is 14.5 million. Its capital is Bamako. Mali consists of eight regions and its borders on the north reach deep into the middle of the Sahara Desert, while the country's southern part, where the majority of inhabitants live, features the Niger and Senegal rivers. The country's economy centers on agriculture and fishing. Some of Mali's prominent natural resources include gold, being the third largest producer of gold in the African continent, and salt. About half the population lives below the international poverty line of $1.25 (U.S.) a day. A majority of the population (55%) are non-denominational Muslims. \n\nPresent-day Mali was once part of three West African empires that controlled trans-Saharan trade: the Ghana Empire, the Mali Empire (for which Mali is named), and the Songhai Empire. During its golden age, there was a flourishing of mathematics, astronomy, literature, and art. At its peak in 1300, the Mali Empire covered an area about twice the size of modern-day France and stretched to the west coast of Africa. In the late 19th century, during the Scramble for Africa, France seized control of Mali, making it a part of French Sudan. French Sudan (then known as the Sudanese Republic) joined with Senegal in 1959, achieving independence in 1960 as the Mali Federation. Shortly thereafter, following Senegal's withdrawal from the federation, the Sudanese Republic declared itself the independent Republic of Mali. After a long period of one-party rule, a coup in 1991 led to the writing of a new constitution and the establishment of Mali as a democratic, multi-party state.\n\nIn January 2012, an armed conflict broke out in northern Mali, which Tuareg rebels took control of by April and declared the secession of a new state, Azawad. The conflict was complicated by a military coup that took place in March and later fighting between Tuareg and Islamist rebels. In response to Islamist territorial gains, the French military launched Opération Serval in January 2013. A month later, Malian and French forces recaptured most of the north. Presidential elections were held on 28 July 2013, with a second round run-off held on 11 August, and legislative elections were held on 24 November and 15 December 2013.\n\nHistory\n\nMali was once part of three famed West African empires which controlled trans-Saharan trade in gold, salt, slaves, and other precious commodities.Mali country profile, p. 1. These Sahelian kingdoms had neither rigid geopolitical boundaries nor rigid ethnic identities. The earliest of these empires was the Ghana Empire, which was dominated by the Soninke, a Mande-speaking people. The empire expanded throughout West Africa from the 8th century until 1078, when it was conquered by the Almoravids.Mali country profile. Mali was later responsible for the collapse of Islamic Slave Army from the North. The defeat of Tukuror Slave Army, was repeated by Mali against the France and Spanish Expeditionary Army in the 1800s (\"Blanc et memoires\"). . p. 2.\n\nThe Mali Empire later formed on the upper Niger River, and reached the height of power in the 14th century. Under the Mali Empire, the ancient cities of Djenné and Timbuktu were centers of both trade and Islamic learning. The empire later declined as a result of internal intrigue, ultimately being supplanted by the Songhai Empire. The Songhai people originated in current northwestern Nigeria. The Songhai had long been a major power in West Africa subject to the Mali Empire's rule.\n\nIn the late 14th century, the Songhai gradually gained independence from the Mali Empire and expanded, ultimately subsuming the entire eastern portion of the Mali Empire. The Songhai Empire's eventual collapse was largely the result of a Moroccan invasion in 1591, under the command of Judar Pasha. The fall of the Songhai Empire marked the end of the region's role as a trading crossroads. Following the establishment of sea routes by the European powers, the trans-Saharan trade routes lost significance.\n\nOne of the worst famines in the region's recorded history occurred in the 18th century. According to John Iliffe, \"The worst crises were in the 1680s, when famine extended from the Senegambian coast to the Upper Nile and 'many sold themselves for slaves, only to get a sustenance', and especially in 1738–56, when West Africa's greatest recorded subsistence crisis, due to drought and locusts, reportedly killed half the population of Timbuktu.\" \n\nFrench colonial rule\n\nMali fell under the control of France during the late 19th century. By 1905, most of the area was under firm French control as a part of French Sudan. In early 1959, French Sudan (which changed its name to the Sudanese Republic) and Senegal united to become the Mali Federation. The Mali Federation gained independence from France on 20 June 1960.\n\nSenegal withdrew from the federation in August 1960, which allowed the Sudanese Republic to become the independent Republic of Mali on 22 September 1960. Modibo Keïta was elected the first president. Keïta quickly established a one-party state, adopted an independent African and socialist orientation with close ties to the East, and implemented extensive nationalization of economic resources. In 1960, the population of Mali was reported to be about 4.1 million. \n\nMoussa Traoré\n\nOn 19 November 1968, following progressive economic decline, the Keïta regime was overthrown in a bloodless military coup led by Moussa Traoré,Mali country profile, p. 3. a day which is now commemorated as Liberation Day. The subsequent military-led regime, with Traoré as president, attempted to reform the economy. His efforts were frustrated by political turmoil and a devastating drought between 1968 and 1974, in which famine killed thousands of people. The Traoré regime faced student unrest beginning in the late 1970s and three coup attempts. The Traoré regime repressed all dissenters until the late 1980s.\n\nThe government continued to attempt economic reforms, and the populace became increasingly dissatisfied. In response to growing demands for multi-party democracy, the Traoré regime allowed some limited political liberalization. They refused to usher in a full-fledged democratic system. In 1990, cohesive opposition movements began to emerge, and was complicated by the turbulent rise of ethnic violence in the north following the return of many Tuaregs to Mali.\n\nAnti-government protests in 1991 led to a coup, a transitional government, and a new constitution. Opposition to the corrupt and dictatorial regime of General Moussa Traoré grew during the 1980s. During this time strict programs, imposed to satisfy demands of the International Monetary Fund, brought increased hardship upon the country's population, while elites close to the government supposedly lived in growing wealth. Peaceful student protests in January 1991 were brutally suppressed, with mass arrests and torture of leaders and participants. Scattered acts of rioting and vandalism of public buildings followed, but most actions by the dissidents remained nonviolent.\n\nMarch Revolution\n\nFrom 22 March through 26 March 1991, mass pro-democracy rallies and a nationwide strike was held in both urban and rural communities, which became known as les evenements (\"the events\") or the March Revolution. In Bamako, in response to mass demonstrations organized by university students and later joined by trade unionists and others, soldiers opened fire indiscriminately on the nonviolent demonstrators. Riots broke out briefly following the shootings. Barricades as well as roadblocks were erected and Traoré declared a state of emergency and imposed a nightly curfew. Despite an estimated loss of 300 lives over the course of four days, nonviolent protesters continued to return to Bamako each day demanding the resignation of the dictatorial president and the implementation of democratic policies. \n\n26 March 1991 is the day that marks the clash between military soldiers and peaceful demonstrating students which climaxed in the massacre of dozens under the orders of then President Moussa Traoré. He and three associates were later tried and convicted and received the death sentence for their part in the decision-making of that day. Nowadays, the day is a national holiday in order to remember the tragic events and the people that were killed. The coup is remembered as Mali's March Revolution of 1991.\n\nBy 26 March, the growing refusal of soldiers to fire into the largely nonviolent protesting crowds turned into a full-scale tumult, and resulted in thousands of soldiers putting down their arms and joining the pro-democracy movement. That afternoon, Lieutenant Colonel Amadou Toumani Touré announced on the radio that he had arrested the dictatorial president, Moussa Traoré. As a consequence, opposition parties were legalized and a national congress of civil and political groups met to draft a new democratic constitution to be approved by a national referendum.\n\nAmadou Toumani Touré presidency\n\nIn 1992, Alpha Oumar Konaré won Mali's first democratic, multi-party presidential election, before being re-elected for a second term in 1997, which was the last allowed under the constitution. In 2002 Amadou Toumani Touré, a retired general who had been the leader of the military aspect of the 1991 democratic uprising, was elected.Mali country profile, p. 4. During this democratic period Mali was regarded as one of the most politically and socially stable countries in Africa. \n\nSlavery persists in Mali today with as many as 200,000 people held in direct servitude to a master. In the Tuareg Rebellion of 2012, ex-slaves were a vulnerable population with reports of some slaves being recaptured by their former masters. \n\nNorthern Mali conflict\n\nIn January 2012 a Tuareg rebellion began in Northern Mali, led by the National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad. In March, military officer Amadou Sanogo seized power in a coup d'état, citing Touré's failures in quelling the rebellion, and leading to sanctions and an embargo by the Economic Community of West African States. The MNLA quickly took control of the north, declaring independence as Azawad. However, Islamist groups including Ansar Dine and Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM), who had helped the MNLA defeat the government, turned on the Tuareg and took control of the North with the goal of implementing sharia in Mali. \n\nOn 11 January 2013, the French Armed Forces intervened at the request of the interim government.\nOn 30 January, the coordinated advance of the French and Malian troops claimed to have retaken the last remaining Islamist stronghold of Kidal, which was also the last of three northern provincial capitals. French troops retake the last remaining Islamist urban stronghold in Mali.\n On 2 February, the French President, François Hollande, joined Mali's interim President, Dioncounda Traoré, in a public appearance in recently recaptured Timbuktu. \n\nGeography\n\nMali is a landlocked country in West Africa, located southwest of Algeria. It lies between latitudes 10° and 25°N, and longitudes 13°W and 5°E. Mali is bordered by Algeria to the north, Niger to the east, Burkina Faso and Côte d'Ivoire to the south, Guinea to the south-west, and Senegal and Mauritania to the west.\n\nAt 1242248 km2, including the disputed region of Azawad, Mali is the world's 24th-largest country and is comparable in size to South Africa or Angola. Most of the country lies in the southern Sahara Desert, which produces an extremely hot, dust-laden Sudanian savanna zone.Mali country profile, p. 5. Mali is mostly flat, rising to rolling northern plains covered by sand. The Adrar des Ifoghas massif lies in the northeast.\n\nMali lies in the torrid zone and is among the hottest countries in the world. The thermal equator, which matches the hottest spots year-round on the planet based on the mean daily annual temperature, crosses the country. Most of Mali receives negligible rainfall and droughts are very frequent. Late June to early December is the rainy season in the southernmost area. During this time, flooding of the Niger River is common, creating the Inner Niger Delta. The vast northern desert part of Mali has a hot desert climate (Köppen climate classification (BWh) with long, extremely hot summers and scarce rainfall which decreases northwards. The central area has a hot semi-arid climate (Köppen climate classification (BSh) with very high temperatures year-round, a long, intense dry season and a brief, irregular rainy season. The little southern band possesses a tropical wet and dry climate (Köppen climate classification (Aw) very high temperatures year-round with a dry season and a rainy season.\n\nMali has considerable natural resources, with gold, uranium, phosphates, kaolinite, salt and limestone being most widely exploited. Mali is estimated to have in excess of 17,400 tonnes of uranium (measured + indicated + inferred). In 2012, a further uranium mineralized north zone was identified. Mali faces numerous environmental challenges, including desertification, deforestation, soil erosion, and inadequate supplies of potable water.\n\nRegions and cercles\n\nMali is divided into eight regions (régions) and one district. Each region has a governor.DiPiazza, p. 37. Since Mali's regions are very large, the country is subdivided into 49 cercles and 703 communes. \n\nThe régions and Capital District are:\n\nExtent of central government control \n\nIn March 2012, the Malian government lost control over Tombouctou, Gao and Kidal Regions and the north-eastern portion of Mopti Region. On 6 April 2012, the National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad unilaterally declared their secession from Mali as Azawad, an act that neither Mali nor the international community recognised. The government later regained control over these areas.\n\nPolitics and government\n\nUntil the military coup of 22 March 2012 and a second military coup in December 2012, Mali was a constitutional democracy governed by the Constitution of 12 January 1992, which was amended in 1999. The constitution provides for a separation of powers among the executive, legislative, and judicial branches of government.Mali country profile, p. 14. The system of government can be described as \"semi-presidential\". Executive power is vested in a president, who is elected to a five-year term by universal suffrage and is limited to two terms. \n\nThe president serves as a chief of state and commander in chief of the armed forces. A prime minister appointed by the president serves as head of government and in turn appoints the Council of Ministers. The unicameral National Assembly is Mali's sole legislative body, consisting of deputies elected to five-year terms.Mali country profile, p. 15. Following the 2007 elections, the Alliance for Democracy and Progress held 113 of 160 seats in the assembly. The assembly holds two regular sessions each year, during which it debates and votes on legislation that has been submitted by a member or by the government. \n\nMali's constitution provides for an independent judiciary, but the executive continues to exercise influence over the judiciary by virtue of power to appoint judges and oversee both judicial functions and law enforcement. Mali's highest courts are the Supreme Court, which has both judicial and administrative powers, and a separate Constitutional Court that provides judicial review of legislative acts and serves as an election arbiter. Various lower courts exist, though village chiefs and elders resolve most local disputes in rural areas.\n\nForeign relations \n\nMali's foreign policy orientation has become increasingly pragmatic and pro-Western over time.Mali country profile, p. 17. Since the institution of a democratic form of government in 2002, Mali's relations with the West in general and with the United States in particular have improved significantly. Mali has a longstanding yet ambivalent relationship with France, a former colonial ruler. Mali was active in regional organizations such as the African Union until its suspension over the 2012 Malian coup d'état. \n\nWorking to control and resolve regional conflicts, such as in Ivory Coast, Liberia, and Sierra Leone, is one of Mali's major foreign policy goals. Mali feels threatened by the potential for the spillover of conflicts in neighboring states, and relations with those neighbors are often uneasy. General insecurity along borders in the north, including cross-border banditry and terrorism, remain troubling issues in regional relations.\n\nMilitary \n\nMali's military forces consist of an army, which includes land forces and air force, as well as the paramilitary Gendarmerie and Republican Guard, all of which are under the control of Mali's Ministry of Defense and Veterans, headed by a civilian.Mali country profile, p. 18. The military is underpaid, poorly equipped, and in need of rationalization.\n\nEconomy\n\nThe Central Bank of West African States handles the financial affairs of Mali and additional members of the Economic Community of West African States. Mali is one of the poorest countries in the world. The average worker's annual salary is approximately US$1,500.\n\nMali underwent economic reform, beginning in 1988 by signing agreements with the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund. During 1988 to 1996, Mali's government largely reformed public enterprises. Since the agreement, sixteen enterprises were privatized, 12 partially privatized, and 20 liquidated. In 2005, the Malian government conceded a railroad company to the Savage Corporation. Two major companies, Societé de Telecommunications du Mali (SOTELMA) and the Cotton Ginning Company (CMDT), were expected to be privatized in 2008.\n\nBetween 1992 and 1995, Mali implemented an economic adjustment programme that resulted in economic growth and a reduction in financial imbalances. The programme increased social and economic conditions, and led to Mali joining the World Trade Organization on 31 May 1995. \n\nMali is also a member of the Organization for the Harmonization of Business Law in Africa (OHADA). The gross domestic product (GDP) has risen since. In 2002, the GDP amounted to US$3.4 billion,Mali country profile, p. 9. and increased to US$5.8 billion in 2005, which amounts to an approximately 17.6 percent annual growth rate.\n\nMali is a part of \"French Zone\" (Zone Franc), which means that it uses CFA franc. Mali is connected with the French government by agreement since 1962 (creation of BCEAO). Today all seven countries of BCEAO (including Mali) are connected to French Central Bank. \n\nAgriculture \n\nMali's key industry is agriculture. Cotton is the country's largest crop export and is exported west throughout Senegal and Ivory Coast. During 2002, 620,000 tons of cotton were produced in Mali but cotton prices declined significantly in 2003. In addition to cotton, Mali produces rice, millet, corn, vegetables, tobacco, and tree crops. Gold, livestock and agriculture amount to 80% of Mali's exports.\n\nEighty percent of Malian workers are employed in agriculture. 15 percent of Malian workers are employed in the service sector. Seasonal variations lead to regular temporary unemployment of agricultural workers. \n\nMining \n\nIn 1991, with the assistance of the International Development Association, Mali relaxed the enforcement of mining codes which led to renewed foreign interest and investment in the mining industry. Gold is mined in the southern region and Mali has the third highest gold production in Africa (after South Africa and Ghana).\n\nThe emergence of gold as Mali's leading export product since 1999 has helped mitigate some of the negative impact of the cotton and Ivory Coast crises. Other natural resources include kaolin, salt, phosphate, and limestone.\n\nEnergy \n\nElectricity and water are maintained by the Energie du Mali, or EDM, and textiles are generated by Industry Textile du Mali, or ITEMA. Mali has made efficient use of hydroelectricity, consisting of over half of Mali's electrical power. In 2002, 700 GWh of hydroelectric power were produced in Mali.\n\nEnergie du Mali is an electric company that provides electricity to Mali citizens. Only 55% of the population in cities have access to EDM. \n\nTransport infrastructure \n\nIn Mali, there is a railway that connects to bordering countries. There are also approximately 29 airports of which 8 have paved runways. Urban areas are known for their large quantity of green and white taxicabs. A significant sum of the population is dependent on public transportation.\n\nSociety \n\nDemographics\n\nIn July 2009, Mali's population was an estimated 14.5 million. The population is predominantly rural (68 percent in 2002), and 5–10 percent of Malians are nomadic.Mali country profile, p. 6. More than 90 percent of the population lives in the southern part of the country, especially in Bamako, which has over 1 million residents.\n\nIn 2007, about 48 percent of Malians were younger than 12 years old, 49 percent were 15–64 years old, and 3 percent were 65 and older. The median age was 15.9 years. The birth rate in 2014 is 45.53 births per 1,000, and the total fertility rate (in 2012) was 6.4 children per woman. The death rate in 2007 was 16.5 deaths per 1,000. Life expectancy at birth was 53.06 years total (51.43 for males and 54.73 for females). Mali has one of the world's highest rates of infant mortality, with 106 deaths per 1,000 live births in 2007.\n\nEthnicity\n\nMali's population encompasses a number of sub-Saharan ethnic groups.\nThe Bambara () are by far the largest single ethnic group, making up 36.5 percent of the population.\n\nCollectively, the Bambara, Soninké, Khassonké, and Malinké (also called Mandinka), all part of the broader Mandé group, constitute 50 percent of Mali's population. Other significant groups are the Fula (; ) (17 percent), Voltaic (12 percent), Songhai (6 percent), and Tuareg and Moor (10 percent).\n\nIn the far north, there is a division between Berber-descendent Tuareg nomad populations and the darker-skinned Bella or Tamasheq people, due to the historical spread of slavery in the region.\nAn estimated 800,000 people in Mali are descended from slaves. Slavery in Mali has persisted for centuries. \nThe Arabic population kept slaves well into the 20th century, until slavery was suppressed by French authorities around the mid-20th century. There still persist certain hereditary servitude relationships, and according to some estimates, even today approximately 200,000 Malians are still enslaved. \n\nAlthough Mali has enjoyed a reasonably good inter-ethnic relationships based on the long history of coexistence, some hereditary servitude and bondage relationship exist, as well as ethnic tension between settled Songhai and nomadic Tuaregs of the north. Due to a backlash against the northern population after independence, Mali is now in a situation where both groups complain about discrimination on the part of the other group. This conflict also plays a role in the continuing Northern Mali conflict where there is a tension between both Tuaregs and the Malian government, and the Tuaregs and radical Islamists who are trying to establish sharia law. \n\nLanguages \n\nMali's official language is French and over 40 African languages also are spoken by the various ethnic groups. About 80 percent of Mali's population can communicate in Bambara, which serves as an important lingua franca.\n\nMali has 12 national languages beside French and Bambara, namely Bomu, Tieyaxo Bozo, Toro So Dogon, Maasina Fulfulde, Hassaniya Arabic, Mamara Senoufo, Kita Maninkakan, Soninke, Koyraboro Senni, Syenara Senoufo, Tamasheq and Xaasongaxango. Each is spoken as a first language primarily by the ethnic group with which it is associated.\n\nReligion\n\nIslam was introduced to West Africa in the 11th century and remains the predominant religion in much of the region. An estimated 90 percent of Malians are Muslim (mostly Sunni and Ahmadiyya ), approximately 5 percent are Christian (about two-thirds Roman Catholic and one-third Protestant) and the remaining 5 percent adhere to indigenous or traditional animist beliefs.[http://www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2008/108379.htm International Religious Freedom Report 2008: Mali]. State.gov (19 September 2008). Retrieved 4 May 2012. Atheism and agnosticism are believed to be rare among Malians, most of whom practice their religion on a daily basis.\n\nThe constitution establishes a secular state and provides for freedom of religion, and the government largely respects this right.\n\nIslam as historically practiced in Mali has been moderate, tolerant, and adapted to local conditions; relations between Muslims and practitioners of minority religious faiths have generally been amicable.\nAfter the 2012 imposition of sharia rule in northern parts of the country, however, Mali came to be listed high (number 7) in the Christian persecution index published by Open Doors, which described the persecution in the north as severe.[http://www.dw.de/report-points-to-100-million-persecuted-christians/a-16507067 Report points to 100 million persecuted Christians.]. Retrieved 10 January 2013.[http://www.worldwatchlist.us/ OPEN DOORS World Watch list 2012]. Worldwatchlist.us. Retrieved 24 March 2013.\n\nEducation \n\nPublic education in Mali is in principle provided free of charge and is compulsory for nine years between the ages of seven and sixteen. The system encompasses six years of primary education beginning at age 7, followed by six years of secondary education. Mali's actual primary school enrollment rate is low, in large part because families are unable to cover the cost of uniforms, books, supplies, and other fees required to attend.\n\nIn the 2000–01 school year, the primary school enrollment rate was 61 percent (71 percent of males and 51 percent of females). In the late 1990s, the secondary school enrollment rate was 15 percent (20 percent of males and 10 percent of females). The education system is plagued by a lack of schools in rural areas, as well as shortages of teachers and materials.\n\nEstimates of literacy rates in Mali range from 27–30 to 46.4 percent, with literacy rates significantly lower among women than men. The University of Bamako, which includes four constituent universities, is the largest university in the country and enrolls approximately 60,000 undergraduate and graduate students. \n\nHealth \n\nMali faces numerous health challenges related to poverty, malnutrition, and inadequate hygiene and sanitation.Mali country profile, p. 7. Mali's health and development indicators rank among the worst in the world. Life expectancy at birth is estimated to be 53.06 years in 2012. In 2000, 62–65 percent of the population was estimated to have access to safe drinking water and only 69 percent to sanitation services of some kind. In 2001, the general government expenditures on health totalled about US$4 per capita at an average exchange rate.Mali country profile, p. 8.\n\nEfforts have been made to improve nutrition, and reduce associated health problems, by encouraging women to make nutritious versions of local recipes. For example, the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) and the Aga Khan Foundation, trained women's groups to make equinut, a healthy and nutritional version of the traditional recipe di-dèguè (comprising peanut paste, honey and millet or rice flour). The aim was to boost nutrition and livelihoods by producing a product that women could make and sell, and which would be accepted by the local community because of its local heritage. \n\nMedical facilities in Mali are very limited, and medicines are in short supply. Malaria and other arthropod-borne diseases are prevalent in Mali, as are a number of infectious diseases such as cholera and tuberculosis. Mali's population also suffers from a high rate of child malnutrition and a low rate of immunization. An estimated 1.9 percent of the adult and children population was afflicted with HIV/AIDS that year, among the lowest rates in Sub-Saharan Africa. An estimated 85–91 percent of Mali's girls and women have had female genital mutilation (2006 and 2001 data). \n\nCulture\n\nThe varied everyday culture of Malians reflects the country's ethnic and geographic diversity.Pye-Smith, Charlie & Rhéal Drisdelle. Mali: A Prospect of Peace? Oxfam (1997). ISBN 0-85598-334-5, p. 13. Most Malians wear flowing, colorful robes called boubous that are typical of West Africa. Malians frequently participate in traditional festivals, dances, and ceremonies.\n\nMusic \n\nMalian musical traditions are derived from the griots, who are known as \"Keepers of Memories\". Malian music is diverse and has several different genres. Some famous Malian influences in music are kora virtuoso musician Toumani Diabaté, the late roots and blues guitarist Ali Farka Touré, the Tuareg band Tinariwen, and several Afro-pop artists such as Salif Keita, the duo Amadou et Mariam, Oumou Sangare, Rokia Traore, and Habib Koité. Dance also plays a large role in Malian culture. Dance parties are common events among friends, and traditional mask dances are performed at ceremonial events.\n\nLiterature \n\nThough Mali's literature is less famous than its music,Velton, p. 29. Mali has always been one of Africa's liveliest intellectual centers. Mali's literary tradition is passed mainly by word of mouth, with jalis reciting or singing histories and stories known by heart.Milet, p. 128.Velton, p. 28. Amadou Hampâté Bâ, Mali's best-known historian, spent much of his life writing these oral traditions down for the world to remember.\n\nThe best-known novel by a Malian writer is Yambo Ouologuem's Le devoir de violence, which won the 1968 Prix Renaudot but whose legacy was marred by accusations of plagiarism. Other well-known Malian writers include Baba Traoré, Modibo Sounkalo Keita, Massa Makan Diabaté, Moussa Konaté, and Fily Dabo Sissoko.\n\nSport \n\nThe most popular sport in Mali is football (soccer),Milet, p. 151.DiPiazza, p. 55. which became more prominent after Mali hosted the 2002 African Cup of Nations.Hudgens, Jim, Richard Trillo, and Nathalie Calonnec. The Rough Guide to West Africa. Rough Guides (2003). ISBN 1-84353-118-6, p. 320. Most towns and cities have regular games; the most popular teams nationally are Djoliba AC, Stade Malien, and Real Bamako, all based in the capital. Informal games are often played by youths using a bundle of rags as a ball.\n\nBasketball is another major sport; the Mali women's national basketball team, led by Hamchetou Maiga, competed at the 2008 Beijing Olympics. Traditional wrestling (la lutte) is also somewhat common, though popularity has declined in recent years. The game wari, a mancala variant, is a common pastime.\n\nCuisine\n\nRice and millet are the staples of Malian cuisine, which is heavily based on cereal grains.Velton, p. 30. Grains are generally prepared with sauces made from edible leaves, such as spinach or baobab, with tomato peanut sauce, and may be accompanied by pieces of grilled meat (typically chicken, mutton, beef, or goat).Milet, p. 146. Malian cuisine varies regionally. Other popular dishes include fufu, jollof rice, and maafe.\n\nMedia\n\nIn Mali, there are several newspapers such as Les Echos, L'Essor, Info Matin, Nouvel Horizon, and Le Républicain. The Telecommunications in Mali include 869,600 mobile phones, 45,000 televisions and 414,985 internet users." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Bourkina-Fasso", "Maximes, Thoughts and Riddles of the Mossi", "Burkina Fasso", "Burkina", "Bourkina Faso", "Maximes, pensées et devinettes mossi", "Burkinabè", "Berkina faso", "ISO 3166-1:BF", "Burkina faso", "Faso", "Burkina Fasoan", "Bourkina Fasso", "Burkinafaso", "Burkino Faso", "Burkina-Faso", "Burkina Faso", "Burkina Fatso" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "iso 3166 1 bf", "burkina fasoan", "burkina fatso", "burkina fasso", "burkina faso", "bourkina fasso", "burkino faso", "bourkina faso", "burkina", "maximes thoughts and riddles of mossi", "burkinafaso", "faso", "burkinabè", "maximes pensées et devinettes mossi", "berkina faso" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "burkino faso", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Burkino Faso" }
Who was the woman sentenced to six years in jail after the murder of Stompei Seipi?	tc_239	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "Search" ], "filename": [ "Stompie_Moeketsi.txt" ], "title": [ "Stompie Moeketsi" ], "wiki_context": [ "James Seipei (1974–1989), also known as Stompie Moeketsi, was a teenage United Democratic Front (UDF) activist from Parys in South Africa. He and three other boys were kidnapped on 29 December 1988 by members of Winnie Mandela's bodyguards, known as the Mandela United football club. Moeketsi was murdered on 1 January 1989, the only one of the boys to be killed. \n\nActivism\n\nMoeketsi joined the street uprising against apartheid in the mid-1980s at age ten, and soon took on a leading role. He became the country's youngest political detainee when he spent his 12th birthday in jail without trial. At the age of 13 he was expelled from school.\n\nMurder\n\nMoeketsi, together with Kenny Kgase, Pelo Mekgwe and Thabiso Mono, were kidnapped on 29 December 1988 from the Methodist manse in Orlando, Soweto. Moeketsi was accused of being a police informer and after the 4 boys were kidnapped they were pleading and saying that Stompie isn't a police informer. Jerry Richardson, one of the members of Winnie Mandela's Football Club, was carrying a samurai-like sword before he closed the door and screams were heard as Stompie Moeketsi was murdered at the age of 14. His body was found on waste ground near Winnie Mandela's house on 6 January 1989, and recovered by the police. His throat had been cut. Jerry Richardson, one of Winnie Mandela's bodyguards, was convicted of the murder. He claimed that she had ordered him, with others, to abduct the four youths from Soweto, of whom Moeketsi was the youngest. The four were severely beaten.\n\nInvolvement of Winnie Mandela\n\nIn 1991, Winnie Mandela was convicted of kidnapping and being an accessory to assault, but her six-year jail sentence was reduced to a fine and a two-year suspended sentence on appeal. In 1992 she was accused of ordering the murder of Dr. Abu-Baker Asvat, a family friend who had examined Seipei at Mandela's house, after Seipei had been abducted but before he had been killed. Mandela's role was later probed as part of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission hearings, in 1997. She was said to have paid the equivalent of $8,000 and supplied the firearm used in the killing, which took place on 27 January 1989. The hearings were later adjourned amid claims that witnesses were being intimidated on Winnie Mandela's orders. \n\nThis incident became a cause célèbre for the apartheid government and opponents of the ANC, and Winnie Mandela's iconic status was dealt a heavy blow.\n\nAppearing before the Truth and Reconciliation Commission in 1997, she said allegations that she was involved in at least 18 human rights abuses including eight murders were \"ridiculous\" and claimed that her main accuser, former comrade Katiza Cebekhulu, was a former \"mental patient\" and his allegations against her were \"hallucinations\". The Commission found that the abduction had been carried out on Winnie Mandela's instructions, and that she had \"initiated and participated in the assaults\". However, with regard to the actual murder the Commission found Mandela only \"negligent\"." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Nomzamo Winifred Zanyiwe Madikizela", "Winnie Madikizela-Mandela", "Winnie Mandela", "Nomzano Zaniewe", "Winnie Nomzamo Mandela", "Nomzamo Winnie Mandela", "Mandela, Winnie", "Winnie Madikizela Mandela", "Winnie Madikizela", "Winnifred Mandela" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "winnie mandela", "nomzamo winifred zanyiwe madikizela", "nomzamo winnie mandela", "winnifred mandela", "winnie madikizela mandela", "mandela winnie", "winnie nomzamo mandela", "nomzano zaniewe", "winnie madikizela" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "winnie mandela", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Winnie Mandela" }
In which country are the towns of Gweru and Kwekwe?	tc_240	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Gweru.txt", "Kwekwe.txt" ], "title": [ "Gweru", "Kwekwe" ], "wiki_context": [ "Gweru (called Gwelo until 1982) is a city near the centre of Zimbabwe. It has a population of about 146,073 (2009), making it the fifth largest city in the nation. It became a municipality in 1914 and achieved city status in 1971. The name changed from Gwelo to Gweru in 1982.\n\nThe Nalatale and Danangombe archaeological enclosures lie nearby, the former known for its patterned brickwork, the latter for its Portuguese remains.\n\nIndustry\n\nIndustries include Zimbabwe Alloys, a chrome smelting plant, Bata Shoe Company (established in 1939), Anchor Yeast the sole manufacturer of yeast (established in 1952), Kariba Batteries, Zimglass and Zimcast . All are leading employers in Gweru. Gweru is situated in one of Zimbabwe's finest cattle rearing areas: the surrounding agricultural activity revolves around the cattle industry (both beef and dairy). Bata has its own tanning plant for cattle hides and the Cold Storage Commission CSC has an abattoir in Gweru. Flowers are also grown in the area for the export market, and Zimbabwe's largest distiller, Afdis, has extensive vineyards in Gweru for the production of wine. Mining is also prevalent: mainly chromite ore from rich deposits along the Great Dyke to the east of Gweru. The town derives its name from a former Lozwi/Rozvi chief known as Kwelu [Kalanga for pheasant]. The English could not say Kwelu and name it Gwelo. Sadly it has been named Gweru by the Karanga, a corrupted version of its original name. That the original name was Kalanga is supported by other names of surrounding areas such as Dimba Mihwa [Thorn Hill], Senga [Kalanga for carry], Mkoba [pronounced mukova Kalanga for entrance], Mambo. One of Netjasike's grandsons Malisa settled around that area.\n\nTransportation\n\nRailway\n\nThe National Railways of Zimbabwe have the country's largest marshalling yard, Dabuka, on the south side of Gweru. Dabuka plays a pivotal role in rail movement in the country as it is the central hub of the rail links to Mozambique in the east, South Africa in the south and Botswana and Namibia in the south west, lying on the Bulawayo - Harare Line.\n\nRoads\n\nAs a central city (hub), it has direct links to all the other cities and towns of Zimbabwe. It is 164 km from Bulawayo, 183 km from Masvingo, 471 km from Beitbridge, and 275 km from Harare.\n\nRoad names used are by destination only, for example the Harare - Gweru Road. There are only mainroads, no highways or freeways. \n\nClimate \n\nInternational relations\n\nGweru shares an international relationship with the town of Basildon, (Essex, United Kingdom). \n\nPopulation\n\nThe urban population of Gweru is thought to be around 300,000 people, but could well be more than that as most urban Zimbabweans maintain a rural home as well. Because it falls between the Shona and Ndebele regions a sizeable percentage can speak both of the major local languages although Shona is spoken by the majority with approximately 30% speaking Ndebele.\n\nResidential areas\n\nLike all other cities in Zimbabwe, Gweru is divided into high-, medium- and low-density residential areas. \nThe biggest original suburb in Gweru is Mkoba: it is divided into sections. Mkoba started as a village so it still has village 1, village 2 up to village 20. It is the only suburban area in Zimbabwe to have the village suffix. Mtapa, Senga, Nehosho,Cliffton park, Mambo, Ascot and newly developed Woodlands are some of the high-density suburbs around Gweru. Southdowns, Northlea, Lundi Park, Riverside etc. are among the \"middle-class\" residential areas of Gweru.\n\nGweru East, Kopje, Harben park, St Annes drive, Brackenhurst, Windsor Park are some of the \"elite\" residential areas of Gweru.\n\nEducation\n\nThe primary and secondary system of education has not changed much in structure for several decades. \n\n;Secondary schools\nGroup A\nChaplin High School (former school of Rhodesian Prime Minister - Ian Smith and Chris Duckworth, Rhodesia's foremost allround sportsman - Springbok cricketer, Rhodesian Hockey player, Natal U19, Junior Tennis Champion) \nThornhill High School\nMidlands Christian College (private)\nAnderson Adventist High School (private)\nNashville Secondary School\nGuinea Fowl High School\nGroup B\nMkoba 3 High School\nAscot Secondary School\nMatinunura Secondary school\nSenka Secondary School\nMkoba 1 Secondary School\nMambo Secondary School\nFletcher High School (this school produced some of the country's top professionals)\n\n;Tertiary Schools\nGweru Polytechnic College\nMkoba Teachers College\nMidlands State University\n\n;Commercial colleges\nCommercial education was not easily available to the majority of Gweru residents especially before independence. There was a surge of new colleges after 1980 when Zimbabwe gained independence and also when commercial courses became a popular requirement in industry.\n\nMidlands College of Commerce It provided courses in most commercial and practical subjects popular during that era for example: typing, bookkeeping, dress-making and shorthand. These were examined by the UK-based Pitman Examinations Institute. This college stopped operating in the mid-1990s following the death of W.H Shumba in 1994.\n\nAfter 1980 other colleges were soon established:\nEducare College\nAmbassador College\nCommercial Studies Centre\nSolars College\nTopFlight Secretarial College\nHerentals College\n\n;Correspondence / Distance Education Colleges\nZimbabwe Distance Education College (Zdeco). Founded by Dr Skhanyiso Ndlovu who is now the Minister of Information for Zimbabwe. ZDECO was formed soon after independence and is now one of the country's largest adult education colleges. This college runs commercial and academic programmes including ZJC (Zimbabwe Junior Certificate), 'O' and 'A' levels and degree programmes\nCentral Africa Correspondence College established in 1954\nRapid Results College established in 1962\nInternational Correspondence Schools\nZimbabwe Open University (ZOU)\n\n;Tertiary education\nMidlands Christian Training Centre - provided teacher training, and is also an examination centre for UNISA exams. This training centre is closely linked to the Midlands Christian School and College.\nMidlands State University - formerly Gweru Teacher's College www.msu.ac.zw\nMkoba Teacher's College\nSenka Technical Training Centre\nKaguvi National Technical College - formerly established to cater for freedom fighters who had gone to war against British colonial powers to reintegrate them into the community.\n\nHotels\n\nMidlands Hotel was opened in 1927 by the Meikle brothers. It was about to be demolished but after much protest, it was spared. Chitukuko hotel (formerly known as the Cecil Hotel) is another local hotel located in the city centre area. Both hotels were later owned by the Patrick Kombayi, a prominent Gweru businessman, ex-mayor, and politician known for his highly publicised criticism of the current government. Fairmile Motel is just a mile from the city centre on Bulawayo road.\n\nOther hotels and lodges in Gweru includes The Village Lodge(located along the Harare road next to Regina Mundi High School),Antelope Park and Fairmile Hotel(along Bulawayo Road.\n\nSights\n\nIn 1928 Gweru resident and pioneer widow Mrs Jean Boggie erected a memorial clock tower in memory of her late husband. The Boggie Clock Tower has become a landmark in Gweru.\n\nPictures\n\n\|city map\nFile:Boggies clock Gweru.jpg\|Boggies memorial clock tower\nFile:Boggie Clock.jpg\|Boggie Clock (High Res)\nFile:Gweru clock postage stamp.jpg\|Image of the memorial clock tower in a postage stamp\nFile:Gweru streets.jpg\|Gweru streets\nFile:City of Gweru.jpg\|new truck for city\nFile:Gweru antelope park.jpg\|Beautiful lodges\nFile:Eland 90 (9688620042).jpg\|Military museum", "Kwekwe ( ) (known until 1983 as Que Que ), is a city in central Zimbabwe.\n\nLocation\n\nIt is located in Kwekwe District, in Midlands Province, in the center of the country, roughly equidistant from Harare to the northeast and Bulawayo to the southwest. Its population stood at 47,607 in 1982, 75,425 in 1992 and the preliminary result of the 2002 census suggests a population of 88,000. In 2012, the city's population was estimated at 100,900 people. It is a centre for steel and fertiliser production in the country.\n\nKwekwe and neighbouring Redcliff are the headquarters of Zimbabwe Iron and Steel Company (ZISCO), the country's largest steelworks. It also hosts the Zimbabwe Iron and Smelting Company (ZIMASCO), the largest ferrochrome producer, and one of the biggest power generating plants, ZESA-Munyati, in Munyati, a suburb of Kwekwe. Kwekwe is Zimbabwe's richest city in terms of minerals.\n\nBackground\n\nKwekwe town was founded in 1898 as a gold mining town, and hosts Zimbabwe's National Mining Museum. The town remains an industrial centre of the country. The name stems from the Zulu word \"isikwekwe\", which means \"scurvy\", \"mange\" or \"scab\". Popular belief states that Kwekwe is named after the croaking noise made by the nearby river's frogs.\n\nGeography\n\nThe town is situated on Zimbabwe's Highveld at an altitude of 1220 m, above sea level. It is located in the tropics but its high altitude modifies this to a warm temperate climate.\nThe average annual temperature is 19 C. As with much of the Highveld, summers are long but not hot as the temperature depends on the amount of cloudiness and indirectly the amount of rain received. Drought years are hotter than wet years. The climate is hot and wet during the summer rainy season from mid November to mid March, with cool, dry weather from May to mid-August in the winter season, and warm dry weather from August to mid November. Winters are characterised mainly by their cold nights, with an average minimum temperature of 7 C, and are the sunniest time of the year.\n\nCulture and recreation \n\nKwe Kwe has always been a festive and social centre with warm inhabitants and a mild political atmosphere, and is worth a short stopover if time allows.during summer most of the people spend time at public swimming pools. Kwe Kwe is a multi ethnic city. In and around the city one is assured to come acroos Shona, Ndebele, Karanga, Chewa, Venda, Tonga and Nambya speaking people.\n\nSoccer and cricket are the main sports in the city, just as in the rest of the country. Kwekwe hosts one of Zimbabwe's Major provincial cricket sides – Mid West Rhinos. Their cricket ground has been host to several first class and one day matches and has even hosted some internationals – most notably against Kenya. Kwekwe also hosts a variety of touring sides versus Zimbabwe 'A' teams. Kwekwe hosts two football (soccer) clubs, the Lancashire Steel (named after a local steel company) and Kwekwe Cables. The Kwekwe Queens Club is also a reputable sporting establishment, with a sizeable membership and drinking crowd. Lancashire Steel FC, the main team in the city has been in the PSL a number of times. At its home stadium, Baghdad Stadium, it has hosted a number of big teams in the country, including Dynamos FC, and Highlanders FC. Golf tournaments are hosted by Kwekwe Golf club. Almost all of the schools in Kwekwe play -cricket\n\nTongai Moyo, L kat, Terrence \"Teque12\" Mutare and Bob Nyabinde are popular singers in the country who hail from Kwekwe. Kwekwe is a major stop for many music groups in the country who perform in the Mbizo Stadium. The cricketer Charles Coventry also hails from Kwekwe – he is best known for equalling the ODI World Record of 194 runs in an innings. It is also the birthplace of former cricketer Norman Featherstone. A stampede at Mbizo Stadium killed 11 people in 2014.\n\nEducation \n\nKwekwe is well endowed with many educational facilities. Most of the educational institutions are state-run. For university education, the closest facilities are 60 km away in Gweru, the Midlands Province capital, at Midlands State University.\n\n;Primary and secondary schools\nLike most urban areas in the country, the city of Kwekwe is serviced by many schools. Mbizo High School and Manunure High School, recently expanded to offer A-level classes, serve the high density suburb of Mbizo. Shungu High School is located about 16km out of Kwe Kwe. It is a Catholic run school. The middle-class suburbs close to the city centre have Kwekwe High School and Goldridge College plus the primary schools that include Goldridge Primary School, Fitchlea Primary School, Kwekwe Junior High School and Globe & Phoenix Primary SchoolMaryward Primary School, among others. There is alomost one primary school for about four sections of the high density areas\n\n;Tertiary education\nKwekwe Polytechnic is the only tertiary education institution in Kwekwe. Sable Chemicals and ZISCO Steel run apprenticeship programs with the polytechnic and with other universities in Zimbabwe. Recently the polytechnic is now offering B-tech degrees. Plans are underway to convert it into a mordern university.\n\nResidential areas \n\nThe residential suburbs in the city are divided into higher and lower density areas. The main surbubs in the town are Mbizo Township, Amaveni Township, Msasa Park, Goldrich, Hillandale, Newtown, Gaika, Beverly Hills, Chicago, Golden Acres, Southwood and Fitchlea.[http://www.iconnect-online.org/Stories/Story.import5184 iConnect Online; sharing knowledge on ICT4D – Computer training & e-commerce]\n\nKwekwe's suburbs are divided into low cost housing, residential housing and also industrial and railway housing. Kwekwe has only one set of traffic lights which are just outside the city centre on a road leading to the high density suburb of Mbizo.\n\nAmaveni Township and Mbizo Township are the two low-cost housing suburbs. These two slum areas were primarily built close to the mines for the use of mineworkers and the most successful businesses, especially for local bars known as beer halls serve this customer base.\nThen there are the middle-class homes in the Fitchlea area. This area is made up of big three- and four-bedroom homes and is still home to wealthy families despite the collapse of the economy.\n\nMasasa Park and New Town are among the wealthier suburbs. The very wealthy upper-class families reside mugomo (on the mountain) in the suburb of Chicago although New Town is considered the richest area in the town. This is subdivided into mini-suburbs such as Hazeldene. The homes in this area are significantly larger than most, and are usually staffed with 2–4 domestic workers and, at times, security guards.\n\nThe town lies on the Bulawayo – Harare railway line. It is home to two mosques, a meetinghouse for the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Seventh-day Adventist Churches, Salvation Army, Protestant and Catholic churches.\n\nKwekwe has paved roads leading to Gweru, Kadoma, Mvuma and Gokwe Business Centre hence it is considered a well-connected city. Besides being close to the geographical centre of the country, Kwekwe is also strategically located within the Midlands metropolitan area. Kwekwe, together with Gweru, Munyati, Kadoma and Redcliff form a single customer base for local commercial enterprises.\n!-- Bot generated title -->]\n\nIndustry and economy \n\nAs elsewhere in Zimbabwe, a high proprtion of the population depends on the informal sector, possibly more than half of the population. Many self-employed miners carry out illegal digging work just north of the city, panning for gold, one of the most lucrative sources of income. Other residents engage in less strenuous work as cobblers, carpenters, TV and radio repairmen, and vendors selling anything from onions to meat.\n\nMining \n\nGold is mined in the city, the reason the city was established. At one stage, the Globe and Phoenix Mine around which the town developed (circa 1900) was the biggest gold mine in the country. In the local mining museum on its premises stands a relic of these boom days called the Paper House; a wood and reinforced cardboard structure in striking green and white. This two-bedroom dwelling on stilts (presumably to combat the heat and protect from termites) was home to the first mine manager, and was once slept in by Cecil John Rhodes, the colonial empire builder who was closely connected with the early development of Rhodesia (Zimbabwe's former name). Kwekwe was originally a gold mining camp and is today characterised by the large mines in its vicinity producing gold, and the chrome ore and iron ore used in steelmaking.\n\nFour gold deposits within the Kwekwe district have been studied. The Primrose and Globe and Phoenix gold deposits display typical features of Archean orogenic lode gold systems such as fluid inclusions with low salinity, mixed aqueous-carbonic fluids, formation temperatures between 300 and 400 °C, and a common stable isotope composition of fluid and mineral precipitates. Deposits of this type formed in the brittle-ductile crustal transition zone at 1.5 to 3.0 kbars. In contrast, gold mineralisation at Jojo and especially the Indarama gold deposits probably formed at lower temperatures ([http://goliath.ecnext.com/coms2/product-compint-0000518005-page.html Lancashire Steel (Private) Ltd. \| Kwekwe, Zimbabwe \| Company Profile, Research, News, Information, Contacts]\n\nDairy Industry\n\nDendairy is the second largests dairy producer in Zimbabwe which is now a major player in the manufacturing business in Kwekwe. Dendairy is the only dairy company in Zimbabwe that is able to produce UHT milk that has a shelf life of up to 1 year. Dendairy produces UHT milk, Maas(fermented) milk, youghurt, ice cream and fruit juices. Denadairy have the only Tetra Pak Plant in Zimbabwe which packs boxed UHT long life milk that has a shelf life of 1 year.\n\nChemical \n\nSable Chemicals Pvt. Ltd. in located just outside city. It is the only producer of fertiliser in the whole country. Sable Chemicals produce hydrogen for their ammonia required in the manufacture of fertiliser using the world's largest electrolysis plant. This requires half the electricity available from the Kariba hydroelectric power station.\n\nCommercial and economic sector \n\nThe main retailers and banks in the country have branches in Kwekwe. OK and TM Supermarkets have outlets along the main street in the town. Kingdom Bank, Trust Bank, Barclays Bank, Standard Chartered Bank, CBZ Bank, Stanbic Bank, Allied Bank'and Ecobank all maintain branches in city.\n\nTourism \n\nDespite massive government intrusion, some small tourist operators maintain hunting and photographic safari licences on farms and concessions near town, where an abundance of wildlife can be seen, including Rhino, Elephant, Leopard, Lion and most big antelope (Kudu, Eland, Sable, Tsessebe etc.). The Kwekwe Sports Club hosts games by Zimbabwe's Midlands provincial cricket side, and hosted a One Day International against Kenya in 2002, along with a number of matches between Zimbabwe A and touring teams. Sebakwe dam is one of the main tourist attractions whereby tourists can waterskii, hunt, view game and camp. Sable Park is a recreational privately owned game reserve.\n\nThe National Mining Museum, dedicated to the mining industry in the country, is one of the main tourist attractions in the city.\n\nPublic services \n\nKwekwe General Hospital is the main medical facility in the town. Although it belongs to the government, the City Council oversees it. It is a major centre for TB treatment in the district. The hospital is found in Newtown, five kilometres east of the city centre, close to the Kwekwe Railway Station.\nKwekwe City Council\nZimpost, the national postal carrier's offices are located along main (called RGM) Way opposite city hall. POSB, the government bank is found on the edge of the city, behind the prominent mosque that is found at the north entrance of the town.\n The city is also served by Kwekwe Airport .\n\nPolitics \n\nThe member of parliament (MP) for Kwekwe Central constituency was Emmerson Mnangagwa until his defeat in the elections of 2000. Since then, Blessing Chebundo of the opposition Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) has represented the district in the Parliament of Zimbabwe. Kwe Kwe politics is mainly dominated by MDC.\n\nAs with other Zimbabwean towns run by opposition parties, Kwekwe has seen a number of politically motivated incidents in which people have been killed and arrested.\n\nImage Gallery \n\nFile:Kwekwe.jpg\|Kwekwe\nFile:Kwekwe Mosque.jpg\|Mosque\nFile:Out of Kwekwe.jpg\|Out of Kwekwe art and design" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Zimbobwe", "Health care in Zimbabwe", "Zimbabwean cultural practices", "People of Zimbabwe", "Republic of Zimbabwe", "Zimbabwean legends", "Zimbabwae", "Zimbabwian", "Republic Of Zimbabwe", "Cuisine of Zimbabwe", "Zimbabwean cuisine", "ZWE", "Zimbabwei", "Zimbabwe", "Etymology of Zimbabwe", "ISO 3166-1:ZW", "Republic Zimbabwe", "Zimbawean", "Zimbabwean", "Name of Zimbabwe", "Chimpabwe" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "people of zimbabwe", "zimbabwean cuisine", "name of zimbabwe", "etymology of zimbabwe", "zimbabwae", "zimbabwei", "zimbawean", "zimbabwean legends", "zimbabwe", "zimbabwian", "iso 3166 1 zw", "zimbabwean", "chimpabwe", "zimbabwean cultural practices", "republic of zimbabwe", "health care in zimbabwe", "cuisine of zimbabwe", "zimbobwe", "zwe", "republic zimbabwe" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "zimbabwe", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Zimbabwe" }
Who was the founder of the Back to Africa movement who largely inspired Rastafarianism?	tc_242	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Back-to-Africa_movement.txt", "Rastafari.txt" ], "title": [ "Back-to-Africa movement", "Rastafari" ], "wiki_context": [ "The Back-to-Africa movement, also known as the Colonization movement or Black Zionism, originated in the United States in the 19th century. It encouraged those of African descent to return to the African homelands of their ancestors. This movement would eventually inspire other movements ranging from the Nation of Islam to the Rastafari movement, and proved to be popular among African Americans and their white contemporaries.\n\nThe United States of America\n\nIn the early 19th century, the black population in the United States increased dramatically. Many of these African Americans were freed people seeking a better life. Many Southern freed blacks migrated to the industrial North to seek employment while others moved to surrounding Southern states. Their progress was met with hostility as many whites around that time were not used to so many blacks forcing themselves into peoples lives. Many did not believe that free Africans had a place in America and thought the very existence of free blacks undermined the system of slavery and encouraged slaves to revolt. In the North, whites feared that they would lose jobs to free African Americans, while other whites did not like the idea of blacks integrating with whites, but such sentiment was not exclusive to northerners. In Virginia, for example, one proponent of the Colonization movement, Solomon Parker of Hampshire County, was quoted as having said: “I am not willing that the Man or any of my Blacks shall ever be freed to remain in the united states.... Am opposed to slavery and also opposed to freeing blacks to stay in our Country and do sincerely hope that the time is approaching when our Land shall be rid of them.\" Riots swept the nation in waves, usually in urban areas where there had been recent migration of blacks from the South. During the height of these riots in 1819, there were 25 recorded riots, with many killed and injured. The back-to-Africa movement was seen as the solution to these problems by both groups, but more so with the white population than the blacks. Blacks often viewed the project with suspicion, especially among the middle-class, and worried that the Colonization movement was a ploy to deport freed African Americans to keep them from making efforts against slavery. Shortly after the foundation of the American Colonization Society, for example, 3,000 free blacks gathered in a church in Philadelphia and issued forth a declaration stating that they \"will never separate ourselves voluntarily from the slave population of the country\" and black leaders such James Forten who had previously supported the Colonization Movement found their minds changed by mass black resistance to the idea.White, Deborah Gray. \"Slavery and Freedom in the New Republic.\" In Freedom on my mind. S.l.: Bedford Bks St Martin's, 2012, pp. 186-188.\n\nReligious motivations for colonization \n\nFollowing the Great Awakening, during which America was swept by a wave of religious fervor which caused many enslaved African Americans to convert to Christianity, many religious people in America struggled with reconciling slavery with their beliefs. When the enslaved population of America was mostly Pagan or Muslim, it was easy for them to justify slavery on religious grounds, but in the 19th century, many religious Americans found it difficult to continue supporting the enslavement of their brothers in Christ, especially the Quakers. Two examples of such Christians can be found in Reverend Moses Tichnell and Reverend Samuel R. Houston, who freed slaves and sent them to Liberia in 1855 and 1856 respectively. These wealthy Christians who felt morally obligated to finance such voyages were indeed an important aspect of the colonization movement, and without them far fewer African Americans could have made the expensive journey back to the homeland of their ancestors, as it was much harder for a free black to achieve financial success in that time.\n\nAmerican Colonization Society\n\nThe American Colonization Society (ACS) was an early advocate of the idea of resettling American-born blacks in Africa. Founded in 1816 by Charles Fenton Mercer, it was made up of two groups: \"philanthropists, clergy and abolitionist who wanted to free African slaves and their descendants and provide them with the opportunity to return to Africa. The other group was the slave owners who feared free people of color and wanted to expel them from America.\"Waite, P. [http://personal.denison.edu/~waite/liberia/history/acs.htm The American Colonization Society.] Since its inception, the American Colonization Society struggled to garner support from within free black communities; however, during the late 1840s and early 1850s, the creation of an independent Liberian state splintered the nearly uniform voice against colonization. After the passage of the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850, which provided the United States government ample power to recapture fugitive slaves, many black leaders promoted immigration and colonization to a nation that would provide and protect their rights. Still in despite of this, several black critics were outspoken against the Back-to-Africa movement and the activities of the American Colonization Society. A report from a free black political conference in New York warned: \"all kinds of chicanery and stratagem will be employed to allure the people [to the colony]...the independence of its inhabitants; the enjoyment and privileges of its citizens, will be pictured forth in glowing colors, to deceive you.\" The discussion between ACS proponents and anticolonizationists did not stop blacks from migrating to Liberia despite numerous challenges. \n\nAccording to the Encyclopedia of Georgia History and Culture, \"as early as 1820, black Americans had begun to return to their ancestral homeland through the auspices of the American Colonization Society\" and by 1847, the American Colonization Society founded Liberia and designated it as the land to be colonized by all black people returning from the United States of America. By the decline of the Back to Africa Movement, the American Colonization Society migrated over 13,000 blacks back to Africa.\n\nNotable members of the American Colonization Society included Thomas Buchanan, Thomas Jefferson, James Monroe, Abraham Lincoln, James Madison, Daniel Webster, John Marshall, and Francis Scott Key. \n\nOther pre-Civil War attempts\n\nIn 1811, Paul Cuffee, \"a black man who was a wealthy man of property, a petitioner for equal rights for blacks\"Campbell, M. Back to Africa: George Ross & The Maroons, From Nova Scotia to Sierra Leone, New Jersey: Africa World Press, 1993. began to explore the idea of black people returning to their native land as he was convinced that \"opportunities for the advancement of for black people were limited in America, and he became interested in African colonization.\"Lapsanskey-Werner, E., and M. Bacon (eds), Back to Africa: Benjamin Coates and the Colonization Movement in America 1848–1880, Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania University Press, 2005. With the help of some Quakers in Philadelphia he was able to transport 38 blacks to Freetown, Sierra Leone, in 1815.Stewart, J. 1001 Things Everyone Should Know About African American History, New York: Doubleday, 1996.\n\nPost-Emancipation\n\nThe back-to-Africa movement began to decline but revived again in 1877 at the end of the Reconstruction as many blacks in the South faced violence from groups such as the Ku Klux Klan. Interest among the South's black population in African emigration peaked during the 1890s, a time when racism reached its peak and the greatest number of lynchings in American history took place. \n\nThe continued experience of segregation and discrimination of African Americans after emancipation, and the belief that they would never achieve true equality, attracted many of them to a Pan-African emancipation in their motherland.\n\nSoon thereafter, the movement declined following many hoax and fraudulent activities associated with the movement. According to Crumrin, however, the most important reason for the decline in the back-to-Africa movement was that the \"vast majority of those who were meant to colonize did not wish to leave. Most free blacks simply did not want to go \"home\" to a place from which they were generations removed. America, not Africa, was their home and they had little desire to migrate to a strange and forbidding land not their own.\" \n\nThe eventual disillusionment of those who migrated to the North and frustrations of struggling to cope with urban life set the scene for the back-to-Africa movement of the 1920s, initiated by Marcus Garvey. Those who migrated to the Northern States from the South found that, although they were financially better off, they remained at the bottom both economically and socially. \n\nLiberia\n\nThe history of Liberia (after the arrival of Europeans) is unique in Africa as it started neither as a native state nor as a European colony, but began in 1821 when private societies began founding colonies for free blacks from the United States on the coast of West Africa. The first American ships were very uncertain of where they were heading. Their plan was to follow the paths that the British had taken beforehand, or simply take a chance on where they would land. At first, they followed the previous routes of the British and reached the coast of Sierra Leone. After leaving Sierra Leone, the Americans slowly reached the southern part of the African coastline. Eventually, the Americans found what they were looking for, what the British called the Grain Coast. This region was called the Grain Coast because of the type of ginger spice used for medicine flavoring that it provided, which was called aframomum meleguete. In the Grain Coast, local African chiefs willingly gave the Americans tracts of land. It took the Americans the next 20 years to gain a series of fragmented settlements across Liberia's barely settled beach. Along with the difficulty of gaining enough land, life was not easy for these early settlers. Disease was rampant, along with the lack of food. Hostile tribes presented the settlers with great struggle, destroying some of their new land settlements. Almost half of the new settlers had died over the first 20 years since their arrival in Liberia. Liberia gained independence on 26 July 1847.Kenneth C. Barnes, Journey of Hope: The Back-to-Africa Movement in Arkansas in the Late 1800s (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004). With an elected black government and the offer of free land to African American settlers, Liberia became the most common destination of emigrating African Americans during the 19th century. Once African Americans arrived in Liberia, they faced a whole host of challenges, which included broken family ties, high mortality rates, and a difficult adjustment period. A group of 43 African Americans from Christiansburg, Virginia, left for Liberia in 1830 and suffered high mortality rates. \"Eighty percent of the emigrants were dead within ten years of landing there, most of them victims of malaria; another ten percent quit the colony, with the majority fleeing to Sierra Leone. African Americans who survived this period of adjustment in Liberia usually ended up liking the country. \n\nBlacks' interest in Liberia emigration emerged when the Civil War promised the end of slavery and meaningful change to the status of Black Americans. Some 7,000 enslaved people were freed by their masters, so at that point those free African Americans left the U.S. to escape racism and have more opportunities (mainly because they had lost all hope of achievement). In the 1830s, the movement became increasingly dominated by slave owners who wanted Liberia to absorb the free blacks of the South. Slaves freed from slave ships were sent here instead of their country of origin. The emigration of free blacks to Liberia particularly increased after the Nat Turner rebellion in 1831. Middle-class blacks were more resolved to live as black Americans, many rural poor folks gave up on the United States and looked to Liberia to construct a better life. Liberia provided freedom and equality; it also represented a chance for a better life for the South's black farmers. The Liberian government promised 25 acres of free land for each immigrant family, 10 acres for a single adult, who came to the Black Republic. In the early 19th century, Liberia evoked mixed images in the minds of black Americans. They viewed Liberia as a destination for black families who left the United States in search of a better way of life, returning to their ancestral homeland of Africa.\n\nAs noted by researcher Washington Hyde, \"Black Americans - who in the time of slavery lost their original languages and much of their original culture, gained a distinctly American, English-speaking Christian identity, and had no clear idea of precisely where in the wide continent of Africa their ancestors had come from - were perceived by the natives of Liberia as foreign settlers. Having an African ancestry and a black skin color were definitely not enough. Indeed, their settlement in Liberia had much in common with the contemporary white settlement of the American Frontier and these settlers' struggle with Native American tribes (...). The Liberian experience can also be considered as anticipating that of Zionism and Israel - with Jews similarly seeking redemption through a return to an ancestral land and similarly being regarded as foreign interlopers by the local Arab tribes. It would take Americo-Liberians a century and more to become truly accepted as one of Liberia's ethnic groups(...). All of which certainly contributed to most Black Americans rejecting the Back-to-Africa option and opting instead for seeking equal rights in America.\" \n\nEx-slave repatriation\n\nEx-slave repatriation or the immigration of African American, Caribbean, and Black British slaves to Africa occurred mainly during the late 18th century to mid-19th century. In the cases of Liberia and Sierra Leone both were established by former slaves who were repatriated to Africa within a 28-year period.\n\nSierra Leone\n\nThe first attempt by the British government to settle people in Sierra Leone in 1787 sent 300 former slaves on the Sierra Leone peninsula in West Africa. Two years later most members of the settlement were killed off by disease and complications with the local Temne people. In 1792, a second attempt was made when 1,100 freed slaves established Freetown behind the British abolitionist Thomas Clarkson. Many of these inhabitants were unhappy with where they were resettled in Canada after the American Revolution and were eager to return to their homeland.\n\nIn 1815 the first freed slaves from the United States arrived in Sierra Leone, when Paul Cuffe brought the first group of thirty-eight migrants. Five years later, in 1820, minister Daniel Coker lead a group of ninety free blacks in hopes of founding a new colony in Sierra Leone. He intended to proselytize Christianity among the Africans. After leaving New York on the ship Elizabeth, his voyage ended on an island just off the coast of Sierra Leone. Arriving just before the rains of spring, the group of immigrants were soon stricken with fever. The survivors soon fled to Freetown, and the settlement disintegrated.\n\nThe American Colonization Society came under attack from American abolitionists, who insisted that the removal of the freed slaves from the United States strengthened the institution of slavery.\n\nThe repatriation of slaves to Africa from the United Kingdom, and its dependencies, was initiated by the Committee for the Relief of the Black Poor, and was later on taken up by the Sierra Leone Company. In time, African American Black Loyalists and West Indians would immigrate to the colony of Freetown, Sierra Leone, in smaller numbers in efforts led by black merchants or beneficiaries such as Paul Cuffe.\n\nNotable repatriated people\n\nJoseph Jenkins Roberts - first President of Liberia and founding father\nThomas Peters (black leader) - African-American Black Loyalist leader and founder of Freetown, Sierra Leone\nWilliam Coleman - President of Liberia\nStephen Allen Benson - President of Liberia\nDavid George - African-American Baptist preacher\nBoston King - African-American Methodist missionary\nHenry Washington - African-born slave to first U.S. President George Washington\nDaniel Coker - African-American missionary to Sierra Leone\nEdward Jones (missionary) - American missionary to Sierra Leone\nEdward J. Roye - President of Liberia, and first president from the True Whig Party\nJohn Russwurm- founder of Freedom's Journal, the first black newspaper in the United States", "Rastafari is an Abrahamic belief which developed in Jamaica in the 1930s, following the coronation of Haile Selassie I as Emperor of Ethiopia in 1930. Its adherents worship him in much the same way as Jesus in his Second Advent, or as God the Father. Members of the Rastafari way of life are known as Rastafari, Rastas, Rastafarians, or simply Ras. Rastafari are also known by their official church titles, such as Elder or High Priest. The way of life is sometimes referred to as \"Rastafarianism\", but this term is considered offensive by most Rastafari, who, being critical of \"isms\" (which they see as a typical part of \"Babylon\" culture), dislike being labelled as an \"ism\" themselves. \n\nThe name Rastafari is taken from Ras Tafari, the title (Ras) and first name (Tafari Makonnen) of Haile Selassie I before his coronation. In Amharic, Ras, literally \"head\", is an Ethiopian title equivalent to prince or chief, while the personal given name Täfäri (teferi) means one who is revered. Yah (יה in Hebrew) is a Biblical name of God, from a shortened form of Jahweh or Yahuah found in in the King James Version of the Bible and many other places in the Bible. Most adherents see Haile Selassie I as Yah or Yah Rastafari, an incarnation of God the Father, the Second Advent of Christ \"the Anointed One\", i.e. the second coming of Jesus Christ the King to Earth.\n\nMany elements of Rastafari reflect its origins in Jamaica along with Ethiopian culture. Ethiopian Christianity traces its roots to the Church of Alexandria, founded by St Mark, and its 5th-century continuation in the Coptic Church of Alexandria. Rastafari holds many Christian beliefs like the existence of a triune God (\"Jah\"), who had sent his divine incarnate son to Earth in the form of Jesus (Yeshua) and made himself manifest as the divine person of Haile Selassie I. Rastafari accept much of the Bible, although they believe that its message and interpretation have been corrupted.\n\nThe Rastafari way of life encompasses the spiritual use of cannabis and the rejection of the degenerate society of materialism, oppression, and sensual pleasures, called Babylon. It proclaims Zion, in reference to Ethiopia, as the original birthplace of humankind, and from the beginning of the way of life calls for repatriation to Zion, the Promised Land and Heaven on Earth. This can mean literally moving to Ethiopia but also refers to mentally and emotionally repatriating before the physical. Some Rastafari also embrace various Afrocentric and Pan-African social and political aspirations.\n\nSome Rastafari do not claim any sect or denomination, and thus encourage one another to find faith and inspiration within themselves, although some do identify strongly with one of the \"Mansions of Rastafari\"—the three most prominent of these being the Nyahbinghi, the Bobo Ashanti, and the Twelve Tribes of Israel. \n\nBy 1997 there were, according to one estimate, around one million Rastafari worldwide. In the 2011 Jamaican census, 29,026 individuals identified themselves as Rastafari. Other sources estimated that in the 2000s they formed \"about 5% of the population\" of Jamaica, or conjectured that \"there are perhaps as many as 100,000 Rastafari in Jamaica\". \n\nWorld-views and doctrines\n\nJah Rastafari\n\nRastafari are monotheists, worshiping a singular God whom they call Jah. Jah is the term in the King James Bible, Psalms 68:4. Rastas view Jah in the form of the Holy Trinity – Father, Son, and the Holy Spirit. Rastas say that Jah in the form of the Holy Spirit (incarnate) lives within the human. For this reason, they often refer to themselves as \"I and I\". \"I and I\" is used instead of \"We\" to emphasize the equality between all people, in the belief that the Holy Spirit within all people makes them essentially one and the same.\n\nThe Trinity\n\nRastafari doctrines concerning the Trinity include stressing the significance of the name \"Haile Selassie,\" meaning power of the Trinity, might of the Trinity, powerful trinity in Ge'ez or also Haile Selassie I (qedamawi Haile Selassie) meaning the (first power of the Trinity) name given to Ras Tafari upon his baptism and later assumed as part of his regnal name at his November 2, 1930 coronation by the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church, then known as just the Ethiopian Tewahedo Church.\n\nHaile Selassie I\n\nHaile Selassie I (1892–1975) was the Emperor of Ethiopia from 1930 to 1974. Rastafari say that he will lead the righteous into creating a perfect world called Zion.\n\nThe future capital city of Zion is sometimes put forward as the New Jerusalem (Lalibela, Ethiopia) and the very Habitation of the Godhead (Trinity) creator, Ras Tafari. Prophetic verses of the Hebrew Bible (such as Zephaniah 3:10 \"From beyond the rivers of Ethiopia My worshipers, the daughter of My dispersed ones, shall bring my offering\") have been interpreted as subtly hinting that the messianic king will be in Ethiopia and the people will come from all over world beyond its rivers.\n\nRastas may say that Haile Selassie I's coming was prophesied from Genesis to the Book of Revelation. Genesis, Chapter 1: \"God made man in His own image.\" Psalm 2: \"Yet I set my Holy king on My Holy hill of Zion.\" Psalm 87:4–6 is interpreted as predicting the coronation of Haile Selassie I. During his coronation, Haile Selassie I was given 38 titles and anointments taken from the Bible: \"King of Kings,\" \"Elect of God,\" \"Conquering Lion of the Tribe of Judah the Author of Mankind,\" \"the Power of Authority,\" etc. He also received acclaim from various Christian and Muslim leaders and\nclergy for the work he performed towards establishing world peace and the brotherhood of mankind — this being one of the primary reasons his followers hold him as a God incarnate. Rastas also refer to Haile Selassie I as \"His Imperial Majesty\" (or the acronym HIM) and \"Jah Rastafari.\"\n\nAccording to tradition, Haile Selassie I was the 225th in an unbroken line of Ethiopian monarchs of the Solomonic dynasty. This dynasty is said to have been founded in the 10th century BC by Menelik I. Menelik I was son of the Biblical King Solomon and Makeda, the Queen of Sheba, who had visited Solomon in Israel. 1 Kings 10:13 claims \"And King Solomon gave unto the Queen of Sheba all her desire, whatsoever she asked, beside that which Solomon gave her of his royal bounty. So she turned and went to her own country, she and her servants.\" On the basis of the Ethiopian national epic, the Kebra Negast, Rastas interpret this verse as meaning she conceived his child.\n\nThe death of Haile Selassie I is a topic of some debate among Rastafari. Some Rastas consider it a partial fulfillment of prophecy of the \"Temporary Messianic Kingdom\" found in the apocalyptic 2 Esdras 7:28. Others believe that Haile Selassie's 1975 reported death was a hoax. It has also been claimed that he entered a monastery and is now known by many as Abba Keddus (Amharic for Holy Father) and will return to liberate his followers and vanquish all evil, restoring his creation. One Rastafari reaction to Haile Selassie's supposed death was contained in Bob Marley's song Jah Live, which declares emphatically \"God cannot die.\" Many Rastafari claim to have met Haile Selassie after his reported death and know him also by his claimed new name Abba Keddus or Abba Keddus Keddus Keddus. \n\nFor some Rastafari, Haile Selassie I remains their God and King. They see Haile Selassie I as being worthy of worship for having stood with great dignity in front of the world's press and the representatives of many of the world's powerful nations, especially during his appeal to the League of Nations 1936 when he was still the only independent non-European monarch in Africa. Other followers of the Rastafari tradition do not worship him outright but hail him as an African prophet who spoke to the world on behalf of his brethren. He spoke to the plight of disenfranchised peoples throughout his life.\n\nIn a 1967 interview when a Canadian interviewer mentioned the Rastafari belief that he was the reincarnation of Jesus Christ, he responded by saying: \"I have heard of this idea. I also met certain Rastafarians. I told them clearly that I am a man, that I am mortal, and that I will be replaced by the oncoming generation, and that they should never make a mistake in assuming or pretending that a human being is emanated from a deity.\" His grandson Ermias Sahle Selassie has said that there is “no doubt that Haile Selassie did not encourage the Rastafari movement.” This encouragement included his meetings with Mortimer Planno and other movement leaders who journeyed to Addis Ababa in 1961, again in 1966 on his visit to Jamaica, and many times at Shashemene in the later years of his reign.\n\nThe Rastafarian movement prompted the Emperor to send Abuna Yesehaq, the Archbishop of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church to Jamaica.\n\nIyesus Kristos \n\nAcceptance of the Jesus-incarnate status of Qedamawi Haile Selassie is Rastafari doctrine, as is the notion of the corruption of his teachings by secular, Western society, figuratively referred to as Babylon. For this reason, they believe, it was prophesied in the Book of Revelation—\"And I heard the number of them which were sealed: and there were sealed a hundred and forty and four thousand of all the tribes of the children of Israel.\" —that Jesus would return with a new name that would be inscribed on the foreheads of 144,000 of his most devoted servants. Rastas hold that they represent this fulfillment based on their experience in the light of Haile Selassie I's return and coronation as the King of Kings on November 2, 1930, whom they see as the second coming of Jesus or the coming of the holy spirit, and therefore Jah, onto the Earth.\n\nZion vs. Babylon\n\nRastas assert that Zion (i.e., Ethiopia) is a land that Jah promised to them. To achieve this, they reject modern western society, calling it \"Babylon\", which they see as entirely corrupt due to materialism and greed.Chanting Down Babylon, pp. 342–43.Edmonds, p. 54. \"Babylon\" is considered to have been in rebellion against \"Earth's Rightful Ruler\" (Jah) ever since the days of the Biblical king Nimrod.\n\nParadise\n\nMany Rastafari are physical immortalists who maintain that the chosen few will continue to live forever in their current bodies. This is commonly called \"Life Everliving\". Everliving in Iyaric replaces the term \"everlasting\" to avoid the \"negative wordsound\" of last implying an end. Rastas say their life will never have an end, but will be everliving, with Jah as king and Amharic the official language. Rastas strongly reject the idea that heaven is in the sky, or is a place where dead people go and instead see heaven as being a place on Earth, specifically Ethiopia. \n\nAfrocentrism\n\nIn an October 1963 speech before the United Nations. (which provided the lyrics for the Carlton Barrett and Bob Marley song \"War\"), Haile Selassie made the following statement:\n\n\"Last May, in Addis Ababa, I convened a meeting of Heads of African States and Governments. In three days, the thirty-two nations represented at that Conference demonstrated to the world that when the will and the determination exist, nations and peoples of diverse backgrounds can and will work together. In unity, to the achievement of common goals and the assurance of that equality and brotherhood which we desire. On the question of racial discrimination, the Addis Ababa Conference taught, to those who will learn, this further lesson:\nThat until the philosophy which holds one race superior and another inferior is finally and permanently discredited and abandoned; That until there are no longer first-class and second-class citizens of any nation; That until the colour of a man's skin is of no more significance than the colour of his eyes; That until the basic human rights are equally guaranteed to all without regard to race; That until that day, the dream of lasting peace and world citizenship and the rule of international morality will remain but a fleeting illusion, to be pursued but never attained; And until the ignoble and unhappy regimes that hold our brothers in Angola, in Mozambique and in South Africa in subhuman bondage have been toppled and destroyed; Until bigotry and prejudice and malicious and inhuman self-interest have been replaced by understanding and tolerance and good-will; Until all Africans stand and speak as free beings, equal in the eyes of all men, as they are in the eyes of Heaven; Until that day, the African continent will not know peace. We Africans will fight, if necessary, and we know that we shall win, as we are confident in the victory of good over evil.\"\n\nHe concluded this speech with the words, \"We must become members of a new race, overcoming petty prejudice, owing our ultimate allegiance not to nations but to our fellow men within the human community.\"\n\nCeremonies\n\nThere are two types of Rasta religious ceremonies: Reasoning and Groundation.\n\nReasoning\n\nA \"reasoning\" is a simple event where the Rastas gather, smoke marijuana (\"ganja\"), and discuss. The person honored by being allowed to light the herb says a short sentence beforehand, and the ganja is passed in a clockwise fashion (passing 'pon the lef' han' side) except in times of war when it is passed counterclockwise. It is used to reason with Jah (God).\n\nGroundation\n\nA \"groundation\" (also spelled \"grounation\") or \"binghi\" is a holy day; the name \"binghi\" is derived from \"Nyabinghi\" (literally \"Nya\" meaning \"black\" and \"Binghi\" meaning \"victory\"). Binghis are marked by much dancing, singing, feasting, and the smoking of ganja, and can last for several days.\n\nIn public gatherings, Rastafari often say the following standard prayer, with several variants, comparable to the Lord's Prayer:\n\n\"Princes and princesses shall come forth out of Egypt, Ethiopia now stretch forth her hands before Jah. O Thou God of Ethiopia, Thou God of Thy Divine Majesty, Thy Spirit come into our hearts, to dwell in the paths of righteousness. Lead and help I and I to forgive, that I and I may be forgiven. Teach I and I Love and loyalty on earth as it is in Zion, Endow us with Thy wisemind, knowledge and Overstanding to do thy will, thy blessings to us, that the hungry might be fed, the sick nourished, the aged protected, the naked clothed and the infants cared for. Deliver I and I from the hands of our enemy, that I and I may prove fruitful in these Last Days, when our enemy have passed and decayed in the depths of the sea, in the depths of the earth, or in the belly of a beast. O give us a place in Thy Kingdom forever and ever, so we hail our majesty Haile Selassie I, Jehovah God, Rastafari, Almighty God, Rastafari, great and powerful God Jah, Rastafari. Who sitteth and reigneth in the heart of man and woman, hear us and bless us and sanctify us, and cause Thy loving Face to shine upon us thy children, that we may be saved, Selah.\"\n\nWhen lighting a chalice, the following, shorter invocation is often used: \"Glory be to the Father and to the Maker of Creation, as it were in the Beginning, is now an shall be forever, world without end, SELAH.\"\n\nSome important dates when groundations may take place are:\n January 7 – Ethiopian Orthodox Christmas\n* March 25 – The birthday of Empress Menen\n* April 21 – The anniversary of Haile Selassie's visit to Jamaica (also known as Grounation Day)\n* 25 May – African Liberation Day\n* June 16 - The birthday of Leonard P. Howell\n* July 23 – The birthday of Emperor Haile Selassie\n* August 17 – The birthday of Marcus Garvey\n* September 11 – Ethiopian New Year\n* November 2 – The coronation of Haile Selassie\n\nPlaces of worship\n\nFirst and foremost, Rastas assert that their own bodies are the true church or temple of God. However, in international communities with large Rastafari populations, Rastafari have created tabernacles, churches, headquarters, and temples as spiritual meeting centers.\n\nSects and subdivisions\n\nThere are three main Mansions (sects or orders) of Rastafari: the Nyahbinghi Order, Bobo Ashanti, and the Twelve Tribes of Israel. All agree on the basic principles of\nthe divine status of Haile Selassie. Many\nRastafari do not belong to any sect.\n\nNyahbinghi Order\n\nThe Nyahbinghi Order (also known as Haile Selassie I Theocratical Order of the Nyahbinghi Reign) is the oldest of all the Rastafari mansions and was named after Queen Nyahbinghi of Uganda, who fought against colonialists in the 19th century. The Nyahbinghi Order holds steadfast to ancient biblical values. It focuses mainly on Haile Selassie I, Ethiopia, and the eventual return to Africa. It is overseen by an Assembly of Elders. Nyahbinghi brethren also accept the Bible according to the teachings of Haile Selassie I.\nNyahbingi as a Rastafarian lifestyle ->\n\nFor Rastas, Nyahbingi is the mystical power of the Most High to mete justice throughout the universe. Although the genuine origin of the word means “Black Victory” and is Ugandan, as a concept and theology. \"Niya\" meaning \"black\" and \"binghi\" meaning \"Victory.\" Therefore, it is through prayer, music and biblical reasonings that the Rastaman chants bingi, calling on the forces of nature to destroy the powers of racial oppression. \n\nNyabinghi was a legendary Ugandan/Rwandan tribe queen, who was said to have possessed a Ugandan woman named Muhumusa in the 19th century. Muhumusa inspired a movement, rebelling against African colonial authorities. Although she was captured in 1913, alleged possessions by Nyabinghi continued (mostly afflicting women). Bloodline of the true Nyabinghi warriors rightfully settled in the heart of Dzimba dze Mabwe now known as Zimbabwe.\n\nBobo Ashanti\n\nThe Bobo Ashanti sect was founded by Prince Emanuel Charles Edwards in Jamaica in 1958. The term \"Bobo\" came from the idea that Rastas wore \"Bobos\" or \"Bobo dreads\" and \"Ashanti\" because the Ashanti (Asante) was majority of African slaves in Jamaica.\n\nTwelve Tribes of Israel\n\nThe Twelve Tribes of Israel sect was founded in 1968 by Dr. Vernon \"Prophet Gad\" Carrington. It is the most liberal of the Rastafarian orders and members are free to worship in a church of their choosing. Each member of this sect belongs to one of the 12 Tribes (or Houses), which is determined by Gregorian birth month and is represented by a colour, a part of the body and a character trait often called a faculty. The Standard Israelite calendar begins in April, the 12 tribes being Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, Dan, Gad, Asher, Naphtali, Joseph and Benjamin. Although the 12 representations apply to male and female alike, Dinah, although not considered a tribe, is representative of the feminine. Members of this order are not required to be turbaned.\n\nThe Howellites and The Ethiopian Salvation Society\n\nThe Howellites were the followers of The Rastafari Movement/Ethiopian Salvation Society that was established by Leonard Percival Howell (the Founding Father of the Rastafari Movement) in 1932. Many Howellites travelled with their parents from the settlement of Trinity Ville in St. Thomas, Jamaica to Pinnacle, or they were born in Pinnacle; Pinnacle was the \"First Industrial Mission\" and was the most thriving society in the Caribbean at the time.\n\nLion\n\nThe Lion of Judah is an important symbol to Rastas, for several reasons. The lion appears on the Imperial Ethiopian flag, used in Haile Selassie I's Ethiopia. In addition, the Ge'ez title Mo'a Anbesa Ze'imnegede Yihuda (\"Conquering Lion of the Tribe of Judah\") has been applied to Ethiopian Emperors, in their tradition beginning with Menelik I, said to be the son of king Solomon (c. 980 BC).\n\nRastafari and other Abrahamic faiths\n\nSome Rastafari choose to identify their movement with elements of Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity or Judaism. Rastafari typically hold that standard translations of the Bible incorporate changes, or were edited for the benefit of the power structure, and one common idea is that half the Biblical story has never been told. \n\nSpiritual use of cannabis\n\nFor Rastas, smoking cannabis, commonly referred to as herb, weed, kaya, sinsemilla (Spanish for \"without seeds\"), or ganja (from the Sanskrit word ganjika, used in ancient Nepal and India), is a spiritual act, often accompanied by Bible study; they consider it a sacrament that cleans the body and mind, heals the soul, exalts the consciousness, facilitates peacefulness, brings pleasure, and brings them closer to Jah. They often burn the herb when in need of insight from Jah.\n\nSacramental use of Cannabis in celebration of the Rastafari faith became legal in Jamaica on April 15, 2015.\n\nBy the 8th century, cannabis had been introduced by Arab traders to Central and Southern Africa, where it is known as \"dagga\" and many Rastas say it is a part of their African culture that they are reclaiming. It is sometimes also referred to as \"the healing of the nation\", a phrase adapted from Revelation 22:2. \n\nAlternatively, the migration of many thousands of Hindus and Muslims from British India to the Caribbean in the 20th century may have brought this culture to Jamaica. Many academics point to Indo-Caribbean origins for the ganja sacrament resulting from the importation of Indian migrant workers in a post-abolition Jamaican landscape. \"Large scale use of ganja in Jamaica... dated from the importation of indentured Indians...\"(Campbell 110). Dreadlocked mystics Jata, often ascetic known as sadhus or Sufi Qalandars and Derwishes, have smoked cannabis from both chillums and coconut shell hookahs in South Asia since the ancient times. Also, the reference of \"chalice\" may be a transliteration of \"jam-e-qalandar\" (a term used by Sufi ascetics meaning 'bowl or cup of qalandar'). In South Asia, in addition to smoking, cannabis is often consumed as a drink known as bhang and most qalandars carry a large wooden pestle for that reason. \n\nAccording to many Rastas, the illegality of cannabis in many nations is evidence of persecution of Rastafari. They are not surprised that it is illegal, seeing it as a powerful substance that opens people's minds to the truth – something the Babylon system, they reason, clearly does not want. They contrast it to alcohol and other drugs, which they feel destroy the mind. \n\nThey hold that the smoking of cannabis enjoys Biblical sanction, and is an aid to meditation and religious observance. Among Biblical verses, Rastas quote the following as justifying the use of cannabis:\n* Genesis 1:11 \"And God said, Let the earth bring forth grass, the herb yielding seed, and the fruit tree yielding fruit after his kind, whose seed is in itself, upon the earth: and it was so.\"\n* Genesis 1:29 \"And God said, Behold, I have given you every herb-bearing seed, which is upon the face of all the earth, and every tree, in the which is the fruit of a tree yielding seed; to you it shall be for meat.\"\n* Genesis 3:18 \"... thou shalt eat the herb of the field.\"\n* Psalms 104:14 \"He causeth the grass to grow for the cattle, and vegetation for the service of man.\"\n* Proverbs 15:17 \"Better is a dinner of herbs where love is, than a stalled ox and hatred therewith.\" \n* Revelation 22:2 \" the river of life proceeded to flow from the throne of God, and on either side of the bank there was the tree of life, and the leaf from that tree is for the healing of the nations.\"\n\nAccording to some Rastafari, the etymology of the word \"cannabis\" and similar terms in all the languages of the Near East may be traced to the Hebrew \"qaneh bosm\" קנה-בשם as one of the herbs that God commanded Moses to include in his preparation of sacred anointing perfume in Exodus 30:23; the Hebrew term also appears in Isaiah 43:24; Jeremiah 6:20; Ezekiel 27:19; and Song of Songs 4:14. Deutero-canonical and canonical references to the patriarchs Adam, Noah, Abraham, and Moses \"burning incense before the Lord\" are also applied, and many Rastas today refer to cannabis by the term \"ishence\"—a slightly changed form of the English word incense. Some Rastas claim that cannabis was the first plant to grow on King Solomon's grave. \n\nIn 1998, Attorney General of the United States Janet Reno gave a legal opinion that Rastafari do not have the religious right to smoke marijuana in violation of the United States' drug laws. The position is the same in the United Kingdom, where, in the Court of Appeal case of R. v. Taylor [2002] 10 million. App. R. 37, it was held that the UK's prohibition on cannabis use did not contravene the right to freedom of religion conferred under the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms.\n\nOn January 2, 1991, at an international airport in his homeland of Guam, Ras Iyah Ben Makahna (Benny Guerrero) was arrested for possession and importation of marijuana and seeds. He was charged with importation of a controlled substance. The case was heard by the US 9th Circuit Court November 2001, and in May 2002 the court had decided that the practice of Rastafari sanctions the smoking of marijuana, but nowhere does the religion sanction the importation of marijuana. Guerrero's lawyer Graham Boyd pointed out that the court's ruling was \"equivalent to saying wine is a necessary sacrament for some Christians but you have to grow your own grapes.\" \n\nIn July 2008, however, the Italian Supreme Court ruled that Rastafari may be allowed to possess greater amounts of cannabis legally, owing to its use by them as a sacrament. \n\nIn 2009, Rasta Doug Darrell was arrested after a National Guard helicopter flying over his New Hampshire home found he was growing 15 marijuana plants in his backyard. In a subsequent trial in September 2012, Darrell was found \"not guilty\" by twelve jurors exercising the right of jury nullification. \n\nPolitics\n\nRastafari culture does not encourage mainstream political involvement. In fact, in the early stages of the movement most Rastas did not vote, out of principle. Ras Sam Brown formed the Suffering People's Party for the Jamaican elections of 1962 and received fewer than 100 votes. In the election campaign of 1972, People's National Party leader Michael Manley used a prop, a walking stick given to him by Haile Selassie, which was called the \"Rod of Correction\", in a direct appeal to Rastafari values.\n\nIn the famous free One Love Peace Concert on April 22, 1978, Peter Tosh lambasted the audience, including attending dignitaries, with political demands that included decriminalising cannabis. He did this while smoking a spliff, a criminal act in Jamaica. At this same concert, Bob Marley led both then-Prime Minister Michael Manley and opposition leader Edward Seaga onto the stage; and a famous picture was taken with all three of them holding their hands together above their heads in a symbolic gesture of peace during what had been a very violent election campaign.\n\nIn 1996, the International Rastafari Development Society was given Consultative Status by the United Nations. \n\nEquality\n\n\"He [the Almighty] taught us that all human beings are equal regardless of sex, national origin and tribe. And He also taught us all who seek Him shall find Him.\" – Haile Selassie I, Dec. 1968 interview with Dr. Oswald Hoffman on 'The Lutheran Hour'.\n\nPer the Rastas' perception of what Haile Selassie's consistent lifelong message was, Rastafari tend to be firm adherents to the proposition that in the eyes of Jah, all men and women deserve equal and just rights, treatment and respect. With both King Alpha and his Queen Omega as examples, Rastafari bredren and sistren (collectively idren) seek to emulate kings and queens according mutual respect and dignity. According to them, all people are equal, regardless of race, because all people are children of Jah.\n\nHowever, in terms of sexual behavior, there are many in the Rastafari movement (like most other biblical religions) who consider homosexual acts to be a Babylon-promoted sin against the Creator (see LGBT rights in Jamaica), and therefore may not support LGBT rights movements. The Bobo Ashanti mansion has been noted for this; with other mansions it tends to vary.\n\nCulture\n\nLanguage\n\nRastas assert that their original African languages were stolen from them when they were taken into captivity as part of the slave trade, and that English is an imposed colonial language. Their remedy has been the creation of a modified vocabulary and dialect known as \"Iyaric\", reflecting their desire to take language forward and to confront the society they call Babylon.\n\nSome examples are:\n* \"I-tal\", derived from the word vital and used to describe the diet of the movement which is taken mainly from Jewish dietary laws.\n* \"Overstanding\", which replaces \"understanding\" to denote an enlightenment which places one in a better position.\n* \"Irie\" (pronounced \"eye-ree\"), a term used to denote acceptance, positive feelings, or to describe something that is good.\n* \"Upfulness\", a positive term for being helpful\n* \"Livication\", substituted for the word \"dedication\" because Rastas associate dedication with death.\n* \"Downpression\", used in place of \"oppression\", the logic being that the pressure is being applied from a position of power to put down the victim.\n\nOne of the most distinctive modifications in Iyaric is the substitution of the pronoun \"I and I\" for other pronouns, usually the first person. \"I\", as used in the examples above, refers to Jah; therefore, \"I and I\" in the first person includes the presence of the divine within the individual. As \"I and I\" can also refer to us, them, or even you, it is used as a practical linguistic rejection of the separation of the individual from the larger Rastafari community, and Jah himself.\n\nRastafari say that they reject -isms. They see a wide range of -isms and schisms in modern society, for example communism and capitalism, and want no part in them. For example, Haile Selassie himself was an anti-communist during the cold war, and was deposed by a Marxist coup. Rastafari would reject Marxism as part of the Babylonian system or, at the very least, just another version of western Humanism. They especially reject the word \"Rastafarianism\", because they see themselves as \"having transcended -isms and schisms\". This has created conflict between some Rastas and some members of the academic community studying Rastafari, who insist on calling this faith \"Rastafarianism\" in spite of the disapproval this generates within the Rastafari movement. Nevertheless, the practice continues among scholars, though there are also instances of the study of Rastafari using its own terms. \n\nDiet\n\nThe Ital vegetarian diet is one of the main tenets of the Rastafari movement. Those who adhere to it abstain from all meat and flesh whatsoever, asserting that to touch meat is to touch death, and is therefore a violation of the Nazirite law.\n\nSome Rastafari eat limited types of meat in accordance with the dietary Laws of the Old Testament but in accordance with those laws, they do not eat shellfish or pork. Some are vegetarian but make a special exception allowing fish, while abstaining from all other forms of flesh. Most Rastafari maintain a vegan or vegetarian diet all of the time. Food approved for Rastafari is called ital. The purpose of fasting (abstaining from meat and dairy) is to cleanse the body in accordance to serving in the presence of the \"Ark of the Covenant\".\n\nUsage of alcohol is also generally deemed unhealthy to the Rastafari way of life, partly because it is seen as a tool of Babylon to confuse people, and partly because placing something that is pickled and fermented within oneself is felt to be much like turning the body (the Temple) into a \"cemetery\".\n\nIn consequence, a rich alternative cuisine has developed in association with Rastafari tenets, eschewing most synthetic additives, and preferring more natural vegetables and fruits such as coconut and mango. This cuisine can be found throughout the Caribbean and in some restaurants throughout the western world.\n\nSome of the Houses (or \"Mansions\" as they have come to be known) of the Rastafari culture, such as the Twelve Tribes of Israel, do not specify diet beyond that which, to quote Christ in the New Testament, \"Is not what goes into a man's mouth that defile him, but what come out of it\". Wine is seen as a \"mocker\" and strong drink is \"raging\"; however, simple consumption of beer or the very common roots wine are not systematically a part of Rastafari culture this way or that. Separating from Jamaican culture, different interpretations on the role of food and drink within the religion remains up for debate. At official state banquets Haile Selassie would encourage guests to \"eat and drink in your own way\".\n\nDreadlocks\n\nThe wearing of dreadlocks is very closely associated with the movement, though not universal among, nor exclusive to, its adherents. Rastafari maintain that locks are required by Leviticus 21:5 (\"They shall not make baldness upon their head, neither shall they shave off the corner of their beard, nor make any cuttings in the flesh.\") and the Nazirite law in Numbers 6:5 (\"All the days of the vow of his separation there shall no razor come upon his head: until the days be fulfilled, in the which he separateth himself unto the Lord, he shall be holy, and shall let the locks of the hair of his head grow.\"). The Dreadlocks represents A lion's mane and Yeshua (Jesus) in his Kingly Character.\n\nIt has been suggested (e.g., Campbell 1985) that the first Rasta locks were copied from Kenya in 1953, when images of the independence struggle of the feared Mau Mau insurgents, who grew their \"dreaded locks\" while hiding in the mountains, appeared in newsreels and other publications that reached Jamaica. However, a more recent study by Barry Chevannes has traced the first hairlocked Rastas to a subgroup first appearing in 1949, known as Youth Black Faith.\n\nIn 1844, the trade for unskilled labor from India and South China was expanded to the colonies in the West Indies, including Jamaica, Trinidad and Demerara, where the Asian population was soon a major component of the island demographic. The Indian laborers brought their culture with them, which includes, prominently, the wearing of dreadlocks by holy men. The god Shiva of the Indian trinity wears dreadlocks.\n\nThere have been ascetic groups within a variety of world faiths that have at times worn similarly matted hair. In addition to the Nazirites of Judaism and the sadhus of Hinduism, it is worn among some sects of Sufi Islam, notably the Baye Fall sect of Mourides, and by some Ethiopian Orthodox monks in Christianity, among others. Some of the very earliest Christians may also have worn this hairstyle; particularly noteworthy are descriptions of James the Just, \"brother of Jesus\" and first Bishop of Jerusalem, whom Hegesippus (according to Eusebius and Jerome) described as a Nazirite who never once cut his hair. The length of a Rasta's locks is a measure of wisdom, maturity, and knowledge in that it can indicate not only the Rasta's age, but also his/her time as a Rasta.\n\nAlso, according to the Bible, Samson was a Nazirite who had \"seven locks\". Rastafari argue that these \"seven locks\" could only have been dreadlocks, as it is unlikely to refer to seven strands of hair.\n\nLocks have also come to symbolize the Lion of Judah (its mane) and rebellion against Babylon. In the United States, several public schools and workplaces have lost lawsuits as the result of banning locks. Safeway is an early example, and the victory of eight children in a suit against their Lafayette, Louisiana school was a landmark decision in favor of Rastafari rights. More recently, in 2009, a group of Rastafari settled a federal lawsuit with the Grand Central Partnership in New York City, allowing them to wear their locks in neat ponytails, rather than be forced to \"painfully tuck in their long hair\" in their uniform caps. \n\nRastafari associate dreadlocks with a spiritual journey that one takes in the process of locking their hair (growing hairlocks). It is taught that patience is the key to growing locks, a journey of the mind, soul and spirituality. Its spiritual pattern is aligned with the Rastafari movement. The way to form natural dreadlocks is to allow hair to grow in its natural pattern, without cutting, combing or brushing, but simply to wash it with pure water and herbal shampoo.\n\nFor Rastafari the razor, the scissors and the comb are the three Babylonian or Roman inventions. So close is the association between dreadlocks and Rastafari, that the two are sometimes used synonymously. In reggae music, a follower of Rastafari may be referred to simply as a \"dreadlocks\" or \"natty (natural) dread\".\n\nAs important and connected with the movement as the wearing of locks is, though, it is not deemed necessary for, or equivalent to, true faith. Popular slogans, often incorporated within reggae lyrics, include: \"Not every dread is a Rasta and not every Rasta is a dread...\"; \"It's not the dread upon your head, but the love inna your heart, that mek ya Rastaman\" (Sugar Minott); and as Morgan Heritage sings: \"You don't haffi dread to be Rasta...\", and \"Children of Selassie I, don't lose your faith; whether you do or don't have your locks pon yuh head...\" Some Rastafari may eschew dreadlocks, either as a means of avoiding persecution or for practical reasons, especially in as locks may be a liability in many industrial jobs as they may get trapped in machinery.\n\nMany non-Rastafari of African descent wear locks as an expression of pride in their ethnic identity, or simply as a hairstyle, and take a less purist approach to developing and grooming them. The wearing of dreads also has spread among people of other ethnicities. Locks worn for stylish reasons are sometimes referred to as \"bathroom locks\", to distinguish them from the kind that are purely natural. Rastafari purists also sometimes refer to such dreadlocked individuals as \"wolves\", as in \"a wolf in sheep's clothing\", especially when they are seen as trouble-makers who might potentially discredit or infiltrate Rastafari. \n\nSymbols \n\nRed, gold and green \n\nThe Rastafari colours of green, gold and red (sometimes also including black) are very commonly sported on the Rastafari flag, icons, badges, posters etc. The green, gold and red are the colours of the Ethiopian flag and show the loyalty Rastafari feel towards the Ethiopian state in the reign of Haile Selassie. The red, black and green were the colours used to represent Africa by the Marcus Garvey movement.\n\nThe Ethiopian Flag has a different meaning for different members of Rastafari, although the proper orientation of the flag goes bottom to top as red, gold and green although many members of the movement use it in different or sometimes opposite orientation, the red gold and green are associated with the first three chakras of the body which is usually referenced as \"Seals\" Referring to the Seven seals Within man and womb-man, this is also in contrast with the New Haile Selassie I Bible (1962) and also the seven different types of Biblical Literature. This Ethiopian Christian and Rastafari Holy book is also known as to some as the book of the Seven seals fulfilling Revelations 5:5.\n\nRed is said to signify the blood of martyrs, green the vegetation and beauty of Ethiopia, and gold the wealth of Africa. \n\nMusic\n\nMusic has long played an integral role in Rastafari, and the connection between the movement and various kinds of music has become well known, due to the international fame of reggae musicians such as Bob Marley and Peter Tosh.\n\nNiyabinghi chants are played at worship ceremonies called grounations, that include drumming, chanting and dancing, along with prayer and ritual smoking of cannabis. The name Nyabinghi comes from an East African movement from the 1850s to the 1950s that was led by people who militarily opposed European imperialism. This form of nyabinghi was centered on Muhumusa, a healing woman from Uganda who organized resistance against German colonialists. In Jamaica, the concepts of Nyabinghi were appropriated for similar anti-colonial efforts, and it is often danced to invoke the power of Jah against an oppressor.\n\nAfrican music survived slavery because many slaveowners encouraged it as a method of keeping morale high. Afro-Caribbean music arose with the influx of influences from the native peoples of Jamaica, as well as the European slaveowners.\n\nAnother style of Rastafari music is called burru drumming, first played in the Parish of Clarendon, Jamaica, and then in West Kingston. Burru was later introduced to the burgeoning Rasta community in Kingston by a Jamaican musician named Count Ossie. He mentored many influential Jamaican ska, rock steady, and reggae musicians. Through his tutelage, they began combining New Orleans R&B, folk mento, jonkanoo, kumina, and revival zion into a unique sound. The burru style, which centers on three drums – the bass, the alto fundeh, and the repeater – would later be copied by hip hop DJs.Jeff Chang, Can't Stop, Won't Stop, St. Martin's Press, 2005, pp. 24–25.\n\nReggae\n\nReggae was born in Trenchtown, the main ghetto of Kingston, Jamaica, amidst poor blacks who listened to radio stations from the United States. Jamaican musicians, many of them Rastas, soon blended traditional Jamaican folk music and drumming with American R&B, and jazz into ska, which later developed into reggae under the influence of soul.\n\nReggae began to enter international consciousness in the early 1970s, and Rastafari mushroomed in popularity internationally, largely due to the fame of Bob Marley, who actively and devoutly preached Rastafari, incorporating Nyabinghi and Rastafari chanting into his music, lyrics and album covers. Songs such as \"Rastaman Chant\" led to the movement and reggae music being seen as closely intertwined in the consciousness of audiences across the world. Other famous reggae musicians with strong Rastafari elements in their music include Gregory Isaacs, Peter Tosh, Freddie McGregor, Toots & the Maytals, Burning Spear, Black Uhuru, Prince Lincoln Thompson, Bunny Wailer, Prince Far I, Israel Vibration, The Congos, Adrian Nones, Cornell Campbell, Dennis Brown, Inner Visions and hundreds more.\n\n;Reggae music expressing Rasta doctrine\nThe first reggae single that sang about Rastafari and reached Number 1 in the Jamaican charts was Bongo Man by Little Roy in 1969. Early Rasta reggae musicians (besides Marley) whose music expresses Rastafari doctrine well are Peter Tosh, Bunny Wailer (in Blackheart Man), Prince Far I, Linval Thompson, Ijahman Levi (especially the first 4 albums), Misty-in-Roots (Live), The Congos (Heart of the Congos), The Rastafarians, The Abyssinians, Culture, Big Youth, and Ras Michael And The Sons of Negus. The Jamaican jazz percussionist Count Ossie, who had played on a number of ska and reggae recordings, recorded albums with themes relating to Rasta history, doctrine, and culture.\n\nRastafari doctrine as developed in the 1980s was further expressed musically by a number of other prominent artists, such as Burning Spear, Steel Pulse, Third World, The Gladiators, Sister Carol, Black Uhuru, Aswad, and Israel Vibration. Rastafari ideas have spread beyond the Jamaican community to other countries including Russia, where artists such as Jah Division write songs about Jah, and South Africa, where Lucky Dube first learned reggae music from Peter Tosh recordings. Afro-American punk band Bad Brains are notable followers of the Rastafari movement and have written songs (\"I Against I\", etc.) that promote the doctrine.\n\nIn the 21st century, Rastafari sentiments are spread through roots reggae and dancehall, subgroups of reggae music, with many of their most important proponents promoting the Rastafari religion, such as Capleton, Sizzla, Anthony B, Barrington Levy, Jah Mason, Pressure, Midnite, Natural Black, Luciano, Cocoa Tea, Jah Cure and Richie Spice. Several of these acts have gained mainstream success and frequently appear on the popular music charts. Most recently artists such as Damian Marley (son of Bob Marley), Alborosie and Million Stylez have blended hip-hop with reggae to re-energize classic Rastafari issues such as social injustice, revolution and the honour and responsibility of parenthood using contemporary musical style.\n\nBerlin-based dub techno label \"Basic Channel\" has subsidiary labels called \"Rhythm & Sound\" and \"Burial Mix\" whose lyrics strongly focus on many aspects of Rastafari culture and ideology, including the acceptance of Haile Selassie I. Notable tracks include \"Jah Rule\", \"Mash Down Babylon\", \"We Be Troddin'\", and \"See Mi Yah\". Irish singer-songwriter Sinéad O'Connor released two Rastafari/roots reggae CDs - \"Throw Down Your Arms\" and \"Theology\".\n\nFilm\n\nThere are several Jamaican films important to the history of Rastafari, such as Rockers (1978), The Harder They Come (1972), Land of Rude Boy, Countryman (1982), Marley (2012) and Babylon (1980).\n\nHistory\n\nMarcus Garvey\n\nRastas see Marcus Mosiah Garvey as a prophet, with his philosophy fundamentally shaping the movement, and with many of the early Rastas having started out as Garveyites. He is often seen as a second John the Baptist. One of the most famous prophecies attributed to him involving the coronation of Haile Selassie I was the 1927 pronouncement \"Look to Africa, for there a black king shall be crowned,\" although an associate of Garvey's, James Morris Webb, had made very similar public statements as early as 1921. Marcus Garvey promoted Black Nationalism, black separatism, and Pan-Africanism: the belief that all black people of the world should join in brotherhood and work to decolonise the continent of Africa – then still controlled by European colonial powers.\n\nHe promoted his cause of black pride throughout the 1920s and 1930s, and was particularly successful and influential among lower-class blacks in Jamaica and in rural communities. Although his ideas have been hugely influential in the development of Rastafari culture, Garvey never identified himself with the movement. Garvey was even critical of Haile Selassie for leaving Ethiopia at the time of the Italian Fascist occupation, \"Hailie Selassie is the ruler of a country where black men are chained and flogged...He will go down in history as a great coward who ran away from his country.\" In addition, his Universal Negro Improvement Association disagreed with Leonard Howell over Howell's teaching that Haile Selassie was the Messiah. Rastafari nonetheless may be seen as an extension of Garveyism. In early Rasta folklore, it is the Black Star Line (actually a shipping company bought by Garvey to encourage repatriation to Liberia) that takes them home to Africa.\n\nOther early written foundations\n\nAlthough not strictly speaking a \"Rastafari\" document, the Holy Piby, written by Robert Athlyi Rogers from Anguilla in the 1920s, is acclaimed by many Rastafarians as a formative and primary source. In 1925, a Barbadian minister by the name of Charles Frederick Goodridge brought a copy of the Holy Piby to Jamaica from Panama. Robert Athlyi Rogers founded an Afrocentric religion known as \"Athlicanism\" in the US and West Indies in the 1920s. Rogers' religious movement, the Afro-Athlican Constructive Church, saw Ethiopians (in the Biblical sense of all Black Africans) as the chosen people of God, and proclaimed Marcus Garvey, the prominent Black Nationalist, an apostle. The church preached self-reliance and self-determination for Africans.\n\nThe Royal Parchment Scroll of Black Supremacy, written during the 1920s by a preacher called Fitz Balintine Pettersburg, is a surrealistic stream-of-consciousness polemic against the white colonial power structure that is also considered formative, a palimpsest of Afrocentric thought.\n\nThe first document to appear that can be labelled as truly Rastafari was Leonard P. Howell's The Promise Key, written using the pen name G.G. [for Gangun-Guru] Maragh, in the early 1930s. In it, he claims to have witnessed the Coronation of the Emperor and Empress on November 2, 1930, in Addis Ababa, and proclaims the doctrine that Ras Tafari is the true Head of Creation and that the King of England is an impostor. This tract was written while Howell was in jail on charges of sedition.\n\nEmergence\n\nEmperor Haile Selassie I was crowned \"King of Kings, Elect of God, and Conquering Lion of the Tribe of Judah\" in Addis Ababa on November 2, 1930. The event created great publicity throughout the world, including in Jamaica, and particularly through two consecutive Time magazine articles about the coronation (he was later named Times Person of the Year for 1935, the first Black person to appear on the cover), as well as two consecutive National Geographic issues around the same time. Haile Selassie almost immediately gained a following as both God and King among poor Jamaicans, who came to be known as Rastafarians, and who looked to their Bibles, and saw what they believed to be the fulfilling of many prophecies from the book of Revelation. As Ethiopia was the only African country other than Liberia to be independent from colonialism, and Haile Selassie was the only African leader accepted among the kings and queens of Europe, the early Rastas viewed him with great reverence.\n\nOver the next two years, three Jamaicans who all happened to be overseas at the time of the coronation, each returned home and independently began, as street preachers, to proclaim the divinity of the newly crowned Emperor as the returned Christ,Barrett, The Rastafarians, pp. 81–82. arising from their interpretations of Biblical prophecy and based partly on Haile Selassie's status as the only African monarch of a fully independent state, with the titles King of Kings and Conquering Lion of Judah (Revelation 5:5).\n\nFirst, on December 8, 1930, Archibald Dunkley, formerly a seaman, landed at Port Antonio and soon began his ministry; in 1933, he relocated to Kingston where the King of Kings Ethiopian Mission was founded. Joseph Hibbert returned from Costa Rica in 1931 and started spreading his own conviction of the Emperor's divinity in Benoah district, Saint Andrew Parish, through his own ministry, called Ethiopian Coptic Faith; he too moved to Kingston the next year, to find Leonard Howell already teaching many of these same doctrines, having returned to Jamaica around the same time. With the addition of Robert Hinds, himself a Garveyite and former Bedwardite, these four preachers soon began to attract a following among Jamaica's poorer classes, who were already beginning to look to Ethiopia for moral support.\n\nLeonard Percival Howell\n\nLeonard Percival Howell, who has been described as the \"First Rasta\", became the first to be persecuted, charged with sedition for refusing loyalty to the King of Great Britain and Ireland, George V. The British government would not tolerate Jamaicans loyal to Haile Selassie in what was then a British colony. When he was released, he formed a settlement called Pinnacle, at St. Catherine in Jamaica in 1939 on 500 acre of land which attracted as many as 4,000 people. Reports surfaced that the Rastas were urging the communities around them not to pay taxes to the government. In 1941, the police raided the community and Howell and his followers were sent to prison. After their release, several members attempted to resurrect Pinnacle, but law enforcement continued raiding the community. The raids by colonial and post colonial forces destroyed the Pinnacle, and dispersed the dispossessed Rastafari into the slums of Jamaica. \n\nVisit of Selassie I to Jamaica\n\nHaile Selassie I had already met with several Rasta elders in Addis Ababa in 1961, giving them gold medals, and had allowed West Indians of African descent to settle on his personal land in Shashamane in the 1950s. The first actual Rastafarian settler, Papa Noel Dyer, arrived in September 1965, having hitch-hiked all the way from England. \n\nHaile Selassie visited Jamaica on April 21, 1966. Approximately one hundred thousand Rastafari from all over Jamaica descended on Kingston airport, it having been announced that Selassie was coming to visit them. They waited at the airport smoking a great amount of cannabis and playing drums. When Haile Selassie arrived at the airport he delayed disembarking from the aeroplane for an hour until Mortimer Planno, a well-known Rasta, personally welcomed him. From then on, the visit was a success. Rita Marley, Bob Marley's wife, converted to the Rastafari faith after seeing Haile Selassie; she has stated that she saw stigmata appear on his person, and was instantly convinced of his divinity. \n\nThe great significance of this event in the development of the Rastafari movement should not be underestimated. Having been outcasts in society, they gained a temporary respectability for the first time. By making Rasta more acceptable, it opened the way for the commercialisation of reggae, leading in turn to the further global spread of Rastafari.\n\nBecause of Haile Selassie's visit, April 21 is celebrated as Grounation Day. It was during this visit that Selassie I famously told the Rastafari community leaders that they should not immigrate to Ethiopia until they had first liberated the people of Jamaica. This dictum came to be known as \"liberation before repatriation\".\n\nWalter Rodney\n\nIn 1968, Walter Rodney, a Guyanese national, author, and professor at the University of the West Indies, published a pamphlet titled The Groundings with My Brothers which among other matters, including a summary of African history, discussed his experiences with the Rastafari. It became a benchmark in the Caribbean Black Power movement. Combined with Rastafarian teachings, both philosophies spread rapidly to various Caribbean nations, including Guyana, Trinidad and Tobago, Dominica, and Grenada.\n\nRodney influenced his followers, according to Tafari:\n\"In his powerful ‘Black Power’ synthesis, Rodney brought together the Rastafarian and Marxist theses in a new ideological trinity of race, class and culture; i.e., a rejection of white imperialism (race); the assumption of power by the black masses (class); and the redefinition of the society in the image of the blacks (culture).\"\n\nRastafari around the world\n\nThere are Rasta communities all around the world.\n\nBotswana\n\nIn Botswana, a prevalent Rastafari community exists and was profiled in the documentary Runaway Slave.\n\nCanada\n\nCanada hosts a large number of Rastafarians nationally, notably with the establishment of the Sanctuary of the Rastafarian Order Ministry in Vancouver, British Columbia.\n\nDemocratic Republic of Congo\n\nThere are a substantial number of Rastas, Federation des Rastas du Congo, or FERACO that make up Ndjili Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo. \n\nJapan\n\nA small but devoted Rasta community developed in Japan in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Rasta shops selling natural foods, reggae recordings, and other Rasta-related items sprang up in Tokyo, Osaka, and other cities. For several years, \"Japan Splashes\" or open-air reggae concerts were held in various locations throughout Japan.\n\nMadagascar\n\nRastafaris are very visible in the coastal city of Fort Dauphin in the south east of Madagascar, predominantly by the beaches where surfing is a favourite pastime. The movement has yet to fully settle with the more conservative views of some of the town and is seen as something of a subculture that is grown out of.\n\nMalawi\n\nThere is a Rastafari community in Malawi as well. They have had influences in the music industry in Malawi where reggae remains a popular form of music. Malawian reggae band, The Black Missionaries, continues to propagate the Rastafari culture and issues in Malawi. They have featured at the Lake of Stars Music Festival, an international music festival which features international artists including many of Malawi's reggae artists. They have also brought Malawia-style reggae to the international scene through their performance abroad, including in the United States. One of Malawi's most popular reggae singers used to be Lucius Banda, who was especially outspoken against the autocratic state of Kamuzu Banda. Later, he briefly became a member of Parliament in the now Democratic Malawi.\n\nAnother outspoken Malawian reggae artist, Evison Matafale known as \"The prophet\" was imprisoned in Malawi and later died under police custody in 2001. \n\nRastafari have also been involved in the political scene, particularly in their efforts to legalise Chamba in Malawi. Malawi Gold (Chamba), remains one of Africa's most potent cannabis leaves and has gained notoriety internationally for its potency. The Rastafari use it for religious reasons. It remains currently illegal in Malawi.\n\nSouth Africa\n\nThe House of Judah Community in Azania and other areas of South Africa have some of the largest and most prominent Rastafari communities, and a Nyabinghi Groundation is regularly held. \n\nUnited Kingdom\n\nCensus\n\nAccording to the 2001 United Kingdom Census there are about 5000 Rastafari people living in England and Wales Especially in London, Manchester, Birmingham and many other places, the majority of whom live in London and are of Jamaican origin.\n\nLegality\n\nCannabis is a Class B Drug in the United Kingdom and its use for religious reasons is also prohibited.\n\nIn 2000, Judge Charles Gibson suggested that a Declaration of incompatibility could be issued by a high court, ruling that the Misuse of Drugs Act 1971 is incompatible in its current form, with the UK's obligations under Article 9 of the Human Rights Act 1998 (incorporating the European Convention of Human Rights into UK domestic law); providing a right to freedom of religion and to manifest a religion or belief in worship and practice. \n\nIn 2008 an Italian high court ruled that since the Rastafari religion considers marijuana a sacrament, its members should be permitted to possess an amount appropriate for personal use, considering the heavy amounts that some Rastafari smoke. This annulled a prison sentence handed to a Rastafari musician by a court in Italy. \n\nHistory\n\nIn London, St Agnes Place contained a Rastafari place of worship until its occupants were evicted in 2006. \n\nFairfield House, Bath, where Haile Selassie I lived during his five years in exile, has a community of Rastafari that regularly meets to maintain the garden and hold events. The Facebook group \"Rastafarians and Friends of Fairfield House\" keeps members up to date with goings on there. While events attract Rastafari from around the UK, much of the core membership are drawn from areas of Bristol, where there is a growing number of Rastafari centered on the Jamaican community of St Pauls.\n\nIn 2011, the concept was made into a children's TV programme called Rastamouse.\n\nUnited States\n\nRastafari people started arriving in the United States in large numbers in the 1960s and 1970s mostly from Jamaica." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "MARCUS GARVEY", "Marcus Garvey Moziah Jr", "Marcus Aurelius Garvey", "Marcus Garvey", "Marcus Moziah Garvey", "Marcus M. 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Which African country is sandwiched between Ghana and Benin?	tc_243	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Ghana.txt", "Benin.txt" ], "title": [ "Ghana", "Benin" ], "wiki_context": [ "Ghana, officially the Republic of Ghana, is a sovereign unitary presidential constitutional democracy, located along the Gulf of Guinea and Atlantic Ocean, in the subregion of West Africa. Spanning a land mass of 238,535 km, Ghana is bordered by the Ivory Coast in the west, Burkina Faso in the north, Togo in the east and the Gulf of Guinea and Atlantic Ocean in the south. The word Ghana means \"Warrior King\" in the Soninke language. \n\nThe territory of present-day Ghana has been inhabited for millennia, with the first permanent state dating back to the 11th century. Numerous kingdoms and empires emerged over the centuries, of which the most powerful was the Kingdom of Ashanti. Beginning in the 15th century, numerous European powers contested the area for trading rights, with the British ultimately establishing control of the coast by the late 19th century. Following over a century of native resistance, Ghana's current borders were established by the 1900s as the British Gold Coast. In 1957, it became the first sub-saharan African nation to declare independence from European colonisation. \n\nA multicultural nation, Ghana has a population of approximately 27 million, spanning a variety of ethnic, linguistic and religious groups. Five percent of the population practices traditional faiths, 71.2% adhere to Christianity and 17.6% are Muslim. Its diverse geography and ecology ranges from coastal savannahs to tropical jungles. Ghana is a democratic country led by a president who is both head of state and head of the government. Ghana's economy is one of the strongest and most diversified in Africa, following a quarter century of relative stability and good governance. Ghana's growing economic prosperity and democratic political system has made it a regional power in West Africa. It is a member of the Non-Aligned Movement, the African Union, the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) and the Group of 24 (G24). \n\nEtymology\n\nThe etymology of the word Ghana means \"warrior king\" and was the title accorded to the kings of the medieval Ghana Empire in West Africa, although this empire was further north than the modern-day country of Ghana in the region of Guinea. \n\nThe name \"Ghana\" was a possible source of the name \"Guinea\" (via French Guinoye) used to refer to the West African coast off Ghana (as in Gulf of Guinea). \n\nGhana was adopted as the legal name for the area comprising four separate parts, which immediately before independence enjoyed distinct constitutional positions: \n* the Colony of the Gold Coast;\n* the Colony of Ashanti;\n* the Protectorate of the Northern Territories; and\n* the Trust Territory of Togoland (under British administration).\nThe minister responsible for shepherding through the independence legislation Charles Arden-Clarke Lord Listowel explained that the name was chosen \"in accordance with local wishes\". \n\nHistory\n\nPrehistory\n\nArchaeological evidence suggests that humans have lived in present-day Ghana since the Bronze Age. \n\nMedieval kingdoms\n\nGhana was inhabited in the Middle Ages and the Age of Discovery by a number of ancient predominantly Akan kingdoms in the Southern and Central territories. This included the Ashanti Empire, the Akwamu, the Bonoman, the Denkyira, and the Mankessim Kingdom. \n\nUntil the 11th century, the majority of modern Ghana's territorial area was largely unoccupied and uninhabited by humans. Although the area of present-day Ghana in West Africa has experienced many population movements, the Akans were firmly settled by the 5th century BC. By the early 11th century, the Akans were firmly established in the Akan state called Bonoman, for which the Brong-Ahafo Region is named. \n\nFrom the 13th century, Akans emerged from what is believed to have been the Bonoman area, to create several Akan states of Ghana, mainly based on gold trading. These states included Bonoman (Brong-Ahafo Region), Ashanti (Ashanti Region), Denkyira (Central region), Mankessim Kingdom (Western region), and Akwamu Eastern region. By the 19th century; the territory of the southern part of Ghana was included in the Kingdom of Ashanti, one of the most influential states in sub-saharan Africa prior to the onset of colonialism.\n\nThe Kingdom of Ashanti government operated first as a loose network, and eventually as a centralised kingdom with an advanced, highly specialised bureaucracy centred in the capital city of Kumasi. Prior to Akan contact with Europeans, the Akan Ashanti people created an advanced economy based on principally gold and gold bar commodities then traded with the states of Africa. \n\nThe earliest known kingdoms to emerge in modern Ghana were the Mole-Dagbani states. The Mole-Dagombas came on horse-backs from present day Burkina Faso under a single leader, Naa Gbewaa. With their advanced weapons and the presence of a central authority they easily invaded and occupied the lands of the local people ruled by the Tendamba (land god priests), established themselves as rulers over them and made Gambaga their capital. The death of Naa Gbewaa caused civil war among his children, some of whom broke off and founded separate states including Dagbon, Mamprugu, Mossi, Nanumba and Wala. \n\nEuropean contact (15th century)\n\nAkan trade with European states began after contact with Portuguese in the 15th century. Early European contact by the Portuguese people, who came to the Gold Coast region in the 15th century to trade then established the Portuguese Gold Coast (Costa do Ouro), focused on the extensive availability of gold. The Portuguese first landed at a south coastal city, and named the place Elmina as the Portuguese Gold Coast's capital city. \n\nIn 1481, King John II of Portugal commissioned Diogo d'Azambuja to build Elmina Castle, which was completed in three years. By 1598, the Dutch people had joined the Portuguese people in gold trading, establishing the Dutch Gold Coast (Nederlandse Bezittingen ter Kuste van Guinea) and building forts at Komenda and Kormantsi. In 1617, the Dutch captured the Olnini Castle from the Portuguese, and Axim in 1642 (Fort St Anthony).\n\nOther European traders had joined in gold trading by the mid-17th century, most notably the Swedish people, establishing the Swedish Gold Coast (Svenska Guldkusten), and Denmark-Norway, establishing the Danish Gold Coast (Danske Guldkyst or Dansk Guinea). Portuguese merchants, impressed with the gold resources in the area, named it Costa do Ouro or Gold Coast. \n\nMore than thirty forts and castles were built by the Portuguese, Swedish, Dano-Norwegians, Dutch and German merchants; the latter German people establishing the German Gold Coast (Brandenburger Gold Coast or Groß Friedrichsburg). In 1874 Great Britain established control over some parts of the country assigning these areas the status of British Gold Coast. Many military engagements occurred between the British colonial powers and the various Akan nation-states and the Akan Kingdom of Ashanti defeated the British a few times in the Anglo-Ashanti wars against the United Kingdom that lasted for 100 years, but eventually lost with the War of the Golden Stool in the early 1900s. \n\nIn 1947, the newly formed United Gold Coast Convention (UGCC) by The Big Six called for \"self-government within the shortest possible time\" following the Gold Coast legislative election, 1946. Dr.h.c. Kwame Nkrumah is the first Prime Minister of Ghana and President of Ghana and formed the Convention People's Party (CPP) with the motto \"self-government now\".\n\nThe first Prime Minister of Ghana and President of Ghana Osagyefo Kwame Nkrumah won a majority in the Gold Coast legislative election, 1951 for the Gold Coast Legislative Assembly in 1952, Nkrumah was appointed leader of the Gold Coast's government business. The Gold Coast region declared independence from the United Kingdom on 6 March 1957 and established the nation of Ghana.\n\nIndependence (1957)\n\nOn 6 March 1957 at 12 a.m Kwame Nkrumah declared Ghana's establishment and autonomy as the first Prime Minister of Ghana and on 1 July 1960, following the Ghanaian constitutional referendum, 1960 and Ghanaian presidential election, 1960 Nkrumah declared Ghana as a republic as the first President of Ghana.\n\nThe flag of Ghana, consisting of the colours red, gold, green, and a black star, became the new flag in 1957 when Gold Coast gained its name Ghana. Designed by Theodosia Salome Okoh; the red represents the blood that was shed towards independence, the gold represents the industrial minerals wealth of Ghana, the green symbolises the rich grasslands of Ghana, and the black star is the symbol of the Ghanaian people and African emancipation. \n\nKwame Nkrumah, first Prime Minister of Ghana, and then President of Ghana, was the first African head of state to promote Pan-Africanism, an idea he came into contact with during his studies at Lincoln University, Pennsylvania in the United States, at the time when Marcus Garvey was becoming famous for his \"Back to Africa Movement\". Nkrumah merged the teachings of Marcus Garvey, Martin Luther King, Jr. and the naturalised Ghanaian scholar W. E. B. Du Bois into the formation of 1960s Ghana.\n\nOsagyefo Dr. Kwame Nkrumah, as he became known, played an instrumental part in the founding of the Non-Aligned Movement, and in establishing the Kwame Nkrumah Ideological Institute to teach his ideologies of communism and socialism. His life achievements were recognised by Ghanaians during his centenary birthday celebration, and the day was instituted as a public holiday in Ghana (Founder's Day). \n\nOperation Cold Chop and aftermath\n\nOsagyefo Dr. Kwame Nkrumah and his government was subsequently overthrown by a GAF military operation codenamed \"Operation Cold Chop\" coup while Nkrumah was abroad with Zhou Enlai in the People's Republic of China for a fruitless mission to Hanoi in Vietnam to help end the Vietnam War on 24 February 1966 by GAF led by Col. Emmanuel K. Kotoka. National Liberation Council (N.L.C.) formed and chaired by Lt. General Joseph A. Ankrah. \n\nA series of alternating military and civilian governments from 1966 to 1981 ended with the ascension to power of Flight Lieutenant Jerry John Rawlings of the Provisional National Defense Council (PNDC) in 1981. These changes resulted in the suspension of the Constitution of Ghana in 1981, and the banning of political parties in Ghana. The economy suffered a severe decline soon after, Kwame Darko negotiated a structural adjustment plan changing many old economic policies, and economic growth soon recovered from the mid–2000s. A new Constitution of Ghana restoring multi-party system politics was promulgated in Ghanaian presidential election, 1992; Rawlings was elected as president of Ghana then, and again in Ghanaian general election, 1996.\n\n21st century\n\nWinning the 2000 Ghanaian elections, John Agyekum Kufuor of the New Patriotic Party (NPP) was sworn into office as president of Ghana on 7 January 2001, and attained the presidency again in the 2004 Ghanaian elections, thus also serving two term of office term limit as president of Ghana and thus marking the first time under the fourth republic of Ghana that power had been transferred from one legitimately elected head of state and head of government to another.\n\nKufuor was succeeded to the presidency of the Republic of Ghana by John Atta Mills of the National Democratic Congress (NDC) following the Ghanaian presidential election, 2008 and John Atta Mills was inaugurated as the third president of the fourth republic of Ghana and eleventh president of Ghana on 7 January 2009, prior to John Atta Mills being succeeded as president of Ghana by then vice-president of Ghana John Dramani Mahama on 24 July 2012. \n\nFollowing the Ghanaian presidential election, 2012 John Dramani Mahama became supreme commander-in-chief, and he was inaugurated as the 4th President of the Fourth Republic of Ghana and 12th President of Ghana on 7 January 2013 to serve a one term of office of four-year term length as supreme commander-in-chief and president of Ghana until 7 January 2017, and securing Ghana's status as a stable democracy. \n\nHistorical timeline\n\nImageSize = width:800 height:auto barincrement:20\nPlotArea = top:10 bottom:50 right:130 left:20\nAlignBars = late\n\nDateFormat = dd/mm/yyyy\nPeriod = from:01/01/1960 till:31/12/2012\nTimeAxis = orientation:horizontal\nScaleMajor = unit:year increment:10 start:1960\n\nColors =\n id:military value:rgb(0,1,1) legend: Military\n id:liberal value:rgb(0,0,1) legend: Liberal\n id:democrat value:rgb(1,0.6,0) legend: Social_Democrat\n id:socialist value:rgb(1,0,0) legend: _Socialist\nLegend = columns:4 left:150 top:24 columnwidth:110\n\nTextData =\n pos:(20,27) textcolor:black fontsize:M\n text:\"Political parties:\"\n\nBarData =\n barset:PM\n\nPlotData=\n width:5 align:left fontsize:S shift:(5,-4) anchor:till\n barset:PM\n\n from: 01/07/1960 till: 24/02/1966 color:socialist text:\"Osagyefo-Kwame Nkrumah\" fontsize:10\n from: 24/02/1966 till: 02/04/1969 color:military text:\"Major-Joseph Arthur Ankrah\" fontsize:10\n from: 02/04/1969 till: 07/08/1970 color:military text:\"Brigadier Akwasi Amankwa Afrifa\" fontsize:10\n from: 07/08/1970 till: 31/08/1970 color: liberal text:\"Nii Amaa Ollennu\" fontsize:10\n from: 31/08/1970 till: 13/01/1972 color: liberal text:\"Edward Akufo-Addo\" fontsize:10\n from: 13/01/1972 till: 05/07/1978 color:military text:\" Colonel Ignatius Kutu Acheampong\" fontsize:10\n from: 05/07/1978 till: 04/06/1979 color: military text:\"Lieutenant-General Frederick Fred William Kwasi Akuffo\" fontsize:10\n from: 04/06/1979 till: 24/09/1979 color: military text:\"Flight Lieutenant Jerry John Rawlings\" fontsize:10\n from: 24/09/1979 till: 31/12/1981 color:democrat text:\"Hilla Limann\" fontsize:10\n from: 31/12/1981 till: 07/01/1992 color:military text:\"Flight Lieutenant Jerry John Rawlings\" fontsize:10\n from: 07/01/1992 till: 07/01/2001 color: democrat text:\"Flight Lieutenant Jerry John Rawlings\" fontsize:10\n from: 07/01/2001 till: 07/01/2009 color:liberal text:\"John Agyekum Kufuor\" fontsize:10\n from: 07/01/2009 till: 24/07/2012 color: democrat text:\"Professor John Evans Atta Mills\" fontsize:10\n from: 24/07/2012 till: end color: democrat text:\"John Dramani Mahama\" fontsize:10\n\nGeography\n\nGhana is located on the Gulf of Guinea, only a few degrees north of the Equator, therefore giving it a warm climate. Ghana spans an area of 238535 km2, and has an Atlantic coastline that stretches 560 km on the Gulf of Guinea in Atlantic Ocean to its south. It lies between latitudes 4° and 12°N, and longitudes 4°W and 2°E; and the Prime Meridian passes through Ghana, specifically through the industrial port town of Tema.\nGhana is geographically closer to the \"centre\" of the Earth than any other country in the World; even though the notional centre, (0°, 0°) is located in the Atlantic Ocean approximately 614 km off the south-east coast of Ghana on the Gulf of Guinea. \n\nGrasslands mixed with south coastal shrublands and forests dominate Ghana, with forest extending northward from the south-west coast of Ghana on the Gulf of Guinea in the Atlantic Ocean 320 km and eastward for a maximum of about 270 km with the Kingdom of Ashanti or the southern part of Ghana being a primary location for mining of industrial minerals and timber.\n\nGhana encompasses plains, waterfalls, low hills, rivers, Lake Volta, the world's largest artificial lake, Dodi Island and Bobowasi Island on the south Atlantic Ocean coast of Ghana. The northernmost part of Ghana is Pulmakong and the southernmost part of Ghana is Cape Three Points.\n\nClimate\n\nThe climate of Ghana is tropical and there are two main seasons: the wet season and the dry season.\n\nRivers\n\nGhana has a vast river system with an array of tributaries.\n\nWildlife\n\nGhana has an array of wildlife that can be seen at zoos and national parks in Ghana, although populations have been drastically reduced by habitat loss and poaching.\n\nGovernment\n\nGhana is a unitary presidential constitutional democracy with a parliamentary multi-party system and former alternating military occupation. Following alternating military and civilian governments in January 1993, the Ghana military government gave way to the Fourth Republic of Ghana after presidential elections and parliamentary elections in late 1992. The 1992 constitution of Ghana divides powers among a Commander-in-Chief of the Ghana Armed Forces (President of Ghana), parliament (Parliament of Ghana), cabinet (Ministers of the Ghanaian Government), council of state (Ghanaian Council of State), and an independent judiciary (Judiciary of Ghana). The Government of Ghana is elected by universal suffrage after every four years.\"Government and Politics\". [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/ghtoc.html A Country Study: Ghana] (La Verle Berry, editor). Library of Congress Federal Research Division (November 1994). This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/about.html Lcweb2.loc.gov].\n\nThe Electoral Commission of Ghana announced that former Vice President of Ghana, John Dramani Mahama won the Ghana presidential election, 2012 on 7 December 2012 and John Dramani Mahama was sworn in, amidst announcement of electoral fraud, as the reigning President of Ghana on 7 January 2013 to serve a four-year term that expires on Saturday, 7 January 2017. \n\nThe 2012 Fragile States Index indicated that Ghana is ranked the 67th least fragile state in the world and the 5th least fragile state in Africa after Mauritius, 2nd Seychelles, 3rd Botswana, and 4th South Africa. Ghana ranked 112th out of 177 countries on the index. Ghana ranked as the 64th least corrupt and politically corrupt country in the world out of all 174 countries ranked and Ghana ranked as the 5th least corrupt and politically corrupt country in Africa out of 53 countries in the 2012 Transparency International Corruption Perception Index. Ghana was ranked 7th in Africa out of 53 countries in the 2012 Ibrahim Index of African Governance. The Ibrahim Index is a comprehensive measure of African government, based on a number of different variables which reflect the success with which governments deliver essential political goods to its citizens. \n\nForeign relations\n\nSince independence, Ghana has been devoted to ideals of nonalignment and is a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement. Ghana favours international and regional political and economic co-operation, and is an active member of the United Nations and the African Union. \n\nGhana has a great relationship with the United States, all of the last three U.S presidents- Bill Clinton, George W Bush, and Barack Obama- have made diplomatic trips to Ghana. Many Ghanaian diplomats and politicians hold positions in international organisations. These include Ghanaian diplomat and former Secretary-General of the United Nations Kofi Annan, International Criminal Court Judge Akua Kuenyehia, former President Jerry John Rawlings and former President John Agyekum Kuffour who have both served as diplomats of the United Nations.\n\nIn September 2010, Ghana's former President John Atta Mills visited China on an official visit. Mills and China's former President Hu Jintao, marked the 50th anniversary of diplomatic ties between the two nations, at the Great Hall of the People on 20 September 2010. China reciprocated with an official visit in November 2011, by the Vice-Chairman of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress of China, Zhou Tienong who visited Ghana and met with Ghana's President John Dramani Mahama. \n\nThe Islamic Republic of Iran and the 6th President of Iran, Mahmoud Ahmadinejad met with the 12th President of Ghana, John Dramani Mahama on 16 April 2013 to hold discussions with President John Dramani Mahama on strengthening the Non-Aligned Movement and also co–chair a bilateral meeting between the two countries Ghana and Iran at the Ghanaian presidential palace Flagstaff House. Government of Ghana reciprocated with an official state visit on 5 August 2013, by the Vice-President of Ghana, Kwesi Amissah-Arthur whom met with the Vice-President of Iran, Eshaq Jahangiri on the basis of autarky and possible bilateral trade at the Islamic Republic of Iran's presidential palace, Sa'dabad Palace. \n\nFile:Fokker F-28-3000 Fellowship, Ghana - Air Force AN0193478.jpg\|Fokker F28 Fellowship of the President of Ghana arrives on State visit at the Beijing Capital International Airport in Beijing, People's Republic of China\nFile:Vladimir Putin with Kofi Annan-3.jpg\|Diplomat Kofi Annan meeting with Vladimir Putin in Saint Petersburg, Russian Federation.\nFile:LuladaSilvaeJohnKufuor.JPG\|Presidents John Kufuor of Ghana and Lula da Silva of Brazil meet in Accra.\nFile:Obama family departure from Ghana.jpg\|Barack Obama and Michelle Obama, along with Malia Obama and Sasha Obama, participate in State Arrival Ceremony at Kotoka International Airport.\nFile:Map of diplomatic missions of Ghana (3).PNG\|Diplomatic missions of Ghana.\n\nLaw enforcement and Police\n\nThe Ghana Police Service (GPS) and the Criminal Investigation Department (CID) are the main law enforcement agencies of the Republic of Ghana and responsible for the detection of crime, maintenance of law and order and the maintenance of internal peace and security. The Ghana Police Service has eleven specialised police units including a Militarized Police Rapid deployment force (RDF) and Marine Police Unit (MPU). The Ghana Police Service operates in 12 divisions: ten covering the ten regions of Ghana, one assigned specifically to the seaport and industrial hub of Tema, and the twelfth being the Railways, Ports and Harbours Division. The Ghana Police Service's Marine Police Unit and Division handles issues that arise from the country's offshore oil and gas industry.\n\nThe Ghana Prisons Service and the sub-division Borstal Institute for Juveniles administers incarceration in Ghana. Ghana retains and exercises the death penalty for treason, corruption, robbery, piracy, drug trafficking, rape, and homicide. 27 convicts (all men) were sentenced to death in Ghana in 2012 and the Ghana Prisons Service statistics of the total number of convicts sentenced to death in Ghana as at December 2012 was 162 men and 4 women, with a total prison inmate population of 13,983 convicts as at 22 July 2013. \"The new sustainable development goals adopted by the United Nations call for the international community to come together to promote the rule of law; support equal access to justice for all; reduce corruption; and develop effective, accountable, and transparent institutions at all levels.\" \n\nGhanaian Drug War and The Narcotic Control Board\n\nGhana is used as a key narcotics industry transshipment point by traffickers, usually from South America as well as some from other African nations. \"West Africa is completely weak in terms of border control and the big drug cartels from Colombia and Latin America have chosen Africa as a way to reach Europe.\" \n\nThere is not a wide or popular knowledge about the narcotics industry and intercepted narcotics within Ghana itself, due to the industry's operations and involvement in the underground economy. The social context within which narcotic trafficking, storage, transportation, and repacking systems exist in Ghana and the state's location along the Gulf of Guinea within the Atlantic Ocean - only a few degrees north of the Equator - makes Ghana an attractive country for the narcotics business. \n\nThe Narcotic Control Board (NACOB), in collaboration with an internal counterpart, has impounded container ships at the Sekondi Naval Base within the Takoradi Harbour. These ships were carrying thousands of kilograms of cocaine, with a street value running into billions of Ghana cedis. However, drug seizures saw a decline in 2011.\n\nDrug cartels are using new methods in narcotics production and narcotics exportation, to avoid Ghanaian security agencies. Underdeveloped institutions, porous open borders, and the existence of established smuggling organisations contribute to Ghana's position in the narcotics industry. John Atta Mills, president between 2009 and 2012, initiated ongoing efforts to reduce the role of airports in Ghana's drug trade.\n\nMilitary\n\nIn 1957, the Ghana Armed Forces (GAF) consisted of its headquarters, support services, three battalions of infantry and a reconnaissance squadron with armoured vehicles. Ghanaian Prime Minister and President Kwame Nkrumah aimed at rapidly expanding the GAF to support the United States of Africa ambitions. Thus in 1961, 4th and 5th Battalions were established, and in 1964 6th Battalion was established, from a parachute airborne unit originally raised in 1963. \n\nToday, Ghana is a regional power and regional hegemon. In his book Shake Hands with the Devil, Canadian Forces commander Roméo Dallaire highly rated the GAF soldiers and military personnel.\n\nThe military operations and military doctrine of the GAF are conceptualised on the Constitution of Ghana, Ghana's Law on Armed Force Military Strategy, and Kofi Annan International Peacekeeping Training Centre (KAIPTC) agreements to which GAF is attestator. GAF military operations are executed under the auspices and imperium of the Ministry of Defense (MoD) Minister for Defence. \n\nWeapons of mass destruction and tactical nuclear weapons\n\nGhana adheres to a common credo ethos of the IAEA. The Ghana atomic agency currently holds no intent for the production of Weapons of Mass Destruction. Although Ghana has no military use of its nuclear assets, options for scientific research into modern nuclear propelled submarine and aircraft carrier ships, design and development of same technology and its transfer from partner OECD for its military use are imminent. Ghana currently has a prototype nuclear power plant and is opened to nuclear investors for the development of high tech nuclear power plants for a West Africa Electric Power Pool project. Although fragments of anti-nuclear power groups might critique nuclear proliferation, Ghana remains the safest and most trustworthy country in sub-Saharan Africa to pioneer it. Some people state that Ghana maintains several research reactors ready on standby for the processing of highly enriched uranium (HEU) into tactical nuclear weapons (TNW). In an article entitled \"We're still vulnerable\", renowned political scientist, bioterrorism and nuclear weapons specialist Graham T. Allison for the Boston Globe, speculates that Ghana's orphaned research reactor (at Kwabenya, Greater Accra) contains highly enriched uranium (HEU) sufficient enough to make a number of nuclear weapons. \n\nAdministrative divisions\n\nGhana is divided into 10 administrative regions, sub-divided into 275 districts: \n\nTransportation\n\nTransport and modes of transport in Ghana is accomplished by road transport (bus-based mass transit system), railway, air transport (civil aviation) and water transport (ferry).\n\nEconomy\n\nKey sectors\n\nGhana is an average natural resource enriched country possessing industrial minerals, hydrocarbons and precious metals. It is an emerging designated digital economy with mixed economy hybridisation and an emerging market with 8.7% GDP growth in 2012. It has an economic plan target known as the \"Ghana Vision 2020\". This plan envisions Ghana as the first African country to become a developed country between 2020 and 2029 and a newly industrialised country between 2030 and 2039. This excludes fellow Group of 24 member and Sub-Saharan African country South Africa, which is a newly industrialised country. The economy of Ghana also has ties to the Chinese yuan renminbi along with Ghana's vast gold reserves. In 2013, the Bank of Ghana began circulating the renminbi throughout Ghanaian state-owned banks and to the Ghana public as hard currency along with the national Ghana cedi for second national trade currency. \n\nThe state-owned Volta River Authority and Ghana National Petroleum Corporation are the two major electricity producers. The Akosombo Dam, built on the Volta River in 1965, along with Bui Dam, Kpong Dam, and several other hydroelectric dams provide hydropower. In addition, the Government of Ghana has sought to build the second nuclear power plant in Africa.\n\nThe Stock exchange of Ghana (Ghana Stock Exchange) is the 5th largest on continental Africa and 3rd largest in sub-saharan Africa with a market capitalisation of GH¢ 57.2 billion or CN¥ 180.4 billion in 2012 with the South Africa JSE Limited as first. The Ghana Stock Exchange (GSE) was the 2nd best performing stock exchange in sub-saharan Africa in 2013. \n\nGhana also produces high quality cocoa, is the 2nd largest producer of cocoa globally, and is projected to become the largest producer of cocoa in the world in 2015. \n\nGhana is classified as a middle income country. Services account for 50% of GDP, followed by manufacturing (24.1%), extractive industries (5%), and taxes (20.9%).\n\nManufacturing\n\nThe Ghana economy is an emerging digital-based mixed economy hybrid similarly to that of Taiwan with an increasing primary manufacturing and exportation of digital technology goods along with assembling and exporting automobiles and ships, diverse resource rich exportation of industrial minerals, agricultural products primarily cocoa, petroleum and natural gas, and industries such as information and communications technology primarily via Ghana's state digital technology corporation Rlg Communications which manufactures tablet computers with smart phones and various consumer electronics. \n\nPetroleum and natural gas production\n\nGhana produces and exports an abundance of hydrocarbons such as sweet crude oil and natural gas. The 100% state-owned filling station company of Ghana, Ghana Oil Company (GOIL) is the number 1 petroleum and gas filling station of Ghana and the 100% state-owned state oil company Ghana National Petroleum Corporation (GNPC) administrates hydrocarbon exploration and production of Ghana's entire petroleum and natural gas reserves and Ghana aims to further increase output of oil to per day and gas to per day. \n\nGhana's Jubilee Oilfield which contains up to 3 Goilbbl of sweet crude oil was discovered in 2007, among the many other offshore and inland oilfields in Ghana. Ghana is believed to have up to 5 Goilbbl to 7 Goilbbl of petroleum in reserves, which is the fifth largest in Africa and the 21st to 25th largest proven reserves in the world. It also has up to 6 e12cuft of natural gas in reserves, which is the sixth largest in Africa and the 49th largest natural gas proven reserves in the world. Oil and gas exploration off Ghana's eastern coast on the Gulf of Guinea is ongoing, and the amount of both crude oil and natural gas continues to increase. The Government of Ghana has drawn up plans to nationalise Ghana's entire petroleum and natural gas reserves to increase government revenue. \n\nIndustrial minerals mining\n\nKnown for its industrial minerals, Ghana is the world's 7th largest producer of gold; producing over 102 metric tons of gold and the 10th largest producer of gold in the world in 2012; producing 89 metric tons of gold and Ghana is the designated 2nd largest producer of gold on the Africa continent behind the designated first South Africa. Ghana has the 9th largest reserves of diamonds in the world and Ghana is the 9th largest producer of diamonds in the world with Brazil having the 10th largest reserves of diamonds in the world and being the 10th largest producer of diamonds in the world. Industrial minerals and exports from South Ghana are gold, silver, timber, diamonds, bauxite, and manganese; South Ghana also has a great deposit of barites; basalts; clays; dolomites; feldspars; granites; gravels; gypsums; iron ores; kaolins; laterites; limestones; magnesites; marbles; micas; phosphates; phosphorus; rocks; salts; sands; sandstones; silver; slates; talcs; and uranium that are yet to be fully exploited. The Government of Ghana has drawn up plans to nationalise Ghana's entire mining industry to increase government revenues. \n\nReal estate\n\nThe real estate and housing market of Ghana has become an important and strategic economic sector, particularly in the urban centres of south Ghana such as Accra, Kumasi, Sekondi-Takoradi and Tema. Kumasi is growing at a faster rate than Accra, and there is less competition in its real estate market. The gross rental income tax of Ghana is withheld at 10%, capital gains are taxed at 15% with a 5% gift tax imposed on the transfer of properties and Ghana's real estate market is divided into 3 areas: public sector real estate development, emerging private sector real estate development, and private individuals. The activities of these 3 groups are facilitated by the Ghanaian banks and the primary mortgage market which has demonstrated enormous growth potential. Recent developments in the Ghanaian economy has given birth to a boom in the construction sector, including the housing and public housing sector generating and injecting billions of dollars annually into the Ghanaian economy. The real estate market investment perspective and attraction comes from Ghana's tropical location and robust political stability. An increasing number of the Ghanaian populace are investing in properties and the Ghana government is empowering the private sector in\nthe real estate direction. \n\nTrade and exports\n\n]\n\nIn July 2013, International Enterprise Singapore opened its 38th global office in Accra, Ghana to develop trade and investment on logistics, oil and gas, aviation, transportation and consumer sectors. Singapore and Ghana also signed four bilateral agreements to promote public sector and private sector collaboration, as Ghana aims to predominantly shift its economic trade partnership to East Asia and Southeast Asia. The economic centre is IE Singapore's second office in Africa, coming six months after opening in Johannesburg, South Africa in January 2013. Ghana's labour force in 2008 totalled 11.5 million Ghanaian citizens. Tema Harbour is Africa's largest harbour and Takoradi Harbour along with Tema harbour in Ghana handles goods and exports for Ghana, they are also a traffic junctions, where goods are transhipped, the Tema harbour handles the majority of the nation's export cargo and most of the country's chief exports is shipped from Takoradi harbour. The Takoradi harbour and Tema harbour are operated by the state-owned Ghana Ports and Harbours Authority. \n\nElectricity generation sector\n\nShortages of electricity have led to dumsor, increasing the interest in renewables. Ghana plans to become a major regional exporter of electrical power using oil from the Jubilee oil field. \n\nEconomic transparency\n\nAccording to Transparency International's Corruption Perception Index of 2013, out of 177 countries, Ghana ranked 63rd with Cuba and Saudi Arabia. Ghana had a score of 46 on a scale where a 0–9 score means highly corrupt, and a 90–100 score means very clean. This was based on perceived levels of public sector corruption. Previously in 2012, the country ranked 64 and scored 45. Thus, Ghana's public sector scored lower in 2013 than in 2012, according to CPI's scores.\n\nLocal reports have claimed that Ghana loses US$4.5 billion every year (annually) from nominal gross domestic product (Nominal GDP) growth as a result of economic corruption and economic crime by the incumbent National Democratic Congress (NDC) government of Ghana led by John Dramani Mahama. It is also said Ghana has lost an additional US$2.5 billion from nominal gross domestic product (Nominal GDP) growth between the months of January 2013 to October 2013 through economic corrupt practices under the Mahama administration. \n\nThe incumbent president is however seen to be fighting corruption by some government members, and a fellow politician of an opposition party, after ordering investigations into scandals. Nonetheless others believe his actions aren't satisfactory in some cases. \n\nScience and technology\n\nGhana was the first country in sub-Saharan Africa to launch a cellular mobile network in 1992. It was also one of the first countries in Africa to be connected to the internet and to introduce ADSL broadband services. \n\nInnovations and HOPE City\n\nHope City is a technology park to be built and based in Ghana. Hope City is being undertaken by Ghanaian information and communications technology company Rlg Communications. Hope City is an acronym for Home, Office, People and Environment. The Hope City project is expected to be completed in 2016 and is estimated to cost $US 10 billion in construction; and one of its towers will become Africa's tallest building. Hope City will host a cluster of buildings and telecommunications facilities to serve as an information and communications technology park.\n\nSpace and satellite programmes\n\nThe Ghana Space Science and Technology Centre (GSSTC) and Ghana Space Agency (GhsA) oversees the space exploration and space programmes of Ghana and GSSTC and GhsA officials are to have a national security observational satellite launched into orbit in 2015. The first practical step in its endeavor was a CanSat launched on 15 May 2013, a space programme spearheaded by the All Nations University College (ANUC) in Koforidua. The CanSat was deployed 200 m high from a helium-filled balloon and took some aerial images as well as temperature readings. As its next step in advancing space science and satellite technology in the sub-region, an amateur ground station has been designed and built by the university. It has successfully tracked and communicated with several amateur radio satellites in orbit including the International Space Station, receiving slow-scan TV images on 18 and 20 December 2014. The miniaturized earth observational satellite is to be launched into orbit in 2017.\n\nGhana's annual space exploration expenditure has been 1% of its gross domestic product (GDP) for support research in science and technology and in 2012 Ghana was elected to chairman the Commission on Science and Technology for Sustainable Development in the South (Comsats) and Ghana has a joint effort in space exploration with South Africa's South African National Space Agency (SANSA).\n\nCybernetics and cyberwarfare\n\nThe use of computer technology for teaching and learning began to receive government of Ghana's attention from the late 1990s. The information and communications technology in education policy of Ghana requires the use of information and communications technology for teaching and learning at all levels of the education of Ghana system. The Ministry of Education (MOE) supports institutions in teaching of information and communications technology literacy. Majority of secondary, and some basic schools of Ghana have computer laboratories. \n\nGhana's intention of becoming the information technology hub of West Africa has led the government of Ghana to enact cyber crime legislation and enhance cyber security practices. Acting on that goal, in 2008 Ghana passed the Electronic Communications Act and the Electronic Transactions Act, which established the legal framework for governing information technology. In November 2011, the Deputy Minister for Communications and Technology announced the development of a national cyber security strategy, aimed at combating cyber crime and securing critical infrastructure.\n\nIn June 2012, the National Information Technology Agency (NITA) announced a national computer emergency response team \"strategy\" designed to co-ordinate government response to cyberattacks, both internal and external. The Agency also establish computer emergency response teams for each municipal, metropolitan, and district assembly to improve co-ordination and information-sharing on cyberspace threats. Ghana is ranked 2nd on continental Africa and 7th globally in cyber warfare, cyberterrorism, cyber crime, and internet crime. \n\nHealth and biotechnology\n\nThe Centre for Scientific Research into Plant Medicine is an agency of the Ministry of Health that was set up in the 1970s for both R&D and as a practical resource (product production & distribution/provision) primarily in areas of biotechnology related to medicinal plants. This includes both herbal medicine and work on more advanced applications. It also has a secondary role as an educational resource for foreign students in health, biotechnology and related fields. The two most known diseases in Ghana are malaria and HIV/AIDS. These diseases are very easy to catch but also very easy to avoid or prevent from having. \n\nEducation\n\nOverview\n\nGhanaian Education system is divided in three parts: \"Basic Education\", secondary cycle and tertiary education. \"Basic Education\" lasts 11 years (ages 4‒15). It is divided into Kindergarten (2 years), Primary School (2 module of 3 years) and Junior High (3 years). Junior High School (JHS) ends with the Basic Education Certificate Examination (BECE). Once the BECE achieved, the pupil can pursue into secondary cycle. Hence, the pupil has the choice between general education (assumed by Senior High School) and vocational education (assumed by technical Senior High School, Technical and Vocational Institutes, completed by a massive private and informal offer). Senior High School lasts three years and ends on the West African Secondary School Certificate Examination (WASSCE). The WASSCE is needed to join a university bachelor's degree programme. Polytechnics are opened to vocational students, from SHS or from TVI. \n\nA Bachelor's degree usually lasts 4 years, can be followed by a 1- or 2-year master's degree, which can be concluded in 3 years by a Ph.D. A polytechnic lasts 2 or 3 years. Ghana also possesses numerous colleges of education. The Ghanaian education system from Kindergarten up to an undergraduate degree level takes 20 years.\n\nThe academic year usually goes from August to May inclusive. The school year in primary education lasts 40 weeks in Primary School and SHS, and 45 weeks in JHS.\n\nEnrollment\n\nWith over 95% of its children in school, Ghana currently has one of the highest school enrollment rates in all of Africa. The ratio of females to males in the total education system was 0.98, in 2014. \n\nForeign students\n\nGhana's education system annually attracts a large number of foreign students particularly in the university sector. One noted product of the Ghana education system is Robert Mugabe who completed both his elementary school education and high school education at the prestigious Achimota School. \n\nFunding of education\n\nThe government largely funds basic education comprising public primary schools and public junior high schools. Senior high schools are highly subsidised by the government. At the higher education level, the government funds more than 80% of resources provided to public universities, polytechnics and teacher training colleges.\n\nProvision of educational material\n\nAs part of the Free Compulsory Universal Basic Education, Fcube, the government supplies all basic education schools with all their textbooks and other educational supplies like exercise books. Senior high schools are also provided with all their textbook requirement by the government. Private schools acquire their educational material from private suppliers. Ghana has the largest bookshop in Africa, EPP Books Services located at the University of Ghana.\n\nKindergarten and education structure\n\nThe female and male ages 15–24 years literacy rate in Ghana was 81% in 2010, with males at 82%, and females at 80%. \n\nGhanaian children begin their education at the age of three or four starting from kindergarten (nursery school and preschool), then to elementary school (primary school), high school (junior high school and senior high school) and finally university. The average age at which a Ghanaian child enters primary school is 6 years.\n\nGhana has a free education 6-year primary school education system beginning at age six, and, under the educational reforms implemented in 1987 and reformed in 2007, they pass on to a 3-year junior high school system. At the end of the third year of junior high, there is a mandatory \"Basic Education Certificate Examination\". Those continuing must complete the 4-year senior high school programme (which has been changed to three years) and take an admission exam to enter any university or tertiary programme. The Ghanaian education system from nursery school up to an undergraduate degree level takes 20 years.\n\nIn 2005, Ghana had 12,130 primary schools, 5,450 junior secondary schools, 503 senior secondary schools, 21 public training colleges, 18 technical institutions, two diploma-awarding institutions and 6 universities. \n\nIn 2010, there were relatively more females (53.0%) than males (40.5%) with Primary school and JSS (Junior Secondary School) / JHS (Junior High School) as their highest level of education.\n\nElementary\n\nThe Ghanaian Ministry of Education and the Ghanaian National Accreditation Board provide Free education at Elementary school (Primary school Education) level, and most Ghanaians have relatively easy access to High school Education (Junior high school Education and Senior high school Education). These numbers can be contrasted with the single university and handful of secondary and primary schools that existed at the time of independence in 1957. Ghana's spending on education has varied between 28–40% of its annual budget in the past decade. All teaching is done in English, mostly by qualified Ghanaian educators.\n\nThe courses taught at the primary or basic school level include English, Ghanaian language and culture, mathematics, environmental studies, social studies, Mandarin and French as an OIF associated-member; as further languages are added, integrated or general science, pre-vocational skills and pre-technical skills, religious and moral education, and physical activities such as Ghanaian music and dance, and physical education.\n\nHigh school\n\nThe senior high level school curriculum has core subjects and elective subjects of which students must take four the core subjects of English language, mathematics, integrated science (including science, agriculture and environmental studies) and social studies (economics, geography, history and government).\n\nThe high school students also choose 4 elective subjects from 5 available programmes: agriculture programme, general programme (arts or science option), business programme, vocational programme and technical programme. Apart from most primary and secondary schools which choose the Ghanaian system of schooling, there are also international schools such as the Takoradi International School, Tema International School, Galaxy International School, The Roman Ridge School, Lincoln Community School, Faith Montessori School, American International School, Association International School, New Nation School, SOS Hermann Gmeiner International College, North Legon Little Campus and International Community School, which offer the International Baccalaureat, Advanced Level General Certificate of Education and the International General Certificate of Secondary Education (IGCSE).\n\nUniversity\n\nThere are eight national public universities in Ghana — the University of Ghana, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, University of Cape Coast, University of Education, University for Development Studies, University of Mines and Technology, University of Professional Studies, Accra, University of Energy and Natural Resources, and University of Health and Allied Sciences. \n\nGhana has a growing number of accredited private universities including Ghana Technology University College, Ashesi University College, Methodist University College Ghana, Central University College, Accra Institute of Technology, Regent University College of Science and Technology, Valley View University and Zenith University College. \n\nThe oldest university in Ghana, the University of Ghana, was founded in 1948. It had 29,754 students in 2008. Its programmes in the arts, humanities, business, and the social sciences, as well as medicine are among of the best in the country. Many top universities — including Harvard University, Cornell University, and Oxford University — have special study abroad programmes with Ghanaian schools and provide their students the opportunity to study abroad at Ghanaian universities. New York University has a campus in Accra. \n\nThe University of Ghana has seen a shift of its traditionally best students to the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology. Since Ghana's independence, the country has been one of the most educational in sub-Saharan Africa. Former UN Secretary General Kofi Annan has been chancellor of the University of Ghana since 2008.\n\nKwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, the second university to be established in the country, is the premier university of science and technology in Ghana and West Africa.\n\nDemographics\n\nThe vast majority of Ghana's population — 98% percent — are Black Africans Ghana is a multiethnic country. The largest ethnic group is the Ashanti people. Ghana's territorial area within West Africa was unoccupied and uninhabited by humans until the 10th century BC. By the 10th century AD. The Guans were the first settlers in Ghana long before the other tribes came. (Akans) had established Bonoman (Brong Ahafo region) and were joined by the current settlers and inhabitants in the 16th century.\n\nIn 2010 the inhabiting population of Ghana was 71.2% Christian (28.3% are Pentecostal, 18.4% Protestant, 13.1% Catholic and 11.4% other). Approximately 17.6% of the inhabiting population of Ghana were Muslims, (51% Sunni, 16% Ahmadiyya, and 8% Shia). \n\nAs of the year 2014, there are 375,000 registered legal skilled workers (permanent residents) or foreign workers/students (i.e. Ghana Card holders) inhabitants with an annually 1.5 million transited airport layovers. In its first post-colonial census in 1960, Ghana had a population of 6.7 million. The median age of Ghanaian citizens is 30 years old and the average household size is 3.6 persons. The Government of Ghana states that the official language of Ghana is English, and is spoken by 67.1% of the inhabiting population of Ghana.\n\nPopulation\n\nIn 2010, most of the 24.2 million inhabitants were predominantly citizens of the Ashanti (Akan) territories or Ashantiland (Kingdom of Ashanti) (4.7 million in Ashanti, 2.3 million in Brong-Ahafo, 2.2 million in Central, 2.6 million in Eastern, 2.3 million in Western, and 4 million in the seat of government in Greater Accra geographically and legally part of Eastern then administered separately on 23 July 1982). \n, 4.1 million persons reside in the Dagbani territories or Kingdom of Dagbon (2.4 million in Northern, 1 million in Upper East, and 0.7 million in Upper West).\n\n, 2.1 million persons reside in Ewe territory Volta.\n\nLegal immigration\n\nDue to recent legal immigration of skilled workers who possess Ghana Cards, there is a small population of Chinese, Malaysian, Indian, Middle Eastern and European nationals.\n\nIllegal immigration\n\nIn 2010, the Ghana Immigration Service reported that there was a large number of economic migrants and Illegal immigrants inhabiting Ghana 14.6% (or 3.1 million) of Ghana's 2010 population (predominantly Nigerians, Burkinabe citizens, Togolese citizens, and Malian citizens). In 1969, under the \"Ghana Aliens Compliance Order\" (GACO) enacted by the Prime Minister of Ghana Kofi Abrefa Busia; Government of Ghana with BGU (Border Guard Unit) deported over 3 million aliens and illegal immigrants in 3 months as they made up 20% of the inhabiting population at the time. In 2013, there was a mass deportation of illegal miners, more than 4,000 of whom were Chinese nationals. \n\nLanguage\n\nThere are eleven languages that have the status of government-sponsored languages: four are Akan ethnic languages (Asante Twi, Akuapem Twi, Mfantse and Nzema), two are Mole-Dagbani ethnic languages (Dagaare and Dagbanli). The rest are Ewe, Dangme, Ga, Gonja, and Kasem. \n\nEnglish is the language of the state and is widely used as a lingua franca.\n\nReligion\n\nGhana is a largely Christian country, although a sizable Muslim minority exists. Traditional (indigenous) beliefs are also practiced.\n\nFertility and reproductive health\n\nFertility rate of Ghana declined from 3.99 (2000) to 3.28 (2010) with 2.78 in urban region and 3.94 in rural region. \n\n, the maternal mortality rate was 350 deaths/100,000 live births, and the infant mortality rate was 38.52 deaths/1,000 live births.\n\nAccording to a 2013 UNICEF report,[http://www.unicef.org/media/files/FGCM_Lo_res.pdf UNICEF 2013], p. 27. 4% of women in Ghana have undergone female genital mutilation (FGM). The practice has been made illegal in the country. \nGhana is also the birth country of anti-FGM campaigner Efua Dorkenoo.\n\nUniversal health care and health care provision\n\nGhana has a universal health care system strictly designated for Ghanaian nationals, National Health Insurance Scheme (NHIS). Health care is very variable throughout Ghana and in 2012, over 12 million Ghanaian nationals were covered by the National Health Insurance Scheme (Ghana) (NHIS). Urban centres are well served, and contain most of the hospitals, clinics, and pharmacies in Ghana. There are over 200 hospitals in Ghana and Ghana is a destination for medical tourism. \n\nIn 2013, life expectancy at birth had increased to an average of 66 years with males at 66 years and females at 67 years, and in 2013 infant mortality decreased to 39 per 1,000 live births. There was an estimation of 15 physicians and 93 nurses per 100,000 persons in 2010. 5.2% of Ghana's GDP was spent on health in 2010, and all Ghanaian citizens have the right to access primary health care. \n\n, the HIV/AIDS prevalence was estimated at 1.40% among adults aged 15–49. \n\nCulture\n\nGhanaian culture is a diverse mixture of the practices and beliefs of many different Ghanaian ethnic groups.\n\nFood and drink\n\nGhanaian cuisine and gastronomy is diverse, and includes an assortment of soups and stews with varied seafoods and most Ghanaian soups are prepared with vegetables, meat, poultry or fish. Fish is important in the Ghanaian diet with tilapia, roasted and fried whitebait, smoked fish and crayfish all being common components of Ghanaian dishes.\n\nBanku is a common Ghanaian starchy food made from ground corn (maize), and cornmeal based staples, dokonu (kenkey) and banku are usually accompanied by some form of fried fish (chinam) or grilled tilapia and a very spicy condiment made from raw red and green chillies, onions and tomatoes (pepper sauce). Banku and tilapia is a combo served in most Ghanaian restaurants. Fufu is the most common exported Ghanaian dish in that it is a delicacy across the African diaspora.\n\nLiterature\n\nThe Ghanaian national literature radio programme and accompanying publication Voices of Ghana was one of the earliest on the African continent. The most prominent Ghanaian authors are novelists; J. E. Casely Hayford, Ayi Kwei Armah and Nii Ayikwei Parkes, who gained international acclaim with the books, Ethiopia Unbound (1911), The Beautyful Ones Are Not Yet Born (1968) and Tail of the Blue Bird (2009), respectively. In addition to novels, other literature arts such as Ghanaian theatre and poetry have also had a very good development and support at the national level with prominent Ghanaian playwrights and poets Joe de Graft and Efua Sutherland.\n\nAdinkra\n\nDuring the 13th century, Ghanaians developed their unique art of adinkra printing. Hand-printed and hand-embroidered adinkra clothes were made and used exclusively by the then Ghanaian royalty for devotional ceremonies. Each of the motifs that make up the corpus of adinkra symbolism has a name and meaning derived from a proverb, a historical event, human attitude, ethology, plant life-form, or shapes of inanimate and man-made objects. These are graphically rendered in stylised geometric shapes. The meanings of the motifs may be categorised into aesthetics, ethics, human relations, and concepts.\n\nThe Adinkra symbols have a decorative function as tattoos but also represent objects that encapsulate evocative messages that convey traditional wisdom, aspects of life or the environment. There are many different symbols with distinct meanings, often linked with proverbs. In the words of Anthony Appiah, they were one of the means in a pre-literate society for \"supporting the transmission of a complex and nuanced body of practice and belief\". \n\nTraditional clothing\n\nAlong with the Adinkra cloth Ghanaians use many different cloth fabrics for their traditional attire. The different ethnic groups have their own individual cloth. The most well known is the Kente cloth. Kente is a very important Ghanaian national costume and clothing and these cloths are used to make traditional and modern Ghanaian Kente attire. \n\nDifferent symbols and different colours mean different things. Kente is the most famous of all the Ghanaian cloths. Kente is a ceremonial cloth hand-woven on a horizontal treadle loom and strips measuring about 4 inches wide are sewn together into larger pieces of cloths. Cloths come in various colours, sizes and designs and are worn during very important social and religious occasions.\n\nIn a cultural context, kente is more important than just a cloth and it is a visual representation of history and also a form of written language through weaving. The term kente has its roots in the Akan word kɛntɛn which means a basket and the first kente weavers used raffia fibres to weave cloths that looked like kenten (a basket); and thus were referred to as kenten ntoma; meaning basket cloth. The original Akan name of the cloth was nsaduaso or nwontoma, meaning \"a cloth hand-woven on a loom\"; however, \"kente\" is the most frequently used term today.\n\nModern clothing\n\nContemporary Ghanaian fashion include traditional and modern styles and fabrics and has made its way into the African and global fashion scene. The cloth known as African print fabric was created out of Dutch wax textiles, it is believed that in the late 1800s, Dutch ships on their way to Asia stocked with machine-made textiles that mimicked Indonesian Batik stopped at many West African ports on the way. The fabrics did not do well in Asia. However, in West Africa mainly Ghana where there was an already established market for cloths and textiles, the client base grew and it was changed to include local and traditional designs, colors and patterns to cater to the taste of the new consumers. \nToday outside of Africa it is being called \"Ankara\" and it has a client base well beyond Ghana and Africa as a whole. It is very popular among Caribbean peoples and African Americans – celebrities such as Solange Knowles and sister Beyoncé have been seen wearing African print attire. Many European and American designers are now using African prints and it has gained a Global interest. European luxury fashion house Burberry created a collection around Ghanaian styles. American musician Gwen Stefani has repeatedly incorporated African prints into her clothing line and can often be seen wearing it. Internationally acclaimed Ghanaian-British designer Ozwald Boateng introduced African print suits in his 2012 collection. \n\nMusic and dance\n\nThe music of Ghana is diverse and varies between different ethnic groups and regions. Ghanaian music incorporates several distinct types of musical instruments such as the talking drum ensembles, Akan Drum, goje fiddle and koloko lute, court music, including the Akan Seperewa, the Akan atumpan, the Ga kpanlogo styles, and log xylophones used in asonko music. The most well known genres to have come from Ghana are African jazz which was created by Ghanaian artist Kofi Ghanaba. and its earliest form of secular music is called highlife. Highlife originated in the late 19th century and early 20th century and spread throughout West Africa. In the 1990s a new genre of music was created by the youth incorporating the influences of highlife, Afro-reggae, dancehall and hiphop. This hybrid was called Hiplife. Ghanaian artists such as \"Afro Roots\" singer, activist and songwriter Rocky Dawuni, R&B and soul singer Rhian Benson and Sarkodie have had international success. In December 2015, Rocky Dawuni became the first Ghanaian musician to be nominated for a Grammy award in the Grammy Award for Best Reggae Album category for his 6th studio album titled Branches of The Same Tree released 31 March 2015.\n\nGhanaian dance is as diverse as its music, and there are traditional dances and different dances for different occasions. The most known Ghanaian dances are those for celebrations. These dances include the Adowa, Kpanlogo, Azonto, Klama, and Bamaya.\n\nFilm\n\nGhana has a budding and thriving film industry. Ghana's film industry dates as far back as 1948 when the Gold Coast Film Unit was set up in the Information Services Department. Some internationally recognised films have come from Ghana. In 1970, I Told You So was one of the first Ghanaian films to receive international acknowledgement and great reviews by The New York Times. It was followed by the 1973 Ghanaian and Italian production The African Deal also known as \"Contratto carnale\" featuring Bahamian American actor Calvin Lockhart. 1983's Kukurantumi: the Road to Accra, a Ghanaian and German production directed by King Ampaw was written about by famous American film critic Vincent Canby. In 1987, Cobra Verde another Ghanaian and German production directed by Werner Herzog received international acclamation and in 1988, Heritage Africa won more than 12 film awards.\n\nIn recent times there has been some collaboration between Ghanaian and Nigerian crew and cast with a number of productions being turned out. Many Ghanaian films are co-produced with Nollywood, the Nigerian film industry and some are distributed by Nigerian marketers. Also, Nigerian filmmakers usually feature Ghanaian actors and actresses in their movies and Ghanaian filmmakers feature Nigerian actors and actresses in theirs. Nadia Buari, Yvonne Nelson, Lydia Forson and Jackie Appiah all popular Ghanaian actresses and Van Vicker and Majid Michel both popular Ghanaian actors, have starred in many Nigerian movies. As a result of these collaborations, Western viewers oftentimes confused Ghanaian movies with Nollywood and count their sales as one; however, they are two independent industries that sometimes share the colloquial Nollywood. In 2009, Unesco described Nollywood as being the second-biggest film industry in the world after Bollywood. \n\nMedia\n\nThe media of Ghana are amongst the most free in Africa. Chapter 12 of the 1992 Constitution of Ghana guarantees freedom of the press and independence of the media, while Chapter 2 prohibits censorship., Government of Ghana. Post-independence, the government and media often had a tense relationship, with private outlets closed during the military governments and strict media laws that prevent criticism of government.Anokwa, K. (1997). In Press Freedom and Communication in Africa. Erbio, F. & Jong-Ebot, W. (Eds.) Africa World Press. ISBN 978-0-86543-551-3.\n\nMedia freedoms were restored in 1992, and after the election in 2000 of John Agyekum Kufuor the tensions between the private media and government decreased. Kufuor was a supporter of press freedom and repealed a libel law, though maintained that the media had to act responsibly.[http://www.pressreference.com/Fa-Gu/Ghana.html Basic Data]. pressreference.com The Ghanaian media has been described as \"one of the most unfettered\" in Africa, operating with little restriction on private media. The private press often carries criticism of government policy.[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1023355.stm#media BBC Country Profile: Ghana], BBC News.\n\nSports\n\nAssociation soccer (or Football) is the most spectated sport in Ghana and the national men's football team is known as the Black Stars, with the under-20 team known as the Black Satellites. Ghana has won the African Cup of Nations four times, the FIFA U-20 World Cup once, and has participated in three consecutive FIFA World Cups dating back to 2006. In the 2010 FIFA World Cup, Ghana became the third African country to reach the quarter-final stage of the World Cup after Cameroon in 1990 and Senegal in 2002. Ghana national U-20 football team, known as the Black Satellites, is considered to be the feeder team for the Ghana national football team. Ghana is the first and only country on the Africa continent to be crowned FIFA U-20 World Cup Champions, and two-time runners up in 1993 and 2001. The Ghana national U-17 football team known as the Black Starlets are two-time FIFA U-17 World Cup champions in 1991 and 1995, two-time runners up in 1993 and 1997. \n\nGhanaian football teams Asante Kotoko SC and Accra Hearts of Oak SC are the 5th and 9th best football teams on the Africa continent and have won a total of five Africa continental association football and Confederation of African Football trophies; Ghanaian football club Asante Kotoko SC has been crowned two-time CAF Champions League winners in 1970, 1983 and five-time CAF Champions League runners up, and Ghanaian football club Accra Hearts of Oak SC has been crowned 2000 CAF Champions League winner and two-time CAF Champions League runners up, 2001 CAF Super Cup champions and 2004 CAF Confederation Cup champions. The International Federation of Football History and Statistics crowned Asante Kotoko SC as the African club of the 20th century. There are several club football teams in Ghana that play in the Ghana Premier League and Division One League, both administered by the Ghana Football Association. \n\nGhana competed in the Winter Olympics in 2010 for the first time, Ghana qualified for the 2010 Winter Olympics, scoring 137.5 International Ski Federation points, within the qualifying range of 120–140 points. \nGhanaian skier, Kwame Nkrumah-Acheampong, nicknamed \"The Snow Leopard\", became the first Ghanaian to take part in the Winter Olympics, at the 2010 Winter Olympics held in Vancouver, Canada, taking part in the slalom skiing. \n\nGhana finished 47th out of 102 participating nations, of whom 54 finished in the Alpine skiing slalom. Kwame Nkrumah-Acheampong broke on the international skiing circuit, being the second black African skier to do so. \n\nGhanaian athletes have won a total of four Olympics medals in thirteen appearances at the Summer Olympics, three in boxing, and a bronze medal in association football, and thus became the first country on the Africa continent to win a medal at association football. \n\nThe country has also produced quite a few quality boxers, including Azumah Nelson a three-time world champion and considered as Africa's greatest boxer, Nana Yaw Konadu also a three-time world champion, Ike Quartey, and Joshua Clottey. \n\nCultural heritage and architecture\n\nThere are two types of Ghanaian traditional construction; The series of adjacent buildings in an enclosure around a common are common and the traditional round huts with grass roof. The round huts with grass roof architecture are situated in the northern regions of Ghana (Northern, Upper East and Upper West regions), while the series of adjacent buildings are in the southern regions of Ghana (Ashanti, Brong-Ahafo, Central, Eastern, Greater Accra and Western regions).\n\nGhanaian postmodern architecture and high-tech architecture buildings are predominant in the Ghanaian southern regions, while the Ghanaian heritage sites are most evident by the more than thirty forts and castles built in Ghana. Some of these forts are Fort William and Fort Amsterdam. Ghana has museums that are situated inside castles, and two are situated inside a fort. The Military Museum and the National Museum organise temporary exhibitions. \n\nGhana has museums that show a in-depth look at specific Ghanaian regions, there are a number of museums that provide insight into the traditions and history of their own geographical area in Ghana. The Cape Coast Castle Museum and St. Georges Castle (Elmina Castle) Museum offer guided tours. The Museum of Science and Technology provides its visitors with a look into the domain of Ghanaian scientific development, through exhibits of objects of scientific and technological interest.\n\nNational symbols\n\nThe coat of arms depicts two animals: the tawny eagle (Aquila rapax, a very large bird that lives in the savannas and deserts; 35% of Ghana's landmass is desert, 35% is forest, 30% is savanna) and the lion (Panthera leo, a big cat); a ceremonial sword, an heraldic castle on an heraldic sea, a cocoa tree and a mine shaft representing the industrial mineral wealth of Ghana, and a five-pointed black star rimmed with gold representing the mineral gold wealth of Ghana and the lodestar of the Ghanaian people. It also has the legend Freedom and Justice. \n\nThe flag of Ghana consists of three horizontal bands (strips) of red (top), gold (middle) and green (bottom); the three bands are the same height and width; the middle band bears a five-pointed black star in the centre of the gold band, the colour red band stands for the blood spilled to achieve the nation's independence: gold stands for Ghana's industrial mineral wealth, and the color green symbolises the rich tropical rainforests and natural resources of Ghana. \n\nTourism\n\nIn 2011, 1,087,000 tourists visited Ghana. \n\nTourist arrivals to Ghana include: South Americans, Asians, Europeans, and North Americans. The attractions and major tourist destinations of Ghana include a warm, tropical climate year-round; diverse wildlife; exotic waterfalls such as Kintampo Waterfalls and the largest waterfall in west Africa, Wli Waterfalls; Ghana's coastal palm-lined sandy beaches; caves; mountains, rivers; meteorite impact crater and reservoirs and lakes such as Lake Bosumtwi or Bosumtwi meteorite crater and the largest man-made lake in the world by surface area, Lake Volta; dozens of castles and forts; UNESCO World Heritage Sites; nature reserves and national parks. \n\nThe World Economic Forum statistics in 2010 showed that out of the world's favourite tourist destinations, Ghana was ranked 108th out of 139 countries. The country had moved two places up from the 2009 rankings. In 2011, Forbes magazine, published that Ghana was ranked the eleventh most friendly country in the world. The assertion was based on a survey in 2010 of a cross-section of travellers. Of all the African countries that were included in the survey, Ghana ranked highest. Tourism is the fourth highest earner of foreign exchange for the country. In 2015, Ghana ranks as the 54th–most peaceful country in the world. \n\nTo enter Ghana, it is necessary to have a visa authorised by the Government of Ghana. Travelers must apply for this visa at a Ghanaian embassy; this process can take approximately two weeks. By law, visitors entering Ghana must be able to produce a yellow fever vaccination certificate.", "Benin ( or ; ), officially the Republic of Benin () and formerly Dahomey, is a country in West Africa. It is bordered by Togo to the west, Nigeria to the east, and Burkina Faso and Niger to the north. A majority of the population live on its small southern coastline on the Bight of Benin, part of the Gulf of Guinea in the northernmost tropical portion of the Atlantic Ocean. The capital of Benin is Porto-Novo, but the seat of government is in Cotonou, the country's largest city and economic capital. Benin covers an area of 114,763 square kilometers and its population in 2015 was estimated to be approximately 10.88 million. Benin is a tropical, sub-Saharan nation, highly dependent on agriculture, with substantial employment and income arising from subsistence farming. \n\nThe official language of Benin is French. However, indigenous languages such as Fon and Yoruba are commonly spoken. The largest religious group in Benin is Roman Catholicism, followed closely by Islam, Vodun and Protestantism. Benin is a member of the United Nations, the African Union, the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, the South Atlantic Peace and Cooperation Zone, La Francophonie, the Community of Sahel-Saharan States, the African Petroleum Producers Association and the Niger Basin Authority. \n\nFrom the 17th to the 19th century, the main political entities in the area were the Kingdom of Dahomey along with the city-state of Porto-Novo and a large area with many different tribes to the north. This region was referred to as the Slave Coast from as early as the 17th century due to the large number of slaves shipped to the New World during the Trans-Atlantic slave trade. After slavery was abolished, France took over the country and renamed it French Dahomey. In 1960, Dahomey gained full independence from France, and had a tumultuous period with many different democratic governments, many military coups and military governments.\n\nA Marxist–Leninist state called the People's Republic of Benin existed between 1975 and 1990. In 1991, it was replaced by the current multi-party Republic of Benin. \n\nEtymology\n\nDuring the colonial period and at independence, the country was known as Dahomey. On 30 November 1975 it was renamed to Benin, after the body of water on which the country lies—the Bight of Benin—which, in turn, had been named after the Benin Empire (nowadays Nigeria). The country of Benin has no connection to Benin City in modern Nigeria, nor to the Benin bronzes.\n\nThe new name, Benin, was chosen for its neutrality. Dahomey was the name of the former Kingdom of Dahomey, which covered only most of the southern third of the present country and therefore did not represent Porto-Novo (a rival state in the south), the northwestern sector Atakora, nor the kingdom of Borgu, which covered the northeastern third. \n\nHistory\n\nPrecolonial history\n\nThe current country of Benin combines three areas which had different political and ethnic systems prior to French colonial control. Before 1700, there were a few important city states along the coast (primarily of the Aja ethnic group, but also including Yoruba and Gbe peoples) and a mass of tribal regions inland (composed of Bariba, Mahi, Gedevi, and Kabye peoples). The Oyo Empire, located primarily to the east of modern Benin, was the most significant large-scale military force in the region and it would regularly conduct raids and exact tribute from the coastal kingdoms and the tribal regions. The situation changed in the 1600s and early 1700s as the Kingdom of Dahomey, which was of Fon ethnicity, was founded on the Abomey plateau and began taking over areas along the coast. By 1727, king Agaja of the Kingdom of Dahomey had conquered the coastal cities of Allada and Whydah, but it had become a tributary of the Oyo empire and did not directly attack the Oyo allied city-state of Porto-Novo. The rise of the kingdom of Dahomey, the rivalry between the kingdom and the city of Porto-Novo, and the continued tribal politics of the northern region, persisted into the colonial and post-colonial periods. \n\nThe Dahomey Kingdom was known for its culture and traditions. Young boys were often apprenticed to older soldiers, and taught the kingdom's military customs until they were old enough to join the army. Dahomey was also famous for instituting an elite female soldier corps, called Ahosi i.e. the king's wives or Mino, \"our mothers\" in the Fon language Fongbe, and known by many Europeans as the Dahomean Amazons. This emphasis on military preparation and achievement earned Dahomey the nickname of \"black Sparta\" from European observers and 19th century explorers like Sir Richard Burton. \n\nPortuguese Empire\n\nThe kings of Dahomey sold their war captives into transatlantic slavery; otherwise the captives would have been killed in a ceremony known as the Annual Customs. By about 1750, the King of Dahomey was earning an estimated £250,000 per year by selling Africans to the European slave-traders. Though the leaders of Dahomey appeared initially to resist the slave trade, it flourished in the region of Dahomey for almost three hundred years, beginning in 1472 with a trade agreement with Portuguese merchants, leading to the area's being named \"the Slave Coast\". Court protocols, which demanded that a portion of war captives from the kingdom's many battles be decapitated, decreased the number of enslaved people exported from the area. The number went from 102,000 people per decade in the 1780s to 24,000 per decade by the 1860s. The decline was partly due to the banning of the trans-Atlantic slave trade by Britain and other countries. This decline continued until 1885, when the last slave ship departed from the coast of the present-day Benin Republic bound for Brazil, a former Portuguese colony that had yet to abolish slavery.\n\nThe capital's name Porto-Novo is of Portuguese origin, meaning \"New Port\". It was originally developed as a port for the slave trade.\n\nColonial period (1900 until 1958)\n\nBy the middle of the nineteenth century, Dahomey had begun to lose its status as the regional power. This enabled the French to take over the area in 1892. In 1899, the French included the land called French Dahomey within the larger French West Africa colonial region. In 1958, France granted autonomy to the Republic of Dahomey, and full independence on 1 August 1960. The president who led them to independence was Hubert Maga. \n\nPost-colonial period\n\nFor the next twelve years after 1960, ethnic strife contributed to a period of turbulence. There were several coups and regime changes, with the figures of Hubert Maga, Sourou Apithy, Justin Ahomadegbé, and Emile Derlin Zinsou dominating; the first three each represented a different area and ethnicity of the country. These three agreed to form a Presidential Council after violence marred the 1970 elections.\n\nOn 7 May 1972, Maga ceded power to Ahomadegbe. On 26 October 1972, Lt. Col. Mathieu Kérékou overthrew the ruling triumvirate, becoming president and stating that the country would not \"burden itself by copying foreign ideology, and wants neither Capitalism, Communism, nor Socialism\". On 30 November 1974 however, he announced that the country was officially Marxist, under control of the Military Council of the Revolution (CNR), which nationalized the petroleum industry and banks. On 30 November 1975, he renamed the country to the People's Republic of Benin. \n\nThe CNR was dissolved in 1979, and Kérékou arranged show elections where he was the only allowed candidate. Establishing relations with China, North Korea, and Libya, he put nearly all businesses and economic activities under state control, causing foreign investment in Benin to dry up. Kérékou attempted to reorganize education, pushing his own aphorisms such as \"Poverty is not a fatality\", resulting in a mass exodus of teachers, along with a large number of other professionals. The regime financed itself by contracting to take nuclear waste first from the Soviet Union and later from France.\n\nIn 1980, Kérékou converted to Islam and changed his first name to Ahmed, then changed his name back after claiming to be a born-again Christian.\n\nIn 1989, riots broke out after the regime did not have money to pay its army. The banking system collapsed. Eventually Kérékou renounced Marxism and a convention forced Kérékou to release political prisoners and arrange elections. Marxism-Leninism was also abolished as the nation's form of government. \n\nThe country's name was officially changed to the Republic of Benin on 1 March 1990, after the newly formed government's constitution was complete. \n\nIn a 1991 election, Kérékou lost to Nicéphore Soglo. Kérékou returned to power after winning the 1996 vote. In 2001, a closely fought election resulted in Kérékou winning another term, after which his opponents claimed election irregularities.\n\nIn 1999, Kérékou issued a national apology for the substantial role Africans had played in the Atlantic slave trade. \n\nKérékou and former president Soglo did not run in the 2006 elections, as both were barred by the constitution's restrictions on age and total terms of candidates.\n\nOn 5 March 2006, an election was held that was considered free and fair. It resulted in a runoff between Yayi Boni and Adrien Houngbédji. The runoff election was held on 19 March and was won by Boni, who assumed office on 6 April. The success of the fair multi-party elections in Benin won praise internationally. Boni was reelected in 2011, taking 53.18% of the vote in the first round—enough to avoid a runoff election, becoming the first president to win an election without a runoff since the restoration of democracy in 1991.\n\nIn the March 2016 presidential elections, in which Boni Yayi was barred by the constitution from running for a third term, businessman Patrice Talon won the second round with 65.37% of the vote, defeating investment banker and former Prime Minister Lionel Zinsou. Talon was sworn in on 6 April 2016. Speaking on the same day that the Constitutional Court confirmed the results, Talon said that he would \"first and foremost tackle constitutional reform\", discussing his plan to limit presidents to a single term of five years in order to combat \"complacency\". He also said that he planned to slash the size of the government from 28 to 16 members. \n\nPolitics\n\nBenin's politics take place in a framework of a presidential representative democratic republic, where the President of Benin is both head of state and head of government, within a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the legislature. The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. The political system is derived from the 1990 Constitution of Benin and the subsequent transition to democracy in 1991.\n\nBenin scored highly in the 2013 Ibrahim Index of African Governance, which comprehensively measures the state of governance across the continent. Benin was ranked 18th out of 52 African countries, and scored best in the categories of Safety & Rule of Law and Participation & Human Rights.\n\nIn its 2007 Worldwide Press Freedom Index, Reporters Without Borders ranked Benin 53rd out of 169 countries.\n\nBenin has been rated equal-88th out of 159 countries in a 2005 analysis of police, business and political corruption. \n\nDepartments and communes\n\nFile:Benin departments named.png\|thumb\|right\|Departments of Benin.\npoly 452.13 201.00 432.37 175.00 432.37 175.00 429.41 171.04 424.48 166.29 425.49 161.00 425.49 161.00 430.99 145.17 430.99 145.17 430.99 145.17 434.73 139.91 434.73 139.91 434.73 139.91 437.47 133.00 437.47 133.00 438.73 130.04 441.97 126.19 440.84 123.09 440.84 123.09 437.00 117.84 437.00 117.84 437.00 117.84 435.46 114.25 435.46 114.25 435.46 114.25 427.78 103.48 427.78 103.48 423.94 99.85 421.52 100.59 418.00 99.08 418.00 99.08 412.00 95.94 412.00 95.94 407.56 94.53 403.87 97.80 399.21 93.69 393.54 88.68 389.49 74.63 388.41 73.22 386.74 71.06 384.29 70.27 382.33 68.51 382.33 68.51 376.63 61.45 376.63 61.45 376.63 61.45 367.91 53.63 367.91 53.63 367.91 53.63 361.27 49.37 361.27 49.37 358.02 46.48 356.56 40.31 353.39 37.60 350.60 35.21 347.18 36.57 343.28 33.20 338.92 29.44 339.95 23.09 331.00 19.63 323.94 16.91 317.88 24.78 310.00 24.00 310.00 24.00 305.70 33.03 305.70 33.03 305.70 33.03 294.00 34.21 294.00 34.21 294.00 34.21 286.00 36.09 286.00 36.09 286.00 36.09 281.00 36.67 281.00 36.67 281.00 36.67 274.00 39.28 274.00 39.28 274.00 39.28 261.00 42.00 261.00 42.00 264.45 68.19 264.13 56.05 268.00 73.00 275.10 74.53 277.32 79.66 270.00 82.00 268.11 85.35 267.76 85.37 264.00 86.00 264.82 97.35 264.58 93.94 261.00 104.00 259.83 107.27 259.88 108.74 257.86 112.00 257.86 112.00 251.03 121.00 251.03 121.00 248.70 125.78 252.41 127.54 246.93 131.96 232.52 143.59 230.29 142.17 216.58 158.00 214.22 160.72 209.02 165.50 208.65 169.00 208.26 172.72 216.24 185.20 218.42 189.00 218.42 189.00 235.30 219.00 235.30 219.00 240.56 228.57 243.98 230.73 244.00 242.00 244.00 242.00 244.00 291.00 244.00 291.00 244.00 292.99 243.77 296.81 245.02 298.40 246.38 300.12 260.71 301.03 263.00 300.38 266.22 299.47 267.09 297.41 272.00 297.06 280.71 296.45 282.90 301.51 287.17 303.70 289.24 304.76 293.61 305.42 296.00 305.53 298.65 306.04 301.42 306.13 304.00 305.53 308.54 303.99 312.26 300.21 316.00 298.52 319.81 296.63 330.39 296.04 333.86 298.52 335.71 299.95 336.06 301.09 337.00 303.00 337.00 303.00 355.00 303.00 355.00 303.00 355.00 303.00 373.00 301.00 373.00 301.00 373.00 301.00 404.00 292.44 404.00 292.44 404.00 292.44 431.00 290.00 431.00 290.00 431.00 290.00 445.00 288.21 445.00 288.21 445.00 288.21 460.00 288.82 460.00 288.82 460.00 288.82 474.00 284.78 474.00 284.78 474.00 284.78 483.00 283.00 483.00 283.00 482.50 274.60 480.55 277.64 476.39 273.57 474.00 271.25 473.50 268.53 471.93 266.37 470.45 264.35 468.05 263.00 467.11 260.90 465.21 256.64 470.40 249.79 470.70 245.00 470.84 242.80 468.02 232.09 467.01 230.00 465.75 227.38 464.06 226.13 463.31 223.00 462.41 219.20 463.69 215.50 465.00 212.00 458.09 210.88 456.07 206.26 452.13 201.00 Alibori\npoly 37.46 246.00 37.46 252.00 37.46 252.00 37.46 252.00 35.31 258.00 35.31 258.00 35.31 258.00 34.40 265.00 34.40 265.00 32.65 269.76 26.21 273.58 24.01 278.00 22.52 281.03 24.08 291.52 24.01 296.00 23.82 305.84 20.15 302.44 20.00 313.00 20.00 313.00 20.00 323.00 20.00 323.00 20.00 325.41 19.78 328.58 21.02 330.70 22.40 333.07 26.70 335.76 29.00 337.42 29.00 337.42 45.00 349.37 45.00 349.37 45.00 349.37 82.00 373.20 82.00 373.20 82.00 373.20 107.00 388.27 107.00 388.27 111.81 390.32 114.39 389.60 118.00 390.63 130.19 394.14 122.76 395.20 140.00 395.00 145.96 394.93 151.03 393.89 156.00 390.36 160.95 386.85 170.76 377.10 176.00 375.13 180.62 373.39 183.60 376.89 194.00 376.76 194.00 376.76 214.00 376.76 214.00 376.76 219.13 375.48 220.35 373.34 230.00 371.40 233.97 370.60 241.83 370.30 243.98 366.77 245.17 364.82 245.08 361.23 244.82 359.00 244.34 354.97 239.47 338.13 237.30 335.17 234.48 331.32 229.02 329.01 229.16 323.00 229.33 316.13 237.71 311.47 240.40 307.72 242.31 305.05 241.99 302.12 241.84 299.00 241.84 299.00 241.84 241.00 241.84 241.00 242.00 238.76 242.09 236.16 241.83 234.00 240.65 230.85 237.02 225.12 235.30 222.00 235.30 222.00 222.42 199.00 222.42 199.00 222.42 199.00 211.72 180.00 211.72 180.00 210.41 177.70 207.70 172.35 205.61 171.02 203.63 169.77 200.33 170.06 198.00 169.83 198.00 169.83 179.00 168.01 179.00 168.01 172.75 168.17 171.85 169.55 167.00 170.24 167.00 170.24 159.00 170.24 159.00 170.24 154.87 170.68 148.54 174.29 145.00 173.97 140.61 173.58 139.06 169.50 137.20 167.84 135.56 166.35 130.21 164.35 128.00 163.80 124.03 162.80 116.29 163.66 113.75 167.22 112.30 169.25 112.92 171.08 110.65 173.37 108.55 175.49 104.72 176.40 103.92 180.04 103.92 180.04 105.00 189.00 105.00 189.00 105.00 189.00 95.00 188.00 95.00 188.00 95.20 190.02 95.78 192.77 94.31 194.45 91.55 197.61 77.91 193.83 74.00 193.00 74.12 200.87 77.74 199.74 75.00 211.00 69.72 208.52 68.74 210.16 64.00 213.00 66.47 221.45 72.00 221.45 70.00 232.00 70.00 232.00 63.00 228.56 63.00 228.56 63.00 228.56 57.00 226.73 57.00 226.73 57.00 226.73 49.00 223.00 49.00 223.00 46.19 229.10 45.52 230.06 49.00 236.00 49.00 236.00 40.00 237.00 40.00 237.00 40.00 237.00 37.46 246.00 37.46 246.00 Atakora\npoly 457.00 290.83 444.00 290.06 444.00 290.06 444.00 290.06 435.00 291.86 435.00 291.86 435.00 291.86 425.00 291.21 425.00 291.21 425.00 291.21 410.00 293.79 410.00 293.79 410.00 293.79 402.00 294.46 402.00 294.46 390.01 296.62 381.24 303.72 369.00 302.73 362.03 302.17 363.46 303.89 358.00 304.89 358.00 304.89 344.00 304.89 344.00 304.89 338.12 304.96 336.10 304.95 334.00 299.00 330.07 299.00 319.10 298.57 316.00 299.74 311.61 301.39 307.49 307.15 301.00 307.70 297.78 307.97 288.94 306.59 286.17 304.93 282.96 303.00 281.61 300.23 277.00 299.28 267.48 297.31 266.77 302.05 261.99 302.66 261.99 302.66 244.00 302.00 244.00 302.00 243.08 313.35 229.57 314.00 231.24 325.00 232.04 330.24 236.64 331.99 239.44 336.01 241.19 338.53 242.02 342.05 242.86 345.00 244.32 350.15 247.94 360.01 246.57 364.98 244.30 373.20 230.96 372.34 224.00 374.25 215.51 376.59 216.42 381.17 221.00 387.00 215.50 390.69 219.79 394.05 219.41 399.00 219.07 403.42 213.76 408.39 216.95 418.00 221.36 431.25 229.17 432.89 228.89 442.00 228.89 442.00 225.42 471.00 225.42 471.00 224.95 474.53 225.04 479.91 223.07 482.85 220.31 486.96 210.88 486.90 206.10 489.56 200.51 492.67 199.71 502.20 200.09 508.00 200.34 511.83 201.45 517.74 203.85 520.78 206.80 524.50 211.02 524.42 212.39 530.00 213.73 535.43 206.59 553.24 211.74 560.95 217.97 570.28 236.41 563.79 236.00 577.00 236.00 577.00 310.00 577.00 310.00 577.00 312.73 576.99 316.25 577.33 318.43 575.40 320.92 573.20 320.80 569.99 321.32 567.00 322.73 558.85 321.71 561.34 322.24 556.00 322.24 556.00 323.91 547.00 323.91 547.00 324.35 540.98 322.25 532.46 331.00 531.69 332.81 531.53 334.28 532.10 336.00 532.28 341.27 532.85 343.12 529.82 349.00 529.06 353.86 528.43 354.56 530.23 358.00 530.54 361.32 530.83 370.70 528.20 372.73 525.49 374.30 523.40 376.92 513.91 377.58 511.00 377.58 511.00 381.66 497.83 381.66 497.83 381.66 497.83 380.98 486.00 380.98 486.00 380.68 476.61 375.81 477.30 379.29 470.00 383.12 461.98 385.40 466.33 391.98 456.00 396.68 448.63 393.76 447.02 397.31 443.39 401.48 439.14 406.55 441.71 408.94 436.93 410.67 433.46 407.81 429.38 406.94 426.00 405.90 421.94 407.23 418.17 410.22 415.27 412.84 412.73 424.28 408.25 428.00 407.56 433.00 406.65 435.16 409.44 439.24 404.85 441.02 402.86 448.74 392.17 449.44 390.00 452.26 381.29 445.08 373.83 458.00 370.00 458.00 366.84 458.47 359.88 456.98 357.32 455.80 355.29 446.60 348.06 445.26 343.00 444.26 339.23 447.43 333.31 449.10 330.00 452.77 322.74 449.55 322.09 458.00 317.29 459.54 316.42 461.17 315.40 463.00 315.34 465.90 315.25 472.14 319.47 475.00 321.00 475.00 321.00 477.68 312.00 477.68 312.00 477.68 312.00 478.63 305.00 478.63 305.00 478.63 305.00 483.05 295.00 483.05 295.00 483.05 295.00 483.05 285.00 483.05 285.00 483.05 285.00 457.00 290.83 457.00 290.83 Borgou\npoly 204.00 378.09 198.00 378.82 198.00 378.82 195.22 379.01 189.99 378.26 187.00 377.91 183.64 377.52 180.15 375.88 177.00 376.43 168.76 377.87 159.89 391.57 150.00 395.14 145.58 396.38 131.55 396.56 127.00 395.14 119.22 393.40 119.53 391.49 109.00 391.00 109.00 391.00 109.00 409.00 109.00 409.00 109.00 409.00 110.00 424.00 110.00 424.00 110.00 424.00 110.00 444.00 110.00 444.00 109.87 453.63 106.71 453.36 105.91 458.00 105.45 460.61 107.25 464.32 108.00 467.00 114.17 468.97 113.93 474.31 114.00 480.00 114.03 482.98 113.74 487.26 114.72 490.00 116.12 493.90 128.70 508.73 132.09 511.78 135.10 514.48 137.49 514.98 139.44 517.27 139.44 517.27 145.51 528.00 145.51 528.00 147.02 531.73 147.68 545.12 148.17 550.00 148.17 550.00 149.00 608.00 149.00 608.00 152.74 607.83 162.55 606.68 166.00 605.70 170.07 604.54 173.60 601.66 178.00 602.89 181.90 603.99 184.73 607.28 188.00 608.84 191.81 610.65 193.97 609.29 198.00 611.73 201.82 614.05 205.90 619.16 213.00 621.59 221.08 624.36 228.08 622.78 236.00 621.00 236.00 621.00 236.86 599.00 236.86 599.00 236.86 599.00 234.51 587.04 234.51 587.04 234.51 587.04 233.07 582.58 233.07 582.58 232.54 579.04 234.93 575.89 233.77 573.14 232.45 570.01 227.92 569.43 225.00 568.79 219.30 567.55 214.40 566.93 210.64 561.96 202.86 551.69 211.67 541.18 209.85 530.04 208.90 524.19 203.33 524.76 199.99 517.00 196.43 508.71 197.14 494.28 205.04 488.70 209.60 485.47 216.59 484.97 222.00 484.00 222.00 484.00 225.28 454.00 225.28 454.00 225.75 450.23 227.35 441.23 226.58 438.00 224.89 430.85 215.61 424.73 214.21 414.00 213.33 407.25 216.93 404.33 217.52 400.00 217.95 396.84 216.60 394.67 216.66 392.00 216.29 389.21 217.38 387.80 216.66 385.00 216.46 382.76 215.64 382.31 215.00 378.09 208.25 379.58 209.49 378.17 204.00 378.09 Donga\npoly 318.42 730.00 311.02 715.00 311.02 715.00 311.02 715.00 313.71 704.00 313.71 704.00 313.71 704.00 314.30 696.00 314.30 696.00 314.30 696.00 315.83 688.00 315.83 688.00 315.83 688.00 316.39 680.00 316.39 680.00 316.39 680.00 319.72 668.00 319.72 668.00 319.72 668.00 313.56 646.00 313.56 646.00 313.56 646.00 315.37 640.00 315.37 640.00 315.37 640.00 316.64 633.00 316.64 633.00 316.64 633.00 320.82 619.00 320.82 619.00 320.82 619.00 320.00 612.00 320.00 612.00 320.00 612.00 320.00 603.00 320.00 603.00 320.00 603.00 319.00 591.00 319.00 591.00 319.00 591.00 317.98 580.60 317.98 580.60 317.98 580.60 310.00 579.00 310.00 579.00 310.00 579.00 235.00 579.00 235.00 579.00 235.26 586.63 236.56 584.73 237.67 590.00 239.34 597.46 238.85 605.57 237.67 613.00 237.01 616.76 238.31 618.16 237.10 620.07 234.94 623.47 229.59 623.95 226.00 624.00 221.06 624.06 215.54 624.49 211.00 622.33 205.31 619.62 201.44 614.89 198.00 613.17 194.55 611.45 192.14 612.51 188.00 610.16 184.89 608.40 182.82 605.80 179.00 604.65 173.86 603.11 169.76 606.21 165.00 607.51 158.90 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290.00 957.00 290.00 957.00 290.00 957.00 290.00 955.00 290.00 955.00 287.42 953.90 284.83 952.87 282.00 952.63 Littoral\n\nBenin is divided into twelve departments (French: départements) which, in turn, are subdivided into 77 communes. In 1999, the previous six departments were each split into two halves, forming the current twelve. The six new departments were assigned official capitals in 2008.\n\nGeography\n\nBenin, a narrow, north–south strip of land in West Africa, lies between latitudes 6° and 13°N, and longitudes 0° and 4°E. Benin is bounded by Togo to the west, Burkina Faso and Niger to the north, Nigeria to the east, and the Bight of Benin to the south. The distance from the Niger River in the north to the Atlantic Ocean in the south is about 650 km. Although the coastline measures 121 km the country measures about 325 km at its widest point.\n\nBenin shows little variation in elevation and can be divided into four areas from the south to the north, starting with the low-lying, sandy, coastal plain (highest elevation 10 m) which is, at most, 10 km wide. It is marshy and dotted with lakes and lagoons communicating with the ocean. Behind the coast lies the Guinean forest-savanna mosaic-covered plateaus of southern Benin (altitude between 20 and), which are split by valleys running north to south along the Couffo, Zou, and Oueme Rivers.\n\nThen an area of flat lands dotted with rocky hills whose altitude seldom reaches 400 m extends around Nikki and Save. Finally, a range of mountains extends along the northwest border and into Togo; this is the Atacora, with the highest point, Mont Sokbaro, at 658 m.\n\nBenin has fields of lying fallow, mangroves, and remnants of large sacred forests. In the rest of the country, the savanna is covered with thorny scrubs and dotted with huge baobab trees. Some forests line the banks of rivers. In the north and the northwest of Benin the Reserve du W du Niger and Pendjari National Park attract tourists eager to see elephants, lions, antelopes, hippos, and monkeys.[http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/6761.htm \"Background Note: Benin\"]. U.S. Department of State (June 2008). Pendjari National Park together with the bordering Parks Arli and W in Burkina Faso and Niger are among the most important strongholds for the endangered West African lion. With an estimated 356 (range: 246–466) lions, W-Arli-Pendjari harbours the largest remaining population of lions in West Africa. Historically Benin has served as habitat for the endangered painted hunting dog, Lycaon pictus; however, this canid is thought to have been locally extirpated.\n\nBenin's climate is hot and humid. Annual rainfall in the coastal area averages 1300 mm or about 51 inches. Benin has two rainy and two dry seasons per year. The principal rainy season is from April to late July, with a shorter less intense rainy period from late September to November. The main dry season is from December to April, with a short cooler dry season from late July to early September. Temperatures and humidity are high along the tropical coast. In Cotonou, the average maximum temperature is 31 °C; the minimum is 24 °C.\n\nVariations in temperature increase when moving north through a savanna and plateau toward the Sahel. A dry wind from the Sahara called the Harmattan blows from December to March, during which grass dries up, the vegetation turns reddish brown, and a veil of fine dust hangs over the country, causing the skies to be overcast. It also is the season when farmers burn brush in the fields.\n\nEconomy\n\n]\n\nThe economy of Benin is dependent on subsistence agriculture, cotton production, and regional trade. Cotton accounts for 40% of GDP and roughly 80% of official export receipts. Growth in real output has averaged around 5% in the past seven years, but rapid population growth has offset much of this increase. Inflation has subsided over the past several years. Benin uses the CFA franc, which is pegged to the euro.\n\nBenin’s economy has continued to strengthen over the past years, with real GDP growth estimated at 5.1 and 5.7% in 2008 and 2009, respectively. The main driver of growth is the agricultural sector, with cotton being the country’s main export, while services continue to contribute the largest part of GDP largely because of Benin’s geographical location, enabling trade, transportation, transit and tourism activities with its neighbouring states. \n\nIn order to raise growth still further, Benin plans to attract more foreign investment, place more emphasis on tourism, facilitate the development of new food processing systems and agricultural products, and encourage new information and communication technology. Projects to improve the business climate by reforms to the land tenure system, the commercial justice system, and the financial sector were included in Benin's US$307 million Millennium Challenge Account grant signed in February 2006.\n\nThe Paris Club and bilateral creditors have eased the external debt situation, with Benin benefiting from a G8 debt reduction announced in July 2005, while pressing for more rapid structural reforms. An insufficient electrical supply continues to adversely affect Benin's economic growth though the government recently has taken steps to increase domestic power production.\n\nAlthough trade unions in Benin represent up to 75% of the formal workforce, the large informal economy has been noted by the International Trade Union Confederation (ITCU) to contain ongoing problems, including a lack of women's wage equality, the use of child labour, and the continuing issue of forced labour. \n\nBenin is a member of the Organization for the Harmonization of Business Law in Africa (OHADA). \n\nCotonou has the country's only seaport and international airport. A new port is currently under construction between Cotonou and Porto Novo. Benin is connected by two-lane asphalted roads to its neighboring countries (Togo, Burkina Faso, Niger, and Nigeria). Mobile telephone service is available across the country through various operators. ADSL connections are available in some areas. Benin is connected to the Internet by way of satellite connections (since 1998) and a single submarine cable SAT-3/WASC (since 2001), keeping the price of data extremely high. Relief is expected with initiation of the Africa Coast to Europe cable in 2011.\n\nCurrently, about a third of the population live below the international poverty line of US$1.25 per day. \n\nTransport\n\nTransport in Benin includes road, rail, water and air transportation. Benin possesses a total of 6,787 km of highway, of which 1,357 km are paved. Of the paved highways in the country, there are 10 expressways. This leaves 5,430 km of unpaved road. The Trans–West African Coastal Highway crosses Benin, connecting it to Nigeria to the east, and Togo, Ghana and Ivory Coast to the west. When construction in Liberia and Sierra Leone is finished, the highway will continue west to seven other Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) nations. A paved highway also connects Benin northwards to Niger, and through that country to Burkina Faso and Mali to the north-west. Rail transport in Benin consists of 578 km of single track, railway. Benin does not, at this time, share railway links with adjacent countries – Niger possesses no railways to connect to, and while the other surrounding countries, Nigeria, Togo and Burkina Faso, do have railway networks, no connections have been built. In 2006, an Indian proposal appeared, which aims to link the railways of Benin with Niger and Burkina Faso. Benin will be a participant in the AfricaRail project.\n\nCadjehoun Airport located at Cotonou, has direct international jet service to Accra, Niamey, Monrovia, Lagos, Ouagadougou, Lomé, and Douala, as well as other cities in Africa. Direct services also link Cotonou to Paris, Brussels and Istanbul.\n\nDemographics\n\nThe majority of Benin's population lives in the south. The population is young, with a life expectancy of 59 years. About 42 African ethnic groups live in this country; these various groups settled in Benin at different times and also migrated within the country. Ethnic groups include the Yoruba in the southeast (migrated from Nigeria in the 12th century); the Dendi in the north-central area (who came from Mali in the 16th century); the Bariba and the Fula (; ) in the northeast; the Betammaribe and the Somba in the Atacora Range; the Fon in the area around Abomey in the South Central and the Mina, Xueda, and Aja (who came from Togo) on the coast.\n\nRecent migrations have brought other African nationals to Benin that include Nigerians, Togolese, and Malians. The foreign community also includes many Lebanese and Indians involved in trade and commerce. The personnel of the many European embassies and foreign aid missions and of nongovernmental organizations and various missionary groups account for a large part of the European population. A small part of the European population consists of Beninese citizens of French ancestry, whose ancestors ruled Benin and left after independence.\n\nLargest cities\n\nHealth \n\nThe HIV/AIDS rate in Benin was estimated in 2013 at 1.13% of adults aged 15–49 years. Malaria is a problem in Benin, being a leading cause of morbidity and mortality among children younger than five years.\n\nDuring the 1980s, less than 30% of the country's population had access to primary health care services. Benin had one of the highest death rates for children under the age of five in the world. Its infant mortality rate stood at 203 deaths for every live births. Only one in three mothers had access to child health care services. The Bamako Initiative changed that dramatically by introducing community-based health care reform, resulting in more efficient and equitable provision of services. , Benin had the 34th highest rate of maternal mortality in the world. According to a 2013 UNICEF report, 13% of women had undergone female genital mutilation.[http://www.unicef.org/media/files/FGCM_Lo_res.pdf UNICEF 2013], p. 27 A comprehensive approach strategy was extended to all areas of health care, with subsequent improvement in the health care indicators and improvement in health care efficiency and cost. Demographic and Health Surveys has completed three surveys in Benin since 1996. \n\nCulture\n\nArts\n\nBeninese literature had a strong oral tradition long before French became the dominant language. Félix Couchoro wrote the first Beninese novel, L'Esclave, in 1929.\n\nPost-independence, the country was home to a vibrant and innovative music scene, where native folk music combined with Ghanaian highlife, French cabaret, American rock, funk and soul, and Congolese rumba.\n\nSinger Angélique Kidjo and actor Djimon Hounsou were born in Cotonou, Benin. Composer Wally Badarou and singer Gnonnas Pedro are also of Beninese descent.\n\nBiennale Benin, continuing the projects of several organizations and artists, started in the country in 2010 as a collaborative event called \"Regard Benin\". In 2012, the project become a Biennial coordinated by the Consortium, a federation of local associations. The international exhibition and artistic program of the 2012 Biennale Benin are curated by Abdellah Karroum and the Curatorial Delegation.\n\nCustomary names\n\nMany Beninese in the south of the country have Akan-based names indicating the day of the week on which they were born. This is due to influence of the Akan people like the Akwamu and others. \n\nLanguage\n\nLocal languages are used as the languages of instruction in elementary schools, with French only introduced after several years. In wealthier cities, however, French is usually taught at an earlier age. Beninese languages are generally transcribed with a separate letter for each speech sound (phoneme), rather than using diacritics as in French or digraphs as in English. This includes Beninese Yoruba, which in Nigeria is written with both diacritics and digraphs. For instance, the mid vowels written é è, ô, o in French are written ' in Beninese languages, whereas the consonants written ng and sh or ch in English are written ŋ and c. However, digraphs are used for nasal vowels and the labial-velar consonants kp and gb, as in the name of the Fon language Fon gbe, and diacritics are used as tone marks. In French-language publications, a mixture of French and Beninese orthographies may be seen.\n\nReligion\n\nIn the 2002 census, 42.8% of the population of Benin were Christian (27.1% Roman Catholic, 5% Celestial Church of Christ, 3.2% Methodist, 7.5% other Christian denominations), 24.4% were Muslim, 17.3% practiced Vodun, 6% practiced other local traditional religions, 1.9% practiced other religions, and 6.5% claimed no religious affiliation.[http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007/90082.htm International Religious Freedom Report 2007: Benin]. United States Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor (14 September 2007). This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.\n\nTraditional religions include local animistic religions in the Atakora (Atakora and Donga provinces), and Vodun and Orisha veneration among the Yoruba and Tado peoples in the center and south of the nation. The town of Ouidah on the central coast is the spiritual center of Beninese Vodun.\n\nThe major introduced religions are Christianity, followed throughout the south and center of Benin and in Otammari country in the Atakora, and Islam, introduced by the Songhai Empire and Hausa merchants, and now followed throughout Alibori, Borgou and Donga provinces, as well as among the Yoruba (who also follow Christianity). Many, however, continue to hold Vodun and Orisha beliefs and have incorporated the pantheon of Vodun and Orisha into Christianity. The Ahmadiyya Muslim Community, a sect originating in the 19th century, is also present in a significant minority.\n\nEducation\n\nThe literacy rate in Benin is among the lowest in the world: in 2006 it was estimated to be 28.7% (40.6% for males and 18.4% for females).\n\nAlthough at one time the education system was not free, Benin has abolished school fees and is carrying out the recommendations of its 2007 Educational Forum.\n\nCuisine\n\nBeninese cuisine is known in Africa for its exotic ingredients and flavorful dishes. Beninese cuisine involves fresh meals served with a variety of key sauces. In southern Benin cuisine, the most common ingredient is corn, often used to prepare dough which is mainly served with peanut- or tomato-based sauces. Fish and chicken are the most common meats used in southern Beninese cuisine, but beef, goat, and bush rat are also consumed. The main staple in northern Benin is yams, often served with sauces mentioned above. The population in the northern provinces use beef and pork meat which is fried in palm or peanut oil or cooked in sauces. Cheese is used in some dishes. Couscous, rice, and beans are commonly eaten, along with fruits such as mangoes, oranges, avocados, bananas, kiwi fruit, and pineapples.\n\nMeat is usually quite expensive, and meals are generally light on meat and generous on vegetable fat. Frying in palm or peanut oil is the most common meat preparation, and smoked fish is commonly prepared in Benin. Grinders are used to prepare corn flour, which is made into a dough and served with sauces. \"Chicken on the spit\" is a traditional recipe in which chicken is roasted over fire on wooden sticks. Palm roots are sometimes soaked in a jar with saltwater and sliced garlic to tenderize them, then used in dishes. Many people have outdoor mud stoves for cooking.\n\nSports\n\nSoccer (Football) is generally considered the most popular sport in Benin. However, in the past 5 years, American baseball has been introduced to the country." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Republic of Togo", "BQG", "ISO 3166-1:TG", "Health care in Togo", "Health in Togo", "République Togolaise", "Togo", "Republique Togolaise", "Togolese", "Sport in Togo", "Religion in Togo", "Togolese Republic", "Administrative divisions of Togo" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "health care in togo", "religion in togo", "togo", "administrative divisions of togo", "bqg", "republique togolaise", "togolese republic", "togolese", "sport in togo", "health in togo", "iso 3166 1 tg", "republic of togo", "république togolaise" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "togo", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Togo" }
The Zambesi and which other river define the borders of Matabeleland?	tc_244	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Zambezi.txt", "Matabeleland.txt" ], "title": [ "Zambezi", "Matabeleland" ], "wiki_context": [ "The Zambezi (also spelled Zambeze and Zambesi) is the fourth-longest river in Africa, the longest east flowing river in Africa and the largest flowing into the Indian Ocean from Africa. The area of its basin is 1390000 km2, slightly less than half that of the Nile. The 2574 km rises in Zambia and flows through eastern Angola, along the eastern border of Namibia and the northern border of Botswana, then along the border between Zambia and Zimbabwe to Mozambique, where it crosses the country to empty into the Indian Ocean.\n\nThe Zambezi's most noted feature is Victoria Falls. Other notable falls include the Chavuma Falls at the border between Zambia and Angola, and Ngonye Falls, near Sioma in Western Zambia.\n\nThere are two main sources of hydroelectric power on the river, the Kariba Dam, which provides power to Zambia and Zimbabwe, and the Cahora Bassa Dam in Mozambique, which provides power to Mozambique and South Africa. There is also a smaller power station at Victoria Falls.\n\nCourse of the river\n\nSources\n\nThe river rises in a black marshy dambo in dense undulating miombo woodland 50 km north of Mwinilunga and 20 km south of Ikelenge in the Ikelenge District of North-Western Province, Zambia at about 1524 m above sea level. The area around the source is a national monument, forest reserve and Important Bird Area. \n\nEastward of the source, the watershed between the Congo and Zambezi basins is a well-marked belt of high ground, running nearly east-west and falling abruptly to the north and south. This distinctly cuts off the basin of the Lualaba (the main branch of the upper Congo) from that of the Zambezi. In the neighborhood of the source the watershed is not as clearly defined, but the two river systems do not connect.Dorling Kindersley, pp. 84–85\n\nThe region drained by the Zambezi is a vast broken-edged plateau 900–1200 m high, composed in the remote interior of metamorphic beds and fringed with the igneous rocks of the Victoria Falls. At Shupanga, on the lower Zambezi, thin strata of grey and yellow sandstones, with an occasional band of limestone, crop out on the bed of the river in the dry season, and these persist beyond Tete, where they are associated with extensive seams of coal. Coal is also found in the district just below Victoria Falls. Gold-bearing rocks occur in several places.\n\nUpper Zambezi\n\nThe river flows to the south-west into Angola for about 240 km, then is joined by sizeable tributaries such as the Luena and the Chifumage flowing from highlands to the north-west. It turns south and develops a floodplain, with extreme width variation between the dry and rainy seasons. It enters dense evergreen Cryptosepalum dry forest, though on its western side, Western Zambezian grasslands also occur. Where it re-enters Zambia it is nearly 400 m wide in the rainy season and flows rapidly, with rapids ending in the Chavuma Falls, where the river flows through a rocky fissure. The river drops about 400 m in elevation from its source at 1500 m to the Chavuma Falls at 1100 m, in a distance of about 400 km. From this point to the Victoria Falls, the level of the basin is very uniform, dropping only by another 180 m in a distance of around 800 km.\n\nThe first of its large tributaries to enter the Zambezi is the Kabompo River in the north-western province of Zambia. The savanna through which the river has flowed gives way to a wide floodplain, studded with Borassus fan palms. A little farther south is the confluence with the Lungwebungu River. This is the beginning of the Barotse Floodplain, the most notable feature of the upper Zambezi, but this northern part does not flood so much and includes islands of higher land in the middle.\n\nThirty kilometres below the confluence of the Lungwebungu the country becomes very flat, and the typical Barotse Floodplain landscape unfolds, with the flood reaching a width of 25 km in the rainy season. For more than 200 km downstream the annual flood cycle dominates the natural environment and human life, society and culture.\n\nEighty kilometres further down, the Luanginga, which with its tributaries drains a large area to the west, joins the Zambezi. A few kilometres higher up on the east the main stream is joined in the rainy season by overflow of the Luampa/Luena system.\n\nA short distance downstream of the confluence with the Luanginga is Lealui, one of the capitals of the Lozi people who populate the Zambian region of Barotseland in Western Province. The chief of the Lozi maintains one of his two compounds at Lealui; the other is at Limulunga, which is on high ground and serves as the capital during the rainy season. The annual move from Lealui to Limulunga is a major event, celebrated as one of Zambia's best known festivals, the Kuomboka.\n\nAfter Lealui, the river turns to south-south-east. From the east it continues to receive numerous small streams, but on the west is without major tributaries for 240 km. Before this, the Ngonye Falls and subsequent rapids interrupt navigation. South of Ngonye Falls, the river briefly borders Namibia's Caprivi Strip. The strip projects from the main body of Namibia, and results from the colonial era: it was added to German South-West Africa expressly to give Germany access to the Zambezi.\n\nBelow the junction of the Cuando River and the Zambezi the river bends almost due east. Here, the river is broad and shallow, and flows slowly, but as it flows eastward towards the border of the great central plateau of Africa it reaches a chasm into which the Victoria Falls plunge.\n\nMiddle Zambezi\n\nThe Victoria Falls are considered the boundary between the upper and middle Zambezi. Below them the river continues to flow due east for about 200 km, cutting through perpendicular walls of basalt 20 to 60 metres (66 to 200 ft) apart in hills 200 to 250 metres (660 to 820 ft) high. The river flows swiftly through the Batoka Gorge, the current being continually interrupted by reefs. It has been described as one of the world's most spectacular whitewater trips, a tremendous challenge for kayakers and rafters alike. Beyond the gorge are a succession of rapids which end 240 km (150 mi) below Victoria Falls. Over this distance, the river drops 250 m.\n\nAt this point, the river enters Lake Kariba, created in 1959 following the completion of the Kariba Dam. The lake is one of the largest man-made lakes in the world, and the hydroelectric power-generating facilities at the dam provide electricity to much of Zambia and Zimbabwe.\n\nThe Luangwa and the Kafue are the two largest left-hand tributaries of the Zambezi. The Kafue joins the main river in a quiet deep stream about 180 m wide. From this point the northward bend of the Zambezi is checked and the stream continues due east. At the confluence of the Luangwa (15°37' S) it enters Mozambique.\n\nThe middle Zambezi ends where the river enters Lake Cahora Bassa (also spelled Cabora Bassa). Formerly the site of dangerous rapids known as Kebrabassa, the lake was created in 1974 by the construction of the Cahora Bassa Dam.\n\nLower Zambezi\n\nThe lower Zambezi's 650 km from Cahora Bassa to the Indian Ocean is navigable, although the river is shallow in many places during the dry season. This shallowness arises as the river enters a broad valley and spreads out over a large area. Only at one point, the Lupata Gorge, 320 km from its mouth, is the river confined between high hills. Here it is scarcely 200 m wide. Elsewhere it is from 5 to 8 km wide, flowing gently in many streams. The river bed is sandy, and the banks are low and reed-fringed. At places, however, and especially in the rainy season, the streams unite into one broad fast-flowing river.\n\nAbout 160 km from the sea the Zambezi receives the drainage of Lake Malawi through the Shire River. On approaching the Indian Ocean, the river splits up into a delta. Each of the four primary distributaries, Kongone, Luabo and Timbwe, is obstructed by a sand bar. A more northerly branch, called the Chinde mouth, has a minimum depth at low water of 2 m at the entrance and 4 m further in, and is the branch used for navigation. 100 km further north is a river called the Quelimane, after the town at its mouth. This stream, which is silting up, receives the overflow of the Zambezi in the rainy season.\n\nDelta\n \nThe delta of the Zambezi is today about half as broad as it was before the construction of the Kariba and Cahora Bassa dams controlled the seasonal variations in the flow rate of the river.\n\nBefore the dams were built seasonal flooding of the Zambezi had quite a different impact on the ecosystems of the delta from today as it brought nutritious fresh water down to the Indian Ocean coastal wetlands. The lower Zambezi experienced a small flood surge early in the dry season as rain in the Gwembe catchment and north-eastern Zimbabwe rushed through while rain in the Upper Zambezi, Kafue, and Lake Malawi basins, and Luangwa to a lesser extent, is held back by swamps and floodplains. The discharge of these systems contributed to a much larger flood in March or April, with a mean monthly maximum for April of 6700 m3 per second at the delta. The record flood was more than three times as big, 22500 m3 per second being recorded in 1958. By contrast the discharge at the end of the dry season averaged just 500 m3 per second.\n\nIn the 1960s and 1970s the building of dams changed that pattern completely. Downstream the mean monthly minimum–maximum was 500 m3 to 6000 m3 per second; now it is 1000 m3 to 3900 m3 per second. Medium-level floods especially, of the kind to which the ecology of the lower Zambezi was adapted, happen less often and have a shorter duration. As with the Itezhi-Tezhi Dam's deleterious effects on the Kafue Flats, this has the following effects:\n* fish, bird and other wildlife feeding and breeding patterns disrupted\n* less grassland after flooding for grazing wildlife and cattle\n* traditional farming and fishing patterns disrupted.\n\nEcology of the delta\n\nAs well as the Zambezi this section applies to the Buzi, Pungwe, and Save rivers which also drain the Zambezi basin. Together the floodplains of these four rivers make up the World Wildlife Fund's Zambezian coastal flooded savanna ecoregion. They are a mixture of open grassland and freshwater swamp inland from the Indian Ocean in Mozambique.\n\nAlthough the dams have stemmed some of the annual flooding of the lower Zambezi and caused the area of floodplain to be greatly reduced they have not removed flooding completely. They cannot control extreme floods, they have only made medium-level floods less frequent. When heavy rain in the lower Zambezi combines with good runoff upstream, massive floods still happen and the wetlands are still an important habitat. However, as well as the shrinking of the wetlands further severe damage to wildlife was caused by uncontrolled hunting of animals such as buffalo and waterbuck during the Mozambique Civil War and now the conflict has ceased it is likely the floodplains will become more populated, and further damming has also been discussed. The only protected area of floodplain is the Marromeu Game Reserve near the city of Beira.\n\nAlthough the region has seen a reduction in the populations of the large mammals it is still home to some including the reedbuck and migrating eland. Carnivores found here include lion (Panthera leo), leopard (Panthera pardus), cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus), spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta) and side-striped jackal (Canis adustus). The floodplains are a haven for migratory waterbirds including pintails, garganey, African openbill (Anastomus lamelligerus), saddle-billed stork (Ephippiorhynchus senegalensis), wattled crane (\"Bugeranus carunculatus\"), and great white pelican (Pelecanus onocrotalus).\n\nReptiles include Nile crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus), Nile monitor lizard (Varanus niloticus) and African rock python (Python sebae), the endemic Pungwe worm snake (Leptotyphlops pungwensis) and three other snakes that are nearly endemic; floodplain water snake (Lycodonomorphus whytei obscuriventris), dwarf wolf snake (Lycophidion nanus) and eyebrow viper (Proatheris).\n\nThere are a number of endemic butterflies.\n\nImage:Zambezi Barotse floodplain.jpg\|NASA false-colour image of the upper Zambezi and Barotse (Balozi) floodplain during an extreme flood in 2003.\nImage:Zambezi delta.jpg\|The Zambezi's delta.\nImage:ISS009-E-7622- Zambezi river near Mongu.jpg\|The river and its floodplain near Mongu in Zambia.\nImage:Zambezi Flood Plain, Namibia (MODIS).jpg\|Water is black in this false-colour image of the Zambezi flood plain.\nImage:Zambezi Flood Plain, Namibia (EO-1).jpg\|This highly detailed true-colour image shows the stark eastern edge of the Zambezi floodplain.\n\nClimate \n\nThe north of the Zambezi basin has mean annual rainfall of 1100 to 1400 mm which declines towards the south, reaching about half that figure in the south-west. The rain falls in a 4-to-6-month summer rainy season when the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone moves over the basin from the north between October and March. Evaporation rates are high (1600 mm-2300 mm) and much water is lost this way in swamps and floodplains, especially in the south-west of the basin. \n\nWildlife \n\nThe river supports large populations of many animals. Hippopotami are abundant along most of the calm stretches of the river, and many crocodiles are also present. Monitor lizards are found in many places. Birds are abundant, with species including heron, pelican, egret and African fish eagle present in large numbers. Riverine woodland also supports many large animals, such as buffalo, zebras, giraffes, elephants.\n\nThe Zambezi also supports several hundred species of fish, some of which are endemic to the river. Important species include cichlids which are fished heavily for food, as well as catfish, tigerfish, yellowfish and other large species. The bull shark is sometimes known as the Zambezi shark after the river but is found around the world.\n\nTributaries \n\nUpper Zambezi: 507,200 km2, discharges 1044 m3/s at Victoria Falls, comprising:\n\nNorthern Highlands catchment, 222,570 km2, 850 m3/s at Lukulu:\n* Chifumage River: Angolan central plateau\n* Luena River: Angolan central plateau\n* Kabompo River: 72,200 km2, NW highlands of Zambia\n* Lungwebungu River: 47,400 km2, Angolan central plateau\nCentral Plains catchment, 284,630 km2, 196 m3/s (Victoria Falls–Lukulu):\n* Luanguingu River: 34,600 km2, Angolan central plateau\n* Luampa River: 20,500 km2, eastern side of Zambezi\n* Cuando /Linyanti/Chobe River: 133,200 km2, Angolan S plateau & Caprivi\n\nMiddle Zambezi cumulatively 1,050,000 km2, 2442 m3/s, measured at Cahora Bassa Gorge\n\n(Middle section by itself: 542,800 km2, discharges 1398 m3/s (C. Bassa–Victoria Falls)\nGwembe Catchment, 156,600 km2, 232 m3/s (Kariba Gorge–Vic Falls):\n* Gwayi River: 54,610 km2, NW Zimbabwe\n* Sengwa River: 25,000 km2, North-central Zimbabwe\n* Sanyati River: 43,500 km2, North-central Zimbabwe\nKariba Gorge to C. Bassa catchment, 386200 km2, 1166 m3/s (C. Bassa–Kariba Gorge):\n* Kafue River: 154,200 km2, 285 m3/s, West-central Zambia & Copperbelt\n* Luangwa River: 151,400 km2, 547 m3/s, Luangwa Rift Valley & plateau NW of it\n* Panhane River: 23,897 km2, North-central Zimbabwe plateau\n\nLower Zambezi cumulatively, 1,378,000 km2, 3424 m3/s, measured at Marromeu\n\n(Lower section by itself: 328,000 km2, 982 m3/s (Marromeu–C. Bassa))\n* Luia River: 28,000 km2, Moravia-Angonia plateau, N of Zambezi\n* Luenha River/Mazoe River: 54,144 km2, 152 m3/s, Manica plateau, NE Zimbabwe\n* Shire River , 154,000 km2, 539 m3/s, Lake Malawi basin\nZambezi Delta, 12,000 km2\n\nTotal Zambezi river basin: 1,390,000 km2, 3424 m3/s discharged into delta\n\nSource: Beilfuss & Dos Santos (2001) The Okavango Basin is not included in the figures because it only occasionally overflows to any extent into the Zambezi.\n\nDue to the rainfall distribution, northern tributaries contribute much more water than southern ones, for example: the Northern Highlands catchment of the upper Zambezi contributes 25%, Kafue 8%, Luangwa and Shire Rivers 16% each, total 65% of Zambezi discharge. The large Cuando basin in the south-west on the other hand contributes only about 2 m3/s because most is lost through evaporation in its swamp systems. The 1940s and 1950s were particularly wet decades in the basin. Since 1975, it has been drier, the average discharge being only 70% of that for the years 1930 to 1958.\n\nGeological history \n\nMore than two million years ago, the Upper Zambezi river used to flow south through what is now the Makgadikgadi Pan to the Limpopo River. The land around the pan experienced tectonic uplift (perhaps as part of the African superswell) and a large lake formed, and extended east.\n\nMeanwhile, 1000 km east, a western tributary of the Shire River in the East African Rift's southern extension through Malawi eroded a deep valley on its western escarpment. At the rate of a few cm per year, this river, the Middle Zambezi, started cutting back the bed of its river towards the west, aided by grabens (rift valleys) forming along its course in an east-west axis. As it did so it captured a number of south-flowing rivers such as the Luangwa and Kafue.\n\nEventually the large lake trapped at Makgadikgadi (or a tributary of it) was captured by the Middle Zambezi cutting back towards it, and emptied eastwards. The Upper Zambezi was captured as well. The Middle Zambezi was about 300 m lower than the Upper Zambezi, and a high waterfall formed at the edge of the basalt plateau across which the upper river flows. This was the first Victoria Falls, somewhere down the Batoka Gorge near where Lake Kariba is now. \n\nHistory \n\nEtymology \n\nThe first European to come across the Zambezi river was Vasco da Gama, in January 1498, who anchored at what he called Rio dos Bons Sinais (\"River of Good Omens\"), now the Quelimane or Quá-Qua, a small river on the northern end of the delta, which at that time was connected by navigable channels to the Zambezi river proper (the connection silted up by the 1830s). In a few of the oldest maps, the entire river is denoted as such. But already by the early 1500s, a new name emerged, the Cuama river (sometimes \"Quama\" or \"Zuama\"). Cuama was the local name given by the dwellers of the Swahili Coast for an outpost located on one the southerly islands of the delta (near the Luabo channel). Most old nautical maps denote the Luabo entry as Cuama, the entire delta as the \"rivers of Cuama\" and the Zambezi river proper as the \"Cuama River\".\n\nNonetheless, already in 1552, Portuguese chronicler João de Barros notes that the same Cuama river was called Zembere by the inland people of Monomatapa. The Portuguese Dominican friar João dos Santos, visiting Monomatapa in 1597, reported it as Zambeze (Bantu languages frequently shifts between z and r) and inquired into the origins of the name; he was told it was named after a people.\n\nThus the term \"Zambezi\" is after a people who live by a great lake to the north. The most likely candidates are the \"M'biza\", or Bisa people (in older texts given as Muisa, Movisa, Abisa, Ambios and other variations), a Bantu people who live in what is now central-eastern Zambia, between the Zambezi River and Lake Bangweolo (at the time, before the Lunda invasion, the Bisa would have likely stretched further north, possibly to Lake Tanganyika). The Bisa had a reputation as great cloth traders throughout the region. \n\nIn a curious note, the Goese-born Portuguese trader Manuel Caetano Pereira, who traveled to the Bisa homelands in 1796 was surprised to be shown a second, separate river referred to as the \"Zambezi\". This \"other Zambezi\" that puzzled Pereira is most likely what modern sources spell the Chambeshi River in northern Zambia.\n\nThe Monomatapa notion (reported by Santos) that the Zambezi was sourced from a great internal lake might be a reference to one of the African Great Lakes. One of the names reported by early explorers for Lake Malawi was \"Lake Zambre\" (probably a corruption of \"Zambezi\"), possibly because Lake Malawi is connected to the lower Zambezi via the Shire River. The Monomatapa story resonated with the old European notion, drawn from classical antiquity, that all the great African rivers—the Nile, the Senegal, the Congo, now the Zambezi, too—were all sourced from the same great internal lake. The Portuguese were also told that the Mozambican Espirito Santo \"river\" (actually an estuary formed by the Umbeluzi, Matola and Tembe rivers) was sourced from a lake (hence its outlet became known as Delagoa Bay). As a result, several old maps depict the Zambezi and the \"Espirito Santo\" rivers converging deep in the interior, at the same lake.\n\nHowever, the Bisa-derived etymology is not without dispute. In 1845, W.D. Cooley, examining Pereira's notes, concluded the term \"Zambezi\" derives not from the Bisa people, but rather from the Bantu term \"mbege\"/\"mbeze\" (\"fish\"), and consequently it probably means merely \"river of fish\". David Livingstone, who reached the upper Zambezi in 1853, refers to it as \"Zambesi\" but also makes note of the local name \"Leeambye\" used by the Lozi people, which he says means \"large river or river par excellence\". Livingstone records other names for the Zambezi—Luambeji, Luambesi, Ambezi, Ojimbesi and Zambesi—applied by different peoples along its course, and asserts they \"all possess a similar signification and express the native idea of this magnificent stream being the main drain of the country\". \n\nIn Portuguese records, the \"Cuama River\" term disappeared and gave way to the term \"Sena River\" (Rio de Sena), a reference to the Swahili (and later Portuguese) upriver trade station at Sena. In 1752, the Zambezi delta, under the name \"Rivers of Sena\" (Rios de Sena) formed a colonial administrative district of Portuguese Mozambique. But common usage of \"Zambezi\" led eventually to a royal decree in 1858 officially renaming the district \"Zambézia\".\n\nExploration of the river\n\nThe Zambezi region was known to medieval geographers as the Empire of Monomotapa, and the course of the river, as well as the position of lakes Ngami and Nyasa, were given broadly accurately in early maps. These were probably constructed from Arab information. \n\nThe first European to visit the inland Zambezi river was the Portuguese degredado Antonio Fernandes in 1511 and again in 1513, with the objective of reporting on commercial conditions and activities of the interior of Central Africa. The final report of these explorations revealed the importance of the ports of the upper Zambezi to the local trade system, in particular to East African gold trade. \n\nThe first exploration of the upper Zambezi was made by David Livingstone in his exploration from Bechuanaland between 1851 and 1853. Two or three years later he descended the Zambezi to its mouth and in the course of this journey discovered the Victoria Falls. During 1858–60, accompanied by John Kirk, Livingstone ascended the river by the Kongone mouth as far as the Falls, and also traced the course of its tributary the Shire and reached Lake Malawi.\n\nFor the next 35 years very little exploration of the river took place.\nPortuguese explorer Serpa Pinto examined some of the western tributaries of the river and made measurements of the Victoria Falls in 1878. In 1884 the Plymouth Brethren missionary Frederick Stanley Arnot traveled over the height of land between the watersheds of the Zambezi and the Congo, and identified the source of the Zambezi. \nHe considered that the nearby high and cool Kalene Hill was a particularly suitable place for a mission. \nArnot was accompanied by the Portuguese trader and army officer António da Silva Porto. \nIn 1889 the Chinde channel north of the main mouths of the river was discovered. Two expeditions led by Major A. St Hill Gibbons in 1895 to 1896 and 1898 to 1900 continued the work of exploration begun by Livingstone in the upper basin and central course of the river.\n\nEconomy\n\nThe population of the Zambezi river valley is estimated to be about 32 million. About 80% of the population of the valley is dependent on agriculture, and the upper river's flood plains provide good agricultural land.\n\nCommunities by the river fish it extensively, and many people travel from far afield to fish. Some Zambian towns on roads leading to the river levy unofficial 'fish taxes' on people taking Zambezi fish to other parts of the country. As well as fishing for food, game fishing is a significant activity on some parts of the river. Between Mongu and Livingstone, several safari lodges cater for tourists who want to fish for exotic species, and many also catch fish to sell to aquaria.\n\nThe river valley is rich in mineral deposits and fossil fuels, and coal mining is important in places. The dams along its length also provide employment for many people near them, in maintaining the hydroelectric power stations and the dams themselves. Several parts of the river are also very popular tourist destinations. Victoria Falls receives over 1.5 million visitors annually, while Mana Pools and Lake Kariba also draw substantial tourist numbers.\n\nTransport\n\nThe river is frequently interrupted by rapids and so has never been an important long-distance transport route. David Livingstone's Zambezi Expedition attempted to open up the river to navigation by paddle steamer, but was defeated by the Cahora Bassa rapids. Along some stretches, it is often more convenient to travel by canoe along the river rather than on the unimproved roads which are often in very poor condition due to being regularly submerged in flood waters, and many small villages along the banks of the river are only accessible by boat. In the 1930s and 40s a paddle barge service operated on the stretch between the Katombora Rapids, about 50 km upstream from Livingstone, and the rapids just upstream from Katima Mulilo. However, depending on the water level, boats could be paddled through—Lozi paddlers, a dozen or more in a boat, could deal with most of them—or they could be pulled along the shore or carried around the rapids, and teams of oxen pulled barges 5 km over land around the Ngonye Falls. \n\nRoad, rail and other crossings of the river, once few and far between, are proliferating. They are, in order from the source:\n* Cazombo road bridge, Angola, bombed in the civil war and not yet reconstructed \n* Chinyingi suspension footbridge near the town of Zambezi, a 300 m footbridge built as a community project\n* Katima Mulilo road bridge, 900 m, between Namibia and Sesheke in Zambia, opened 2004, completing the Trans–Caprivi Highway connecting Lusaka in Zambia with Walvis Bay on the Atlantic coast\n* Kazungula Bridge—in August 2007 a deal was announced to replace the Kazungula Ferry, one of the largest river ferries in Southern Africa, with a road bridge where the river is 430 m wide\n* Victoria Falls Bridge (road and rail), the first to be built, completed in April 1905 and initially intended as a link in Cecil Rhodes' scheme to build a railway from Cape Town to Cairo: 250 m long\n* Kariba Dam carries the paved Kariba/Siavonga highway across the river\n\n* Otto Beit Bridge at Chirundu, road, 382 m, 1939\n* Second Chirundu Bridge, road, 400 m, 2002\n* Cahora Bassa Dam is in a remote area and does not carry a highway across the river\n* Tete Suspension Bridge, 1 km road bridge (1970s)\n* Dona Ana Bridge, originally railway but converted to single-lane road, (1935), the longest at 3 km, since late 2009 it is again a railway bridge, passenger and freight trains are again running across it and from 2011 on the railway line over this bridge may convey several million of tonnes of Tete coal to the port of Beira.\n* Caia Bridge—construction started in 2007 of a road bridge to replace the Caia ferry, which, with Kazungula, is the largest ferry across the river\n\nThere are a number of small pontoon ferries across the river in Angola, western Zambia, and Mozambique, notably between Mongu and Kalabo. Above Mongu in years following poor rainy seasons the river can be forded at one or two places.\nIn tourist areas, such as Victoria Falls and Kariba, short-distance tourist boats take visitors along the river.\n\nEcology\n\nSewage effluent is a major cause of water pollution around urban areas, as inadequate water treatment facilities in all the major cities of the region force them to release untreated sewage into the river. This has resulted in eutrophication of the river water and has facilitated the spread of diseases of poor hygiene such as cholera, typhus and dysentery.\n\nThe construction of two major dams regulating the flow of the river has had a major effect on wildlife and human populations in the lower Zambezi region. When the Cahora Bassa Dam was completed in 1973, its managers allowed it to fill in a single flood season, going against recommendations to fill over at least two years. The drastic reduction in the flow of the river led to a 40% reduction in the coverage of mangroves, greatly increased erosion of the coastal region and a 60% reduction in the catch of prawns off the mouth due to the reduction in emplacement of silt and associate nutrients. Wetland ecosystems downstream of the dam shrank considerably. Wildlife in the delta was further threatened by uncontrolled hunting during the civil war in Mozambique.\n\nThe Kavango–Zambezi Transfrontier Conservation Area will cover parts of Zambia, Angola, Namibia, Zimbabwe and Botswana, including the famous Okavango Delta in Botswana and Mosi-oa-Tunya (The Smoke That Thunders, or Victoria Falls). It is thought that the cross-border park will help with animal migration routes and assist in the preservation of wetlands which clean water, as sewage from communities is a problem.\n\nFunding was boosted for cross-border conservation along the Zambezi in 2008. The Kavango–Zambezi Transfrontier Conservation project—which follows the Zambezi River and stretches across Angola, Botswana, Namibia, Zambia and Zimbabwe—has received a grant of €8 million from a German nongovernmental organisation. Part of the funds will be used for research in areas covered by the project. However, Angola has warned that landmines from their civil war may impede the project. \n\nThe river currently passes through Ngonye Falls National Park, Mosi-oa-Tunya National Park, and Lower Zambezi National Park (in Zambia), and Zambezi National Park, Victoria Falls National Park, Matusadona National Park, Mana Pools National Park, and the Middle Zambezi Biosphere Reserve (in Zimbabwe).\n\nEUS outbreak\n\nOn 14 September 2007, epizootic ulcerative syndrome (EUS) killed hundreds of sore-covered fish in River Zambezi. Zambia Agriculture Minister Ben Kapita asked experts to investigate the outbreak to probe the cause to find out if the disease can be transmitted to humans. \n\nMajor towns\n\nAlong much of the river's length, the population is sparse, but important towns and cities along its course include the following:\n* Katima Mulilo (Namibia)\n* Mongu, Lukulu, Livingstone and Sesheke (Zambia)\n* Victoria Falls and Kariba (Zimbabwe)\n* Songo and Tete (Mozambique)", "Modern-day Matabeleland is a region in Zimbabwe divided into three provinces: Matabeleland North, Bulawayo and Matabeleland South. These provinces are in the west and south-west of Zimbabwe, between the Limpopo and Zambezi rivers. The region is named after its inhabitants the Ndebele people. Other ethnic groups who inhabit parts of Matabeleland include the Tonga, Kalanga, Venda and other peoples. As of August 2012, according to the ZIMSAT or Zimbabwe national statistics agency, the southern part of the region had 683 893 people, with the make up of 326 697 males and \n356 926 females with an average size household of 4.4 in an area of 54,172 square kilometres. As for the Matabeleland Northern Province, it had a total population of 749 017 people out of the population of Zimbabwe of 13 061 239. The proportion of male and female population was 48 and 52 percent respectively within an area of just over 75,017 square kilometres. The remaining Bulawayo province had a population of 653,337 in an area of 1,706.8 km2 (659.0 sq mi) \nThus the region has a combined population of 2,086,247 in an area of just over 130,000 square kilometres and that is just over the size of England. The major city is Bulawayo, other notable towns are Plumtree and Hwange. The land is particularly fertile but dry. This area has important gold deposits. Industries include gold and other mineral mines, and engineering. There has been a decline in the industries in this region as water is in short supply. Promises by the government to draw water for the region through the Matabeleland Zambezi Water Project have not been carried out. The region is allegedly marginalised by the government. \n\nHistory\n\nRozvi Empire\n\nAround the 10th and 11th centuries the Bantu-speaking Kalanga arrived from the north and settled in southern Africa in the Mapungubwe ruins. Later they moved north and both the San and the early ironworkers were driven out. By the 15th century, the Kalanga had established a strong empire, known as Munhumutapa, with its capital at the ancient city of Zimbabwe. This empire was split by the end of the 15th century with southern part becoming the Rozvi Empire.\n\nNdebele Kingdom\n\nIn the late 1830s, some 20,000 Ndebele, descendants of the Zulus in South Africa and led by Mzilikazi Khumalo, invaded the Shona Rozvi Empire. Many of the Kalanga and Shona people were incorporated and the rest were made satellite territories who paid tribute to the Ndebele Kingdom. He called his new nation Mthwakazi, a Zulu word which means something which became big at conception, in Zulu \"into ethe ithwasa yabankulu\" but the territory was called Matabeleland by Europeans. Mzilikazi organised this ethnically diverse nation into a militaristic system of regimental towns and established his capital at Bulawayo (\"the place of killing\"). Mzilikazi was a statesman of considerable stature, able to weld the many conquered tribes into a strong, centralised kingdom.\nIn 1852, the Boer government in Transvaal made a treaty with Mzilikazi. However, gold was discovered in the neighbouring area known as Mashonaland, the home of the Ma-Shona, in 1867 and the European powers became increasingly interested in the region.\nMzilikazi died on 9 September 1868, near Bulawayo. His son, Lobengula, succeeded him as king. In exchange for wealth and arms, Lobengula granted several concessions to the British, the most prominent of which is the 1888 Rudd concession giving Cecil Rhodes exclusive mineral rights in much of the lands east of his main territory. Gold was already known to exist, so with the Rudd concession, Rhodes was able to obtain a royal charter to form the British South Africa Company in 1889.\n\nBritish South Africa Company\n\nIn 1890, Rhodes sent a group of settlers, known as the Pioneer Column, into Mashonaland where they founded Fort Salisbury (now Harare). In 1891 an Order-in-Council declared Matabeleland and Mashonaland British protectorates. Rhodes had a vested interest in the continued expansion of white settlements in the region, so now with the cover of a legal mandate, he used a brutal attack by Ndebele against the Shona near Fort Victoria (now Masvingo) in 1893 as a pretext for attacking the kingdom of Lobengula. Also in 1893, a concession awarded to Sir John Swinburne was detached from Matabeleland to be administered by the British Resident Commissioner of the Bechuanaland Protectorate, to which the territory was formally annexed in 1911 and it remains part of modern Botswana, known as the Tati Concessions Land.\n\nFirst Matabele War \n\nThe first decisive battle was fought on 1 November 1893, when a laager was attacked on open ground near the Bembesi River by Imbizo and Ingubo regiments. The laager consisted of 670 British soldiers, 400 of whom were mounted along with a small force of native allies, and fought off the Imbizo and Ingubo forces, which were considered by Sir John Willoughby to number 1,700 warriors in all. The laager had with it small artillery: 5 Maxim guns, 2 seven-pounders, 1 Gardner gun, and 1 Hotchkiss gun. The Maxim machine guns took center stage and decimated the native force at the Battle of the Shangani.\n\nAlthough Lobengula's forces totaled 80,000 spearmen and 20,000 riflemen, versus fewer than 700 soldiers of the British South Africa Police, the Ndebele warriors were not equipped to match the British machine guns. Leander Starr Jameson sent his troops to Bulawayo to try to capture Lobengula, but the king escaped and left Bulawayo in ruins behind him.\n\nAn attempt to bring the king and his forces to submit led to the disaster of the Shangani Patrol when a Ndebele Impi defeated a British South Africa Company patrol led by Major Allan Wilson at the Shangani river in December 1893. Except for Frederick Russell Burnham and two other scouts sent for reinforcements, the detachment was surrounded and wiped out. This incident had a lasting influence on Matabeleland and the colonists who died in this battle are buried at Matobo Hills along with Jameson and Cecil Rhodes. In white Rhodesian history, Wilson's battle takes on the status of General Custer's stand at Little Big Horn in the USA. The Matabele fighters honoured the dead men with a salute to their bravery in battle and reportedly told the king, \"They were men of men and their fathers were men before them.\"\n\nLobengula died in January 1894, under mysterious circumstances; within a few short months the British South Africa Company controlled Matabeleland, and white settlers continued to arrive.\n\nSecond Matabele War\n\nIn March 1896, the Ndebele revolted against the authority of the British South Africa Company in what is now celebrated in Zimbabwe as the First Chimurenga, i.e., First War of Independence. Mlimo, the Ndebele spiritual/religious leader, is credited with fomenting much of the anger that led to this confrontation. He convinced the Ndebele that the white settlers (almost 4,000 strong by then) were responsible for the drought, locust plagues and the cattle disease rinderpest ravaging the country at the time.\n\nMlimo's call to battle was well-timed. Only a few months earlier, the British South Africa Company's Administrator General for Matabeleland, Leander Starr Jameson, had sent most of his troops and armaments to fight the Transvaal Republic in the ill-fated Jameson Raid. This left the country's security in disarray. In June 1896, the Shona too joined the war, but they stayed mostly on the defensive. The British would immediately send troops to suppress the Ndebele and the Shona, only it would take months and cost many hundreds of lives before the territory would be once again be at peace. Shortly after learning of the assassination of Mlimo at the hands of the American scout Frederick Russell Burnham, Cecil Rhodes showed great courage when he boldly walked unarmed into the Ndebele stronghold in Matobo Hills and persuaded the impi to lay down their arms, thus bringing the war to a close in October 1896. Matabeleland and Mashonaland would continue on only as provinces of the larger state of Rhodesia.\n\nBirthplace of Scouting\n\nIt was in Matabeleland during the Second Matabele War that Robert Baden-Powell, who later became the founder of the Scouting movement, and Frederick Russell Burnham, the American born Chief of Scouts for the British Army, first met and began their lifelong friendship. In mid-June 1896, while scouting in the Matobo Hills, Burnham began teaching Baden-Powell woodcraft and it was here that Burnham inspired and gave Baden-Powell the plan for the program and the code of honour of Scouting for Boys. Practiced by frontiersmen of the American Old West and Indigenous peoples of the Americas, woodcraft was generally unknown to the British. These skills eventually formed the basis of what is now called scoutcraft, the fundamentals of Scouting. Baden-Powell recognised that wars in Africa were changing markedly and the British Army needed to adapt; so during their joint scouting missions, Baden-Powell and Burnham discussed the concept of a broad training programme in woodcraft for young men, rich in exploration, tracking, fieldcraft, and self-reliance. It was also during these scouting missions in the Matobo Hills that Baden-Powell first started to wear his signature campaign hat like the one worn by Burnham. Later, Baden-Powell wrote a number of books on Scouting, and even started to train and make use of adolescent boys, most famously during the Siege of Mafeking, during the Second Boer War. \n\nBritish Rule\n\nBritish settlement of Rhodesia continued, and by October 1923, the territory of Southern Rhodesia was annexed to the Crown. The Ndebele thereby became British subjects and the colony received its first basic constitution and first parliamentary election. Ten years later, the British South Africa Company ceded its mineral rights to the territory's government for £2 million. The deep recession of the 1930s gave way to a post-war boom of British immigration.\n\nAfter the onset of self-government, a major issue in Southern Rhodesia was the relationship between the white settlers and the Ndebele and Shona populations. One major consequence was the white settlers were able to enact discriminatory legislation concerning land tenure. The Land Apportionment and Tenure Acts reserved 45% of the land area for exclusively white ownership. 25% was designated \"Tribal Trust Land\", which was available to be worked on a collective basis by the already settled farmers and where individual title was not offered.\n\nIn 1965, the white government of Rhodesia, led by Prime Minister Ian Smith, declared its independence from Britain — only the second state to do so, the other being the USA in 1776. Initially, this state maintained its loyalty to Queen Elizabeth II as \"Queen of Rhodesia\" (a title to which she never consented), but by 1970 even that link was severed, and Rhodesia became a totally independent republic.\n\nSovereign Rhodesia\n\nThe white-ruled Rhodesian government struggled to obtain international recognition and faced serious economic difficulties as a result of international sanctions. Some states did support the white minority government of Rhodesia, most notably South Africa and Portugal. In 1972, the Zimbabwe African National Union began a lengthy armed campaign against Rhodesia's white minority government in what became known as the \"Bush War\" by White Rhodesians and as the \"Second Chimurenga\" (or rebellion in Shona) by supporters of the rebels. The Matabele, backed by Moscow, set up a separate war front from neighbouring Zambia.\n\nThe Rhodesian government agreed to a ceasefire in 1979. For a brief period, Rhodesia reverted to the status of British colony, until early 1980 when elections were held. The ZANU party, led by the Shona independence leader Robert Mugabe, defeated the popular Ndebele candidate Joshua Nkomo, solidified their rule over independent Zimbabwe. Matabeleland and Mashonaland continued as provinces of this new nation.\n\nZimbabwe\n\nFollowing independence in 1980, Zimbabwe initially made significant economic and social progress, but tensions between the Shona and the Ndebele began to surface. The government responded with a series of military campaigns in which the North Korean-trained 5th brigade killed tens of thousands of civilians in Matabeleland. By early 1984, the army disrupted food supplied in Matabeleland and much of the Ndebele population suffered food shortages. Robert Mugabe and Joshua Nkomo finally reconciled their political differences by late 1987. The roots of discord remained, however, and in some ways increased as Mugabe's rule became increasingly autocratic into the 21st century.\n\nIn the early 1990s, a Land Acquisition Act was passed, calling for the Mugabe government to purchase mostly white-owned commercial farming land for redistribution to native Africans. Matabeleland has rich central plains, watered by tributaries of the Zambezi and Limpopo rivers, allowing it to sustain cattle and consistently produce large amounts of cotton and maize. But land grabbing, squatting, and repossessions of large white farms under Mugabe's program resulted in a 90% loss in productivity in large-scale farming, ever higher unemployment, and hyper-inflation. White residents fled the country and strikes further crippled production, prompting ever more severe repression by the government.\n\nMatabeleland Freedom Party\n\nPeople in Matabeleland have described the 1980s massacres as genocide and insist they plan to have the perpetrators placed on trial at the International Criminal Court at The Hague.\n\nIn 2006, the separatist Matabeleland Freedom Party (MFP) was founded by exiles living in Johannesburg South Africa. The MFP seeks a referendum to regain Matabeleland's independence, under a constitutional monarchy. The party has established chapters in Bulawayo, Lupane and other districts of Matabeleland." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Northern Province, South Africa", "Limpopo Province", "Limpopo (South African province)", "Northern Province (South Africa)", "Limpopo", "Northern Transvaal", "Limpopo province" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "limpopo south african province", "limpopo province", "limpopo", "northern transvaal", "northern province south africa" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "limpopo", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Limpopo" }
In which mountains are Camp David?	tc_246	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Appalachian_Mountains.txt" ], "title": [ "Appalachian Mountains" ], "wiki_context": [ "The Appalachian Mountains ( or,There are at least eight possible pronunciations depending on three factors:\n#Whether the stressed vowel is or,\n#Whether the \"ch\" is pronounced as a fricative or an affricate, and\n#Whether the final -ia is the monophthong or the vowel sequence. ), often called the Appalachians, are a system of mountains in eastern North America. The Appalachians first formed roughly 480 million years ago during the Ordovician Period. It once reached elevations similar to those of the Alps and the Rocky Mountains before naturally occurring erosion. The Appalachian chain is a barrier to east-west travel, as it forms a series of alternating ridgelines and valleys oriented in opposition to most roads running east or west.\n\nDefinitions vary on the precise boundaries of the Appalachians. The United States Geological Survey (USGS) defines the Appalachian Highlands physiographic division as consisting of thirteen provinces: the Atlantic Coast Uplands, Eastern Newfoundland Atlantic, Maritime Acadian Highlands, Maritime Plain, Notre Dame and Mégantic Mountains, Western Newfoundland Mountains, Piedmont, Blue Ridge, Valley and Ridge, Saint Lawrence Valley, Appalachian Plateaus, New England province, and the Adirondack provinces.\n\n A common variant definition does not include the Adirondack Mountains, which geologically belong to the Grenville Orogeny and have a different geological history from the rest of the Appalachians.\n\nOverview\n\nThe range is mostly located in the United States but extends into southeastern Canada, forming a zone from 100 to wide, running from the island of Newfoundland 1500 mi southwestward to Central Alabama in the United States. The range covers parts of the islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, which comprise an overseas territory of France. The system is divided into a series of ranges, with the individual mountains averaging around 3000 ft. The highest of the group is Mount Mitchell in North Carolina at 6684 ft, which is the highest point in the United States east of the Mississippi River.\n\nThe term Appalachian refers to several different regions associated with the mountain range. Most broadly, it refers to the entire mountain range with its surrounding hills and the dissected plateau region. The term is often used more restrictively to refer to regions in the central and southern Appalachian Mountains, usually including areas in the states of Kentucky, Tennessee, Virginia, Maryland, West Virginia, and North Carolina, as well as sometimes extending as far south as northern Alabama, Georgia and western South Carolina, and as far north as Pennsylvania, southern Ohio and parts of southern upstate New York.\n\nThe Ouachita Mountains in Arkansas and Oklahoma were originally part of the Appalachians as well, but became disconnected through geologic history.\n\nOrigin of the name\n\nWhile exploring inland along the northern coast of Florida in 1528, the members of the Narváez expedition, including Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca, found a Native American village near present-day Tallahassee, Florida whose name they transcribed as Apalchen or Apalachen. The name was soon altered by the Spanish to Apalachee and used as a name for the tribe and region spreading well inland to the north. Pánfilo de Narváez's expedition first entered Apalachee territory on June 15, 1528, and applied the name. Now spelled \"Appalachian,\" it is the fourth-oldest surviving European place-name in the US. \n\nAfter the de Soto expedition in 1540, Spanish cartographers began to apply the name of the tribe to the mountains themselves. The first cartographic appearance of Apalchen is on Diego Gutierrez's map of 1562; the first use for the mountain range is the map of Jacques le Moyne de Morgues in 1565. \n\nThe name was not commonly used for the whole mountain range until the late 19th century. A competing and often more popular name was the \"Allegheny Mountains\", \"Alleghenies\", and even \"Alleghania\". In the early 19th century, Washington Irving proposed renaming the United States either Appalachia or Alleghania. \n\nIn U.S. dialects in the southern regions of the Appalachians, the word is pronounced, with the third syllable sounding like \"latch\". In northern parts of the mountain range, it is pronounced or; the third syllable is like \"lay\", and the fourth \"chins\" or \"shins\". There is often great debate between the residents of the regions as to which pronunciation is the more correct one. Elsewhere, a commonly accepted pronunciation for the adjective Appalachian is, with the last two syllables \"-ian\" pronounced as in the word \"Romanian\". \n\nGeography\n\nRegions\n\nThe whole system may be divided into three great sections:\n\n* Northern: The northern section runs from the Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador to the Hudson River. It includes the Long Range Mountains and Annieopsquotch Mountains on the island of Newfoundland, Chic-Choc Mountains and Notre Dame Range in Quebec and New Brunswick, scattered elevations and small ranges elsewhere in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, the Longfellow Mountains in Maine, the White Mountains in New Hampshire, the Green Mountains in Vermont, and The Berkshires in Massachusetts and Connecticut. The Metacomet Ridge Mountains in Connecticut and south-central Massachusetts, although contained within the Appalachian province, is a younger system and not geologically associated with the Appalachians. The Monteregian Hills, which cross the Green Mountains in Quebec, are also unassociated with the Appalachians.\n* Central: The central section goes from the Hudson Valley to the New River (Great Kanawha) running through Virginia and West Virginia. It comprises (excluding various minor groups) the Valley Ridges between the Allegheny Front of the Allegheny Plateau and the Great Appalachian Valley, the New York - New Jersey Highlands, the Taconic Mountains in New York, and a large portion of the Blue Ridge.\n* Southern: The southern section runs from the New River onwards. It consists of the prolongation of the Blue Ridge, which is divided into the Western Blue Ridge (or Unaka) Front and the Eastern Blue Ridge Front, the Ridge-and-Valley Appalachians, and the Cumberland Plateau.\n\nThe Adirondack Mountains in New York are sometimes considered part of the Appalachian chain but, geologically speaking, are a southern extension of the Laurentian Mountains of Canada.\n\nIn addition to the true folded mountains, known as the ridge and valley province, the area of dissected plateau to the north and west of the mountains is usually grouped with the Appalachians. This includes the Catskill Mountains of southeastern New York, the Poconos in Pennsylvania, and the Allegheny Plateau of southwestern New York, western Pennsylvania, eastern Ohio and northern West Virginia. This same plateau is known as the Cumberland Plateau in southern West Virginia, eastern Kentucky, western Virginia, eastern Tennessee, and northern Alabama.\n\nThe dissected plateau area, while not actually made up of geological mountains, is popularly called \"mountains,\" especially in eastern Kentucky and West Virginia, and while the ridges are not high, the terrain is extremely rugged. In Ohio and New York, some of the plateau has been glaciated, which has rounded off the sharp ridges, and filled the valleys to some extent. The glaciated regions are usually referred to as hill country rather than mountains.\n\nThe Appalachian region is generally considered the geographical divide between the eastern seaboard of the United States and the Midwest region of the country. The Eastern Continental Divide follows the Appalachian Mountains from Pennsylvania to Georgia.\n\nThe Appalachian Trail is a 2175 mi hiking trail that runs all the way from Mount Katahdin in Maine to Springer Mountain in Georgia, passing over or past a large part of the Appalachian system. The International Appalachian Trail is an extension of this hiking trail into the Canadian portion of the Appalachian range in Quebec.\n\nChief summits\n\nThe Appalachian belt includes, with the ranges enumerated above, the plateaus sloping southward to the Atlantic Ocean in New England, and south-eastward to the border of the coastal plain through the central and southern Atlantic states; and on the north-west, the Allegheny and Cumberland plateaus declining toward the Great Lakes and the interior plains. A remarkable feature of the belt is the longitudinal chain of broad valleys, including The Great Appalachian Valley, which in the southerly sections divides the mountain system into two unequal portions, but in the northernmost lies west of all the ranges possessing typical Appalachian features, and separates them from the Adirondack group. The mountain system has no axis of dominating altitudes, but in every portion the summits rise to rather uniform heights, and, especially in the central section, the various ridges and intermontane valleys have the same trend as the system itself. None of the summits reaches the region of perpetual snow.\n\nMountains of the Long Range in Newfoundland reach heights of nearly 3000 ft. In the Chic-Choc and Notre Dame mountain ranges in Quebec, the higher summits rise to about 4000 ft elevation. Isolated peaks and small ranges in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick vary from . In Maine several peaks exceed 4000 ft, including Mount Katahdin at 5267 ft. In New Hampshire, many summits rise above 5000 ft, including Mount Washington in the White Mountains at 6288 ft, Adams at 5771 ft, Jefferson at 5712 ft, Monroe at 5380 ft, Madison at , Lafayette at 5249 ft, and Lincoln at 5089 ft. In the Green Mountains the highest point, Mt. Mansfield, is 4393 ft in elevation; others include Killington Peak at 4226 ft, Camel's Hump at 4083 ft, Mt. Abraham at 4006 ft, and a number of other heights exceeding 3000 ft.\n\nIn Pennsylvania, there are over sixty summits that rise over 2500 ft; the summits of Mount Davis and Blue Knob rise over 3000 ft. In Maryland, Eagle Rock and Dans Mountain are conspicuous points reaching 3162 ft and 2882 ft respectively. On the same side of the Great Valley, south of the Potomac, are the Pinnacle 3007 ft and Pidgeon Roost 3400 ft. In West Virginia, more than 150 peaks rise above 4000 ft, including Spruce Knob 4863 ft, the highest point in the Allegheny Mountains. A number of other points in the state rise above 4800 ft. Snowshoe Mountain at Thorny Flat 4848 ft and Bald Knob 4842 ft are among the more notable peaks in West Virginia.\n\nThe Blue Ridge Mountains, rising in southern Pennsylvania and there known as South Mountain, attain elevations of about 2000 ft in that state. South Mountain achieves its highest point just below the Mason-Dixon line in Maryland at Quirauk Mountain 2145 ft and then diminishes in height southward to the Potomac River. Once in Virginia the Blue Ridge again reaches 2000 ft and higher. In the Virginia Blue Ridge, the following are some of the highest peaks north of the Roanoke River: Stony Man 4031 ft, Hawksbill Mountain 4066 ft, Apple Orchard Mountain and Peaks of Otter 4001 and. South of the Roanoke River, along the Blue Ridge, are Virginia's highest peaks including Whitetop Mountain 5520 ft and Mount Rogers 5729 ft, the highest point in the Commonwealth.\n\nChief summits in the southern section of the Blue Ridge are located along two main crests—the Western or Unaka Front along the Tennessee-North Carolina border and the Eastern Front in North Carolina—or one of several \"cross ridges\" between the two main crests. Major subranges of the Eastern Front include the Black Mountains, Great Craggy Mountains, and Great Balsam Mountains, and its chief summits include Grandfather Mountain 5964 ft near the Tennessee-North Carolina border, Mount Mitchell 6684 ft in the Blacks, and Black Balsam Knob 6214 ft and Cold Mountain 6030 ft in the Great Balsams. The Western Blue Ridge Front is subdivided into the Unaka Range, the Bald Mountains, the Great Smoky Mountains, and the Unicoi Mountains, and its major peaks include Roan Mountain 6285 ft in the Unakas, Big Bald 5516 ft and Max Patch 4616 ft in the Bald Mountains, Clingmans Dome 6643 ft, Mount Le Conte 6593 ft, and Mount Guyot 6621 ft in the Great Smokies, and Big Frog Mountain 4224 ft near the Tennessee-Georgia-North Carolina border. Prominent summits in the cross ridges include Waterrock Knob (6292 ft) in the Plott Balsams. Across northern Georgia, numerous peaks exceed 4000 ft, including Brasstown Bald, the state's highest, at 4784 ft and 4696 ft Rabun Bald.\n\nDrainage\n\nThere are many geological issues concerning the rivers and streams of the Appalachians. In spite of the existence of the Great Appalachian Valley, many of the main rivers are transverse to the mountain system axis. The drainage divide of the Appalachians follows a tortuous course which crosses the mountainous belt just north of the New River in Virginia. South of the New River, rivers head into the Blue Ridge, cross the higher Unakas, receive important tributaries from the Great Valley, and traversing the Cumberland Plateau in spreading gorges (water gaps), escape by way of the Cumberland River and the Tennessee River rivers to the Ohio River and the Mississippi River, and thence to the Gulf of Mexico. In the central section, north of the New River, the rivers, rising in or just beyond the Valley Ridges, flow through great gorges to the Great Valley, and then across the Blue Ridge to tidal estuaries penetrating the coastal plain via the Roanoke River, James River, Potomac River, and Susquehanna River.\n\nIn the northern section the height of land lies on the inland side of the mountainous belt, and thus the main lines of drainage run from north to south, exemplified by the Hudson River. However, the valley through which the Hudson River flows was cut by the gigantic glaciers of the Ice Ages—the same glaciers that deposited their terminal moraines in southern New York and formed the east-west Long Island.\n\nGeology\n\nA look at rocks exposed in today's Appalachian mountains reveals elongated belts of folded and thrust faulted marine sedimentary rocks, volcanic rocks and slivers of ancient ocean floor, which provides strong evidence that these rocks were deformed during plate collision. The birth of the Appalachian ranges, some 480 Ma, marks the first of several mountain-building plate collisions that culminated in the construction of the supercontinent Pangaea with the Appalachians near the center. Because North America and Africa were connected, the Appalachians formed part of the same mountain chain as the Little Atlas in Morocco. This mountain range, known as the Central Pangean Mountains, extended into Scotland, from the North America/Europe collision (See Caledonian orogeny).\n\nDuring the middle Ordovician Period (about 496-440 Ma), a change in plate motions set the stage for the first Paleozoic mountain-building event (Taconic orogeny) in North America. The once-quiet Appalachian passive margin changed to a very active plate boundary when a neighboring oceanic plate, the Iapetus, collided with and began sinking beneath the North American craton. With the birth of this new subduction zone, the early Appalachians were born. Along the continental margin, volcanoes grew, coincident with the initiation of subduction. Thrust faulting uplifted and warped older sedimentary rock laid down on the passive margin. As mountains rose, erosion began to wear them down. Streams carried rock debris down slope to be deposited in nearby lowlands. The Taconic Orogeny was just the first of a series of mountain building plate collisions that contributed to the formation of the Appalachians, culminating in the collision of North America and Africa (see Appalachian orogeny). \n\nBy the end of the Mesozoic era, the Appalachian Mountains had been eroded to an almost flat plain. It was not until the region was uplifted during the Cenozoic Era that the distinctive topography of the present formed. Uplift rejuvenated the streams, which rapidly responded by cutting downward into the ancient bedrock. Some streams flowed along weak layers that define the folds and faults created many millions of years earlier. Other streams downcut so rapidly that they cut right across the resistant folded rocks of the mountain core, carving canyons across rock layers and geologic structures.\n\nMineral resources\n\nThe Appalachian Mountains contain major deposits of anthracite coal as well as bituminous coal. In the folded mountains the coal is in metamorphosed form as anthracite, represented by the Coal Region of northeastern Pennsylvania. The bituminous coal fields of western Pennsylvania, western Maryland, southeastern Ohio, eastern Kentucky, southwestern Virginia, and West Virginia contain the sedimentary form of coal. The mountain top removal method of coal mining, in which entire mountain tops are removed, is currently threatening vast areas and ecosystems of the Appalachian Mountain region.\n\nThe 1859 discovery of commercial quantities of petroleum in the Appalachian mountains of western Pennsylvania started the modern United States petroleum industry. Recent discoveries of commercial natural gas deposits in the Marcellus Shale formation and Utica Shale formations have once again focused oil industry attention on the Appalachian Basin.\n\nSome plateaus of the Appalachian Mountains contain metallic minerals such as iron and zinc. \n\nEcology\n\nFlora\n\nThe floras of the Appalachians are diverse and vary primarily in response to geology, latitude, elevation and moisture availability. Geobotanically, they constitute a floristic province of the North American Atlantic Region. The Appalachians consist primarily of deciduous broad-leaf trees and evergreen needle-leaf conifers, but also contain the evergreen broad-leaf American holly ('), and the deciduous needle-leaf conifer, the tamarack, or eastern larch (').\n\nThe dominant northern and high elevation conifer is the red spruce ('), which grows from near sea level to above 4000 ft above sea level (asl) in northern New England and southeastern Canada. It also grows southward along the Appalachian crest to the highest elevations of the southern Appalachians, as in North Carolina and Tennessee. In the central Appalachians it is usually confined above 3000 ft asl, except for a few cold valleys in which it reaches lower elevations. In the southern Appalachians it is restricted to higher elevations. Another species is the black spruce ('), which extends farthest north of any conifer in North America, is found at high elevations in the northern Appalachians, and in bogs as far south as Pennsylvania.\n\nThe Appalachians are also home to two species of fir, the boreal balsam fir ('), and the southern high elevation endemic, Fraser fir ('). Fraser fir is confined to the highest parts of the southern Appalachian Mountains, where along with red spruce it forms a fragile ecosystem known as the Southern Appalachian spruce-fir forest. Fraser fir rarely occurs below 5500 ft, and becomes the dominant tree type at 6200 ft. By contrast, balsam fir is found from near sea level to the tree line in the northern Appalachians, but ranges only as far south as Virginia and West Virginia in the central Appalachians, where it is usually confined above 3900 ft asl, except in cold valleys. Curiously, it is associated with oaks in Virginia. The balsam fir of Virginia and West Virginia is thought by some to be a natural hybrid between the more northern variety and Fraser fir. While red spruce is common in both upland and bog habitats, balsam fir, as well as black spruce and tamarack, are more characteristic of the latter. However balsam fir also does well in soils with a pH as high as 6. \n\nEastern or Canada hemlock (') is another important evergreen needle-leaf conifer that grows along the Appalachian chain from north to south, but is confined to lower elevations than red spruce and the firs. It generally occupies richer and less acidic soils than the spruce and firs and is characteristic of deep, shaded and moist mountain valleys and coves. It is, unfortunately, subject to the hemlock woolly adelgid ('), an introduced insect, that is rapidly extirpating it as a forest tree. Less abundant, and restricted to the southern Appalachians, is Carolina hemlock ('). Like Canada hemlock, this tree suffers severely from the hemlock woolly adelgid.\n\nSeveral species of pines characteristic of the Appalachians are eastern white pine ('), Virginia pine ('), pitch pine ('), Table Mountain pine (') and shortleaf pine ('). Red pine (') is a boreal species that forms a few high elevation outliers as far south as West Virginia. All of these species except white pine tend to occupy sandy, rocky, poor soil sites, which are mostly acidic in character. White pine, a large species valued for its timber, tends to do best in rich, moist soil, either acidic or alkaline in character. Pitch pine is also at home in acidic, boggy soil, and Table Mountain pine may occasionally be found in this habitat as well. Shortleaf pine is generally found in warmer habitats and at lower elevations than the other species. All the species listed do best in open or lightly shaded habitats, although white pine also thrives in shady coves, valleys, and on floodplains.\n\nThe Appalachians are characterized by a wealth of large, beautiful deciduous broadleaf (hardwood) trees. Their occurrences are best summarized and described in E. Lucy Braun's 1950 classic, Deciduous Forests of Eastern North America (Macmillan, New York). The most diverse and richest forests are the mixed mesophytic or medium moisture types, which are largely confined to rich, moist montane soils of the southern and central Appalachians, particularly in the Cumberland and Allegheny Mountains, but also thrive in the southern Appalachian coves. Characteristic canopy species are white basswood ('), yellow buckeye ('), sugar maple ('), American beech ('), tuliptree ('), white ash (') and yellow birch ('). Other common trees are red maple ('), shagbark and bitternut hickories (') and black or sweet birch ('). Small understory trees and shrubs include flowering dogwood ('), hophornbeam ('), witch-hazel (') and spicebush ('). There are also hundreds of perennial and annual herbs, among them such herbal and medicinal plants as American ginseng ('), goldenseal ('), bloodroot (') and black cohosh (').\n\nThe foregoing trees, shrubs and herbs are also more widely distributed in less rich mesic forests that generally occupy coves, stream valleys and flood plains throughout the southern and central Appalachians at low and intermediate elevations. In the northern Appalachians and at higher elevations of the central and southern Appalachians these diverse mesic forests give way to less diverse \"northern hardwoods\" with canopies dominated only by American beech, sugar maple, American basswood (') and yellow birch and with far fewer species of shrubs and herbs.\n\nDryer and rockier uplands and ridges are occupied by oak-chestnut type forests dominated by a variety of oaks (' spp.), hickories (' spp.) and, in the past, by the American chestnut ('). The American chestnut was virtually eliminated as a canopy species by the introduced fungal chestnut blight ('), but lives on as sapling-sized sprouts that originate from roots, which are not killed by the fungus. In present-day forest canopies chestnut has been largely replaced by oaks.\n\nThe oak forests of the southern and central Appalachians consist largely of black, northern red, white, chestnut and scarlet oaks ( and ) and hickories, such as the pignut (') in particular. The richest forests, which grade into mesic types, usually in coves and on gentle slopes, have dominantly white and northern red oaks, while the driest sites are dominated by chestnut oak, or sometimes by scarlet or northern red oaks. In the northern Appalachians the oaks, except for white and northern red, drop out, while the latter extends farthest north.\n\nThe oak forests generally lack the diverse small tree, shrub and herb layers of mesic forests. Shrubs are generally ericaceous, and include the evergreen mountain laurel ('), various species of blueberries (' spp.), black huckleberry ('), a number of deciduous rhododendrons (azaleas), and smaller heaths such as teaberry (') and trailing arbutus ('). The evergreen great rhododendron (') is characteristic of moist stream valleys. These occurrences are in line with the prevailing acidic character of most oak forest soils. In contrast, the much rarer chinquapin oak (') demands alkaline soils and generally grows where limestone rock is near the surface. Hence no ericaceous shrubs are associated with it.\n\nThe Appalachian floras also include a diverse assemblage of bryophytes (mosses and liverworts), as well as fungi. Some species are rare and/or endemic. As with vascular plants, these tend to be closely related to the character of the soils and thermal environment in which they are found.\n\nEastern deciduous forests are subject to a number of serious insect and disease outbreaks. Among the most conspicuous is that of the introduced gypsy moth ('), which infests primarily oaks, causing severe defoliation and tree mortality. But it also has the benefit of eliminating weak individuals, and thus improving the genetic stock, as well as creating rich habitat of a type through accumulation of dead wood. Because hardwoods sprout so readily, this moth is not as harmful as the hemlock woolly adelgid. Perhaps more serious is the introduced beech bark disease complex, which includes both a scale insect (') and fungal components.\n\nDuring the 19th and early 20th centuries the Appalachian forests were subject to severe and destructive logging and land clearing, which resulted in the designation of the national forests and parks as well many state protected areas. However, these and a variety of other destructive activities continue, albeit in diminished forms; and thus far only a few ecologically based management practices have taken hold.\n\nFauna\n\nAnimals that characterize the Appalachian forests include five species of tree squirrels. The most commonly seen is the low to moderate elevation eastern gray squirrel ('). Occupying similar habitat is the slightly larger fox squirrel (') and the much smaller southern flying squirrel ('). More characteristic of cooler northern and high elevation habitat is the red squirrel ('), whereas the Appalachian northern flying squirrel ('), which closely resembles the southern flying squirrel, is confined to northern hardwood and spruce-fir forests.\n\nAs familiar as squirrels are the eastern cottontail rabbit (') and the white-tailed deer ('). The latter in particular has greatly increased in abundance as a result of the extirpation of the eastern wolf (') and the North American cougar. This has led to the overgrazing and browsing of many plants of the Appalachian forests, as well as destruction of agricultural crops. Other deer include the moose ('), found only in the north, and the elk ('), which, although once extirpated, is now making a comeback, through transplantation, in the southern and central Appalachians. In Quebec, the Chic-Chocs host the only population of caribou (') south of the St. Lawrence River. An additional species that is common in the north but extends its range southward at high elevations to Virginia and West Virginia is the varying or snowshoe hare ('). However, these central Appalachian populations are scattered and very small.\n\nAnother species of great interest is the beaver ('), which is showing a great resurgence in numbers after its near extirpation for its pelt. This resurgence is bringing about a drastic alteration in habitat through the construction of dams and other structures throughout the mountains.\n\nOther common forest animals are the black bear ('), striped skunk ('), raccoon ('), woodchuck ('), bobcat ('), gray fox ('), red fox (') and in recent years, the coyote ('), another species favored by the advent of Europeans and the extirpation of eastern and red wolves. European boars were introduced in the early 20th century.\n\nCharacteristic birds of the forest are wild turkey ('), ruffed grouse ('), mourning dove ('), common raven ('), wood duck ('), great horned owl ('), barred owl ('), screech owl ('), red-tailed hawk ('), red-shouldered hawk ('), and northern goshawk ('), as well as a great variety of \"songbirds\" (Passeriformes), like the warblers in particular.\n\nOf great importance are the many species of salamanders and, in particular, the lungless species (Family ') that live in great abundance concealed by leaves and debris, on the forest floor. Most frequently seen, however, is the eastern or red-spotted newt ('), whose terrestrial eft form is often encountered on the open, dry forest floor. It has been estimated that salamanders represent the largest class of animal biomass in the Appalachian forests. Frogs and toads are of lesser diversity and abundance, but the wood frog (') is, like the eft, commonly encountered on the dry forest floor, while a number of species of small frogs, such as spring peepers ('), enliven the forest with their calls. Salamanders and other amphibians contribute greatly to nutrient cycling through their consumption of small life forms on the forest floor and in aquatic habitats.\n\nAlthough reptiles are less abundant and diverse than amphibians, a number of snakes are conspicuous members of the fauna. One of the largest is the non-venomous black rat snake ('), while the common garter snake (') is among the smallest but most abundant. The American copperhead (') and the timber rattler (') are venomous pit vipers. There are few lizards, but the broad-headed skink ('), at up to 13 in in length, and an excellent climber and swimmer, is one of the largest and most spectacular in appearance and action. The most common turtle is the eastern box turtle ('), which is found in both upland and lowland forests in the central and southern Appalachians. Prominent among aquatic species is the large common snapping turtle ('), which occurs throughout the Appalachians.\n\nAppalachian streams are notable for their highly diverse freshwater fish life. Among the most abundant and diverse are those of the minnow family (family Cyprinidae), while species of the colorful darters (' spp.) are also abundant. \n\nA characteristic fish of shaded, cool Appalachian forest streams is the wild brook or speckled trout ('), which is much sought after as a game fish. However, in past years such trout waters have been much degraded by increasing temperatures due to timber cutting, pollution from various sources and potentially, global warming." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Appalachian", "Appalachian (disambiguation)" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "appalachian", "appalachian disambiguation" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "appalachian", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Appalachian" }
Who sang the title song for the Bond film A View To A Kill?	tc_248	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "A_View_to_a_Kill_(song).txt" ], "title": [ "A View to a Kill (song)" ], "wiki_context": [ "\"A View to a Kill\" is the thirteenth single by the English new wave band Duran Duran, released on 6 May 1985. Written and recorded as the theme for the 1985 James Bond movie of the same name, it became one of the band's biggest hits. It remains the only James Bond theme song to have reached number 1 on the US Billboard Hot 100; it also made it to number 2 for three weeks on the UK Singles Chart. \n\nIn 1986, composer John Barry and Duran Duran were nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song for \"A View to a Kill\". The song was the last track recorded by the most famous five member lineup of Duran Duran until their 2001 reunion. It was performed by the band at Live Aid in Philadelphia, their final performance together before their first split. Following Barry's death, the band paid tribute as their encore at the 2011 Coachella Festival, Simon Le Bon reappearing in a tuxedo for a pared-down version backed by an orchestra, before launching into the full, upbeat track. Bassist John Taylor told the crowd: \"We lost a dear friend of ours this year – English composer John Barry. This is for him.\"\n\nAbout the song\n\nThe song was written by Duran Duran and John Barry, and recorded at Maison Rouge Studio and CTS Studio in London with a 60-piece orchestra.\n\nDuran Duran were chosen to do the song after bassist John Taylor (a lifelong Bond fan) approached producer Cubby Broccoli at a party, and somewhat drunkenly asked \"When are you going to get someone decent to do one of your theme songs?\"Malins, Steve. (2005) Notorious: The Unauthorized Biography, André Deutsch/Carlton Publishing, UK (ISBN 0-233-00137-9). pp 161–162 This inauspicious beginning led to some serious talks, and the band was introduced to Bond composer John Barry, and also Jonathan Elias (whom Duran Duran members would later work with many times). An early writing meeting at Taylor's flat in Knightsbridge led to everyone getting drunk instead of composing. \n\nSinger Simon Le Bon said of Barry: \"He didn't really come up with any of the basic musical ideas. He heard what we came up with and he put them into an order. And that's why it happened so quickly because he was able to separate the good ideas from the bad ones, and he arranged them. He has a great way of working brilliant chord arrangements. He was working with us as virtually a sixth member of the group, but not really getting on our backs at all.\" \n\nThe song was finally completed in April 1985, and was released in May 1985. In the UK it entered the singles chart at No. 7 before peaking at No. 2 the following week, and remaining at that position for three weeks. In the US, it entered the charts at No. 45, and on 13 July it reached number one on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart. It remains the only Bond theme to do so.\n\nIn November 2014, the James Bond site MI6 [http://www.mi6-hq.com/sections/articles/music-duran-duran-a-view-to-a-kill-12-mix?t&s\n&id=03788 revealed a previously unreleased] 7:30 extended remixed 12\" version of the song and it has since been mentioned on Duran Duran's website which suggests that it might be the real deal. MI6 claim that Steve Thompson created the 12\" mix in Paris with the band, although John Taylor says \"I don't remember hearing it at the time\". The remix was added to [https://soundcloud.com/mi6-hq/duran-duran-a-view-to-a-kill-12-extended-remix MI6-HQ's SoundCloud]. In a Super Deluxe Edition article dated November 22, 2014, Steve Thompson confirmed to an interviewer that he, Mike Barbiero and the band, with the exception of John Taylor, were in a Paris studio where they had made the 12\" version of the song. \n\nFormats and track listing\n\n7\": EMI. / Duran 007 United Kingdom\n\n# \"A View to a Kill\" – (3:37)\n# \"A View to a Kill (That Fatal Kiss)\" – (2:31)\n* Also released in a gatefold sleeve (DURANG 007)\n\n7\": Capitol Records. / B-5475 United States \n\n# \"A View to a Kill\" – (3:37)\n# \"A View to a Kill (That Fatal Kiss)\" – (2:31)\n\nCD: Part of \"Singles Box Set 1981–1985\" boxset\n\n# \"A View to a Kill\" – (3:37)\n# \"A View to a Kill (That Fatal Kiss)\" – (2:31)\n\nCovers, samples, and media references\n\nCover versions have been recorded by the Welsh alternative metal band Lostprophets, Canadian punk rock band Gob, and Australian band Custard.\n\nAnother cover version of the song was created in 1985 by a disco group called DJ's Factory. This cover of A View to a Kill has a more house sound as compared to that of Duran Duran's.\n\nShirley Bassey covered the song for an album of Bond theme songs, however, she wasn't satisfied with the quality, so the album was withdrawn from sale.\n\nFinnish Melodic Death Metal band Diablo has covered the song, so has Finnish symphonic metal cover supergroup Northern Kings.\nIn 2008, the song was covered with a bossa feeling by former Morcheeba singer Skye on the cover album Hollywood, Mon Amour.\n\nMåns Zelmerlöw performed a live version of the song at the beginning of the Andra Chansen round of Melodifestivalen 2010 in Örebro, Sweden.\n\nIn 2006, a Chilean punk rock band Los Mox included in their album called \"Con Cover\" their version of this song.\n\nIn 2011, Dutch artist Danny Vera performed a shortened version of the song during the football programme \"Voetbal International\" on Dutch television.\n\nCharts\n\nOther appearances\n\nAlbums:\n* Decade: Greatest Hits (1989)\n* Greatest (1998)\n* Singles Box Set 1981–1985 (2003)\n* Encore Series 78–03 Reunion Tour (2003)\n* Live from London (2005)\n\nPersonnel\n\n* Nick Rhodes: keyboards\n* Simon Le Bon: vocals\n* Andy Taylor: guitars\n* John Taylor: bass\n* Roger Taylor: drums\n* John Barry: orchestra conductor" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Duran duran", "Sphere Studios", "Careless Memory", "Duran Duran", "Duranduran", "DUran Duran" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "duranduran", "sphere studios", "duran duran", "careless memory" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "duran duran", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Duran Duran" }
In which country did General Jaruzelski impose marital law in 1981?	tc_249	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "Search" ], "filename": [ "Martial_law_in_Poland.txt" ], "title": [ "Martial law in Poland" ], "wiki_context": [ "Martial law in Poland () refers to the period of time from December 13, 1981 to July 22, 1983, when the authoritarian communist government of the People's Republic of Poland drastically restricted normal life by introducing martial law in an attempt to crush political opposition. Thousands of opposition activists were jailed without charge and as many as 100 killed. Although martial law was lifted in 1983, many of the political prisoners were not released until a general amnesty in 1986.\n\nDeclaration\n\nLed by General of the Army Wojciech Jaruzelski and the Military Council of National Salvation (Wojskowa Rada Ocalenia Narodowego, WRON) usurped for itself powers reserved for wartime, hence the name. The plan was presented to the government of the Soviet Union before the declaration in March 1981.\n\nAppearing on Polish television at 6:00 AM on December 13, 1981, General Jaruzelski said: \nToday I address myself to you as a soldier and as the head of the Polish government. I address you concerning extraordinarily important questions. Our homeland is at the edge of an abyss. The achievements of many generations and the Polish home that has been built up from the dust are about to turn into ruins. State structures are ceasing to function. Each day delivers new blows to the waning economy./.../The atmosphere of conflicts, misunderstanding, hatred causes moral degradation, surpasses the limits of toleration. Strikes, the readiness to strike, actions of protest have become a norm of life. Even school youth are being drawn into this. Yesterday evening, many public buildings remained seized. The cries are voiced to physical reprisals with the 'reds', with people who have different opinions. The cases of terror, threats and moral vendetta, of even direct violence are on the rise. A wave of impudent crimes, robberies and burglaries is running across the country. The underground business sharks' fortunes, already reaching millions, are growing. Chaos and demoralization have reached the magnitude of a catastrophe. People have reached the limit of psychological toleration. Many people are struck by despair. Not only days, but hours as well are bringing forth the all-national disaster./.../Citizens!The load of responsibility that falls on me on this dramatic moment in the Polish history is huge. It is my duty to take this responsibility - concerning the future of Poland, that my generation fought for on all the fronts of the war and for which they sacrificed the best years of their life. I declare, that today the Military Council of National Salvation has been formed. In accordance with the Constitution, the State Council has imposed martial law all over the country. I wish that everyone understood the motives of our actions. A military coup, military dictatorship is not our goal./.../ In longer perspective, none of Poland's problems can be solved with the use of violence. The Military Council of National Salvation does not replace constitutional organs of power. Its only purpose is to keep the legal balance of the country, to create guarantees that give a chance to restore order and discipline. This is the ultimate way to bring the country out of the crisis, to save the country from collapse./.../I appeal to all the citizens. A time of heavy trials has arrived. And we have to stand those in order to prove that we are worthy of Poland.Before all the Polish people and the whole world I would like to repeat the immortal words: \n:Poland has not yet perished, so long as we still live!\n\nMartial law\n\nGeneral Jaruzelski had ordered the Polish General Staff to update plans for nationwide martial law on October 22, 1980. \nAfter the introduction of martial law, pro-democracy movements such as Solidarity and other smaller organisations were banned, and their leaders, including Lech Wałęsa, jailed overnight. In the morning, thousands of soldiers in military vehicles appeared on the streets of every major city. A curfew was imposed, the national borders sealed, airports closed, and road access to main cities restricted. Telephone lines were disconnected, mail subject to renewed postal censorship, all independent official organizations were criminalized, and classes in schools and universities suspended.\n\nDuring the initial imposition of martial law, several dozen people were killed. Official reports during the crackdown claimed about a dozen fatalities, while a parliamentary commission in the years 1989-1991 arrived at a figure of over 90. In the deadliest incident, nine coal miners were killed by ZOMO paramilitary police during the strike-breaking at the Pacification of Wujek on December 16, 1981. Others were also killed and wounded during a massive second wave of demonstrations on August 31, 1982.\n\nThe government imposed a six-day work week while the mass media, public services, healthcare services, power stations, coal mines, sea ports, railway stations, and most key factories were placed under military management, with employees having to follow military orders or face a court martial. As part of the crackdown, media and educational institutions underwent \"verification\", a process that tested each employee's attitude towards the regime and to the Solidarity movement; as a result, thousands of journalists, teachers and professors were banned from their professions. Military courts were established to bypass the normal court system, to imprison those spreading so-called \"false information\". In an attempt to crush resistance, civilian phone lines were routinely tapped and monitored by government agents.\n\nAt the invitation of Jaruzelski, a delegation of the ruling Hungarian Socialist Workers' Party visited Poland between December 27 and 29 in 1981. The Hungarians shared with their Polish colleagues their experiences on crushing the 'counterrevolution' of 1956. Earlier in the autumn of 1981, Polish television had broadcast a special film on the 1956 events in Hungary, showing scenes of rebels hanging security officers etc. \n\nThe introduction of martial law was enthusiastically supported by some figures on the radical right like Jędrzej Giertych, who believed Solidarity to be a disguised communist movement dominated by Jewish Trotskyites.\n\nEconomic crisis\n\nEven after martial law was lifted, a number of restrictions remained in place for several years that drastically reduced the civil liberties of the citizenry. It also led to severe economic consequences. The ruling military dictatorship instituted major price rises (dubbed \"economic reforms\"), which resulted in a fall in real wages of 20% or more. The resulting economic crisis led to the rationing of most products and materials, including basic foodstuffs.\n\nAs a consequence of economic hardship and political repression, an exodus of Poles saw 700,000 emigrate to the West between 1981 and 1989. \nA number of international flights were even hijacked in attempts to flee the country and its economic problems. Between December 1980 and October 1983, 11 Polish flights were hijacked to Berlin Tempelhof Airport alone. \n\nAround the same time, a group calling themselves the \"Polish Revolutionary Home Army\" seized the Polish Embassy in Bern, Switzerland in 1982, taking several diplomats as hostages. However this turned out to be an apparent provocation by the communist Polish secret services aiming to discredit the Solidarity movement. \n\nInternational response\n\nAfter the pacification of \"Wujek\" Coal Mine in Katowice on December 23, 1981, the United States imposed economic sanctions against the People's Republic of Poland. In 1982 the United States suspended most favored nation trade status until 1987 and vetoed Poland's application for membership in the International Monetary Fund. \n\nAftermath\n\nRuling of unconstitutionality\n\nAfter the fall of Communism in Poland in 1989, members of a parliamentary commission determined that martial law had been imposed in clear violation of the country's constitution which had authorized the executive to declare martial law only between parliamentary sessions (at other times the decision was to be taken by the Sejm). However, the Sejm had been in session at the time when martial law was instituted. In 1992 the Sejm declared the 1981 imposition of martial law to be unlawful and unconstitutional.\n\nSoviet intervention debate\n\nThe instigators of the martial law, such as Wojciech Jaruzelski, argue that the army crackdown rescued Poland from a possibly disastrous military intervention of the Soviet Union, East Germany, and other Warsaw Pact countries (similar to the earlier fraternal aid interventions in Hungary 1956, and Czechoslovakia 1968). Public figures who supported the introduction of martial law (including some of the right-wing figures like Jędrzej Giertych) would also refer to that threat.\n\nMost historians disagree, citing a lack of sources confirming such a version of events. In 2009, archive documents hinted that in a conversation Jaruzelski had with Viktor Kulikov, a Soviet military leader, Jaruzelski himself begged for Soviet intervention as his domestic control was deteriorating. Jaruzelski responded by claiming the document was 'just another falsification'.\n\nIn present-day Poland, public opinion is divided on whether or not Jaruzelski's decision to impose martial law was necessary in order to prevent a Warsaw Pact invasion of the country." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Etymology of Poland", "Polish state", "Poleand", "Rzeczpospolita Polska", "Polland", "ISO 3166-1:PL", "Polskor", "Republic of Poland", "POLAND", "Fourth Poland", "Country- Poland", "Poleland", "Polska", "Poland", "Poland.", "Pols Land", "Polnd", "Po land", "Lenkija", "Bastarnia", "Pologne", "PolanD", "Polija", "Pole land", "Architecture of Poland", "Ploand" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "lenkija", "poleland", "iso 3166 1 pl", "po land", "pologne", "country poland", "polska", "pole land", "ploand", "polland", "fourth poland", "polskor", "rzeczpospolita polska", "polish state", "pols land", "bastarnia", "etymology of poland", "poland", "polnd", "architecture of poland", "polija", "republic of poland", "poleand" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "poland", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Poland" }
Who won the Oscar for directing It Happened One Night?	tc_252	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "It_Happened_One_Night.txt" ], "title": [ "It Happened One Night" ], "wiki_context": [ "It Happened One Night is a 1934 American romantic comedy film with elements of screwball comedy directed and co-produced by Frank Capra, in collaboration with Harry Cohn, in which a pampered socialite (Claudette Colbert) tries to get out from under her father's thumb and falls in love with a roguish reporter (Clark Gable). The plot is based on the August 1933 short story \"Night Bus\" by Samuel Hopkins Adams, which provided the shooting title. One of the last romantic comedies created before the MPAA began enforcing the 1930 production code in 1934, the film was released on February 22, 1934. \n\nIt Happened One Night was the first movie to win all five major Academy Awards (Best Picture, Director, Actor, Actress, and Screenplay), a feat that would not be matched until One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest (1975) and later by The Silence of the Lambs (1991). In 1993, It Happened One Night was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being \"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant\". In 2013, the film underwent an extensive restoration. \n\nPlot\n\nSpoiled heiress Ellen \"Ellie\" Andrews has eloped with pilot and fortune-hunter \"King\" Westley against the wishes of her extremely wealthy father, Alexander, who wants to have the marriage annulled because he knows that Westley is really only interested in her money. Jumping ship in Florida, she runs away, boarding a bus to New York City to reunite with her new spouse, when she meets fellow bus passenger Peter Warne, a freshly out-of-work newspaper reporter. Soon Warne recognizes her and gives her a choice: If she will give him an exclusive on her story, he will help her reunite with Westley. If not, he will tell her father where she is. Ellie agrees to the first choice.\n\nAs they go through several adventures together, Ellie loses her initial disdain for him and begins to fall in love. When they have to hitchhike, Peter fails to draw attention until Ellie displays a shapely leg to Danker, the next driver. When they stop en route, Danker tries to steal their luggage, but Peter seizes his car. Nearing the end of their journey, Ellie confesses her love to Peter. When the owners of the motel in which they are staying notice that Peter's car is gone, they expel Ellie. Believing Peter has deserted her, Ellie telephones her father, who agrees to let her marry Westley. Meanwhile, Peter has obtained money from his editor to marry Ellie, but misses her on the road. Although Ellie has no desire to be with Westley, she believes Peter has betrayed her for the reward money, and agrees to have a second, formal wedding to Westley.\n\nOn her wedding day, she finally reveals the whole story. When Peter comes to Ellie's home, Mr. Andrews offers him the reward money, but Peter insists on being paid only his expenses: a paltry $39.60. When Ellie's father presses him for an explanation of his odd behavior, Peter admits he loves Ellie, and storms out. Westley arrives for his wedding via autogyro but at the wedding ceremony, Mr. Andrews reveals Peter's refusal of the reward money to Ellie, sends her to Peter, and pays Westley off.\n\nMain Cast\n\n* Clark Gable as Peter Warne, a recently fired newspaper reporter\n* Claudette Colbert as Ellen \"Ellie\" Andrews, a spoiled heiress of millions\n* Walter Connolly as Alexander Andrews, Ellie's father and a millionaire\n* Roscoe Karns as Oscar Shapeley, an annoying bus passenger who tries to pick up Ellie\n* Jameson Thomas as \"King\" Westley, Ellie's fiancé (or husband); a pilot and fortune-hunter\n* Alan Hale as Danker, the singing car driver who wants to steal the suitcase\n* Arthur Hoyt as Zeke, a motel owner\n* Blanche Friderici as Zeke's wife\n* Charles C. Wilson as Joe Gordon, newspaper editor and Peter's boss\n\n;Uncredited roles\n* Ernie Adams as the Bag Thief\n* Irving Bacon as Gas Station Attendant\n* George Breakston as Boy Bus Passenger whose mother collapsed\n* Ward Bond as Bus Driver #1\n* Eddy Chandler as Bus Driver #2\n* Mickey Daniels as a Vendor on bus\n* Bess Flowers as Agnes, Gordon's Secretary\n* Harry Holman as the Auto Camp Manager at the end of the film\n* Claire McDowell as the collapsed Mother in the bus\n* Harry Todd as the Flagman at railroad crossing\n* Maidel Turner as the Auto Camp Manager's Wife\n* Wallis Clark as Lovington\n\nProduction\n\nNeither Gable nor Colbert was the first choice to play the lead roles. Miriam Hopkins first rejected the part of Ellie. Robert Montgomery and Myrna Loy were then offered the roles, but each turned the script down, though Loy later noted that the final story as filmed bore little resemblance to the script that she and Montgomery had been offered for their perusal. Margaret Sullavan also rejected the part. Constance Bennett was willing to play the role if she could produce the film herself; however, Columbia Pictures would not allow this. Then Bette Davis wanted the role, but was under contract with Warner Brothers and Jack L. Warner refused to lend her. Carole Lombard was unable to accept, because the filming schedule conflicted with that of Bolero. Loretta Young also turned it down. \n\nHarry Cohn suggested Colbert, and she initially turned the role down. Colbert's first film, For the Love of Mike (1927), had been directed by Capra, and it was such a disaster that she vowed to never make another with him. Later on, she agreed to appear in It Happened One Night only if her salary was doubled to $50,000, and also on the condition that the filming of her role be completed in four weeks so that she could take her well-planned vacation. \n\nAccording to Hollywood legend, Gable was lent to Columbia Pictures, then considered a minor studio, as some kind of \"punishment\" for refusing a role at his own studio. This tale has been partially refuted by more recent biographies. Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer did not have a project ready for Gable, and the studio was paying him his contracted salary of $2,000 per week whether he worked or not. Louis B. Mayer lent him to Columbia for $2,500 per week, hence netting MGM $500 per week while he was gone. Capra, however, insisted that Gable was a reluctant participant in the film. \n\nFilming began in a tense atmosphere as Gable and Colbert were dissatisfied with the quality of the script. However, they established a friendly working relationship and found that the script was no worse than those of many of their earlier films. Capra understood their dissatisfaction and tried to lighten the mood by having Gable play practical jokes on Colbert, who responded with good humor.\n\nColbert, however, continued to show her displeasure on the set. She also initially balked at pulling up her skirt to entice a passing driver to provide a ride, complaining that it was unladylike. Upon seeing the chorus girl who was brought in as her body double, an outraged Colbert told the director, \"Get her out of here. I'll do it. That's not my leg!\"Pace, Eric. [http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res\n9802E6D91439F932A05754C0A960958260&sec&spon\n&pagewanted3 \"Claudette Colbert, unflappable heroine of screwball comedies, is dead at 92.\"] The New York Times, July 31, 1996, p. D21. Through the filming, Capra claimed, Colbert \"had many little tantrums, motivated by her antipathy toward me\", however, \"she was wonderful in the part.\" After her acceptance speech at the Oscars ceremony, she went back on stage and thanked Capra for making the film. \n\nReception\n\nAfter filming was completed, Colbert complained to her friend, \"I just finished the worst picture in the world.\" Columbia appeared to have low expectations for the film and did not mount much of an advertising campaign to promote it. Initial reviews, however, were generally positive. Mordaunt Hall of The New York Times called it \"a good piece of fiction, which, with all its feverish stunts, is blessed with bright dialogue and a good quota of relatively restrained scenes.\" He also described Colbert's performance as \"engaging and lively\" and Gable as \"excellent\". Variety reported that it was \"without a particularly strong plot\", but \"manages to come through in a big way, due to the acting, dialog, situations and directing.\" Film Daily praised it as \"a lively yarn, fast-moving, plenty humorous, racy enough to be tantalizing, and yet perfectly decorous.\" The New York Herald Tribune called it \"lively and amusing.\" John Mosher of The New Yorker, however, panned it as \"pretty much nonsense and quite dreary,\" which was probably the review Capra had in mind when he recalled in his autobiography that \"sophisticated\" critics had dismissed the film. \n\nDespite the positive reviews, the film only did so-so business in its initial run. However, after it was released to the secondary movie houses, word-of-mouth began to spread and ticket sales became brisk, especially in smaller towns where the film's characters and simple romance struck a chord with moviegoers who were not surrounded by luxury. It turned out to be a major box office smash, easily Columbia's biggest hit to date. \n\nIn 1935, after her Academy Award nomination, Colbert decided not to attend the presentation, feeling confident that she would not win the award, and instead, planned to take a cross-country railroad trip. After she was named the winner, studio chief Harry Cohn sent someone to \"drag her off\" the train, which had not yet left the station, and take her to the ceremony. Colbert arrived wearing a two-piece traveling suit which she had the Paramount Pictures costume designer, Travis Banton, make for her trip. \n\nAcademy Awards\n\nThe film won all five of the Academy Awards for which it was nominated at the 7th Academy Awards for 1934:\n\nIt Happened One Night was the first film to win the \"Big Five\" Academy Awards (Best Picture, Best Director, Best Actor, Best Actress, and Best Writing). As of 2014, only two more films have achieved this feat: One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest in 1975 and The Silence of the Lambs in 1991. It Happened One Night was also the last film to win both lead acting Academy Awards until One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest in 1975.\n\nOn December 15, 1996, Gable's Oscar was auctioned off to Steven Spielberg for $607,500; Spielberg promptly donated the statuette to the Motion Picture Academy. On June 9 of the following year, Colbert's Oscar was offered for auction by Christie's, but no bids were made for it.\n\nAmerican Film Institute recognition\n\n* 1998: AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies – #35 \n* 2000: AFI's 100 Years...100 Laughs – #8 \n* 2002: AFI's 100 Years...100 Passions – #38 \n* 2005: AFI's 100 Years...100 Movie Quotes:\n** Ellie Andrews: \"Well, I proved once and for all that the limb is mightier than the thumb.\" – Nominated \n* 2007: AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies (10th Anniversary Edition) – #46 \n* 2008: AFI's 10 Top 10:\n** #3 Romantic Comedy Film \n\nRadio adaptation\n\nIt Happened One Night was adapted as a radio play on the March 20, 1939 broadcast of Lux Radio Theater, with Colbert and Gable reprising their roles. The film was also adapted as a radio play for the January 28, 1940 broadcast of The Campbell Playhouse.\n\nDigital restoration\n\nIn 2013 digital restoration of the film was done by Sony Colorworks, a new master film copy was made from the original negative and scanned at 4K. The digital pictures were digitally restored frame by frame at Prasad Corporation to remove dirt, tears, scratches and other artifacts, thereby returning the film to its original look. \n\nIn popular culture\n\nIt Happened One Night made an immediate impact on the public. In one scene, Gable undresses for bed, taking off his shirt to reveal that he is bare-chested. An urban legend claims that, as a result, sales of men's undershirts declined noticeably. The movie also prominently features a Greyhound bus in the story, spurring interest in bus travel nationwide. \n\nThe unpublished memoirs of animator Friz Freleng mention that this was one of his favorite films. It Happened One Night has a few interesting parallels with the cartoon character Bugs Bunny, who made his first appearance six years later, and who Freleng helped develop. In the film, a minor character, Oscar Shapely, continually calls the Gable character \"Doc\", an imaginary character named \"Bugs Dooley\" is mentioned once in order to frighten Shapely, and there is also a scene in which Gable eats carrots while talking quickly with his mouth full, as Bugs does. \n\nJoseph Stalin was a fan of the film, as was Adolf Hitler. \n\nParodies of the film abound. The 1937 Laurel and Hardy comedy Way Out West parodied the famous hitchhiking scene, with Stan Laurel managing to stop a stage coach using the same technique. Mel Brooks's film Spaceballs (1987) parodies the wedding scene. As she walks down the aisle to wed Prince Valium, Princess Vespa (Daphne Zuniga) is told by her father, King Roland, that Lone Starr forsook the reward for the princess's return and only asked to be reimbursed for the cost of the trip. \n\nThe film has also inspired a number of remakes, including the musicals Eve Knew Her Apples (1945) starring Ann Miller and You Can't Run Away from It (1956) starring June Allyson and Jack Lemmon, which was directed and produced by Dick Powell. The Sure Thing (1985), starring John Cusack, has some similarities.\n\nRecent films have also used familiar plot points from It Happened One Night. In Bandits, (2001), Joe Blake (Bruce Willis) erects a blanket partition between motel room beds out of respect for Kate Wheeler's (Cate Blanchett's) privacy. He remarks that he saw them do the same thing in an old movie. In Sex and the City 2, Carrie and Mr. Big watch the film (specifically the hitchhiking scene) in a hotel; later in the film Carrie uses the idea which she got from the film to get a taxi in the middle east. Also in an earlier episode of Sex and the City, Samantha mimics Claudette Colbert by showing some leg to stop a taxi. The wedding scene at the end of Heartbreaker is a reprise of the wedding scene in It Happened One Night. \n\nBeginning in January 2014, the comic 9 Chickweed Lane tied a story arc to It Happened One Night when one of the characters, Lt. William O'Malley, is injured during World War II and believes himself to be Peter Warne. As he sneaks through German-occupied France, several plot points run parallel to that of It Happened One Night and he believes his French contact to be Ellen Andrews. \n\nForeign film adaptation\n\nIn Pakistan, Tum Milay Pyar Mila (1969) was the remake of this film, Starring Mohammad Ali and Zeba. This film was also remade in Hindi twice, first as Chori Chori in 1956 starring Raj Kapoor and Nargis and as Dil Hai Ke Manta Nahin in 1991 starring Aamir Khan and Pooja Bhatt. The story was also adapted to screen in the 2007 Kannada film Hudugaata starring Ganesh and Rekha Vedavyas. All films became successful at the box office." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Frank Capra", "Francesco Rosario Capra", "The American Film Institute Salute to Frank Capra", "The american film institute salute to frank capra", "Capraesque", "Francesco Capra", "Lou Capra", "Frank R. Capra" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "capraesque", "frank capra", "frank r capra", "francesco capra", "lou capra", "american film institute salute to frank capra", "francesco rosario capra" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "frank capra", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Frank Capra" }
Hellenikon international airport is in which country?	tc_256	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "Search" ], "filename": [ "Ellinikon_International_Airport.txt" ], "title": [ "Ellinikon International Airport" ], "wiki_context": [ "Ellinikon International Airport, sometimes spelled Hellinikon () was the international airport of Athens, Greece for sixty years up until 2001, when it was replaced by the new Athens International Airport \"Eleftherios Venizelos\". The grounds of the airport are located 7 km south of Athens, and just west of Glyfada. It was named after the village of Elliniko (Elleniko), now a suburb of Athens. The airport had an official capacity of 11 million passengers per year, but had served 13.5 million passengers per year during its last year of operations.\n\nHistory\n\nThe airport was built in 1938. The Nazis invaded Greece in 1941, and Kalamaki Airfield (as the site was then known) was used as a Luftwaffe air base during the occupation. After World War II, the Greek government allowed the United States to use the airport from 1945 until 1993. Known as Hassani Airport in 1945, it was used by the United States Army Air Forces as early as 1 October 1945, as a base of operations for Air Transport Command flights between Rome, Italy and points in the Middle East. By agreement with Greece, the USAF operated out of the airport for the next four decades. In 1988, Greece decided not to extend the arrangement, and the USAF concluded its operations there in 1991. The airport was the base of operations by the Greek national carrier Olympic Airways.\n\nThe airport had two terminals: the West Terminal for Olympic Airways, and the East Terminal for all other carriers. The East Terminal building was designed between 1960 and 1969 by Finnish architect Eero Saarinen. Just before its closure in 2001, the airport recorded a 15.6% growth rate over its previous year, serving 13.5 million passengers per year and handling 57 airlines flying to 87 destinations. The airport's official capacity was 11 million passengers per year.\n\nThe last aircraft to depart from Ellinikon was an Olympic Airways Boeing 737 bound for Thessaloníki. \n\nThe airport is bounded in the west by beaches, in the south by the Glyfada Golf Club and the Ellinikon-Glyfada municipal boundary, and by residential area.\n\nIn April 2011 the Olympic Airways Museum opened in the West Terminal, including three airplanes that had been parked there since the airport's closure. The Athens radar center is still based at Ellinikon.\n\nDuring the ongoing European migrant crisis, the abandoned airport has become a shelter for refugees from Afghanistan, Pakistan, Iran, Morocco, and other countries. According to the Greek government, as of March 2016 4,120 refugees are living in the airport buildings. Immigration Policy Minister Ioannis Mouzalas told Greek Parliament: “Conditions at Elliniko are not unsuitable, but they are not good and certainly not the conditions we should have for refugees and migrants”, adding that clearing the camp “is a priority.”\n\nRedevelopment\n\nAfter its closure the northwest portion of the airport was redeveloped, converting runways into a sports park that housed the 2004 Summer Olympics venues for canoe/kayak slalom, field hockey, baseball, and softball. Other Olympics-related upgrades to the airport included refitting one of the airport's western hangars to become the main Olympic fencing venue and one of the larger Olympic indoor basketball arenas.\n\nIn 2005, the international team, led by architects David Serero, Elena Fernandez, and landscape architect Philippe Coignet, won the competition to design a metropolitan park on the former site of the Ellinikon Airport over more than 300 teams of architects. The competition was sponsored by UIA (International Union of Architects), the Greek Ministry of Environment, and the Organization for the Planning and Environmental Protection of Athens (ORSA). The project was further developed in 2006 and 2007 by this team through two development phases with the planning organizations of Athens. By 2012, government plans to attract investors and develop the site commercially were eclipsing the proposed park, though nearby communities remained vocal about their preference for a park.\n\nFilm use\n\nThe 1986 Menahem Golan movie, The Delta Force, used the exterior of the airport in the Athens International Airport scene which one of the Lebanese terrorists exits a taxi.\n\nAccidents and incidents\n\nFollowing is a list of accidents/incidents experienced by aircraft that had Ellinikon either as a destination or as a departure point. It only includes events that occurred at the airport or in its vicinities, and only deadly occurrences and/or hull-losses are listed.\n\n: Following a tyre burst upon landing, a fire erupted when debris ruptured the fuel lines of a Royal Canadian Air Force Canadair North Star, registration 17525, that was returning to Canada. \n: Olympic Airways Flight 954, a Douglas DC-6 tail number SX-DAE, crashed into Mount Paneio while on approach to the airport. All 90 passengers and crew on board were killed in the worst aviation disaster ever involving a DC-6. \n: An Olympic Airways NAMC YS-11A-500, tail number SX-BBQ, that was operating a domestic scheduled Kerkyra–Athens passenger service, crashed into the sea on approach to the airport in poor visibility. There were 53 people aboard, of whom 36 passengers and the co-pilot drowned, while 13 passengers and the remaining three crew members were rescued. \n: A Piaggio P.136L-2 amphibious plane, tail number SX-BDC, crashed shortly after takeoff from runway 33. The crash occurred as a result of the reversing of the aileron connecting cables during the installation of a new control column on the plane. The aircraft had three passengers, one of whom, Alexander Onassis, died as a result of injuries sustained in the accident. \n: Swissair Flight 316, a Douglas DC-8-62, registration HB-IDE, overran the runway on landing, inbound from Geneva. Both the port wing and the tail separated from the fuselage before the aircraft came to rest. A fire that broke out claimed 14 lives, out of 154 people on board. \n: A Golden Star Air Cargo Boeing 707-320C, tail number ST-ALX, that was operating an Amsterdam-Athens cargo service, struck Mount Hymettus, southeast of the airport, on a visual approach. There were seven reported fatalities." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Yunanistan", "Griekenland", "Hellenic republic", "Elláda", "Graecia", "The Hellenic Republic", "Ελλάς", "Eládha", "Yananistan", "Republic of Greece", "Elliniki Dimokratía", "Picki u dusa", "République hellénique", "Social issues in Greece", "Hellas", "Hellenic Republic", "Republique hellenique", "Eladha", "Ελλάδα", "Grèce", "Elliniki Dimokratia", "Greece", "Temporary Government of National Defence", "Griechenland", "Grcija", "Ellada", "Hellada", "Greek Republic", "Grece", "Ελληνική Δημοκρατία", "Grcka", "Political history of Greece", "Ellīnikī́ Dīmokratía", "Macedonian Greece", "History of North Greece", "ISO 3166-1:GR", "Grecce", "Elás", "Hellás", "Ελλας", "Greek law (Hellenic Republic)" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "elliniki dimokratía", "macedonian greece", "ellada", "grèce", "elliniki dimokratia", "yananistan", "grece", "yunanistan", "history of north greece", "grcka", "hellas", "greece", "republic of greece", "graecia", "hellada", "grcija", "hellás", "temporary government of national defence", "ελλάδα", "république hellénique", "ellīnikī́ dīmokratía", "iso 3166 1 gr", "social issues in greece", "political history of greece", "eládha", "greek republic", "griekenland", "ελλάς", "ελληνική δημοκρατία", "elás", "greek law hellenic republic", "elláda", "hellenic republic", "republique hellenique", "eladha", "ελλας", "griechenland", "picki u dusa", "grecce" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "greece", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Greece" }
Who had a 60s No 1 with Lightnin' Strikes?	tc_257	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Lightnin'_Strikes.txt" ], "title": [ "Lightnin' Strikes" ], "wiki_context": [ "\"Lightnin' Strikes\" is a song written by Lou Christie and Twyla Herbert, and recorded by Christie on the MGM label. It was a hit in 1966, making it first to No. 1 in Canada in January 1966 on the RPM Top Singles chart, then to No. 1 in the U.S. on the Billboard Hot 100 in February, No. 3 on the New Zealand Listener chart in May, and No. 11 on the UK Record Retailer chart. RIAA certification on March 3, 1966, garnering gold status for selling over one million copies.\n\nPersonnel\n\nThe song was arranged, conducted, and produced by Charles Calello and was recorded on September 3, 1965. The backup singers were Peggy Santiglia, Bernadette Carroll, and Denise Ferri. Session personnel included Joe Farrell and George Young on baritone sax; Ray DeSio on trombone; Stan Free on piano; Lou Mauro on bass; Charlie Macy, Ralph Casale, and Vinnie Bell on guitar; and Buddy Saltzman on drums. Ralph Casale's \"stuttering\" guitar solo was originally an overdub.\n\nChart performance\n\nWeekly charts\n\nYear-end charts\n\nCover versions\n\n\"Lightnin' Strikes\" was covered by Jan & Dean for their record Filet of Soul in 1966.\n\nThe song was also covered years later by the New York underground artist Klaus Nomi, appearing on his 1981 debut album Klaus Nomi, and was the A-side of a 1982 single accompanied by a video. The political satire group Capitol Steps spoofed it as The Right Wing's Striking Again.\n\n*In 1983, Mike Love of The Beach Boys covered the song on Love's and Dean Torrence album Rock 'N' Roll City." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Luigi A.G. Sacco", "Luigi Giovanni Sacco", "Luigi Alfredo Giovanni Sacco", "Luigi Alfredo Sacco", "Luigi A. G. Sacco", "Lou Christie" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "luigi g sacco", "luigi alfredo giovanni sacco", "luigi alfredo sacco", "lou christie", "luigi giovanni sacco" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "lou christie", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Lou Christie" }
In which year was CNN founded?	tc_258	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "CNN.txt" ], "title": [ "CNN" ], "wiki_context": [ "The Cable News Network (CNN) is an American basic cable and satellite television channel that is owned by the Turner Broadcasting System division of Time Warner. It was founded in 1980 by American media proprietor Ted Turner as a 24-hour cable news channel; however, by April 2016, a CNN executive officially described the channel as \"no longer a TV news network\" and instead as \"a 24-hour global multiplatform network.\" Upon its launch, CNN was the first television channel to provide 24-hour news coverage, and was the first all-news television channel in the United States.\n\nWhile the news channel has numerous affiliates, CNN primarily broadcasts from the Time Warner Center in New York City, and studios in Washington, D.C. and Los Angeles. Its headquarters at the CNN Center in Atlanta is only used for weekend programming. CNN is sometimes referred to as CNN/U.S. to distinguish the American channel from its international sister network, CNN International. As of August 2010, CNN is available in over 100 million U.S. households. Broadcast coverage of the U.S. channel extends to over 890,000 American hotel rooms, as well as carriage on cable and satellite providers throughout Canada. Globally, CNN programming airs through CNN International, which can be seen by viewers in over 212 countries and territories. \n\nAs of February 2015, CNN is available to approximately 96,289,000 cable, satellite, and telco television households (82.7% of households with at least one television set) in the United States. \n\nHistory\n\nEarly history\n\nThe Cable News Network was launched at 5:00 p.m. Eastern Time on June 1, 1980. After an introduction by Ted Turner, the husband and wife team of David Walker and Lois Hart anchored the channel's first newscast. Burt Reinhardt, the executive vice president of CNN at its launch, hired most of the channel's first 200 employees, including the network's first news anchor, Bernard Shaw.\n\nSince its debut, CNN has expanded its reach to a number of cable and satellite television providers, several websites, and specialized closed-circuit channels (such as CNN Airport). The company has 36 bureaus (10 domestic, 26 international), more than 900 affiliated local stations (which also receive news and features content via the video newswire service CNN Newsource), and several regional and foreign-language networks around the world. The channel's success made a bona-fide mogul of founder Ted Turner and set the stage for conglomerate Time Warner's eventual acquisition of the Turner Broadcasting System in 1996.\n\nA companion channel, CNN2, was launched on January 1, 1982 and featured a continuous 24-hour cycle of 30-minute news broadcasts. The channel, which later became known as CNN Headline News and is now known as simply HLN, eventually focused on live news coverage supplemented by personality-based programs during the evening and primetime hours.\n\nMajor events\n\nChallenger disaster\n\nOn January 28, 1986, CNN carried the only live television coverage of the launch and subsequent break-up of Space Shuttle Challenger, which killed all seven crew members on board.\n\nBaby Jessica rescue\n\nOn October 14, 1987, Jessica McClure, an 18-month-old toddler, fell down a well in Midland, Texas. CNN quickly reported on the story, and the event helped make its name. The New York Times ran a retrospective article in 1995 on the impact of live video news:\n\nGulf War\n\nThe first Persian Gulf War in 1991 was a watershed event for CNN that catapulted the channel past the \"Big Three\" American networks for the first time in its history, largely due to an unprecedented, historical scoop: CNN was the only news outlet with the ability to communicate from inside Iraq during the initial hours of the Coalition bombing campaign, with live reports from the al-Rashid Hotel in Baghdad by reporters Bernard Shaw, John Holliman, Peter Arnett and Charles Jaco.\n\nThe moment when bombing began was announced on CNN by Bernard Shaw on January 16, 1991, as follows: \n\nBecause it was unable to immediately broadcast live pictures from Baghdad, CNN's coverage of the initial hours of the Gulf War had the dramatic feel of a radio broadcast – and was compared to legendary CBS news anchor Edward R. Murrow's gripping live radio reports of the German bombing of London during World War II. Despite the lack of live pictures, CNN's coverage was carried by television stations and networks around the world, resulting in CNN being watched by over a billion viewers worldwide – a feat that led to the subsequent creation of CNN International.\n\nThe Gulf War experience brought CNN some much sought-after legitimacy and made household names of previously obscure reporters. Many of these reporters now comprise CNN's \"old guard.\" Bernard Shaw became CNN's chief anchor until his retirement in 2001. Others include then-Pentagon correspondent Wolf Blitzer (now host of The Situation Room) and international correspondent Christiane Amanpour. Amanpour's presence in Iraq was caricatured by actress Nora Dunn in the role of the ruthless reporter Adriana Cruz in the 1999 film Three Kings. Time Warner-owned sister network HBO later produced a television movie, Live from Baghdad, about CNN's coverage of the first Gulf War.\n\nCoverage of the first Gulf War and other crises of the early 1990s (particularly the infamous Battle of Mogadishu) led officials at the Pentagon to coin the term \"the CNN effect\" to describe the perceived impact of real time, 24-hour news coverage on the decision-making processes of the American government.\n\nSeptember 11 attacks\n\nCNN was the first cable news channel to break the news of the September 11 attacks. Anchor Carol Lin was on the air to deliver the first public report of the event. She broke into a commercial at 8:49 a.m. Eastern Time that morning and said:\n\nSean Murtagh, CNN vice president of finance and administration, was the first network employee on the air. He called into CNN Center from his office at CNN's New York City bureau and reported that a commercial jet had hit the Trade Center. \n\nDaryn Kagan and Leon Harris were live on the air just after 9:00 a.m. Eastern Time as the second plane hit the North Tower of the World Trade Center and through an interview with CNN correspondent David Ensor, reported the news that U.S. officials determined \"that this is a terrorist act.\" Later, Aaron Brown and Judy Woodruff anchored through the day and night as the attacks unfolded, winning an Edward R. Murrow award for the network. Brown had just joined CNN from ABC to serve as the breaking news anchor.\n\nPaula Zahn assisted in the September 11, 2001, coverage on her first day as a CNN reporter, a fact that she mentioned as a guest clue presenter on a 2005 episode of Jeopardy!.\n\nCNN has made archival files of much of the day's broadcast available in [http://www.cnn.com/video/#/video/us/2011/09/07/natpkg-911-aircheck-timeline.cnn?iref=allsearch five segments, plus an overview].\n\n2008 U.S. election\n\nLeading up to the 2008 U.S. presidential election, CNN devoted large amounts of its coverage to politics, including hosting candidate debates during the Democratic and Republican primary seasons. On June 3 and 5, CNN teamed up with Saint Anselm College to sponsor the New Hampshire Republican and Democratic Debates. Later in 2007, the channel hosted the first CNN-YouTube presidential debates, a non-traditional format where viewers were invited to pre-submit questions over the internet via the YouTube video-sharing service. In 2008, CNN partnered with the Los Angeles Times to host two primary debates leading up to its coverage of Super Tuesday. CNN's debate and election night coverage led to its highest ratings of the year, with January 2008 viewership averaging 1.1 million viewers, a 41% increase over the previous year.\n\n2012 U.S. election\n\nCNN again devoted large amounts of coverage to the 2012 U.S. Presidential campaign. Chief political correspondent Candy Crowley acted as moderator for one of the three debates between Mitt Romney and Barack Obama. Some conservatives viewed her as overly partisan/biased due to her attempts at correcting statements by both candidates on the 2012 Benghazi consulate attack. \n\nProgramming\n\nCNN's current weekday schedule consists mostly of rolling news programming during daytime hours, followed by in-depth news and factual programs during the evening and primetime hours.\n\nThe network's morning programming consists of Early Start, an early-morning news program hosted by John Berman and Christine Romans, which is followed by New Day, the network's morning show, hosted by Chris Cuomo and Alisyn Camerota. Most of CNN's late-morning and early afternoon programming consists of CNN Newsroom, a rolling news program hosted by Carol Costello in the morning and Brooke Baldwin in the afternoon. In 2013 the network began to rework its daytime programming to include more distinct shows, beginning with Ashleigh Banfield's hour-long block of Newsroom as Legal View with Ashleigh Banfield in August 2013 (with an emphasis on legal issues and court cases) and an hour of Newsroom as Wolf hosted by Wolf Blitzer at 1 p.m. Eastern and At This Hour with Berman and Bolduan at 11 a.m. Eastern.\n\nCNN's late afternoon and early evening lineup consists of The Lead with Jake Tapper, hosted by Jake Tapper at 4 p.m. Eastern and The Situation Room with Wolf Blitzer with Wolf Blitzer at 5–7 p.m. Eastern. The network's evening and primetime lineup shifts towards more in-depth programming, including Erin Burnett OutFront at 7 p.m. Eastern, Anderson Cooper 360° at 8 p.m. Eastern, and CNN Tonight with Don Lemon, hosted by Don Lemon at Monday through Thursday at 10 p.m. Eastern, and Friday at 9 p.m. Eastern and Overnight programming is CNN Newsroom (simulcast on CNN International), weeknights at 12–4 a.m. Eastern, and weekend at 4–6 a.m. Eastern.\n\nSince the cancellation of Piers Morgan Tonight, the 9 p.m. Eastern time slot has been filled by factual programs and documentary series, introducing new series for the 2014-15 season such as John Walsh's The Hunt, This is Life with Lisa Ling, and Mike Rowe's Somebody's Gotta Do It. Jeff Zucker explained that this new lineup was intended to shift CNN away from a reliance on pundit-oriented programs, and attract younger demographics to the network. Despite this, Zucker emphasized a continuing commitment to news programming, especially during breaking news events (where the 9 p.m. hour can be pre-empted for special coverage). These changes coincided with the introduction of a new imaging campaign for the network, featuring the slogan \"Go there\". In May 2014, CNN premiered The Sixties, a documentary miniseries produced by Tom Hanks and Gary Goetzman which chronicled the United States in the 1960s. Owing to its success, CNN would produce sequels focusing on the 1970s and 1980s for 2015 and 2016 respectively. \n\nWeekend primetime is dedicated mostly to factual programming, including the reality series Anthony Bourdain: Parts Unknown, along with topical documentaries and specials under banners such as CNN Presents, CNN Special Investigations Unit and CNN Films. The network's Sunday morning lineup consists primarily of political talk shows, including Inside Politics with John King, State of the Union, the international affairs program Fareed Zakaria GPS, and the media analysis program Reliable Sources with Brian Stelter.\n\nOn-air presentation\n\nCNN began broadcasting in the high definition 1080i resolution format in September 2007. This format is now standard for CNN and is available on all major cable and satellite providers.\n\nCNN's political coverage in HD was first given mobility by the introduction of the CNN Election Express bus in October 2007. The Election Express vehicle, capable of five simultaneous HD feeds, was used for the channel's CNN-YouTube presidential debates and for presidential candidate interviews. \n\nIn December 2008, CNN introduced a comprehensive redesign of its on-air appearance, which replaced an existing style that had been used since 2004. On-air graphics took a rounded, flat look in a predominantly black, white, and red color scheme, and the introduction of a new box next to the CNN logo for displaying show logos and segment-specific graphics, rather than as a large banner above the lower-third. The redesign also replaced the scrolling ticker with a static \"flipper\", which could either display a feed of news headlines (both manually inserted and taken from the RSS feeds of CNN.com), or \"topical\" details related to a story.\n\nCNN's next major redesign was introduced on January 10, 2011, replacing the dark, flat appearance of the 2008 look with a glossier, blue and white color scheme, and moving the secondary logo box to the opposite end of the screen. Additionally, the network began to solely produce its programming in the 16:9 aspect ratio, with standard definition feeds using a letterboxed version of the HD feed. On February 18, 2013, the \"flipper\" was dropped and reverted to a scrolling ticker; originally displayed as a blue background with white text, the ticker was reconfigured a day later with blue text on a white background to match the look of the 'flipper'. \n\nOn August 11, 2014, CNN introduced its most recent graphics package, dropping the glossy appearance for a flat, rectangular scheme incorporating red, white, and black colors, and the Gotham typeface. The ticker now alternates between general headlines and financial news from CNNMoney, and the secondary logo box was replaced with a smaller box below the CNN bug, which displays either the title, hashtag, or Twitter handle for the show being aired or its anchor. On April 21, 2016, the typeface in the same graphics package was changed to modified Helvetica, CNN Sans; created by Monotype Imaging as their corporate font used now in all network's platform and their affiliated network worldwide. \n\nFormer programs\n\nStaff\n\nOn July 27, 2012, CNN president Jim Walton announced that he was quitting, after a 30-year tenure at the network. Walton remained with CNN until the end of that year. In January 2013, former NBCUniversal president Jeff Zucker replaced Walton. \n\nOn January 29, 2013, longtime political analysts James Carville and Mary Matalin, and fellow political contributor Erick Erickson were let go by CNN. \n\nOther platforms\n\nOnline\n\nCNN launched its website, CNN.com (initially an experiment known as CNN Interactive), on August 30, 1995. The site attracted growing interest over its first decade and is now one of the most popular news websites in the world. The widespread growth of blogs, social media and user-generated content have influenced the site, and blogs in particular have focused CNN's previously scattershot online offerings, most noticeably in the development and launch of CNN Pipeline in late 2005.\n\nIn April 2009, CNN.com ranked third place among online global news sites in unique users in the U.S., according to Nielsen/NetRatings; with an increase of 11% over the previous year. \n\nCNN Pipeline was the name of a paid subscription service, its corresponding website, and a content delivery client that provided streams of live video from up to four sources (or \"pipes\"), on-demand access to CNN stories and reports, and optional pop-up \"news alerts\" to computer users. The installable client was available to users of PCs running Microsoft Windows. There was also a browser-based \"web client\" that did not require installation. The service was discontinued in July 2007, and was replaced with a free streaming service.\n\nThe topical news program Judy Woodruff's Inside Politics was the first CNN program to feature a round-up of blogs in 2005. Blog coverage was expanded when Inside Politics was folded into The Situation Room (Inside Politics later returned to CNN in 2014, this time hosted by the network's chief national correspondent John King. ). In 2006, CNN launched CNN Exchange and CNN iReport, initiatives designed to further introduce and centralize the impact of everything from blogging to citizen journalism within the CNN brand. CNN iReport which features user-submitted photos and video, has achieved considerable traction, with increasingly professional-looking reports filed by amateur journalists, many still in high school or college. The iReport gained more prominence when observers of the Virginia Tech shootings sent-in first hand photos of what was going on during the shootings. \n\nIn early 2008, CNN began maintaining a live streaming broadcast available to cable and satellite subscribers who receive CNN at home (a precursor to the TV Everywhere services that would become popularized by cable and satellite providers beginning with Time Warner's incorporation of the medium). CNN International is broadcast live, as part of the RealNetworks SuperPass subscription service outside the U.S. CNN also offers several RSS feeds and podcasts.\n\nOn April 18, 2008, CNN.com was targeted by Chinese hackers in retaliation for the channel's coverage on the 2008 Tibetan unrest. CNN reported that they took preventative measures after news broke of the impending attack. \n\nThe company was honored at the 2008 Technology & Engineering Emmy Awards for development and implementation of an integrated and portable IP-based live, edit and store-and-forward digital news gathering (DNG) system. The first use of what would later win CNN this award was in April 2001 when CNN correspondent Lisa Rose Weaver covered, and was detained, for the release of the U.S. Navy crew of a damaged electronic surveillance plane after the Hainan Island incident. The technology consisted of a videophone produced by 7E Communications Ltd of London, UK. This DNG workflow is used today by the network to receive material worldwide using an Apple MacBook Pro, various prosumer and professional digital cameras, software from Streambox Inc., and BGAN terminals from Hughes Network Systems.\n\nOn October 24, 2009, CNN launched a new version of the CNN.com website; the revamped site included the addition of a new \"sign up\" option, in which users can create their own username and profile, and a new \"CNN Pulse\" (beta) feature, along with a new red color theme. However, most of the news stories archived on the website were deleted.\n\nCNN also has a channel in the popular video-sharing site YouTube, but its videos can only be viewed in the United States, a source of criticism among YouTube users worldwide. In 2014, CNN launched a radio version of their popular Television programming on TuneIn Radio. \n\nIn April 2010, CNN announced via Twitter that it would launch a food blog called \"Eatocracy,\" which will \"cover all news related to food – from recalls to health issues to culture.\" CNN had an internet relay chat (IRC) network at chat.cnn.com. CNN placed a live chat with Benjamin Netanyahu on the network in 1998. \n\nCNNHealth consists of expert doctors answering viewers' questions online at CNN's \"The Chart\" blog website. Contributors include Drs. Sanjay Gupta (Chief Medical Correspondent), Charles Raison (Mental Health Expert), Otis Brawley (Conditions Expert), Melina Jampolis (Diet and Fitness Expert), Jennifer Shu (Living Well Expert), and Elizabeth Cohen (Senior Medical Correspondent). \n\nFilms\n\nIn October 2012, CNN formed a film division called CNN Films to distribute and produce made-for-TV and feature documentaries. Its first acquisition was a documentary entitled Girl Rising, a documentary narrated by Meryl Streep that focused on the struggles of girls' education. \n\nRadio\n\nIn July 2014, Cumulus Media announced that it would end its partnership with ABC News Radio, and enter into a new partnership with CNN to syndicate national and international news content for its stations through Westwood One beginning in 2015, including access to a wire service, and digital content for its station websites. This service is unbranded, allowing individual stations to integrate the content with their own news brands.\n\nSpecialized channels\n\nOver the years, CNN has launched spin-off networks in the United States and other countries. Channels that currently operate include:\n* CNN Airport\n* CNN Chile – a Chilean news channel that launched on December 4, 2008.\n* CNN en Español\n* CNN International\n* CNN TÜRK – a Turkish media outlet.\n* CNN-IBN – an Indian news channel.\n* CNN Indonesia – an Indonesian news channel that launched on August 17, 2015. (co-owned with Trans Corp)\n* CNNj – a Japanese news outlet.\n* CNN Philippines – a Filipino news channel launched on March 16, 2015.\n* HLN\n\nFormer channels\n\nCNN has also launched television and online ventures that are no longer in operation, including:\n* CNN Checkout Channel (out-of-home place-based custom channel for grocery stores that started in 1991 and shuttered in 1993)\n* CNN Italia (an Italian news website launched in partnership with the publishing company Gruppo Editoriale L'Espresso, and after with the financial newspaper Il Sole 24 Ore, it launched on November 15, 1999 and closed on September 12, 2003)\n* CNN Pipeline (24-hour multi-channel broadband online news service, replaced with CNN.com Live)\n* CNN Sports Illustrated (also known as CNNSI; U.S. sports news channel, closed in 2002)\n* CNN+ (a partner channel in Spain, launched in 1999 with Sogecable)\n* CNN.com Live\n* CNNfn (financial channel, closed in December 2004)\n\nExperiments\n\nCNN launched two specialty news channels for the American market which would later close amid competitive pressure: the sports news channel CNNSI shut down in 2002, while business news channel CNNfn shut down after nine years on the air in December 2004. CNN had a partnership with Sports Illustrated through the sports website CNNSI.com, but sold the domain name in May 2015. CNNfn's former website now redirects to money.cnn.com, a product of CNN's strategic partnership with Money magazine. Money and Sports Illustrated were both Time Warner properties until 2014, when the company's magazine division was spun off into the separate Time Inc.\n\nBureaus\n\nNote: Boldface indicates that the city is home to one of CNN's original bureaus, meaning it has been in operation since the network's founding.\n\nUnited States\n\nWorldwide\n\nMany of the following bureaus have been closed or – due to the financial crisis – had their budget cut:\n\n* Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates (Middle East regional headquarters)\n* Buenos Aires, Argentina\n* Baghdad, Iraq\n* Bangkok, Thailand\n* Beijing, China\n* Beirut, Lebanon\n* Berlin, Germany\n* Bogotá, Colombia\n* Cairo, Egypt\n* Dubai, United Arab Emirates\n* Havana, Cuba\n* Hong Kong (Asia-Pacific regional headquarters)\n* Islamabad, Pakistan\n* Istanbul, Turkey\n* Jakarta, Indonesia\n* Jerusalem, Israel\n* Johannesburg, South Africa\n* Lagos, Nigeria\n* London, United Kingdom (European regional headquarters)\n* Madrid, Spain\n* Manila, Philippines \n* Mexico City, Mexico\n* Moscow, Russia\n* Nairobi, Kenya\n* New Delhi, India\n* Paris, France\n* Rio de Janeiro, Brazil\n* Rome, Italy\n* Santiago, Chile\n* São Paulo, Brazil\n* Seoul, South Korea\n* Sydney, Australia\n* Tehran, Iran (until the 2009 election, when foreign media were expelled from the country)\n* Tokyo, Japan\n\nIn parts of the world without a CNN bureau, reports from local affiliate station the network will be used to file a story.\n\nControversies\n\nIn a joint study by the Joan Shorenstein Center on Press, Politics and Public Policy at Harvard University and the Project for Excellence in Journalism, the authors found disparate treatment by the three major cable channels of Republican and Democratic candidates during the earliest five months of presidential primaries in 2007:\n\nCNN is one of the world's largest news organizations, and its international channel, CNN International is the leading international news channel in terms of viewer reach. CNN International makes extensive use of affiliated reporters that are local to, and often directly affected by, the events they are reporting. The effect is a more immediate, less detached style of on-the-ground coverage. This has done little to stem criticism, largely from Middle Eastern nations, that CNN International reports news from a pro-American perspective. This is a marked contrast to domestic criticisms that often portray CNN as having a \"liberal\" or \"anti-American\" bias.\n\nCNN President Walter Isaacson met with Republican Party leaders in Washington, DC in 2001 saying afterwards \"I was trying to reach out to a lot of Republicans who feel that CNN has not been as open covering Republicans, and I wanted to hear their concerns,\" \nAs said by CNN founder Ted Turner, \"There really isn't much of a point getting some Tom, Dick or Harry off the streets to report on when we can snag a big name whom everyone identifies with. After all, it's all part of the business.\" However, in April 2008, Turner criticized the direction that CNN has taken. Others have echoed that criticism, especially in light of CNN's ratings declines since the late 2000s.\n\nOn April 24, 2008, beautician Liang Shubing and teacher Li Lilan sued commentator Jack Cafferty and CNN for $1.3 billion damages ($1 per person in China), in New York, for \"violating the dignity and reputation of the Chinese people\". This was in response to an incident during CNN's \"The Situation Room\" on April 9, where Cafferty stated his opinion that \"[the USA] continue to import their junk with the lead paint on them and the poisoned pet food\" despite his view that \"[the Chinese leaders were] basically the same bunch of goons and thugs they've been for the last 50 years\". Further, amid China's Foreign Ministry demand for an apology, 14 lawyers filed a similar suit in Beijing. \n\nIn June 2009, musician M.I.A. stated she did an hour-long interview with CNN condemning the mass bombing and Tamil civilian fatalities at the hands of Government forces in Sri Lanka in 16 weeks the same year, \"and they cut it down to one minute and made it about my single Paper Planes. When I went to the Grammys, I saw the same reporter from CNN, and I was like, 'Why did you do that?' And she said, 'Because you used the G-word.'\" \"Genocide. I guess you're not allowed to say that on CNN,\" raising questions concerning CNN's coverage and commitment to free speech. \n\nOn November 11, 2009, longtime CNN anchor Lou Dobbs resigned on-air after discussions with network President Jonathan Klein, who had agreed to release Dobbs from his contract \"that will enable me to pursue new opportunities.\" He had previously expressed to Klein that he wished to go \"the opinion route\". Dobbs' advocacy journalism-style coverage of immigration, Obama birthers, and free trade topics has attracted controversy both to him and to CNN. \n\nOn July 7, 2010, Octavia Nasr, senior Middle East editor and a CNN journalist for 20 years, was fired after she expressed on her Twitter account admiration for liberal-minded Muslim cleric Mohammad Hussein Fadlallah who had recently died, casting doubts on the company's commitment to freedom of speech. \n\nOn October 1, 2010, CNN anchor Rick Sanchez was fired after remarks he made during an interview with comedian Pete Dominick on a radio show the previous day about prejudices he faced during his television career, at CNN and jokes about him by comedian Jon Stewart. Calling him a \"bigot\" before retracting this and describing him instead as \"prejudiced\" and \"uninformed\", the interviewer invoked Stewart's faith as an example of how Stewart was \"a minority as much as you are\". Sanchez stated his view that Jewish people were not an oppressed minority in America, and his view that \"everybody that runs CNN is a lot like Stewart\" before stating \"And a lot of people who run all the other networks are a lot like Stewart.\" \n\nIn October 2011, Amber Lyon told a European news service that she had been directed by CNN to report selectively, repetitively, and falsely in order to sway public opinion in favor of direct American aggression against Iran and Syria, and that this was common practice under CNN. She subsequently reconfirmed this in detail, addressing the degraded state of journalistic ethics in an interview with American radio host Alex Jones, during which she also discussed the Bahraini episode, suggesting paid-for content was also taken from Georgia, Kazakhstan and other states, that the War on Terrorism had also been employed as a pretext to pre-empt substantive investigative journalism within the U.S., and that following the Bahrain reporting, her investigative department had been terminated and \"reorganized\", and her severance and employee benefits used as a threat to intimidate and attempt to purchase her subsequent silence.\n\nLyon had met with Tony Maddox, president of CNN International, twice about this issue in 2011 and had claimed that during the second meeting she was threatened and intimated to stop speaking on the matter. Lyon spoke heavily on RT about this, claiming that CNN reporters, headed by Maddox, have been instructed to over-cover Iran as a form of propaganda and that CNN International has been paid by the Bahraini government to produce and air news segments intentionally painting them in a positive light. \n\nIn October 2015, CNN and Facebook hosted the first 2016 Democratic Party presidential debate in Las Vegas, Nevada. CNN conducted an online poll asking viewers to select which of the participants they believed won the debate. Despite the fact that the poll ended with Bernie Sanders holding 75% of the vote, and Hillary Clinton holding 18% of the vote, and the fact that Senator Sanders took the lead in CNN's focus group, CNN published several articles declaring Secretary Clinton as the winner of the debate. After the poll appeared on television after the debate, it was never shown again and was removed from CNN's website. Following these events, supporters of Senator Sanders have claimed that CNN attempted to bury Bernie Sanders's victory in an effort to support Hillary Clinton because of the fact that Time Warner (CNN's parent company) is Hillary Clinton's seventh largest financial backer. \n\nOn April 3, 2016, hundreds of supporters of Bernie Sanders protested outside of CNN's Headquarters in Los Angeles. Sanders supporters were protesting the network's coverage of the 2016 United States presidential elections, specifically in regards to the amount of airtime Sanders has received. Known as Occupy CNN, protestors are claiming that major media networks have intentionally blacked out Sanders' presidential campaign in favor of giving much more airtime to candidates such as Hillary Clinton and Donald Trump. \n\nAwards and honors\n\nIn 1998, CNN received the Four Freedom Award for the Freedom of Speech." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "one thousand, nine hundred and eighty", "1980" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "one thousand nine hundred and eighty", "1980" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "1980", "type": "Numerical", "value": "1980" }
Which famous brother of Talia Shire does not share her last name?	tc_260	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Talia_Shire.txt" ], "title": [ "Talia Shire" ], "wiki_context": [ "Talia Rose Shire (née Coppola; born April 25, 1946) is an Italian-American actress most known for her roles as Connie Corleone in The Godfather films and Adrian Balboa in the Rocky series. For her work in The Godfather Part II and Rocky, Shire has been nominated for two Academy Awards for Best Supporting Actress and Best Actress, respectively.\n\nPersonal life\n\nShire was born Talia Rose Coppola in Lake Success, New York, the daughter of Italia (née Pennino; 1912-2004) and arranger/composer Carmine Coppola (1910-1991). Her parents were both of Italian descent. Talia is the sister of director and producer Francis Ford Coppola and academic August Coppola, the aunt of actor Nicolas Cage and director Sofia Coppola, and the niece of composer and conductor Anton Coppola. She has five children. Her son Matthew Orlando Shire is the child of her first marriage to composer David Shire. Her other sons, actors/musicians Jason and Robert, are from her second marriage, to the late film producer Jack Schwartzman. She also has two stepchildren by her second marriage, Schwartzman's first marriage.\n\nCareer\n\nShire portrayed Connie Corleone in The Godfather and its sequels. She was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for her performance in 1974's The Godfather: Part II. In 1976, she portrayed Adrian Pennino, the love interest of Rocky Balboa in Rocky. For this role, she won the New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Supporting Actress, the National Board of Review Award for Best Supporting Actress, and was nominated for a Best Actress Oscar. In addition to the Rocky sequels, Shire appeared in such films as Kiss the Bride (2002), I Heart Huckabees (2004), and Homo Erectus (2007). \n\nFilmography" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Ford coppola", "Coppola, Francis Ford", "Ff coppola", "Francis Coppola", "Francis Ford Coppola filmography", "Godfather of Wine", "Francis Ford Coppola", "List of Francis Ford Coppola films" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "ford coppola", "godfather of wine", "francis coppola", "list of francis ford coppola films", "francis ford coppola filmography", "ff coppola", "coppola francis ford", "francis ford coppola" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "francis ford coppola", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Francis Ford Coppola" }
In basketball where do the Celtics come from?	tc_262	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Basketball.txt" ], "title": [ "Basketball" ], "wiki_context": [ "Basketball is a sport, generally played by two teams of five players on a rectangular court. The objective is to shoot a ball through a hoop 18 in in diameter and 10 ft high mounted to a backboard at each end.\n\nA team can score a field goal by shooting the ball through the basket during regular play. A field goal scores three points for the shooting team if the player shoots from behind the three-point line, and two points if shot from in front of the line. A team can also score via free throws, which are worth one point, after the other team is assessed with certain fouls. The team with the most points at the end of the game wins, but additional time (overtime) is issued when the score is tied at the end of regulation. The ball can be advanced on the court by throwing it to a teammate, or by bouncing it while walking or running (dribbling). It is a violation to lift, or drag, one's pivot foot without dribbling the ball, to carry it, or to hold the ball with both hands then resume dribbling.\n\nThere are many techniques for ball-handling—shooting, passing, dribbling, and rebounding. Basketball teams generally have player positions, the tallest and strongest members of a team are called a center or power forward, while slightly shorter and more agile players are called small forward, and the shortest players or those who possess the best ball handling skills are called a point guard or shooting guard. The point guard directs the on court action of the team, implementing the coach's game plan, and managing the execution of offensive and defensive plays (player positioning).\n\nBasketball is one of the world's most popular and widely viewed sports. The National Basketball Association (NBA) is the most popular and widely considered to be the highest level of professional basketball in the world and NBA players are the world's best paid sportsmen, by average annual salary per player. Outside North America, the top clubs from national leagues qualify to continental championships such as the Euroleague and FIBA Americas League. The FIBA Basketball World Cup attracts the top national teams from around the world. Each continent hosts regional competitions for national teams, like EuroBasket and FIBA Americas Championship.\n\nThe FIBA Women's Basketball World Cup features the top national women's basketball teams from continental championships. The main North American league is the WNBA, whereas the EuroLeague Women has been dominated by teams from the Russian Women's Basketball Premier League.\n\nHistory\n\nCreation\n\nIn early December 1891, Canadian Dr. James Naismith, a physical education professor and instructor at the International Young Men's Christian Association Training School (YMCA) (today, Springfield College) in Springfield, Massachusetts was trying to keep his gym class active on a rainy day. He sought a vigorous indoor game to keep his students occupied and at proper levels of fitness during the long New England winters. After rejecting other ideas as either too rough or poorly suited to walled-in gymnasiums, he wrote the basic rules and nailed a peach basket onto a 10 ft elevated track. In contrast with modern basketball nets, this peach basket retained its bottom, and balls had to be retrieved manually after each \"basket\" or point scored; this proved inefficient, however, so the bottom of the basket was removed, allowing the balls to be poked out with a long dowel each time.\n\nBasketball was originally played with a soccer ball. The first balls made specifically for basketball were brown, and it was only in the late 1950s that Tony Hinkle, searching for a ball that would be more visible to players and spectators alike, introduced the orange ball that is now in common use. Dribbling was not part of the original game except for the \"bounce pass\" to teammates. Passing the ball was the primary means of ball movement. Dribbling was eventually introduced but limited by the asymmetric shape of early balls. Dribbling only became a major part of the game around the 1950s, as manufacturing improved the ball shape.\n\nThe peach baskets were used until 1906 when they were finally replaced by metal hoops with backboards. A further change was soon made, so the ball merely passed through. Whenever a person got the ball in the basket, his team would gain a point. Whichever team got the most points won the game. The baskets were originally nailed to the mezzanine balcony of the playing court, but this proved impractical when spectators in the balcony began to interfere with shots. The backboard was introduced to prevent this interference; it had the additional effect of allowing rebound shots. Naismith's handwritten diaries, discovered by his granddaughter in early 2006, indicate that he was nervous about the new game he had invented, which incorporated rules from a children's game called \"Duck on a Rock\", as many had failed before it. Naismith called the new game \"Basket Ball\". The first official game was played in the YMCA gymnasium in Albany, New York, on January 20, 1892, with nine players. The game ended at 1–0; the shot was made from 25 ft, on a court just half the size of a present-day Streetball or National Basketball Association (NBA) court. By 1897–1898 teams of five became standard.\n\nCollege basketball\n\nBasketball's early adherents were dispatched to YMCAs throughout the United States, and it quickly spread through the USA and Canada. By 1895, it was well established at several women's high schools. While the YMCA was responsible for initially developing and spreading the game, within a decade it discouraged the new sport, as rough play and rowdy crowds began to detract from the YMCA's primary mission. However, other amateur sports clubs, colleges, and professional clubs quickly filled the void. In the years before World War I, the Amateur Athletic Union and the Intercollegiate Athletic Association of the United States (forerunner of the NCAA) vied for control over the rules for the game. The first pro league, the National Basketball League, was formed in 1898 to protect players from exploitation and to promote a less rough game. This league only lasted five years.\n\nDr. James Naismith was instrumental in establishing college basketball. His colleague C.O. Beamis fielded the first college basketball team just a year after the Springfield YMCA game at the suburban Pittsburgh Geneva College. Naismith himself later coached at the University of Kansas for six years, before handing the reins to renowned coach Forrest \"Phog\" Allen. Naismith's disciple Amos Alonzo Stagg brought basketball to the University of Chicago, while Adolph Rupp, a student of Naismith's at Kansas, enjoyed great success as coach at the University of Kentucky. On February 9, 1895, the first intercollegiate 5-on-5 game was played at Hamline University between Hamline and the School of Agriculture, which was affiliated with the University of Minnesota. The School of Agriculture won in a 9–3 game.\n\nIn 1901, colleges, including the University of Chicago, Columbia University, Dartmouth College, the University of Minnesota, the U.S. Naval Academy, the University of Colorado and Yale University began sponsoring men's games. In 1905, frequent injuries on the football field prompted President Theodore Roosevelt to suggest that colleges form a governing body, resulting in the creation of the Intercollegiate Athletic Association of the United States (IAAUS). In 1910, that body would change its name to the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA). The first Canadian interuniversity basketball game was played at the YMCA in Kingston, Ontario on February 6, 1904, when McGill University visited Queen's University. McGill won 9–7 in overtime; the score was 7–7 at the end of regulation play, and a ten-minute overtime period settled the outcome. A good turnout of spectators watched the game. \n\nThe first men's national championship tournament, the National Association of Intercollegiate Basketball tournament, which still exists as the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA) tournament, was organized in 1937. The first national championship for NCAA teams, the National Invitation Tournament (NIT) in New York, was organized in 1938; the NCAA national tournament would begin one year later. College basketball was rocked by gambling scandals from 1948 to 1951, when dozens of players from top teams were implicated in match fixing and point shaving. Partially spurred by an association with cheating, the NIT lost support to the NCAA tournament.\n\nHigh school basketball\n\nBefore widespread school district consolidation, most American high schools were far smaller than their present-day counterparts. During the first decades of the 20th century, basketball quickly became the ideal interscholastic sport due to its modest equipment and personnel requirements. In the days before widespread television coverage of professional and college sports, the popularity of high school basketball was unrivaled in many parts of America. Perhaps the most legendary of high school teams was Indiana's Franklin Wonder Five, which took the nation by storm during the 1920s, dominating Indiana basketball and earning national recognition.\n\nToday virtually every high school in the United States fields a basketball team in varsity competition. Basketball's popularity remains high, both in rural areas where they carry the identification of the entire community, as well as at some larger schools known for their basketball teams where many players go on to participate at higher levels of competition after graduation. In the 2003–04 season, 1,002,797 boys and girls represented their schools in interscholastic basketball competition, according to the National Federation of State High School Associations. The states of Illinois, Indiana and Kentucky are particularly well known for their residents' devotion to high school basketball, commonly called Hoosier Hysteria in Indiana; the critically acclaimed film Hoosiers shows high school basketball's depth of meaning to these communities.\n\nThere is currently no national tournament to determine a national high school champion. The most serious effort was the National Interscholastic Basketball Tournament at the University of Chicago from 1917 to 1930. The event was organized by Amos Alonzo Stagg and sent invitations to state champion teams. The tournament started out as a mostly Midwest affair but grew. In 1929 it had 29 state champions. Faced with opposition from the National Federation of State High School Associations and North Central Association of Colleges and Schools that bore a threat of the schools losing their accreditation the last tournament was in 1930. The organizations said they were concerned that the tournament was being used to recruit professional players from the prep ranks. The tournament did not invite minority schools or private/parochial schools.\n\nThe National Catholic Interscholastic Basketball Tournament ran from 1924 to 1941 at Loyola University. The National Catholic Invitational Basketball Tournament from 1954 to 1978 played at a series of venues, including Catholic University, Georgetown and George Mason. The National Interscholastic Basketball Tournament for Black High Schools was held from 1929 to 1942 at Hampton Institute. The National Invitational Interscholastic Basketball Tournament was held from 1941 to 1967 starting out at Tuskegee Institute. Following a pause during World War II it resumed at Tennessee State College in Nashville. The basis for the champion dwindled after 1954 when Brown v. Board of Education began an integration of schools. The last tournaments were held at Alabama State College from 1964 to 1967.\n\nProfessional basketball\n\nTeams abounded throughout the 1920s. There were hundreds of men's professional basketball teams in towns and cities all over the United States, and little organization of the professional game. Players jumped from team to team and teams played in armories and smoky dance halls. Leagues came and went. Barnstorming squads such as the Original Celtics and two all-African American teams, the New York Renaissance Five (\"Rens\") and the (still existing) Harlem Globetrotters played up to two hundred games a year on their national tours.\n\nIn 1946, the Basketball Association of America (BAA) was formed. The first game was played in Toronto, Ontario, Canada between the Toronto Huskies and New York Knickerbockers on November 1, 1946. Three seasons later, in 1949, the BAA merged with the National Basketball League to form the National Basketball Association (NBA). By the 1950s, basketball had become a major college sport, thus paving the way for a growth of interest in professional basketball. In 1959, a basketball hall of fame was founded in Springfield, Massachusetts, site of the first game. Its rosters include the names of great players, coaches, referees and people who have contributed significantly to the development of the game. The hall of fame has people who have accomplished many goals in their career in basketball. An upstart organization, the American Basketball Association, emerged in 1967 and briefly threatened the NBA's dominance until the ABA-NBA merger in 1976. Today the NBA is the top professional basketball league in the world in terms of popularity, salaries, talent, and level of competition.\n\nThe NBA has featured many famous players, including George Mikan, the first dominating \"big man\"; ball-handling wizard Bob Cousy and defensive genius Bill Russell of the Boston Celtics; Wilt Chamberlain, who originally played for the barnstorming Harlem Globetrotters; all-around stars Oscar Robertson and Jerry West; more recent big men Kareem Abdul-Jabbar, Shaquille O'Neal and Karl Malone; playmaker John Stockton; crowd-pleasing forward Julius Erving; European stars Dirk Nowitzki and Dražen Petrović; more recent stars LeBron James, Kevin Durant, and Kobe Bryant, and the three players who many credit with ushering the professional game to its highest level of popularity: Larry Bird, Earvin \"Magic\" Johnson, and Michael Jordan. In 2001, the NBA formed a developmental league, the NBA Development League. As of 2015, the D-league has 19 teams.\n\nInternational basketball\n\nFIBA (International Basketball Federation) was formed in 1932 by eight founding nations: Argentina, Czechoslovakia, Greece, Italy, Latvia, Portugal, Romania and Switzerland. At this time, the organization only oversaw amateur players. Its acronym, derived from the French Fédération Internationale de Basket-ball Amateur, was thus \"FIBA\". Men's basketball was first included at the Berlin 1936 Summer Olympics, although a demonstration tournament was held in 1904. The United States defeated Canada in the first final, played outdoors. This competition has usually been dominated by the United States, whose team has won all but three titles. The first of these came in a controversial final game in Munich in 1972 against the Soviet Union, in which the ending of the game was replayed three times until the Soviet Union finally came out on top. In 1950 the first FIBA World Championship for men, now known as the FIBA Basketball World Cup, was held in Argentina. Three years later, the first FIBA World Championship for Women, now known as the FIBA Women's Basketball World Cup, was held in Chile. Women's basketball was added to the Olympics in 1976, which were held in Montreal, Canada with teams such as the Soviet Union, Brazil and Australia rivaling the American squads.\n\nFIBA dropped the distinction between amateur and professional players in 1989, and in 1992, professional players played for the first time in the Olympic Games. The United States' dominance continued with the introduction of their Dream Team. In the 2004 Athens Olympics, the United States suffered its first Olympic loss while using professional players, falling to Puerto Rico (in a 19-point loss) and Lithuania in group games, and being eliminated in the semifinals by Argentina. It eventually won the bronze medal defeating Lithuania, finishing behind Argentina and Italy. The \"Redeem Team\", won gold at the 2008 Olympics, and the so-called \"B-Team\", won gold at the 2010 FIBA World Championship in Turkey despite featuring no players from the 2008 squad. The United States continued its dominance as they won gold at the 2012 Olympics and the 2014 FIBA World Cup.\n\nWorldwide, basketball tournaments are held for boys and girls of all age levels. The global popularity of the sport is reflected in the nationalities represented in the NBA. Players from all six inhabited continents currently play in the NBA. Top international players began coming into the NBA in the mid-1990s, including Croatians Dražen Petrović and Toni Kukoč, Serbian Vlade Divac, Lithuanians Arvydas Sabonis and Šarūnas Marčiulionis and German Detlef Schrempf.\n\nIn the Philippines, the Philippine Basketball Association's first game was played on April 9, 1975 at the Araneta Coliseum in Cubao, Quezon City. Philippines. It was founded as a \"rebellion\" of several teams from the now-defunct Manila Industrial and Commercial Athletic Association, which was tightly controlled by the Basketball Association of the Philippines (now defunct), the then-FIBA recognized national association. Nine teams from the MICAA participated in the league's first season that opened on April 9, 1975. The NBL is Australia's pre-eminent men's professional basketball league. The league commenced in 1979, playing a winter season (April–September) and did so until the completion of the 20th season in 1998. The 1998–99 season, which commenced only months later, was the first season after the shift to the current summer season format (October–April). This shift was an attempt to avoid competing directly against Australia's various football codes. It features 8 teams from around Australia and one in New Zealand. A few players including Luc Longley, Andrew Gaze, Shane Heal, Chris Anstey and Andrew Bogut made it big internationally, becoming poster figures for the sport in Australia. The Women's National Basketball League began in 1981.\n\nWomen's basketball\n\nWomen's basketball began in 1892 at Smith College when Senda Berenson, a physical education teacher, modified Naismith's rules for women. Shortly after she was hired at Smith, she went to Naismith to learn more about the game. Fascinated by the new sport and the values it could teach, she organized the first women's collegiate basketball game on March 21, 1893, when her Smith freshmen and sophomores played against one another. However, the first women's interinstitutional game was played in 1892 between the University of California and Miss Head's School. Berenson's rules were first published in 1899, and two years later she became the editor of A. G. Spalding's first Women's Basketball Guide. Berenson's freshmen played the sophomore class in the first women's intercollegiate basketball game at Smith College, March 21, 1893. The same year, Mount Holyoke and Sophie Newcomb College (coached by Clara Gregory Baer) women began playing basketball. By 1895, the game had spread to colleges across the country, including Wellesley, Vassar, and Bryn Mawr. The first intercollegiate women's game was on April 4, 1896. Stanford women played Berkeley, 9-on-9, ending in a 2–1 Stanford victory.\n\nWomen's basketball development was more structured than that for men in the early years. In 1905, the Executive Committee on Basket Ball Rules (National Women's Basketball Committee) was created by the American Physical Education Association. These rules called for six to nine players per team and 11 officials. The International Women's Sports Federation (1924) included a women's basketball competition. 37 women's high school varsity basketball or state tournaments were held by 1925. And in 1926, the Amateur Athletic Union backed the first national women's basketball championship, complete with men's rules. The Edmonton Grads, a touring Canadian women's team based in Edmonton, Alberta, operated between 1915 and 1940. The Grads toured all over North America, and were exceptionally successful. They posted a record of 522 wins and only 20 losses over that span, as they met any team that wanted to challenge them, funding their tours from gate receipts. The Grads also shone on several exhibition trips to Europe, and won four consecutive exhibition Olympics tournaments, in 1924, 1928, 1932, and 1936; however, women's basketball was not an official Olympic sport until 1976. The Grads' players were unpaid, and had to remain single. The Grads' style focused on team play, without overly emphasizing skills of individual players. The first women's AAU All-America team was chosen in 1929. Women's industrial leagues sprang up throughout the United States, producing famous athletes, including Babe Didrikson of the Golden Cyclones, and the All American Red Heads Team, which competed against men's teams, using men's rules. By 1938, the women's national championship changed from a three-court game to two-court game with six players per team.\n\nThe NBA-backed Women's National Basketball Association (WNBA) began in 1997. Though it had shaky attendance figures, several marquee players (Lisa Leslie, Diana Taurasi, and Candace Parker among others) have helped the league's popularity and level of competition. Other professional women's basketball leagues in the United States, such as the American Basketball League (1996–98), have folded in part because of the popularity of the WNBA. The WNBA has been looked at by many as a niche league. However, the league has recently taken steps forward. In June 2007, the WNBA signed a contract extension with ESPN. The new television deal runs from 2009 to 2016. Along with this deal, came the first ever rights fees to be paid to a women's professional sports league. Over the eight years of the contract, \"millions and millions of dollars\" will be \"dispersed to the league's teams.\" The WNBA gets more viewers on national television broadcasts (413,000) than both Major League Soccer (253,000) and the NHL (310,732). In a March 12, 2009 article, NBA commissioner David Stern said that in the bad economy, \"the NBA is far less profitable than the WNBA. We're losing a lot of money among a large number of teams. We're budgeting the WNBA to break even this year.\" \n\nRules and regulations\n\nMeasurements and time limits discussed in this section often vary among tournaments and organizations; international and NBA rules are used in this section.\n\nThe object of the game is to outscore one's opponents by throwing the ball through the opponents' basket from above while preventing the opponents from doing so on their own. An attempt to score in this way is called a shot. A successful shot is worth two points, or three points if it is taken from beyond the three-point arc from the basket in international games and 23 ft in NBA games. A one-point shot can be earned when shooting from the foul line after a foul is made.\n\nPlaying regulations\n\nGames are played in four quarters of 10 (FIBA) or 12 minutes (NBA). College men's games use two 20-minute halves,[http://www.ncaapublications.com/DownloadPublication.aspx?download\nBR11.pdf 2009–2011 Men's & Women's Basketball Rules] Rule 5, Section 6, Article 1. Retrieved July 26, 2010. college women's games use 10-minute quarters, and United States high school varsity games use 8 minute quarters. Rule 5, Section 5, Article 1 15 minutes are allowed for a half-time break under FIBA, NBA, and NCAA rules and 10 minutes in United States high schools. Overtime periods are five minutes in length except for high school, which is four minutes in length. Teams exchange baskets for the second half. The time allowed is actual playing time; the clock is stopped while the play is not active. Therefore, games generally take much longer to complete than the allotted game time, typically about two hours.\n\nFive players from each team may be on the court at one time. Substitutions are unlimited but can only be done when play is stopped. Teams also have a coach, who oversees the development and strategies of the team, and other team personnel such as assistant coaches, managers, statisticians, doctors and trainers.\n\nFor both men's and women's teams, a standard uniform consists of a pair of shorts and a jersey with a clearly visible number, unique within the team, printed on both the front and back. Players wear high-top sneakers that provide extra ankle support. Typically, team names, players' names and, outside of North America, sponsors are printed on the uniforms.\n\nA limited number of time-outs, clock stoppages requested by a coach (or sometimes mandated in the NBA) for a short meeting with the players, are allowed. They generally last no longer than one minute (100 seconds in the NBA) unless, for televised games, a commercial break is needed.\n\nThe game is controlled by the officials consisting of the referee (referred to as crew chief in the NBA), one or two umpires (referred to as referees in the NBA) and the table officials. For college, the NBA, and many high schools, there are a total of three referees on the court. The table officials are responsible for keeping track of each teams scoring, timekeeping, individual and team fouls, player substitutions, team possession arrow, and the shot clock.\n\nEquipment\n\nThe only essential equipment in a basketball game is the ball and the court: a flat, rectangular surface with baskets at opposite ends. Competitive levels require the use of more equipment such as clocks, score sheets, scoreboard(s), alternating possession arrows, and whistle-operated stop-clock systems.\n\nA regulation basketball court in international games is long and 49.2 feet (15 meters) wide. In the NBA and NCAA the court is 94 by. Most courts have wood flooring, usually constructed from maple planks running in the same direction as the longer court dimension. The name and logo of the home team is usually painted on or around the center circle.\n\nThe basket is a steel rim 18 in diameter with an attached net affixed to a backboard that measures 6 by and one basket is at each end of the court. The white outlined box on the backboard is 18 in high and 2 ft wide. At almost all levels of competition, the top of the rim is exactly 10 ft above the court and 4 ft inside the baseline. While variation is possible in the dimensions of the court and backboard, it is considered important for the basket to be of the correct height – a rim that is off by just a few inches can have an adverse effect on shooting.\n\nThe size of the basketball is also regulated. For men, the official ball is in circumference (size 7, or a \"295 ball\") and weighs 22 oz (623.69 grams). If women are playing, the official basketball size is in circumference (size 6, or a \"285 ball\") with a weight of 20 oz (567 grams). In 3x3, a formalized version of the halfcourt 3-on-3 game, a dedicated ball with the circumference of a size 6 ball but the weight of a size 7 ball is used in all competitions (men's, women's, and mixed teams). \n\nViolations\n\nThe ball may be advanced toward the basket by being shot, passed between players, thrown, tapped, rolled or dribbled (bouncing the ball while running).\n\nThe ball must stay within the court; the last team to touch the ball before it travels out of bounds forfeits possession. The ball is out of bounds if it touches a boundary line, or touches any player or object that is out of bounds.\n\nThere are limits placed on the steps a player may take without dribbling, which commonly results in an infraction known as traveling. Nor may a player stop his dribble and then resume dribbling. A dribble that touches both hands is considered stopping the dribble, giving this infraction the name double dribble. Within a dribble, the player cannot carry the ball by placing his hand on the bottom of the ball; doing so is known as carrying the ball. A team, once having established ball control in the front half of their court, may not return the ball to the backcourt and be the first to touch it. A violation of these rules results in loss of possession.\n\nThe ball may not be kicked, nor be struck with the fist. For the offense, a violation of these rules results in loss of possession; for the defense, most leagues reset the shot clock and the offensive team is given possession of the ball out of bounds.\n\nThere are limits imposed on the time taken before progressing the ball past halfway (8 seconds in FIBA and the NBA; 10 seconds in NCAA and high school for both sexes), before attempting a shot (24 seconds in FIBA, the NBA, and Canadian Interuniversity Sport play for both sexes, and 30 seconds in NCAA play for both sexes), holding the ball while closely guarded (5 seconds), and remaining in the restricted area known as the free-throw lane, (or the \"key\") (3 seconds). These rules are designed to promote more offense.\n\nBasket interference, or goaltending is a violation charged when a player illegally interferes with a shot. This violation is incurred when a player touches the ball on its downward trajectory to the basket, unless it is obvious that the ball has no chance of entering the basket, if a player touches the ball while it is in the rim, or in the area extended upwards from the basket, or if a player reaches through the basket to interfere with the shot. When a defensive player is charged with goaltending, the basket is awarded. If an offensive player commits the infraction, the basket is cancelled. In either case possession of the ball is turned over to the defensive team.\n\nFouls\n\nAn attempt to unfairly disadvantage an opponent through certain types of physical contact is illegal and is called a personal foul. These are most commonly committed by defensive players; however, they can be committed by offensive players as well. Players who are fouled either receive the ball to pass inbounds again, or receive one or more free throws if they are fouled in the act of shooting, depending on whether the shot was successful. One point is awarded for making a free throw, which is attempted from a line 15 ft from the basket.\n\nThe referee is responsible for judging whether contact is illegal, sometimes resulting in controversy. The calling of fouls can vary between games, leagues and referees.\n\nThere is a second category of fouls called technical fouls, which may be charged for various rules violations including failure to properly record a player in the scorebook, or for unsportsmanlike conduct. These infractions result in one or two free throws, which may be taken by any of the five players on the court at the time. Repeated incidents can result in disqualification. A blatant foul involving physical contact that is either excessive or unnecessary is called an intentional foul (flagrant foul in the NBA). In FIBA, a foul resulting in ejection is called a disqualifying foul, while in leagues other than the NBA, such a foul is referred to as flagrant.\n\nIf a team exceeds a certain limit of team fouls in a given period (quarter or half) – four for NBA, NCAA women's, and international games – the opposing team is awarded one or two free throws on all subsequent non-shooting fouls for that period, the number depending on the league. In the US college men's game and high school games for both sexes, if a team reaches 7 fouls in a half, the opposing team is awarded one free throw, along with a second shot if the first is made. This is called shooting \"one-and-one\". If a team exceeds 10 fouls in the half, the opposing team is awarded two free throws on all subsequent fouls for the half.\n\nWhen a team shoots foul shots, the opponents may not interfere with the shooter, nor may they try to regain possession until the last or potentially last free throw is in the air.\n\nAfter a team has committed a specified number of fouls, the other team is said to be \"in the bonus\". On scoreboards, this is usually signified with an indicator light reading \"Bonus\" or \"Penalty\" with an illuminated directional arrow or dot indicating that team is to receive free throws when fouled by the opposing team. (Some scoreboards also indicate the number of fouls committed.)\n\nIf a team misses the first shot of a two-shot situation, the opposing team must wait for the completion of the second shot before attempting to reclaim possession of the ball and continuing play.\n\nIf a player is fouled while attempting a shot and the shot is unsuccessful, the player is awarded a number of free throws equal to the value of the attempted shot. A player fouled while attempting a regular two-point shot thus receives two shots. A player fouled while attempting a three-point shot, on the other hand, receives three shots.\n\nIf a player is fouled while attempting a shot and the shot is successful, typically the player will be awarded one additional free throw for one point. In combination with a regular shot, this is called a \"three-point play\" or \"four-point play\" (or more colloquially, an \"and one\") because of the basket made at the time of the foul (2 or 3 points) and the additional free throw (1 point).\n\nCommon techniques and practices\n\nPositions\n\nAlthough the rules do not specify any positions whatsoever, they have evolved as part of basketball. During the early years of basketball's evolution, two guards, two forwards, and one center were used. In more recent times specific positions evolved, but the current trend, advocated by many top coaches including Mike Krzyzewski is towards positionless basketball, where big guys are free to shoot from outside and dribble if their skill allows it. Popular descriptions of positions include:\n\nPoint guard (often called the \"1\") : usually the fastest player on the team, organizes the team's offense by controlling the ball and making sure that it gets to the right player at the right time.\n\nShooting guard (the \"2\") : creates a high volume of shots on offense, mainly long-ranged; and guards the opponent's best perimeter player on defense.\n\nSmall forward (the \"3\") : often primarily responsible for scoring points via cuts to the basket and dribble penetration; on defense seeks rebounds and steals, but sometimes plays more actively.\n\nPower forward (the \"4\"): plays offensively often with their back to the basket; on defense, plays under the basket (in a zone defense) or against the opposing power forward (in man-to-man defense).\n\nCenter (the \"5\"): uses height and size to score (on offense), to protect the basket closely (on defense), or to rebound.\n\nThe above descriptions are flexible. For most teams today, the shooting guard and small forward have very similar responsibilities and are often called the wings, as do the power forward and center, who are often called post players. While most teams describe two players as guards, two as forwards, and one as a center, on some occasions teams choose to call them by different designations.\n\nStrategy\n\nThere are two main defensive strategies: zone defense and man-to-man defense. In a zone defense, each player is assigned to guard a specific area of the court. Zone defenses often allow the defense to double team the ball, a manoeuver known as a trap. In a man-to-man defense, each defensive player guards a specific opponent.\n\nOffensive plays are more varied, normally involving planned passes and movement by players without the ball. A quick movement by an offensive player without the ball to gain an advantageous position is known as a cut. A legal attempt by an offensive player to stop an opponent from guarding a teammate, by standing in the defender's way such that the teammate cuts next to him, is a screen or pick. The two plays are combined in the pick and roll, in which a player sets a pick and then \"rolls\" away from the pick towards the basket. Screens and cuts are very important in offensive plays; these allow the quick passes and teamwork, which can lead to a successful basket. Teams almost always have several offensive plays planned to ensure their movement is not predictable. On court, the point guard is usually responsible for indicating which play will occur.\n\nShooting\n\nShooting is the act of attempting to score points by throwing the ball through the basket, methods varying with players and situations.\n\nTypically, a player faces the basket with both feet facing the basket. A player will rest the ball on the fingertips of the dominant hand (the shooting arm) slightly above the head, with the other hand supporting the side of the ball. The ball is usually shot by jumping (though not always) and extending the shooting arm. The shooting arm, fully extended with the wrist fully bent, is held stationary for a moment following the release of the ball, known as a follow-through. Players often try to put a steady backspin on the ball to absorb its impact with the rim. The ideal trajectory of the shot is somewhat controversial, but generally a proper arc is recommended. Players may shoot directly into the basket or may use the backboard to redirect the ball into the basket.\n\nThe two most common shots that use the above described setup are the set-shot and the jump-shot. The set-shot is taken from a standing position, with neither foot leaving the floor, typically used for free throws, and in other circumstances while the jump-shot is taken in mid-air, the ball released near the top of the jump. This provides much greater power and range, and it also allows the player to elevate over the defender. Failure to release the ball before the feet return to the floor is considered a traveling violation.\n\nAnother common shot is called the lay-up. This shot requires the player to be in motion toward the basket, and to \"lay\" the ball \"up\" and into the basket, typically off the backboard (the backboard-free, underhand version is called a finger roll). The most crowd-pleasing and typically highest-percentage accuracy shot is the slam dunk, in which the player jumps very high and throws the ball downward, through the basket while touching it.\n\nAnother shot that is becoming common is the \"circus shot\". The circus shot is a low-percentage shot that is flipped, heaved, scooped, or flung toward the hoop while the shooter is off-balance, airborne, falling down, and/or facing away from the basket. A back-shot is a shot taken when the player is facing away from the basket, and may be shot with the dominant hand, or both; but there is a very low chance that the shot will be successful.\n\nA shot that misses both the rim and the backboard completely is referred to as an air-ball. A particularly bad shot, or one that only hits the backboard, is jocularly called a brick. The hang time is the length of time a player stays in the air after jumping, either to make a slam dunk, lay-up or jump shot.\n\nRebounding\n\nThe objective of rebounding is to successfully gain possession of the basketball after a missed field goal or free throw, as it rebounds from the hoop or backboard. This plays a major role in the game, as most possessions end when a team misses a shot. There are two categories of rebounds: offensive rebounds, in which the ball is recovered by the offensive side and does not change possession, and defensive rebounds, in which the defending team gains possession of the loose ball. The majority of rebounds are defensive, as the team on defense tends to be in better position to recover missed shots.\n\nPassing\n\nA pass is a method of moving the ball between players. Most passes are accompanied by a step forward to increase power and are followed through with the hands to ensure accuracy.\n\nA staple pass is the chest pass. The ball is passed directly from the passer's chest to the receiver's chest. A proper chest pass involves an outward snap of the thumbs to add velocity and leaves the defence little time to react.\n\nAnother type of pass is the bounce pass. Here, the passer bounces the ball crisply about two-thirds of the way from his own chest to the receiver. The ball strikes the court and bounces up toward the receiver. The bounce pass takes longer to complete than the chest pass, but it is also harder for the opposing team to intercept (kicking the ball deliberately is a violation). Thus, players often use the bounce pass in crowded moments, or to pass around a defender.\n\nThe overhead pass is used to pass the ball over a defender. The ball is released while over the passer's head.\n\nThe outlet pass occurs after a team gets a defensive rebound. The next pass after the rebound is the outlet pass.\n\nThe crucial aspect of any good pass is it being difficult to intercept. Good passers can pass the ball with great accuracy and they know exactly where each of their other teammates prefers to receive the ball. A special way of doing this is passing the ball without looking at the receiving teammate. This is called a no-look pass.\n\nAnother advanced style of passing is the behind-the-back pass, which, as the description implies, involves throwing the ball behind the passer's back to a teammate. Although some players can perform such a pass effectively, many coaches discourage no-look or behind-the-back passes, believing them to be difficult to control and more likely to result in turnovers or violations.\n\nDribbling\n\nDribbling is the act of bouncing the ball continuously with one hand, and is a requirement for a player to take steps with the ball. To dribble, a player pushes the ball down towards the ground with the fingertips rather than patting it; this ensures greater control.\n\nWhen dribbling past an opponent, the dribbler should dribble with the hand farthest from the opponent, making it more difficult for the defensive player to get to the ball. It is therefore important for a player to be able to dribble competently with both hands.\n\nGood dribblers (or \"ball handlers\") tend to bounce the ball low to the ground, reducing the distance of travel of the ball from the floor to the hand, making it more difficult for the defender to \"steal\" the ball. Good ball handlers frequently dribble behind their backs, between their legs, and switch directions suddenly, making a less predictable dribbling pattern that is more difficult to defend against. This is called a crossover, which is the most effective way to move past defenders while dribbling.\n\nA skilled player can dribble without watching the ball, using the dribbling motion or peripheral vision to keep track of the ball's location. By not having to focus on the ball, a player can look for teammates or scoring opportunities, as well as avoid the danger of having someone steal the ball away from him/her.\n\nBlocking\n\nA block is performed when, after a shot is attempted, a defender succeeds in altering the shot by touching the ball. In almost all variants of play, it is illegal to touch the ball after it is in the downward path of its arc; this is known as goaltending. It is also illegal under NBA and Men's NCAA basketball to block a shot after it has touched the backboard, or when any part of the ball is directly above the rim. Under international rules it is illegal to block a shot that is in the downward path of its arc or one that has touched the backboard until the ball has hit the rim. After the ball hits the rim, it is again legal to touch it even though it is no longer considered as a block performed.\n\nTo block a shot, a player has to be able to reach a point higher than where the shot is released. Thus, height can be an advantage in blocking. Players who are taller and playing the power forward or center positions generally record more blocks than players who are shorter and playing the guard positions. However, with good timing and a sufficiently high vertical leap, even shorter players can be effective shot blockers.\n\nHeight\n\nAt the professional level, most male players are above 6 ft and most women above 5 ft. Guards, for whom physical coordination and ball-handling skills are crucial, tend to be the smallest players. Almost all forwards in the top men's pro leagues are 6 ft or taller. Most centers are over 6 ft tall. According to a survey given to all NBA teams, the average height of all NBA players is just under 6 ft, with the average weight being close to 222 lb. The tallest players ever in the NBA were Manute Bol and Gheorghe Mureșan, who were both 7 ft tall. The tallest current NBA player is Sim Bhullar, who stands at 7 ft. At 7 ft, Margo Dydek was the tallest player in the history of the WNBA.\n\nThe shortest player ever to play in the NBA is Muggsy Bogues at 5 ft. Other short players have thrived at the pro level. Anthony \"Spud\" Webb was just 5 ft tall, but had a 42 in vertical leap, giving him significant height when jumping. While shorter players are often at a disadvantage in certain aspects of the game, their ability to navigate quickly through crowded areas of the court and steal the ball by reaching low are strengths.\n\nRace and ethnicity\n\nThe composition of race and ethnicity in the National Basketball Association (NBA) has changed throughout the league's history. The first non-white player entered the league in 1947. According to racial equality activist Richard Lapchick, the NBA in 2011 was composed of 78 percent black players, 17 percent white players, four percent Latinos (of any race), and one percent Asian. \n\nHall of Fame player Larry Bird, who is white, stated in 2004 that the league needed more white players since the league's fans are mostly white. \"And if you just had a couple of white guys in there, you might get them [the fans, not the guys] a little excited. But it is a black man's game, and it will be forever. I mean, the greatest athletes in the world are African-American,\" said Bird. \n\nVariations and similar games\n\nVariations of basketball are activities based on the game of basketball, using common basketball skills and equipment (primarily the ball and basket). Some variations are only superficial rules changes, while others are distinct games with varying degrees of basketball influences. Other variations include children's games, contests or activities meant to help players reinforce skills.\n\nThere are principal basketball sports with variations on basketball including Wheelchair basketball, Water basketball, Beach basketball, Slamball, Streetball and Unicycle basketball. An earlier version of basketball, played primarily by women and girls, was Six-on-six basketball. Horseball is a game played on horseback where a ball is handled and points are scored by shooting it through a high net (approximately 1.5m×1.5m). The sport is like a combination of polo, rugby, and basketball. There is even a form played on donkeys known as Donkey basketball, but that version has come under attack from animal rights groups.\n\n;Half-court: Perhaps the single most common variation of basketball is the half-court game, played in informal settings without referees or strict rules. Only one basket is used, and the ball must be \"cleared\" – passed or dribbled outside the three-point line each time possession of the ball changes from one team to the other. Half-court games require less cardiovascular stamina, since players need not run back and forth a full court. Half-court raises the number of players that can use a court or, conversely, can be played if there is an insufficient number to form full 5-on-5 teams.\n\nHalf-court basketball is usually played 1-on-1, 2-on-2 or 3-on-3. The latter variation is gradually gaining official recognition as 3x3, originally known as FIBA 33. It was first tested at the 2007 Asian Indoor Games in Macau and the first official tournaments were held at the 2009 Asian Youth Games and the 2010 Youth Olympics, both in Singapore. The first FIBA 3x3 Youth World Championships were held in Rimini, Italy in 2011, with the first FIBA 3x3 World Championships for senior teams following a year later in Athens. The sport is highly tipped to become an Olympic sport as early as 2016. \n\nThere are also other basketball sports, such as:\n\n* 21 (also known as American, cutthroat and roughhouse)\n\n* 42\n* Around the world\n* Bounce\n* Firing Squad\n* Fives\n* H-O-R-S-E\n* Hotshot\n* Knockout\n* One-shot conquer\n* Steal The Bacon\n* Tip-it\n* Tips\n* \"The One\"\n* Basketball War.\n* One-on-One, a variation in which two players will use only a small section of the court (often no more than a half of a court) and compete to play the ball into a single hoop. Such games tend to emphasize individual dribbling and ball stealing skills over shooting and team play.\n\n;Wheelchair basketball: Wheelchair basketball, created by disabled World War II veterans, is played on specially designed wheelchairs for the physically impaired. The world governing body of wheelchair basketball is the International Wheelchair Basketball Federation (IWBF), and is a full medal sport in the Summer Paralympic Games.\n\n;Water basketball: Water basketball, played in a swimming pool, merges basketball and water polo rules.\n\n;Beach basketball: A modified version of basketball, played on beaches, was invented by Philip Bryant. Beach basketball is played in a circular court with no backboard on the goal, no out-of-bounds rule with the ball movement to be done via passes or 2½ steps, as dribbling is next to impossible on a soft surface. \nBeach basketball has grown to a very popular, widespread competitive sport. 15 Annual World Championships have been organized.\n\n;Dunk Hoops: Dunk Hoops (a.k.a. Dunk Ball) is a variation of the game of basketball, played on basketball hoops with lowered (under basketball regulation 10 feet) rims. It originated when the popularity of the slam dunk grew and was developed to create better chances for dunks with lowered rims and using altered goaltending rules.\n\n;Slamball: Slamball is full-contact basketball, with trampolines. Points are scored by playing the ball through the net, as in basketball, though the point-scoring rules are modified. The main differences from the parent sport is the court; below the padded basketball rim and backboard are four trampolines set into the floor, which serve to propel players to great heights for slam dunks. The rules also permit some physical contact between the members of the four-player teams.\n\n;Streetball: Streetball is a less formal variant of basketball, played on playgrounds and in gymnasiums across the world. Often only one half of the court is used, but otherwise the rules of the game are very similar to those of basketball. The number of participants in a game, or a run, may range from one defender and one person on offense (known as one on one) to two full teams of five each. Streetball is a very popular game worldwide, and some cities in the United States have organized streetball programs, such as midnight basketball. Many cities also host their own weekend-long streetball tournaments.\n\n;: Unicycle basketball is played using a regulation basketball on a regular basketball court with the same rules, for example, one must dribble the ball while riding. There are a number of rules that are particular to unicycle basketball as well, for example, a player must have at least one foot on a pedal when in-bounding the ball. Unicycle basketball is usually played using 24\" or smaller unicycles, and using plastic pedals, both to preserve the court and the players' shins. In North America, popular unicycle basketball games are organized. \n\nSpin-offs from basketball that are now separate sports include:\n\nRingball, a traditional South African sport that stems from basketball, has been played since 1907. The sport is now promoted in South Africa, Namibia, Botswana, Lesotho, India, and Mauritius to establish Ringball as an international sport.\n Korfball (Dutch: Korfbal, korf meaning 'basket') started in the Netherlands and is now played worldwide as a mixed gender team ball game, similar to mixed netball and basketball\n* Netball (formerly known as Women basketball but now played by both males and females), a limited-contact team sport in which two teams of seven try to score points against one another by placing a ball through a high hoop. Australia New Zealand champions (so called ANZ Championship) is very famous in Australia and New Zealand as the premier netball league.\n\nSocial forms of basketball\n\nBasketball has been adopted by various social groups, which have established their own environments and sometimes their own rules. Such socialized forms of basketball include the following.\n* Recreational basketball, where fun, entertainment and camaraderie rule rather than winning a game;\n* Basketball Schools and Academies, where students are trained in developing basketball fundamentals, undergo fitness and endurance exercises and learn various basketball skills. Basketball students learn proper ways of passing, ball handling, dribbling, shooting from various distances, rebounding, offensive moves, defense, layups, screens, basketball rules and basketball ethics. Also popular are the basketball camps organized for various occasions, often to get prepared for basketball events, and basketball clinics for improving skills.\n* College and University basketball played in educational institutions of higher learning.\n** This includes National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) intercollegiate basketball.\n* Disabled basketball played by various disabled groups, such as\n Bankshot basketball, \n Deaf basketball,\n** Wheelchair basketball, a sport based on basketball but designed for disabled people in wheelchairs and considered one of the major disabled sports practiced.\n* Ethnic and Religion-based basketball: Examples of ethnic basketball include Indo-Pak or Russian or Armenian leagues in the United States or Canada, for example, or Filipino expatriate basketball leagues in the Gulf or the United States. Religion-based basketball includes, most notably, church-related Christian basketball leagues, Jewish, Muslim and Hindu basketball leagues, and so on. or denominational leagues like Coptic, Syriac/Assyrian basketball leagues in the United States or Canada.\n* Gay basketball played in gay, lesbian, bisexual and transgender communities in gay basketball leagues. The sport of basketball is a major part of events during the Gay Games, World Outgames and EuroGames.\n* Midnight basketball, a basketball initiative to curb inner-city crime in the United States and elsewhere by keeping urban youth off the streets and engaging them with sports alternatives to drugs and crime.\n* Mini basketball played by underage children.\n* Maxi Basketball played by more elderly individuals.\n* Prison basketball, practiced in prisons and penitentiary institutions. Active religious basketball missionary groups also play basketball with prisoners. Some prisons have developed their own prison basketball leagues. At times, non-prisoners may play in such leagues, provided all home and away games are played within prison courts. Film director Jason Moriarty has released a documentary relating to the sport, entitled Prison Ball.\n* Rezball, short for reservation ball, is the avid Native American following of basketball, particularly a style of play particular to Native American teams of some areas.\n* School or High school basketball, the sport of basketball being one of the most frequently exercised and popular sports in all school systems.\n* Show basketball as performed by entertainment basketball show teams, the prime example being the Harlem Globetrotters. There are even specialized entertainment teams, including\n Celebrity basketball teams made of celebrities (actors, singers, and so on.) playing in their own leagues or in public, often for entertainment and charity events;\n Midget basketball teams made up of athletes of short stature offering shows using basketball;\n** Slamball offered as entertainment events.\n\nFantasy basketball\n\nFantasy basketball was popularized during the 1990s after the advent of the Internet. Those who play this game are sometimes referred to as General Managers, who draft actual NBA players and compute their basketball statistics. The game was popularized by ESPN Fantasy Sports, NBA.com, and Yahoo! Fantasy Sports. Other sports websites provided the same format keeping the game interesting with participants actually owning specific players." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "City of Boston", "Boston,MA", "Economy of Boston", "Boston, Massachussets", "Boston's", "Boston, ma", "Boston, Massachusets", "Boston Massachusetts", "Boston, United States", "Wahstoronòn:ke", "Boston, Massachusetts, USA", "Boston Mass", "Boston, Massachessets", "Boston, Massachussetts", "Boston, Massachusetts, US", "Bosotn", "The weather in Boston", "Boston,Massachusetts", "Boston, Mass", "Boston, Massachusettes", "Boston, Massachussettes", "Boston, Massachusetts", "The hub of the universe", "Boston mass", "Boston massachusetts", "Boston Weather", "Beantown", "Bofton", "Boston, USA", "Boston, mass", "Education in Boston", "Boston ma", "Boston, MA", "Boston, US", "Boston (Mass.)", "Boston MA", "Demographics of Boston", "Geography of Boston", "Religion in Boston", "Boston (MA)", "Capital of Massachusetts", "Puritan City", "Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America", "Politics of Boston", "Boston", "Boston, Mass.", "The Hub of the Universe", "Boston, Massachusetts, United States", "Bean Town", "Bawstun", "UN/LOCODE:USBOS", "Massachusetts/Boston" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "bofton", "religion in boston", "weather in boston", "demographics of boston", "boston s", "hub of universe", "massachusetts boston", "boston massachussettes", "boston usa", "city of boston", "boston ma", "geography of boston", "capital of massachusetts", "education in boston", "boston massachussetts", "boston", "boston massachusets", "boston massachusettes", "un locode usbos", "beantown", "bean town", "politics of boston", "bawstun", "boston us", "boston weather", "boston united states", "boston massachusetts united states of america", "boston massachusetts us", "boston massachusetts", "puritan city", "economy of boston", "boston massachusetts usa", "boston massachusetts united states", "boston massachessets", "boston mass", "boston massachussets", "bosotn", "wahstoronòn ke" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "boston", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Boston" }
Which Disney film had the theme tune A Whole New World?	tc_264	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "The_Walt_Disney_Company.txt", "A_Whole_New_World.txt" ], "title": [ "The Walt Disney Company", "A Whole New World" ], "wiki_context": [ "The Walt Disney Company, commonly known as Disney, is an American diversified multinational mass media and entertainment conglomerate headquartered at the Walt Disney Studios in Burbank, California. It is the world's second largest media conglomerate in terms of revenue, after Comcast. Disney was founded on October 16, 1923, by Walt Disney and Roy O. Disney as the Disney Brothers Cartoon Studio, and established itself as a leader in the American animation industry before diversifying into live-action film production, television, and theme parks. The company also operated under the names The Walt Disney Studio, then Walt Disney Productions. Taking on its current name in 1986, it expanded its existing operations and also started divisions focused upon theater, radio, music, publishing, and online media.\n\nIn addition, Disney has since created corporate divisions in order to market more mature content than is typically associated with its flagship family-oriented brands. The company is best known for the products of its film studio, Walt Disney Studios, which is today one of the largest and best-known studios in American cinema. Disney's other three main divisions are Walt Disney Parks and Resorts, Disney Media Networks, and Disney Consumer Products and Interactive Media. Disney also owns and operates the ABC broadcast television network; cable television networks such as Disney Channel, ESPN, A+E Networks, and Freeform; publishing, merchandising, music, and theatre divisions; and owns and licenses 14 theme parks around the world. The company has been a component of the Dow Jones Industrial Average since May 6, 1991. Mickey Mouse, an early and well-known cartoon creation of the company, is a primary symbol and mascot for Disney.\n\nCorporate history \n\n1923–28: The silent era \n\nIn early 1923, Kansas City, Missouri, animator Walt Disney created a short film entitled Alice's Wonderland, which featured child actress Virginia Davis interacting with animated characters. After the bankruptcy in 1923 of his previous firm, Laugh-O-Gram Studios, Disney moved to Hollywood to join his brother, Roy O. Disney. Film distributor Margaret J. Winkler of M.J. Winkler Productions contacted Disney with plans to distribute a whole series of Alice Comedies purchased for $1,500 per reel with Disney as a production partner. Walt and Roy Disney formed Disney Brothers Cartoon Studio that same year. More animated films followed after Alice. In January 1926, with the completion of the Disney studio on Hyperion Street, the Disney Brothers Studio's name was changed to the Walt Disney Studio.\n\nAfter the demise of the Alice comedies, Disney developed an all-cartoon series starring his first original character, Oswald the Lucky Rabbit, which was distributed by Winkler Pictures through Universal Pictures. The distributor owned Oswald, so Disney only made a few hundred dollars. Disney completed 26 Oswald shorts before losing the contract in February 1928, due to a legal loophole, when Winkler's husband Charles Mintz took over their distribution company. After failing to take over the Disney Studio, Mintz hired away four of Disney's primary animators (the exception being Ub Iwerks) to start his own animation studio, Snappy Comedies.\n\n1928–34: Mickey Mouse and Silly Symphonies \n\nIn 1928, to recover from the loss of Oswald the Lucky Rabbit, Disney came up with the idea of a mouse character named Mortimer while on a train headed to California, drawing up a few simple drawings. The mouse was later renamed Mickey Mouse (Disney's wife, Lillian, disliked the sound of 'Mortimer Mouse') and starred in several Disney produced films. Ub Iwerks refined Disney's initial design of Mickey Mouse. Disney's first sound film Steamboat Willie, a cartoon starring Mickey, was released on November 18, 1928 through Pat Powers' distribution company. It was the first Mickey Mouse sound cartoon released, but the third to be created, behind Plane Crazy and The Gallopin' Gaucho. Steamboat Willie was an immediate smash hit, and its initial success was attributed not just to Mickey's appeal as a character, but to the fact that it was the first cartoon to feature synchronized sound. Disney used Pat Powers' Cinephone system, created by Powers using Lee De Forest's Phonofilm system. Steamboat Willie premiered at B. S. Moss's Colony Theater in New York City, now The Broadway Theatre. Disney's Plane Crazy and The Galloping Gaucho were then retrofitted with synchronized sound tracks and re-released successfully in 1929.\n\nDisney continued to produce cartoons with Mickey Mouse and other characters, and began the Silly Symphonies series with Columbia Pictures signing on as Symphonies distributor in August 1929. In September 1929, theater manager Harry Woodin requested permission to start a Mickey Mouse Club which Walt approved. In November, test comics strips were sent to King Features, who requested additional samples to show to the publisher, William Randolph Hearst. On December 16, the Walt Disney Studios partnership was reorganized as a corporation with the name of Walt Disney Productions, Limited with a merchandising division, Walt Disney Enterprises, and two subsidiaries, Disney Film Recording Company, Limited and Liled Realty and Investment Company for real estate holdings. Walt and his wife held 60% (6,000 shares) and Roy owned 40% of WD Productions. On December 30, King Features signed its first newspaper, New York Mirror, to publish the Mickey Mouse comic strip with Walt's permission.\n\nIn 1932, Disney signed an exclusive contract with Technicolor (through the end of 1935) to produce cartoons in color, beginning with Flowers and Trees (1932). Disney released cartoons through Powers' Celebrity Pictures (1928–1930), Columbia Pictures (1930–1932), and United Artists (1932–1937). The popularity of the Mickey Mouse series allowed Disney to plan for his first feature-length animation.\n\nThe feature film, Walt Before Mickey based on the book by Diane Disney Miller featured these moments in the studio's history. \n\n1934–45: Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs and World War II \n\nDeciding to push the boundaries of animation even further, Disney began production of his first feature-length animated film in 1934. Taking three years to complete, Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, premiered in December 1937 and became highest-grossing film of that time by 1939. Snow White was released through RKO Radio Pictures, which had assumed distribution of Disney's product in July 1937, after United Artists attempted to attain future television rights to the Disney shorts. \n\nUsing the profits from Snow White, Disney financed the construction of a new 51 acre studio complex in Burbank, California. The new Walt Disney Studios, in which the company is headquartered to this day, was completed and open for business by the end of 1939. The following year on April 2, Walt Disney Productions had its initial public offering.\n\nThe studio continued releasing animated shorts and features, such as Pinocchio (1940), Fantasia (1940), Dumbo (1941), and Bambi (1942). After World War II began, box-office profits declined. When the United States entered the war after the attack on Pearl Harbor, many of Disney's animators were drafted into the armed forces. The U.S. and Canadian governments commissioned the studio to produce training and propaganda films. By 1942, 90% of its 550 employees were working on war-related films. Films such as the feature Victory Through Air Power and the short Education for Death (both 1943) were meant to increase public support for the war effort. Even the studio's characters joined the effort, as Donald Duck appeared in a number of comical propaganda shorts, including the Academy Award-winning Der Fuehrer's Face (1943).\n\n1946–54: Post-War and Television \n\nWith limited staff and little operating capital during and after the war, Disney's feature films during much of the 1940s were \"package films,\" or collections of shorts, such as The Three Caballeros (1944) and Melody Time (1948), which performed poorly at the box-office. At the same time, the studio began producing live-action films and documentaries. Song of the South (1946) and So Dear to My Heart (1948) featured animated segments, while the True-Life Adventures series, which included such films as Seal Island (1948) and The Vanishing Prairie (1954), were also popular. Eight of the films in the series won Academy Awards. \n\nThe release of Cinderella in 1950 proved that feature-length animation could still succeed in the marketplace. Other releases of the period included Alice in Wonderland (1951) and Peter Pan (1953), both in production before the war began, and Disney's first all-live action feature, Treasure Island (1950). Other early all-live-action Disney films included The Story of Robin Hood and His Merrie Men (1952), The Sword and the Rose (1953), and 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea (1954). Disney ended its distribution contract with RKO in 1953, forming its own distribution arm, Buena Vista Distribution. \n\nIn December 1950, Walt Disney Productions and The Coca-Cola Company teamed up for Disney's first venture into television, the NBC television network special An Hour in Wonderland. In October 1954, the ABC network launched Disney's first regular television series, Disneyland, which would go on to become one of the longest-running primetime series in history. Disneyland allowed Disney a platform to introduce new projects and broadcast older ones, and ABC became Disney's partner in the financing and development of Disney's next venture, located in the middle of an orange grove near Anaheim, California. It was the first phase of a long corporate relationship which, although no one could have anticipated it at the time, would culminate four decades later in the Disney company's acquisition of the ABC network, its owned and operated stations, and its numerous cable and publishing ventures.\n\n1955–65: Disneyland \n\nIn 1954, Walt Disney used his Disneyland series to unveil what would become Disneyland, an idea conceived out of a desire for a place where parents and children could both have fun at the same time. On July 18, 1955, Walt Disney opened Disneyland to the general public. On July 17, 1955, Disneyland was previewed with a live television broadcast hosted by Art Linkletter and Ronald Reagan. After a shaky start, Disneyland continued to grow and attract visitors from across the country and around the world. A major expansion in 1959 included the addition of America's first monorail system.\n\nFor the 1964 New York World's Fair, Disney prepared four separate attractions for various sponsors, each of which would find its way to Disneyland in one form or another. During this time, Walt Disney was also secretly scouting out new sites for a second Disney theme park. In November 1965, \"Disney World\" was announced, with plans for theme parks, hotels, and even a model city on thousands of acres of land purchased outside of Orlando, Florida.\n\nDisney continued to focus its talents on television throughout the 1950s. Its weekday afternoon children's television program The Mickey Mouse Club, featuring its roster of young \"Mouseketeers\", premiered in 1955 to great success, as did the Davy Crockett miniseries, starring Fess Parker and broadcast on the Disneyland anthology show. Two years later, the Zorro series would prove just as popular, running for two seasons on ABC. Despite such success, Walt Disney Productions invested little into television ventures in the 1960s, with the exception of the long-running anthology series, later known as The Wonderful World of Disney.\n\nDisney's film studios stayed busy as well. Averaging five or six releases per year during this period. While the production of shorts slowed significantly during the 1950s and 1960s, the studio released a number of popular animated features, like Lady and the Tramp (1955), Sleeping Beauty (1959) and One Hundred and One Dalmatians (1961), which introduced a new xerography process to transfer the drawings to animation cels. Disney's live-action releases were spread across a number of genres, including historical fiction (Johnny Tremain, 1957), adaptations of children's books (Pollyanna, 1960) and modern-day comedies (The Shaggy Dog, 1959). Disney's most successful film of the 1960s was a live action/animated musical adaptation of Mary Poppins, which was one of the all-time highest-grossing movies and received five Academy Awards, including Best Actress for Julie Andrews and Best Song for Robert B. Sherman & Richard M. Sherman for \"Chim Chim Cher-ee\" . \n\nThe theme park design and architectural group became so integral to the Disney studio's operations that the studio bought it on February 5, 1965, along with the WED Enterprises name. \n\n1966–71: The deaths of Walt and Roy Disney and the opening of Walt Disney World \n\nOn December 15, 1966, Walt Disney died of complications relating to lung cancer, and Roy Disney took over as chairman, CEO, and president of the company. One of his first acts was to rename Disney World as \"Walt Disney World\" in honor of his brother and his vision. \n\nIn 1967, the last two films Walt actively supervised were released, the animated feature The Jungle Book and the musical The Happiest Millionaire. The studio released a number of comedies in the late 1960s, including The Love Bug (1969's highest-grossing film) and The Computer Wore Tennis Shoes (1969), which starred another young Disney discovery, Kurt Russell. The 1970s opened with the release of Disney's first \"post-Walt\" animated feature, The Aristocats, followed by a return to fantasy musicals in 1971's Bedknobs and Broomsticks. Blackbeard's Ghost was another successful film during this period.\n\nOn October 1, 1971, Walt Disney World opened to the public, with Roy Disney dedicating the facility in person later that month. On December 20, 1971, Roy Disney died of a stroke. He left the company under control of Donn Tatum, Card Walker, and Walt's son-in-law Ron Miller, each trained by Walt and Roy.\n\n1972–84: Theatrical malaise and new leadership \n\nWhile Walt Disney Productions continued releasing family-friendly films throughout the 1970s, such as Escape to Witch Mountain (1975) and Freaky Friday (1976), the films did not fare as well at the box office as earlier material. However, the animation studio saw success with Robin Hood (1973), The Rescuers (1977), and The Fox and the Hound (1981).\n\nAs head of the studio, Miller attempted to make films to drive the profitable teenage market who generally passed on seeing Disney films. Inspired by the popularity of Star Wars, Disney produced the science-fiction adventure The Black Hole in 1979 that cost $20 million to make, but was lost in Star Wars wake. The Black Hole was the first Disney film to carry a PG rating in the United States. Disney dabbled in the horror genre with The Watcher in the Woods, and financed the boldly innovative Tron; both films were released to minimal success.\n\nDisney also hired outside producers for film projects, which had never been done before in the studio's history. In 1979, Disney entered a joint venture with Paramount Pictures on the production of the 1980 film adaptation of Popeye and Dragonslayer (1981); the first time Disney collaborated with another studio. Paramount distributed Disney films in Canada at the time, and it was hoped that Disney's marketing prestige would help sell the two films.\n\nFinally, in 1982, the Disney family sold the naming rights and rail-based attractions to the Disney film studio for 818,461 shares of Disney stock then worth $42.6 million none of which went to Retlaw. Also, Roy E. Disney objected to the overvalued purchase price of the naming right and voted against the purchase as a Disney board director. \nThe 1983 release of Mickey's Christmas Carol began a string of successful movies, starting with Never Cry Wolf and the Ray Bradbury adaptation Something Wicked This Way Comes. The Walt Disney Productions film division was incorporated on as Walt Disney Pictures. In 1984, Disney CEO Ron Miller created Touchstone Films as a brand for Disney to release more major motion pictures. Touchstone's first release was the comedy Splash (1984), which was a box office success. \n\nWith The Wonderful World of Disney remaining a prime-time staple, Disney returned to television in the 1970s with syndicated programing such as the anthology series The Mouse Factory and a brief revival of the Mickey Mouse Club. In 1980, Disney launched Walt Disney Home Video to take advantage of the newly emerging videocassette market. On April 18, 1983, The Disney Channel debuted as a subscription-level channel on cable systems nationwide, featuring its large library of classic films and TV series, along with original programming and family-friendly third-party offerings.\n\nWalt Disney World received much of the company's attention through the 1970s and into the 1980s. In 1978, Disney executives announced plans for the second Walt Disney World theme park, EPCOT Center, which would open in October 1982. Inspired by Walt Disney's dream of a futuristic model city, EPCOT Center was built as a \"permanent World's Fair\", complete with exhibits sponsored by major American corporations, as well as pavilions based on the cultures of other nations. In Japan, the Oriental Land Company partnered with Walt Disney Productions to build the first Disney theme park outside of the United States, Tokyo Disneyland, which opened in April 1983.\n\nDespite the success of the Disney Channel and its new theme park creations, Walt Disney Productions was financially vulnerable. Its film library was valuable, but offered few current successes, and its leadership team was unable to keep up with other studios, particularly the works of Don Bluth, who defected from Disney in 1979.\n\nBy the early 1980s, the parks were generating 70% of Disney's income.\n\nIn 1984, financier Saul Steinberg's Reliance Group Holdings launched a hostile takeover bid for Walt Disney Productions, with the intent of selling off some of its operations. Disney bought out Reliance's 11.1% stake in the company. However, another shareholder filed suit claiming the deal devaluated Disney's stock and for Disney management to retain their positions. The shareholder lawsuit was settled in 1989 for a total of $45 million from Disney and Reliance.\n\n1984–2005: The Eisner Era and the \"Save Disney\" Campaign \n\nWith the Sid Bass family purchase of 18.7 percent of Disney, Bass and the board brought in Michael Eisner from Paramount as CEO and Frank Wells from Warner Bros. as president. Eisner emphasized Touchstone with Down and Out in Beverly Hills (1985) to start leading to increased output with Good Morning, Vietnam (1987), Dead Poets Society (1989), Pretty Woman (1990) and additional hits. Eisner used expanding cable and home video markets to sign deals using Disney shows and films with a long-term deal with Showtime Networks for Disney/Touchstone releases through 1996 and entering television with syndication and distribution for TV series as The Golden Girls and Home Improvement. Disney began limited releases of its previous films on video tapes in the late 1980s. Eisner's Disney purchased KHJ, an independent Los Angeles TV station.\n\nOrganized in 1985, Silver Screen Partners II, LP financed films for Disney with $193 million. In January 1987, Silver Screen III began financing movies for Disney with $300 million raised, the largest amount raised for a film financing limited partnership by E.F. Hutton. Silver Screen IV was also set up to finance Disney's studios.\n\nBeginning with Who Framed Roger Rabbit in 1988, Disney's flagship animation studio enjoyed a series of commercial and critical successes with such films as The Little Mermaid (1989), Beauty and the Beast (1991), Aladdin (1992) and The Lion King (1994). In addition, the company successfully entered the field of television animation with a number of lavishly budgeted and acclaimed series such as Adventures of the Gummi Bears, Duck Tales, Chip 'n Dale Rescue Rangers, Darkwing Duck and Gargoyles. Disney moved to first place in box office receipts by 1988 and had increased revenues by 20% every year.\n\nIn 1989, Disney signed an agreement-in-principle to acquire Jim Henson Productions from its founder, Muppet creator Jim Henson. The deal included Henson's programming library and Muppet characters (excluding the Muppets created for Sesame Street), as well as Jim Henson's personal creative services. However, Henson died suddenly in May 1990 before the deal was completed, resulting in the two companies terminating merger negotiations the following December. Named the \"Disney Decade\" by the company, the executive talent attempted to move the company to new heights in the 1990s with huge changes and accomplishments. In September 1990, Disney arranged for financing up to $200 million by a unit of Nomura Securities for Interscope films made for Disney. On October 23, Disney formed Touchwood Pacific Partners I which would supplant the Silver Screen Partnership series as their movie studios' primary source of funding.\n\nIn 1991, hotels, home video distribution, and Disney merchandising became 28 percent of total company revenues with international revenues contributed 22 percent of revenues. The company committed its studios in the first quarter of 1991 to produce 25 films in 1992. However, 1991 saw net income drop by 23 percent and had no growth for the year, but saw the release of Beauty and the Beast, winner of two Academy Awards and top-grossing film in the genre. Disney next moved into publishing with Hyperion Books and adult music with Hollywood Records while Walt Disney Imagineering was laying off 400 employees. Disney also broadened its adult offerings in film when then Disney Studio Chairman Jeffrey Katzenberg acquired Miramax Films in 1993. That same year Disney created the NHL team the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim, named after the 1992 hit film of the same name. Disney purchased a minority stake in the Anaheim Angels baseball team around the same time.\n\nWells was killed in a helicopter crash in 1994. Shortly thereafter, Katzenberg resigned and formed DreamWorks SKG because Eisner would not appoint Katzenberg to Wells' now-available post (Katzenberg had also sued over the terms of his contract). Instead, Eisner recruited his friend Michael Ovitz, one of the founders of the Creative Artists Agency, to be President, with minimal involvement from Disney's board of directors (which at the time included Oscar-winning actor Sidney Poitier, the CEO of Hilton Hotels Corporation Stephen Bollenbach, former U.S. Senator George Mitchell, Yale dean Robert A. M. Stern, and Eisner's predecessors Raymond Watson and Card Walker). Ovitz lasted only 14 months and left Disney in December 1996 via a \"no fault termination\" with a severance package of $38 million in cash and 3 million stock options worth roughly $100 million at the time of Ovitz's departure. The Ovitz episode engendered a long running derivative suit, which finally concluded in June 2006, almost 10 years later. Chancellor William B. Chandler, III of the Delaware Court of Chancery, despite describing Eisner's behavior as falling \"far short of what shareholders expect and demand from those entrusted with a fiduciary position...\" found in favor of Eisner and the rest of the Disney board because they had not violated the letter of the law (namely, the duty of care owed by a corporation's officers and board to its shareholders). \n\nEisner attempted in 1994 to purchase NBC from General Electric (GE), but the deal failed due to GE wanting to keep 51 percent ownership of the network. Disney acquired many other media sources during the decade, including a merger with Capital Cities/ABC in 1995 which brought broadcast network ABC and its assets, including the A&E Television Networks and ESPN networks, into the Disney fold. Eisner felt that the purchase of ABC was an important investment to keep Disney surviving and allowing it to compete with international multimedia conglomerates. \n\nDisney lost a $10.4 million lawsuit in September 1997 to Marsu B.V. over Disney's failure to produce as contracted 13 half-hour Marsupilami cartoon shows. Instead, Disney felt other internal \"hot properties\" deserved the company's attention. \n\nDisney, which had taken control of the Anaheim Angels in 1996, purchased a majority stake in the team in 1998. That same year, Disney began a move into the internet field with the purchase of Starwave and 43 percent of Infoseek. In 1999, Disney purchased the remaining shares of Infoseek and launch the Go Network portal in January. Disney also launched its cruise line with the christening of Disney Magic and a sister ship, Disney Wonder.\n\nThe Katzenberg case dragged on as his contract included a portion of the film revenue from ancillary markets forever. Katzenberg had offered $100 to settle the case, but Eisner felt the original claim amount of about half a billion too much, but then the ancillary market clause was found. Disney lawyers tried to indicate a decline situation which reveal some of the problems in the company. ABC had declining rating and increasing costs while the film segment had two film failures. While neither party revealed the settlement amount, it is estimated at $200 million.\n\nEisner's controlling style inhibited efficiency and progress according to some critics, while other industry experts indicated that \"age compression\" theory led to a decline in the company's target market due to youth copying teenage behavior earlier.\n\nThe year 2000 brought an increase in revenue of 9 percent and net income of 39 percent with ABC and ESPN leading the way and Parks and Resorts marking its sixth consecutive year of growth. However, the September 11 attacks led to a decline in vacation travel and the early 2000s recession led to a decrease in ABC revenue. Plus, Eisner had the company make an expensive purchase of Fox Family Worldwide. 2001 was a year of cost cutting laying off 4,000 employees, Disney parks operations decreased, slashing annual live-action film investment, and minimizing Internet operations. While 2002 revenue had a small decrease from 2001 with the cost cutting, net income rose to $1.2 billion with two creative film releases. In 2003, Disney became the first studio to record over $3 billion in worldwide box office receipts.\n\nEisner did not want the board to renominate Roy E. Disney, the son of Disney co-founder Roy O. Disney, as a board director citing his age of 72 as a required retirement age. Stanley Gold responded by resigning from the board and requesting the other board members oust Eisner. In 2003, Disney resigned from his positions as the company's vice chairman and chairman of Walt Disney Feature Animation, accusing Eisner of micromanagement, failures with the ABC television network, timidity in the theme park business, turning the Walt Disney Company into a \"rapacious, soul-less\" company, and refusing to establish a clear succession plan, as well as a string of box-office movie flops starting in the year 2000.\n\nOn May 15, 2003, Disney sold their stake in the Anaheim Angels baseball team to Arte Moreno. Disney purchased the rights to the Muppets and the Bear in the Big Blue House franchises from the Jim Henson Company on February 17, 2004. The two brands were placed under control of the Muppets Holding Company, LLC, a unit of Disney Consumer Products.\n\nIn 2004, Pixar Animation Studios began looking for another distributor after its 12-year contract with Disney ended, due to its strained relationship over issues of control and money with Eisner. Also that year, Comcast Corporation made an unsolicited $54 billion bid to acquire Disney. A couple of high budget movies flopped at the box office. With these difficulties and with some board directors dissatisfied, Eisner ceded the board chairmanship.\n\nOn March 3, 2004, at Disney's annual shareholders' meeting, a surprising 45% of Disney's shareholders, predominantly rallied by former board members Roy Disney and Stanley Gold, withheld their proxies to re-elect Eisner to the board. Disney's board then gave the chairmanship position to Mitchell. However, the board did not immediately remove Eisner as chief executive.\n\nIn 2005, Disney sold the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim hockey team to Henry and Susan Samueli.\n\nOn March 13, 2005, Robert A. Iger was announced as Eisner successor as CEO. On September 30, Eisner resigned both as an executive and as a member of the Board of Directors.\n\n2005–present: The Iger era \n\nOn July 8, 2005, Walt Disney's nephew, Roy E. Disney returned to the company as a consultant and with the new title of Non Voting Director, Emeritus. Walt Disney Parks and Resorts celebrated the 50th anniversary of Disneyland Park on July 17, and opened Hong Kong Disneyland on September 12. Walt Disney Feature Animation released Chicken Little, the company's first film using 3D animation. On October 1, Iger replaced Eisner as CEO. Miramax co-founders Bob Weinstein and Harvey Weinstein also departed the company to form their own studio. On July 25, 2005, Disney announced that it was closing DisneyToon Studios Australia in October 2006, after 17 years of existence. \n\nIn 2006, Disney acquired Oswald the Lucky Rabbit, Disney’s pre-Mickey silent animation star. \nAware that Disney's relationship with Pixar was wearing thin, Iger began negotiations with leadership of Pixar Animation Studios, Steve Jobs and Ed Catmull, regarding possible merger. On January 23, 2006, it was announced that Disney would purchase Pixar in an all-stock transaction worth $7.4 billion. The deal was finalized on May 5; and among noteworthy results was the transition of Pixar's CEO and 50.1% shareholder, Steve Jobs, becoming Disney's largest individual shareholder at 7% and a member of Disney's Board of Directors. Ed Catmull took over as President of Pixar Animation Studios. Former Executive Vice-President of Pixar, John Lasseter, became Chief Creative Officer of Walt Disney Animation Studios, its division DisneyToon Studios, and Pixar Animation Studios, as well assuming the role of Principal Creative Advisor at Walt Disney Imagineering.\n\nIn April 2007, the Muppets Holding Company, LLC was renamed the Muppets Studio and placed under new leadership in an effort by Iger to re-brand the division. The rebranding was completed in September 2008, when control of the Muppets Studio was transferred from Disney Consumer Products to the Walt Disney Studios.\n\nDirector Emeritus Roy E. Disney died of stomach cancer on December 16, 2009. At the time of his death, he owned roughly 1 percent of all of Disney which amounted to 16 million shares. He was the last member of the Disney family to be actively involved in the company. \n\nOn August 31, 2009, Disney announced a deal to acquire Marvel Entertainment, Inc. for $4.24 billion. The deal was finalized on December 31, 2009 in which Disney acquired full ownership on the company. \n\nIn October 2009, Disney Channel president Rich Ross, hired by Iger, replaced Dick Cook as chairman of the company and, in November, began restructuring the company to focus more on family friendly products. Later in January 2010, Disney decided to shut down Miramax after downsizing Touchstone, but one month later, they instead began selling the Miramax brand and its 700-title film library to Filmyard Holdings. In March, ImageMovers Digital, which Disney had established as a joint venture studio with Robert Zemeckis in 2007, was shut down. In April 2010, Lyric Street, Disney's country music label in Nashville, was shut down. The following month, the company sold the Power Rangers brand, as well as its 700-episode library, back to Haim Saban. In January 2011, Disney Interactive Studios was downsized. In November, two ABC stations were sold. \nWith the release of Tangled in 2010, Ed Catmull said that the \"princess\" genre of films was taking a hiatus until \"someone has a fresh take on it ... but we don't have any other musicals or fairytales lined up.\" He explained that they were looking to get away from the princess era due to the changes in audience composition and preference. However, in the Facebook page, Ed Catmull stated that this was just a rumor. \n\nIn April 2011, Disney broke ground on Shanghai Disney Resort. Costing $4.4 billion, the resort is slated to open in 2015. Later, in August 2011, Bob Iger stated on a conference call that after the success of the Pixar and Marvel purchases, he and the Walt Disney Company are looking to \"buy either new characters or businesses that are capable of creating great characters and great stories.\" Later, in early February 2012, Disney completed its acquisition of UTV Software Communications, expanding their market further into India and Asia. \n\nOn October 30, 2012, Disney announced plans to acquire Lucasfilm, along with plans to produce a seventh installment in its Star Wars franchise for 2015. On December 4, 2012, the Disney-Lucasfilm merger was approved by the Federal Trade Commission, allowing the acquisition to be finalized without dealing with antitrust problems. On December 21, 2012, the deal was completed with the acquisition value amounting to approximately $4.06 billion, and thus Lucasfilm became a wholly owned subsidiary of Disney (which coincidentally reunited Lucasfilm under the same corporate umbrella with its former spin-off and new sibling, Pixar). \n\nOn March 24, 2014, Disney bought Maker Studios, a YouTube company generating billions of views each year, for over $500 million in order to advertise to viewers in the crucial teenage/young adult demographics. \n\nOn May 9, 2014, Disney announced they have reached an agreement with Japan's TV Asahi Corporation to air an English dub of the Doraemon anime series on Disney XD. \n\nIn August 2014, The Walt Disney Company filed three patents for using drones. Patents included using unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) to lift marionettes in the air, raise mesh screens for floating video projections, and equipping drones with lights to make them part of a new kind of light show. \n\nOn February 5, 2015, it was announced that Tom Staggs had been promoted to COO. On April 4, 2016, Disney unexpectedly announced that Staggs and the company had agreed to mutually part ways, effective May 2016, ending his 26-year career with the company. \n\nCompany divisions and subsidiaries \n\nThe Walt Disney Company operates through four primary business units, which it calls \"business segments\": Studio Entertainment, with the primary business unit The Walt Disney Studios, which includes the company's film, music recording label, and theatrical divisions; Parks and Resorts, featuring the company's theme parks, cruise line, and other travel-related assets; Media Networks, which includes the company's television properties; and Disney Consumer Products and Interactive Media, which produces toys, clothing, and other merchandising based upon Disney-owned properties, as well as including Disney's Internet, mobile, social media, virtual worlds, and computer games operations. Three segments are led by chairmen, but Disney Consumer Products and Interactive Media are currently both led by a president. Marvel Entertainment is also a direct CEO reporting business, while its financial results are primarily divided between the Studio Entertainment and Consumer Products segments. While Maker Studios is split between Studio Entertainment and Media Networks segments. \n\nThe company's main entertainment holdings include Walt Disney Studios, Disney Music Group, Disney Theatrical Group, Disney-ABC Television Group, Radio Disney, ESPN Inc., Disney Interactive, Disney Consumer Products, Disney India Ltd., The Muppets Studio, Pixar Animation Studios, Marvel Entertainment, Marvel Studios, UTV Software Communications, Lucasfilm, and Maker Studios.\n\nThe company's resorts and diversified related holdings include Walt Disney Parks and Resorts, Disneyland Resort, Walt Disney World Resort, Tokyo Disney Resort, Disneyland Paris, Euro Disney S.C.A., Hong Kong Disneyland Resort, Shanghai Disney Resort, Disney Vacation Club, and Disney Cruise Line.\n\nDisney Media Networks \n\nDisney Media Networks is a business segment and primary unit of The Walt Disney Company that contains the company's various television networks, cable channels, associated production and distribution companies and owned and operated television stations. Media Networks also manages Disney's interest in its joint venture with Hearst Corporation, A+E Networks and ESPN Inc.. Unlike the four other business segments, it is the only one with two leaders or \"co-chairs\": the presidents of ESPN and Disney-ABC Television Group. Thus, Disney has a total of eight business unit leaders who report to the CEO and COO. \n\n* Disney–ABC Television Group\n ABC Television Network\n ABC Family Worldwide\n* Freeform\n ABC Owned Television Stations Group\n* Live Well Network\n A+E Networks (50%)\n* Vice Media (20%)\n Disney Channels Worldwide\n* Radio Disney\n* Disney Television Animation\n** Hulu (32%)\n* ESPN Inc. (80%)\n\nExecutive management \n\nPresidents \n\n* 1923–45: Walt Disney\n* 1945–66: Roy O. Disney\n* 1966–71: Donn Tatum\n* 1971–77: Card Walker\n* 1978–83: Ron W. Miller\n* 1984–94: Frank Wells\n* 1995–97: Michael Ovitz\n* 2000–12: Robert A. Iger\n\nChief Executive Officers \n\n* 1929–71: Roy O. Disney\n* 1971–76: Donn Tatum\n* 1976–83: Card Walker\n* 1983–84: Ron W. Miller\n* 1984–2005: Michael Eisner\n* 2005–present: Robert A. Iger\n\nChairmen of the Board \n\nWalt Disney dropped his Chairman title in 1960 to focus more on the creative aspects of the company, becoming the \"executive producer in charge of all production.\" \n\nAfter a four-year vacancy, Roy O. Disney assumed the Chairmanship.\n\n* 1945–60: Walt Disney\n* 1964–71: Roy O. Disney\n* 1971–80: Donn Tatum\n* 1980–83: Card Walker\n* 1983–84: Raymond Watson\n* 1984–2004: Michael Eisner\n* 2004–2006: George J. Mitchell\n* 2007–12: John E. Pepper, Jr.\n* 2012–present: Robert A. Iger\n\nVice Chairman of the Board \n\n* 1984–2003: Roy E. Disney\n* 1999–2000: Sanford Litvack (Co-Vice Chair)\n\nChief Operating Officers \n\n* 1984–94: Frank Wells\n* 1997–99: Sanford Litvack (Acting Chief of Operations)\n* 2000–2005: Robert A. Iger\n* 2015–16: Tom Staggs\n\nFinancial data \n\nRevenues \n\nNet income \n\nCriticism \n\nSome of Disney's animated family films have drawn fire for being accused of having sexual references hidden in them, among them The Little Mermaid (1989), Aladdin (1992), and The Lion King (1994). Instances of sexual material hidden in some versions of The Rescuers (1977) and Who Framed Roger Rabbit (1988) resulted in recalls and modifications of the films to remove such content. \n\nSome religious welfare groups, such as the Catholic League, have opposed films including Priest (1994) and Dogma (1999). A book called Growing Up Gay, published by Disney-owned Hyperion and similar publications, as well as the company's extension of benefits to same-sex domestic partners, spurred boycotts of Disney and its advertisers by the Catholic League, the Assemblies of God USA, the American Family Association, and other conservative groups. The boycotts were discontinued by most of these organizations by 2005. In addition to these social controversies, the company has been accused of human rights violations regarding the working conditions in factories that produce their merchandise. \n\nDisney has been criticized for its influence over children in that it endeavours to appeal to children at a young age and develop their views and interests according to Disney’s portrayal of major themes as well as prepare children to become early consumers of their brand.", "\"A Whole New World\" is a song from Disney's 1992 animated feature film Aladdin, with music by Alan Menken and lyrics by Tim Rice. The song is a ballad between the primary characters Aladdin and Jasmine about the new world they are going to discover together while riding on Aladdin's magic carpet. The original version was sung by Brad Kane and Lea Salonga during the film. They also performed the song in their characters at the 65th Academy Awards, where it won Academy Award for Best Original Song as well as the first and only Disney song to win a Grammy Award for Song of the Year at the 36th Annual Grammy Awards. In 2014, Adam Jacobs and Courtney Reed performed the song as Aladdin and Jasmine in the film's Broadway adaptation.\n\nA single version of the song was previously released that year and was performed by Peabo Bryson and Regina Belle. This version is played in the movie's end credits and is referred on the soundtrack as \"Aladdins Theme\". This version peaked at number one on the Billboard Hot 100 chart on March 6, 1993, replacing Whitney Houston's \"I Will Always Love You\", which had spent a then record 14 weeks at the top of the chart. It went gold and sold 600,000 copies domestically. The track peaked at number 12 in the UK Singles Chart in 1992. The song is the first and only song from a Disney animated film to top the Billboard Hot 100. The single version was later included on Belle's studio album Passion (1993) and on Bryson's studio album Through the Fire (1994). The Latin American rendition of the song, \"Un Mundo Ideal\", by Ricardo Montaner and Michelle received airplay throughout Latin America. This rendition was later included on Montaner's greatest hits album Éxitos y... Algo Más (1993). \n\nCharts\n\nCover versions\n\n* Girl group Eternal released the song as the B-side to their 1996 single, \"Someday\", recorded for the Disney film The Hunchback of Notre Dame.\n* Country music artist Collin Raye performed the song for the collaboration album The Best of Country Sing the Best of Disney.\n* Hank Marvin did an instrumental version of the song in 1997 on his album Hank Plays the Music of Tim Rice & Andrew Lloyd Webber.\n* LMNT covered the song for DisneyMania 2, released in 2004.\n* Jessica Simpson and Nick Lachey covered the song for DisneyMania 3 released in 2005, and on the two-disc Platinum Edition DVD for the Aladdin film.\n* The song was covered in 2006 by British glamour model Katie Price (also known as Jordan) and her now ex-husband, Peter Andre. The track is included on their 2006 album of duets A Whole New World.\n* J-pop artist Kumi Koda and Peabo Bryson included a cover for Koda's 2006 album Best: Second Session.\n* K-pop boy-band TVXQ recorded the song for their 2007 Japanese album, Five in the Black, as a special track.\n* In 2007, Pixar employee Nick Pitera uploaded a video to YouTube where he performs both the male and female characters,\n earning 30 million views (as of January 18, 2013).\n* Saxophonist Dave Koz covered the song on his album At The Movies. The song featured Donna Summer on vocals. \n* On Disney - Koe no Oujisama album the song was sung by Kenichi Suzumura\n* The song was covered in 2013 by Japanese hip-hop/EDM group M-Flo, featuring vocals by Matt Cab, for the album Electronic Disney Music. \n* Christian pop punk band Stellar Kart featured a cover on their Disney cover EP named after this song.\n* Pianist Alex Hardwick has recorded a [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7kBIBtkU9Wo piano solo version] (released online as a single track).\n* A cappella singer and YouTube star Peter Hollens performed a portion of the song as part of his \"[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hfvehnyCQKU Epic Disney Medley]\" with fellow singer Alex G. As of March 2016, the video has 6.2 million views.\n* A Japanese male vocal-dance group Da-iCE members [http://da-ice.livejournal.com/1716.html Sota Hanamura] and [http://da-ice.livejournal.com/885.html Yudai Ohno] has recorded a cover of this song for their group's latest [http://www.jpopasia.com/group/daice/lyrics/watch-out::50647.html 8th Single] [https://itunes.apple.com/jp/album/watch-out-ep/id1095067982 Watch Out] [https://itunes.apple.com/jp/album/watch-out-ep/id1095067982 (Digital Version]).\n\nLive cover performances\n\nSome notable artists that have covered this song live include:\n* Sweetbox, for WOW! DisneyMania in Japan.\n* Charice Pempengco and Super Junior member Kyuhyun on Star King in 2007 \n* Peabo Bryson and Patti LaBelle performed the song along with all 77 contestants at the 1994 Miss Universe Pageant in Manila, Philippines\n* Bryson recorded a version of the song with Japanese pop artist Kumi Koda, which appeared as a bonus track on her album BEST ~second session~.\n* Peabo Bryson and Chilean singer Andrea Tessa performed the song on the Viña del Mar International Song Festival in 2001.\n* David Phelps and Sandi Patty performed the song on \"Mark Lowry On Broadway\" in 2001.\n* In the second season of American Idol in 2003, eventual winner Ruben Studdard sang the song on Movie Night. It was noted that season that \"A Whole New World\" was the most commonly used audition song, and a montage of \"A Whole New World\" auditions was aired to emphasize it.\n* In addition to recording a cover, Peter André and Katie Price performed the song live on Children in Need in 2005.\n* K-pop artists Ivy and Brian Joo\n* K-pop artist BoA and TVXQ member Xiah Junsu performed the song live at the AnyBand Concert in Korea on December 29, 2007.\n* Glee's actor Darren Criss performed the song with Lea Salonga, the singing voice of Princess Jasmine on Aladdin at Billboard/Hollywood Reporter TV & Film Music Conference to Alan Menken.\nGirls' Generation member Tiffany and K.Will \n The song is performed during the fountain show World of Color at Disney California Adventure park while LED lights affixed to Mickey's Fun Wheel twinkle in the backdrop, appearing as stars.\n* [http://da-ice.livejournal.com/1716.html Sota Hanamura] and [http://da-ice.livejournal.com/885.html Yudai Ohno] from Da-iCE had recently [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nJ-ZHlTsdAE performed the song] on [http://www.sbs.com.au/popasia/blog/2016/05/15/da-ice-will-make-its-first-us-appearance-fanimecon-2016 their US debut] concert at 2016 \n[http://www.fanime.com/community/ FanimeCon] in San Jose, California.\n*Lea Salonga and Hamilton composer and star Lin-Manuel Miranda sang a cover at the Richard Rogers Theater during a Ham4Ham lottery in 2015." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "'Ala' ad Din", "'Ala' ad-Din", "Alad-Din", "Aladdin", "'Ala' addin", "アラジン", "Aladdin's lamp", "Alladdin", "Ali ibn ad-Din", "Ala addin", "Alaad Din", "Alad Din", "علاء الدين", "ʻAlāʼ ad-Dīn", "Ala ad-Din", "Alaaddin", "Aladdin and the magic lamp", "Arajin", "Alaad-Din", "Aladdin and the Magic Lamp", "'Ala addin" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "アラジン", "aladdin and magic lamp", "aladdin s lamp", "ala addin", "ʻalāʼ ad dīn", "alad din", "ali ibn ad din", "alaaddin", "aladdin", "ala ad din", "علاء الدين", "arajin", "alladdin", "alaad din" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "aladdin", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Aladdin" }
Florence Ballard was a member of which girl group?	tc_266	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Florence_Ballard.txt", "Girl_group.txt" ], "title": [ "Florence Ballard", "Girl group" ], "wiki_context": [ "Florence Glenda Chapman (née Ballard; June 30, 1943 – February 22, 1976) was an American vocalist. She was one of the founding members of the popular Motown vocal female group the Supremes. Ballard sang on sixteen top forty singles with the group, including ten number-one hits.\n\nAfter being removed from the Supremes in 1967, Ballard tried an unsuccessful solo career with ABC Records before she was dropped from the label at the end of the decade. Ballard struggled with alcoholism, depression, and poverty for three years. She was making an attempt for a musical comeback when she died of a heart attack in February 1976 at age 32. Ballard's death was considered by one critic as \"one of rock's greatest tragedies\". Ballard was posthumously inducted to the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a member of the Supremes in 1988.\n\nEarly life\n\nFlorence Glenda Ballard was born in Detroit, Michigan on June 30, 1943 to Lurlee (née Wilson) and Jesse Ballard, as the ninth of fifteen children. Her siblings were Bertie, Cornell, Jesse, Jr., Gilbert, Geraldine, Barbara, Maxine, Billy, Calvin, Pat, Linda and Roy. Her mother was a resident of Rosetta, Mississippi. Her father was born Jesse Lambert in Bessemer, Alabama; after his grandmother was shot and killed, he was adopted by the Ballard family. Jesse Ballard left his adoptive parents at thirteen and soon engaged in an affair with Ballard's mother, who was only fourteen, in Rosetta. The Ballards moved to Detroit in 1929. Jesse soon worked at General Motors. Jesse, an amateur musician, helped instigate Florence's interest in singing; he taught her various songs and accompanied her on guitar. Financial difficulties forced the Ballard family to move to different Detroit neighborhoods; by the time Florence turned 15 they had settled at Detroit's Brewster-Douglass housing projects, and the next year Jesse Lambert Ballard died of cancer.\n\nNamed \"Blondie\" and \"Flo\" by family and friends, Ballard attended Northeastern High School and was coached vocally by Abraham Silver. Ballard met future singing partner Mary Wilson during a middle-school talent show and they became friends while attending Northeastern High. From an early age, Ballard aspired to be a singer and agreed to audition for a spot on a sister group of the local Detroit attraction, the Primes. After she was accepted, Ballard recruited Mary Wilson to join Jenkins' group. Wilson, in turn, enlisted another neighbor, Diana Ross, then going by \"Diane\". Betty McGlown completed the original lineup and Jenkins named them as \"The Primettes\". The group performed at talent showcases and at school parties before auditioning for Motown Records in 1960. Berry Gordy, head of Motown, advised the group to graduate from high school before auditioning again. Ballard eventually dropped out of high school though her groupmates graduated.\n\nCareer\n\nThe Supremes\n\nLater in 1960, the Primettes signed a contract with Lu Pine Records, issuing two songs that failed to perform well. During that year, they kept pursuing a Motown contract and agreed to do anything that was required, including adding handclaps and vocal backgrounds. By the end of the year, Berry Gordy agreed to have the group record songs in the studio. In January 1961, Gordy agreed to sign them on the condition they change their name. Janie Bradford approached Ballard with a list of names to choose from before Ballard chose \"Supremes\". When the other members heard of the new name, they weren't pleased. Diana Ross feared they would be mistaken for a male vocal group. Eventually Gordy agreed to sign them under that name on January 15, 1961.\n\nThe group struggled in their early years with the label, releasing eight singles that failed to crack the Billboard Hot 100, giving them the nickname \"no-hit Supremes\". One track, \"Buttered Popcorn\", led by Ballard, was a regional hit in the Midwest, but still failed to chart. During a 1962 Motortown Revue tour, Ballard briefly replaced the Marvelettes' Wanda Young while she was on maternity leave. Before the release of their 1962 debut album, Meet the Supremes, Barbara Martin, who had replaced Betty McGlown a year before they signed to Motown, left the group. Ballard, Ross and Wilson remained a trio. After the hit success of 1963's \"When the Love Light Starts Shining Through His Eyes\", Diana Ross became the group's lead singer.\n\nIn the spring of 1964, the group released \"Where Did Our Love Go\", which became their first number-one hit on the Billboard Hot 100, paving the way for ten number-one hits recorded by Ross, Ballard and Wilson between 1964 and 1967. After many rehearsals with Cholly Atkins and Maurice King, the Supremes' live shows improved dramatically as well. During this time, Ballard would contribute leads to songs on Supremes albums, including a cover of Sam Cooke's \"(Ain't That) Good News\". During live shows, Ballard often performed the Barbra Streisand standard, \"People\". According to Mary Wilson, Ballard's vocals were so loud she was made to stand 17 feet away from her microphone during recording sessions. All in all, Ballard contributed vocals to ten number-one pop hits and 16 top forty hit singles between 1963 and 1967.\n\nExit from the Supremes and solo career\n\nBallard expressed dissatisfaction with the group's direction throughout its successful period. She would also claim that their schedule had forced the group members to drift apart.Unsung: Florence Ballard, TV One, 2010 Ballard blamed Motown Records for destroying the group dynamic by making Diana Ross the star. Struggling to cope with label demands and her own bout with depression, Ballard turned to alcohol for comfort, leading to arguments with her group members. Ballard's alcoholism led to her missing performances and recording sessions. Gordy sometimes replaced Ballard on stage with the Andantes' Marlene Barrow. In April 1967, Cindy Birdsong, member of Patti LaBelle and the Blue Belles, became a stand-in for Ballard. A month later, Ballard returned to the group for what she thought was a temporary leave of absence. In June, Gordy changed the group's name to \"The Supremes with Diana Ross\", which was how they were billed on the marquee of Las Vegas' Flamingo Hotel.\n\nOn July 1, the day after her 24th birthday, Ballard showed up inebriated during the group's third performance at the Flamingo and stuck her stomach out from her suit. Angered, Gordy ordered her to return to Detroit, and Birdsong officially replaced her, abruptly ending her tenure with the Supremes. It had been decided as early as May that Birdsong would be Ballard's official replacement once Birdsong's contract with the Bluebelles was bought out. In August 1967, the Detroit Free Press reported that Ballard had taken a temporary leave of absence from the group due to \"exhaustion\". Ballard eventually married her boyfriend, Thomas Chapman, on February 29, 1968. A week earlier, on February 22, Ballard and Motown negotiated to have Ballard released from the label. Her attorney in the matter received a one-time payment of $139,804.94 in royalties and earnings from Motown. As part of the settlement, Ballard was advised to not promote her solo work as a former member of the Supremes.\n\nIn March 1968 Ballard signed with ABC Records and released two unsuccessful singles. After an album for the label was shelved, her settlement money was depleted from the Chapmans' management agency, Talent Management, Inc. The agency had been led by Leonard Baun, Ballard's attorney who had helped to settle Ballard's matters with Motown. Following news that Baun was facing multiple embezzlement charges, Ballard fired him. She continued to perform as a solo artist, opening for Bill Cosby that September at Chicago's Auditorium Theater. In October 1968, Ballard gave birth to twin daughters Michelle and Nicole. In January 1969, Ballard performed at one of newly elected President Richard Nixon's inaugural balls. She was dropped from ABC in 1970.\n\nIn 1960, Ballard was raped at knifepoint by local high-school basketball player Reggie Harding after leaving a sock hop at Detroit's Graystone Ballroom (she had attended with her brother, but they accidentally lost track of each other). The rape occurred in an empty parking lot off Woodward Avenue. Ballard responded by secluding herself in her house refusing to come outside, which worried her groupmates. Weeks later, Ballard told Wilson and Ross what had happened. Though Ross and Wilson were sympathetic, they were also confused because Ballard was considered to be strong-willed and unflappable. Both Wilson and Jesse Green, an early boyfriend of Florence's, had described her as a \"generally happy if somewhat mischievous and sassy teenager.\" Wilson believes that the incident heavily contributed to the more self-destructive aspects of Ballard's adult personality, like cynicism, pessimism, and fear or distrust of others. The rape was never mentioned again. Ballard began dating Thomas Chapman in 1967; they married on February 29, 1968 and had three daughters: Michelle, Nicole, and Lisa. Ballard reportedly suffered domestic abuse from Chapman and they separated, but they were still married at the time of her death.\n\nDecline\n\nIn July 1971 Ballard sued Motown for additional royalty payments she believed she was due to receive; she was defeated in court by Motown. That year she gave birth to her third daughter, Lisa. Shortly afterwards, Ballard and her husband separated after several domestic disputes and Ballard's home was foreclosed. Facing poverty and depression, Ballard developed alcoholism and shied away from the spotlight. In 1972, she moved into her sister Maxine's house. In 1974 Mary Wilson invited Ballard to join the Supremes, which now included Cindy Birdsong and Scherrie Payne (Ross had left for her successful solo career in 1970). Though Ballard played tambourine, she didn't sing and told Wilson she had no ambition to sing any more.\n\nLater that year Ballard's plight started to be reported in newspapers as word got around that the singer had applied for welfare. Around that time, Ballard entered Henry Ford Hospital for rehab treatment. Following six weeks of treatment, Ballard slowly started to recover.\n\nComeback\n\nIn early 1975 Ballard received an insurance settlement from her former attorney's insurance company. The settlement money helped her buy a house on Shaftsbury Avenue. Inspired by the financial success, Ballard decided to return to singing and also reconciled with Chapman. Ballard's first concert performance in more than five years took place at the Henry and Edsel Ford Auditorium in Detroit on June 25, 1975. Ballard performed as part of the Joan Little Defense League and was backed by female rock group the Deadly Nightshade. Afterward she started receiving offers for interviews; Jet magazine was one of the first to report on Ballard and her recovery.\n\nDeath\n\nOn February 21, 1976, Ballard entered Mt. Carmel Mercy Hospital, complaining of numbness in her extremities. She died at 10:05 the next morning from cardiac arrest caused by a coronary thrombosis (a blood clot in one of her coronary arteries), at the age of 32.\n\nBallard is buried in Detroit Memorial Park Cemetery located in Warren, Michigan.\n\nLegacy\n\nFlorence Ballard's story has been referenced in a number of works by other artists. The 1980 song \"Romeo's Tune\", from Mississippian Steve Forbert's album Jackrabbit Slim is \"dedicated to the memory of Florence Ballard\". The Billy Bragg song \"King James Version\" on his William Bloke album contains the line \"Remember the sadness in Florence Ballard's eyes\". On his 2006 album Hip Hop is Dead, hip-hop artist Nas mentions the Ballard/Ross rivalry in his song \"Blunt Ashes\": \"When Flo from the Supremes died/Diana Ross cried/Many people said that she was laughing inside.\" In his short story \"You Know They Got a Hell of a Band\", Stephen King, through the late disc jockey Alan Freed, includes Ballard as one of the deceased artists who performs in a town called “Rock and Roll Heaven”.\n\nDreamgirls, a 1981 Broadway musical, chronicles a fictional group called \"The Dreams,\" and a number of plot components parallel events in the Supremes’ career. The central character of Effie White, like Florence Ballard, is criticized for being overweight, and is fired from the group. The film version of Dreamgirls released in 2006 features more overt references to Ballard's life and the Supremes' story, including gowns and album covers that are direct copies of Supremes originals. Jennifer Hudson won a Golden Globe Award and Academy Award for her portrayal of Effie White in the Dreamgirls film. In her Golden Globe acceptance speech, Hudson dedicated her win to Florence Ballard.\n\nThe music video for the Diana Ross song \"Missing You\" pays tribute to Marvin Gaye, Ballard, and Paul Williams, all former Motown artists who had died. In 1988, Ballard was inducted to the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a member of the Supremes alongside Diana Ross and Mary Wilson.\n\nFamily\n\nBesides her three daughters Nicole Chapman, Lisa Chapman and Michelle Chapman, Ballard's family included her cousin Hank Ballard and his grandnephew NFL player Christian Ballard.\n\nDiscography\n\nAlbum\n\n* 2002: The Supreme Florence \"Flo\" Ballard (originally shelved by ABC Records in 1968 under the proposed title, \"...You Don't Have To\")\n\nSingles\n\n* 1968: \"It Doesn't Matter How I Say It (It's What I Say That Matters)\" b/w \"Goin' Out of My Head\" (ABC Records #45-11074A/B)\n* 1968: \"Love Ain't Love\" b/w \"Forever Faithful\" (ABC Records #45-11144A/B)", "A girl group like KARA, The Kpop's Legend in Japan and Malaysia\n is a music act featuring several female singers who generally harmonize together. The term \"girl group\" is also used in a narrower sense in the United States of America to denote the wave of American female pop music singing groups, many of whom were influenced by doo-wop, and which flourished in the late 1950s and early 1960s between the decline of early rock and roll and start of the British Invasion. \n\nAll-female bands, in which members also play instruments, are usually considered a separate phenomenon. These groups are sometimes called \"girl bands\" to differentiate, although this terminology is not universally followed, and these bands are sometimes also called girl groups. For example, vocalist groups Sugababes and Girls Aloud are referred to as \"girl bands\"; while instrumentalists Girlschool are termed a \"girl group\". \n\nWith the advent of the music industry and radio broadcasting, a number of girl groups emerged, such as the Andrews Sisters. The late 1950s saw the emergence of all-female singing groups as a major force, with 750 distinct girl groups releasing songs that reached US and UK music charts from 1960 to 1966. the Supremes alone held 12 number-one singles on the Billboard Hot 100 during the height of the wave and throughout most of the British Invasion rivaled the Beatles in popularity. In later eras, the girl group template would be applied to disco, contemporary R&B, and country-based formats, as well as pop. A more globalized music industry saw the extreme popularity of dance-oriented pop music led by major record labels. This emergence, led by the US, UK, South Korea, and Japan, produced extremely popular acts, with eight groups debuting after 1990 having sold more than 15 million physical copies of their albums. Also, since the late 2000s, South Korea has had a significant impact, with 8 of the top 10 girl groups by digital sales in the world originating there.\n\nHistory\n\nVaudeville and close harmonies\n\nOne of the first major all-female groups was the Hamilton Sisters and Fordyce, an American trio who successfully toured England and parts of Europe in 1927, recorded and appeared on BBC radio - they toured the US variety and big-time theaters extensively, and later changed their stage name to the Three X Sisters. The ladies were together from 1923 until the early 1940s, and known for their close harmonies, as well as barbershop style or novelty tunes, and utilized their 1930s radio success. The Three X Sisters were also especially a notable addition to the music scene, and predicted later girl group success by maintaining their popularity throughout the Great Depression. The Boswell Sisters, who became one of the most popular singing groups from 1930 to 1936, had over twenty hits. The Andrews Sisters started in 1937 as a Boswell tribute band and continued recording and performing through the 1940s into the late-1960s, achieving more record sales, more Billboard hits, more million-sellers, and more movie appearances than any other girl group to date. The Andrews Sisters had musical hits across multiple genres, which contributed to the prevalence and popularity of the girl group form. \n\nThe rise of girl groups appeared out of and was influenced by other musical movements of the time period. Vaudeville created an environment of entertainment in which the appearance of the girl group was not unfriendly, and musical forms like a cappella and barbershop quartet singing provided inspiration for the structure of the songs and types of harmonies sung by initial girl groups. Importantly, the first successful girl groups of this era were typically white, but capitalized on using music such as ragtime that had originated in the African American community. This era was also advantageous to the beginnings of girl group music because of the newfound prevalence of the radio as well, which allowed this style of music to spread.\n\n1955–1970: The golden age of girl groups\n\nAs the rock era began, close harmony acts like the Chordettes, the Fontane Sisters, the McGuire Sisters and the DeCastro Sisters remained popular, with the first three acts topping the pop charts and the last reaching number two, at the end of 1954 to the beginning of 1955. Also, the Lennon Sisters were a mainstay on the Lawrence Welk Show from 1955 on. In early 1956, doo-wop one-hit wonder acts like the Bonnie Sisters with \"Cry Baby\" and the Teen Queens with \"Eddie My Love\" showed early promise for a departure from traditional pop harmonies. With \"Mr. Lee\", the Bobbettes lasted for 5 1/2 months on the charts in 1957, building momentum and gaining further acceptance of all-female, all-black vocal groups. \n\nHowever, it was the Chantels' 1958 song \"Maybe\" that became \"arguably, the first true glimmering of the girl group sound.\" The \"mixture of black doo-wop, rock and roll, and white pop\" was appealing to a teenage audience and grew from scandals involving payola and the perceived social effects of rock music. However, early groups such as the Chantels started developing their groups' musical capacities traditionally, through mediums like Latin and choir music. The success of the Chantels and others was followed by an enormous rise in girl groups with varying skills and experience, with the music industry's typical racially segregated genre labels of R&B and pop slowly breaking apart. This rise also allowed a semblance of class mobility to groups of people who often could not otherwise gain such success, and \"forming vocal groups together and cutting records gave them access to other opportunities toward professional advancement and personal growth, expanding the idea of girlhood as an identity across race and class lines.\" The group often considered to have achieved the first sustained success in girl group genre is the Shirelles, who first reached the Top 40 with \"Tonight's the Night\", and in 1961 became the first girl group to reach number one on the Hot 100 with \"Will You Love Me Tomorrow\", written by songwriters Gerry Goffin and Carole King at 1650 Broadway. The Shirelles solidified their success with five more top 10 hits, most particularly 1962's number one hit \"Soldier Boy\", over the next two and a half years. \"Please Mr. Postman\" by the Marvelettes became a major indication of the racial integration of popular music, as it was the first number one song in the US for African-American owned label Tamla/Motown. Motown would mastermind several major girl groups, including Martha and the Vandellas, the Velvelettes, and the Supremes. \n\nOther songwriters and producers in the US and UK quickly recognized the potential of this new approach and recruited existing acts (or, in some cases, created new ones) to record their songs in a girl-group style. Phil Spector recruited the Crystals, the Blossoms, and the Ronettes, while Goffin and King penned two hit songs for the Cookies. Phil Spector made a huge impact on the ubiquity of the girl group, as well as bringing fame and notoriety to new heights for many girl groups. Phil Spector's so-called Wall of Sound, which used layers of instruments to create a more potent sound allowed girl groups to sing powerfully and in different styles than earlier generations. Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller would likewise foster the Exciters, the Dixie Cups, and the Shangri-Las. The Shangri-Las' hit single, \"Leader of the Pack,\" exemplified the \"'death disc' genre\" adopted by some girl groups. These songs usually told the story of teenage love cut short by the death of one of the young lovers.\n\nThe Paris Sisters had success from 1961 to 1964, especially with \"I Love How You Love Me\". The Sensations, the Chiffons, the Angels, and the Orlons were also prominent in the early 1960s. In early fall 1963 one-hit wonder the Jaynetts' \"Sally Go 'Round the Roses\" achieved a mysterious sound quite unlike that of any other girl group. In 1964, the one-hit wonder group the Murmaids took David Gates' \"Popsicles and Icicles\" to the top 3 in January, the Carefrees' \"We Love You Beatles\" scraped the top 40 in April, and the Jewels' \"Opportunity\" was a small hit in December. \n\nThe girl group sound also extended to existing acts backed by studio musician girls performing without label credit. Examples are too numerous to mention.\n\nOver 750 girl groups were able to chart a song between 1960 and 1966 in the US and UK, although the genre's reach was not as strongly felt in the music industries of other regions. As the youth culture of western Continental Europe was deeply immersed in Yé-yé, recording artists of East Asia mostly varied from traditional singers, government-sponsored chorus, or multi-cultural soloists and bands, while bossa nova was trendy in Latin America. Beat Music's global influence eventually pushed out girl groups as a genre and, except for a small number of the foregoing groups and possibly the Toys and the Sweet Inspirations, the only girl group with any significant chart presence from the beginning of the British Invasion through 1970 was the Supremes. The distinct girl group sound would not re-emerge until the 21st century, where it would influence modern-day English-speaking pop-soul soloists who have been met with international success, such as Amy Winehouse, Adele, Duffy and Melanie Fiona among others. In addition to influencing individual singers, this generation of girl groups cemented the girl group form and sentiment and provided inspiration for many future groups.\n\n1966–1989: Changes in formats and genres\n\nFrom 1971 through 1974 the only two hits purely by western girl groups peaking in the top 10 were \"Want Ads\" by Honey Cone and \"When Will I See You Again\" by the Three Degrees (which had roots in the 1960s and in 1970, like the Chantels in 1958, began their top 40 pop career with \"Maybe\"). Patti LaBelle and the Bluebelles was a US 1960s girl group whose image Vicki Wickham, their manager, helped remake in the early 1970s, renaming the group Labelle and pushing them in the direction of glam rock. Labelle were the first girl group to eschew matching outfits and identical choreography, instead wearing extravagant spacesuits and feathered headdresses. IT'S MY PARTY!, a girl group inspired by the 1960s style, was formed in 1985. Later, during the disco craze and beyond, female acts included First Choice, Silver Convention, Hot, the Emotions, High Inergy, Odyssey, Sister Sledge, Mary Jane Girls, Belle Epoque, Frantique, Luv' and Baccara. In the 1980s, there were groups like the Pointer Sisters, Exposé and Bananarama.\n\nIn Latin America the most popular girl groups during the era were the Flans and Pandora.\n\nIn Japan, all-female idol groups Candies and Pink Lady made a series of hits during the 1970s and 1980s as well. The Japanese music program Music Station listed Candies and Pink Lady in their Top 50 Idols of All Time (compiled in 2011), placing them at number 32 and number 15, with sales exceeding 5 and 13 million in Japan, respectively. Pink Lady was also one of only two Japanese artists to have reached the Billboard Top 40 with the single \"Kiss in the Dark\", the other artist being Kyu Sakamoto, who became famous for \"Ue wo Muite Arukō\", the Japanese version of \"Sukiyaki\". Billboard magazine states that Pink Lady have sold over 40 million singles and 25 million albums worldwide. \n\n1990–present: Dance pop girl group era\n\nLatin America scene\n\nThe Mexican girl group Pandora started out as backup singers, then began releasing albums in 1985. In 1992 and 1993 they were named the best pop group by El Nuestro. The Mexican girl group Flans released an album each year from 1985 to 1990, with several different membership changes, then recorded sporadically after that. The Mexican girl group Jeans saw chart success in 1996 and 1997, and kept recording through 2006, with many changes in membership.\n\nBrazilian girls - Brazilian girls group.\n\nAmerican R&B and hip hop\n\nWith the rise of new jack swing, contemporary R&B and hip hop, American girl groups such as En Vogue, Exposé and Sweet Sensation all had singles which hit number one on the charts. Groups in these genres, such as SWV, Xscape, 702, Total, Zhane, Blaque and 3LW, managed to have songs chart on both the U.S. Hot 100 and the U.S. R&B charts. However, TLC achieved the most success for a girl group in an era where contemporary R&B would become global mainstream acceptance. TLC remains the best-selling American girl group with 65 million records sold, and their 1994 album, CrazySexyCool, remains the best-selling album for a girl group in the United States (diamond certification), while selling over 23 million copies worldwide. Destiny's Child emerged in the late 1990s and sold more than 60 million records. \n\nDespite the dying popularity of girl groups in the US in the mid-2000s, American girl group and dance ensemble The Pussycat Dolls achieved worldwide success with their singles, such as \"Don't Cha\", \"Buttons\", and \"When I Grow Up\". The Pussycat Dolls spawned numerous spin-off girl groups with limited success, the most successful of which had been international girl group G.R.L., which debuted in 2014 with a Billboard Hot 100 top 40 single \"Wild Wild Love\", but went into hiatus prematurely with the unexpected passing of member Simone Battle. Fifth Harmony, who came in third on the second season of The X Factor, is the first girl group since The Pussycat Dolls to have multiple singles enter into the top 40 of the US Billboard Hot 100. \n\nFifth Harmony is an American five-piece girl group formed on the second season of the The X Factor USA in July 2012. Their single \"Worth It\" achieved 3 times platinum certification in the United States in 2015. They also became the first girl group to top the iTunes Worldwide Charts in the digital media age with their sophomore album 7/27.\n\nThe second British invasion\n\nAmidst the American domination of the girl group scene, the UK's Spice Girls shifted the tide and had nine number 1 singles in the UK and US. With sold-out concerts, advertisements, merchandise, 80 million worldwide album sales, the best-selling album of all time by a female group, and a film, the Spice Girls became the most commercially successful British group since the Beatles. \n\nThe cultural movement started by the Spice Girls produced other similar acts, which include the British-Canadian outfit All Saints, Irish girl group B*Witched and Eternal, who all achieved varying levels of success during the decade. Throughout the 2000s, girl groups from the UK remained popular, with Girls Aloud's \"Sound of the Underground\" and Sugababes' \"Round Round\" having been called \"two huge groundbreaking hits\" credited with reshaping British pop music for the 2000s. The success of Sugababes and Girls Aloud inspired other UK girl group acts, including Mis-Teeq, the Saturdays, StooShe, and Little Mix.\n\nIn 2012, Little Mix's debut album DNA entered the Billboard 200 at number 4, breaking Spice Girls' previous record in the United States as highest debuting girl group from the UK. Their global Get Weird Tour, which supports their most commercially successful studio album to date, currently holds the record for highest selling UK arena tour of 2016, with 300,000 ticket sales in the UK alone. \n\nThe success of current actsLittle Mix demonstrates that the girl group formula can still be commercially competitive in the 2010s, and testify to the continuing popularity of girl groups in the West.\n\nEmergence of Asian dance-pop girl groups\n\nAlthough the emergence of dance-pop focused acts in Asia paralleled their British counterparts in the 1990s, girl groups in Asia sustained as a successful format through the 2010s. Many of these girl groups practice highly choreographed dances with studio-produced playback.\n\nJapan has the music industry's second largest market overall and the largest physical music market in the world, with the physical sales Oricon Singles Chart being dominated by J-pop idol girl groups. In the late 1990s, vocal/dance girl bands Speed and Max gained prominence in Asia, and paved the way for succeeding Japanese girl groups, such as Morning Musume, AKB48, and Momoiro Clover Z. Speed sold a total of 20 million copies in Japan within three years, with Variety calling them \"Japan’s top girl group\", while Max still hold the record for girl group with the second most number of consecutive top 10 singles in Japan. Morning Musume are one of the most successful and longest running Japanese pop idol girl groups in Japan, and have sold over 18 million copies there. AKB48 have had the best-selling singles of the year in the country for the past six years. They are also the best-selling act in Japan by number of singles sold. Several new idol groups appeared in the 2010s and created a fiercely competitive situation in the music industry, which has been referred to as the \"Idol sengoku jidai\" (アイドル戦国時代; lit. Age of the Idol Warring States). In 2014, about 486,000 people attended Momoiro Clover Z's live concerts, which was the highest record for female musicians in Japan. Momoiro Clover Z has been ranked as the most popular female idol group from 2013 to 2015. \n\nIn 2009, Hallyu (Korean wave) and K-pop had become increasingly significant in the entertainment industry, with its influence breaking the confinements of Asia and spreading to the Middle East, North Africa, Europe and the Americas Girl groups are one of the leaders of the \"Hallyu\" wave, with top albums consistently selling millions of copies. Popular South Korean groups include Girls' Generation, KARA, 2NE1, f(x), SISTAR, Girl's Day, Apink, 4minute, Miss A, Wonder Girls, T-ARA and others. The girl groups of Korea have been particularly effective in digital sales of music, with seven South Korean acts comprising the top ten in digital sales among girl groups. The influence of the original girl groups of the United States was not lost on this era of artists, as many adopted visual influences through their \"retro\" concepts, such as the international 2008 hit \"Nobody\" by Wonder Girls.\n\nIn 2010, the girl group Blush was formed, originally composed of five members from the Philippines, India, Hong Kong, South Korea and Japan they became the first Asian group to have its debut single hit the top 3 on a major US Billboard Chart. They were formed on a reality show called Project Lotus: The Search for Blush.\n\nThemes \n\nGirl groups have a wide array of subject matter in their songs, depending on time and place and who was producing. Songs also had a penchant for reflecting the political and cultural climate around them. For instance, songs with abusive undertones were somewhat common during the 1950s-1970s. One notable example was the song \"He Hit Me (And It Felt Like A Kiss)\" by the Crystals. During the \"golden age of girl groups\", lyrics were disparate, ranging from songs about mean dogs to underage pregnancy. However, common sentiments were also found in ideas like new love, pining after a crush or lover, and heartache. Some songs sounded upbeat or cheerful and sang about falling in love, whereas others took a decidedly more melancholic turn. Groups like the Shangri-Las, with the song \"I Can Never Go Home Anymore\" sang about the darker side of being in love. \n\nAdolescence \n\nAn especially prevalent theme was adolescence. Since most of the girl groups were composed of young singers, often still in high school, songs mentioned parents in many cases. Adolescence was also a popular subject because of an emerging audience of young girls listening to and buying records. Adolescence was also reinforced by girl groups in cultivation of a youthful image, since \"an unprecedented instance of teenage girls occupying center stage of mainstream commercial culture\". An example of this youth branding might be Baby Spice from the Spice Girls. This was shown through flourishes like typically matching outfits for mid-century girl groups and youthful content in songs. Girl groups of the 1950s era would also give advice to other girls, or sing about the advice their mothers gave to them, which was a similarity to some male musical groups of the time (for example, The Miracles' \"Shop Around\").\n\nAdolescence was also important (especially starting in the 1950s) from the other end: the consumers were \"teeneagers [with] disposable income, ready access to automobiles, and consolidated high schools that exposed them to large numbers of other teens. Mass teen culture was born.\" This was a symbiotic relationship with the girl groups in that these groups sang youthful content to appeal to their teen audience, and the teens, especially girls, bought the girl group records accordingly. Girls were also more easily exploited and more accessible to a youth, as well as broader audiences.\n\nFeminism \n\nAdditionally, as the girl group structure persisted through further generations, popular cultural sentiments were incorporated into the music. The appearance of \"girl power\" and feminism was also added, even though beginning groups were very structured in their femininity. Girl groups would give advice to their audience, or there would be a back-and-forth dialogue between the backup singers and the main singer. It would be simplistic to imply that girl groups only sang about being in love; on the contrary, many groups expressed complex sentiments in their songs. There were songs of support, songs that were gossipy, etc.; like any other musical movement, there was lots of variation in what was being sang. A prominent theme was often teaching \"what it meant to be a woman\". Girl groups would exhibit what womanhood looked like from the clothes they were wearing to the actual lyrics in their songs. Of course this changed over the years (what the Supremes were wearing was different from the Spice Girls), but girl groups still served as beacons and examples of certain types of identities to their audiences through the years.\n\nGirl groups in earlier generations like the 1950s were perhaps more exploited (at least overtly) than more recent girl groups. In the 1990s through the present, with the prevalence of such groups as the Spice Girls and Fifth Harmony, there has been a strong emphasis on women's independence and a sort of feminism. At the very least, the music is more assertive lyrically and relies less on innuendo. This more recent wave of girl groups is more sexually provocative as well, which makes sense within pop music within this time frame as well." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Diana Ross and the Supremes", "Diana Ross & The Supremes", "Diana Ross and The Supremes", "The Supremes Sing Disney Classics", "The Supremes at the Copa '67", "The Supremes", "Diana Ross And The Supremes", "Supremes", "The Primettes", "Diana ross and the supremes", "Primettes", "The supremes", "Diana Ross & the Supremes" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "diana ross supremes", "diana ross and supremes", "supremes at copa 67", "supremes sing disney classics", "supremes", "primettes" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "supremes", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Supremes" }
Who was born first, Susan Sarandon or Glenn Close?	tc_268	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Susan_Sarandon.txt" ], "title": [ "Susan Sarandon" ], "wiki_context": [ "Susan Abigail Sarandon (; née Tomalin; born October 4, 1946) is an American actress. She is an Academy Award and BAFTA Award winner who is also known for her social and political activism for a variety of causes. She was appointed a UNICEF Goodwill Ambassador in 1999 and received the Action Against Hunger Humanitarian Award in 2006.\n\nSarandon began her career in the 1970 film Joe, before appearing in the soap opera A World Apart (1970–71). In 1975, she starred in the cult classic film The Rocky Horror Picture Show. She was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actress for Atlantic City (1980), Thelma & Louise (1991), Lorenzo's Oil (1992) and The Client (1994), before winning for Dead Man Walking (1995). She has also won the BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role for The Client, and the Screen Actors Guild Award for Best Actress for Dead Man Walking.\n\nShe made her Broadway debut in An Evening with Richard Nixon in 1972, and went on to receive Drama Desk Award nominations for the Off-Broadway plays, A Coupla White Chicks Sitting Around Talking (1979) and Extremities (1982). She returned to Broadway in the 2009 revival of Exit the King.\n\nOn television, she is a five-time Emmy Award nominee, including for her guest roles on the sitcoms Friends (2001) and Malcolm in the Middle (2002), and the TV films Bernard and Doris (2007) and You Don't Know Jack (2010). Her other films include Pretty Baby (1978), The Hunger (1983), The Witches of Eastwick (1987), Bull Durham (1988), White Palace (1990), Little Women (1994), Stepmom (1998), Igby Goes Down (2002), Enchanted (2007), The Lovely Bones (2009), Arbitrage (2012) and Tammy (2014).\n\nEarly life\n\nSarandon was born in Jackson Heights, Queens, New York City. She is the eldest of nine children born to Lenora Marie (née Criscione; b. 1923) and Phillip Leslie Tomalin (1917–1999), an advertising executive, television producer, and one-time nightclub singer. She has four brothers: Philip Jr., Terry (deceased May 19, 2016), Tim and O'Brian and four sisters: Meredith, Bonnie, Amanda and Missy. Her father was of English, Irish, and Welsh ancestry, his English ancestors being from Hackney in London and his Welsh ancestors being from Bridgend. On her mother's side, she is of Italian descent, with ancestors from the regions of Tuscany and Sicily. Sarandon was raised Roman Catholic and attended Roman Catholic schools. She grew up in Edison, New Jersey, where she graduated from Edison High School in 1964. She then attended The Catholic University of America, from 1964 to 1968, and earned a BA in drama and worked with noted drama coach and master teacher, Father Gilbert V. Hartke.\n\nCareer\n\nIn 1969, Sarandon went to a casting call for the motion-picture Joe with her then husband Chris Sarandon. Although he did not get a part, she was cast in a major role of a disaffected teen who disappears into the seedy underworld (the film was released in the summer of 1970). Between 1970 and 1972, she appeared on the soap operas A World Apart and Search for Tomorrow, playing Patrice Kahlman and Sarah Fairbanks, respectively. In 1975, she appeared in the cult favorite The Rocky Horror Picture Show. That same year, she also played the female lead in The Great Waldo Pepper, opposite Robert Redford. She was twice directed by Louis Malle, in Pretty Baby (1978) and Atlantic City (1981). The latter earned Sarandon her first Academy Award nomination.\n\nHer most controversial film appearance was in Tony Scott's The Hunger in 1983, a modern vampire story in which she had a lesbian sex scene with Catherine Deneuve. In 1987, she appeared in the hit comedy-fantasy The Witches of Eastwick alongside Jack Nicholson, Cher, and Michelle Pfeiffer. However, Sarandon did not become a \"household name\" until her A-list breakthrough opposite Kevin Costner and Tim Robbins (who became her real-life live-in lover) in the 1988 film Bull Durham, which became a huge commercial and critical success. \n\nSarandon was nominated for an Academy Award four more times in the 1990s, as Best Actress in Thelma & Louise (1991), Lorenzo's Oil (1992), and The Client (1994), finally winning in 1995 for Dead Man Walking. She was awarded the Women in Film Crystal Award in 1994. Additionally, she has received eight Golden Globe nominations, including for White Palace (1990), Stepmom (1998), Igby Goes Down (2002), and Bernard and Doris (2007).\n\nHer other movies include Little Women (1994), Anywhere but Here (1999), Cradle Will Rock (1999), The Banger Sisters (2002), Shall We Dance (2004), Alfie (2004), Romance & Cigarettes (2005), Elizabethtown (2005) and Enchanted (2007). Sarandon has appeared in two episodes of The Simpsons, once as herself (\"Bart Has Two Mommies\") and as a ballet teacher, \"Homer vs. Patty and Selma\". She appeared on Friends, Malcolm in the Middle, Mad TV, Saturday Night Live, Chappelle's Show, 30 Rock, Rescue Me and Mike & Molly.\n\nSarandon has contributed the narration to two dozen documentary films, many of which dealt with social and political issues. In addition she has served as the presenter on many installments of the PBS documentary series, Independent Lens. In 1999 and 2000 she hosted and presented Mythos, a series of lectures by the late American mythology professor Joseph Campbell. Sarandon also participates as a member of the Jury for the NYICFF, a local New York City Film Festival dedicated to screening films made for children between the ages of 3 and 18. \n\nSarandon joined the cast of the adaptation of The Lovely Bones, opposite Rachel Weisz, and appeared with her daughter, Eva Amurri, in Middle of Nowhere; both films were made in 2007. \nIn June 2010 Sarandon joined the cast of the HBO pilot The Miraculous Year, as Patty Atwood, a Broadway director/choreographer. However, the series was not picked up. In 2012 Sarandon's audiobook performance of Carson McCullers' The Member of the Wedding was released at Audible.com. \nSarandon was the voice actor for the character of Granny Rags, an eccentric and sinister old lady, in the stealth/action video game Dishonored, released in 2012.\n\nActivism\n\nSarandon is noted for her active support of progressive and liberal political causes, ranging from donations to organizations such as EMILY's List, to participating in a 1983 delegation to Nicaragua sponsored by MADRE, an organization that promotes \"social, environmental, and economic justice.\" Sarandon has expressed support for various human rights causes that are similar philosophically to ideas found among the left-wing supporters.\n\nIn 1995, Sarandon was one of many Hollywood actors, directors and writers interviewed for the documentary The Celluloid Closet, which looked at how Hollywood films have depicted homosexuality. In 1999, she was appointed UNICEF Goodwill Ambassador. In that capacity, she has actively supported the organization's global advocacy, as well as the work of the Canadian UNICEF Committee. \n\nDuring the 2000 election, Sarandon supported Ralph Nader's run for president, serving as a co-chair of the National Steering Committee of Nader 2000. \nDuring the 2004 election campaign, she withheld support for Nader's bid, being among several \"Nader Raiders\" who urged Nader to drop out and his voters offer their support for Democratic Party candidate John Kerry. After the 2004 election, Sarandon called for US elections to be monitored by international entities. \n\nSarandon and Robbins both took an early stance against the 2003 invasion of Iraq, with Sarandon stating that she was firmly against war as a pre-emptive strike. Prior to a 2003 protest sponsored by the United for Peace and Justice coalition, she said that many Americans \"do not want to risk their children or the children of Iraq\". Sarandon was one of the first to appear in a series of political ads sponsored by TrueMajority, an organization established by Ben & Jerry's Ice Cream founder Ben Cohen. In 2003 she appeared in a \"Love is Love is Love\" commercial, which promoted the acceptance of gay, lesbian, bisexual and transgender individuals. The next year, in 2004, she served on the advisory committee for 2004 Racism Watch, an activist group. She hosted a section of the Live 8 concert in Edinburgh, Scotland, in 2005. In 2006, she was one of eight women selected to carry in the Olympic flag at the Opening Ceremony of the 2006 Olympic Winter Games, in Turin, Italy.\n\nAlong with anti-war activist Cindy Sheehan, Sarandon took part in a 2006 Mother's Day protest, which was sponsored by Code Pink. In January 2007, she appeared with Robbins and Jane Fonda at an anti-war rally in Washington, D.C. in support of a Congressional measure to withdraw U.S. forces from Iraq. \n\nIn the 2008 U.S. presidential election, Sarandon and Tim Robbins campaigned for John Edwards in the New Hampshire communities of Hampton, Bedford and Dover. When asked at We Vote '08 Kickoff Party \"What would Jesus do this primary season\", Sarandon said, \"I think Jesus would be very supportive of John Edwards.\" \n\nSarandon was appointed an FAO Goodwill Ambassador in 2010.\n\nOn March 12, 2011, Sarandon spoke before a crowd in Madison, Wisconsin protesting Governor Scott Walker and his Budget Repair Bill. On September 27, 2011, Sarandon spoke to reporters and interested parties at the Occupy Wall Street protest in New York City. \nHer use of the term \"Nazi\" to describe Pope Benedict XVI on October 15, 2011, created controversy, generating complaints from Roman Catholic authorities, and the Anti-Defamation League, which called on Sarandon to apologize. Sarandon's mother Leonora Tomalin is a staunch Republican, a supporter of George W. Bush and the Iraq War. \n\nSarandon has become an advocate to end the death penalty and mass incarceration. She has joined the team of people fighting to save the life of Richard Glossip, a man who is on death row in Oklahoma. In May 2015, Sarandon launched a campaign with fundraising platform Represent.com to sell T-shirts to help finance the documentary Deep Run, the story of a poor North Carolina teen undergoing a gender transition. \n\nIn the 2016 U.S. presidential election, she has made public her support for Vermont Senator Bernie Sanders. \nOn March 28, 2016 in an interview on All In with Chris Hayes, Sarandon indicated that she and other Sanders supporters might not support Hillary Clinton if Clinton is the Democratic nominee for President. She stated: \"You know, some people feel that Donald Trump will bring the revolution immediately. If he gets in, then things will really explode.\" Hayes inquired as to whether it would be dangerous to allow Trump to become president, to which she replied: \"If you think that it's pragmatic to shore up the status quo right now, then you're not in touch with the status quo\". \n\nRecognition\n\nIn 2006, Sarandon received the Action Against Hunger Humanitarian Award. She was honored for her work as a UNICEF Goodwill Ambassador, an advocate for victims of hunger and HIV/AIDS and a spokesperson for Heifer International.\n\nPersonal life\n\nWhile in college, she met fellow student Chris Sarandon and the couple married on September 16, 1967. They divorced in 1979, but she retained the surname Sarandon as her stage name. She was then involved romantically with director Louis Malle and musician David Bowie. In the mid-1980s, Sarandon dated Italian filmmaker Franco Amurri, with whom she had a daughter, Eva Amurri, on March 15, 1985. Amurri has become an actress as well. From 1988, Sarandon cohabited with actor Tim Robbins, whom she met while they were filming Bull Durham. They have two sons – Jack Henry (born May 15, 1989) and Miles Guthrie (born May 4, 1992). Sarandon split with her long-time partner, Robbins, in 2009. Following the dissolution of her relationship, she soon began a relationship with Jonathan Bricklin, son of Malcolm Bricklin. They operated the SPiN ping-pong lounges together. Sarandon and Bricklin broke up in 2015. \n\nIn 2006, Sarandon and ten relatives, including her then-partner, Tim Robbins and their son, Miles, travelled to Wales to trace her family's Welsh genealogy. Their journey was documented by the BBC Wales programme, Coming Home: Susan Sarandon. Much of the same research and content was featured in the American version of Who Do You Think You Are?. She also received the \"Ragusani nel mondo\" prize in 2006; her Sicilian roots are in Ragusa, Italy. \nSarandon is the co-owner of New York ping-pong club SPiN, and its Toronto branch SPiN Toronto. \n\nSarandon is a vegetarian. \n\nFilmography\n\nAwards and nominations\n\nSarandon received the Lifetime Achievement Award at the 2009 Stockholm International Film Festival, was inducted into the New Jersey Hall of Fame in 2010, and received the Outstanding Artistic Life Award for her Outstanding Contribution to World Cinema at the 2011 Shanghai International Film Festival. In 2013, she was invited to inaugurate the 44th International Film Festival of India (IFFI) in Goa. In 2015, Sarandon received the Goldene Kamera international lifetime achievement award." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Susan Abigail Sarandon", "Susan Abigail Tomalin", "Susan Sarandon" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "susan sarandon", "susan abigail sarandon", "susan abigail tomalin" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "susan sarandon", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Susan Sarandon" }
Who wrote the novel The Go Between?	tc_269	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "Search" ], "filename": [ "The_Go-Between.txt" ], "title": [ "The Go-Between" ], "wiki_context": [ "The Go-Between is a novel by L. P. Hartley published in 1953. His best-known work, it has been adapted several times for stage and screen.\n\nPlot summary\n\nThe story begins with the reminiscences of Leo Colston, an elderly man looking back on his childhood with nostalgia. Leo, in his mid-sixties, is looking through his old things. He chances upon a battered old red collar box. In it he finds a diary from 1900, the year of his thirteenth birthday. He slowly pieces together his memory as he looks through the diary.\n\nImpressed by the astrological emblems at the front of the book, young Leo combines them in his mind with the idea that he is living at the turn of the 20th century. The importance of his boarding school's social rules is another theme. Some of the rougher boys steal his diary, reading and defacing it. The two oldest bullies, Jenkins and Strode, beat him at every opportunity. He devises some \"curses\" for them in the pages of the book, using occult symbols and Greek letters, and placing the book where they will find it. Subsequently both boys venture onto the roof of one of the school buildings, fall off and are severely injured. This leaves him greatly admired by the other boys, who think that he is a magician - something that he comes to half-believe himself.\n\nThe greater portion of the text concerns itself with Leo's past, particularly the summer of 1900, spent in Norfolk, England, as a guest at Brandham Hall, the luxurious country home of his schoolfriend Marcus Maudsley. Here the young Leo, on holiday from boarding school, is a poor boy among the wealthy upper class. Leo's comparatively humble background is obvious to all and he does not really fit in there; however, his hosts do their best to make him feel welcome, treating him with kindness and indulgence. When Marcus falls ill, Leo is left largely to his own devices. He becomes a secret \"go-between\" for Marian Maudsley, the daughter of the host family, and nearby tenant farmer Ted Burgess. At first, Leo is happy to help Marian because she is kind to him and he has a crush on her. Besides, Leo is initially ignorant of the significance or content of the messages that he is asked to carry between Ted and Marian. Leo is a well-meaning and innocent boy, so it is easy for the lovers to manipulate him.\n\nThe fact that Ted comes from a much lower social class than Marian means there can be no possible future in the relationship because of the social taboos involved. Although Marian and Ted are fully aware of this, Leo is too naïve to understand why the lovers can never marry. The situation is further complicated by the fact that Marian is about to become engaged to Hugh, Viscount Trimingham, the descendant of the area's nobility who formerly resided in Brandham Hall. Together, these factors make Marian's secret relationship with Ted highly dangerous for all parties concerned.\n\nLater, Leo acts as an interceptor, and occasional editor, of the messages. Eventually, he begins to comprehend the sexual nature of the relationship between Marian and Ted, and feels increasingly uncomfortable about the general atmosphere of deception and risk. Leo tries to end his role as go-between, but comes under great psychological pressure and is forced to continue. Ultimately, Leo's involvement as messenger between the lovers has disastrous consequences. The trauma which results when Marian's family discover what is going on leads directly to Ted's shotgun suicide.\n\nIn the epilogue the older Leo tells the reader the consequences of this summer. The experience profoundly affects Leo, leaving him with permanent psychological scars. Forbidden to speak about the scandal, he feels he must not think of it either; and since nearly everything reminds him of it, he shuts down his emotions, leaving room only for facts. He subsequently grows up to be an emotionally detached adult who is never able to establish intimate relationships. He succeeds in repressing the memories until the diary unlocks them. Now looking back on the events through the eyes of a mature adult, he is fully aware of how the incident has left its mark on him. In a final twist to the story, 52 years later, Leo returns to Brandham. There he meets Marian's grandson and finds Marian herself living in a cottage - the place she had always told people she was going when she was really having clandestine meetings with Ted. Brandham Hall has been let out to a girls' school. Lord Trimingham married Marian, but died in 1910, and Marcus and his brother Denys were killed in the First World War. In the end, an elderly Marian Maudsley persuades Leo to act as a go-between for her once more.\n\nReception\n\nMilton Merlin wrote in the Los Angeles Times, \"a superbly composed and an irresistibly haunting novel about the two worlds of boyhood, about the crossing of 'the rainbow bridge from reality to dream.' ... This novel is so admirably written that any summary of its substance does only disservice to the author's beautiful and ingenious style, his whimsy, irony and humor, and, most of all, the powerful wallop of a deceptively simple, almost gentle story of a boy lost in a strange world of emotions.\" \n\nThe Go-Between' is a many-leveled affair; perhaps only the author knows how much there is in it of symbol and reference. ... This is a literary novel; i.e., it is written beautifully to say something that the author feels intensely. ... Nevertheless, Mr. Hartley is novelist enough to know that ... you must tell your story and never forget it for a moment. ... That is why Mr. Hartley is so amazingly good, and why no reader of serious fiction should miss this book.\" \n\n\"It's a kind of 'Lady Chatterly's Lover' love story, with a Greek inevitability.\" \n\n\"The excellence of the writing alone warrants reading of the book. But what makes the novel so engrossing is the drama and suspense of the plot.\" \n\nThe book's opening sentence has become a much-quoted line in its own right: \"The past is a foreign country: they do things differently there.\"\n\nAdaptations\n\nPlay\n\nIn 1960, an adaptation for stage by Louise F. Tanner was produced in Morgantown, West Virginia. Mrs. Tanner travelled to the United Kingdom to consult Hartley in person about the work. \n\nFilm\n\nPlaywright Harold Pinter adapted the novel into a screenplay of a film of the same name (1971), directed by Joseph Losey; it was Pinter's third, and last fulfilled collaboration with Losey. It won the Palme d'Or at the 1971 Cannes Film Festival. Pinter's fourth screenplay intended to be directed by Losey was never made.\n\nThe cast includes Julie Christie as Marian Maudsley, Alan Bates as Ted Burgess, Margaret Leighton as Mrs Maudsley, Dominic Guard as the younger Leo, Michael Redgrave as the older Leo and Edward Fox as Trimingham.\n\nMichel Legrand composed a memorable original score for the film, parts of which have been used in other works.\n\nTelevision\n\nA television adaptation starring Jim Broadbent was broadcast on BBC One on 20 September 2015. \n\nRadio\n\nOn 8 July 2012, a radio adaptation by Frances Byrnes and directed by Matt Thompson was broadcast on BBC Radio 3. The cast included the late Richard Griffiths as Lionel Colston, Oscar Kennedy as Leo Colston, Harriet Walter as Mrs. Maudsley, Lydia Leonard as Marian Maudsley, Amanda Root as Mrs Colston (Mother), Joseph Arkley as Ted Burgess, Blake Ritson as Viscount Trimingham, Crawford Logan as Mr Maudsley and Josef Lindsay as Marcus Maudsley. The production was re-broadcast on BBC Radio 3 on 26 May 2013.\n\nOpera\n\nIn 1991, South African composer David Earl adapted the novel as a two-act opera. \n\nMusical-theatre\n\nIn 2011, a musical-theatre adaptation of the novel was presented by the West Yorkshire Playhouse in Leeds, West Yorkshire; \n\nAdapted by David Wood with music by Richard Taylor and lyrics by Wood and Taylor, the production was directed by Roger Haines, \n\nThe musical was developed by Perfect Pitch, a UK theatre company.\n\nThe production was awarded Best Musical Production at the 2012 Theatre Management Association's UK Theatre Awards, held at the Guildhall in the City of London.\n\nThe new musical version will premiere at London's Apollo Theatre on 27 May 2016." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "L P Hartley", "L. P. Hartley", "Leslie Hartley", "L.P. Hartley", "The past is a foreign country", "Leslie Poles Hartley", "LP Hartley" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "l p hartley", "lp hartley", "leslie poles hartley", "leslie hartley", "past is foreign country" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "l p hartley", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "L. P. Hartley" }
In which musical do the sweeps sing Chim Chim Cheree?	tc_270	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Chim_Chim_Cher-ee.txt" ], "title": [ "Chim Chim Cher-ee" ], "wiki_context": [ "\"Chim Chim Cher-ee\" is a song from Mary Poppins, the 1964 musical motion picture. It was originally sung by Dick Van Dyke and Julie Andrews, and also is featured in the Cameron Mackintosh/Disney Mary Poppins musical. The song can be heard in the Mary Poppins scene of The Great Movie Ride at Disney's Hollywood Studios and during the Mary Poppins segment of Magical: Disney's New Nighttime Spectacular of Magical Celebrations at Disneyland.\n\nThe song won the 1964 Academy Award for Best Original Song. In 2005, Julie Andrews included this song as part of \"Julie Andrews Selects Her Favorite Disney Songs.\"\n\nSongwriters\n\nThe song was written by Robert B. Sherman & Richard M. Sherman (the \"Sherman Brothers\") who also won an Oscar and a Grammy Award for Mary Poppins' song score.\n\nInspiration\n\nThe song was inspired by one of the drawings of a chimney sweep created by Mary Poppins' screenwriter, Don DaGradi. When asked about the drawing by the Sherman Brothers, DaGradi explained the ancient British folklore attributed to \"sweeps\" and how shaking hands with one could bring a person good luck. In their 1961 treatment, the Sherman Brothers had already amalgamated many of the P.L. Travers characters in the creation of \"Bert\". His theme music became \"Chim Chim Cher-ee\".\n\nIn addition to the \"standard\" version of the song which Bert sings to the children, he sings short snippets of the song to himself at various times, with different verses specific to an unfolding plot element.\n\nThe \"[https://www.oocto.com/mentsh Mentsch]\" music group notes some similarities with a Yiddish song written by Itsik Manger named \"Vaylu\". The song also shares some sonic similarities to the Yiddish folksong, Tumbalalaika.\n\nCovers\n\n* John Coltrane on the 1965 album The John Coltrane Quartet Plays.\n* Duke Ellington released a complete Album with Mary Poppins songs, Duke Ellington Plays Mary Poppins. \n* The Howard Roberts Quartet covered this song in 1965.\n* The New Christy Minstrels on the 1965 album Chim Chim Cher-ee and Other Happy Songs\n* Mrs. Miller covered the song for her first Capitol Records album Mrs. Miller - Greatest Hits (1966).\n* The Tinseltown Players on the some various albums including Chim Chim Charee & Other Kiddie Favorites \n* Alvin and the Chipmunks on the 1969 album The Chipmunks Go to the Movies\n* Louis Armstrong on Disney Songs The Satchmo Way album. \n* Rex Gildo, in German on 1965's Chim-Chim-Cheri\n* Mannheim Steamroller on the 1999 album, Mannheim Steamroller Meets the Mouse. \n* Pete Doherty performed this song live at the Meltdown festival in 2007.\n* Joe Pernice (as \"Chim Cheree\") on the 2009 album It Feels So Good When I Stop.\n* Esperanza Spalding on the 2010 album Everybody Wants To Be A Cat.\n* Plastic Tree (in Japanese on the 2011 album V-Rock Disney \n* Turin Brakes as a 2011 single, with all UK proceeds going to Shelter (charity).\n* On 2013 album Disney - Koe no Oujisama Vol.3, which features various Japanese voice actors covering Disney songs, this song was covered by Takuma Terashima.\n* David Alan Grier in Amazon Women on the Moon.\n* The Seldom Scene in the album Act3. \n* Adrian H and The Wounds on the 2012 album \"Adrian H and The Wounds\".\n\nParodies\n\nThe song was parodied by song parodist Allan Sherman (no relation to the Sherman Brothers), using the song's same title. In his version, he poked fun at the American merchandise seen on TV commercials.\n\nSupporters of English football teams, Millwall, West Bromwich Albion and Blackburn Rovers, sing a version of the song which is a reference to each team's local rivals, West Ham, Aston Villa and Burnley, who all wear claret and blue shirts." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Mrs. George Banks", "Winifred banks", "17 Cherry Tree Lane", "Bert (Mary Poppins)", "Mr. George Banks", "Mr George Banks", "Mary popins", "Mrs George Banks", "Marry Poppins", "Mrs Winifred Banks", "Mary Poppins", "Mrs. Winifred Banks", "Mary poppins", "Winifred Banks" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "marry poppins", "mrs winifred banks", "mr george banks", "bert mary poppins", "mary popins", "winifred banks", "mrs george banks", "mary poppins", "17 cherry tree lane" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "mary poppins", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Mary Poppins" }
Who had a big 60s No 1 with Tossin' and Turnin'?	tc_271	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Tossin'_and_Turnin'.txt" ], "title": [ "Tossin' and Turnin'" ], "wiki_context": [ "\"Tossin' and Turnin'\" is a song written by Ritchie Adams and Malou Rene, and originally recorded by Bobby Lewis. The record reached number one on both the Billboard Hot 100 on July 10, 1961 and R&B chart and has since become a standard on oldies compilations. It was named the number-one single on the Billboard chart for 1961, after spending seven consecutive weeks at the top. It was featured on the soundtrack for the 1978 film Animal House.\n\nOn the original hit single version, the track begins with Lewis singing \"I couldn't sleep at all last night,\" and it appears this way on most oldies compilations. However, on some releases the song has a prelude, where Lewis sings \"Baby...Baby...you did something to me,\" followed by a musical cue into the first verse. Lewis usually includes this prelude when he performs the song live. The personnel on the original hit recording included Ritchie Adams and Eric Gale on guitar, Bob Bushnell on bass, King Curtis on a tenor sax mouthpiece, Frank Haywood Henry on baritone sax, Paul Griffin on Piano, and Sticks Evans on drums.\n\nIn 2008, Billboard magazine ranked the song as the 27th biggest song of all time that charted on the Billboard Hot 100, commemorating the 50th anniversary of the chart. It is one of only six songs from the 1960s to spend at least seven weeks in the number one position on the Billboard Hot 100.\n\nCover versions\n\nIn 1965, Chad Allan & the Expressions (Guess Who?) covered the song and released it as the B-side of \"Shakin' All Over\" and as a single in Canada where it reached #3. \nIn 1966, The Kingsmen released a version on their album The Kingsmen Up And Away.\nIn 1972, The Supremes released a version on their album The Supremes Produced and Arranged by Jimmy Webb.\nIn 1978, Kiss drummer Peter Criss released a version on his solo album Peter Criss. KISS played the song on the Dynasty Tour in 1979\nIn 1983, Joan Jett released a version on her album Album.\nSteve Goodman\nLulu \nJimmy Sturr" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Bobby Lewis" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "bobby lewis" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "bobby lewis", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Bobby Lewis" }
Sam Phillips was owner of which legendary recording studio?	tc_272	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Sam_Phillips.txt" ], "title": [ "Sam Phillips" ], "wiki_context": [ "Samuel Cornelius Phillips (January 5, 1923 – July 30, 2003) was an American musician, businessman, record executive, music producer, and disc jockey who played an important role in the emergence and development of rock and roll and rockabilly as the major form of popular music in the 1950s. He was a producer, label owner, and talent scout throughout the 1940s and 1950s.\n\nHe was the founder of both Sun Studio and Sun Records in Memphis, Tennessee. Through Sun, Phillips discovered such recording talent as Howlin' Wolf, Carl Perkins, Jerry Lee Lewis, and Johnny Cash. The height of his success culminated in his launching of Elvis Presley's career in 1954. He is also associated with several other noteworthy rhythm and blues, country, and rock and roll musicians of the period. Phillips sold Sun in 1969 to Shelby Singleton. He was an early investor in the Holiday Inn chain of hotels. He also advocated racial equality and helped break down racial barriers in the music industry.\n\nEarly life\n\nPhillips was the youngest of eight children, born on a farm near Florence, Alabama, to poor tenant farmers. As a child he picked cotton in the fields with his parents alongside black laborers. The experience of hearing workers singing in the fields left a big impression on the young Phillips. Traveling through Memphis with his family in 1939 on the way to see a preacher in Dallas, he slipped off to look at Beale Street, at the time the heart of the city's music scene. \"I just fell totally in love,\" he later recalled.\n\nPhillips attended the former Coffee High School in Florence. He conducted the school band and had ambitions to be a criminal defense attorney. However, his father was bankrupted by the Great Depression and died in 1941, forcing Phillips to leave high school to look after his mother and aunt. To support the family Phillips worked in a grocery store and then a funeral parlor.\n\nThe Memphis Recording Service and Sun Records\n\nIn the 1940s, Phillips worked as a DJ and radio engineer for Muscle Shoals radio station WLAY (AM). According to Phillips, this radio station's \"open format\" (of broadcasting music from both white and black musicians) would later inspire his work in Memphis. Beginning in 1945, he worked for four years as an announcer and sound engineer for WREC.\n\nOn January 3, 1950, Phillips opened the Memphis Recording Service at 706 Union Avenue in Memphis, Tennessee. The Memphis Recording Service let amateurs perform, which drew performers such as B.B. King, Junior Parker, and Howlin' Wolf. Phillips then would sell their performances to larger record labels. In addition to musical performances, Phillips recorded events such as weddings and funerals, selling the recordings. The Memphis Recording Service also served as the studio for Phillips's own label, which he launched in 1952.\n\nPhillips combined different styles of music. He was interested in the blues and said: \"The blues, it got people—black and white—to think about life, how difficult, yet also how good it can be. They would sing about it; they would pray about it; they would preach about it. This is how they relieved the burden of what existed day in and day out.\" \n\nPhillips recorded what some—notably music historian Peter Guralnick—consider the first rock and roll record: \"Rocket 88\" by Jackie Brenston and his Delta Cats, a band led by 19-year-old Ike Turner, who also wrote the song. The recording was released on the Chess/Checker record label in Chicago, in 1951. From 1950 to 1954 Phillips recorded the music of James Cotton, Rufus Thomas, Rosco Gordon, Little Milton, Bobby Blue Bland, and others. B.B. King and Howlin' Wolf, among others, made their first recordings at his studio. In fact, Phillips deemed Howlin' Wolf his greatest discovery, and Elvis Presley his second greatest.\n\nSun Records produced more Rock and Roll records than any other record label of its time during its 16-year run, producing 226 singles. \n\nElvis Presley, Johnny Cash, Jerry Lee Lewis, Carl Perkins, Roy Orbison\n\nPhillips and Elvis Presley opened a new form of music. Phillips said of Elvis: \"Elvis cut a ballad, which was just excellent. I could tell you, both Elvis and Roy Orbison could tear a ballad to pieces. But I said to myself, 'You can't do that, Sam.' If I had released a ballad I don't think you would have heard of Elvis Presley.\" \n\nAlthough much has been written about Phillips' goals, he can be seen stating the following: \"Everyone knew that I was just a struggling cat down here trying to develop new and different artists, and get some freedom in music, and tap some resources and people that weren't being tapped.\" He didn't care about mistakes, he cared about the feel. \n\nPhillips met Elvis through the mediation of his long-time collaborator at the Memphis Recording Service, Marion Keisker, who was already a well-known Memphis radio personality. On 18 July 1953, eighteen-year old Elvis dropped into the studio to record an acetate for his mother's birthday; Keisker thought she heard some talent in the young truck driver's voice, and so she turned on the tape recorder. Later, she played it for Phillips, who gradually, through Keisker's encouragements, warmed to the idea of recording Elvis. \n\nElvis Presley, who recorded his version of Arthur \"Big Boy\" Crudup's \"That's All Right\" at Phillips's studio, became highly successful, first in Memphis, then throughout the southern United States. He auditioned for Phillips in 1954, but it was not until he sang \"That's Alright (Mama)\" that Phillips was impressed. For the first six months, the flip side, \"Blue Moon of Kentucky\", his upbeat version of a Bill Monroe bluegrass song, was slightly more popular than \"That's All Right (Mama).\" While still not known outside the South, Presley's singles and regional success became a drawing card for Sun Records, as singing hopefuls soon arrived from all over the region. Singers such as Sonny Burgess (\"My Bucket's Got a Hole in It\"), Charlie Rich, Junior Parker, and Billy Lee Riley recorded for Sun with some success, while others such as Jerry Lee Lewis, BB King, Johnny Cash, Roy Orbison, and Carl Perkins would become superstars.\n\nPhillips's pivotal role in the early days of rock and roll was exemplified by a celebrated jam session on December 4, 1956, which came to be known as the Million Dollar Quartet. Jerry Lee Lewis was playing piano for a Carl Perkins recording session at Phillips's studio. When Elvis Presley walked in unexpectedly, Johnny Cash was called into the studio by Phillips, leading to an impromptu session featuring the four musicians. Phillips challenged the four to achieve gold record sales, offering a free Cadillac to the first, which Carl Perkins won. The contest is commemorated in a song by the Drive-by Truckers.\n\nBy the mid-1960s, Phillips rarely recorded. He built a satellite studio and opened radio stations, but the studio declined and he sold Sun Records to Shelby Singleton in 1969.\n\nWHER\n\nPhillips launched radio station WHER on October 29, 1955. Each of the young women who auditioned for the station assumed there would only be one female announcer position, as was the case with other stations at that time. Only a few days before the first broadcast did they learn of the \"All Girl Radio\" format. It was the first all girl radio station in the US, as almost every position at the station was held by a woman. \n\nOther business interests\n\nThrough savvy investments, Phillips soon amassed a fortune. He was one of the first investors with Roy Scott in Holiday Inn, a new motel chain that was about to go national; he became involved with the chain shortly after selling the rights to Elvis Presley to RCA for $35,000 which he multiplied many times over the years with Holiday Inn. He would also create two different subsidiary recording labels—Phillips International and Holiday Inn Records.\n\nHe also owned the Sun Studio Café in Memphis. One location was in the Mall of Memphis.\n\nPhillips and his family founded Big River Broadcasting Corporation which owns and operates several radio stations in the Florence, Alabama, area, including WQLT-FM, WSBM, and WXFL. \n\nRock and Roll Hall of Fame\n\nIn 1986 Sam Phillips was part of the first group inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, and his pioneering contribution to the genre has been recognized by the Rockabilly Hall of Fame. He was the first non-performer inducted. In 1987, he was inducted into the Alabama Music Hall of Fame. He received a Grammy Trustees Award for lifetime achievement in 1991. In 1998, he was inducted into the Blues Hall of Fame, and in October 2001 he was inducted into the Country Music Hall of Fame. \n\nLater years and death\n\nPhillips died of respiratory failure at St. Francis Hospital in Memphis, Tennessee on July 30, 2003, only one day before the original Sun Studio was designated a National Historic Landmark, and just weeks before the death of his former colleague, Johnny Cash, on September 12, 2003. He is interred in the Memorial Park Cemetery in Memphis.\n\nNotable portrayals \n\n* Phillips was portrayed by Dallas Roberts in the film Walk the Line." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Structure of the Sun", "Sun", "Orbit of the sun", "Solar X-ray astronomy", "Internal structure of the Sun", "🌞", "The Sun", "Solarian", "Solar glare", "Layers of the Sun", "Solar photosphere", "Solar atmosphere", "Solar magnetic field", "Sun (astronomy)", "Sun gravity", "Sunlike", "The sun", "Atmosphere of the Sun", "Exploration of the Sun", "Sun (song)", "Sun's orbit", "Local Star", "Sun characteristics", "Sol (star)", "Sun (star)", "Solar diameter", "Orbit of the Sun", "Local star", "Earth's sun", "Heliology", "Watch sun directly", "Parts of the sun" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "exploration of sun", "solar diameter", "solar atmosphere", "🌞", "parts of sun", "solar glare", "sun star", "sun s orbit", "sun song", "sun astronomy", "atmosphere of sun", "sun", "solar x ray astronomy", "layers of sun", "solar photosphere", "local star", "sun characteristics", "internal structure of sun", "solarian", "solar magnetic field", "heliology", "sun gravity", "orbit of sun", "earth s sun", "sunlike", "sol star", "watch sun directly", "structure of sun" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "sun", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Sun" }
Which actor played Maxwell Smart?	tc_273	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "Search" ], "filename": [ "Get_Smart.txt", "Don_Adams.txt" ], "title": [ "Get Smart", "Don Adams" ], "wiki_context": [ "Get Smart is an American comedy television series that satirizes the secret agent genre. Created by Mel Brooks with Buck Henry, the show stars the late Don Adams (as Maxwell Smart, Agent 86), Barbara Feldon (as Agent 99), and Edward Platt (as Thaddeus, the Chief). Henry said they created the show by request of Daniel Melnick, who was a partner, along with Leonard Stern and David Susskind, of the show's production company, Talent Associates, to capitalize on \"the two biggest things in the entertainment world today\"—James Bond and Inspector Clouseau. Brooks said: \"It's an insane combination of James Bond and Mel Brooks comedy.\" \n\nDuring the show's run, it generated a number of popular catchphrases, including \"Would you believe...\", \"Missed it by that much!\", \"Sorry about that, Chief\", \"The Old (such-and-such) Trick\", \"And... loving it\", and \"I asked you not to tell me that\". \n\nThe show was followed by the films The Nude Bomb (a theatrical release) and Get Smart, Again! (a made-for-TV sequel to the series), as well as a 1995 revival series, and a 2008 film remake. In 2010, TV Guide ranked Get Smart's opening title sequence at No. 2 on its list of TV's Top 10 Credits Sequences as selected by readers. \n\nThe show ended its 4½-year run on May 15, 1970, having a total of 5 seasons and 138 episodes.\n\nPlot \n\nThe series centers on bumbling secret agent Maxwell Smart, also known as Agent 86. His female partner is Agent 99,Buck Henry and Barbara Feldon, Season 3 DVD commentary whose \"real\" name is revealed as Susan Hilton (Season 3, Episode 19 - 99 Loses CONTROL (at approximately the 11:25 mark in the no-commercials version)). Agents 86 and 99 work for \"CONTROL,\" a secret U.S. government counter-intelligence agency based in Washington, D.C. The pair investigates and thwarts various threats to the world, though Smart's bumbling nature and demands to do things by-the-book invariably cause complications. However, Smart never fails to save the day. Looking on is the long-suffering head of CONTROL, who is addressed simply as \"Chief.\"\n\nThe nemesis of CONTROL is KAOS, described as \"an international organization of evil\". In the series, KAOS was supposedly formed in Bucharest, Romania, in 1904. Neither CONTROL nor KAOS is actually an acronym. Many guest actors appeared as KAOS agents, including William Schallert (who also had a recurring role as The Admiral, the first Chief of CONTROL). Conrad Siegfried, played by Bernie Kopell, as Smart's KAOS archenemy. King Moody (originally appearing as a generic KAOS killer) portrayed the dim-witted but burly Shtarker, Siegfried's assistant.\n\nThe enemies, world-takeover plots and gadgets seen in Get Smart parody the James Bond movies. \"Do what they did except just stretch it half an inch,\" Mel Brooks said of the methods of this TV series. \n\nMax and 99 marry in season four, and have twins in season five. Agent 99 became the first woman on an American hit sitcom to keep her job after marriage and motherhood.\n\nProduction \n\nThe show was inspired by the success of The Man from U.N.C.L.E.. Talent Associates commissioned Mel Brooks and Buck Henry to write a script about a bungling James Bond-like hero. Brooks described the premise for the show they created in an October 1965 Time magazine article:\n\n\"I was sick of looking at all those nice sensible situation comedies. They were such distortions of life. If a maid ever took over my house like Hazel, I'd set her hair on fire. I wanted to do a crazy, unreal comic-strip kind of thing about something besides a family. No one had ever done a show about an idiot before. I decided to be the first.\"\n\nBrooks and Henry proposed the show to ABC, where network executives called their show \"un-American\", and demanded a \"lovable dog to give the show more heart\", and scenes showing Maxwell Smart's mother. Brooks strongly objected to their latter suggestion:\n\n\"They wanted to put a print housecoat on the show. Max was to come home to his mother and explain everything. I hate mothers on shows. Max has no mother. He never had one.\"\n\nAlthough the cast and crew—especially Adams—contributed joke and gadget ideas, dialogue was rarely ad-libbed. An exception is the third season episode, \"The Little Black Book.\" Don Rickles encouraged Adams to misbehave, and ad-libbed. The result was so successful that the single episode was turned into a two-part episode. \n\nProduction personnel \n\nBrooks had little involvement with the series after the first season, but Buck Henry served as story editor through 1967. \nThe crew of the show included:\n\n* Leonard B. Stern – Executive producer for the entire run of the series\n* Irving Szathmary – Music and theme composer and conductor for the entire run\n* Don Adams – Director of 13 episodes and writer of 2 episodes\n* David Davis – Associate producer\n* Gary Nelson – Director of the most episodes\n* Bruce Bilson – Director of the second most episodes\n* Gerald C. Gardner and Dee Caruso – Head writers for the series\n* Reza Badiyi – Occasional director\n* Allan Burns and Chris Hayward – Frequent writers and producers\n* Stan Burns and Mike Marmer – Frequent writers\n* Richard Donner – Occasional director\n* James Komack – Writer and director\n* Arne Sultan – Frequent writer and producer\n* Lloyd Turner and Whitey Mitchell – Frequent writers and producers of season five\n\nCharacters \n\nCONTROL \n\nCONTROL is a spy agency founded at the beginning of the 20th century by Harold Harmon Hargrade, a career officer in the United States Navy's N-2 (Intelligence) Branch. Hargrade served as the first Chief of CONTROL. \"CONTROL\" is not an acronym, but it is always shown in all capital letters as if it were.\n\nMaxwell Smart, code number Agent 86 (portrayed by Don Adams) is the central character. Despite being a top secret government agent, he is absurdly clumsy, very naive and has occasional lapses of attention. Due to his frequent verbal gaffes and physical miscues, most of the people Smart encounters believe he is grossly incompetent. Despite these faults, Smart is also resourceful, skilled in hand-to-hand combat, a proficient marksman, and incredibly lucky. These assets have led to him having a phenomenal record of success in times of crisis in which he has often averted disaster, often on a national or global scale. This performance record means his only punishment in CONTROL for his mistakes is that he is the only agent without three weeks annual vacation time. Smart uses multiple cover identities, but the one used most often is as a greeting card salesman/executive. Owing to multiple assassination attempts, he tells his landlord he is in the insurance business, and on one occasion, that he works for the \"Bureau of Internal Revenue\". Smart served in the U.S. Army during the Korean War and is an ensign in the U.S. Navy Reserve. He was played by Steve Carell in the 2008 film.\n\nIn 1999 TV Guide ranked Maxwell Smart number 19 on its 50 Greatest TV Characters of All Time list. The character appears in every episode (though only briefly in \"Ice Station Siegfried,\" as Don Adams was performing in Las Vegas for two weeks to settle gambling debts). \n\n (Barbara Feldon) is the tall, beautiful female agent whose appearance is useful in undercover operations. Generally, Agent 99 is more competent than Smart, but Smart saves her life in several episodes. \"Snoopy Smart vs the Red Baron\" is the introduction of 99's mother (Jane Dulo), who appears so thoroughly fooled by her daughter and Smart's cover stories that not even seeing them in combat while a prisoner of KAOS convinces her otherwise. However, at one point her mother indicates that 99's father was also a spy. Creator Buck Henry pointed out to actress Barbara Feldon on the DVD commentary for Season 3 that when he tried to add funny lines for Agent 99, \"They didn't want you to be 'joke funny.' They wanted you to be glamorous and interesting.\" In the episode \"99 Loses CONTROL\", 99 tells Victor that her name is \"Susan Hilton\". When Max asks why she never told him what her real name was, she replies, \"You never asked,\" to which Max says he prefers 99. Then, at the end of the episode, she says it is not her real name. Her name is in fact intentionally never revealed, even at their own wedding in season four. She appears in all but seven episodes. She can typically be seen slouching, leaning, or sitting in scenes with Adams to hide the fact that she was slightly taller (5' 9\" or 1.75 m) than Adams (5' 8½\" or 1.74 m). She was played by Anne Hathaway in the 2008 film.\n\n (Edward Platt) is the head of CONTROL. Although sarcastic and grouchy, the Chief is intelligent, serious, and sensible. He began his career at CONTROL as \"Agent Q.\" (He joined the organization back when they assigned letters rather than numbers.) He is supportive of Agents 86 and 99, but he is frustrated with Smart for his frequent failures and foul-ups. As revealed in the season-one episode \"The Day Smart Turned Chicken\", his first name is Thaddeus, but it is rarely used. His cover identity (used primarily with 99's mom) is \"Harold Clark\". Another time, when KAOS arranges for the Chief to be recalled to active duty in the U.S. Navy (as a common seaman with Smart as his commanding officer), his official name is John Doe. He was played by Alan Arkin in the 2008 film.\n\n (Richard \"Dick\" Gautier) is a humanoid robot built by Dr. Ratton to serve KAOS (when questioned about the curious name, Dr. Ratton replied \"My father's name was Hymie!\"), but in his first mission, Smart manages to turn him to the side of CONTROL. Hymie has numerous superhuman abilities, such as being physically stronger and faster than any human and being able to swallow poisons and register their name, type, and quantity, though his design does not include superhuman mental processing, most significantly characterized by an overly literal interpretation of commands. For example, when Smart tells Hymie to \"get a hold of yourself\", he grasps each arm with the other. Hymie also has emotions and is \"programmed for neatness\". He was played by Patrick Warburton in the 2008 film.\n\n (Burt Mustin) is a retired CONTROL agent who appears in episode twenty three. He is revealed to be the Chief's best friend from his days at CONTROL.\n\n (Dave Ketchum) is an agent who is usually stationed inside unlikely or unlucky places, such as cigarette machines, washing machines, lockers, trash cans, or fire hydrants. He tends to resent his assignments. Agent 13 is featured in several season-two episodes. He was played by Bill Murray in the 2008 film.\n\n (Victor French) is Agent 13's predecessor and is also stationed in tight corners. Agent 44 sometimes falls into bouts of self-pity and complaining, and he would sometimes try to keep Max chatting for the company. Agent 44 appears in several episodes in the second half of season one. In the final season, there is a new Agent 44 (played by Al Molinaro) in two episodes. (Prior to starting as 44, Victor French has a brief guest role in the season-one episode \"Too Many Chiefs\" as Smart's Mutual Insurance agent.)\n\n (Robert Karvelas) is the Chief's slow-witted assistant. In a season five episode, it is reported that if anything happens to Smart, Larabee will take his place. Robert Karvelas was Don Adams' cousin. Larabee also appears in The Nude Bomb. He was played by David Koechner in the 2008 film.\n\nAdmiral Harold Harmon Hargrade or (William Schallert) is the former chief. He founded CONTROL as a spy agency just after the turn of the 20th century. The admiral has a poor memory, believing the current U.S. President is still Herbert Hoover. As a 91-year-old, he has bad balance and often falls over.\n\n/Agent 38 (Angelique Pettyjohn) is an undercover male agent and master of disguise. Agent 38 appears as a scantily clad glamorous woman in two season 2 episodes. He also appears once in season four as a different actress (Karen Authur). He can also switch to a feminine voice as part of the disguise.\n\n/Agent K-13 (played by Red) is a poorly trained CONTROL dog, who is seen during seasons one and two. He was a very successful CONTROL agent for quite a few years. He was trained by Max, which probably explains why he does not always follow directions properly. Their relationship began in Spy School, where they were members of the same graduating class. He sometimes uses the cover name Morris and his favorite toys are a turtleneck sweater, a rubber ducky and one of Max's slippers. Fang's career ends in the second season, as he is no longer showing energy in solving his cases. In honor of his outstanding service to CONTROL, the Chief retires Fang to a desk job, burying evidence. (He has a brief role in the 2008 film, being a pet-store dog that Max is in the habit of complaining to.) Fang was written out of the series in season two. He appears in six season-one episodes and two season-two episodes. He appears first in the pilot, \"Mr. Big\", and his last one was the season-two episode \"Perils in a Pet Shop\". Shots that involved Fang ended up running long and costing the production a lot of money in overtime and wasted time. After a few episodes of this, he was written out of the series. He was handled by Bill Weatherwax.\n\n (Stacy Keach, Sr.) is CONTROL's gadget man during season two. While inspecting the gadgets, Max usually creates minor mayhem. Carlson follows several CONTROL scientists who fulfill the same function in season one. They are the similarly named Carleton (Frank DeVol), the egotistical Windish (Robert O. Cornthwaite), and Parker (Milton Selzer).\n\n (Ellen Weston) is a CONTROL scientist who makes three appearances in season three. Dr. Steele is an intelligent, extremely attractive woman whose cover is a chorus dancer at a high-class burlesque theater. The entrance to her laboratory is through a large courier box sidestage. Dr Steele often performs complex scientific procedures while wearing her revealing performance costumes. She is often seen explaining her findings while warming up for her next dance, and then suddenly departing for her performance. Dr. Steele is replaced with the similar Dr. Simon (Ann Elder), who appears in two episodes of season four and is mentioned once in season five.\n\n (Joey Forman) Hoo is a Hawaiian detective from Honolulu, who is depicted as a send-up of the fictional detective Charlie Chan. Hoo is not a member of CONTROL, but they work together on murder cases. Hoo's introduction usually creates confusion in the manner of Abbott and Costello's \"Who's on First?\" routine. Hoo always analyzes a mystery by presenting \"two possibilities\", of which the latter (if not both) is absurd. Max likes to upstage Hoo by jumping in with \"two possibilities\" of his own, which are even crazier than Hoo's. Hoo responds with \"Amazing!\", spoken in a tone of disbelief rather than approval, but Max is oblivious to this. Initially, the character was a lampoon of Chan, but in a later episode Hoo appeared rather more brilliant and resourceful, with Max, though helpful as always, appearing more so as a contrast.\n\nKAOS \n\nKAOS is a (fictional) \"international organization of evil\" formed in Bucharest, Romania, in 1904; like \"CONTROL\", \"KAOS\" is not an acronym. They were supposed to be, but Brooks and Henry were so busy, they forgot to have the names stand for anything. In an episode of the series, after making a series of demands in a recording, the speaker mentions the demands are from \"KAOS, a Delaware Corporation\". When Smart asks the chief about this, he mentions they did it for tax reasons. \n\n (Michael Dunn) is the presumed head of KAOS and a little person. He only appears in the black-and-white pilot episode, and is killed by his own doomsday death ray. A successor is chosen in another episode but is arrested by CONTROL. A few nameless KAOS chiefs appear in subsequent episodes.\n\nLudwig Von Siegfried, Konrad Siegfried, Count Von Siegfried, simply , or Herr Siegfried in most episodes (Bernie Kopell) is a recurring villain, and the Vice President in charge of Public Relations and Terror at KAOS though his title does vary. Siegfried is Maxwell Smart's \"opposite number\" and nemesis, even though the two characters share similar traits and often speak fondly of one another—even in the midst of attempting to assassinate each other. Speaking English with an exaggerated German accent, the gray-haired, mustachioed, and dueling-scarred Siegfried's catchphrase is, \"Zis is KAOS! Ve don't [some action] here!\" He was played by Terence Stamp in the 2008 film.\n\n (King Moody) is Siegfried's chief henchman. Shtarker is an overzealous lackey whose most notable trait is his abrupt personality change from sadistic villain to presumptuous child, interrupting conversations to helpfully elaborate, using silly vocal noises to imitate things such as engines or guns. This prompts Siegfried to utter his catch phrase, \"Shtarker...Nein! Zis is KAOS! Ve don't [weakly imitates Shtarker's sound effect] here!\" (In the DVD commentary for the first episode in which the character appears, in season two, Bernie Kopell notes that \"shtark\" is a real Yiddish word meaning a person of great strength.) Although he looks rather young for it, he claims to have been track champion of the Third Reich, and the second man out of El Alamein (right behind Siegfried). He was played by Ken Davitian in the 2008 film.\n\n (Leonard Strong) is a Julius No-type Asian villain representing the east-Asian branch of KAOS. In place of the Claw's left hand is a powerful magnetic prosthesis with immobile fingers and an occasional attachment, hence his name. Sometimes the Claw would accidentally nab something with it, creating confusion. He is unable to pronounce the letter L and mispronounces his name as \"Craw\", with Smart repeatedly referring to him as \"The Craw\", much to his annoyance (\"Not The Craw, THE CRAW!\"). Like Siegfried, he has a huge, dimwitted assistant, named Bobo.\n\n or Spinoza (Ted de Corsia) is a villain who was arrested by Max at an unknown point and desires revenge for it. He attempts to exact his revenge using the KAOS robot Hymie, though Hymie ultimately defects to CONTROL. Later, Spinoza hatches a plan to destroy Hymie using a new robot named 'Groppo', though this plan, too, ultimately fails.\n\n (Jim Boles) is a scientist who defected to KAOS. He built the robot Hymie for KAOS, but his abuse of Hymie ultimately leads to Hymie defecting and shooting the Doctor. Doctor Ratton survived the wound to construct the robot Groppo for Spinoza. However, to insure that Doctor Ratton does not return to the side of CONTROL and create more robots to counter KAOS, Spinoza uses Groppo to kill Ratton.\n\n (Jack Gilford), who appears in \"And Baby Makes 4\" Parts 1 & 2 is a KAOS killer whose nice face mesmerizes everyone into liking him—except 99's mother (played by Jane Dulo), who knocks him out with a right cross, because Simon resembles her late, much-hated, and unlamented husband. (99's father never appears in any episode.)\n\n (Donald Davis), who appears in \"Dr. Yes\", is a parody of James Bond's Doctor No. He asks questions to his four assistants and they each respond with \"yes\", individually in their language of origin. They answer mainly in the order of \"Jawohl, Oui, Da, Sí.\" He captures Max and 99 in this episode and accidentally inflicts suicide upon himself. When stung by an \"electronic mosquito\", he is killed by the poison \"spoiler\", his poisonous fingernail, when he scratches his face.\n\nProduction notes \n\nGadgets \n\nIn Get Smart, telephones are concealed in over 50 objects, including a necktie, comb, watch, and a clock. A recurring gag is Max's shoe phone (an idea from Brooks). To use or answer it, he has to take off his shoe. There were a number of variations on the shoe phone. In \"I Shot 86 Today\" (season 4) his shoe phone is disguised as a golf shoe, complete with cleats, developed by the attractive armorer Dr. Simon. Smart's shoes sometimes contain other devices housed in the heels: an explosive pellet, a smoke bomb, compressed air capsules that propelled the wearer off the ground, and a suicide pill (which Max believes is for the enemy).\n\nAgent 99 (Barbara Feldon) had her concealed telephones as well. She had one in her makeup compact, and also one in her fingernail. To use this last device, she would pretend to bite her nail nervously, while actually talking on her \"nail phone.\"\n\nOn February 17, 2002, the prop shoe phone was included in a display titled \"Spies: Secrets from the CIA, KGB, and Hollywood\", a collection of real and fictional spy gear that exhibited at the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library in Simi Valley, California. Flinders University in South Australia has researched medical applications for Shoe Phone technology after being inspired by the show. \n\nGag phones also appear in other guises. In the episode \"Too Many Chiefs\" (Season one), Max tells Tanya, the KAOS informer whom he is protecting, that if anyone breaks in to pick up the house phone, dial 1-1-7, and press the trigger on the handset, which converts it to a gun. The phone-gun is only used that once, but Max once carried a gun-phone, a revolver with a rotary dial built into the cylinder. In the episode \"Satan Place\", Max simultaneously holds conversations on seven different phones — the shoe, his tie, his belt, his wallet, a garter, a handkerchief and a pair of eyeglasses. Other unusual locations include a garden hose, a car cigarette lighter (hidden in the car phone), a bottle of perfume (Max complains of smelling like a woman), the steering wheel of his car, a painting of Agent 99, the headboard of his bed, a cheese sandwich, lab test tubes (Max grabs the wrong one and splashes himself), a Bunsen burner (Max puts out the flame anytime he pronounces a \"p\"), a plant in a planter beside the real working phone (operated by the dial of the working phone), and inside another full-sized working phone.\n\nOther gadgets include a bullet-proof invisible wall in Max's apartment that lowers from the ceiling, into which Max and others often walk; a camera hidden in a bowl of soup (Cream of Kodachrome) that takes a picture (with a conspicuous flash) of the person eating the soup with each spoonful; a Mini Magnet on a belt, which turns out to be stronger than KAOS's Maxi Magnet; and a powerful miniature laser weapon in the button of a sports jacket (the \"laser blazer\").\n\nAnother of the show's recurring gags is the \"Cone of Silence\". Smart would pedantically insist on following CONTROL's security protocols; when in the chief's office he would insist on speaking under the Cone of Silence—two transparent plastic hemispheres which are electrically lowered on top of Max and Chief—which invariably malfunction, requiring the characters to shout loudly to even have a chance of being understood by each other. Bystanders in the room could often hear them better, and sometimes relay messages back and forth. The Cone of Silence was the idea of Buck Henry, though it was preceded in an episode of the syndicated television show Science Fiction Theatre titled \"Barrier of Silence\", written by Lou Huston, that first aired on September 3, 1955, ten years ahead of the NBC comedy. \n\nCars \n\nThe car that Smart is seen driving most frequently is a red 1965 Sunbeam Tiger two-seat roadster. \n\nThis car had various custom features, such as a machine gun, smoke screen, radar tracking, and an ejection seat. The Sunbeam Alpine, upon which the Tiger was based, was used by customizer Gene Winfield because the Alpine's 4-cylinder engine afforded more room under the hood than the V8 in the Tiger. AMT, Winfield's employer, made a model kit of the Tiger, complete with hidden weapons. It is the only kit of the Tiger, and has been reissued multiple times as a stock Tiger. \n\nDon Adams received the Sunbeam and drove it for 10 years after the end of the show - since it was wrecked and repaired several times, the current whereabouts are unknown. \n\nA fan created a red Tiger/Alpine with a machine gun in 2002. \n\nIn the black-and-white pilot episode only, Smart drives a 1961 Ferrari 250 GT PF Spider Cabriolet. \n\nIn the opening credits, the Tiger was used for seasons 1–2. In seasons 3-4, Smart drives a light blue Volkswagen Karmann Ghia, because Volkswagen had became a sponsor of the show. The Volkswagen was never used in the body of the show. In season 5 (1969–1970), Buick became a show sponsor, so the Tiger was replaced with a gold 1969 Opel GT, which also appears in the body of the show. \n\nIn season four (1968–1969), Adams uses a yellow Citroën 2CV in the wedding episode \"With Love and Twitches\" (Episode 4.09), and a blue 1968 Ford Shelby Mustang GT500 convertible with a tan interior and four seats (as required by the plot) in the episodes \"A Tale of Two Tails\" (4.07) and \"The Laser Blazer\" (4.10).\n\nIn the short-lived 1995 TV series, Smart is trying to sell the Karmann Ghia through the classified ads.\n\nIn Get Smart, Again!, Smart is seen driving a red 1986 Alfa Romeo Spider Veloce.\n\nThe Sunbeam Tiger, the Karmann Ghia, and the Opel GT all make brief appearances in the 2008 film. Both are first seen in the CONTROL Museum, along with the original shoe phone, which Smart also briefly uses.\n\nSpies at work \n\nCONTROL and KAOS did not seem to be above everyday bureaucracy and business quirks. KAOS is a Delaware corporation for tax purposes. CONTROL's union is the Guild of Surviving Control Agents, and Max is their negotiator; when a captured KAOS agent tells him about their survivors' benefits, the Chief is within earshot, and Max promptly uses the information for his labor talks.\n\nIn one episode, where Max infiltrates a KAOS-run garden shop, Max refuses to arrest the manager until after 5 p.m., so he can collect a full day's pay. The Chief threatens to fire him, but Max is not afraid; according to CONTROL's seniority policy, \"If I get fired from CONTROL, Larrabee moves up!\" The Chief gives in and lets Max stay on the job, rather than risk having the (even more) inept Larrabee take Max's place.\n\nIn another episode, Siegfried and Max casually discuss the various flavors of cyanide pills they have been issued. It is raspberry that month at CONTROL, and Max offers Siegfried a taste. In the same episode, Max and Siegfried have a show and tell of various weapons they have; Max boasts of having a deadly non-regulation pistol from a Chicago mail order house. (The prop used is actually an 1893 Borchardt C-93 pistol.)\n\nCover names were common. In \"The Man Called Smart, Part 1,\" a phone call is announced for an alias, and Max identifies himself as the person in question. Second and third calls come in, each with its own alias, the last of which is his own real name of Maxwell Smart, which he initially does not answer. Smart tells the skeptical gallery owner that those are his names as well, making it obvious to any spy that he is taking calls from fellow agents and informants. Smart then makes himself even more visible by tangling the handset cords of the three phones.\n\nCONTROL has a policy of burning pertinent documents after cases are closed; the reasons were detailed in their Rules and Regulations book, but nobody can read them, since they burned the only copy.\n\nIn the interest of company morale, both CONTROL and KAOS have their own bowling teams. In one episode where Smart takes over as Chief, it is noted in a conversation between Smart and Larabee that CONTROL has a delicatessen.\n\nNotable guest stars \n\nGet Smart used several familiar character actors and celebrities, and some future stars, in guest roles, including:\n\n* Ian Abercrombie\n* Steve Allen\n* Barbara Bain\n* Billy Barty\n* Lee Bergere\n* Shelley Berman\n* Milton Berle\n* Joseph Bernard\n* Lynn Borden\n* Ernest Borgnine\n* Tom Bosley\n* Victor Buono\n* Carol Burnett\n* John Byner\n* James Caan\n* Howard Caine\n* Johnny Carson\n* Jack Cassidy\n* Ellen Corby\n* Wally Cox\n* Broderick Crawford\n* Dennis Cross\n* Robert Culp\n* John Dehner\n* Michael Dunn\n* Robert Easton\n* Dana Elcar\n* Bill Erwin\n* Jamie Farr\n* John Fiedler\n* Joey Forman\n* Alice Ghostley\n* Jack Gilford\n* Leo Gordon\n* Farley Granger\n* Buddy Hackett\n* Sid Haig\n* Jonathan Harris\n* Marcel Hillaire\n* Bob Hope\n* John Hoyt\n* Conrad Janis\n* Gordon Jump\n* Ted Knight\n* James Komack\n* Martin Landau\n* Charles Lane\n* Len Lesser\n* Laurie Main\n* Kenneth Mars\n* Judith McConnell\n* Pat McCormick\n* Robert Middleton\n* Al Molinaro\n* Howard Morton\n* Burt Mustin\n* Barry Newman\n* Julie Newmar\n* Leonard Nimoy\n* Alan Oppenheimer\n* Pat Paulsen\n* Angelique Pettyjohn\n* Regis Philbin\n* Tom Poston\n* Ann Prentiss\n* Vincent Price\n* Don Rickles\n* Alex Rocco\n* Cesar Romero\n* Vito Scotti\n* Larry Storch\n* Vic Tayback\n* Fred Willard\n* Jason Wingreen\n* Dana Wynter\n* Del Close\n* Victor Sen Yung\n\nBoth Bill Dana and Jonathan Harris, with whom Adams appeared on The Bill Dana Show, also appeared, as did Adams' father, William Yarmy, brother, Dick Yarmy, and daughter, Caroline Adams.\n\nThe series featured several cameo appearances by famous actors and comedians, sometimes uncredited and often comedian friends of Adams. Johnny Carson appeared, credited as \"special guest conductor,\" in \"Aboard the Orient Express.\" Carson returned for an uncredited cameo as a royal footman in the third season episode \"The King Lives?\" Other performers to make cameo appearances included Steve Allen, Milton Berle, Ernest Borgnine, Wally Cox, Robert Culp (as a waiter in an episode sending up Culp's I Spy), Phyllis Diller, Buddy Hackett, Bob Hope and Martin Landau.\n\nActress Rose Michtom (the real life aunt of the show's executive producer Leonard Stern) appeared in at least 44 episodes – usually as a background extra with no speaking role. In the season 1 episode \"Too Many Chiefs\" when she is shown in a photograph, Max refers to her as \"my Aunt Rose,\" but the Chief corrects Max by saying that it's actually KAOS agent Alexi Sebastian disguised as Max's Aunt Rose. Fans refer to her as \"Aunt Rose\" in all of her dozens of appearances, even though her character is never actually named in most of them. \n\nBroadcast \n\nThe series was broadcast on NBC-TV from September 18, 1965 to September 13, 1969, after which it moved to the CBS network for its final season, running from September 26, 1969 to September 11, 1970 with 138 total episodes produced. During its five-season run, Get Smart only broke the top 30 twice. It ranked at No. 12 during its first season, and at No. 22 during its second season, before falling out of the top 30 for its last three seasons. The series won seven Emmy Awards and it was nominated for another 14 Emmys as well as two Golden Globe Awards. In 1995, the series was briefly resurrected starring Adams and Feldon with Andy Dick as Max's and 99's son Zack Smart and Elaine Hendrix as 66.\n\nEmmy awards \n\nAdaptations \n\nFilms \n\nFour feature-length movie versions have been produced after the end of the NBC/CBS run of the TV series:\n\n1980: The theatrically released The Nude Bomb—also known as The Return of Maxwell Smart or Maxwell Smart and the Nude Bomb\n1989: The made-for-TV Get Smart, Again! on ABC\n2008: Get Smart starring Steve Carell alongside Anne Hathaway from Warner Brothers Pictures; directed by Peter Segal. The film includes a dedication to Adams and Platt, who had died in 2005 and 1974, respectively. In its opening weekend, Get Smart topped the box office with $39.2 Million.\n2008: \"Get Smart's\" Bruce and Lloyd: Out of Control; a made-for-DVD spin-off revolving around minor characters, Bruce and Lloyd, the masterminds behind the high-tech gadgets that are often used by Smart \n\nOn October 7, 2008, it was reported that Warner Bros. and Village Roadshow Pictures, Mosaic Media Group are producing a sequel. Steve Carell and Anne Hathaway are set to return, but the status of other cast members has not yet been announced. \n\nTelevision \n\nGet Smart, Again! eventually prompted the development of a short-lived 1995 weekly series on FOX also titled Get Smart, with Adams and Feldon reprising their characters with Maxwell Smart now being the Chief of CONTROL as their bumbling son, Zach (Andy Dick), becomes CONTROL's star agent. A late episode of the 1995 series shows that just as Siegfried is leaving a room, Maxwell Smart accidentally activates an atomic bomb just before the end of the show. (The teaser for the episode shows an atomic bomb going off.) This ending is similar to a device used by the Get Smart-inspired series Sledge Hammer! at the end of its first season. Hopes for the series were not high, as Andy Dick had already moved on to NewsRadio, which premiered weeks later in 1995.\n\nWith the revival series on FOX, Get Smart became the first television franchise to air new episodes on each of the aforementioned current four major American television networks, although several TV shows in the 1940s and 1950s aired on NBC, CBS, ABC and DuMont. The different versions of Get Smart did not all feature the original lead cast.\n\nThe \"Get Smart\" episode \"The Reluctant Redhead\" connects \"Get Smart\" to \"The Man From U.N.C.L.E.\" by having Gruvnik, the Spoiler, being a THRUSH agent now working for KAOS.\n\nGet Smart was parodied on a sketch in the Mexican comedy show De Nuez en Cuando called [\"Super Agente 3.1486\"], making fun of the Spanish title of the series (Super Agente 86) and the way the series is dubbed.\n\nAn early MadTV sketch titled \"Get Smarty\" placed the Maxwell Smart character in situations from the film Get Shorty.\n\nAn episode of F Troop called \"Spy, Counterspy, Counter–counterspy\" featured Pat Harrington Jr. imitating Don Adams as secret agent \"B. Wise.\"\n\nThe Simpsons episode \"Bart vs. Lisa vs. the Third Grade\" parodies the opening of Get Smart in the couch gag. Homer goes through many futuristic doors and passageways until he reaches the phone booth, falls through the floor, and lands on the couch—with the rest of the family already seated.\n\nIn the cartoon The X's one episode with Mr. X was a parody of both Get Smart, in that his shoe was a phone, and Mission Impossible, in that his shoe blew up after delivering a message. Similarly, an episode of Green Acres spoofed Get Smart with a shoe phone and Mission Impossible with a self-destructing note.\n\nAdams in similar roles \n\nIn the 1960s, Adams had a supporting role on the sitcom The Bill Dana Show (1963–1965) as the hopelessly inept hotel detective Byron Glick. His speech mannerisms, catch phrases (\"Would you believe...?\"), and other comedy bits were adapted for his \"Maxwell Smart\" role on Get Smart.\n\nWhen WCGV-TV, a new independent station in Milwaukee, Wisconsin signed on the air in 1980, Adams did in-house promos as Agent 86 to let viewers know when the reruns of Get Smart aired on the station by using his shoephone.\n\nIn one of Adams' five appearances as a guest passenger on the series The Love Boat, his character, even when he thought he had been shot, makes no attempt to visit the ship's doctor. The role of the doctor on Love Boat was played by Bernie Kopell, who played Siegfried on Get Smart.\n\nIn 1982, Adams starred in a series of local commercials for New York City electronics chain Savemart as Maxwell Smart. The slogan was \"Get Smart. Get SaveMart Smart.\" In addition, Adams starred in a series of commercials for White Castle in 1992, paying homage to his Get Smart character with his catch phrase \"Would you believe...?\"[http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0010915/bio Don Adams (I) – Biography]\n\nIn the 1980s, Adams provided the (similar) voice of a bungling cyborg secret agent in the animated series Inspector Gadget. This later became a feature film starring Matthew Broderick in the title role of Inspector John Brown Gadget (in which Adams had a cameo), and its prequel series Gadget Boy and Heather. Neither were directly related to Get Smart.\n\nIn the mid-1980s, Adams reprised his role of Maxwell Smart for a series of telephone banking commercials for Empire of America Federal Savings Bank in Buffalo, New York. The telephone banking service was called SmartLine, and Sherwin Greenberg Productions (a video production company and bank subsidiary) produced radio and television ads, as well as a series of still photos for use in promotional flyers that featured Don Adams' Maxwell Smart character wearing the familiar trenchcoat and holding a shoe phone to his ear. The television commercials were videotaped in Sherwin Greenberg Productions' studio on a set that resembled an old alleyway which utilized fog-making machinery for special effect. The production company even secured a lookalike of the red Alpine that Adams used in the television series, making it a memorable promotion for those familiar with the series of nearly 20 years earlier.\n\nIn the late 1980s Adams portrayed Smart in a series of TV commercials for Toyota New Zealand, for the 1990 model Toyota Starlet. While it is customary for the actor to go to the foreign location for shooting, Adams' apparent intense dislike of long-distance flying meant that the New Zealand specification car had to be shipped to the US for filming. He also appeared in another series of Canadian commercials in the late 1990s for a dial-around long distance carrier. In the movie Back to the Beach (1987), Adams played the Harbor Master, who used several of Maxwell Smart's catch phrases (including an exchange in which Frankie Avalon's character did a vague impression of Siegfried).\n\nAdams played Smart in a 1989 TV commercial for Kmart. He was seen talking on his trademark shoe phone, telling the Chief about the great selection of electronics available at Kmart. An exact replica of himself approaches him, and Smart says, \"Don't tell me you're a double agent.\" (This was a reference to a running gag on the original series, in which Max detected some sort of setback or danger, and would say to 99, \"Don't tell me...\" and then 99 replied by stating a confirmation of whatever Max was afraid to hear, to which Max would always respond, \"I asked you not to tell me that!\")\n\nAdams also appeared in a number of McDonald's Hamburger Restaurant television commercials which also featured numerous classic/nostalgic TV series stars, such as Barbara Billingsley from \"Leave It To Beaver\", Buddy Ebsen from \"The Beverly Hillbillies\" and Al Lewis from \"The Munsters\".\n\nBooks and comics \n\nA series of novels based on characters and dialog of the series was written by William Johnston and published by Tempo Books in the late 1960s. Dell Comics published a comic book for eight issues during 1966 and 1967, drawn in part by Steve Ditko.\n\nProposed movie \n\nThe 1966 Batman movie, made during that TV show's original run, prompted other television shows to propose similar films. The only one completed was Munster Go Home (1966), which was a box office flop, causing the cancellation of other projects, including the Get Smart movie. The script for that movie was turned into the three-part episode, \"A Man Called Smart,\" airing April 8, 15 and 22, 1967. \n\nPlay \n\nIn 1967, Christopher Sergel adapted a play Get Smart based on Brooks's and Henry's pilot episode. \n\nIn September 2015, the Get Smart play was staged by Wingz Productions. Lead actors Felicity Jean (Agent 99) and Jullian Atkin (Maxwell Smart) delivered memorable performances, with both staying true to the characters.\n\nDVD releases and rights \n\nAll five seasons are available as box sets in region 1 (USA, Canada, and others) and Region 4 (Australia, New Zealand, and others). The region 1 discs are published by HBO Home Video, and region 4 by Time Life Video. Each region 1 box contains 4 discs, while region 4 editions have a 5th disc with bonus material. Region 4 editions are also available as individual discs with four to five episodes per disc. The season 1 set was released in both regions in 2008. Seasons 2 and 3 box sets were released in region 4 on July 23, 2008. Seasons 4 and 5 were released in region 4 on November 5, 2008. Seasons 2, 3, 4 and 5 in region 1 were released throughout 2009.\n\nAnother box set of the complete series is available in both regions, first published in 2006 by Time Life Video. In 2009 the region 1 edition was replaced by an HBO edition, and became more widely available. All editions contain a 5th disc for each season, with bonus material. The set has 25 discs altogether.\n\nThe first four seasons were produced for NBC by Talent Associates. When it moved to CBS at the start of season five, it became an in-house production, with Talent Associates as silent partner. The series was sold to NBC Films for syndication.\n\nOver decades, US distribution has changed from National Telefilm Associates to Republic Pictures, to Worldvision Enterprises, to Paramount Domestic Television, to CBS Paramount Domestic Television, to the current distributor, CBS Television Distribution.\nFor decades, the syndication rights of all but a handful of the fifth season episodes were encumbered with restrictions and reporting requirements; as a result, most of that season was rarely seen in syndication (though they were shown with more regularity on Nick at Nite and TV Land). The distribution changes (including the loosening of restrictions on the fifth season) were the result of corporate changes, especially the 2006 split of Viacom (owners of Paramount Pictures) into two companies.\n\nHBO currently owns the copyrights to the series itself, due to Time-Life Films' 1977 acquisition of Talent Associates. Home videos are distributed by HBO Home Video. For a time the DVD release was only available through Time-Life (a former Time Warner division). Warner Bros. Television owns international distribution rights.\n\nOn August 10, 2015, the entire series was officially released on digital streaming platforms for the first time in preparation for the series 50th anniversary.[http://moviecitynews.com/2015/07/hbo-digitizes-mel-brooks-buck-henrys-get-smart-for-50th-anniversary/ HBO Digitizes Mel Brooks & Buck Henry’s “Get Smart” For 50th Anniversary « Movie City News][http://www.highdefdigest.com/news/show/digital-hd/Streaming/HBO/mel-brooks/get-smart/digital-hd-platforms-will-get-smart-in-august/24826 Digital HD Platforms Will 'Get Smart' in August \| High-Def Digest]", "Donald James Yarmy (April 13, 1923 – September 25, 2005), known professionally as Don Adams, was an American actor, comedian and director. In his five decades on television, he was best known as Maxwell Smart (Agent 86) in the television situation comedy Get Smart (1965–70, 1995), which he also sometimes directed and wrote. Adams won three consecutive Emmy Awards for his portrayal of Smart (1967–69). He provided the voices for the animated series Tennessee Tuxedo and His Tales (1963–66) and Inspector Gadget (1983–85, as well as several revivals and spinoffs in the 1990s).\n\nEarly life\n\nAdams was born in Manhattan, son of William Yarmy, and his wife, Consuelo (Deiter). Adams and his brother Richard (who later became an actor, known as Dick Yarmy) were each raised in the religion of one parent: Don in the Roman Catholic faith of their mother, and Dick in the Jewish faith of their father. \n\nDropping out of New York City's DeWitt Clinton High School (comedian Larry Storch was a classmate), Adams worked as a theater usher.Buckman, Adam. [http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/nypost/access/902924861.html?dids902924861:902924861&FMT\nABS&FMTSABS:FT&type\ncurrent&dateSep+27%2C+2005&author\nADAM+BUCKMAN&pubNew+York+Post&desc\nHE'S+AGENT+86'D+-+'GET+SMART'+STAR+DON+ADAMS+DIES&pqatl=google \"HE'S AGENT 86'D – 'GET SMART' STAR DON ADAMS DIES\"], The New York Post, September 27, 2005; accessed September 15, 2009.\"Graduated from DeWitt Clinton HS in The Bronx.\" \n\nDuring World War II, he joined the United States Marine Corps. Adams participated in the Battle of Guadalcanal in the Pacific Theater of Operations. His combat service was short-lived; he contracted blackwater fever, a serious complication of malaria, known for a 90% rate of fatality. He was evacuated and then hospitalized for more than a year at a Navy hospital in Wellington, New Zealand. After his recovery, he served as a Marine drill instructor in the United States. \n\nHe later worked as a comic, taking the stage name of Adams after marrying singer Adelaide (Dell) Efantis, who performed as Adelaide Adams. They had four daughters, and Adams also worked as a commercial artist and restaurant cashier to help support his family. When they divorced, he kept Adams as his stage name because acting auditions were often held in alphabetical order.\n\nCareer\n\nThe Bill Dana Show\n\nAdams' work on television began in 1954, when he won on Arthur Godfrey's Talent Scouts with a stand-up comedy act written by boyhood friend Bill Dana. In the late 1950s, he made eleven appearances on The Steve Allen Show where Dana was part of the writing team. During the 1961-63 television seasons he was a regular on NBC's The Perry Como Show as part of The Kraft Music Hall Players. He had a role on the NBC sitcom The Bill Dana Show (1963–65) as a bumbling hotel detective named Byron Glick \n\nGet Smart\n\nCreators Mel Brooks and Buck Henry, prompted by producers Dan Melnick and David Susskind, wrote Get Smart as the comedic answer to the successful 1960s spy television dramas such as The Man from U.N.C.L.E., The Avengers, I Spy and others. They were asked to write a spoof that combined elements from two of the most popular film series at the time: the James Bond and Pink Panther (Inspector Clouseau) movies.\n\nGet Smart had been written for Tom Poston, to be piloted on ABC; when ABC turned it down, the show was picked up by NBC, which cast Adams in the role because he was already under contract. When Get Smart debuted in 1965, it was an immediate hit. Barbara Feldon co-starred as Max's young and attractive partner (later wife), Agent 99, where she had a great chemistry with Adams throughout the show's run, despite a 10-year age difference, and they became best friends during and after.\n\nAdams gave the character a clipped, unique speaking style. Feldon said, \"Part of the pop fervor for Agent 86 was because Don did such an extreme portrayal of the character that it made it easy to imitate.\" Adams created many popular catch-phrases (some of which were in his act prior to the show), including \"Sorry about that, Chief\", , \"Ahh ... the old [noun] in the [noun] trick. That's the [number]th time this [month/week].\" (sometimes the description of the trick was simply, \"Ahh... the old [noun] trick.\"), and \"Missed it by 'that much'\". Adams also produced and directed several episodes of the show. He was nominated for Emmys four seasons in a row, between 1966 and 1969, for Outstanding Continued Performance by an Actor in a Leading Role in a Comedy Series. He won the award three times. The show moved to CBS for its final season, with ratings declining, as spy series went out of fashion. Get Smart was canceled in 1970, after 138 episodes.\n\nTypecasting\n\nAdams had wanted to move on to other projects. His efforts after Get Smart were less successful, including the comedy series The Partners (1971–72), a game show called Don Adams' Screen Test (1975–76) and three attempts to revive the Get Smart series in the 1980s. His movie The Nude Bomb was unsuccessful at the box-office. Adams had been typecast as Maxwell Smart and was unable to escape the image, although he did have success as the voice of Inspector Gadget.\n\nHe earned most of his income from his work on stage and in nightclubs. As Adams had chosen a low salary combined with a one-third ownership stake in Get Smart during the show's production, he received a regular income for many years due to the show's popularity in reruns.\n\nDon Adams' Screen Test\n\nDon Adams' Screen Test is a syndicated game show which lasted 26 episodes during the 1975–76 season. The show was done in two 15-minute segments, in each of which a randomly selected audience member would 'act' to re-create a scene from a Hollywood movie as accurately as possible. \n\nSuch moments as the bar scene from The Lost Weekend, the duel scene from The Prisoner of Zenda or the beach scene from From Here to Eternity were used, with Adams directing and a celebrity guest playing the other lead in the scene. Hokey effects, bad timing, forgotten lines, prop failures and the celebrity's \"ad libs\" were maximized for comic effect as the audience watched \"bloopers\" and \"outtakes\" as they happened. At the end of the program, the final, serious, fully edited version of the \"screen test\" of each of the two contestants would be played, with audience reaction determining the winner, who would receive a trip to Hollywood and a real screen test for a motion picture.\n\nVoice-over and later work\n\nAdams was the voice of the title character in Tennessee Tuxedo and His Tales (1963–66), but he was more famous as the voice of Inspector Gadget in the initial run of that television series (1983–86) and the Christmas special, as well as in later reprises such as Inspector Gadget's Field Trip until his retirement from voicing Inspector Gadget in 1999; he even voiced himself in animated form for a guest shot in an episode of Hanna-Barbera's The New Scooby-Doo Movies, \"The Exterminator\", which first aired on CBS October 6, 1973. \n\nStarting in 1982, Adams resurrected the Maxwell Smart character for a series of television commercials for Savemart, a retail chain that sold audio and video equipment. He also appeared in the film Jimmy the Kid (1982), and played a cameo role as a harbormaster in Back to the Beach (1987).\n\nHe attempted a situation-comedy comeback in Canada with Check it Out! in 1985; the show ran for three years in Canada, but it was not successful in the United States. The show also starred Gordon Clapp, an unknown actor at the time, who developed a rapport with Adams.\n\nIn an A&E Biography, Adams said that he made more money working on the series, better than on Get Smart. He reprised his Maxwell Smart role on Get Smart for Fox in 1995, which co-starred Barbara Feldon and rising star Andy Dick as Max and 99's only son. Unlike the original version, this show did not appeal to younger viewers and it was canceled after only seven episodes. He later went on to voice the character of Principal Hickley in the late-1990s/early-2000s Disney cartoon, Pepper Ann. Adams was the voice of Brain the Dog in the end credits for the film version of Inspector Gadget in 1999 which was his last voice role before his death six years later.\n\nPersonal life\n\nAdams was married three times, to Adelaide Efantis, Dorothy Bracken, and Judy Luciano. His brother, Richard Paul Yarmy, also known as Dick Yarmy (February 14, 1932 – May 5, 1992), was an actor. His sister, Gloria Yarmy Burton, was a writer.\n\nHis daughter, Cecily Adams, an actress, died in 2004 at age 46 of lung cancer. His son, Sean Adams, died at age 35 of brain tumor in 2006, a year after Don Adams' death. He had five other children, all of whom survive. An avid gambler, according to his longtime friend Bill Dana, Adams \"could be very devoted to his family if you reminded him about it, [but] Don's whole life was focused around gambling.\" \n\nDeath\n\nAdams died on September 25, 2005 at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center in Los Angeles, California.\nHe suffered from lymphoma and a lung infection. Before his death, Adams had joked about not wanting a mournful funeral, preferring, he said, to have his friends get together \"and bring me back to life.\" This was a line he said to Agent 99 in season 2, disc 2, 1966.\n\nAmong his eulogists were his decades-long friends Barbara Feldon, Don Rickles, James Caan and Bill Dana, and his son-in-law, actor Jim Beaver (widower of Adams's daughter Cecily Adams). \nHis funeral mass was held at the Church of the Good Shepherd in Beverly Hills. Adams was survived by three of his four daughters from his first marriage, two children from his second marriage, and a daughter from his third marriage. He was also survived by five grandchildren and three great-grandchildren. He was interred in Hollywood Forever Cemetery." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Adams, Don", "Don Adams (Actor)", "Don Adams", "Donald James Yarmy", "Donald Yarmy", "Missed it by that much" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "adams don", "don adams actor", "donald yarmy", "donald james yarmy", "don adams", "missed it by that much" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "don adams", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Don Adams" }
On a computer keyboard which letter on the same line is between C and B?	tc_274	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Computer_keyboard.txt" ], "title": [ "Computer keyboard" ], "wiki_context": [ "In computing, a computer keyboard is a typewriter-style device which uses an arrangement of buttons or keys to act as a mechanical lever or electronic switch. Following the decline of punch cards and paper tape, interaction via teleprinter-style keyboards became the main input device for computers.\n\nA keyboard typically has characters engraved or printed on the keys and each press of a key typically corresponds to a single written symbol. However, to produce some symbols requires pressing and holding several keys simultaneously or in sequence. While most keyboard keys produce letters, numbers or signs (characters), other keys or simultaneous key presses can produce actions or execute computer commands.\n\nDespite the development of alternative input devices, such as the mouse, touchscreen, pen devices, character recognition and voice recognition, the keyboard remains the most commonly used device for direct (human) input of alphanumeric data into computers.\n\nIn normal usage, the keyboard is used as a text entry interface to type text and numbers into a word processor, text editor or other programs. In a modern computer, the interpretation of key presses is generally left to the software. A computer keyboard distinguishes each physical key from every other and reports all key presses to the controlling software. Keyboards are also used for computer gaming, either with regular keyboards or by using keyboards with special gaming features, which can expedite frequently used keystroke combinations. A keyboard is also used to give commands to the operating system of a computer, such as Windows' Control-Alt-Delete combination, which brings up a task window or shuts down the machine.\nA command-line interface is a type of user interface operated entirely through a keyboard, or another device doing the job of one.\n\nHistory \n\nWhile typewriters are the definitive ancestor of all key-based text entry devices, the computer keyboard as a device for electromechanical data entry and communication derives largely from the utility of two devices: teleprinters (or teletypes) and keypunches. It was through such devices that modern computer keyboards inherited their layouts.\n\nAs early as the 1870s, teleprinter-like devices were used to simultaneously type and transmit stock market text data from the keyboard across telegraph lines to stock ticker machines to be immediately copied and displayed onto ticker tape. The teleprinter, in its more contemporary form, was developed from 1907 to 1910 by American mechanical engineer Charles Krum and his son Howard, with early contributions by electrical engineer Frank Pearne. Earlier models were developed separately by individuals such as Royal Earl House and Frederick G. Creed.\n\nEarlier, Herman Hollerith developed the first keypunch devices, which soon evolved to include keys for text and number entry akin to normal typewriters by the 1930s. \n\nThe keyboard on the teleprinter played a strong role in point-to-point and point-to-multipoint communication for most of the 20th century, while the keyboard on the keypunch device played a strong role in data entry and storage for just as long. The development of the earliest computers incorporated electric typewriter keyboards: the development of the ENIAC computer incorporated a keypunch device as both the input and paper-based output device, while the BINAC computer also made use of an electromechanically controlled typewriter for both data entry onto magnetic tape (instead of paper) and data output.\n\nFrom the 1940s until the late 1960s, typewriters were the main means of data entry and output for computing, becoming integrated into what were known as computer terminals. Because of the limitations of terminals based upon printed text in comparison to the growth in data storage, processing and transmission, a general move toward video-based computer terminals was effected by the 1970s, starting with the Datapoint 3300 in 1967.\n\nThe keyboard remained the primary, most integrated computer peripheral well into the era of personal computing until the introduction of the mouse as a consumer device in 1984. By this time, text-only user interfaces with sparse graphics gave way to comparatively graphics-rich icons on screen. However, keyboards remain central to human-computer interaction to the present, even as mobile personal computing devices such as smartphones and tablets adapt the keyboard as an optional virtual, touchscreen-based means of data entry.\n\nKeyboard types \n\nOne factor determining the size of a keyboard is the presence of duplicate keys, such as a separate numeric keyboard, for convenience.\n\nFurther the keyboard size depends on the extent to which a system is used where a single action is produced by a combination of subsequent or simultaneous keystrokes (with modifier keys, see below), or multiple pressing of a single key. A keyboard with few keys is called a keypad. See also text entry interface.\n\nAnother factor determining the size of a keyboard is the size and spacing of the keys. Reduction is limited by the practical consideration that the keys must be large enough to be easily pressed by fingers. Alternatively a tool is used for pressing small keys.\n\nStandard \n\nStandard alphanumeric keyboards have keys that are on three-quarter inch centers (0.750 inches, 19.05 mm), and have a key travel of at least 0.150 inches (3.81 mm). Desktop computer keyboards, such as the 101-key US traditional keyboards or the 104-key Windows keyboards, include alphabetic characters, punctuation symbols, numbers and a variety of function keys. The internationally common 102/104 key keyboards have a smaller left shift key and an additional key with some more symbols between that and the letter to its right (usually Z or Y). Also the enter key is usually shaped differently. Computer keyboards are similar to electric-typewriter keyboards but contain additional keys, such as the command or Windows keys. There is no standard computer keyboard, although many manufacture imitate the keyboard of PCs. There are actually three different PC keyboard: the original PC keyboard with 84 keys, the AT keyboard also with 84 keys and the enhanced keyboard with 101 keys. The three differ some what in the placement of function keys, the control keys, the return key, and the shift key.\n\nLaptop-size \n\nKeyboards on laptops and notebook computers usually have a shorter travel distance for the keystroke, shorter over travel distance, and a reduced set of keys. They may not have a numerical keypad, and the function keys may be placed in locations that differ from their placement on a standard, full-sized keyboard. The switch mechanism for a laptop keyboard is more likely to be a scissor switch than a rubber dome; this is opposite the trend for full-size keyboards.\n\nFlexible keyboards \n\nFlexible keyboards are a junction between normal type and laptop type keyboards, normal from the full arrangement of keys, and laptop from the sort key distance, additionally the flexibility it allows the user to fold/roll the keyboard for better storage / transfer, however for typing, the keyboard must be resting on a hard surface. The vast majority of flexible keyboards in market are made from silicone, this material makes it water and dust proof, a very pleasant feature especially in hospitals where keyboards are subjected to frequent washing. For connection with the computer, the keyboards having USB cable and the support of operating systems reach far back as the Windows 2000.\n\nHandheld \n\nHandheld ergonomic keyboards are designed to be held like a game controller, and can be used as such, instead of laid out flat on top of a table surface. Typically handheld keyboards hold all the alphanumeric keys and symbols that a standard keyboard would have, yet only be accessed by pressing two sets of keys at once; one acting as a function key similar to a 'Shift' key that would allow for capital letters on a standard keyboard. Handheld keyboards allow the user the ability to move around a room or to lean back on a chair while also being able to type in front or away from the computer. Some variations of handheld ergonomic keyboards also include a trackball mouse that allow mouse movement and typing included in one handheld device.\n\nThumb-sized \n\nSmaller external keyboards have been introduced for devices without a built-in keyboard, such as PDAs, and smartphones. Small keyboards are also useful where there is a limited workspace.\n\nA chorded keyboard allows users to press several keys simultaneously. For example, the GKOS keyboard has been designed for small wireless devices. Other two-handed alternatives more akin to a game controller, such as the AlphaGrip, are also used to input data and text.\n\nA thumb keyboard (thumb board) is used in some personal digital assistants such as the Palm Treo and BlackBerry and some Ultra-Mobile PCs such as the OQO.\n\nNumeric keyboards contain only numbers, mathematical symbols for addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, a decimal point, and several function keys. They are often used to facilitate data entry with smaller keyboards that do not have a numeric keypad, commonly those of laptop computers. These keys are collectively known as a numeric pad, numeric keys, or a numeric keypad, and it can consist of the following types of keys: Arithmetic operators, numbers, arrow keys, Navigation keys, Num Lock and Enter key.\n\nMultifunctional \n\nMultifunctional keyboards provide additional function beyond the standard keyboard. Many are programmable, configurable computer keyboards and some control multiple PCs, workstations (incl. SUN) and other information sources (incl. Thomson Reuters FXT/Eikon, Bloomberg, EBS, etc.) usually in multi-screen work environments. Users have additional key functions as well as the standard functions and can typically use a single keyboard and mouse to access multiple sources. \n\nMultifunctional keyboards may feature customised keypads, fully programmable function or soft keys for macros/pre-sets, biometric or smart card readers, trackballs, etc. New generation multifunctional keyboards feature a touchscreen display to stream video, control audio visual media and alarms, execute application inputs, configure individual desktop environments, etc. Multifunctional keyboards may also permit users to share access to PCs and other information sources. Multiple interfaces (serial, USB, audio, Ethernet, etc.) are used to integrate external devices. Some multifunctional keyboards are also used to directly and intuitively control video walls.\n\nCommon environments for multifunctional keyboards are complex, high-performance workplaces for financial traders and control room operators (emergency services, security, air traffic management; industry, utilities management, etc.).\n\nNon-standard layout and special-use types \n\nChorded \n\nWhile other keyboards generally associate one action with each key, chorded keyboards associate actions with combinations of key presses. Since there are many combinations available, chorded keyboards can effectively produce more actions on a board with fewer keys. Court reporters' stenotype machines use chorded keyboards to enable them to enter text much faster by typing a syllable with each stroke instead of one letter at a time. The fastest typists (as of 2007) use a stenograph, a kind of chorded keyboard used by most court reporters and closed-caption reporters. Some chorded keyboards are also made for use in situations where fewer keys are preferable, such as on devices that can be used with only one hand, and on small mobile devices that don't have room for larger keyboards. Chorded keyboards are less desirable in many cases because it usually takes practice and memorization of the combinations to become proficient.\n\nSoftware \n\nSoftware keyboards or on-screen keyboards often take the form of computer programs that display an image of a keyboard on the screen. Another input device such as a mouse or a touchscreen can be used to operate each virtual key to enter text. Software keyboards have become very popular in touchscreen enabled cell phones, due to the additional cost and space requirements of other types of hardware keyboards. Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X, and some varieties of Linux include on-screen keyboards that can be controlled with the mouse. In software keyboards, the mouse has to be maneuvered onto the on-screen letters given by the software. On the click of a letter, the software writes the respective letter on the respective spot.\n\nProjection (as by laser) \n\nProjection keyboards project an image of keys, usually with a laser, onto a flat surface. The device then uses a camera or infrared sensor to \"watch\" where the user's fingers move, and will count a key as being pressed when it \"sees\" the user's finger touch the projected image. Projection keyboards can simulate a full size keyboard from a very small projector. Because the \"keys\" are simply projected images, they cannot be felt when pressed. Users of projected keyboards often experience increased discomfort in their fingertips because of the lack of \"give\" when typing. A flat, non-reflective surface is also required for the keys to be projected. Most projection keyboards are made for use with PDAs and smartphones due to their small form factor.\n\nOptical keyboard technology \n\nAlso known as photo-optical keyboard, light responsive keyboard, photo-electric keyboard and optical key actuation detection technology.\n\nAn optical keyboard technology utilizes light emitting devices and photo sensors to optically detect actuated keys. Most commonly the emitters and sensors are located in the perimeter, mounted on a small PCB. The light is directed from side to side of the keyboard interior and it can only be blocked by the actuated keys. Most optical keyboards require at least 2 beams (most commonly vertical beam and horizontal beam) to determine the actuated key. Some optical keyboards use a special key structure that blocks the light in a certain pattern, allowing only one beam per row of keys (most commonly horizontal beam).\n\nLayout \n\nAlphabetic \n\nThere are a number of different arrangements of alphabetic, numeric, and punctuation symbols on keys. These different keyboard layouts arise mainly because different people need easy access to different symbols, either because they are inputting text in different languages, or because they need a specialized layout for mathematics, accounting, computer programming, or other purposes. The United States keyboard layout is used as default in the currently most popular operating systems: Windows, Mac OS X and Linux. The common QWERTY-based layout was designed early in the era of mechanical typewriters, so its ergonomics were compromised to allow for the mechanical limitations of the typewriter.\n\nAs the letter-keys were attached to levers that needed to move freely, inventor Christopher Sholes developed the QWERTY layout to reduce the likelihood of jamming. With the advent of computers, lever jams are no longer an issue, but nevertheless, QWERTY layouts were adopted for electronic keyboards because they were widely used. Alternative layouts such as the Dvorak Simplified Keyboard are not in widespread use.\n\nThe QWERTZ layout is widely used in Germany and much of Central Europe. The main difference between it and QWERTY is that Y and Z are swapped, and most special characters such as brackets are replaced by diacritical characters.\n\nAnother situation takes place with \"national\" layouts. Keyboards designed for typing in Spanish have some characters shifted, to release the space for Ñ ñ; similarly, those for Portuguese, French and other European languages may have a special key for the character Ç ç. The AZERTY layout is used in France, Belgium and some neighbouring countries. It differs from the QWERTY layout in that the A and Q are swapped, the Z and W are swapped, and the M is moved from the right of N to the right of L (where colon/semicolon is on a US keyboard). The digits 0 to 9 are on the same keys, but to be typed the shift key must be pressed. The unshifted positions are used for accented characters.\n\nKeyboards in many parts of Asia may have special keys to switch between the Latin character set and a completely different typing system. Japanese layout keyboards can be switched between various Japanese input methods and the Latin alphabet by signaling the operating system's input interpreter of the change, and some operating systems (namely the Windows family) interpret the character \"\\\" as \"¥\" for display purposes without changing the bytecode which has led some keyboard makers to mark \"\\\" as \"¥\" or both. In the Arab world, keyboards can often be switched between Arabic and Latin characters.\n\nIn bilingual regions of Canada and in the French-speaking province of Québec, keyboards can often be switched between an English and a French-language keyboard; while both keyboards share the same QWERTY alphabetic layout, the French-language keyboard enables the user to type accented vowels such as \"é\" or \"à\" with a single keystroke. Using keyboards for other languages leads to a conflict: the image on the key does not correspond to the character. In such cases, each new language may require an additional label on the keys, because the standard keyboard layouts do not share even similar characters of different languages (see the example in the figure above).\n\nKey types \n\nAlphanumeric \n\nAlphabetical, numeric, and punctuation keys are used in the same fashion as a typewriter keyboard to enter their respective symbol into a word processing program, text editor, data spreadsheet, or other program. Many of these keys will produce different symbols when modifier keys or shift keys are pressed. The alphabetic characters become uppercase when the shift key or Caps Lock key is depressed. The numeric characters become symbols or punctuation marks when the shift key is depressed. The alphabetical, numeric, and punctuation keys can also have other functions when they are pressed at the same time as some modifier keys.\nThe Space bar is a horizontal bar in the lowermost row, which is significantly wider than other keys. Like the alphanumeric characters, it is also descended from the mechanical typewriter. Its main purpose is to enter the space between words during typing. It is large enough so that a thumb from either hand can use it easily. Depending on the operating system, when the space bar is used with a modifier key such as the control key, it may have functions such as resizing or closing the current window, half-spacing, or backspacing. In computer games and other applications the key has myriad uses in addition to its normal purpose in typing, such as jumping and adding marks to check boxes. In certain programs for playback of digital video, the space bar is used for pausing and resuming the playback.\n\nModifier keys \n\nModifier keys are special keys that modify the normal action of another key, when the two are pressed in combination. For example, + in Microsoft Windows will close the program in an active window. In contrast, pressing just will probably do nothing, unless assigned a specific function in a particular program. By themselves, modifier keys usually do nothing.\nThe most widely used modifier keys include the Control key, Shift key and the Alt key. The AltGr key is used to access additional symbols for keys that have three symbols printed on them. On the Macintosh and Apple keyboards, the modifier keys are the Option key and Command key, respectively. On MIT computer keyboards, the Meta key is used as a modifier and for Windows keyboards, there is a Windows key. Compact keyboard layouts often use a Fn key. \"Dead keys\" allow placement of a diacritic mark, such as an accent, on the following letter (e.g., the Compose key).\nThe Enter/Return key typically causes a command line, window form or dialog box to operate its default function, which is typically to finish an \"entry\" and begin the desired process. In word processing applications, pressing the enter key ends a paragraph and starts a new one.\n\nCursor keys \n\nNavigation keys or cursor keys include a variety of keys which move the cursor to different positions on the screen. Arrow keys are programmed to move the cursor in a specified direction; page scroll keys, such as the Page Up and Page Down keys, scroll the page up and down. The Home key is used to return the cursor to the beginning of the line where the cursor is located; the End key puts the cursor at the end of the line. The Tab key advances the cursor to the next tab stop.\nThe Insert key is mainly used to switch between overtype mode, in which the cursor overwrites any text that is present on and after its current location, and insert mode, where the cursor inserts a character at its current position, forcing all characters past it one position further. The Delete key discards the character ahead of the cursor's position, moving all following characters one position \"back\" towards the freed place. On many notebook computer keyboards the key labeled Delete (sometimes Delete and Backspace are printed on the same key) serves the same purpose as a Backspace key. The Backspace key deletes the preceding character.\nLock keys lock part of a keyboard, depending on the settings selected. The lock keys are scattered around the keyboard. Most styles of keyboards have three LEDs indicating which locks are enabled, in the upper right corner above the numeric pad. The lock keys include Scroll lock, Num lock (which allows the use of the numeric keypad), and Caps lock.\n\nSystem commands \n\nThe SysRq and Print screen commands often share the same key. SysRq was used in earlier computers as a \"panic\" button to recover from crashes (and it is still used in this sense to some extent by the Linux kernel; see Magic SysRq key). The Print screen command used to capture the entire screen and send it to the printer, but in the present it usually puts a screenshot in the clipboard. The Break key/Pause key no longer has a well-defined purpose. Its origins go back to teleprinter users, who wanted a key that would temporarily interrupt the communications line. The Break key can be used by software in several different ways, such as to switch between multiple login sessions, to terminate a program, or to interrupt a modem connection.\nIn programming, especially old DOS-style BASIC, Pascal and C, Break is used (in conjunction with Ctrl) to stop program execution. In addition to this, Linux and variants, as well as many DOS programs, treat this combination the same as Ctrl+C. On modern keyboards, the break key is usually labeled Pause/Break. In most Windows environments, the key combination Windows key+Pause brings up the system properties.\nThe Escape key (often abbreviated Esc) is used to initiate an escape sequence. As most computer users no longer are concerned with the details of controlling their computer's peripherals, the task for which the escape sequences were originally designed, the escape key was appropriated by application programmers, most often to \"escape\" or back out of a mistaken command. This use continues today in Microsoft Windows's use of escape as a shortcut in dialog boxes for No, Quit, Exit, Cancel, or Abort.\nA common application today of the Esc key is as a shortcut key for the Stop button in many web browsers. On machines running Microsoft Windows, prior to the implementation of the Windows key on keyboards, the typical practice for invoking the \"start\" button was to hold down the control key and press escape. This process still works in Windows 2000, XP, Vista, 7, 8, and 10.\nThe Enter key is located: One in the alphanumeric keys and the other one is in the numeric keys. When one worked something on their computer and wanted to do something with their work, pressing the enter key would do the command they ordered. Another function is to create a space for next paragraph. When one typed and finished typing a paragraph and they wanted to have a second paragraph, they could press enter and it would do spacing.\nShift key: when one presses shift and a letter, it will capitalize the letter pressed with the shift key. Another use is to type more symbols than appear to be available, for instance the apostrophe key is accompanied with a quotation mark on the top. If one wants to type the quotation mark but pressed that key alone, the symbol that would appear would be the apostrophe. The quotation mark will only appear if both the required key and the Shift key are pressed.\nThe Menu key or Application key is a key found on Windows-oriented computer keyboards. It is used to launch a context menu with the keyboard rather than with the usual right mouse button. The key's symbol is usually a small icon depicting a cursor hovering above a menu. On some Samsung keyboards the cursor in the icon is not present, showing the menu only. This key was created at the same time as the Windows key. This key is normally used when the right mouse button is not present on the mouse. Some Windows public terminals do not have a Menu key on their keyboard to prevent users from right-clicking (however, in many Windows applications, a similar functionality can be invoked with the Shift+F10 keyboard shortcut).\nMiscellaneous \n\nMany, but not all,computer keyboards have a numeric keypad to the right of the alphabetic keyboard which contains numbers, basic mathematical symbols (e.g., addition, subtraction, etc.), and a few function keys. On Japanese/Korean keyboards, there may be Language input keys for changing the language to use. Some keyboards have power management keys (e.g., power key, sleep key and wake key); Internet keys to access a web browser or E-mail; and/or multimedia keys, such as volume controls or keys that can be programmed by the user to launch a specified software or command like launching a game or minimize all windows.\n\nNumeric keys \n\nWhen we calculate, we use these numeric keys to type numbers. Symbols concerned with calculations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division symbols are located in this group of keys. The enter key in this keys indicate the equal sign.\n\nMultiple layouts \n\nIt is possible to install multiple keyboard layouts within an operating system and switch between them, either through features implemented within the OS, or through an external application. Microsoft Windows, Linux, and Mac provide support to add keyboard layouts and choose from them.\n\nLayout changing software \n\nThe character code produced by any key press is determined by the keyboard driver software. A key press generates a scancode which is interpreted as an alphanumeric character or control function. Depending on operating systems, various application programs are available to create, add and switch among keyboard layouts. Many programs are available, some of which are language specific.\n\nThe arrangement of symbols of specific language can be customized. An existing keyboard layout can be edited, and a new layout can be created using this type of software.\n\nFor example, for Mac, The Microsoft Keyboard Layout Creator and open-source Avro Keyboard for Windows provide the ability to customize the keyboard layout as desired.\n\nIllumination \n\nKeyboards and keypads may be illuminated from inside, especially on equipment for mobile use. Illumination facilitates the use of the keyboard or keypad in dark environments. Some gaming keyboards have lighted keys, to make it easier for gamers to find command keys while playing in a dark room. Some keyboards may have small LED lights in a few important function keys, to remind users that the function is activated (see photo).\n\nTechnology \n\nKey switches \n\nIn the first electronic keyboards in the early 1970s, the key switches were individual switches inserted into holes in metal frames. These keyboards cost from USD $80 to $120 and were used in mainframe data terminals. The most popular switch types were reed switches (contacts enclosed in a vacuum in a glass capsule, affected by a magnet mounted on the switch plunger).\n\nIn the mid-1970s, lower-cost direct-contact key switches were introduced, but their life in switch cycles was much shorter (rated ten million cycles) because they were open to the environment. This became more acceptable, however, for use in computer terminals at the time, which began to see increasingly shorter model lifespans as they advanced.\n\nIn 1978, Key Tronic Corporation introduced keyboards with capacitive-based switches, one of the first keyboard technologies to not use self-contained switches. There was simply a sponge pad with a conductive-coated Mylar plastic sheet on the switch plunger, and two half-moon trace patterns on the printed circuit board below. As the key was depressed, the capacitance between the plunger pad and the patterns on the PCB below changed, which was detected by integrated circuits (IC). These keyboards were claimed to have the same reliability as the other \"solid-state switch\" keyboards such as inductive and Hall-Effect, but competitive with direct-contact keyboards. Prices of $60 for keyboards were achieved and Key Tronic rapidly became the largest independent keyboard manufacturer.\n\nMeanwhile, IBM made their own keyboards, using their own patented technology: Keys on older IBM keyboards were made with a \"buckling spring\" mechanism, in which a coil spring under the key buckles under pressure from the user's finger, triggering a hammer that presses two plastic sheets (membranes) with conductive traces together, completing a circuit. This produces a clicking sound, and gives physical feedback for the typist indicating that the key has been depressed. \n\nThe first electronic keyboards had a typewriter key travel distance of 0.187 inches (4.75 mm), keytops were a half-inch (12.7 mm) high, and keyboards were about two inches (5 cm) thick. Over time, less key travel was accepted in the market, finally landing on 0.110 inches (2.79 mm). Coincident with this, Key Tronic was the first company to introduce a keyboard which was only about one inch thick. And now keyboards measure only about a half-inch thick.\n\nKeytops are an important element of keyboards. In the beginning, keyboard keytops had a \"dish shape\" on top, like typewriters before them. Keyboard key legends must be extremely durable over tens of millions of depressions, since they are subjected to extreme mechanical wear from fingers and fingernails, and subject to hand oils and creams, so engraving and filling key legends with paint, as was done previously for individual switches, was never acceptable. So, for the first electronic keyboards, the key legends were produced by two-shot (or double-shot, or two-color) molding, where either the key shell or the inside of the key with the key legend was molded first, and then the other color molded second. But, to save cost, other methods were explored, such as sublimation printing and laser engraving, both methods which could be used to print a whole keyboard at the same time.\n\nInitially, sublimation printing, where a special ink is printed onto the keycap surface and the application of heat causes the ink molecules to penetrate and commingle with the plastic modules, had a problem because finger oils caused the molecules to disperse, but then a necessarily very hard clear coating was applied to prevent this. Coincident with sublimation printing, which was first used in high volume by IBM on their keyboards, was the introduction by IBM of single-curved-dish keycaps to facilitate quality printing of key legends by having a consistently curved surface instead of a dish. But one problem with sublimation or laser printing was that the processes took too long and only dark legends could be printed on light-colored keys. On another note, IBM was unique in using separate shells, or \"keycaps\", on keytop bases. This might have made their manufacturing of different keyboard layouts more flexible, but the reason for doing this was that the plastic material that needed to be used for sublimation printing was different from standard ABS keytop plastic material.\n\nThree final mechanical technologies brought keyboards to where they are today, driving the cost well under $10:\n# \"Monoblock\" keyboard designs were developed where individual switch housings were eliminated and a one-piece \"monoblock\" housing used instead. This was possible because of molding techniques that could provide very tight tolerances for the switch-plunger holes and guides across the width of the keyboard so that the key plunger-to-housing clearances were not too tight or too loose, either of which could cause the keys to bind.\n# The use of contact-switch membrane sheets under the monoblock. This technology came from flat-panel switch membranes, where the switch contacts are printed inside of a top and bottom layer, with a spacer layer in between, so that when pressure is applied to the area above, a direct electrical contact is made. The membrane layers can be printed by very-high volume, low-cost \"reel-to-reel\" printing machines, with each keyboard membrane cut and punched out afterwards.\n\nPlastic materials played a very important part in the development and progress of electronic keyboards. Until \"monoblocks\" came along, GE's \"self-lubricating\" Delrin was the only plastic material for keyboard switch plungers that could withstand the beating over tens of millions of cycles of lifetime use. Greasing or oiling switch plungers was undesirable because it would attract dirt over time which would eventually affect the feel and even bind the key switches (although keyboard manufacturers would sometimes sneak this into their keyboards, especially if they could not control the tolerances of the key plungers and housings well enough to have a smooth key depression feel or prevent binding). But Delrin was only available in black and white, and was not suitable for keytops (too soft), so keytops use ABS plastic. However, as plastic molding advanced in maintaining tight tolerances, and as key travel length reduced from 0.187-inch to 0.110-inch (4.75 mm to 2.79 mm), single-part keytop/plungers could be made of ABS, with the keyboard monolocks also made of ABS.\n\nControl processor \n\nComputer keyboards include control circuitry to convert key presses into key codes (usually scancodes) that the computer's electronics can understand. The key switches are connected via the printed circuit board in an electrical X-Y matrix where a voltage is provided sequentially to the Y lines and, when a key is depressed, detected sequentially by scanning the X lines.\n\nThe first computer keyboards were for mainframe computer data terminals and used discrete electronic parts. The first keyboard microprocessor was introduced in 1972 by General Instruments, but keyboards have been using the single-chip 8048 microcontroller variant since it became available in 1978. The keyboard switch matrix is wired to its inputs, it converts the keystrokes to key codes, and, for a detached keyboard, sends the codes down a serial cable (the keyboard cord) to the main processor on the computer motherboard. This serial keyboard cable communication is only bi-directional to the extent that the computer's electronics controls the illumination of the caps lock, num lock and scroll lock lights.\n\nOne test for whether the computer has crashed is pressing the caps lock key. The keyboard sends the key code to the keyboard driver running in the main computer; if the main computer is operating, it commands the light to turn on. All the other indicator lights work in a similar way. The keyboard driver also tracks the Shift, alt and control state of the keyboard.\n\nSome lower-quality keyboards have multiple or false key entries due to inadequate electrical designs. These are caused by inadequate keyswitch \"debouncing\" or inadequate keyswitch matrix layout that don't allow multiple keys to be depressed at the same time, both circumstances which are explained below:\n\nWhen pressing a keyboard key, the key contacts may \"bounce\" against each other for several milliseconds before they settle into firm contact. When released, they bounce some more until they revert to the uncontacted state. If the computer were watching for each pulse, it would see many keystrokes for what the user thought was just one. To resolve this problem, the processor in a keyboard (or computer) \"debounces\" the keystrokes, by aggregating them across time to produce one \"confirmed\" keystroke.\n\nSome low-quality keyboards also suffer problems with rollover (that is, when multiple keys pressed at the same time, or when keys are pressed so fast that multiple keys are down within the same milliseconds). Early \"solid-state\" keyswitch keyboards did not have this problem because the keyswitches are electrically isolated from each other, and early \"direct-contact\" keyswitch keyboards avoided this problem by having isolation diodes for every keyswitch. These early keyboards had \"n-key\" rollover, which means any number of keys can be depressed and the keyboard will still recognize the next key depressed. But when three keys are pressed (electrically closed) at the same time in a \"direct contact\" keyswitch matrix that doesn't have isolation diodes, the keyboard electronics can see a fourth \"phantom\" key which is the intersection of the X and Y lines of the three keys. Some types of keyboard circuitry will register a maximum number of keys at one time. \"Three-key\" rollover, also called \"phantom key blocking\" or \"phantom key lockout\", will only register three keys and ignore all others until one of the three keys is lifted. This is undesirable, especially for fast typing (hitting new keys before the fingers can release previous keys), and games (designed for multiple key presses).\n\nAs direct-contact membrane keyboards became popular, the available rollover of keys was optimized by analyzing the most common key sequences and placing these keys so that they do not potentially produce phantom keys in the electrical key matrix (for example, simply placing three or four keys that might be depressed simultaneously on the same X or same Y line, so that a phantom key intersection/short cannot happen), so that blocking a third key usually isn't a problem. But lower-quality keyboard designs and unknowledgeable engineers may not know these tricks, and it can still be a problem in games due to wildly different or configurable layouts in different games.\n\nConnection types \n\nThere are several ways of connecting a keyboard to a system unit (more precisely, to its keyboard controller) using cables, including the standard AT connector commonly found on motherboards, which was eventually replaced by the PS/2 and the USB connection. Prior to the iMac line of systems, Apple used the proprietary Apple Desktop Bus for its keyboard connector.\n\nWireless keyboards have become popular for their increased user freedom. A wireless keyboard often includes a required combination transmitter and receiver unit that attaches to the computer's keyboard port. The wireless aspect is achieved either by radio frequency (RF) or by infrared (IR) signals sent and received from both the keyboard and the unit attached to the computer. A wireless keyboard may use an industry standard RF, called Bluetooth. With Bluetooth, the transceiver may be built into the computer. However, a wireless keyboard needs batteries to work and may pose a security problem due to the risk of data \"eavesdropping\" by hackers. Wireless solar keyboards charge their batteries from small solar panels using sunlight or standard artificial lighting. An early example of a consumer wireless keyboard is that of the Olivetti Envision.\n\nAlternative text-entering methods \n\nOptical character recognition (OCR) is preferable to rekeying for converting existing text that is already written down but not in machine-readable format (for example, a Linotype-composed book from the 1940s). In other words, to convert the text from an image to editable text (that is, a string of character codes), a person could re-type it, or a computer could look at the image and deduce what each character is. OCR technology has already reached an impressive state (for example, Google Book Search) and promises more for the future.\n\nSpeech recognition converts speech into machine-readable text (that is, a string of character codes). This technology has also reached an advanced state and is implemented in various software products. For certain uses (e.g., transcription of medical or legal dictation; journalism; writing essays or novels) speech recognition is starting to replace the keyboard. However, the lack of privacy when issuing voice commands and dictation makes this kind of input unsuitable for many environments.\n\nPointing devices can be used to enter text or characters in contexts where using a physical keyboard would be inappropriate or impossible. These accessories typically present characters on a display, in a layout that provides fast access to the more frequently used characters or character combinations. Popular examples of this kind of input are Graffiti, Dasher and on-screen virtual keyboards.\n\nOther issues \n\nKeystroke logging \n\nUnencrypted wireless bluetooth keyboards are known to be vulnerable to signal theft by placing a covert listening devices in the same room as the keyboard to sniff and record bluetooth packets for the purpose of logging keys typed by the user. Microsoft wireless keyboards 2011 and earlier are documented to have this\nvulnerability. \n\nKeystroke logging (often called keylogging) is a method of capturing and recording user keystrokes. While it is used legally to measure employee productivity on certain clerical tasks, or by law enforcement agencies to find out about illegal activities, it is also used by hackers for various illegal or malicious acts. Hackers use keyloggers as a means to obtain passwords or encryption keys and thus bypass other security measures.\n\nKeystroke logging can be achieved by both hardware and software means. Hardware key loggers are attached to the keyboard cable or installed inside standard keyboards. Software keyloggers work on the target computer's operating system and gain unauthorized access to the hardware, hook into the keyboard with functions provided by the OS, or use remote access software to transmit recorded data out of the target computer to a remote location. Some hackers also use wireless keylogger sniffers to collect packets of data being transferred from a wireless keyboard and its receiver, and then they crack the encryption key being used to secure wireless communications between the two devices.\n\nAnti-spyware applications are able to detect many keyloggers and cleanse them. Responsible vendors of monitoring software support detection by anti-spyware programs, thus preventing abuse of the software. Enabling a firewall does not stop keyloggers per se, but can possibly prevent transmission of the logged material over the net if properly configured. Network monitors (also known as reverse-firewalls) can be used to alert the user whenever an application attempts to make a network connection. This gives the user the chance to prevent the keylogger from \"phoning home\" with his or her typed information. Automatic form-filling programs can prevent keylogging entirely by not using the keyboard at all. Most keyloggers can be fooled by alternating between typing the login credentials and typing characters somewhere else in the focus window. \n\nKeyboards are also known to emit electromagnetic signatures that can be detected using special spying equipment to reconstruct the keys pressed on the keyboard. Neal O'Farrell, executive director of the Identity Theft Council, revealed to InformationWeek that \"More than 25 years ago, a couple of former spooks showed me how they could capture a user's ATM PIN, from a van parked across the street, simply by capturing and decoding the electromagnetic signals generated by every keystroke,\" O'Farrell said. \"They could even capture keystrokes from computers in nearby offices, but the technology wasn't sophisticated enough to focus in on any specific computer.\" \n\nPhysical injury \n\nThe use of any keyboard may cause serious injury (that is, carpal tunnel syndrome or other repetitive strain injury) to hands, wrists, arms, neck or back. The risks of injuries can be reduced by taking frequent short breaks to get up and walk around a couple of times every hour. As well, users should vary tasks throughout the day, to avoid overuse of the hands and wrists. When inputting at the keyboard, a person should keep the shoulders relaxed with the elbows at the side, with the keyboard and mouse positioned so that reaching is not necessary. The chair height and keyboard tray should be adjusted so that the wrists are straight, and the wrists should not be rested on sharp table edges. Wrist or palm rests should not be used while typing.\n\nSome adaptive technology ranging from special keyboards, mouse replacements and pen tablet interfaces to speech recognition software can reduce the risk of injury. Pause software reminds the user to pause frequently. Switching to a much more ergonomic mouse, such as a vertical mouse or joystick mouse may provide relief. Switching from using a mouse to using a stylus pen with graphic tablet or a trackpad can lessen the repetitive strain on the arms and hands.\n\nPathogen transmission \n\nSome keyboards were found to contain five times more potentially harmful germs than a toilet seat. \nThis can be a concern when using shared keyboards; the keyboards can serve as vectors for pathogens that cause the cold, flu, and other communicable diseases easily spread by indirect contact." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "History of V", "🆅", "V (letter)", "Ⓥ", "Ｖ", "⒱", "ⓥ", "🄥", "🅥", "V", "🅅" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "ｖ", "v letter", "history of v", "ⓥ", "🄥", "🅥", "🆅", "⒱", "🅅", "v" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "v", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "V" }
In which decade did golfer Gary Player last win the British Open?	tc_277	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Gary_Player.txt", "The_Open_Championship.txt" ], "title": [ "Gary Player", "The Open Championship" ], "wiki_context": [ "Gary Player DMS, OIG (born 1 November 1935) is a retired South African professional golfer, widely regarded as one of the greatest players in the history of golf. Over his career, Player accumulated nine major championships on the regular tour and six Champions Tour major championship victories, as well as three Senior British Open Championships on the European Senior Tour. At the age of 29, Player won the 1965 U.S. Open and became the only non-American to win all four majors, known as the career Grand Slam. Player became only the third golfer in history to win the Career Grand Slam, following Ben Hogan and Gene Sarazen, and only Jack Nicklaus and Tiger Woods have performed the feat since. Player has won 165 tournaments on six continents over six decades and was inducted into the World Golf Hall of Fame in 1974. \n\nBorn in Johannesburg, Player has logged more than 25 million kilometres (15 million miles) in travel, which is more than any other athlete. Nicknamed the Black Knight, Mr. Fitness, and the International Ambassador of Golf, Player is also a renowned golf course architect with more than 325 design projects on five continents throughout the world. He has also authored or co-written 36 golf books.\n\nHis business interests are represented by Black Knight International, which includes Gary Player Design, Player Real Estate, The Player Foundation, Gary Player Academies, and Black Knight Enterprises, aspects of which include licensing, events, publishing, wine, apparel and memorabilia. \n\nThe Gary Player Stud Farm has received worldwide acclaim for breeding top thoroughbred race horses, including 1994 Epsom Derby entry Broadway Flyer.\n\nHe operates The Player Foundation, which has a primary objective of promoting underprivileged education around the world. In 1983, The Player Foundation established the Blair Atholl Schools in Johannesburg, South Africa, which has educational facilities for more than 500 students from kindergarten through eighth grade. In 2013 it celebrated its 30th Anniversary with charity golf events in London, Palm Beach, Shanghai and Cape Town, bringing its total of funds raised to over US$60 million. \n\nBackground and family\n\nGary Player was born in Johannesburg, South Africa, the youngest of Harry and Muriel Player's three children. When he was eight years old his mother died from cancer. Although his father was often away from home working in the gold mines, he did manage to take a loan in order to buy a set of clubs for his son Gary to begin playing golf. The Virginia Park golf course in Johannesburg is where Player first began his love affair with golf. At the age of 14, Player played his first round of golf and parred the first three holes. At age 16, he announced that he would become number one in the world. At age 17, he became a professional golfer.\n\nPlayer married wife Vivienne Verwey (sister of professional golfer Bobby Verwey) on 19 January 1957, four years after turning professional. Together they have six children: Jennifer, Marc, Wayne, Michele, Theresa and Amanda. He is also a grandfather to 21 grandchildren. During the early days of his career Player would travel from tournament to tournament with wife, six children, nanny and a tutor in tow.\n\nHis eldest son, Marc Player, owns and operates Black Knight International, which exclusively represents Player in all his commercial activities, including all endorsements, licensing, merchandising, golf course design, and real estate development.\n\nGary Player is the brother of Ian Player, a notable South African environmental educator and conservationist who saved the white rhino from extinction. \n\nRegular PGA Tour career\n\nPlayer is one of the most successful golfers in the history of the sport, ranking third (behind Roberto de Vicenzo and Sam Snead) in total professional wins, with at least 166, and tied for fourth in major championship victories with nine. Along with Arnold Palmer and Jack Nicklaus he is often referred to as one of \"The Big Three\" golfers of his era – from the late 1950s through the late 1970s – when golf boomed in the United States and around the world, greatly encouraged by expanded television coverage. Along with Gene Sarazen, Ben Hogan, Jack Nicklaus, and Tiger Woods, he is one of only five players to win golf’s \"career Grand Slam\". He completed the Grand Slam in 1965 at the age of twenty-nine. Player was the second multiple majors winner from South Africa, following Bobby Locke, then was followed by Ernie Els, and Retief Goosen.\n\nPlayer played regularly on the U.S. based PGA Tour from the late 1950s. He led the Tour money list in 1961, and went on to accumulate 24 career Tour titles. He also played an exceptionally busy schedule all over the world, and he has been called the world's most traveled athlete, clocking up more than 15 million miles. He has more victories than anyone else in the South African Open (13) and the Australian Open (7). He held the record for most victories in the World Match Play Championship, with five wins, from 1973 until 1991 when this feat was equalled by Seve Ballesteros, finally losing his share of the record in 2004, when Ernie Els won the event for a sixth time. Player was in the top ten of Mark McCormack's world golf rankings from their inception in 1968 until 1981; he was ranked second in 1969, 1970 and 1972, each time to Jack Nicklaus.\n\nHe was the only player in the 20th century to win the British Open in three different decades. His first win, as a 23-year-old in 1959 at Muirfield, came after he double-bogeyed the last hole. In 1974, he became one of the few golfers in history to win two major championships in the same season. Player last won the U.S. Masters in 1978, when he started seven strokes behind 54-hole leader Hubert Green entering the final round, and won by one shot with birdies at seven of the last 10 holes for a back nine 30 and a final round 64. One week later, Player again came from seven strokes back in the final round to win the Tournament of Champions. In 1984, at the age of 48 Player nearly became the oldest ever major champion, finishing in second place behind Lee Trevino at the PGA Championship. And in gusty winds at the 1998 Masters, he became the oldest golfer ever to make the cut, breaking the 25-year-old record set by Sam Snead. Player credited this feat to his dedication to the concept of diet, health, practice and golf fitness. \n\nBeing South African, Player never played in the Ryder Cup in which American and European golfers compete against each other. Regarding the event, Player remarked, \"The things I have seen in the Ryder Cup have disappointed me. You are hearing about hatred and war.\" He was no longer an eligible player when the Presidents Cup was established to give international players the opportunity to compete in a similar event, but he was non-playing captain of the International Team for the Presidents Cup in 2003, which was held on a course he designed, The Links at Fancourt, in George, South Africa. After 2003 ended in a tie, he was reappointed as captain for the 2005 Presidents Cup, and his team lost to the Americans 15.5 to 18.5. Both Player and Jack Nicklaus were appointed to captain their respective teams again in 2007 in Canada; the United States won.\n\nLegacy\n\nIn 2000 he was voted \"Sportsman of the Century\" in South Africa. In 1966, Gary Player was awarded the Bob Jones Award, the highest honour given by the United States Golf Association in recognition of distinguished sportsmanship in golf. He was inducted into the World Golf Hall of Fame in 1974. The \"Gary Player – A Global Journey\" exhibition was launched by the Hall of Fame as of March 2006.\n\nIn 2000, Player was ranked as the eighth greatest golfer of all time by Golf Digest magazine. \n\nIn 2002, Player was voted as the second greatest global golfer of all time by a panel of international media, golf magazines and fellow professionals conducted by the leading Golf Asia Magazine.\n\nOn 10 April 2009, he played for the last time in the Masters, where he was playing for his record 52nd time – every year since 1957 except for 1973, when he was recovering from surgery. After Nicklaus and Palmer, he was the last of the Big Three to retire from this tournament, a testament to his longevity.\n\nOn 23 July 2009, at the age of 73, Player competed in the Senior British Open Championship at Sunningdale Golf Club, 53 years after capturing his maiden European Tour victory at the Berkshire venue. \n\nAugusta National Golf Club and the Masters announced on 5 July 2011 that Player had been invited to join Jack Nicklaus and Arnold Palmer as an honorary starter. The Big Three were reunited in this capacity starting with the 2012 tournament. \n\nIn July 2013, he became the oldest athlete ever to pose nude in ESPN The Magazines annual Body Issue to inspire people to keep looking after themselves throughout their lives whatever their age.\n\nGolf course designing\n\nGary Player and Gary Player Design have executed over 300 projects in 35 countries on five continents. They try to build long-term mutually rewarding relationships with clients and display integrity and credibility in business settings. The group proactively provides experienced solutions throughout the intricate development process of a project.\n\nThe company offers three different design brands: Gary Player Design, Player Design, and Black Knight Design. The marketing advantages of each of these brands vary according to the personal participation of Player, as well as the access to different levels of intellectual property. \n\nGary Player Design also upholds a strict environmental policy, which includes minimizing site disturbance, promoting organic applications, and specifying environmentally-sensitive building materials in their golf course design approaches; they are refining efforts in these areas and are using state-of-the-art industry methods.\n\nTheir primary focus, however, is on water, which is one of Gary Player's greatest concerns. According to Player, \"Water conservation techniques are not only our fundamental responsibility, but are important to the industry of golf and the global growth of the wonderful game of golf, as real water-savings also mean real cost-savings.\" With golf accepted back into the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro, Gary Player Design was selected among the finalists of an official RFP in early December 2011.\n\nThe Player Foundation\n\nThe Player Foundation was established in 1983 and began as an effort to provide education, nutrition, medical care and athletic activities, for a small community of disadvantaged children living on the outskirts of Johannesburg, South Africa. The Player Foundation has since blossomed into an organisation that circles the globe bringing aid to underprivileged children and impoverished communities. Since its establishment,The Player Foundation has donated over $50 million to the support of children's charities, the betterment of impoverished communities and the expansion of educational opportunities throughout the world.\n\nThe Foundation is primarily funded by four Gary Player Invitational events presented through Black Knight International and staged in the United States, China, Europe and South Africa annually. The Gary Player Invitational is a pro-am tournament that pairs celebrities and professional golfers from the PGA and Champions Tours with businessmen and other local participants. The proceeds of these tournaments and other special events provide funding for an ever-expanding number of institutions around the world, including the Blair Atholl Schools in South Africa, the Pleasant City Elementary School in Palm Beach, the Masizame Children’s Shelter in Plettenberg Bay, South Africa, and AIDS infected children in Baoshan, a drug-infested city located on the China-Burma border.\n\nProceeds from the Gary Player Invitational have also been donated to The Lord’s Taverners in the UK and the following organisations in South Africa; Wildlands Conservation Trust, Twilight Children, and Bana Development Centre. \n\nControversy\n\nIn July 2007, a media controversy emerged over his statements at The Open Championship golf tournament about the use of performance-enhancing drugs in golf. Subsequently, the PGA Tour introduced a formal policy.\nPlayer has almost always \"spoken his mind\" and been considered a controversial albeit frank and forthright professional golfer. He has been a pioneer of diet, health and fitness although he upset the Atkins Diet organisation by disagreeing with their \"all protein\" approach. He was branded a \"traitor\" by South African Nationalist Government supporters for inviting and bringing both black tennis pro Arthur Ashe and golfer Lee Elder to play in South Africa. He was the first golfer to call for mandatory drug testing on all tours around the world.\n\nPlayer has hosted the Nelson Mandela Invitational golf tournament since 2000. In October 2007, further media controversy arose about his involvement in the 2002 design of a golf course in Burma. As a result of the political uprisings in Burma, the Nelson Mandela Children's Fund withdrew from the fundraising golf tournament because of Player's unsubstantiated business links with the country. Both Nelson Mandela and Archbishop Desmond Tutu accepted Player's position and statements on Burma. Player refused to withdraw as he personally built the golf event from scratch and issued a statement rebutting these claims via his website. The event is now annually staged at the Fancourt Resort as the Gary Player Invitational.\n\nIn June 2016, in an interview with bunkered.co.uk, Player branded a report released by The R&A and USGA which said that driving distance in golf was only increasing minimally as 'laughable' and warned of a 'tsunami coming' due the governing bodies' failure to address issues surrounding new golf technology. \n\nDistinctions and honours\n\nOn 8 June 1961, Player was the guest on NBC's The Ford Show, Starring Tennessee Ernie Ford. In a comedy skit, he gives Tennessee Ernie Ford a golf lesson. \nReceived the 1966 Bob Jones Award from the United States Golf Association.\nNamed Honorary Member of the R&A in 1994.\nReceived Honorary Doctor of Laws Degree from St. Andrews in 1995.\nReceived Honorary Doctor of Science from the University of Ulster, Northern Ireland in 1997\nThe WGC-Bridgestone Invitational trophy is named the Gary Player Cup.\nNamed Honorary Member of Carnoustie in 1999\nReceived Honorary Doctorate in Law, University of Dundee, Scotland in 1999\nSouth African Sportsman of the Century award in 2000\nReceived the 2003 Laureus Lifetime Achievement Award at the Laureus World Sports Awards in Monte Carlo.\nAwarded the Order of Ikhamanga (in gold for exceptional achievement) in 2003 by President Mbeki of South Africa for excellence in golf and contribution to non-racial sport in South Africa.\nHe was the world's first golfer to be featured on any country's postal stamp in South Africa.\nHas designed over 325 golf courses on six continents around the world.\nHe currently plays on the U.S. Champions Tour and European Seniors Tour occasionally.\nHe received the 2006 Payne Stewart Award from the PGA Tour.\nPlayed in his 52nd Masters Tournament at Augusta National in April 2009, extending his record of for most Masters appearances\nInducted into the African American Sports Hall of Fame in May 2007, with Lifetime Achievement Award\nHas played in a record 46 consecutive British Open Championships, winning 3 times over 3 decades.\nStars with Camilo Villegas in a MasterCard \"priceless foursome\" television commercial launched during the U.S. Open in June 2009\nIn November 2009 he was awarded the inaugural Breeders Cup \"Sports and Racing Excellence Award\" at Santa Anita Park in California which honours owners and breeders of thoroughbred race horses.\nWas inducted into the Asian Pacific Golf Hall of Fame with Jack Nicklaus in 2011 at a ceremony in Pattaya, Thailand.\nIn December 2011, Gary Player Design was selected amongst the finalists to design the golf course for the 2016 Olympic Games in Rio de Janeiro\nHe received the PGA Tour Lifetime Achievement Award at The Players Championship in May 2012. The first international person to receive this accolade.\n\nProfessional wins\n\nPGA Tour wins (24)\n\nPGA Tour playoff record (3–10)\n\nMajor championships are shown in bold.\n\nSunshine Tour (73)\n\nPlayer won 165 professional tournaments. This is a list of his other 141 wins in addition to his 24 on the PGA Tour\n\nSouth Africa Tour (now the Sunshine Tour)\n\n73 wins between 1955 and 1981 (64 regular and 9 majors):\nEast Rand Open: 1955, 1956\nGeneral Motors Open: 1971, 1973, 1974, 1975, 1976\nICL International: 1977\nLiquid Air Tournament: 1963\nNatal Open: 1958, 1959, 1960, 1962, 1966, 1968\nNissan Skins Game: 1986, 1988, 1991\nRand International Open: 1974\nRichelieu Grand Prix, Cape Town: 1963\nRichelieu Grand Prix, Johannesburg: 1963\nSouth African Masters: 11 times (1960, 1964, 1967, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1974, 1976, 1977, 1979(x2))\nSouth African Open: 13 times (1956, 1960, 1965, 1966, 1967, 1968, 1969, 1972, 1975, 1976, 1977, 1979, 1981)\nSouth African PGA Championship: 1959, 1969, 1979, 1982\nSponsored 5000: 1963\nSun City Classic: 1979\nTrophee Boigny: 1980\nTransvaal Open: 1959, 1960, 1962, 1963, 1966\nWestern Province Open: 1957, 1959, 1960, 1968, 1971, 1972\nEgyptian Matchplay 1955\n\nPGA Tour of Australasia (18)\n\n18 wins between 1956 and 1981:\nAmpol Tournament: 1956, 1958, 1961\nAustralian Open: A record 7 times (1958, 1962, 1963, 1965, 1969, 1970, 1974). Jack Nicklaus won 6 and Greg Norman 5 times.\nWills Classic: 1961 \nWills Masters: 1968 \nAustralian PGA Championship: 1957\nNorth Coast Open (Coffs Harbour): 1956, 1957\nDunlop International: 1970\nGold Coast Classic: 1981\nVictorian Open: 1959\n\nOther wins (28)\n\n28 wins between 1955 and 1995, including:\nAlfred Dunhill Challenge: 1995\nBrazil Open: 1972, 1974\nChile Open: 1980\nChrysler Cup: 1987\nDunlop Tournament (England): 1956\nFred Meyer Challenge: 1986 (team with Greg Norman, tied with Peter Jacobsen and Curtis Strange)\nPGA Grand Slam of Golf - 1979 (tie with Andy North)\nIbergolf Tournament (Spain): 1974\nJapan Air Lines Open (Japan): 1972\nJohnnie Walker Trophy (Spain): 1984\nLa Manga Tournament (Spain): 1974\nNTL Challenge Cup (Canada): 1965\nPiccadilly World Match Play Championship: 1965, 1966, 1968, 1971, 1973 (unofficial money event)\nSkins Game: 1983\nTrophée Lancôme: 1975\nWestern Australia Open: 1956\nWorld Cup: (x3) Team event 1965, individual title in 1965, 1977\nWorld Series of Golf: 1965, 1968, 1972 (unofficial money event)\nYomiuri Open (Japan): 1961\n\nChampions Tour wins (19)\n\nChampions Tour playoff record (4–2)\n\nSenior majors are shown in bold. See \"Other senior wins\" below for Player's wins in the Senior British Open.\n\nEuropean Senior Tour and other wins (12)\n\n1987 Northville Invitational (United States), German PGA Team Championship\n1988 Senior British Open (European Seniors Tour),\n1990 Senior British Open (European Seniors Tour)\n1993 Irish Senior Masters (European Seniors Tour)\n1997 Dai-ichi Seimei Cup (Japan), Senior British Open (European Seniors Tour), Shell Wentworth Senior Masters (European Seniors Tour),\n2000 Senior Skins Game (U.S. – unofficial event)\n2005 Nelson Mandela Invitational (Sunshine Tour – unofficial event)\n2009 Liberty Mutual Legends of Golf – Demaret Division (with Bob Charles)\n2010 Liberty Mutual Legends of Golf – Demaret Division (with Bob Charles)\n\nThe Senior British Open is shown in bold as it is generally recognised as a major and it is now an official Champions Tour event and major. However, it was not an official Champions Tour event when Player achieved his wins, and in contrast to early wins in regular British Opens by PGA Tour members, which are now included in their official PGA Tour win tallies, wins in early Senior British Opens by Champions Tour members have not been retrospectively designated as Champions Tour wins by the PGA Tour at this time. The Senior British Open is however recognised as a major by all other international bodies, such as the European Tour, Sunshine Tour, Japanese Tour and Asian Tour.\n\nMajor championships\n\nWins (9)\n\n1 Defeated Kel Nagle in 18-hole playoff – Player 71 (+1), Nagle 74 (+4).\n\nResults timeline\n\nDNP = Did not play\nWD = Withdrew\nCUT = missed the half-way cut\n\"T\" indicates a tie for a place\nGreen background for wins. Yellow background for top-10\n\nSummary\n\nMost consecutive cuts made – 37 (1970 PGA – 1980 Masters)\nLongest streak of top-10s – 6 (1962 PGA – 1964 Masters)\n\nChampions Tour major championships\n\nWins (6)\n\n1 Won in an 18-hole playoff, Player (68) to Charles (70).\n\nResults timeline\n\n1The Senior Open Championship was not a Champions Tour major until 2003, though it was on the European Seniors Tour. Player won the event three times prior to this recognition.\n\nDNP = Did not play\nCUT = Missed the half-way cut\nNYF = Tournament not yet founded\n\"T\" = tied\nGreen background for wins. Yellow background for top-10.\n\nEquipment \n\nDriver: Callaway RAZR Fit \nFairway woods: Strong 4, 5 and 9 Callaway Steelhead Woods\nHybrid: Callaway Heavenwood 4H\nIrons: 5-PW X-Tour Callaway\nSand wedges: 56 Degree and 64 Degree X-Tour Callaway\nPutter: Odyssey Whitehot #1\nBall: Callaway HX Tour\n\nTeam appearances\n\nWorld Cup (representing South Africa): 1956, 1957, 1958, 1959, 1960, 1962, 1963, 1964, 1965 (winners, individual winner), 1966, 1967, 1968, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1977 (individual winner)\nSlazenger Trophy (representing British Commonwealth and Empire): 1956\nDunhill Cup (representing South Africa): 1991", "The Open Championship, often referred to as The Open or the British Open, is the oldest of the four major championships in professional golf. Held in the United Kingdom, it is administered by The R&A and is the only major outside the United States. The Open is currently the third major of the year, between the U.S. Open and the PGA Championship, and is played in mid-July.\n\nThe current champion is Henrik Stenson, who won the 145th Open at Royal Troon in 2016 with a record-breaking score of −20.\n\nHistory\n\nThe Open was first played on 17 October 1860 at Prestwick Golf Club in Scotland. The inaugural tournament was restricted to professionals and attracted a field of eight golfers who played three rounds of Prestwick's twelve-hole course in a single day. Willie Park Sr. won with a score of 174, beating Old Tom Morris, by two strokes. The following year the tournament was opened to amateurs; eight of them joined ten professionals in the field. \n\nJames Ogilvie Fairlie was the principal organiser of the first Open Championship held at Prestwick in 1860. With the untimely death of Allan Robertson, aged 43 in 1859, Prestwick members decided to conduct a challenge the following year that would determine the land’s greatest golfer. In a proposed competition for a \"Challenge Belt\", Fairlie sent out a series of letters to Blackheath, Perth, Edinburgh, Musselburgh and St Andrews, inviting a player known as a \"respectable caddie\" to represent each of the clubs in a tournament to be held on 17 October 1860.\n\nOriginally, the trophy presented to the event's winner was the Challenge Belt, a red leather belt with a silver buckle. The Challenge Belt was retired in 1870, when Young Tom Morris was allowed to keep it for winning the tournament three consecutive times. Because no trophy was available, the tournament was cancelled in 1871. In 1872, after Young Tom Morris won again for a fourth time in a row, he was awarded a medal. The present trophy, The Golf Champion Trophy, better known by its popular name of the Claret Jug, was then created.\n\nPrestwick administered The Open from 1860 to 1870. In 1871, it agreed to organise it jointly with The Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St Andrews and The Honourable Company of Edinburgh Golfers. In 1892 the event was doubled in length from 36 to 72 holes, four rounds of what was by then the standard complement of 18 holes. The 1894 Open was the first held outside Scotland, at the Royal St George's Golf Club in England. Because of an increasing number of entrants, a cut was introduced after two rounds in 1898. In 1920 full responsibility for The Open Championship was handed over to The Royal & Ancient Golf Club.\n\nThe early winners were all Scottish professionals, who in those days worked as greenkeepers, clubmakers, and caddies to supplement their modest winnings from championships and challenge matches. The Open has always been dominated by professionals, with only six victories by amateurs, all of which occurred between 1890 and 1930. The last of these was Bobby Jones' third Open and part of his celebrated Grand Slam. Jones was one of six Americans who won The Open between the First and Second World Wars, the first of whom had been Walter Hagen in 1922. These Americans and the French winner of the 1907 Open, Arnaud Massy, were the only winners from outside Scotland and England up to 1939.\n\nThe first post-World War II winner was the American Sam Snead, in 1946. In 1947, Northern Ireland's Fred Daly was victorious. While there have been many English and Scottish champions, Daly was the only winner from Ireland until the 2007 victory by Pádraig Harrington. There has never been a Welsh champion. In the early postwar years The Open was dominated by golfers from the Commonwealth, with South African Bobby Locke and Australian Peter Thomson winning the Claret Jug in eight of the 11 championships from 1948 and 1958 between them. During this period, The Open often had a schedule conflict with the match-play PGA Championship, which meant that Ben Hogan, the best American golfer at this time, competed in The Open just once, in 1953 at Carnoustie, a tournament he won.\n\nAnother South African, Gary Player was Champion in 1959. This was at the beginning of the \"Big Three\" era in professional golf, the three players in question being Player, Arnold Palmer, and Jack Nicklaus. Palmer first competed in 1960, when he came second to the little-known Australian Kel Nagle, but he won the next two years. While he was far from being the first American to become Open Champion, he was the first that many Americans saw win the tournament on television, and his charismatic success is often credited with persuading leading American golfers to make The Open an integral part of their schedule, rather than an optional extra. The improvement of trans-Atlantic travel also increased American participation.\n\nNicklaus' victories came in 1966, 1970, and 1978. Although his tally of three wins is the least of his majors, it greatly understates how prominent Nicklaus was at the Open throughout the 1960s and 1970s. He finished runner-up seven times, which is the record and had a total of sixteen top-5 finishes, which is tied most in Open history with John Henry Taylor and easily the most in the postwar era. Nicklaus also holds the records for most rounds under par (61) and most aggregates under par (14). At Turnberry in 1977 he was involved in one of the most celebrated contests in golf history, when his duel with Tom Watson went to the final shot before Watson emerged as the champion for the second time with a record score of 268 (12 under par).\n\nWatson won five Opens, more than anyone else has since the 1950s, but his final win in 1983 brought down the curtain on an era of U.S. domination. In the next 11 years there was only one American winner, with the others coming from Europe and the Commonwealth. The European winners of this era, Spaniard Seve Ballesteros, Sandy Lyle, who was the first Scottish winner in over half a century, and the Englishman Nick Faldo, were also leading lights among the group of players who began to get the better of the Americans in the Ryder Cup during this period.\n\nIn 1995, John Daly's playoff win over Italian Costantino Rocca began another era of American domination. Tiger Woods has won three Championships to date, two at St Andrews in 2000 and 2005, and one at Hoylake in 2006. There was a dramatic moment at St Andrews in 2000, as the ageing Jack Nicklaus waved farewell to the crowds, while the young challenger to his crown watched from a nearby tee. Nicklaus later decided to play in The Open for one final time in 2005, when the R&A announced St Andrews as the venue, giving his final farewell to the fans at the Home of Golf.\n\nThere have also been wins by previously little known golfers, including Paul Lawrie's playoff win after the 72nd-hole collapse of Jean van de Velde in 1999, Ben Curtis in 2003 and Todd Hamilton in 2004.\n\nIn 2007, the Europeans finally broke an eight-year drought in the majors when Pádraig Harrington of Ireland defeated Sergio García by one stroke in a four-hole playoff at Carnoustie. Harrington retained the Championship in 2008.\n\nIn 2009, 59-year-old Tom Watson turned in one of the most remarkable performances ever seen at The Open. Leading the tournament through 71 holes and needing just a par on the last hole to become the oldest ever winner of a major championship, Watson bogeyed, setting up a four-hole playoff, which he would lose to Stewart Cink.\n\nIn 2013, Phil Mickelson won his first Open Championship at Muirfield. His victory meant that he had won 3 of the 4 majors in pursuit of the career grand slam, just needing the U.S. Open, where he has finished runner-up six times.\n\nIn 2015, Zach Johnson denied Jordan Spieth his chance of winning the Grand Slam by winning an aggregate playoff over Louis Oosthuizen and Marc Leishman at the Old Course at St Andrews.\n\nFormat\n\nThe Open is a 72-hole stroke play tournament contested over four days, Thursday through Sunday. Since 1979 it has been played in the week which includes the 3rd Friday in July. Currently, 156 players are in the field, mostly made up of the world's leading professionals, who are given exemptions, along with winners of the top amateur championships. Further places are given to players, amateurs and professionals, who are successful in a number of qualifying events. There is a cut after 36 holes after which only the leading 70 players (and ties) play in the final 36 holes on the weekend. In the event of a tie after 72 holes, a four-hole aggregate playoff is held; if two or more players are still tied, it continues as sudden-death until there is a winner.\n\nTimeline of format changes\n\n1860: Contested over 36 holes, played on a single day\n1892: Extended to 72 holes, played over two days\n1898: Cut introduced after 36 holes. Those 20 or more strokes behind the leader were excluded\n1904: Extended to a third day with 18 holes on each of the first two days. Cut rule unchanged\n1905: Cut rule changed to exclude those 15 or more strokes behind the leader\n1907: Qualifying introduced, replacing the 36-hole cut and the contest reduced again to two days\n1910: Cut reintroduced instead of qualifying, play being extended to three days again. Top 60 and ties made the cut.\n1911: With an increase in the number of entries, the first two rounds were spread over three days, with 36 holes on the fourth day\n1912: Qualifying reintroduced to replace the cut. Contest reduced again to two days\n1926: Cut reintroduced. First Open with both qualifying and a cut. Extended again to a third day with 18 holes on the first two days. Those 15 or more strokes behind the leader were excluded from the final day. Days standardised as Wednesday to Friday\n1929: Cut rule changed to ensure that at least 60 made the cut even if 15 or more strokes behind the leader\n1930: Cut rule changed to top 60 and ties\n1937: Cut rule changed to top 40 and ties\n1938: Cut rule changed to be a maximum of 40 players. Ties for 40th place did not make the cut\n1939: Cut rule changed to be a maximum of 44 players. Ties for 44th place did not make the cut\n1946: Cut rule changed to be a maximum of 40 players. Ties for 40th place did not make the cut\n1951: Cut rule changed to be a maximum of 50 players. Ties for 50th place did not make the cut\n1957: Leaders after 36 holes go off last, replacing the random draw\n1963: Cut rule changed to top 45 and ties\n1964: Playoff reduced from 36 holes to 18, followed by sudden-death if still level\n1966: Play extended to four days, 18 holes per day from Wednesday to Saturday. Cut rule changed to top 55 and ties\n1968: Cut rule changed to top 70 and ties after 36 holes and then top 45 and ties after 54 holes\n1970: Cut rule changed to top 80 and ties after 36 holes and then top 55 and ties after 54 holes\n1971: Cut rule changed to top 80 and ties after 36 holes and then top 60 and ties after 54 holes\n1973: Play in groups of three introduced for the first two rounds\n1974: Use of \"bigger ball\" () made compulsory\n1978: \"10-shot rule\" introduced so that players within 10 shots of the leader make the cut even if outside the top 80/60\n1980: Play from Thursday to Sunday\n1986: 54-hole cut discontinued. Cut rule changed to top 70 and ties after 36 holes. Four-hole playoff introduced\n1996: \"10-shot rule\" dropped\n\nTrophies and medals\n\nThere are a number of medals and trophies that are, or have been, given for various achievements during The Open.\nThe Challenge Belt – awarded to the winner from 1860 until 1870, when Young Tom Morris won the belt outright by winning the Championship three years in a row.\nThe Golf Champion Trophy (commonly known as the Claret Jug) – replaced the Challenge Belt and has been awarded to the winner since 1873 although Young Tom Morris, the winner in 1872, is the first name engraved on it.\nGold medal – awarded to the winner. First given out in 1872 when the Claret Jug was not yet ready, and since awarded to all champions.\nSilver medal – awarded since 1949 to the leading amateur completing the final round.\nBronze medal – awarded since 1972 to all other amateurs completing the final round.\n\nThe Professional Golfers' Association of Great Britain and Ireland also mark the achievements of their own members in The Open.\nRyle Memorial Medal – awarded since 1901 to the winner if he is a PGA member. \nBraid Taylor Memorial Medal – awarded since 1966 to the highest finishing PGA member. \nTooting Bec Cup – awarded since 1924 to the PGA member who records the lowest single round during the championship. \n\nThe Braid Taylor Memorial Medal and the Tooting Bec Cup are restricted to members born in, or with a parent or parents born in, the UK or Republic of Ireland.\n\nHost courses\n\nThe common factor in the venues is links courses. The Open has always been played in Scotland and northwest, southeast England, along with one course in Northern Ireland which will again stage the competition in 2019.\n\nFrom 1860 to 1870 The Open was organised by and played at Prestwick Golf Club. From its revival in 1872 until 1891 it was played on three courses in rotation: Prestwick, The Old Course at St Andrews, and Musselburgh Links. In 1892 the newly built Muirfield replaced Musselburgh in the rotation. In 1893 two English courses, Royal St George's and Royal Liverpool Golf Club, Hoylake, were invited to join the rotation with Royal St George's being allocated the 1894 Open and Royal Liverpool having the 1897 event. At a meeting in 1907 Royal Cinque Ports Golf Club became the sixth course on the rota, being allocated the 1909 Open. With three courses in both England and Scotland, the meeting also agreed that the Championship was to be played in England and Scotland alternately. The alternation of venues in England and Scotland continued until the Second World War.\n\nThe rotation of the six courses was reinstated after the First World War with Royal Cinque Ports hosting the first post-war Open in 1920. It had been chosen as the venue for the cancelled 1915 Open. In 1923 Troon was used instead of Muirfield when \"some doubts exists as to the Honourable Company of Edinburgh Golfers being desirous of their course being used for the event\". Muirfield returned as the venue in 1929. Serious overcrowding problems at Prestwick in 1925 meant that the course was never again used for the Open and was replaced by Carnoustie as the third Scottish course. While Royal St George's and Royal Liverpool continued to be used at six year intervals the third English course varied. After Royal Cinque Ports in 1920, Royal Lytham was used in 1926 and then Prince's in 1932. Royal Cinque Ports was intended as the venue in 1938 but in February of that year abnormal high tides caused severe flooding to the course leaving it like \"an inland sea several feet deep\" and the venue was switched to Royal St George's. Birkdale was chosen as the venue for 1940, although the event was cancelled because of the Second World War. \n\nThere are nine courses in the current rota, four in Scotland, four in England and one in Northern Ireland. In recent times the Old Course has hosted the Open every five years. The remaining courses host the Open roughly every 10 years but the gaps between hosting Opens may be longer or shorter than this. In 2014, it was announced by The R&A that Royal Portrush was returning to the active rota and in October 2015 Portrush was confirmed as the venue for the 2019 Open. \n\nThe most recent course to be removed from the active rota was Muirfield in May 2016, following the The Honourable Company of Edinburgh Golfers refusal to permit female members to join their club. \n\nFrom 1894 (when it was first played in England) to 2016, it has been played 62 times in Scotland, 49 times in England and once in Northern Ireland. It was not until 2011 and 2012 that England hosted consecutive Opens.\n\nFuture venues\n\nQualification\n\nThe field for the Open is 156, and golfers gain a place in a number of ways. Most of the field is made up of leading players who are given exemptions. Further places are given to players who are successful in The Open Qualifying Series and in Final Qualifying. Any remaining places, and places made available because qualified players are not competing, are made available to the highest ranked players in the Official World Golf Ranking.\n\nThere are currently 26 exemption categories. Among the more significant are:\n\nThe top 50 on the Official World Golf Ranking. This category means that no member of the current elite of world golf will be excluded.\nThe top 30 in the previous season's European Tour Race to Dubai and the PGA Tour FedEx Cup. Most of these players will also be in the World top 50.\nAll previous Open Champions who will be age 60 or under on the final day of the tournament. Each year a number of past champions choose not to compete.\nAll players who have won one of the other three majors in the previous five years.\nThe top 10 from the previous year's Open Championship.\nThe winners of The Amateur Championship and the U.S. Amateur (provided the winners maintain their amateur status prior to the tournament).\n\nInternational qualifying is through the \"Open Qualifying Series\" which consists of ten events played outside the United Kingdom. A pre-allocated number of places are made available at these events (from 1 to 4) which are given to the leading players in those events who are not, at that point, qualified for the Open, provided they finish in a high-enough position. A total of 32 places are available.\n\nLocal qualifying was the traditional way for non-exempt players to win a place at The Open. In recent years it has comprised a number of \"Regional Qualifying\" competitions around Britain and Ireland with successful competitors, joined by those players exempt from regional qualifying, playing four 36-hole \"Final Qualifying\" tournaments. There are 12 places available through Final Qualifying, three at each of the four venues.\n\nTimeline of qualification changes\n\nUp to 1920 a variety of qualification systems were used. From 1921 to 1962 (except 1926) local qualifying was used. All those who entered played 18 holes on one of two courses and then played 18 holes on the other course the following day. Qualifying took place immediately before the Championship itself. In 1963 a system of exemptions for the leading players was introduced with local qualifying continuing for the remaining players. Since then a large number of changes have been made to the exemption criteria and to the qualifying system for the remaining players.\n\n1907: Qualifying introduced for the first time. Players play 36 holes on one of two days. Top 30 and ties qualify on each day\n1908: Players play on either the first morning and second afternoon or the first afternoon and second morning. Top 30 and ties qualify from each group\n1909: Same but each of the two groups has to contain at least 30 professionals\n1910: Qualifying dropped\n1912: Qualifying reintroduced. Players play 36 holes on one of three days. Top 20 and ties qualify on each day\n1914. Qualifying over two days using two courses. Exactly 100 players qualify. 18-hole playoff the following day for those tied for final places. This was the first occasion on which qualifying did not take place on the championship course.\n1920: Separate qualifying for amateur and professionals. Amateurs qualify at the Open venue (total of 8 places with the Amateur Champion receiving automatic entry). Professionals qualified using two courses in Surrey. Top 72 and ties qualify\n1921: Local qualifying reintroduced using two courses. Generally the Championship course is used together with a nearby course. Top 80 and ties qualify\n1926: Regional qualifying used. Total of 101 and ties qualify at one of three venues (southern, central, northern)\n1927: Local qualifying reintroduced. Top 100 and ties qualify\n1937: Top 140 and ties qualify\n1938: Maximum of 130 players qualify. Ties for 130th place did not qualify\n1946: Maximum of 100 players qualify. Ties for 100th place did not qualify\n1961: Maximum of 120 players qualify. Ties for 120th place did not qualify\n1963: Exemption from qualifying introduced for the leading players including past 10 Open champions. Local qualifying continues for the remainder of the field but now two separate competitions are held with a preallocated number of places available. Two courses near the Open venue are used but not the Open venue itself. Playoff for those tied for final places. Total of 120 qualify\n1965: Total of 130 qualify\n1968: Exemption extended all previous Open champions\n1971: Total of 150 qualify\n1984: Exemption for previous Open champions aged under 65\n1995: Exemption for previous Open champions extended to those aged 65 or under\n2004: International Final Qualifying introduced\n2008: Exemption for previous Open champions restricted to those aged 60 or under (with transitional arrangement for those born between 1942 and 1948)\n2014: Open Qualifying Series introduced replacing International Final Qualifying\n\nTournament name\n\nIn Britain the tournament is best known by its official title, The Open Championship. The British media generally refer to it as the Open (with \"the\" in lower case) or as The Open Championship (with each word capitalized).\n\nOutside the UK, the tournament is generally called the British Open, in part to distinguish the tournament from another of the four majors that has an 'open' format, the U.S. Open, but mainly because other nations with similar 'open' format golf events refer to their own nation's open event as \"the Open\". Until 2014, the PGA Tour referred to the tournament as the British Open, and many American media outlets continue to do so. However, in 2014, with the new Open Qualifying Series that selects players for the Open through finishes earned in various PGA Tour events, the PGA Tour has taken to referring to the event as The Open Championship for the first time. U.S. television rights-holder ESPN/ABC referred to the event as the British Open until 2004. For the 2005 event at St Andrews, ESPN/ABC began referring to the tournament as The Open Championship, and have done so ever since, with Golf Channel and NBC continuing to acknowledge the same upon the assumption of American rights in 2016.\n\nTour status\n\nIt has been an official event on the PGA Tour since 1995, which means that the prize money won in The Open by PGA Tour members is included on the official money list. In addition, all Open Championships before 1995 have been retroactively classified as PGA Tour wins, and the list of leading winners on the PGA Tour has been adjusted to reflect this. The European Tour has recognised The Open as an official event since its first official season in 1972 and it is also an official money event on the Japan Golf Tour.\n\nPrize money\n\nThe 2015 Open had a total prize money fund of £6.3 million and a first prize of £1.15 million. At the time of the Open these equated to about $9.8 million and $1.8 million respectively. The other three major championships in 2015 had prize money of $10.0 million and first prizes of $1.8 million, so that all four majors had similar prize money. Prize money is given to all professionals who make the cut and, since the number of professionals making the cut changes from year to year, the total prize money varies somewhat from the advertised number (currently £6.3 million).\n\nIn 2016 the total prize money fund was £6.5 million with a first prize of £1.175 million. This equated to about $8.6 million and $1.55 million respectively at the time of the Open. The other majors had prize money of at least $10.0 million and first prizes of at least $1.8 million. The relative decline in prize money, in dollar terms, was attributable to a fall in the £/$ exchange rate.\n\nThere was no prize money in the first three Opens. In 1863, a prize fund of £10 was introduced, which was shared between the second- third- and fourth-placed professionals, with the champion keeping the belt for a year. Old Tom Morris won the first champion's cash prize of £6 in 1864.\n\nRecords\n\nOldest winner: Old Tom Morris (), 1867.\nYoungest winner: Young Tom Morris (), 1868. \nMost victories: 6, Harry Vardon (1896, 1898, 1899, 1903, 1911, 1914).\nMost consecutive victories: 4, Young Tom Morris (1868, 1869, 1870, 1872 – there was no championship in 1871).\nLowest score after 36 holes: 130, Nick Faldo (66-64), 1992; Brandt Snedeker (66-64), 2012\nLowest final score (72 holes): 264, Henrik Stenson (68-65-68-63, 264), 2016.\nLowest final score (72 holes) in relation to par: −20, Henrik Stenson (68-65-68-63, 264), 2016.\nGreatest victory margin: 13 strokes, Old Tom Morris, 1862. This remained a record for all majors until 2000, when Woods won the U.S. Open by 15 strokes at Pebble Beach. Old Tom's 13-stroke margin was achieved over just 36 holes.\nLowest round: 63 – Mark Hayes, 2nd round, 1977; Isao Aoki, 3rd, 1980; Greg Norman, 2nd, 1986; Paul Broadhurst, 3rd, 1990; Jodie Mudd, 4th, 1991; Nick Faldo, 2nd, 1993; Payne Stewart, 4th, 1993; Rory McIlroy, 1st, 2010, Phil Mickelson, 1st, 2016; Henrik Stenson. 4th, 2016\nLowest round in relation to par: −9, Paul Broadhurst, 3rd, 1990; Rory McIlroy, 1st, 2010.\nWire-to-wire winners (after 72 holes with no ties after rounds): Ted Ray in 1912, Bobby Jones in 1927, Gene Sarazen in 1932, Henry Cotton in 1934, Tom Weiskopf in 1973, Tiger Woods in 2005, and Rory McIlroy in 2014. \nMost runner-up finishes: 7, Jack Nicklaus (1964, 1967, 1968, 1972, 1976, 1977, 1979)\n\nChampions\n\n(a) denotes amateur\n\"Dates\" column includes all days on which play took place or was planned to take place, including any playoffs\n\nSilver Medal winners\n\nSince 1949, the Silver Medal is awarded to the leading amateur, provided that the player completes all 72 holes. In the 68 Championships from 1949 to 2016, it has been won by 43 players on 49 occasions. Frank Stranahan won it four times in the first five years (and was also the low amateur in 1947), while Joe Carr, Michael Bonallack and Peter McEvoy each won it twice. The medal has gone unawarded 19 times.\n\n 1949 – Frank Stranahan\n* 1950 – Frank Stranahan (2)\n* 1951 – Frank Stranahan (3)\n* 1952 – Jackie Jones\n* 1953 – Frank Stranahan (4)\n* 1954 – Peter Toogood\n* 1955 – Joe Conrad\n* 1956 – Joe Carr\n* 1957 – Dickson Smith\n* 1958 – Joe Carr (2)\n* 1959 – Reid Jack\n* 1960 – Guy Wolstenholme\n* 1961 – Ronnie White\n* 1962 – Charlie Green\n* 1963 – none\n* 1964 – none\n* 1965 – Michael Burgess\n* 1966 – Ronnie Shade\n* 1967 – none\n* 1968 – Michael Bonallack\n* 1969 – Peter Tupling\n* 1970 – Steve Melnyk\n* 1971 – Michael Bonallack (2)\n* 1972 – none\n* 1973 – Danny Edwards\n* 1974 – none\n* 1975 – none\n* 1976 – none\n* 1977 – none\n* 1978 – Peter McEvoy\n* 1979 – Peter McEvoy (2)\n* 1980 – Jay Sigel\n* 1981 – Hal Sutton\n* 1982 – Malcolm Lewis\n* 1983 – none\n* 1984 – none\n* 1985 – José María Olazábal\n* 1986 – none\n* 1987 – Paul Mayo\n* 1988 – Paul Broadhurst\n* 1989 – Russell Claydon\n* 1990 – none\n* 1991 – Jim Payne\n* 1992 – Daren Lee\n* 1993 – Iain Pyman\n* 1994 – Warren Bennett\n* 1995 – Steve Webster\n* 1996 – Tiger Woods\n* 1997 – Barclay Howard\n* 1998 – Justin Rose\n* 1999 – none\n* 2000 – none\n* 2001 – David Dixon\n* 2002 – none\n* 2003 – none\n* 2004 – Stuart Wilson\n* 2005 – Lloyd Saltman\n* 2006 – Marius Thorp\n* 2007 – Rory McIlroy\n* 2008 – Chris Wood\n* 2009 – Matteo Manassero\n* 2010 – Jin Jeong\n* 2011 – Tom Lewis\n* 2012 – none\n* 2013 – Matthew Fitzpatrick\n* 2014 – none\n* 2015 – Jordan Niebrugge\n* 2016 – none\n\nBroadcasting\n\nAs of 2016, European Tour Productions serves as the host broadcaster for the Open Championship. The host broadcaster, as well as British and American broadcasters Sky Sports and NBC Sports, utilized a total of 175 cameras during the 2016 tournament. \n\nUnited Kingdom \n\nIn the United Kingdom, the Open Championship was previously broadcast by the BBC—a relationship which lasted from 1955 to 2015. The BBC's rights to the Open had been threatened by the event's removal from Category A of Ofcom's \"listed\" events, which previously mandated that the tournament be covered in its entirety by a terrestrial broadcaster. It had since been moved to Category B, meaning that television rights to the tournament could now be acquired by a pay television outlet, such as BT Sport or Sky Sports, but must have highlights broadcast on terrestrial television. \n\nFormer R&A chief executive Peter Dawson had been critical of the quality of the BBC's television coverage, stating alongside its final renewal in 2010 that \"They know we've got our eye on them. You have to stay in practice and keep up with advances in technology.\" The Guardian felt that the R&A was being \"pressured\" to negotiate a more lucrative broadcast deal, as with the other three US-based majors, but also argued that viewer interest in golf could face further declines in the UK without widely-available coverage. \n\nOn 3 February 2015, the R&A announced that Sky Sports had acquired broadcast rights to the Open beginning in 2017, under a five-year contract valued at £15 million per-year, doubling the value of the previous BBC contract. As required by law, rights to broadcast a nightly highlights programme were also sold: the BBC acquired this highlights package. Dawson praised Sky Sports' past involvement with televised golf, explaining that \"the way people consume live sport is changing significantly and this new agreement ensures fans have a range of options for enjoying the championship on television and through digital channels\". The BBC chose to opt out of the final year of its existing contract, making Sky Sports' broadcast rights begin one year early, in 2016.\n\nUnited States \n\nIn the United States, ABC had historically held rights to the Open. Beginning in 2010 under an eight-year agreement, the Open moved exclusively to pay television channel ESPN, with only highlights shown on ABC. In June 2015, it was announced that NBC Sports and Golf Channel would acquire rights to the Open Championship under a 12-year deal beginning in 2017. Similarly to the BBC, ESPN chose to opt out of its final year of Open rights, causing NBC's rights to begin in 2016 instead.\n\nNotes and references" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "1970s (decade)", "The '70s", "1970's", "1970–1979", "Seventies", "1974-1975", "1970s", "‘70s", "The Seventies", "Nineteen-seventies", "Nineteen seventies", "'70s", "1973-1974", "'70's", "70's", "1970’s", "70s", "1970-1979" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "1974 1975", "1970s", "70 s", "1970s decade", "1970 1979", "1970–1979", "1970 s", "seventies", "1973 1974", "nineteen seventies", "70s" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "70s", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "70s" }
Sarah FitzGerald has been a 90s world champion in which sport?	tc_278	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Sarah_Fitz-Gerald.txt", "Olympic_sports.txt" ], "title": [ "Sarah Fitz-Gerald", "Olympic sports" ], "wiki_context": [ "Sarah Elizabeth Fitz-Gerald AM (born 1 December 1968) is an Australian women's squash player who won five World Open titles – 1996, 1997, 1998, 2001 and 2002. She ranks alongside Janet Morgan, Nicol David, Susan Devoy, Michelle Martin and Heather McKay as the sport's greatest players.\n\nCareer\n\nSarah was born in Melbourne, Australia, a hotspot for squash talent. In 1987 she won the female World Junior Championship and was the Australian Junior Female Athlete of the Year. It was also during this year that she represented Australia at the 1987 Women's World Team Squash Championships finishing runner-up to England. In 1992 she was selected once again to represent Australia in the 1992 Women's World Team Squash Championships and this time Australia became the world champions. Remarkably Fitzgerald would go on to win a total of seven World Team Championships.\n\nShe won numerous titles in the early 1990s, but 1996 proved to be her breakthrough year. She beat England's Cassie Jackman in the World Open Final. The next two years she beat the resurgent Michelle Martin in successive finals.\n\nThe next two years did not bring the same level of success, owing largely to knee surgery. In 2000 she lost an epic semi-final against Carol Owens. However, she came back in 2001 to beat New Zealand's Leilani Joyce emphatically 9–0, 9–3, 9–2.\n\n2002 saw her win her last World Open, beating Natalie Pohrer 10–8, 9–3, 7–9, 9–7. She also won a gold medal at the 2002 Commonwealth Games in Manchester, England.\n\nIn January 2004, Sarah was awarded the Member of the Order of Australia (AM) for her achievements and services to women's squash, and the promotion of sport and a healthy lifestyle. She was Chairwoman and President of the Women's International Squash Players Association from 1991 to 2002. In 2010, she was inducted into the Sport Australia Hall of Fame. \n\nCareer statistics\n\nProfessional Tour Titles (66)\n\nAll Results for Sarah Fitzgerald in WISPA World's Tour tournament[http://www.squashinfo.com/player-719 SquashInfo: Sarah Fitz-Gerald]", "Olympic sports are sports contested in the Summer and Winter Olympic Games. The 2012 Summer Olympics included 26 sports, with two additional sports due to be added to the 2016 Summer Olympics. The 2014 Winter Olympics included seven sports. The number and kinds of events may change slightly from one Olympiad to another. Each Olympic sport is represented by an international governing body, namely an International Federation (IF). The International Olympic Committee (IOC) establishes a hierarchy of sports, disciplines, and events. According to this hierarchy, the Olympic sports can be subdivided into multiple disciplines, which are often assumed to be distinct sports. Examples include swimming and water polo (disciplines of Aquatics, represented by the International Swimming Federation), or figure skating and speed skating (disciplines of Skating, represented by the International Skating Union). In their turn, disciplines can be subdivided into events, for which medals are actually awarded. A sport or discipline is included in the Olympic program if the IOC determines it is widely practiced around the world, that is, the number of countries that compete in a given sport is the indicator of the sport's prevalence. The IOC's requirements reflect participation in the Olympic Games as well—more stringent toward men (as they are represented in higher numbers) and Summer sports (as more nations compete in the Summer Olympics).\n\nPrevious Olympic Games included sports which are no longer present on the current program, like polo and tug of war. These sports, known as \"discontinued sports\", were later removed either because of lack of interest or absence of an appropriate governing body. Archery and tennis are examples of sports that were competed at the early Games and were later dropped by the IOC, but managed to return to the Olympic program (in 1972 and 1988, respectively). Demonstration sports have often been included in the Olympic Games, usually to promote a local sport from the host country or to gauge interest and support for the sport. Some such sports, like baseball and curling, were added to the official Olympic program (in 1992 and 1998, respectively). Baseball, however, was discontinued after the 2008 Summer Olympics.\n\nOlympic sports definitions\n\nThe term \"sport\" in Olympic terminology refers to all the events that are sanctioned by one international sport federation, a definition that may be different from the common meaning of the word sport. One sport, by Olympic definition, may be divided into several disciplines, which are often regarded as separate sports in common language.\n\nFor example: Aquatics is a summer Olympic sport that includes six disciplines: Swimming, synchronized swimming, diving, water polo, open water swimming, and high diving (the last of which is a non-Olympic discipline), since all these disciplines are governed at international level by the International Swimming Federation. Skating is a winter Olympic sport represented by the International Skating Union, and includes four disciplines: figure skating, speed skating (on a traditional long track), short track speed skating and synchronized skating (the latter is a non-Olympic discipline). The sport with the largest number of Olympic disciplines is skiing, with six: alpine skiing, cross-country skiing, ski jumping, nordic combined, snowboarding and freestyle skiing.\n\nOther notable multi-discipline sports are gymnastics (artistic, rhythmic and trampoline), cycling (road, track, mountain and BMX), volleyball (indoors and beach), wrestling (freestyle and Greco-Roman), canoeing (flatwater and slalom) and bobsleigh (includes skeleton). The disciplines listed here are only those contested in the Olympics—gymnastics has two non-Olympic disciplines, while cycling and wrestling have three each.\n\nIt should also be noted that the IOC definition of a \"discipline\" may differ from that used by an international federation. For example, the IOC considers artistic gymnastics a single discipline, but the International Federation of Gymnastics (FIG) classifies men's and women's artistic gymnastics as separate disciplines. Similarly, the IOC considers freestyle wrestling to be a single discipline, but United World Wrestling uses \"freestyle wrestling\" strictly for the men's version, classifying women's freestyle wrestling as the separate discipline of \"female wrestling\". \n\nOn some occasions, notably in the case of snowboarding, the IOC agreed to add sports which previously had a separate international federation to the Olympics on condition that they dissolve their governing body and instead affiliate with an existing Olympic sport federation, therefore not increasing the number of Olympic sports.\n\nAn event, by IOC definition, is a competition that leads to the award of medals. Therefore, the sport of aquatics includes a total of 46 Olympic events, of which 32 are in the discipline of swimming, eight in diving, and two each in synchronized swimming, water polo, and open water swimming. The number of events per sport ranges from a minimum of two (until 2008 there were sports with only one event) to a maximum of 47 in athletics, which despite its large number of events and its diversity is not divided into disciplines.\n\nChanges in Olympic sports\n\nThe list of Olympic sports has changed considerably during the course of Olympic history, and has gradually increased until the early 2000s, when the IOC decided to cap the number of sports in the Summer Olympics at 28.\n\nThe only summer sports that have never been absent from the Olympic program are athletics, aquatics (the discipline of swimming has been in every Olympics), cycling, fencing, and gymnastics (the discipline of artistic gymnastics has been in every Olympics).\n\nThe only winter sports that were included in all Winter Olympic Games are skiing (only nordic skiing), skating (figure skating and speed skating) and ice hockey. Figure skating and ice hockey were also included in the Summer Olympics before the Winter Olympics were introduced in 1924.\n\nFor most of the 20th century, demonstration sports were included in many Olympic Games, usually to promote a non-Olympic sport popular in the host country, or to gauge interest and support for the sport.\nThe competitions and ceremonies in these sports were identical to official Olympic sports, except that the medals were not counted in the official record.\nSome demonstration sports, like baseball and curling, were later added to the official Olympic program.\nThis changed when the International Olympic Committee decided in 1989 to eliminate demonstration sports from Olympics Games after 1992. An exception was made in 2008, when the Beijing Organizing Committee received permission to organize a wushu tournament. \n\nA sport or discipline may be included in the Olympic program if the IOC determines that it is widely practiced around the world, that is, the number of countries and continents that regularly compete in a given sport is the indicator of the sport's prevalence. The requirements for winter sports are considerably lower than for summer sports since many fewer nations compete in winter sports. The IOC also has lower requirements for inclusion of sports and disciplines for women for the same reason. \nWomen are still barred from several disciplines; but on the other hand, there are women-only disciplines, such as rhythmic gymnastics and synchronized swimming.\n\nSports that depend primarily on mechanical propulsion, such as motor sports, may not be considered for recognition as Olympic sports, though there were power-boating events in the early days of the Olympics before this rule was enacted by the IOC. Part of the story of the founding of aviation sports' international governing body, the FAI, originated from an IOC meeting in Brussels, Belgium on June 10, 1905. \n\nThese criteria are only a threshold for consideration as Olympic sport. In order to be admitted to the Olympic program, the IOC Session has to approve its inclusion. There are many sports that easily make the required numbers but are not recognized as Olympic sports, mainly because the IOC has decided to put a limit on the number of sports, as well as events and athletes, in the Summer Olympics in order not to increase them from the 28 sports, 300 events and 10,000 athletes of the 2000 Summer Olympics.\n\nNo such limits exist in the Winter Olympics and the number of events and athletes continue to increase, but no sport has been added since 1998. The latest winter sport added to the Winter Olympics was curling in 1998.\n\nPrevious Olympic Games included sports which are no longer present on the current program, like polo and tug of war. In the early days of the modern Olympics, the organizers were able to decide which sports or disciplines were included on the program, until the IOC took control of the program in 1924. As a result, a number of sports were on the Olympic program for relatively brief periods before 1924. These sports, known as discontinued sports, were removed because of lack of interest or absence of an appropriate governing body, or because they became fully professional at the time that the Olympic Games were strictly for amateurs, as in the case of tennis.\nSeveral discontinued sports, such as archery and tennis, were later readmitted to the Olympic program (in 1972 and 1984, respectively). Curling, which was an official sport in 1924 and then discontinued, was reinstated as Olympic sport in 1998.\n\nThe Olympic Charter decrees that Olympic sports for each edition of the Olympic Games should be decided at an IOC Session no later than seven years prior to the Games.\n\nChanges since 2000\n\nThe only sports that have been dropped from the Olympics since 1936 are baseball and softball, which were both voted out by the IOC Session in Singapore on July 11, 2005, a decision that was reaffirmed on February 9, 2006. These sports were last included in 2008, although officially they remain recognized as Olympic sports in the Olympic Charter. Therefore, the number of sports in the 2012 Summer Olympics was dropped from 28 to 26.\n\nFollowing the addition of women's boxing in 2012, and women's ski jumping in 2014, there are no Olympic sports that are only for men in those Games.\n\nTwo discontinued sports, golf and rugby, are due to return for the 2016 Summer Olympics. On August 13, 2009, the IOC Executive Board proposed that golf and rugby sevens be added to the Olympic program for the 2016 Games. On 9 October 2009, during the 121st IOC Session in Copenhagen, the IOC voted to admit both sports as official Olympic sports and to include them in the 2016 Summer Olympics. The IOC voted 81–8 in favor of including rugby sevens and 63–27 in favor of reinstating golf, thus bringing the number of sports back to 28. \n\nIn February 2013, the IOC considered dropping a sport from the 2020 Summer Olympics to make way for a new sport. Modern pentathlon and taekwondo were thought to be vulnerable, but instead the IOC recommended dismissing wrestling. On September 8, 2013, the IOC added wrestling to the 2020 and 2024 Summer Games. \n\nSummer Olympics\n\nAt the first Olympic Games, nine sports were contested. Since then, the number of sports contested at the Summer Olympic Games has gradually risen to twenty-eight on the program for 2000-2008. At the 2012 Summer Olympics, however, the number of sports fell back to twenty-six following an IOC decision in 2005 to remove baseball and softball from the Olympic program. These sports retain their status as Olympic sports with the possibility of a return to the Olympic program in future games. At the 121st IOC Session in Copenhagen on 9 October 2009, the IOC voted to reinstate both golf and rugby to the Olympic program, meaning that the number of sports to be contested in 2016 will once again be 28. \n\nIn order for a sport or discipline to be considered for inclusion in the list of Summer Olympics sports, it must be widely practiced in at least 75 countries, spread over four continents.\n\nCurrent and discontinued summer program\n\nThe following sports (or disciplines of a sport) make up the current and discontinued Summer Olympic Games official program and are listed alphabetically according to the name used by the IOC. The discontinued sports were previously part of the Summer Olympic Games program as official sports, but are no longer on the current program. The figures in each cell indicate the number of events for each sport contested at the respective Games; a bullet () denotes that the sport was contested as a demonstration sport.\n\nSeven of the 28 sports consist of multiple disciplines. Disciplines from the same sport are grouped under the same color:\n\n Aquatics –\n Canoeing/Kayak –\n Cycling –\n Gymnastics –\n Volleyball –\n Equestrian –\n Wrestling\n\nDemonstration summer sports\n\nThe following sports or disciplines have been demonstrated at the Summer Olympic Games for the years shown, but have never been included on the official Olympic program:\n\n* American football (1932)\n* Australian football (1956)\n* Ballooning (1900)\n* Bowling (1988)\n* Boules (1900)\n* Budō (1964)\n* Finnish baseball (1952)\n* Glima (1912)\n* Gliding (1936)\n* Kaatsen (1928)\n* Korfball (1920 and 1928)\n* La canne (1924)\n* Surf lifesaving (1900)\n* Longue paume (1900)\n* Motorsport (1900)\n* Roller hockey (1992)\n* Savate (1924)\n* Swedish (Ling) gymnastics (1948)\n* Weight training with dumbbells (1904)\n* Water skiing (1972)\n\nGliding was promoted from demonstration sport to an official Olympic sport in 1936 in time for the 1940 Summer Olympics, but the Games were cancelled due to the outbreak of World War II. \n\nClassification of Olympic sports for revenue share\n\nSummer Olympic sports are divided into categories based on popularity, gauged by: television viewing figures (40%), internet popularity (20%), public surveys (15%), ticket requests (10%), press coverage (10%), and number of national federations (5%). The category determines the share the sport's International Federation receives of Olympic revenue. \n\nThe current categories are listed below. Category A represents the most popular sports; category E lists either the sports that are the least popular or that are new to the Olympics (golf and rugby).\n\nWinter Olympics\n\nBefore 1924, when the first Winter Olympic Games were celebrated, sports held on ice, like figure skating and ice hockey, were held at the Summer Olympics. These two sports made their debuts at the 1908 and the 1920 Summer Olympics, respectively, but were permanently integrated in the Winter Olympics program as of the first edition. The International Winter Sports Week, later dubbed the I Olympic Winter Games and retroactively recognized as such by the IOC, consisted of nine sports. The number of sports contested at the Winter Olympics has since been decreased to seven, comprising a total of fifteen disciplines. \n\nA sport or discipline must be widely practiced in at least 25 countries on three continents in order to be included on the Winter Olympics program.\n\nCurrent winter program\n\nThe following sports (or disciplines of a sport) make up the current Winter Olympic Games official program and are listed alphabetically, according to the name used by the IOC. The figures in each cell indicate the number of events for each sport that were contested at the respective Games (the red cells indicate that those sports were held at the Summer Games); a bullet denotes that the sport was contested as a demonstration sport. On some occasions, both official medal events and demonstration events were contested in the same sport at the same Games.\n\nThree out of the seven sports consist of multiple disciplines. Disciplines from the same sport are grouped under the same color:\n\n Skating –\n Skiing –\n Bobsleigh\n\n1 As military patrol, see below.\n\nDemonstration winter sports\n\nThe following sports have been demonstrated at the Winter Olympic Games for the years shown, but have never been included on the official Olympic program:\n\n* Bandy (1952)\n* Disabled skiing (1984 and 1988)\n* Ice stock sport (1936, 1964)\n* Military patrol (1928, 1936 and 1948)\n* Ski ballet (acroski) (1988 and 1992)\n* Skijoring (1928)\n* Sled-dog racing (1932)\n* Speed skiing (1992)\n* Winter Pentathlon (1948)\n\nMilitary patrol was an official skiing event in 1924 but the IOC currently considers it an event of biathlon in those games, and not as a separate sport. Ski ballet, similarly, was simply a demonstration event falling under the scope of freestyle skiing. Disabled sports are now part of the Winter Paralympic Games.\n\nRecognized international federations\n\nMany sports are not recognized as Olympic sports although their governing bodies are recognized by the IOC. Such sports, if eligible under the terms of the Olympic Charter, may apply for inclusion in the program of future Games, through a recommendation by the IOC Olympic Programme Commission, followed by a decision of the IOC Executive Board and a vote of the IOC Session. When Olympic demonstration sports were allowed, a sport usually appeared as such before being officially admitted. An International Sport Federation (IF) is responsible for ensuring that the sport's activities follow the Olympic Charter. When a sport is recognized the IF become an official Olympic sport federation and can assemble with other Olympic IFs in the Association of Summer Olympic International Federations (ASOIF, for summer sports contested in the Olympic Games), Association of International Olympic Winter Sports Federations (AIOWS, for winter sports contested in the Olympic Games) or Association of IOC Recognised International Sports Federations (ARISF, for sports not contested in the Olympic Games). A number of recognized sports are included in the program of the World Games, a multi-sport event run by the International World Games Association, an organization that operates under the patronage of the IOC. Since the start of the World Games in 1981, a number of sports, including badminton, taekwondo and triathlon have all subsequently been incorporated into the Olympic program.\n\nThe governing bodies of the following sports, though not contested in the Olympic Games, are recognized by the IOC: \n\n* Air sports1,3\n* American football \n* Auto racing3\n* Bandy\n* Baseball and Softball1,2,4\n* Billiard sports1\n* Boules1\n* Bowling1\n* Bridge\n* Chess\n* Cricket2\n* Dance sport1\n* Floorball\n* Karate1\n* Korfball1\n* Lifesaving1\n* Motorcycle racing3\n* Mountaineering and Climbing1\n* Netball\n* Orienteering1\n* Pelota Vasca\n* Polo2\n* Powerboating3\n* Racquetball1\n* Roller sports1\n* Ski Mountaineering\n* Sport climbing\n* Squash1\n* Sumo1\n* Surfing\n* Tug of war1,2\n* Underwater sports1 \n* Ultimate (Flying disc)1 \n* Water ski3\n* Wushu\n\n1 Official sport at the World Games\n2 Discontinued Olympic sport\n3 Ineligible to be included because the Olympic Charter bans sports with motorization elements\n4 The governing bodies for baseball and softball merged into a single international federation in 2013." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Squash (disambiguation)", "Squash", "Squashes" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "squash", "squash disambiguation", "squashes" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "squash", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Squash" }
Where was the peace treaty signed that brought World War I to an end?	tc_279	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "World_War_I.txt" ], "title": [ "World War I" ], "wiki_context": [ "World War I (WWI or WW1), also known as the First World War, or the Great War, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history. Over 9 million combatants and 7 million civilians died as a result of the war (including the victims of a number of genocides), a casualty rate exacerbated by the belligerents' technological and industrial sophistication, and the tactical stalemate caused by gruelling trench warfare. It was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved.\n\nThe war drew in all the world's economic great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances: the Allies (based on the Triple Entente of the British Empire, France and the Russian Empire) versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. Although Italy was a member of the Triple Alliance alongside Germany and Austria-Hungary, it did not join the Central Powers, as Austria-Hungary had taken the offensive, against the terms of the alliance. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war: Italy, Japan and the United States joined the Allies, while the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers.\n\nThe trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a diplomatic crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia, and entangled international alliances formed over the previous decades were invoked. Within weeks, the major powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world.\n\nOn 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia. As Russia mobilised in support of Serbia, Germany invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, leading the United Kingdom to declare war on Germany. After the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, but the Germans stopped its invasion of East Prussia. In November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Power; Romania joined the Allies in 1916, as did the United States in 1917.\n\nThe Russian government collapsed in March 1917, and a revolution in November brought the Russians to terms with the Central Powers via the Treaty of Brest Litovsk, which was a massive German victory. After a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. On 4 November 1918, the Austro-Hungarian empire agreed to an armistice, and Germany, which had its own trouble with revolutionaries, agreed to an armistice on 11 November 1918, ending the war in victory for the Allies.\n\nBy the end of the war, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire and the Ottoman Empire ceased to exist. National borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germany's colonies were parceled out among the winners. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four (Britain, France, the United States and Italy) imposed their terms in a series of treaties. The League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed European nationalism, weakened member states, and the German feeling of humiliation contributed to the rise of Nazism. These conditions eventually contributed to World War II.\n\nNames\n\nFrom the time of its start until the approach of World War II, the First World War was called simply the World War or the Great War and thereafter the First World War or World War I. At the time, it was also sometimes called \"the war to end war\" or \"the war to end all wars\" due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. \n\nIn Canada, Maclean's magazine in October 1914 wrote, \"Some wars name themselves. This is the Great War.\" During the interwar period (1918–1939), the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries.\n\nThe term \"First World War\" was first used in September 1914 by the German biologist and philosopher Ernst Haeckel, who claimed that \"there is no doubt that the course and character of the feared 'European War' ... will become the first world war in the full sense of the word,\" citing a wire service report in The Indianapolis Star on 20 September 1914. After the onset of the Second World War in 1939, the terms World War I or the First World War became standard, with British and Canadian historians favouring the First World War, and Americans World War I. \n\nBackground\n\nPolitical and military alliances\n\nDuring the 19th century, the major European powers went to great lengths to maintain a balance of power throughout Europe, resulting in the existence of a complex network of political and military alliances throughout the continent by 1900. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria. When Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors (German: Dreikaiserbund) between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany. This agreement failed because Austria-Hungary and Russia could not agree over Balkan policy, leaving Germany and Austria-Hungary in an alliance formed in 1879, called the Dual Alliance. This was seen as a method of countering Russian influence in the Balkans as the Ottoman Empire continued to weaken. This alliance expanded, in 1882, to include Italy in what became the Triple Alliance.\n\nBismarck had especially worked to hold Russia at Germany's side in an effort to avoid a two-front war with France and Russia. When Wilhelm II ascended to the throne as German Emperor (Kaiser), Bismarck was compelled to retire and his system of alliances was gradually de-emphasised. For example, the Kaiser refused, in 1890, to renew the Reinsurance Treaty with Russia. Two years later, the Franco-Russian Alliance was signed to counteract the force of the Triple Alliance. In 1904, Britain signed a series of agreements with France, the Entente Cordiale, and in 1907, Britain and Russia signed the Anglo-Russian Convention. While these agreements did not formally ally Britain with France or Russia, they made British entry into any future conflict involving France or Russia a possibility, and the system of interlocking bilateral agreements became known as the Triple Entente.\n\nArms race\n\nGerman industrial and economic power had grown greatly after unification and the foundation of the Empire in 1871 following the Franco-Prussian War. From the mid-1890s on, the government of Wilhelm II used this base to devote significant economic resources for building up the Kaiserliche Marine (Imperial German Navy), established by Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz, in rivalry with the British Royal Navy for world naval supremacy. As a result, each nation strove to out-build the other in capital ships. With the launch of in 1906, the British Empire expanded on its significant advantage over its German rival. The arms race between Britain and Germany eventually extended to the rest of Europe, with all the major powers devoting their industrial base to producing the equipment and weapons necessary for a pan-European conflict. Between 1908 and 1913, the military spending of the European powers increased by 50%.\n\nConflicts in the Balkans\n\nAustria-Hungary precipitated the Bosnian crisis of 1908–1909 by officially annexing the former Ottoman territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which it had occupied since 1878. This angered the Kingdom of Serbia and its patron, the Pan-Slavic and Orthodox Russian Empire. Russian political manoeuvring in the region destabilised peace accords, which were already fracturing in the Balkans which came to be known as the \"powder keg of Europe\". In 1912 and 1913, the First Balkan War was fought between the Balkan League and the fracturing Ottoman Empire. The resulting Treaty of London further shrank the Ottoman Empire, creating an independent Albanian state while enlarging the territorial holdings of Bulgaria, Serbia, Montenegro, and Greece. When Bulgaria attacked Serbia and Greece on 16 June 1913, it lost most of Macedonia to Serbia and Greece and Southern Dobruja to Romania in the 33-day Second Balkan War, further destabilising the region. The Great Powers were able to keep these Balkan conflicts contained, but the next one would spread throughout Europe, and beyond.\n\nPrelude\n\nSarajevo assassination\n\nOn 28 June 1914, Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand visited the Bosnian capital, Sarajevo. A group of six assassins (Cvjetko Popović, Gavrilo Princip, Muhamed Mehmedbašić, Nedeljko Čabrinović, Trifko Grabež, Vaso Čubrilović) from the nationalist group Mlada Bosna, supplied by the Black Hand, had gathered on the street where the Archduke's motorcade would pass, with the intention of assassinating the Archduke. Čabrinović threw a grenade at the car, but missed. Some nearby were injured by the blast, but Franz Ferdinand's convoy carried on. The other assassins failed to act as the cars drove past them.\n\nAbout an hour later, when Franz Ferdinand was returning from a visit at the Sarajevo Hospital with those wounded in the assassination attempt, the convoy took a wrong turn into a street where, by coincidence, Princip stood. With a pistol, Princip shot and killed Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophie. The reaction among the people in Austria was mild, almost indifferent. As historian Zbyněk Zeman later wrote, \"the event almost failed to make any impression whatsoever. On Sunday and Monday (28 and 29 June), the crowds in Vienna listened to music and drank wine, as if nothing had happened.\" \n\nThe Austro-Hungarian authorities encouraged the anti-Serb riots in Sarajevo, in which Croats and Bosniaks killed two ethnic Serbs and damaged numerous Serb-owned buildings. Violent actions against ethnic Serbs were also organized outside Sarajevo, in large Austro-Hungarian cities in modern-day Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia and Slovenia. Austro-Hungarian authorities in Bosnia and Herzegovina imprisoned and extradited approximately 5,500 prominent Serbs, 700 to 2,200 of whom died in prison. A further 460 Serbs were sentenced to death and a predominantly Bosniak special militia known as the Schutzkorps was established and carried out the persecution of Serbs. \n\nJuly Crisis\n\nThe assassination led to a month of diplomatic manoeuvring between Austria-Hungary, Germany, Russia, France, and Britain called the July Crisis. Believing correctly that Serbian officials (especially the officers of the Black Hand) were involved in the plot to murder the Archduke, and wanting to finally end Serbian interference in Bosnia, Austria-Hungary delivered to Serbia on 23 July the July Ultimatum, a series of ten demands that were made intentionally unacceptable, in an effort to provoke a war with Serbia. The next day, after the Council of Ministers of Russia was held under the chairmanship of the Tsar at Krasnoe Selo, Russia ordered general mobilization for Odessa, Kiev, Kazan and Moscow military districts and fleets of the Baltic and the Black Sea. They also asked for other regions to accelerate preparations for general mobilization. Serbia decreed general mobilization on the 25th and that night, declared that they accepted all the terms of the ultimatum, except article six, which demanded that Austrian delegates be allowed in Serbia for the purpose of participation in the investigation into the assassination. Following this, Austria broke off diplomatic relations with Serbia, and the next day ordered a partial mobilization. Finally, on 28 July 1914, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia.\n\nOn 29 July, Russia, in support of its Serb protégé, unilaterally declared – outside of the conciliation procedure provided by the Franco-Russian military agreements – partial mobilization against Austria-Hungary. German Chancellor Bethmann-Hollweg was then allowed until the 31st for an appropriate response. On the 30th, Russia ordered general mobilization against Germany. In response, the following day, Germany declared a \"state of danger of war.\" This also led to the general mobilization in Austria-Hungary on 4 August. Kaiser Wilhelm II asked his cousin, Tsar Nicolas II, to suspend the Russian general mobilization. When he refused, Germany issued an ultimatum demanding the arrest of its mobilization and commitment not to support Serbia. Another was sent to France, asking her not to support Russia if it were to come to the defence of Serbia. On 1 August, after the Russian response, Germany mobilized and declared war on Russia.\n\nThe German government issued demands to France that it remain neutral as they had to decide which deployment plan to implement, it being difficult if not impossible to change the deployment whilst it was underway. The modified German Schlieffen Plan, Aufmarsch II West, would deploy 80% of the army in the west, and Aufmarsch I Ost and Aufmarsch II Ost would deploy 60% in the west and 40% in the east as this was the maximum that the East Prussian railway infrastructure could carry. The French did not respond but sent a mixed message by ordering their troops to withdraw from the border to avoid any incidents, but at the same time ordered the mobilisation of her reserves. Germany responded by mobilising its own reserves and implementing Aufmarsch II West. Germany attacked Luxembourg on 2 August and on 3 August declared war on France. On 4 August, after Belgium refused to permit German troops to cross its borders into France, Germany declared war on Belgium as well. Britain declared war on Germany at 19:00 UTC on 4 August 1914 (effective from 11 pm), following an \"unsatisfactory reply\" to the British ultimatum that Belgium must be kept neutral. \n\nProgress of the war\n\nOpening hostilities\n\nConfusion among the Central Powers\n\nThe strategy of the Central Powers suffered from miscommunication. Germany had promised to support Austria-Hungary's invasion of Serbia, but interpretations of what this meant differed. Previously tested deployment plans had been replaced early in 1914, but those had never been tested in exercises. Austro-Hungarian leaders believed Germany would cover its northern flank against Russia. Germany, however, envisioned Austria-Hungary directing most of its troops against Russia, while Germany dealt with France. This confusion forced the Austro-Hungarian Army to divide its forces between the Russian and Serbian fronts.\n\nSerbian campaign\n\nAustria invaded and fought the Serbian army at the Battle of Cer and Battle of Kolubara beginning on 12 August. Over the next two weeks, Austrian attacks were thrown back with heavy losses, which marked the first major Allied victories of the war and dashed Austro-Hungarian hopes of a swift victory. As a result, Austria had to keep sizable forces on the Serbian front, weakening its efforts against Russia. Serbia's defeat of the Austro-Hungarian invasion of 1914 counts among the major upset victories of the twentieth century. \n\nGerman forces in Belgium and France\n\nAt the outbreak of World War I, 80% of the German army was deployed as seven field armies in the west according to the plan Aufmarsch II West. However, they were then assigned to execute the retired deployment plan Aufmarsch I West, also known as the Schlieffen Plan. This would march German armies through northern Belgium and into France, in an attempt to encircle the French army and then breach the 'second defensive area' of the fortresses of Verdun and Paris and the Marne river.\n\nAufmarsch I West was one of four deployment plans available to the German General Staff in 1914. Each plan favoured certain operations, but did not specify exactly how those operations were to be carried out, leaving the commanding officers to carry those out at their own initiative and with minimal oversight. Aufmarsch I West, designed for a one-front war with France, had been retired once it became clear it was irrelevant to the wars Germany could expect to face; both Russia and Britain were expected to help France, and there was no possibility of Italian nor Austro-Hungarian troops being available for operations against France. But despite its unsuitability, and the availability of more sensible and decisive options, it retained a certain allure due to its offensive nature and the pessimism of pre-war thinking, which expected offensive operations to be short-lived, costly in casualties, and unlikely to be decisive. Accordingly, the Aufmarsch II West deployment was changed for the offensive of 1914, despite its unrealistic goals and the insufficient forces Germany had available for decisive success. Moltke took Schlieffen's plan and modified the deployment of forces on the western front by reducing the right wing, the one to advance through Belgium, from 85% to 70%. In the end, the Schlieffen plan was so radically modified by Moltke, that it could be more properly called the Moltke Plan. \n\nThe plan called for the right flank of the German advance to bypass the French armies concentrated on the Franco-German border, defeat the French forces closer to Luxembourg and Belgium and move south to Paris. Initially the Germans were successful, particularly in the Battle of the Frontiers (14–24 August). By 12 September, the French, with assistance from the British Expeditionary Force (BEF), halted the German advance east of Paris at the First Battle of the Marne (5–12 September) and pushed the German forces back some . The French offensive into southern Alsace, launched on 20 August with the Battle of Mulhouse, had limited success.\n\nIn the east, Russia invaded with two armies. In response, Germany rapidly moved the 8th Field Army from its previous role as reserve for the invasion of France to East Prussia by rail across the German Empire. This army, led by general Paul von Hindenburg defeated Russia in a series of battles collectively known as the First Battle of Tannenberg (17 August – 2 September). While the Russian invasion failed, it caused the diversion of German troops to the east, allowing the tactical Allied victory at the First Battle of the Marne. This meant Germany failed to achieve its objective of avoiding a long, two-front war. However, the German army had fought its way into a good defensive position inside France and effectively halved France's supply of coal. It had also killed or permanently crippled 230,000 more French and British troops than it itself had lost. Despite this, communications problems and questionable command decisions cost Germany the chance of a more decisive outcome.\n\nAsia and the Pacific\n\nNew Zealand occupied German Samoa (later Western Samoa) on 30 August 1914. On 11 September, the Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force landed on the island of Neu Pommern (later New Britain), which formed part of German New Guinea. On 28 October, the German cruiser sank the Russian cruiser Zhemchug in the Battle of Penang. Japan seized Germany's Micronesian colonies and, after the Siege of Tsingtao, the German coaling port of Qingdao on the Chinese Shandong peninsula. As Vienna refused to withdraw the Austro-Hungarian cruiser from Tsingtao, Japan declared war not only on Germany, but also on Austria-Hungary; the ship participated in the defense of Tsingtao where it was sunk in November 1914. Within a few months, the Allied forces had seized all the German territories in the Pacific; only isolated commerce raiders and a few holdouts in New Guinea remained.\n\nAfrican campaigns\n\nSome of the first clashes of the war involved British, French, and German colonial forces in Africa. On 6–7 August, French and British troops invaded the German protectorate of Togoland and Kamerun. On 10 August, German forces in South-West Africa attacked South Africa; sporadic and fierce fighting continued for the rest of the war. The German colonial forces in German East Africa, led by Colonel Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck, fought a guerrilla warfare campaign during World War I and only surrendered two weeks after the armistice took effect in Europe.\n\nIndian support for the Allies\n\nContrary to British fears of a revolt in India, the outbreak of the war saw an unprecedented outpouring of loyalty and goodwill towards Britain. Indian political leaders from the Indian National Congress and other groups were eager to support the British war effort, since they believed that strong support for the war effort would further the cause of Indian Home Rule. The Indian Army in fact outnumbered the British Army at the beginning of the war; about 1.3 million Indian soldiers and labourers served in Europe, Africa, and the Middle East, while the central government and the princely states sent large supplies of food, money, and ammunition. In all, 140,000 men served on the Western Front and nearly 700,000 in the Middle East. Casualties of Indian soldiers totalled 47,746 killed and 65,126 wounded during World War I. \nThe suffering engendered by the war, as well as the failure of the British government to grant self-government to India after the end of hostilities, bred disillusionment and fuelled the campaign for full independence that would be led by Mohandas K. Gandhi and others.\n\nWestern Front\n\nTrench warfare begins\n\nMilitary tactics developed before World War I failed to keep pace with advances in technology and had become obsolete. These advances had allowed the creation of strong defensive systems, which out-of-date military tactics could not break through for most of the war. Barbed wire was a significant hindrance to massed infantry advances, while artillery, vastly more lethal than in the 1870s, coupled with machine guns, made crossing open ground extremely difficult. Commanders on both sides failed to develop tactics for breaching entrenched positions without heavy casualties. In time, however, technology began to produce new offensive weapons, such as gas warfare and the tank.\n\nJust after the First Battle of the Marne (5–12 September 1914), Entente and German forces repeatedly attempted manoeuvring to the north in an effort to outflank each other: this series of manoeuvres became known as the \"Race to the Sea\". When these outflanking efforts failed, the opposing forces soon found themselves facing an uninterrupted line of entrenched positions from Lorraine to Belgium's coast. Britain and France sought to take the offensive, while Germany defended the occupied territories. Consequently, German trenches were much better constructed than those of their enemy; Anglo-French trenches were only intended to be \"temporary\" before their forces broke through the German defences.\n\nBoth sides tried to break the stalemate using scientific and technological advances. On 22 April 1915, at the Second Battle of Ypres, the Germans (violating the Hague Convention) used chlorine gas for the first time on the Western Front. Several types of gas soon became widely used by both sides, and though it never proved a decisive, battle-winning weapon, poison gas became one of the most-feared and best-remembered horrors of the war. Tanks were developed by Britain and France, and were first used in combat by the British during the Battle of Flers–Courcelette (part of the Battle of the Somme) on 15 September 1916, with only partial success. However, their effectiveness would grow as the war progressed; the Allies built tanks in large numbers, whilst the Germans employed only a few of their own design, supplemented by captured Allied tanks.\n\nContinuation of trench warfare\n\nNeither side proved able to deliver a decisive blow for the next two years. Throughout 1915–17, the British Empire and France suffered more casualties than Germany, because of both the strategic and tactical stances chosen by the sides. Strategically, while the Germans only mounted one major offensive, the Allies made several attempts to break through the German lines.\n\nIn February 1916 the Germans attacked the French defensive positions at Verdun. Lasting until December 1916, the battle saw initial German gains, before French counter-attacks returned matters to near their starting point. Casualties were greater for the French, but the Germans bled heavily as well, with anywhere from 700,000 to 975,000 casualties suffered between the two combatants. Verdun became a symbol of French determination and self-sacrifice. \n\nThe Battle of the Somme was an Anglo-French offensive of July to November 1916. The opening of this offensive (1 July 1916) saw the British Army endure the bloodiest day in its history, suffering 57,470 casualties, including 19,240 dead, on the first day alone. The entire Somme offensive cost the British Army some 420,000 casualties. The French suffered another estimated 200,000 casualties and the Germans an estimated 500,000.\n\nProtracted action at Verdun throughout 1916, combined with the bloodletting at the Somme, brought the exhausted French army to the brink of collapse. Futile attempts using frontal assault came at a high price for both the British and the French and led to the widespread French Army Mutinies, after the failure of the costly Nivelle Offensive of April–May 1917. The concurrent British Battle of Arras was more limited in scope, and more successful, although ultimately of little strategic value. A smaller part of the Arras offensive, the capture of Vimy Ridge by the Canadian Corps, became highly significant to that country: the idea that Canada's national identity was born out of the battle is an opinion widely held in military and general histories of Canada.\n\nThe last large-scale offensive of this period was a British attack (with French support) at Passchendaele (July–November 1917). This offensive opened with great promise for the Allies, before bogging down in the October mud. Casualties, though disputed, were roughly equal, at some 200,000–400,000 per side.\n\nThese years of trench warfare in the West saw no major exchanges of territory and, as a result, are often thought of as static and unchanging. However, throughout this period, British, French, and German tactics constantly evolved to meet new battlefield challenges.\n\nNaval war\n\nAt the start of the war, the German Empire had cruisers scattered across the globe, some of which were subsequently used to attack Allied merchant shipping. The British Royal Navy systematically hunted them down, though not without some embarrassment from its inability to protect Allied shipping. For example, the German detached light cruiser SMS Emden, part of the East-Asia squadron stationed at Qingdao, seized or destroyed 15 merchantmen, as well as sinking a Russian cruiser and a French destroyer. However, most of the German East-Asia squadron—consisting of the armoured cruisers and , light cruisers and and two transport ships—did not have orders to raid shipping and was instead underway to Germany when it met British warships. The German flotilla and sank two armoured cruisers at the Battle of Coronel, but was virtually destroyed at the Battle of the Falkland Islands in December 1914, with only Dresden and a few auxiliaries escaping, but after the Battle of Más a Tierra these too had been destroyed or interned.\n\nSoon after the outbreak of hostilities, Britain began a naval blockade of Germany. The strategy proved effective, cutting off vital military and civilian supplies, although this blockade violated accepted international law codified by several international agreements of the past two centuries. Britain mined international waters to prevent any ships from entering entire sections of ocean, causing danger to even neutral ships. Since there was limited response to this tactic of the British, Germany expected a similar response to its unrestricted submarine warfare.\n\nThe Battle of Jutland (German: Skagerrakschlacht, or \"Battle of the Skagerrak\") developed into the largest naval battle of the war. It was the only full-scale clash of battleships during the war, and one of the largest in history. The Kaiserliche Marine's High Seas Fleet, commanded by Vice Admiral Reinhard Scheer, fought the Royal Navy's Grand Fleet, led by Admiral Sir John Jellicoe. The engagement was a stand off, as the Germans were outmanoeuvred by the larger British fleet, but managed to escape and inflicted more damage to the British fleet than they received. Strategically, however, the British asserted their control of the sea, and the bulk of the German surface fleet remained confined to port for the duration of the war. \n\nGerman U-boats attempted to cut the supply lines between North America and Britain. The nature of submarine warfare meant that attacks often came without warning, giving the crews of the merchant ships little hope of survival. The United States launched a protest, and Germany changed its rules of engagement. After the sinking of the passenger ship RMS Lusitania in 1915, Germany promised not to target passenger liners, while Britain armed its merchant ships, placing them beyond the protection of the \"cruiser rules\", which demanded warning and movement of crews to \"a place of safety\" (a standard that lifeboats did not meet). Finally, in early 1917, Germany adopted a policy of unrestricted submarine warfare, realising that the Americans would eventually enter the war. Germany sought to strangle Allied sea lanes before the United States could transport a large army overseas, but could maintain only five long-range U-boats on station, to limited effect.\n\nThe U-boat threat lessened in 1917, when merchant ships began travelling in convoys, escorted by destroyers. This tactic made it difficult for U-boats to find targets, which significantly lessened losses; after the hydrophone and depth charges were introduced, accompanying destroyers could attack a submerged submarine with some hope of success. Convoys slowed the flow of supplies, since ships had to wait as convoys were assembled. The solution to the delays was an extensive program of building new freighters. Troopships were too fast for the submarines and did not travel the North Atlantic in convoys. The U-boats had sunk more than 5,000 Allied ships, at a cost of 199 submarines. World War I also saw the first use of aircraft carriers in combat, with launching Sopwith Camels in a successful raid against the Zeppelin hangars at Tondern in July 1918, as well as blimps for antisubmarine patrol. \n\nSouthern theatres\n\nWar in the Balkans\n\nFaced with Russia, Austria-Hungary could spare only one-third of its army to attack Serbia. After suffering heavy losses, the Austrians briefly occupied the Serbian capital, Belgrade. A Serbian counter-attack in the Battle of Kolubara succeeded in driving them from the country by the end of 1914. For the first ten months of 1915, Austria-Hungary used most of its military reserves to fight Italy. German and Austro-Hungarian diplomats, however, scored a coup by persuading Bulgaria to join the attack on Serbia. The Austro-Hungarian provinces of Slovenia, Croatia and Bosnia provided troops for Austria-Hungary, in the fight with Serbia, Russia and Italy. Montenegro allied itself with Serbia.\n\nBulgaria declared war on Serbia, 12 October and joined in the attack by the Austro-Hungarian army under Mackensen's army of 250,000 that was already underway. Serbia was conquered in a little more than a month, as the Central Powers, now including Bulgaria, sent in 600,000 troops total. The Serbian army, fighting on two fronts and facing certain defeat, retreated into northern Albania. The Serbs suffered defeat in the Battle of Kosovo. Montenegro covered the Serbian retreat towards the Adriatic coast in the Battle of Mojkovac in 6–7 January 1916, but ultimately the Austrians also conquered Montenegro. The surviving Serbian soldiers were evacuated by ship to Greece. After conquest, Serbia was divided between Austro-Hungary and Bulgaria.\n\nIn late 1915, a Franco-British force landed at Salonica in Greece, to offer assistance and to pressure its government to declare war against the Central Powers. However, the pro-German King Constantine I dismissed the pro-Allied government of Eleftherios Venizelos before the Allied expeditionary force arrived. The friction between the King of Greece and the Allies continued to accumulate with the National Schism, which effectively divided Greece between regions still loyal to the king and the new provisional government of Venizelos in Salonica. After intense negotiations and an armed confrontation in Athens between Allied and royalist forces (an incident known as Noemvriana), the King of Greece resigned and his second son Alexander took his place; Greece then officially joined the war on the side of the Allies.\n\nIn the beginning, the Macedonian Front was mostly static. French and Serbian forces retook limited areas of Macedonia by recapturing Bitola on 19 November 1916 following the costly Monastir Offensive, which brought stabilization of the front. \n\nSerbian and French troops finally made a breakthrough in September 1918, after most of the German and Austro-Hungarian troops had been withdrawn. The Bulgarians suffered their only defeat of the war at the Battle of Dobro Pole. Bulgaria capitulated two weeks later, on 29 September 1918. The German high command responded by despatching troops to hold the line, but these forces were far too weak to reestablish a front.\n\nThe disappearance of the Macedonian Front meant that the road to Budapest and Vienna was now opened to Allied forces. Hindenburg and Ludendorff concluded that the strategic and operational balance had now shifted decidedly against the Central Powers and, a day after the Bulgarian collapse, insisted on an immediate peace settlement.\n\nOttoman Empire\n\nOn 2 August 1914 the Ottoman Empire signed the secret Ottoman–German Alliance, agreeing to enter the war on the side of the Germany, should Russia intervene militarily. They then joined battle on when they attacked the Russian Black Sea coast on 29 October 1914. This prompted Russia and its allies, Britain and France, to declare war on the Ottomans in November 1914. \n\nThe Ottomans threatened Russia's Caucasian territories and Britain's communications with India via the Suez Canal. As the conflict progressed, the Ottoman Empire took advantage of the European powers' preoccupation with the war and conducted large-scale ethnic cleansing of the indigenous Armenian, Greek, and Assyrian Christian populations, known as the Armenian Genocide, Greek Genocide, and Assyrian Genocide. \n\nThe British and French opened overseas fronts with the Gallipoli (1915) and Mesopotamian campaigns (1914). In Gallipoli, the Ottoman Empire successfully repelled the British, French, and Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZACs). In Mesopotamia, by contrast, after the defeat of the British defenders in the Siege of Kut by the Ottomans (1915–16), British Imperial forces reorganised and captured Baghdad in March 1917. The British were aided in Mesopotamia by local Arab and Assyrian tribesmen, while the Ottomans employed local Kurdish and Turcoman tribes. \n\nFurther to the west, the Suez Canal was defended from Ottoman attacks in 1915 and 1916; in August, a German and Ottoman force was defeated at the Battle of Romani by the ANZAC Mounted Division and the 52nd (Lowland) Infantry Division. Following this victory, an Egyptian Expeditionary Force advanced across the Sinai Peninsula, pushing Ottoman forces back in the Battle of Magdhaba in December and the Battle of Rafa on the border between the Egyptian Sinai and Ottoman Palestine in January 1917. \n\nRussian armies generally saw success in the Caucasus. Enver Pasha, supreme commander of the Ottoman armed forces, was ambitious and dreamed of re-conquering central Asia and areas that had been lost to Russia previously. He was, however, a poor commander. He launched an offensive against the Russians in the Caucasus in December 1914 with 100,000 troops; insisting on a frontal attack against mountainous Russian positions in winter. He lost 86% of his force at the Battle of Sarikamish.\n\nIn December 1914 the Ottoman Empire, with German support, invaded Persia (modern Iran) in an effort to cut off British and Russian access to petroleum reservoirs around Baku near the Caspian Sea. Persia, ostensibly neutral, had long been under the spheres of British and Russian influence. The Ottomans and Germans were aided by Kurdish and Azeri forces, together with a large number of major Iranian tribes, such as the Qashqai, Tangistanis, Luristanis, and Khamseh, while the Russians and British had the support of Armenian and Assyrian forces. The Persian Campaign was to last until 1918 and end in failure for the Ottomans and their allies. However the Russian withdrawal from the war in 1917 led to Armenian and Assyrian forces, who had hitherto inflicted a series of defeats upon the forces of the Ottomans and their allies, being cut off from supply lines, outnumbered, outgunned and isolated, forcing them to fight and flee towards British lines in northern Mesopotamia. \n\nGeneral Yudenich, the Russian commander from 1915 to 1916, drove the Turks out of most of the southern Caucasus with a string of victories. In 1917, Russian Grand Duke Nicholas assumed command of the Caucasus front. Nicholas planned a railway from Russian Georgia to the conquered territories, so that fresh supplies could be brought up for a new offensive in 1917. However, in March 1917 (February in the pre-revolutionary Russian calendar), the Czar abdicated in the course of the February Revolution and the Russian Caucasus Army began to fall apart.\n\nThe Arab Revolt, instigated by the Arab bureau of the British Foreign Office, started June 1916 with the Battle of Mecca, led by Sherif Hussein of Mecca, and ended with the Ottoman surrender of Damascus. Fakhri Pasha, the Ottoman commander of Medina, resisted for more than two and half years during the Siege of Medina before surrendering.\n\nThe Senussi tribe, along the border of Italian Libya and British Egypt, incited and armed by the Turks, waged a small-scale guerrilla war against Allied troops. The British were forced to dispatch 12,000 troops to oppose them in the Senussi Campaign. Their rebellion was finally crushed in mid-1916.\n\nTotal Allied casualties on the Ottoman fronts amounted 650,000 men. Total Ottoman casualties were 725,000 (325,000 dead and 400,000 wounded). \n\nItalian participation\n\nItaly had been allied with the German and Austro-Hungarian Empires since 1882 as part of the Triple Alliance. However, the nation had its own designs on Austrian territory in Trentino, the Austrian Littoral, Fiume (Rijeka) and Dalmatia. Rome had a secret 1902 pact with France, effectively nullifying its part in the Triple Alliance. At the start of hostilities, Italy refused to commit troops, arguing that the Triple Alliance was defensive and that Austria-Hungary was an aggressor. The Austro-Hungarian government began negotiations to secure Italian neutrality, offering the French colony of Tunisia in return. The Allies made a counter-offer in which Italy would receive the Southern Tyrol, Austrian Littoral and territory on the Dalmatian coast after the defeat of Austria-Hungary. This was formalised by the Treaty of London. Further encouraged by the Allied invasion of Turkey in April 1915, Italy joined the Triple Entente and declared war on Austria-Hungary on 23 May. Fifteen months later, Italy declared war on Germany. \n\nThe Italians had numerical superiority but this advantage was lost, not only because of the difficult terrain in which the fighting took place, but also because of the strategies and tactics employed. Field Marshal Luigi Cadorna, a staunch proponent of the frontal assault, had dreams of breaking into the Slovenian plateau, taking Ljubljana and threatening Vienna.\n\nOn the Trentino front, the Austro-Hungarians took advantage of the mountainous terrain, which favoured the defender. After an initial strategic retreat, the front remained largely unchanged, while Austrian Kaiserschützen and Standschützen engaged Italian Alpini in bitter hand-to-hand combat throughout the summer. The Austro-Hungarians counterattacked in the Altopiano of Asiago, towards Verona and Padua, in the spring of 1916 (Strafexpedition), but made little progress. \n\nBeginning in 1915, the Italians under Cadorna mounted eleven offensives on the Isonzo front along the Isonzo (Soča) River, northeast of Trieste. All eleven offensives were repelled by the Austro-Hungarians, who held the higher ground. In the summer of 1916, after the Battle of Doberdò, the Italians captured the town of Gorizia. After this minor victory, the front remained static for over a year, despite several Italian offensives, centred on the Banjšice and Karst Plateau east of Gorizia.\n\nThe Central Powers launched a crushing offensive on 26 October 1917, spearheaded by the Germans. They achieved a victory at Caporetto (Kobarid). The Italian Army was routed and retreated more than to reorganise, stabilising the front at the Piave River. Since the Italian Army had suffered heavy losses in the Battle of Caporetto, the Italian Government called to arms the so-called 99 Boys (Ragazzi del '99): that is, all males born 1899 and prior, and so were 18 years old or older. In 1918, the Austro-Hungarians failed to break through in a series of battles on the Piave and were finally decisively defeated in the Battle of Vittorio Veneto in October of that year. On 1 November, the Italian Navy destroyed much of the Austro-Hungarian fleet stationed in Pula, preventing it from being handed over to the new State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs. On 3 November, the Italians invaded Trieste from the sea. On the same day, the Armistice of Villa Giusti was signed. By mid-November 1918, the Italian military occupied the entire former Austrian Littoral and had seized control of the portion of Dalmatia that had been guaranteed to Italy by the London Pact. By the end of hostilities in November 1918, Admiral Enrico Millo declared himself Italy's Governor of Dalmatia. Austria-Hungary surrendered on 11 November 1918.\n\nRomanian participation\n\nRomania had been allied with the Central Powers since 1882. When the war began, however, it declared its neutrality, arguing that because Austria-Hungary had itself declared war on Serbia, Romania was under no obligation to join the war. When the Entente Powers promised Romania Transylvania and Banat, large territories of eastern Hungary, in exchange for Romania's declaring war on the Central Powers, the Romanian government renounced its neutrality. On 27 August 1916, the Romanian Army launched an attack against Austria-Hungary, with limited Russian support. The Romanian offensive was initially successful, against the Austro-Hungarian troops in Transylvania, but a counterattack by the forces of the Central Powers drove them back. As a result of the Battle of Bucharest, the Central Powers occupied Bucharest on 6 December 1916. Fighting in Moldova continued in 1917, resulting in a costly stalemate for the Central Powers. Russian withdrawal from the war in late 1917 as a result of the October Revolution meant that Romania was forced to sign an armistice with the Central Powers on 9 December 1917.\n\nIn January 1918, Romanian forces established control over Bessarabia as the Russian Army abandoned the province. Although a treaty was signed by the Romanian and the Bolshevik Russian governments following talks from 5–9 March 1918 on the withdrawal of Romanian forces from Bessarabia within two months, on 27 March 1918 Romania attached Bessarabia to its territory, formally based on a resolution passed by the local assembly of that territory on its unification with Romania. \n\nRomania officially made peace with the Central Powers by signing the Treaty of Bucharest on 7 May 1918. Under that treaty, Romania was obliged to end the war with the Central Powers and make small territorial concessions to Austria-Hungary, ceding control of some passes in the Carpathian Mountains, and to grant oil concessions to Germany. In exchange, the Central Powers recognised the sovereignty of Romania over Bessarabia. The treaty was renounced in October 1918 by the Alexandru Marghiloman government, and Romania nominally re-entered the war on 10 November 1918. The next day, the Treaty of Bucharest was nullified by the terms of the Armistice of Compiègne. Total Romanian deaths from 1914 to 1918, military and civilian, within contemporary borders, were estimated at 748,000. \n\nEastern Front\n\nInitial actions\n\nWhile the Western Front had reached stalemate, the war continued in East Europe. Initial Russian plans called for simultaneous invasions of Austrian Galicia and East Prussia. Although Russia's initial advance into Galicia was largely successful, it was driven back from East Prussia by Hindenburg and Ludendorff at the Battle of Tannenberg and the Masurian Lakes in August and September 1914. Russia's less developed industrial base and ineffective military leadership were instrumental in the events that unfolded. By the spring of 1915, the Russians had retreated to Galicia, and, in May, the Central Powers achieved a remarkable breakthrough on Poland's southern frontiers. On 5 August, they captured Warsaw and forced the Russians to withdraw from Poland.\n\nRussian Revolution\n\nDespite Russia's success with the June 1916 Brusilov Offensive in eastern Galicia, dissatisfaction with the Russian government's conduct of the war grew. The offensive's success was undermined by the reluctance of other generals to commit their forces to support the victory. Allied and Russian forces were revived only temporarily by Romania's entry into the war on 27 August. German forces came to the aid of embattled Austro-Hungarian units in Transylvania while a German-Bulgarian force attacked from the south, and Bucharest was retaken by the Central Powers on 6 December. Meanwhile, unrest grew in Russia, as the Tsar remained at the front. Empress Alexandra's increasingly incompetent rule drew protests and resulted in the murder of her favourite, Rasputin, at the end of 1916.\n\nIn March 1917, demonstrations in Petrograd culminated in the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II and the appointment of a weak Provisional Government, which shared power with the Petrograd Soviet socialists. This arrangement led to confusion and chaos both at the front and at home. The army became increasingly ineffective.\n\nFollowing the Tsar's abdication, Vladimir Lenin was ushered by train from Switzerland into Russia 16 April 1917, and financed by Germany. Discontent and the weaknesses of the Provisional Government led to a rise in the popularity of the Bolshevik Party, led by Lenin, which demanded an immediate end to the war. The Revolution of November was followed in December by an armistice and negotiations with Germany. At first, the Bolsheviks refused the German terms, but when German troops began marching across Ukraine unopposed, the new government acceded to the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk on 3 March 1918. The treaty ceded vast territories, including Finland, the Baltic provinces, parts of Poland and Ukraine to the Central Powers. Despite this enormous apparent German success, the manpower required for German occupation of former Russian territory may have contributed to the failure of the Spring Offensive and secured relatively little food or other materiel for the Central Powers war effort.\n\nWith the adoption of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, the Entente no longer existed. The Allied powers led a small-scale invasion of Russia, partly to stop Germany from exploiting Russian resources, and to a lesser extent, to support the \"Whites\" (as opposed to the \"Reds\") in the Russian Civil War. Allied troops landed in Arkhangelsk and in Vladivostok as part of the North Russia Intervention.\n\nCzechoslovak Legion\n\nThe Czechoslovak Legion fought with the Entente; their goal was to win support for the independence of Czechoslovakia. The Legion in Russia was established in September 1914, in December 1917 in France (including volunteers from America) and in April 1918 in Italy. Czechoslovak Legion troops defeated the Austro-Hungarian army at the Ukrainian village Zborov in July 1917. After this success, the number of Czechoslovak legionaries increased, as well as Czechoslovak military power. In the Battle of Bakhmach, the Legion defeated the Germans and forced them to make a truce.\n\nIn Russia, they were heavily involved in the Russian Civil War siding with the Whites against the Bolsheviks, at times controlling most of the Trans-Siberian railway and conquering all the major cities of Siberia. The presence of the Czechoslovak Legion near the Yekaterinburg appears to have been one of the motivations for the Bolshevik execution of the Tsar and his family in July 1918. Legionaries arrived less than a week afterwards and captured the city. Because Russia's European ports were not safe, the corps was to be evacuated by a long detour via the port of Vladivostok. The last transport was the American ship Heffron in September 1920.\n\nCentral Powers peace overtures\n\nIn December 1916, after ten brutal months of the Battle of Verdun and a successful offensive against Romania, the Germans attempted to negotiate a peace with the Allies. Soon after, the US president, Woodrow Wilson, attempted to intervene as a peacemaker, asking in a note for both sides to state their demands. Lloyd George's War Cabinet considered the German offer to be a ploy to create divisions amongst the Allies. After initial outrage and much deliberation, they took Wilson's note as a separate effort, signalling that the United States was on the verge of entering the war against Germany following the \"submarine outrages\". While the Allies debated a response to Wilson's offer, the Germans chose to rebuff it in favour of \"a direct exchange of views\". Learning of the German response, the Allied governments were free to make clear demands in their response of 14 January. They sought restoration of damages, the evacuation of occupied territories, reparations for France, Russia and Romania, and a recognition of the principle of nationalities. This included the liberation of Italians, Slavs, Romanians, Czecho-Slovaks, and the creation of a \"free and united Poland\". On the question of security, the Allies sought guarantees that would prevent or limit future wars, complete with sanctions, as a condition of any peace settlement. The negotiations failed and the Entente powers rejected the German offer, because Germany did not state any specific proposals. The Entente powers stated to Wilson, that they would not start peace negotiations until the Central powers evacuated all occupied Allied territories and provided indemnities for all damage which had been done.\n\n1917–1918\n\nDevelopments in 1917\n\nEvents of 1917 proved decisive in ending the war, although their effects were not fully felt until 1918.\n\nThe British naval blockade began to have a serious impact on Germany. In response, in February 1917, the German General Staff convinced Chancellor Theobald von Bethmann-Hollweg to declare unrestricted submarine warfare, with the goal of starving Britain out of the war. German planners estimated that unrestricted submarine warfare would cost Britain a monthly shipping loss of 600,000 tons. The General Staff acknowledged that the policy would almost certainly bring the United States into the conflict, but calculated that British shipping losses would be so high that they would be forced to sue for peace after 5 to 6 months, before American intervention could make an impact. In reality, tonnage sunk rose above 500,000 tons per month from February to July. It peaked at 860,000 tons in April. After July, the newly re-introduced convoy system became effective in reducing the U-boat threat. Britain was safe from starvation, while German industrial output fell and the United States joined the war far earlier than Germany had anticipated.\n\nOn 3 May 1917, during the Nivelle Offensive, the French 2nd Colonial Division, veterans of the Battle of Verdun, refused orders, arriving drunk and without their weapons. Their officers lacked the means to punish an entire division, and harsh measures were not immediately implemented. The French Army Mutinies eventually spread to a further 54 French divisions and saw 20,000 men desert. However, appeals to patriotism and duty, as well as mass arrests and trials, encouraged the soldiers to return to defend their trenches, although the French soldiers refused to participate in further offensive action. Robert Nivelle was removed from command by 15 May, replaced by General Philippe Pétain, who suspended bloody large-scale attacks.\n\nThe victory of he central powers at the Battle of Caporetto led the Allies to convene the Rapallo Conference at which they formed the Supreme War Council to coordinate planning. Previously, British and French armies had operated under separate commands.\n\nIn December, the Central Powers signed an armistice with Russia, thus freeing large numbers of German troops for use in the west. With German reinforcements and new American troops pouring in, the outcome was to be decided on the Western Front. The Central Powers knew that they could not win a protracted war, but they held high hopes for success based on a final quick offensive. Furthermore, the both sides became increasingly fearful of social unrest and revolution in Europe. Thus, both sides urgently sought a decisive victory.\n\nIn 1917, Emperor Charles I of Austria secretly attempted separate peace negotiations with Clemenceau, through his wife's brother Sixtus in Belgium as an intermediary, without the knowledge of Germany. Italy opposed the proposals. When the negotiations failed, his attempt was revealed to Germany resulting in a diplomatic catastrophe.\n\nOttoman Empire conflict, 1917–1918\n\nIn March and April 1917, at the First and Second Battles of Gaza, German and Ottoman forces stopped the advance of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force, which had begun in August 1916 at the Battle of Romani. \nAt the end of October, the Sinai and Palestine Campaign resumed, when General Edmund Allenby's XXth Corps, XXI Corps and Desert Mounted Corps won the Battle of Beersheba. Two Ottoman armies were defeated a few weeks later at the Battle of Mughar Ridge and, early in December, Jerusalem was captured following another Ottoman defeat at the Battle of Jerusalem (1917). About this time, Friedrich Freiherr Kress von Kressenstein was relieved of his duties as the Eighth Army's commander, replaced by Djevad Pasha, and a few months later the commander of the Ottoman Army in Palestine, Erich von Falkenhayn, was replaced by Otto Liman von Sanders. \n\nIn early in 1918, the front line was extended and the Jordan Valley was occupied, following the First Transjordan and the Second Transjordan attack by British Empire forces in March and April 1918. In March, most of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force's British infantry and Yeomanry cavalry were sent to the Western Front as a consequence of the Spring Offensive. They were replaced by Indian Army units. During several months of reorganisation and training of the summer, a number of attacks were carried out on sections of the Ottoman front line. These pushed the front line north to more advantageous positions for the Entente in preparation for an attack and to acclimatise the newly arrived Indian Army infantry. It was not until the middle of September that the integrated force was ready for large-scale operations.\n\nThe reorganised Egyptian Expeditionary Force, with an additional mounted division, broke Ottoman forces at the Battle of Megiddo in September 1918. In two days the British and Indian infantry, supported by a creeping barrage, broke the Ottoman front line and captured the headquarters of the Eighth Army (Ottoman Empire) at Tulkarm, the continuous trench lines at Tabsor, Arara and the Seventh Army (Ottoman Empire) headquarters at Nablus. The Desert Mounted Corps rode through the break in the front line created by the infantry and, during virtually continuous operations by Australian Light Horse, British mounted Yeomanry, Indian Lancers and New Zealand Mounted Rifle brigades in the Jezreel Valley, they captured Nazareth, Afulah and Beisan, Jenin, along with Haifa on the Mediterranean coast and Daraa east of the Jordan River on the Hejaz railway. Samakh and Tiberias on the Sea of Galilee, were captured on the way northwards to Damascus. Meanwhile, Chaytor's Force of Australian light horse, New Zealand mounted rifles, Indian, British West Indies and Jewish infantry captured the crossings of the Jordan River, Es Salt, Amman and at Ziza most of the Fourth Army (Ottoman Empire). The Armistice of Mudros, signed at the end of October, ended hostilities with the Ottoman Empire when fighting was continuing north of Aleppo.\n\nEntry of the United States\n\nAt the outbreak of the war, the United States pursued a policy of non-intervention, avoiding conflict while trying to broker a peace. When the German U-boat U-20 sank the British liner RMS Lusitania on 7 May 1915 with 128 Americans among the dead, President Woodrow Wilson insisted that \"America is too proud to fight\" but demanded an end to attacks on passenger ships. Germany complied. Wilson unsuccessfully tried to mediate a settlement. However, he also repeatedly warned that the United States would not tolerate unrestricted submarine warfare, in violation of international law. The former president Theodore Roosevelt denounced German acts as \"piracy\". Wilson was narrowly reelected in 1916 as his supporters emphasized \"he kept us out of war\".\n\nIn January 1917, Germany resumed unrestricted submarine warfare, realizing it would mean American entry. The German Foreign Minister, in the Zimmermann Telegram, invited Mexico to join the war as Germany's ally against the United States. In return, the Germans would finance Mexico's war and help it recover the territories of Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona. The United Kingdom intercepted the message and presented it to the US embassy in the UK. From there it made its way to President Wilson who released the Zimmermann note to the public, and Americans saw it as casus belli. Wilson called on antiwar elements to end all wars, by winning this one and eliminating militarism from the globe. He argued that the war was so important that the US had to have a voice in the peace conference. After the sinking of seven US merchant ships by submarines and the publication of the Zimmermann telegram, Wilson called for war on Germany, which the US Congress declared on 6 April 1917.\n\nThe United States was never formally a member of the Allies but became a self-styled \"Associated Power\". The United States had a small army, but, after the passage of the Selective Service Act, it drafted 2.8 million men, and, by summer 1918, was sending 10,000 fresh soldiers to France every day. In 1917, the US Congress gave US citizenship to Puerto Ricans when they were drafted to participate in World War I, as part of the Jones Act. If Germany believed it would be many more months before American soldiers would arrive and that their arrival could be stopped by U-boats, it had miscalculated.\n\nThe United States Navy sent a battleship group to Scapa Flow to join with the British Grand Fleet, destroyers to Queenstown, Ireland, and submarines to help guard convoys. Several regiments of US Marines were also dispatched to France. The British and French wanted American units used to reinforce their troops already on the battle lines and not waste scarce shipping on bringing over supplies. General John J. Pershing, American Expeditionary Forces (AEF) commander, refused to break up American units to be used as filler material. As an exception, he did allow African-American combat regiments to be used in French divisions. The Harlem Hellfighters fought as part of the French 16th Division, and earned a unit Croix de Guerre for their actions at Château-Thierry, Belleau Wood, and Sechault. AEF doctrine called for the use of frontal assaults, which had long since been discarded by British Empire and French commanders due to the large loss of life that resulted.\n\nGerman Spring Offensive of 1918\n\nLudendorff drew up plans (codenamed Operation Michael) for the 1918 offensive on the Western Front. The Spring Offensive sought to divide the British and French forces with a series of feints and advances. The German leadership hoped to end the war before significant US forces arrived. The operation commenced on 21 March 1918, with an attack on British forces near Saint-Quentin. German forces achieved an unprecedented advance of .\n\nBritish and French trenches were penetrated using novel infiltration tactics, also named Hutier tactics, after General Oskar von Hutier, by specially trained units called stormtroopers. Previously, attacks had been characterised by long artillery bombardments and massed assaults. However, in the Spring Offensive of 1918, Ludendorff used artillery only briefly and infiltrated small groups of infantry at weak points. They attacked command and logistics areas and bypassed points of serious resistance. More heavily armed infantry then destroyed these isolated positions. This German success relied greatly on the element of surprise.\n\nThe front moved to within of Paris. Three heavy Krupp railway guns fired 183 shells on the capital, causing many Parisians to flee. The initial offensive was so successful that Kaiser Wilhelm II declared 24 March a national holiday. Many Germans thought victory was near. After heavy fighting, however, the offensive was halted. Lacking tanks or motorised artillery, the Germans were unable to consolidate their gains. The problems of re-supply were also exacerbated by increasing distances that now stretched over terrain that was shell-torn and often impassable to traffic.\n\nGeneral Foch pressed to use the arriving American troops as individual replacements, whereas Pershing sought to field American units as an independent force. These units were assigned to the depleted French and British Empire commands on 28 March. A Supreme War Council of Allied forces was created at the Doullens Conference on 5 November 1917. General Foch was appointed as supreme commander of the Allied forces. Haig, Petain, and Pershing retained tactical control of their respective armies; Foch assumed a coordinating rather than a directing role, and the British, French, and US commands operated largely independently.\n\nFollowing Operation Michael, Germany launched Operation Georgette against the northern English Channel ports. The Allies halted the drive after limited territorial gains by Germany. The German Army to the south then conducted Operations Blücher and Yorck, pushing broadly towards Paris. Germany launched Operation Marne (Second Battle of the Marne) 15 July, in an attempt to encircle Reims. The resulting counterattack, which started the Hundred Days Offensive, marked the first successful Allied offensive of the war.\n\nBy 20 July, the Germans had retreated across the Marne to their starting lines, having achieved little, and the German Army never regained the initiative. German casualties between March and April 1918 were 270,000, including many highly trained storm troopers.\n\nMeanwhile, Germany was falling apart at home. Anti-war marches became frequent and morale in the army fell. Industrial output was half the 1913 levels.\n\nNew states under war zone\n\nIn the late spring of 1918, three new states were formed in the South Caucasus: the First Republic of Armenia, the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic, and the Democratic Republic of Georgia, which declared their independence from the Russian Empire. Two other minor entities were established, the Centrocaspian Dictatorship and South West Caucasian Republic (the former was liquidated by Azerbaijan in the autumn of 1918 and the latter by a joint Armenian-British task force in early 1919). With the withdrawal of the Russian armies from the Caucasus front in the winter of 1917–18, the three major republics braced for an imminent Ottoman advance, which commenced in the early months of 1918. Solidarity was briefly maintained when the Transcaucasian Federative Republic was created in the spring of 1918, but this collapsed in May, when the Georgians asked and received protection from Germany and the Azerbaijanis concluded a treaty with the Ottoman Empire that was more akin to a military alliance. Armenia was left to fend for itself and struggled for five months against the threat of a full-fledged occupation by the Ottoman Turks before defeating them at the Battle of Sardarabad.\n\nAllied victory: summer 1918 onwards\n\nHundred Days Offensive\n\nThe Allied counteroffensive, known as the Hundred Days Offensive, began on 8 August 1918, with the Battle of Amiens. The battle involved over 400 tanks and 120,000 British, Dominion, and French troops, and by the end of its first day a gap long had been created in the German lines. The defenders displayed a marked collapse in morale, causing Ludendorff to refer to this day as the \"Black Day of the German army\". After an advance as far as , German resistance stiffened, and the battle was concluded on 12 August.\n\nRather than continuing the Amiens battle past the point of initial success, as had been done so many times in the past, the Allies shifted their attention elsewhere. Allied leaders had now realised that to continue an attack after resistance had hardened was a waste of lives, and it was better to turn a line than to try to roll over it. They began to undertake attacks in quick order to take advantage of successful advances on the flanks, then broke them off when each attack lost its initial impetus. \n\nBritish and Dominion forces launched the next phase of the campaign with the Battle of Albert on 21 August. The assault was widened by French and then further British forces in the following days. During the last week of August the Allied pressure along a front against the enemy was heavy and unrelenting. From German accounts, \"Each day was spent in bloody fighting against an ever and again on-storming enemy, and nights passed without sleep in retirements to new lines.\"\n\nFaced with these advances, on 2 September the German Supreme Army Command issued orders to withdraw to the Hindenburg Line in the south. This ceded without a fight the salient seized the previous April. According to Ludendorff \"We had to admit the necessity ... to withdraw the entire front from the Scarpe to the Vesle.\n\nSeptember saw the Allies advance to the Hindenburg Line in the north and centre. The Germans continued to fight strong rear-guard actions and launched numerous counterattacks on lost positions, but only a few succeeded, and those only temporarily. Contested towns, villages, heights, and trenches in the screening positions and outposts of the Hindenburg Line continued to fall to the Allies, with the BEF alone taking 30,441 prisoners in the last week of September. On 24 September an assault by both the British and French came within of St. Quentin. The Germans had now retreated to positions along or behind the Hindenburg Line.\n\nIn nearly four weeks of fighting beginning 8 August, over 100,000 German prisoners were taken. As of \"The Black Day of the German Army\", the German High Command realised that the war was lost and made attempts to reach a satisfactory end. The day after that battle, Ludendorff said: \"We cannot win the war any more, but we must not lose it either.\" On 11 August he offered his resignation to the Kaiser, who refused it, replying, \"I see that we must strike a balance. We have nearly reached the limit of our powers of resistance. The war must be ended.\" On 13 August, at Spa, Hindenburg, Ludendorff, the Chancellor, and Foreign Minister Hintz agreed that the war could not be ended militarily and, on the following day, the German Crown Council decided that victory in the field was now most improbable. Austria and Hungary warned that they could only continue the war until December, and Ludendorff recommended immediate peace negotiations. Prince Rupprecht warned Prince Max of Baden: \"Our military situation has deteriorated so rapidly that I no longer believe we can hold out over the winter; it is even possible that a catastrophe will come earlier.\" On 10 September Hindenburg urged peace moves to Emperor Charles of Austria, and Germany appealed to the Netherlands for mediation. On 14 September Austria sent a note to all belligerents and neutrals suggesting a meeting for peace talks on neutral soil, and on 15 September Germany made a peace offer to Belgium. Both peace offers were rejected, and on 24 September Supreme Army Command informed the leaders in Berlin that armistice talks were inevitable.\n\nThe final assault on the Hindenburg Line began with the Meuse-Argonne Offensive, launched by French and American troops on 26 September. The following week, cooperating French and American units broke through in Champagne at the Battle of Blanc Mont Ridge, forcing the Germans off the commanding heights, and closing towards the Belgian frontier. On 8 October the line was pierced again by British and Dominion troops at the Battle of Cambrai. The German army had to shorten its front and use the Dutch frontier as an anchor to fight rear-guard actions as it fell back towards Germany.\n\nWhen Bulgaria signed a separate armistice on 29 September, Ludendorff, having been under great stress for months, suffered something similar to a breakdown. It was evident that Germany could no longer mount a successful defence.\n\nNews of Germany's impending military defeat spread throughout the German armed forces. The threat of mutiny was rife. Admiral Reinhard Scheer and Ludendorff decided to launch a last attempt to restore the \"valour\" of the German Navy. Knowing the government of Prince Maximilian of Baden would veto any such action, Ludendorff decided not to inform him. Nonetheless, word of the impending assault reached sailors at Kiel. Many, refusing to be part of a naval offensive, which they believed to be suicidal, rebelled and were arrested. Ludendorff took the blame; the Kaiser dismissed him on 26 October. The collapse of the Balkans meant that Germany was about to lose its main supplies of oil and food. Its reserves had been used up, even as US troops kept arriving at the rate of 10,000 per day. The Americans supplied more than 80% of Allied oil during the war, and there was no shortage.\n\nWith the military faltering and with widespread loss of confidence in the Kaiser, Germany moved towards surrender. Prince Maximilian of Baden took charge of a new government as Chancellor of Germany to negotiate with the Allies. Negotiations with President Wilson began immediately, in the hope that he would offer better terms than the British and French. Wilson demanded a constitutional monarchy and parliamentary control over the German military. There was no resistance when the Social Democrat Philipp Scheidemann on 9 November declared Germany to be a republic. The Kaiser, kings and other hereditary rulers all were removed from power and Wilhelm fled to exile in the Netherlands. Imperial Germany was dead; a new Germany had been born as the Weimar Republic.\n\nArmistices and capitulations\n\nThe collapse of the Central Powers came swiftly. Bulgaria was the first to sign an armistice, on 29 September 1918 at Saloniki. On 30 October, the Ottoman Empire capitulated, signing the Armistice of Mudros.\n\nOn 24 October, the Italians began a push that rapidly recovered territory lost after the Battle of Caporetto. This culminated in the Battle of Vittorio Veneto, which marked the end of the Austro-Hungarian Army as an effective fighting force. The offensive also triggered the disintegration of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. During the last week of October, declarations of independence were made in Budapest, Prague, and Zagreb. On 29 October, the imperial authorities asked Italy for an armistice. But the Italians continued advancing, reaching Trento, Udine, and Trieste. On 3 November, Austria-Hungary sent a flag of truce to ask for an armistice (Armistice of Villa Giusti). The terms, arranged by telegraph with the Allied Authorities in Paris, were communicated to the Austrian commander and accepted. The Armistice with Austria was signed in the Villa Giusti, near Padua, on 3 November. Austria and Hungary signed separate armistices following the overthrow of the Habsburg Monarchy.\n\nOn 11 November, at 5:00 am, an armistice with Germany was signed in a railroad carriage at Compiègne. At 11 am on 11 November 1918—\"the eleventh hour of the eleventh day of the eleventh month\"—a ceasefire came into effect. During the six hours between the signing of the armistice and its taking effect, opposing armies on the Western Front began to withdraw from their positions, but fighting continued along many areas of the front, as commanders wanted to capture territory before the war ended.\n\nThe occupation of the Rhineland took place following the Armistice. The occupying armies consisted of American, Belgian, British and French forces.\n\nIn November 1918, the Allies had ample supplies of men and materiel to invade Germany. Yet at the time of the armistice, no Allied force had crossed the German frontier; the Western Front was still some from Berlin; and the Kaiser's armies had retreated from the battlefield in good order. These factors enabled Hindenburg and other senior German leaders to spread the story that their armies had not really been defeated. This resulted in the stab-in-the-back legend, which attributed Germany's defeat not to its inability to continue fighting (even though up to a million soldiers were suffering from the 1918 flu pandemic and unfit to fight), but to the public's failure to respond to its \"patriotic calling\" and the supposed intentional sabotage of the war effort, particularly by Jews, Socialists, and Bolsheviks.\n\nThe Allies had much more potential wealth they could spend on the war. One estimate (using 1913 US dollars) is that the Allies spent $58 billion on the war and the Central Powers only $25 billion. Among the Allies, the UK spent $21 billion and the US $17 billion; among the Central Powers Germany spent $20 billion. \n\nAftermath\n\nIn the aftermath of the war, four empires disappeared: the German, Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, and Russian. Numerous nations regained their former independence, and new ones created. Four dynasties, together with their ancillary aristocracies, all fell as a result of the war: the Romanovs, the Hohenzollerns, the Habsburgs, and the Ottomans. Belgium and Serbia were badly damaged, as was France, with 1.4 million soldiers dead, not counting other casualties. Germany and Russia were similarly affected. \n\nFormal end of the war\n\nA formal state of war between the two sides persisted for another seven months, until the signing of the Treaty of Versailles with Germany on 28 June 1919. The United States Senate did not ratify the treaty despite public support for it, and did not formally end its involvement in the war until the Knox–Porter Resolution was signed on 2 July 1921 by President Warren G. Harding. For the United Kingdom and the British Empire, the state of war ceased under the provisions of the Termination of the Present War (Definition) Act 1918 with respect to:\n\n* Germany on 10 January 1920. \n* Austria on 16 July 1920. \n* Bulgaria on 9 August 1920. \n* Hungary on 26 July 1921. \n* Turkey on 6 August 1924. \n\nAfter the Treaty of Versailles, treaties with Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria, and the Ottoman Empire were signed. However, the negotiation of the latter treaty with the Ottoman Empire was followed by strife, and a final peace treaty between the Allied Powers and the country that would shortly become the Republic of Turkey was not signed until 24 July 1923, at Lausanne.\n\nSome war memorials date the end of the war as being when the Versailles Treaty was signed in 1919, which was when many of the troops serving abroad finally returned to their home countries; by contrast, most commemorations of the war's end concentrate on the armistice of 11 November 1918. Legally, the formal peace treaties were not complete until the last, the Treaty of Lausanne, was signed. Under its terms, the Allied forces divested Constantinople on 23 August 1923.\n\nPeace treaties and national boundaries\n\nAfter the war, the Paris Peace Conference imposed a series of peace treaties on the Central Powers officially ending the war. The 1919 Treaty of Versailles dealt with Germany, and building on Wilson's 14th point, brought into being the League of Nations on 28 June 1919.\n\nThe Central Powers had to acknowledge responsibility for \"all the loss and damage to which the Allied and Associated Governments and their nationals have been subjected as a consequence of the war imposed upon them by\" their aggression. In the Treaty of Versailles, this statement was Article 231. This article became known as War Guilt clause as the majority of Germans felt humiliated and resentful. Overall the Germans felt they had been unjustly dealt by what they called the \"diktat of Versailles.\" Schulze says, the Treaty placed Germany, \"under legal sanctions, deprived of military power, economically ruined, and politically humiliated.\" Belgian historian Laurence Van Ypersele emphasizes the central role played by memory of the war and the Versailles Treaty in German politics in the 1920s and 1930s:\nActive denial of war guilt in Germany and German resentment at both reparations and continued Allied occupation of the Rhineland made widespread revision of the meaning and memory of the war problematic. The legend of the \"stab in the back\" and the wish to revise the \"Versailles diktat\", and the belief in an international threat aimed at the elimination of the German nation persisted at the heart of German politics. Even a man of peace such as Stresemann publicly rejected German guilt. As for the Nazis, they waved the banners of domestic treason and international conspiracy in an attempt to galvanize the German nation into a spirit of revenge. Like a Fascist Italy, Nazi Germany sought to redirect the memory of the war to the benefit of its own policies. \n\nMeanwhile, new nations liberated from German rule viewed the treaty as recognition of wrongs committed against small nations by much larger aggressive neighbors. The Peace Conference required all the defeated powers to pay reparations for all the damage done to civilians. However, owing to economic difficulties and Germany being the only defeated power with an intact economy, the burden fell largely on Germany.\n\nAustria-Hungary was partitioned into several successor states, including Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia, largely but not entirely along ethnic lines. Transylvania was shifted from Hungary to Greater Romania. The details were contained in the Treaty of Saint-Germain and the Treaty of Trianon. As a result of the Treaty of Trianon, 3.3 million Hungarians came under foreign rule. Although the Hungarians made up 54% of the population of the pre-war Kingdom of Hungary, only 32% of its territory was left to Hungary. Between 1920 and 1924, 354,000 Hungarians fled former Hungarian territories attached to Romania, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia. \n\nThe Russian Empire, which had withdrawn from the war in 1917 after the October Revolution, lost much of its western frontier as the newly independent nations of Estonia, Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, and Poland were carved from it. Romania took control of Bessarabia in April 1918.\n\nThe Ottoman Empire disintegrated, and much of its Levant territory was awarded to various Allied powers as protectorates. The Turkish core in Anatolia was reorganised as the Republic of Turkey. The Ottoman Empire was to be partitioned by the Treaty of Sèvres of 1920. This treaty was never ratified by the Sultan and was rejected by the Turkish National Movement, leading to the victorious Turkish War of Independence and the much less stringent 1923 Treaty of Lausanne.\n\nNational identities\n\nPoland reemerged as an independent country, after more than a century. The Kingdom of Serbia and its dynasty, as a \"minor Entente nation\" and the country with the most casualties per capita, became the backbone of a new multinational state, the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, later renamed Yugoslavia. Czechoslovakia, combining the Kingdom of Bohemia with parts of the Kingdom of Hungary, became a new nation. Russia became the Soviet Union and lost Finland, Estonia, Lithuania, and Latvia, which became independent countries. The Ottoman Empire was soon replaced by Turkey and several other countries in the Middle East.\n\nIn the British Empire, the war unleashed new forms of nationalism. In Australia and New Zealand the Battle of Gallipoli became known as those nations' \"Baptism of Fire\". It was the first major war in which the newly established countries fought, and it was one of the first times that Australian troops fought as Australians, not just subjects of the British Crown. Anzac Day, commemorating the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps, celebrates this defining moment. \n\nAfter the Battle of Vimy Ridge, where the Canadian divisions fought together for the first time as a single corps, Canadians began to refer to theirs as a nation \"forged from fire\". Having succeeded on the same battleground where the \"mother countries\" had previously faltered, they were for the first time respected internationally for their own accomplishments. Canada entered the war as a Dominion of the British Empire and remained so, although it emerged with a greater measure of independence. When Britain declared war in 1914, the dominions were automatically at war; at the conclusion, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa were individual signatories of the Treaty of Versailles. \n\nThe establishment of the modern state of Israel and the roots of the continuing Israeli–Palestinian conflict are partially found in the unstable power dynamics of the Middle East that resulted from World War I. Before the end of the war, the Ottoman Empire had maintained a modest level of peace and stability throughout the Middle East. With the fall of the Ottoman government, power vacuums developed and conflicting claims to land and nationhood began to emerge. The political boundaries drawn by the victors of World War I were quickly imposed, sometimes after only cursory consultation with the local population. These continue to be problematic in the 21st-century struggles for national identity. While the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire at the end of World War I was pivotal in contributing to the modern political situation of the Middle East, including the Arab-Israeli conflict, the end of Ottoman rule also spawned lesser known disputes over water and other natural resources.\n\nHealth effects\n\nThe war had profound consequences in the health of soldiers. Of the 60 million European military personnel who were mobilized from 1914 to 1918, 8 million were killed, 7 million were permanently disabled, and 15 million were seriously injured. Germany lost 15.1% of its active male population, Austria-Hungary lost 17.1%, and France lost 10.5%. In Germany, civilian deaths were 474,000 higher than in peacetime, due in large part to food shortages and malnutrition that weakened resistance to disease. By the end of the war, starvation caused by famine had killed approximately 100,000 people in Lebanon. Between 5 and 10 million people died in the Russian famine of 1921. By 1922, there were between 4.5 million and 7 million homeless children in Russia as a result of nearly a decade of devastation from World War I, the Russian Civil War, and the subsequent famine of 1920–1922. Numerous anti-Soviet Russians fled the country after the Revolution; by the 1930s, the northern Chinese city of Harbin had 100,000 Russians. Thousands more emigrated to France, England, and the United States.\n\nIn Australia, the effects of the war on the economy were no less severe. The Australian prime minister, Billy Hughes, wrote to the British prime minister, Lloyd George, \"You have assured us that you cannot get better terms. I much regret it, and hope even now that some way may be found of securing agreement for demanding reparation commensurate with the tremendous sacrifices made by the British Empire and her Allies.\" Australia received ₤5,571,720 war reparations, but the direct cost of the war to Australia had been ₤376,993,052, and, by the mid-1930s, repatriation pensions, war gratuities, interest and sinking fund charges were ₤831,280,947. Of about 416,000 Australians who served, about 60,000 were killed and another 152,000 were wounded. \n\nDiseases flourished in the chaotic wartime conditions. In 1914 alone, louse-borne epidemic typhus killed 200,000 in Serbia. From 1918 to 1922, Russia had about 25 million infections and 3 million deaths from epidemic typhus. In 1923, 13 million Russians contracted malaria, a sharp increase from the pre-war years. In addition, a major influenza epidemic spread around the world. Overall, the 1918 flu pandemic killed at least 50 million people. \n\nLobbying by Chaim Weizmann and fear that American Jews would encourage the United States to support Germany culminated in the British government's Balfour Declaration of 1917, endorsing creation of a Jewish homeland in Palestine. A total of more than 1,172,000 Jewish soldiers served in the Allied and Central Power forces in World War I, including 275,000 in Austria-Hungary and 450,000 in Czarist Russia. \n\nThe social disruption and widespread violence of the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the ensuing Russian Civil War sparked more than 2,000 pogroms in the former Russian Empire, mostly in Ukraine. An estimated 60,000–200,000 civilian Jews were killed in the atrocities. \n\nIn the aftermath of World War I, Greece fought against Turkish nationalists led by Mustafa Kemal, a war which eventually resulted in a massive population exchange between the two countries under the Treaty of Lausanne. According to various sources, several hundred thousand Greeks died during this period, which was tied in with the Greek Genocide. \n\nTechnology\n\nGround warfare\n\nWorld War I began as a clash of 20th-century technology and 19th-century tactics, with the inevitably large ensuing casualties. By the end of 1917, however, the major armies, now numbering millions of men, had modernised and were making use of telephone, wireless communication, armoured cars, tanks, and aircraft. Infantry formations were reorganised, so that 100-man companies were no longer the main unit of manoeuvre; instead, squads of 10 or so men, under the command of a junior NCO, were favoured.\n\nArtillery also underwent a revolution. In 1914, cannons were positioned in the front line and fired directly at their targets. By 1917, indirect fire with guns (as well as mortars and even machine guns) was commonplace, using new techniques for spotting and ranging, notably aircraft and the often overlooked field telephone. Counter-battery missions became commonplace, also, and sound detection was used to locate enemy batteries.\n\nGermany was far ahead of the Allies in utilising heavy indirect fire. The German Army employed and howitzers in 1914, when typical French and British guns were only and . The British had a 6 inch (152 mm) howitzer, but it was so heavy it had to be hauled to the field in pieces and assembled. The Germans also fielded Austrian and guns and, even at the beginning of the war, had inventories of various calibers of Minenwerfer, which were ideally suited for trench warfare.\n\nMuch of the combat involved trench warfare, in which hundreds often died for each yard gained. Many of the deadliest battles in history occurred during World War I. Such battles include Ypres, the Marne, Cambrai, the Somme, Verdun, and Gallipoli. The Germans employed the Haber process of nitrogen fixation to provide their forces with a constant supply of gunpowder despite the British naval blockade. Artillery was responsible for the largest number of casualties and consumed vast quantities of explosives. The large number of head wounds caused by exploding shells and fragmentation forced the combatant nations to develop the modern steel helmet, led by the French, who introduced the Adrian helmet in 1915. It was quickly followed by the Brodie helmet, worn by British Imperial and US troops, and in 1916 by the distinctive German Stahlhelm, a design, with improvements, still in use today.\n\nThe widespread use of chemical warfare was a distinguishing feature of the conflict. Gases used included chlorine, mustard gas and phosgene. Few war casualties were caused by gas, as effective countermeasures to gas attacks were quickly created, such as gas masks. The use of chemical warfare and small-scale strategic bombing were both outlawed by the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907, and both proved to be of limited effectiveness, though they captured the public imagination. \n\nThe most powerful land-based weapons were railway guns, manufactured by the Krupp works, weighing hundreds of tons apiece. These were nicknamed Big Berthas, even though the namesake was not a railway gun. Germany developed the Paris Gun, able to bombard Paris from over , though shells were relatively light at 94 kilograms (210 lb).\n\nTrenches, machine guns, air reconnaissance, barbed wire, and modern artillery with fragmentation shells helped bring the battle lines of World War I to a stalemate. The British and the French sought a solution with the creation of the tank and mechanised warfare. The British first tanks were used during the Battle of the Somme on 15 September 1916. Mechanical reliability was an issue, but the experiment proved its worth. Within a year, the British were fielding tanks by the hundreds, and they showed their potential during the Battle of Cambrai in November 1917, by breaking the Hindenburg Line, while combined arms teams captured 8,000 enemy soldiers and 100 guns. Meanwhile, the French introduced the first tanks with a rotating turret, the Renault FT, which became a decisive tool of the victory. The conflict also saw the introduction of light automatic weapons and submachine guns, such as the Lewis Gun, the Browning automatic rifle, and the Bergmann MP18.\n\nAnother new weapon, the flamethrower, was first used by the German army and later adopted by other forces. Although not of high tactical value, the flamethrower was a powerful, demoralising weapon that caused terror on the battlefield.\n\nTrench railways evolved to supply the enormous quantities of food, water, and ammunition required to support large numbers of soldiers in areas where conventional transportation systems had been destroyed. Internal combustion engines and improved traction systems for automobiles and trucks/lorries eventually rendered trench railways obsolete.\n\nNaval\n\nGermany deployed U-boats (submarines) after the war began. Alternating between restricted and unrestricted submarine warfare in the Atlantic, the Kaiserliche Marine employed them to deprive the British Isles of vital supplies. The deaths of British merchant sailors and the seeming invulnerability of U-boats led to the development of depth charges (1916), hydrophones (passive sonar, 1917), blimps, hunter-killer submarines (HMS R-1, 1917), forward-throwing anti-submarine weapons, and dipping hydrophones (the latter two both abandoned in 1918). To extend their operations, the Germans proposed supply submarines (1916). Most of these would be forgotten in the interwar period until World War II revived the need.\n\nAviation\n\nFixed-wing aircraft were first used militarily by the Italians in Libya on 23 October 1911 during the Italo-Turkish War for reconnaissance, soon followed by the dropping of grenades and aerial photography the next year. By 1914, their military utility was obvious. They were initially used for reconnaissance and ground attack. To shoot down enemy planes, anti-aircraft guns and fighter aircraft were developed. Strategic bombers were created, principally by the Germans and British, though the former used Zeppelins as well. Towards the end of the conflict, aircraft carriers were used for the first time, with launching Sopwith Camels in a raid to destroy the Zeppelin hangars at Tondern in 1918.\n\nManned observation balloons, floating high above the trenches, were used as stationary reconnaissance platforms, reporting enemy movements and directing artillery. Balloons commonly had a crew of two, equipped with parachutes, so that if there was an enemy air attack the crew could parachute to safety. At the time, parachutes were too heavy to be used by pilots of aircraft (with their marginal power output), and smaller versions were not developed until the end of the war; they were also opposed by the British leadership, who feared they might promote cowardice.\n\nRecognised for their value as observation platforms, balloons were important targets for enemy aircraft. To defend them against air attack, they were heavily protected by antiaircraft guns and patrolled by friendly aircraft; to attack them, unusual weapons such as air-to-air rockets were even tried. Thus, the reconnaissance value of blimps and balloons contributed to the development of air-to-air combat between all types of aircraft, and to the trench stalemate, because it was impossible to move large numbers of troops undetected. The Germans conducted air raids on England during 1915 and 1916 with airships, hoping to damage British morale and cause aircraft to be diverted from the front lines, and indeed the resulting panic led to the diversion of several squadrons of fighters from France.\n\nWar crimes\n\nBaralong incidents\n\nOn 19 August 1915, the German submarine U-27 was sunk by the British Q-ship HMS Baralong. All German survivors were summarily executed by Baralongs crew on the orders of Lieutenant Godfrey Herbert, the captain of the ship. The shooting was reported to the media by American citizens who were on board the Nicosia, a British freighter loaded with war supplies, which was stopped by U-27 just minutes before the incident. \n\nOn 24 September, Baralong destroyed U-41, which was in the process of sinking the cargo ship Urbino. According to Karl Goetz, the submarine's commander, Baralong continued to fly the US flag after firing on U-41 and then rammed the lifeboat – carrying the German survivors – sinking it. \n\nHMHS Llandovery Castle\n\nThe Canadian hospital ship HMHS Llandovery Castle was torpedoed by the German submarine SM U-86 on 27 June 1918 in violation of international law. Only 24 of the 258 medical personnel, patients, and crew survived. Survivors reported that the U-boat surfaced and ran down the lifeboats, machine-gunning survivors in the water. The U-boat captain, Helmut Patzig, was charged with war crimes in Germany following the war, but escaped prosecution by going to the Free City of Danzig, beyond the jurisdiction of German courts. \n\nChemical weapons in warfare\n\nThe first successful use of poison gas as a weapon of warfare occurred during the Second Battle of Ypres (22 April – 25 May 1915). Gas was soon used by all major belligerents throughout the war. It is estimated that the use of chemical weapons employed by both sides throughout the war had inflicted 1.3 million casualties. For example, the British had over 180,000 chemical weapons casualties during the war, and up to one-third of American casualties were caused by them. The Russian Army reportedly suffered roughly 500,000 chemical weapon casualties in World War I. The use of chemical weapons in warfare was in direct violation of the 1899 Hague Declaration Concerning Asphyxiating Gases and the 1907 Hague Convention on Land Warfare, which prohibited their use. \n\nThe effect of poison gas was not limited to combatants. Civilians were at risk from the gases as winds blew the poison gases through their towns, and rarely received warnings or alerts of potential danger. In addition to absent warning systems, civilians often did not have access to effective gas masks. An estimated 100,000–260,000 civilian casualties were caused by chemical weapons during the conflict and tens of thousands more (along with military personnel) died from scarring of the lungs, skin damage, and cerebral damage in the years after the conflict ended. Many commanders on both sides knew such weapons would cause major harm to civilians but nonetheless continued to use them. British Field Marshal Sir Douglas Haig wrote in his diary, \"My officers and I were aware that such weapons would cause harm to women and children living in nearby towns, as strong winds were common in the battlefront. However, because the weapon was to be directed against the enemy, none of us were overly concerned at all.\" \n\nGenocide and ethnic cleansing\n\nThe ethnic cleansing of the Ottoman Empire's Armenian population, including mass deportations and executions, during the final years of the Ottoman Empire is considered genocide. The Ottomans carried out organized and systematic massacres of the Armenian population at the beginning of the war and portrayed deliberately provoked acts of Armenian resistance as rebellions to justify further extermination. In early 1915, a number of Armenians volunteered to join the Russian forces and the Ottoman government used this as a pretext to issue the Tehcir Law (Law on Deportation), which authorized the deportation of Armenians from the Empire's eastern provinces to Syria between 1915 and 1918. The Armenians were intentionally marched to death and a number were attacked by Ottoman brigands. While an exact number of deaths is unknown, the International Association of Genocide Scholars estimates 1.5 million. The government of Turkey has consistently denied the genocide, arguing that those who died were victims of inter-ethnic fighting, famine, or disease during World War I; these claims are rejected by most historians. Other ethnic groups were similarly attacked by the Ottoman Empire during this period, including Assyrians and Greeks, and some scholars consider those events to be part of the same policy of extermination. \n\nRussian Empire\n\nMany pogroms accompanied the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the ensuing Russian Civil War. 60,000–200,000 civilian Jews were killed in the atrocities throughout the former Russian Empire (mostly within the Pale of Settlement in present-day Ukraine). \n\nRape of Belgium\n\nThe German invaders treated any resistance—such as sabotaging rail lines—as illegal and immoral, and shot the offenders and burned buildings in retaliation. In addition, they tended to suspect that most civilians were potential franc-tireurs (guerrillas) and, accordingly, took and sometimes killed hostages from among the civilian population. The German army executed over 6,500 French and Belgian civilians between August and November 1914, usually in near-random large-scale shootings of civilians ordered by junior German officers. The German Army destroyed 15,000–20,000 buildings—most famously the university library at Louvain—and generated a wave of refugees of over a million people. Over half the German regiments in Belgium were involved in major incidents. Thousands of workers were shipped to Germany to work in factories. British propaganda dramatizing the Rape of Belgium attracted much attention in the United States, while Berlin said it was both lawful and necessary because of the threat of franc-tireurs like those in France in 1870. The British and French magnified the reports and disseminated them at home and in the United States, where they played a major role in dissolving support for Germany.\n\nSoldiers' experiences\n\nThe British soldiers of the war were initially volunteers but increasingly were conscripted into service. Surviving veterans, returning home, often found that they could only discuss their experiences amongst themselves. Grouping together, they formed \"veterans' associations\" or \"Legions\".\n\nPrisoners of war\n\nAbout eight million men surrendered and were held in POW camps during the war. All nations pledged to follow the Hague Conventions on fair treatment of prisoners of war, and the survival rate for POWs was generally much higher than that of their peers at the front. Individual surrenders were uncommon; large units usually surrendered en masse. At the siege of Maubeuge about 40,000 French soldiers surrendered, at the battle of Galicia Russians took about 100,000 to 120,000 Austrian captives, at the Brusilov Offensive about 325,000 to 417,000 Germans and Austrians surrendered to Russians, at the Battle of Tannenberg 92,000 Russians surrendered. When the besieged garrison of Kaunas surrendered in 1915, some 20,000 Russians became prisoners, at the battle near Przasnysz (February–March 1915) 14,000 Germans surrendered to Russians, at the First Battle of the Marne about 12,000 Germans surrendered to the Allies. 25–31% of Russian losses (as a proportion of those captured, wounded, or killed) were to prisoner status; for Austria-Hungary 32%, for Italy 26%, for France 12%, for Germany 9%; for Britain 7%. Prisoners from the Allied armies totalled about 1.4 million (not including Russia, which lost 2.5–3.5 million men as prisoners). From the Central Powers about 3.3 million men became prisoners; most of them surrendered to Russians. Germany held 2.5 million prisoners; Russia held 2.2–2.9 million; while Britain and France held about 720,000. Most were captured just before the Armistice. The United States held 48,000. The most dangerous moment was the act of surrender, when helpless soldiers were sometimes gunned down. Once prisoners reached a camp, conditions were, in general, satisfactory (and much better than in World War II), thanks in part to the efforts of the International Red Cross and inspections by neutral nations. However, conditions were terrible in Russia: starvation was common for prisoners and civilians alike; about 15–20% of the prisoners in Russia died and in Central Powers imprisonment—8% of Russians. In Germany, food was scarce, but only 5% died.\n\nThe Ottoman Empire often treated POWs poorly. Some 11,800 British Empire soldiers, most of them Indians, became prisoners after the Siege of Kut in Mesopotamia in April 1916; 4,250 died in captivity. Although many were in a poor condition when captured, Ottoman officers forced them to march to Anatolia. A survivor said: \"We were driven along like beasts; to drop out was to die.\" The survivors were then forced to build a railway through the Taurus Mountains.\n\nIn Russia, when the prisoners from the Czech Legion of the Austro-Hungarian army were released in 1917, they re-armed themselves and briefly became a military and diplomatic force during the Russian Civil War.\n\nWhile the Allied prisoners of the Central Powers were quickly sent home at the end of active hostilities, the same treatment was not granted to Central Power prisoners of the Allies and Russia, many of whom served as forced labor, e.g., in France until 1920. They were released only after many approaches by the Red Cross to the Allied Supreme Council. German prisoners were still being held in Russia as late as 1924. \n\nMilitary attachés and war correspondents\n\nMilitary and civilian observers from every major power closely followed the course of the war. Many were able to report on events from a perspective somewhat akin to modern \"embedded\" positions within the opposing land and naval forces.\n\nSupport and opposition to the war\n\nSupport\n\nIn the Balkans, Yugoslav nationalists such as the leader, Ante Trumbić, strongly supported the war, desiring the freedom of Yugoslavs from Austria-Hungary and other foreign powers and the creation of an independent Yugoslavia. The Yugoslav Committee was formed in Paris on 30 April 1915 but shortly moved its office to London; Trumbić led the Committee. In April 1918, the Rome Congress of Oppressed Nationalities met, including Czechoslovak, Italian, Polish, Transylvanian, and Yugoslav representatives who urged the Allies to support national self-determination for the peoples residing within Austria-Hungary.\n\nIn the Middle East, Arab nationalism soared in Ottoman territories in response to the rise of Turkish nationalism during the war, with Arab nationalist leaders advocating the creation of a pan-Arab state. In 1916, the Arab Revolt began in Ottoman-controlled territories of the Middle East in an effort to achieve independence.\n\nA number of socialist parties initially supported the war when it began in August 1914. But European socialists split on national lines, with the concept of class conflict held by radical socialists such as Marxists and syndicalists being overborne by their patriotic support for war. Once the war began, Austrian, British, French, German, and Russian socialists followed the rising nationalist current by supporting their countries' intervention in the war.\n\nItalian nationalism was stirred by the outbreak of the war and was initially strongly supported by a variety of political factions. One of the most prominent and popular Italian nationalist supporters of the war was Gabriele d'Annunzio, who promoted Italian irredentism and helped sway the Italian public to support intervention in the war. The Italian Liberal Party, under the leadership of Paolo Boselli, promoted intervention in the war on the side of the Allies and utilised the Dante Alighieri Society to promote Italian nationalism. Italian socialists were divided on whether to support the war or oppose it; some were militant supporters of the war, including Benito Mussolini and Leonida Bissolati. However, the Italian Socialist Party decided to oppose the war after anti-militarist protestors were killed, resulting in a general strike called Red Week. The Italian Socialist Party purged itself of pro-war nationalist members, including Mussolini. Mussolini, a syndicalist who supported the war on grounds of irredentist claims on Italian-populated regions of Austria-Hungary, formed the pro-interventionist Il Popolo d'Italia and the Fasci Rivoluzionario d'Azione Internazionalista (\"Revolutionary Fasci for International Action\") in October 1914 that later developed into the Fasci di Combattimento in 1919, the origin of fascism. Mussolini's nationalism enabled him to raise funds from Ansaldo (an armaments firm) and other companies to create Il Popolo d'Italia to convince socialists and revolutionaries to support the war. \n\nOpposition\n\nOnce war was declared, many socialists and trade unions backed their governments. Among the exceptions were the Bolsheviks, the Socialist Party of America, and the Italian Socialist Party, and individuals such as Karl Liebknecht, Rosa Luxemburg, and their followers in Germany.\n\nBenedict XV, elected to the papacy less than three months into World War I, made the war and its consequences the main focus of his early pontificate. In stark contrast to his predecessor, five days after his election he spoke of his determination to do what he could to bring peace. His first encyclical, Ad beatissimi Apostolorum, given 1 November 1914, was concerned with this subject. Benedict XV found his abilities and unique position as a religious emissary of peace ignored by the belligerent powers. The 1915 Treaty of London between Italy and the Triple Entente included secret provisions whereby the Allies agreed with Italy to ignore papal peace moves towards the Central Powers. Consequently, the publication of Benedict's proposed seven-point Peace Note of August 1917 was roundly ignored by all parties except Austria-Hungary. \n\nIn Britain, in 1914, the Public Schools Officers' Training Corps annual camp was held at Tidworth Pennings, near Salisbury Plain. Head of the British Army, Lord Kitchener, was to review the cadets, but the imminence of the war prevented him. General Horace Smith-Dorrien was sent instead. He surprised the two-or-three thousand cadets by declaring (in the words of Donald Christopher Smith, a Bermudian cadet who was present),\nthat war should be avoided at almost any cost, that war would solve nothing, that the whole of Europe and more besides would be reduced to ruin, and that the loss of life would be so large that whole populations would be decimated. In our ignorance I, and many of us, felt almost ashamed of a British General who uttered such depressing and unpatriotic sentiments, but during the next four years, those of us who survived the holocaust—probably not more than one-quarter of us—learned how right the General's prognosis was and how courageous he had been to utter it. \nVoicing these sentiments did not hinder Smith-Dorrien's career, or prevent him from doing his duty in World War I to the best of his abilities.\n\nMany countries jailed those who spoke out against the conflict. These included Eugene Debs in the United States and Bertrand Russell in Britain. In the US, the Espionage Act of 1917 and Sedition Act of 1918 made it a federal crime to oppose military recruitment or make any statements deemed \"disloyal\". Publications at all critical of the government were removed from circulation by postal censors, and many served long prison sentences for statements of fact deemed unpatriotic.\n\nA number of nationalists opposed intervention, particularly within states that the nationalists were hostile to. Although the vast majority of Irish people consented to participate in the war in 1914 and 1915, a minority of advanced Irish nationalists staunchly opposed taking part. The war began amid the Home Rule crisis in Ireland that had resurfaced in 1912 and, by July 1914, there was a serious possibility of an outbreak of civil war in Ireland. Irish nationalists and Marxists attempted to pursue Irish independence, culminating in the Easter Rising of 1916, with Germany sending 20,000 rifles to Ireland to stir unrest in Britain. The UK government placed Ireland under martial law in response to the Easter Rising; although, once the immediate threat of revolution had dissipated, the authorities did try to make concessions to nationalist feeling. \n\nOther opposition came from conscientious objectors—some socialist, some religious—who refused to fight. In Britain, 16,000 people asked for conscientious objector status. Some of them, most notably prominent peace activist Stephen Henry Hobhouse, refused both military and alternative service. Many suffered years of prison, including solitary confinement and bread and water diets. Even after the war, in Britain many job advertisements were marked \"No conscientious objectors need apply\".\n\nThe Central Asian Revolt started in the summer of 1916, when the Russian Empire government ended its exemption of Muslims from military service. \n\nIn 1917, a series of French Army Mutinies led to dozens of soldiers being executed and many more imprisoned.\n\nIn Milan, in May 1917, Bolshevik revolutionaries organised and engaged in rioting calling for an end to the war, and managed to close down factories and stop public transportation. The Italian army was forced to enter Milan with tanks and machine guns to face Bolsheviks and anarchists, who fought violently until 23 May when the army gained control of the city. Almost 50 people (including three Italian soldiers) were killed and over 800 people arrested.\n\nIn September 1917, Russian soldiers in France began questioning why they were fighting for the French at all and mutinied. In Russia, opposition to the war led to soldiers also establishing their own revolutionary committees, which helped foment the October Revolution of 1917, with the call going up for \"bread, land, and peace\". The Bolsheviks agreed to a peace treaty with Germany, the peace of Brest-Litovsk, despite its harsh conditions.\n\nIn northern Germany, the end of October 1918 saw the beginning of the German Revolution of 1918–1919. Units of the German Navy refused to set sail for a last, large-scale operation in a war which they saw as good as lost; this initiated the uprising. The sailors' revolt which then ensued in the naval ports of Wilhelmshaven and Kiel spread across the whole country within days and led to the proclamation of a republic on 9 November 1918 and shortly thereafter to the abdication of Kaiser Wilhelm II.\n\nConscription\n\nConscription was common in most European countries. However it was controversial in English speaking countries. It was especially unpopular among minority ethnic groups—especially the Irish Catholics in Ireland and Australia, and the French Catholics in Canada. In Canada the issue produced a major political crisis that permanently alienated the Francophiles. It opened a political gap between French Canadians, who believed their true loyalty was to Canada and not to the British Empire, and members of the Anglophone majority, who saw the war as a duty to their British heritage. In Australia, a sustained pro-conscription campaign by Billy Hughes, the Prime Minister, caused a split in the Australian Labor Party, so Hughes formed the Nationalist Party of Australia in 1917 to pursue the matter. Farmers, the labour movement, the Catholic Church, and the Irish Catholics successfully opposed Hughes' push, which was rejected in two plebiscites. \n\nIn Britain, conscription resulted in the calling up of nearly every physically fit man in Britain—six of ten million eligible. Of these, about 750,000 lost their lives. Most deaths were to young unmarried men; however, 160,000 wives lost husbands and 300,000 children lost fathers. In the United States, conscription began in 1917 and was generally well received, with a few pockets of opposition in isolated rural areas. \n\nLegacy and memory\n\nThe first tentative efforts to comprehend the meaning and consequences of modern warfare began during the initial phases of the war, and this process continued throughout and after the end of hostilities, and still is underway, more than a century later.\n\nHistoriography\n\nHistorian Heather Jones argues that the historiography has been reinvigorated by the cultural turn in recent years. Scholars have raised entirely new questions regarding military occupation, radicalizion of politics, race, and the male body. Furthermore, new research has revised our understanding of five major topics that historians have long debated. These are: Why did the war begin? Why did the Allies win? Were the generals to blame for the high casualty rates? How did the soldiers endure the horrors of trench warfare? To what extent did the civilian homefront accept and endorse the war effort? \n\nMemorials\n\nMemorials were erected in thousands of villages and towns. Close to battlefields, those buried in improvised burial grounds were gradually moved to formal graveyards under the care of organisations such as the Commonwealth War Graves Commission, the American Battle Monuments Commission, the German War Graves Commission, and Le Souvenir français. Many of these graveyards also have central monuments to the missing or unidentified dead, such as the Menin Gate memorial and the Thiepval Memorial to the Missing of the Somme.\n\nIn 1915 John McCrae, a Canadian army doctor, wrote the poem In Flanders Fields as a salute to those who perished in the Great War. Published in Punch on 8 December 1915, it is still recited today, especially on Remembrance Day and Memorial Day. \n\nNational World War I Museum and Memorial in Kansas City, Missouri, is a memorial dedicated to all Americans who served in World War I. The Liberty Memorial was dedicated on 1 November 1921, when the supreme Allied commanders spoke to a crowd of more than 100,000 people. \n\nThe UK Government has budgeted substantial resources to the commemoration of the war during the period 2014 to 2018. The lead body is the Imperial War Museum. On 3 August 2014, French President Francois Hollande and German President Joachim Gauck together marked the centenary of Germany's declaration of war on France by laying the first stone of a memorial in Vieil Armand, known in German as Hartmannswillerkopf, for French and German soldiers killed in the war. \n\nCultural memory\n\nWorld War I had a lasting impact on social memory. It was seen by many in Britain as signalling the end of an era of stability stretching back to the Victorian period, and across Europe many regarded it as a watershed. Historian Samuel Hynes explained:\n\nThis has become the most common perception of World War I, perpetuated by the art, cinema, poems, and stories published subsequently. Films such as All Quiet on the Western Front, Paths of Glory and King & Country have perpetuated the idea, while war-time films including Camrades, Poppies of Flanders, and Shoulder Arms indicate that the most contemporary views of the war were overall far more positive. Likewise, the art of Paul Nash, John Nash, Christopher Nevinson, and Henry Tonks in Britain painted a negative view of the conflict in keeping with the growing perception, while popular war-time artists such as Muirhead Bone painted more serene and pleasant interpretations subsequently rejected as inaccurate. Several historians like John Terraine, Niall Ferguson and Gary Sheffield have challenged these interpretations as partial and polemical views:\n\nThese beliefs did not become widely shared because they offered the only accurate interpretation of wartime events. In every respect, the war was much more complicated than they suggest. In recent years, historians have argued persuasively against almost every popular cliché of World War I. It has been pointed out that, although the losses were devastating, their greatest impact was socially and geographically limited. The many emotions other than horror experienced by soldiers in and out of the front line, including comradeship, boredom, and even enjoyment, have been recognised. The war is not now seen as a 'fight about nothing', but as a war of ideals, a struggle between aggressive militarism and more or less liberal democracy. It has been acknowledged that British generals were often capable men facing difficult challenges, and that it was under their command that the British army played a major part in the defeat of the Germans in 1918: a great forgotten victory.\n\nThough these views have been discounted as \"myths\", they are common. They have dynamically changed according to contemporary influences, reflecting in the 1950s perceptions of the war as \"aimless\" following the contrasting Second World War and emphasising conflict within the ranks during times of class conflict in the 1960s. The majority of additions to the contrary are often rejected.\n\nSocial trauma\n\nThe social trauma caused by unprecedented rates of casualties manifested itself in different ways, which have been the subject of subsequent historical debate.\n\nThe optimism of la belle époque was destroyed, and those who had fought in the war were referred to as the Lost Generation. For years afterwards, people mourned the dead, the missing, and the many disabled. Many soldiers returned with severe trauma, suffering from shell shock (also called neurasthenia, a condition related to posttraumatic stress disorder). Many more returned home with few after-effects; however, their silence about the war contributed to the conflict's growing mythological status. Though many participants did not share in the experiences of combat or spend any significant time at the front, or had positive memories of their service, the images of suffering and trauma became the widely shared perception. Such historians as Dan Todman, Paul Fussell, and Samuel Heyns have all published works since the 1990s arguing that these common perceptions of the war are factually incorrect.\n\nDiscontent in Germany\n\nThe rise of Nazism and Fascism included a revival of the nationalist spirit and a rejection of many post-war changes. Similarly, the popularity of the stab-in-the-back legend (German: Dolchstoßlegende) was a testament to the psychological state of defeated Germany and was a rejection of responsibility for the conflict. This conspiracy theory of betrayal became common, and the German populace came to see themselves as victims. The widespread acceptance of the \"stab-in-the-back\" theory delegitimized the Weimar government and destabilized the system, opening it to extremes of right and left.\n\nCommunist and fascist movements around Europe drew strength from this theory and enjoyed a new level of popularity. These feelings were most pronounced in areas directly or harshly affected by the war. Adolf Hitler was able to gain popularity by utilising German discontent with the still controversial Treaty of Versailles. World War II was in part a continuation of the power struggle never fully resolved by World War I. Furthermore, it was common for Germans in the 1930s to justify acts of aggression due to perceived injustices imposed by the victors of World War I. American historian William Rubinstein wrote that:\n\nThe 'Age of Totalitarianism' included nearly all of the infamous examples of genocide in modern history, headed by the Jewish Holocaust, but also comprising the mass murders and purges of the Communist world, other mass killings carried out by Nazi Germany and its allies, and also the Armenian Genocide of 1915. All these slaughters, it is argued here, had a common origin, the collapse of the elite structure and normal modes of government of much of central, eastern and southern Europe as a result of World War I, without which surely neither Communism nor Fascism would have existed except in the minds of unknown agitators and crackpots. \n\nEconomic effects\n\nOne of the most dramatic effects of the war was the expansion of governmental powers and responsibilities in Britain, France, the United States, and the Dominions of the British Empire. To harness all the power of their societies, governments created new ministries and powers. New taxes were levied and laws enacted, all designed to bolster the war effort; many have lasted to this day. Similarly, the war strained the abilities of some formerly large and bureaucratised governments, such as in Austria-Hungary and Germany.\n\nGross domestic product (GDP) increased for three Allies (Britain, Italy, and US), but decreased in France and Russia, in neutral Netherlands, and in the three main Central Powers. The shrinkage in GDP in Austria, Russia, France, and the Ottoman Empire ranged between 30% to 40%. In Austria, for example, most pigs were slaughtered, so at war's end there was no meat.\n\nIn all nations, the government's share of GDP increased, surpassing 50% in both Germany and France and nearly reaching that level in Britain. To pay for purchases in the United States, Britain cashed in its extensive investments in American railroads and then began borrowing heavily on Wall Street. President Wilson was on the verge of cutting off the loans in late 1916, but allowed a great increase in US government lending to the Allies. After 1919, the US demanded repayment of these loans. The repayments were, in part, funded by German reparations which, in turn, were supported by American loans to Germany. This circular system collapsed in 1931 and the loans were never repaid. Britain still owed the United States $4.4 billion109 in this context – see Long and short scales of World War I debt in 1934, and this money was never repaid. \n\nMacro- and micro-economic consequences devolved from the war. Families were altered by the departure of many men. With the death or absence of the primary wage earner, women were forced into the workforce in unprecedented numbers. At the same time, industry needed to replace the lost labourers sent to war. This aided the struggle for voting rights for women. \n\nWorld War I further compounded the gender imbalance, adding to the phenomenon of surplus women. The deaths of nearly one million men during the war in Britain increased the gender gap by almost a million; from 670,000 to 1,700,000. The number of unmarried women seeking economic means grew dramatically. In addition, demobilisation and economic decline following the war caused high unemployment. The war increased female employment; however, the return of demobilised men displaced many from the workforce, as did the closure of many of the wartime factories.\n\nIn Britain, rationing was finally imposed in early 1918, limited to meat, sugar, and fats (butter and margarine), but not bread. The new system worked smoothly. From 1914 to 1918, trade union membership doubled, from a little over four million to a little over eight million.\n\nBritain turned to her colonies for help in obtaining essential war materials whose supply had become difficult from traditional sources. Geologists such as Albert Ernest Kitson were called on to find new resources of precious minerals in the African colonies. Kitson discovered important new deposits of manganese, used in munitions production, in the Gold Coast.\n\nArticle 231 of the Treaty of Versailles (the so-called \"war guilt\" clause) stated Germany accepted responsibility for \"all the loss and damage to which the Allied and Associated Governments and their nationals have been subjected as a consequence of the war imposed upon them by the aggression of Germany and her allies.\" It was worded as such to lay a legal basis for reparations, and a similar clause was inserted in the treaties with Austria and Hungary. However neither of them interpreted it as an admission of war guilt.\" In 1921, the total reparation sum was placed at 132 billion gold marks. However, \"Allied experts knew that Germany could not pay\" this sum. The total sum was divided into three categories, with the third being \"deliberately designed to be chimerical\" and its \"primary function was to mislead public opinion ... into believing the \"total sum was being maintained.\"Marks, p. 237 Thus, 50 billion gold marks (12.5 billion dollars) \"represented the actual Allied assessment of German capacity to pay\" and \"therefore ... represented the total German reparations\" figure that had to be paid.\n\nThis figure could be paid in cash or in kind (coal, timber, chemical dyes, etc.). In addition, some of the territory lost—via the treaty of Versailles—was credited towards the reparation figure as were other acts such as helping to restore the Library of Louvain. By 1929, the Great Depression arrived, causing political chaos throughout the world. In 1932 the payment of reparations was suspended by the international community, by which point Germany had only paid the equivalent of 20.598 billon gold marks in reparations. With the rise of Adolf Hitler, all bonds and loans that had been issued and taken out during the 1920s and early 1930s were cancelled. David Andelman notes \"refusing to pay doesn't make an agreement null and void. The bonds, the agreement, still exist.\" Thus, following the Second World War, at the London Conference in 1953, Germany agreed to resume payment on the money borrowed. On 3 October 2010, Germany made the final payment on these bonds." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Palais de Versailles", "Palace of versailles", "Musee national du chateau de Versailles et des Trianons", "Palace and Park of Versailles", "Chateau of Versailles", "Versailles", "Museum of the History of France, Versailles", "City of Versailles", "Palace of Versailles", "Musée de Versailles", "Musée national du Château de Versailles", "Versailles Castle", "Musée d’Histoire de France", "Palais Versailles", "Château de Versailles", "Residence of Versailles", "Schloss Versailles", "Musée national du château de Versailles et des Trianons", "Versailles Museum", "Galerie de Versailles", "Chateau de Versailles", "Château of Versailles", "PalaceofVersailles", "Musée national du château et des Trianons", "Musée d'Histoire de France", "Chateau Versailles", "Versailles Palace", "The Palace of Versailles", "Musée historique de Versailles" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "versailles castle", "chateau versailles", "palace and park of versailles", "palais versailles", "versailles", "palace of versailles", "schloss versailles", "musée national du château de versailles et des trianons", "chateau of versailles", "residence of versailles", "musée de versailles", "palaceofversailles", "city of versailles", "chateau de versailles", "musée national du château et des trianons", "museum of history of france versailles", "musée historique de versailles", "galerie de versailles", "palais de versailles", "musée d histoire de france", "versailles museum", "musée national du château de versailles", "château of versailles", "versailles palace", "musee national du chateau de versailles et des trianons", "château de versailles" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "versailles", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Versailles" }
Which company was responsible for the oil spill in Alaska in 1989?	tc_285	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Exxon_Valdez_oil_spill.txt", "Alaska.txt" ], "title": [ "Exxon Valdez oil spill", "Alaska" ], "wiki_context": [ "The Exxon Valdez oil spill occurred in Prince William Sound, Alaska, on Good Friday, March 24, 1989, when Exxon Valdez, an oil tanker bound for Long Beach, California, struck Prince William Sound's Bligh Reef at 12:04 am local time and spilled 11 to of crude oil over the next few days. It is considered to be one of the most devastating human-caused environmental disasters. The Valdez spill was the largest in US waters until the 2010 Deepwater Horizon oil spill, in terms of volume released. However, Prince William Sound's remote location, accessible only by helicopter, plane, or boat, made government and industry response efforts difficult and severely taxed existing plans for response. The region is a habitat for salmon, sea otters, seals and seabirds. The oil, originally extracted at the Prudhoe Bay oil field, eventually covered 1300 mi of coastline, and 11000 sqmi of ocean.\n\nAccording to official reports, the ship was carrying approximately 55 e6USgal of oil, of which about were spilled into the Prince William Sound. A figure of 11 e6USgal was a commonly accepted estimate of the spill's volume and has been used by the State of Alaska's Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Trustee Council, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and environmental groups such as Greenpeace and the Sierra Club. Some groups, such as Defenders of Wildlife, dispute the official estimates, maintaining that the volume of the spill, which was calculated by subtracting the volume of material removed from the vessel's tanks after the spill from the volume of the original cargo, has been underreported. Alternative calculations, based on the assumption that the official reports underestimated how much seawater had been forced into the damaged tanks, placed the total at 25 to.\n\nIdentified causes\n\nMultiple factors have been identified as contributing to the incident:\n\n* Exxon Shipping Company failed to supervise the master and provide a rested and sufficient crew for Exxon Valdez. The NTSB found this was widespread throughout the industry, prompting a safety recommendation to Exxon and to the industry.\n* The third mate failed to properly maneuver the vessel, possibly due to fatigue or excessive workload.\n* Exxon Shipping Company failed to properly maintain the Raytheon Collision Avoidance System (RAYCAS) radar, which, if functional, would have indicated to the third mate an impending collision with the Bligh Reef by detecting the \"radar reflector\", placed on the next rock inland from Bligh Reef for the purpose of keeping ships on course. This cause has only been identified by Greg Palast (without evidentiary support) and is not present in the official accident report.\n\nCaptain Joseph Hazelwood, who was widely reported to have been drinking heavily that night, was not at the controls when the ship struck the reef. However, as the senior officer, he was in command of the ship even though he was asleep in his bunk. In light of the other findings, investigative reporter Greg Palast stated in 2008, \"Forget the drunken skipper fable. As to Captain Joe Hazelwood, he was below decks, sleeping off his bender. At the helm, the third mate never would have collided with Bligh Reef had he looked at his RAYCAS radar. But the radar was not turned on. In fact, the tanker's radar was left broken and disabled for more than a year before the disaster, and Exxon management knew it. It was [in Exxon's view] just too expensive to fix and operate.\" Exxon blamed Captain Hazelwood for the grounding of the tanker.\n\nOther factors, according to an MIT course entitled \"Software System Safety\" by Professor Nancy G. Leveson, included:\n# Ships were not informed that the previous practice of the Coast Guard tracking ships out to Bligh Reef had ceased.\n# The oil industry promised, but never installed, state-of-the-art iceberg monitoring equipment.\n# Exxon Valdez was sailing outside the normal sea lane to avoid small icebergs thought to be in the area.\n\n# The 1989 tanker crew was half the size of the 1977 crew, worked 12- to 14-hour shifts, plus overtime. The crew was rushing to leave Valdez with a load of oil.\n# Coast Guard vessel inspections in Valdez were not performed, and the number of staff was reduced.\n# Lack of available equipment and personnel hampered the spill cleanup.\nThis disaster resulted in International Maritime Organization introducing comprehensive marine pollution prevention rules (MARPOL) through various conventions. The rules were ratified by member countries and, under International Ship Management rules, the ships are being operated with a common objective of \"safer ships and cleaner oceans\".\n\nIn 2009, Exxon Valdez Captain Joseph Hazelwood offered a \"heartfelt apology\" to the people of Alaska, suggesting he had been wrongly blamed for the disaster: \"The true story is out there for anybody who wants to look at the facts, but that's not the sexy story and that's not the easy story,\" he said. Yet Hazelwood said he felt Alaskans always gave him a fair shake.\n\nClean-up and environmental impact \n\nChemical dispersant, a surfactant and solvent mixture, was applied to the slick. A private company applied dispersant on March 24 with a helicopter and dispersant bucket. Because there was not enough wave action to mix the dispersant with the oil in the water, the use of the dispersant was discontinued. An aerial dispersant application also missed its target, hitting the tanker itself, a Coast Guard vessel and its crew. \n\nOne trial explosion was also conducted during the early stages of the spill to burn the oil, in a region of the spill isolated from the rest by another explosion. This attempt is believed to have led to many health problems for a neighboring native village that was downwind of the fumes caused by the explosion. The test was relatively successful, reducing 113,400 liters of oil to 1,134 liters of removable residue, but because of the health consequences, no additional burning was attempted.\n\nThe dispersant Corexit 9580 was formulated in response to the spill for potential shore cleanup operations and trialed on Smith, Disk and Eleanor islands in 1989 and the \"heavily oiled\" Knight Island in 1990. Its wider use was not permitted owing to Government and public concerns about its toxicity.\n\nAccording to the booklet Shoreline Treatment Techniques published in 1993 by the Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation, while it effectively assisted in clean-up, \"It had not been tested, scientific data on its toxicity were either thin or incomplete, and it had operational problems. In addition, public acceptance of a new, widespread chemical treatment was lacking. To landowners, fishing groups, and conservation organizations, the idea of dumping chemicals on hundreds of miles of shorelines that had just been oiled seemed much too risky - especially when there were other alternatives.\" [http://www.evostc.state.ak.us/index.cfm?FA=facts.QA Oil Spill Facts - Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Trustee Council]\n\nAccording to a report by David Kirby for TakePart, the main component of the Corexit formulation used during cleanup, 2-butoxyethanol, was identified as \"one of the agents that caused liver, kidney, lung, nervous system, and blood disorders among cleanup crews in Alaska following the 1989 Exxon Valdez spill. \n\nMechanical cleanup was started shortly afterwards using booms and skimmers, but the skimmers were not readily available during the first 24 hours following the spill, and thick oil and kelp tended to clog the equipment. Despite civilian insistence for a complete clean, only 10% of total oil was actually completely cleaned. Exxon was widely criticized for its slow response to cleaning up the disaster and John Devens, the mayor of Valdez, has said his community felt betrayed by Exxon's inadequate response to the crisis. More than 11,000 Alaska residents, along with some Exxon employees, worked throughout the region to try to restore the environment.\n\nBecause Prince William Sound contained many rocky coves where the oil collected, the decision was made to displace it with high-pressure hot water. However, this also displaced and destroyed the microbial populations on the shoreline; many of these organisms (e.g. plankton) are the basis of the coastal marine food chain, and others (e.g. certain bacteria and fungi) are capable of facilitating the biodegradation of oil. At the time, both scientific advice and public pressure was to clean everything, but since then, a much greater understanding of natural and facilitated remediation processes has developed, due somewhat in part to the opportunity presented for study by the Exxon Valdez spill. Despite the extensive cleanup attempts, less than ten percent of the oil was recovered and a study conducted by NOAA determined that as of early 2007 more than 26 e3U.S.gal of oil remain in the sandy soil of the contaminated shoreline, declining at a rate of less than 4% per year.\n\nIn 1992, Exxon released a video titled Scientists and the Alaska Oil Spill. It was provided to schools with the label \"A Video for Students\".\n\nBoth the long-term and short-term effects of the oil spill have been studied. Immediate effects included the deaths of 100,000 to as many as 250,000 seabirds, at least 2,800 sea otters, approximately 12 river otters, 300 harbor seals, 247 bald eagles, and 22 orcas, and an unknown number of salmon and herring.\n\nIn 2003, fifteen years after the spill, a team from the University of North Carolina found that the remaining oil was lasting far longer than anticipated, which in turn had resulted in more long-term loss of many species than had been expected. The researchers found that at only a few parts per billion, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons caused a long-term increase in mortality rates. They reported that \"species as diverse as sea otters, harlequin ducks and killer whales suffered large, long-term losses and that oiled mussel beds and other tidal shoreline habitats will take an estimated 30 years to recover.\"\n\nIn 2006, a study done by the National Marine Fisheries Service in Juneau found that about 6 mi of shoreline around Prince William Sound was still affected by the spill, with 101.6 tonnes of oil remaining in the area. Exxon Mobil denied any concerns over any remaining oil, stating that they anticipated a remaining fraction that they assert will not cause any long-term ecological impacts, according to the conclusions of the studies they had done: \"We've done 350 peer-reviewed studies of Prince William Sound, and those studies conclude that Prince William Sound has recovered, it's healthy and it's thriving.\" However, in 2007 a NOAA study concluded that this contamination can produce chronic low-level exposure, discourage subsistence where the contamination is heavy, and decrease the \"wilderness character\" of the area.\n\nThe effects of the spill continued to be felt for many years afterwards. As of 2010 there were an estimated 23000 USgal of Valdez crude oil still in Alaska's sand and soil, breaking down at a rate estimated at less than 4% per year. \n\nOn March 24, 2014, the twenty-fifth anniversary of the spill, NOAA scientists reported that some species seem to have recovered, with the sea otter the latest creature to return to pre-spill numbers. Scientists who have monitored the spill area for the last 25 years report that concern remains for one of two pods of local orca whales, with fears that one pod may eventually die out.[http://www.pbs.org/newshour/updates/25-years-later-scientists-remember-exxon-valdez-spill/#the-rundown 25 years later, scientists still spot traces of oil from Exxon Valdez spill \| PBS NewsHour] Federal scientists estimate that between 16,000 and 21,000 gallons of oil remains on beaches in Prince William Sound and up to 450 miles away. Some of the oil does not appear to have biodegraded at all. A USGS scientist who analyses the remaining oil along the coastline states that it remains among rocks and between tide marks. \"The oil mixes with seawater and forms an emulsion...Left out, the surface crusts over but the inside still has the consistency of mayonnaise – or mousse.\" [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/northamerica/usa/10717219/Exxon-Valdez-25-years-after-the-Alaska-oil-spill-the-court-battle-continues.html Exxon Valdez - 25 years after the Alaska oil spill, the court battle continues - Telegraph] Alaska state senator Berta Gardner is urging Alaskan politicians to demand that the US government force ExxonMobil to pay the final $92 million (£57 million) still owed from the court settlement. The major part of the money would be spent to finish cleaning up oiled beaches and attempting to restore the crippled herring population.\n\nLitigation and cleanup costs\n\nIn the case of Exxon v. Baker, an Anchorage jury awarded $287 million for actual damages and $5 billion for punitive damages. To protect itself in case the judgment was affirmed, Exxon obtained a $4.8 billion credit line from J.P. Morgan & Co. J.P. Morgan created the first modern credit default swap in 1994, so that Morgan's would not have to hold as much money in reserve (8% of the loan under Basel I) against the risk of Exxon's default.\n\nMeanwhile, Exxon appealed the ruling, and the 9th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals ordered the original judge, Russel Holland, to reduce the punitive damages. On December 6, 2002, the judge announced that he had reduced the damages to $4 billion, which he concluded was justified by the facts of the case and was not grossly excessive. Exxon appealed again and the case returned to court to be considered in light of a recent Supreme Court ruling in a similar case, which caused Judge Holland to increase the punitive damages to $4.5 billion, plus interest.\n\nAfter more appeals, and oral arguments heard by the 9th Circuit Court of Appeals on January 27, 2006, the damages award was cut to $2.5 billion on December 22, 2006. The court cited recent Supreme Court rulings relative to limits on punitive damages. \n\nExxon appealed again. On May 23, 2007, the 9th Circuit Court of Appeals denied ExxonMobil's request for a third hearing and let stand its ruling that Exxon owes $2.5 billion in punitive damages. Exxon then appealed to the Supreme Court, which agreed to hear the case. On February 27, 2008, the Supreme Court heard oral arguments for 90 minutes. Justice Samuel Alito, who at the time, owned between $100,000 and $250,000 in Exxon stock, recused himself from the case. In a decision issued June 25, 2008, Justice David Souter issued the judgment of the court, vacating the $2.5 billion award and remanding the case back to the lower court, finding that the damages were excessive with respect to maritime common law. Exxon's actions were deemed \"worse than negligent but less than malicious.\" The punitive damages were further reduced to an amount of $507.5 million. The Court's ruling was that maritime punitive damages should not exceed the compensatory damages, supported by a peculiar precedent dating back from 1818. Senate Judiciary Committee Chairman Patrick J. Leahy has decried the ruling as \"another in a line of cases where this Supreme Court has misconstrued congressional intent to benefit large corporations.\"\n\nExxon's official position was that punitive damages greater than $25 million were not justified because the spill resulted from an accident, and because Exxon spent an estimated $2 billion cleaning up the spill and a further $1 billion to settle related civil and criminal charges. Attorneys for the plaintiffs contended that Exxon bore responsibility for the accident because the company \"put a drunk in charge of a tanker in Prince William Sound.\"\n\nExxon recovered a significant portion of clean-up and legal expenses through insurance claims associated with the grounding of the Exxon Valdez. Also, in 1991, Exxon made a quiet, separate financial settlement of damages with a group of seafood producers known as the Seattle Seven for the disaster's effect on the Alaskan seafood industry. The agreement granted $63.75 million to the Seattle Seven, but stipulated that the seafood companies would have to repay almost all of any punitive damages awarded in other civil proceedings. The $5 billion in punitive damages was awarded later, and the Seattle Seven's share could have been as high as $750 million if the damages award had held. Other plaintiffs have objected to this secret arrangement, and when it came to light, Judge Holland ruled that Exxon should have told the jury at the start that an agreement had already been made, so the jury would know exactly how much Exxon would have to pay.\n\nAs of December 15, 2009, Exxon paid all owed $507.5 million punitive damages, including lawsuit costs, plus interest, which were further distributed to thousands of plaintiffs.\n\nPolitical consequences and reforms\n\nCoast Guard report\n\nA report by the US National Response Team summarized the event and made a number of recommendations, such as changes to the work patterns of Exxon crew in order to address the causes of the accident.\n\nOil Pollution Act of 1990\n\nIn response to the spill, the United States Congress passed the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (OPA). The legislation included a clause that prohibits any vessel that, after March 22, 1989, has caused an oil spill of more than 1 e6USgal in any marine area, from operating in Prince William Sound.\n\nIn April 1998, the company argued in a legal action against the Federal government that the ship should be allowed back into Alaskan waters. Exxon claimed OPA was effectively a bill of attainder, a regulation that was unfairly directed at Exxon alone. In 2002, the 9th Circuit Court of Appeals ruled against Exxon. As of 2002, OPA had prevented 18 ships from entering Prince William Sound.\n\nOPA also set a schedule for the gradual phase in of a double hull design, providing an additional layer between the oil tanks and the ocean. While a double hull would likely not have prevented the Valdez disaster, a Coast Guard study estimated that it would have cut the amount of oil spilled by 60 percent.\n\nThe Exxon Valdez supertanker was towed to San Diego, arriving on July 10. Repairs began on July 30. Approximately 1600 ST of steel were removed and replaced. In June 1990 the tanker, renamed S/R Mediterranean, left harbor after $30 million of repairs. It was still sailing as of January 2010, registered in Panama. The vessel was then owned by a Hong Kong company, who operated it under the name Oriental Nicety. In August 2012, it was beached at Alang, India and dismantled.\n\nAlaska regulations\n\nIn the aftermath of the spill, Alaska governor Steve Cowper issued an executive order requiring two tugboats to escort every loaded tanker from Valdez out through Prince William Sound to Hinchinbrook Entrance. As the plan evolved in the 1990s, one of the two routine tugboats was replaced with a 210 ft Escort Response Vehicle (ERV). The majority of tankers at Valdez are no longer single-hulled. Congress has enacted legislation requiring all tankers to be double-hulled by 2015.\n\nEconomic and personal impact\n\nIn 1991, following the collapse of the local marine population (particularly clams, herring and seals) the Chugach Alaska Corporation, an Alaska Native Corporation, filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection. It has since recovered.\n\nAccording to several studies funded by the state of Alaska, the spill had both short-term and long-term economic effects. These included the loss of recreational sports, fisheries, reduced tourism, and an estimate of what economists call \"existence value\", which is the value to the public of a pristine Prince William Sound.\n\nThe economy of the city of Cordova, Alaska was adversely affected after the spill damaged stocks of salmon and herring in the area.\n\nIn 2010, a CNN report alleged that many oil spill cleanup workers involved in the Exxon Valdez response had subsequently become sick. Anchorage lawyer Dennis Mestas found that this was true of 6,722 of 11,000 worker files he was able to inspect. Access to the records was controlled by Exxon. Exxon responded in a statement to CNN:\"After 20 years, there is no evidence suggesting that either cleanup workers or the residents of the communities affected by the Valdez spill have had any adverse health effects as a result of the spill or its cleanup.\"", "Alaska is a U.S. state situated in the northwest extremity of the Americas. The Canadian administrative divisions of British Columbia and Yukon border the state to the east; it has a maritime border with Russia to the west across the Bering Strait. To the north are the Chukchi and Beaufort seas–the southern parts of the Arctic Ocean. The Pacific Ocean lies to the south and southwest. Alaska is the largest state in the United States by area, the 3rd least populous and the least densely populated of the 50 United States. Approximately half of Alaska's residents (the total estimated at 738,432 by the U.S. Census Bureau in 2015) live within the Anchorage metropolitan area. Alaska's economy is dominated by the fishing, natural gas, and oil industries, resources which it has in abundance. Military bases and tourism are also a significant part of the economy.\n\nThe United States purchased Alaska from the Russian Empire on March 30, 1867, for 7.2 million U.S. dollars at approximately two cents per acre ($4.74/km2). The actual transfer of sovereignty took place on the 6th October 1867 (Julian calendar), which was equivalent to the 18th October in the Gregorian one. To complicate matters further, the time zone changed from 14 hours ahead of Greenwich to 10 hours behind, which meant that Alaska had two Fridays in succession, the only place to have ever done so. The area went through several administrative changes before becoming organized as a territory on May 11, 1912. It was admitted as the 49th state of the U.S. on January 3, 1959. \n\nEtymology\n\nThe name \"Alaska\" (Аляска) was introduced in the Russian colonial period when it was used to refer to the peninsula. It was derived from an Aleut, or Unangam idiom, which figuratively refers to the mainland of Alaska. Literally, it means object to which the action of the sea is directed., at pp. 49 (Alaxsxi-x \n mainland Alaska), 50 (alagu-x sea), 508 (-gi \n suffix, object of its action). It is also known as Alyeska, the \"great land\", an Aleut word derived from the same root.\n\nGeography\n\nAlaska is the northernmost and westernmost state in the United States and has the most easterly longitude in the United States because the Aleutian Islands extend into the eastern hemisphere. Alaska is the only non-contiguous U.S. state on continental North America; about 500 mi of British Columbia (Canada) separates Alaska from Washington. It is technically part of the continental U.S., but is sometimes not included in colloquial use; Alaska is not part of the contiguous U.S., often called \"the Lower 48\". The capital city, Juneau, is situated on the mainland of the North American continent but is not connected by road to the rest of the North American highway system.\n\nThe state is bordered by Yukon and British Columbia in Canada, to the east, the Gulf of Alaska and the Pacific Ocean to the south and southwest, the Bering Sea, Bering Strait, and Chukchi Sea to the west and the Arctic Ocean to the north. Alaska's territorial waters touch Russia's territorial waters in the Bering Strait, as the Russian Big Diomede Island and Alaskan Little Diomede Island are only 3 mi apart. Alaska has a longer coastline than all the other U.S. states combined. \n\nAlaska is the largest state in the United States in land area at , over twice the size of Texas, the next largest state. Alaska is larger than all but 18 sovereign countries. Counting territorial waters, Alaska is larger than the combined area of the next three largest states: Texas, California, and Montana. It is also larger than the combined area of the 22 smallest U.S. states.\n\nRegions\n\nThere are no officially defined borders demarcating the various regions of Alaska, but there are six widely accepted regions:\n\nSouth Central\n\nThe most populous region of Alaska, containing Anchorage, the Matanuska-Susitna Valley and the Kenai Peninsula. Rural, mostly unpopulated areas south of the Alaska Range and west of the Wrangell Mountains also fall within the definition of South Central, as do the Prince William Sound area and the communities of Cordova and Valdez.\n\nSoutheast\n\nAlso referred to as the Panhandle or Inside Passage, this is the region of Alaska closest to the rest of the United States. As such, this was where most of the initial non-indigenous settlement occurred in the years following the Alaska Purchase. The region is dominated by the Alexander Archipelago as well as the Tongass National Forest, the largest national forest in the United States. It contains the state capital Juneau, the former capital Sitka, and Ketchikan, at one time Alaska's largest city. The Alaska Marine Highway provides a vital surface transportation link throughout the area, as only three communities (Haines, Hyder and Skagway) enjoy direct connections to the contiguous North American road system.\n\nInterior\n\nThe Interior is the largest region of Alaska; much of it is uninhabited wilderness. Fairbanks is the only large city in the region. Denali National Park and Preserve is located here. Denali is the highest mountain in North America.\n\nSouthwest\n\nSouthwest Alaska is a sparsely inhabited region stretching some 500 mi inland from the Bering Sea. Most of the population lives along the coast. Kodiak Island is also located in Southwest. The massive Yukon–Kuskokwim Delta, one of the largest river deltas in the world, is here. Portions of the Alaska Peninsula are considered part of Southwest, with the remaining portions included with the Aleutian Islands (see below).\n\nNorth Slope\n\nThe North Slope is mostly tundra peppered with small villages. The area is known for its massive reserves of crude oil, and contains both the National Petroleum Reserve–Alaska and the Prudhoe Bay Oil Field. Barrow, the northernmost city in the United States, is located here. The Northwest Arctic area, anchored by Kotzebue and also containing the Kobuk River valley, is often regarded as being part of this region. However, the respective Inupiat of the North Slope and of the Northwest Arctic seldom consider themselves to be one people.\n\nAleutian Islands\n\nMore than 300 small volcanic islands make up this chain, which stretches over 1200 mi into the Pacific Ocean. Some of these islands fall in the Eastern Hemisphere, but the International Date Line was drawn west of 180° to keep the whole state, and thus the entire North American continent, within the same legal day. Two of the islands, Attu and Kiska, were occupied by Japanese forces during World War II.\n\nNatural features\n\nWith its myriad islands, Alaska has nearly 34000 mi of tidal shoreline. The Aleutian Islands chain extends west from the southern tip of the Alaska Peninsula. Many active volcanoes are found in the Aleutians and in coastal regions. Unimak Island, for example, is home to Mount Shishaldin, which is an occasionally smoldering volcano that rises to 10000 ft above the North Pacific. It is the most perfect volcanic cone on Earth, even more symmetrical than Japan's Mount Fuji. The chain of volcanoes extends to Mount Spurr, west of Anchorage on the mainland. Geologists have identified Alaska as part of Wrangellia, a large region consisting of multiple states and Canadian provinces in the Pacific Northwest, which is actively undergoing continent building.\n\nOne of the world's largest tides occurs in Turnagain Arm, just south of Anchorage – tidal differences can be more than 35 ft. \n\nAlaska has more than three million lakes. Marshlands and wetland permafrost cover 188320 sqmi (mostly in northern, western and southwest flatlands). Glacier ice covers some 16000 sqmi of land and 1200 sqmi of tidal zone. The Bering Glacier complex near the southeastern border with Yukon covers 2250 sqmi alone. With over 100,000 glaciers, Alaska has half of all in the world.\n\nLand ownership\n\nAccording to an October 1998 report by the United States Bureau of Land Management, approximately 65% of Alaska is owned and managed by the U.S. federal government as public lands, including a multitude of national forests, national parks, and national wildlife refuges. Of these, the Bureau of Land Management manages 87 e6acre, or 23.8% of the state. The Arctic National Wildlife Refuge is managed by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service. It is the world's largest wildlife refuge, comprising 16 e6acre.\n\nOf the remaining land area, the state of Alaska owns 101 e6acre, its entitlement under the Alaska Statehood Act. A portion of that acreage is occasionally ceded to organized boroughs, under the statutory provisions pertaining to newly formed boroughs. Smaller portions are set aside for rural subdivisions and other homesteading-related opportunities. These are not very popular due to the often remote and roadless locations. The University of Alaska, as a land grant university, also owns substantial acreage which it manages independently.\n\nAnother 44 e6acre are owned by 12 regional, and scores of local, Native corporations created under the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA) of 1971. Regional Native corporation Doyon, Limited often promotes itself as the largest private landowner in Alaska in advertisements and other communications. Provisions of ANCSA allowing the corporations' land holdings to be sold on the open market starting in 1991 were repealed before they could take effect. Effectively, the corporations hold title (including subsurface title in many cases, a privilege denied to individual Alaskans) but cannot sell the land. Individual Native allotments can be and are sold on the open market, however.\n\nVarious private interests own the remaining land, totaling about one percent of the state. Alaska is, by a large margin, the state with the smallest percentage of private land ownership when Native corporation holdings are excluded.\n\nClimate\n\nThe climate in Southeast Alaska is a mid-latitude oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification: Cfb) in the southern sections and a subarctic oceanic climate (Köppen Cfc) in the northern parts. On an annual basis, Southeast is both the wettest and warmest part of Alaska with milder temperatures in the winter and high precipitation throughout the year. Juneau averages over 50 in of precipitation a year, and Ketchikan averages over 150 in. This is also the only region in Alaska in which the average daytime high temperature is above freezing during the winter months.\n\nThe climate of Anchorage and south central Alaska is mild by Alaskan standards due to the region's proximity to the seacoast. While the area gets less rain than southeast Alaska, it gets more snow, and days tend to be clearer. On average, Anchorage receives 16 in of precipitation a year, with around 75 in of snow, although there are areas in the south central which receive far more snow. It is a subarctic climate (Köppen: Dfc) due to its brief, cool summers.\n\nThe climate of Western Alaska is determined in large part by the Bering Sea and the Gulf of Alaska. It is a subarctic oceanic climate in the southwest and a continental subarctic climate farther north. The temperature is somewhat moderate considering how far north the area is. This region has a tremendous amount of variety in precipitation. An area stretching from the northern side of the Seward Peninsula to the Kobuk River valley (i. e., the region around Kotzebue Sound) is technically a desert, with portions receiving less than 10 in of precipitation annually. On the other extreme, some locations between Dillingham and Bethel average around 100 in of precipitation. \n\nThe climate of the interior of Alaska is subarctic. Some of the highest and lowest temperatures in Alaska occur around the area near Fairbanks. The summers may have temperatures reaching into the 90s °F (the low-to-mid 30s °C), while in the winter, the temperature can fall below . Precipitation is sparse in the Interior, often less than 10 in a year, but what precipitation falls in the winter tends to stay the entire winter.\n\nThe highest and lowest recorded temperatures in Alaska are both in the Interior. The highest is 100 °F in Fort Yukon (which is just 8 mi inside the arctic circle) on June 27, 1915, making Alaska tied with Hawaii as the state with the lowest high temperature in the United States. The lowest official Alaska temperature is in Prospect Creek on January 23, 1971, one degree above the lowest temperature recorded in continental North America (in Snag, Yukon, Canada). \n\nThe climate in the extreme north of Alaska is Arctic (Köppen: ET) with long, very cold winters and short, cool summers. Even in July, the average low temperature in Barrow is 34 °F. Precipitation is light in this part of Alaska, with many places averaging less than 10 in per year, mostly as snow which stays on the ground almost the entire year.\n\nHistory\n\nAlaska Natives\n\nNumerous indigenous peoples occupied Alaska for thousands of years before the arrival of European peoples to the area. Linguistic and DNA studies done here have provided evidence for the settlement of North America by way of the Bering land bridge. The Tlingit people developed a society with a matrilineal kinship system of property inheritance and descent in what is today Southeast Alaska, along with parts of British Columbia and the Yukon. Also in Southeast were the Haida, now well known for their unique arts. The Tsimshian people came to Alaska from British Columbia in 1887, when President Grover Cleveland, and later the U.S. Congress, granted them permission to settle on Annette Island and found the town of Metlakatla. All three of these peoples, as well as other indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast, experienced smallpox outbreaks from the late 18th through the mid-19th century, with the most devastating epidemics occurring in the 1830s and 1860s, resulting in high fatalities and social disruption. \n\nThe Aleutian Islands are still home to the Aleut people's seafaring society, although they were the first Native Alaskans to be exploited by Russians. Western and Southwestern Alaska are home to the Yup'ik, while their cousins the Alutiiq ~ Sugpiaq lived in what is now Southcentral Alaska. The Gwich'in people of the northern Interior region are Athabaskan and primarily known today for their dependence on the caribou within the much-contested Arctic National Wildlife Refuge. The North Slope and Little Diomede Island are occupied by the widespread Inupiat people.\n\nColonization\n\nSome researchers believe that the first Russian settlement in Alaska was established in the 17th century. According to this hypothesis, in 1648 several koches of Semyon Dezhnyov's expedition came ashore in Alaska by storm and founded this settlement. This hypothesis is based on the testimony of Chukchi geographer Nikolai Daurkin, who had visited Alaska in 1764–1765 and who had reported on a village on the Kheuveren River, populated by \"bearded men\" who \"pray to the icons\". Some modern researchers associate Kheuveren with Koyuk River. \n\nThe first European vessel to reach Alaska is generally held to be the St. Gabriel under the authority of the surveyor M. S. Gvozdev and assistant navigator I. Fyodorov on August 21, 1732 during an expedition of Siberian cossak A. F. Shestakov and Belorussian explorer Dmitry Pavlutsky (1729—1735). \n\nAnother European contact with Alaska occurred in 1741, when Vitus Bering led an expedition for the Russian Navy aboard the St. Peter. After his crew returned to Russia with sea otter pelts judged to be the finest fur in the world, small associations of fur traders began to sail from the shores of Siberia toward the Aleutian Islands. The first permanent European settlement was founded in 1784.\n\nBetween 1774 and 1800, Spain sent several expeditions to Alaska in order to assert its claim over the Pacific Northwest. In 1789 a Spanish settlement and fort were built in Nootka Sound. These expeditions gave names to places such as Valdez, Bucareli Sound, and Cordova. Later, the Russian-American Company carried out an expanded colonization program during the early-to-mid-19th century.\n\nSitka, renamed New Archangel from 1804 to 1867, on Baranof Island in the Alexander Archipelago in what is now Southeast Alaska, became the capital of Russian America. It remained the capital after the colony was transferred to the United States. The Russians never fully colonized Alaska, and the colony was never very profitable. Evidence of Russian settlement in names and churches survive throughout southeast Alaska.\n\nWilliam H. Seward, the United States Secretary of State, negotiated the Alaska Purchase (also known as Seward's Folly) with the Russians in 1867 for $7.2 million. Alaska was loosely governed by the military initially, and was administered as a district starting in 1884, with a governor appointed by the President of the United States. A federal district court was headquartered in Sitka.\n\nFor most of Alaska's first decade under the United States flag, Sitka was the only community inhabited by American settlers. They organized a \"provisional city government,\" which was Alaska's first municipal government, but not in a legal sense. Legislation allowing Alaskan communities to legally incorporate as cities did not come about until 1900, and home rule for cities was extremely limited or unavailable until statehood took effect in 1959.\n\nU.S. Territory\n\nStarting in the 1890s and stretching in some places to the early 1910s, gold rushes in Alaska and the nearby Yukon Territory brought thousands of miners and settlers to Alaska. Alaska was officially incorporated as an organized territory in 1912. Alaska's capital, which had been in Sitka until 1906, was moved north to Juneau. Construction of the Alaska Governor's Mansion began that same year. European immigrants from Norway and Sweden also settled in southeast Alaska, where they entered the fishing and logging industries.\n\nDuring World War II, the Aleutian Islands Campaign focused on the three outer Aleutian Islands – Attu, Agattu and Kiska – that were invaded by Japanese troops and occupied between June 1942 and August 1943. Unalaska/Dutch Harbor became a significant base for the U.S. Army Air Forces and Navy submariners.\n\nThe U.S. Lend-Lease program involved the flying of American warplanes through Canada to Fairbanks and thence Nome; Soviet pilots took possession of these aircraft, ferrying them to fight the German invasion of the Soviet Union. The construction of military bases contributed to the population growth of some Alaskan cities.\n\nStatehood\n\nStatehood for Alaska was an important cause of James Wickersham early in his tenure as a congressional delegate. Decades later, the statehood movement gained its first real momentum following a territorial referendum in 1946. The Alaska Statehood Committee and Alaska's Constitutional Convention would soon follow. Statehood supporters also found themselves fighting major battles against political foes, mostly in the U.S. Congress but also within Alaska. Statehood was approved by Congress on July 7, 1958. Alaska was officially proclaimed a state on January 3, 1959.\n\nIn 1960, the Census Bureau reported Alaska's population as 77.2% White, 3% Black, and 18.8% American Indian and Alaska Native. \n\nOn March 27, 1964, the massive Good Friday earthquake killed 133 people and destroyed several villages and portions of large coastal communities, mainly by the resultant tsunamis and landslides. It was the second-most-powerful earthquake in the recorded history of the world, with a moment magnitude of 9.2. It was over one thousand times more powerful than the 1989 San Francisco earthquake. The time of day (5:36 pm), time of year and location of the epicenter were all cited as factors in potentially sparing thousands of lives, particularly in Anchorage.\n\nThe 1968 discovery of oil at Prudhoe Bay and the 1977 completion of the Trans-Alaska Pipeline System led to an oil boom. Royalty revenues from oil have funded large state budgets from 1980 onward. That same year, not coincidentally, Alaska repealed its state income tax.\n\nIn 1989, the Exxon Valdez hit a reef in the Prince William Sound, spilling over 11 MUSgal of crude oil over 1100 mi of coastline. Today, the battle between philosophies of development and conservation is seen in the contentious debate over oil drilling in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge and the proposed Pebble Mine.\n\nAlaska Heritage Resources Survey\n\nThe Alaska Heritage Resources Survey (AHRS) is a restricted inventory of all reported historic and prehistoric sites within the state of Alaska; it is maintained by the Office of History and Archaeology. The survey's inventory of cultural resources includes objects, structures, buildings, sites, districts, and travel ways, with a general provision that they are over 50 years old. As of January 31, 2012, over 35,000 sites have been reported. \n\nDemographics\n\nThe United States Census Bureau estimates that the population of Alaska was 738,432 on July 1, 2015, a 3.97% increase since the 2010 United States Census.\n\nIn 2010, Alaska ranked as the 47th state by population, ahead of North Dakota, Vermont, and Wyoming (and Washington, D.C.) Alaska is the least densely populated state, and one of the most sparsely populated areas in the world, at , with the next state, Wyoming, at . Alaska is the largest U.S. state by area, and the tenth wealthiest (per capita income). As of November 2014, the state's unemployment rate was 6.6%. \n\nRace and ancestry\n\nAccording to the 2010 United States Census, Alaska had a population of 710,231. In terms of race and ethnicity, the state was 66.7% White (64.1% Non-Hispanic White), 14.8% American Indian and Alaska Native, 5.4% Asian, 3.3% Black or African American, 1.0% Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander, 1.6% from Some Other Race, and 7.3% from Two or More Races. Hispanics or Latinos of any race made up 5.5% of the population. \n\n, 50.7% of Alaska's population younger than one year of age belonged to minority groups (i.e., did not have two parents of non-Hispanic white ancestry). \n\nLanguages\n\nAccording to the 2011 American Community Survey, 83.4% of people over the age of five speak only English at home. About 3.5% speak Spanish at home. About 2.2% speak another Indo-European language at home and about 4.3% speak an Asian language at home. About 5.3% speak other languages at home. \n\nThe Alaska Native Language Center at the University of Alaska Fairbanks claims that at least 20 Alaskan native languages exist and there are also some languages with different dialects. Most of Alaska's native languages belong to either the Eskimo–Aleut or Na-Dene language families however some languages are thought to be isolates (e.g. Haida) or have not yet been classified (e.g. Tsimshianic).\n nearly all of Alaska's native languages were classified as either threatened, shifting, moribund, nearly extinct, or dormant languages. \n\nA total of 5.2% of Alaskans speak one of the state's 20 indigenous languages, known locally as \"native languages\".\n\nIn October 2014, the governor of Alaska signed a bill declaring the state's 20 indigenous languages as official languages. This bill gave the languages symbolic recognition as official languages, though they have not been adopted for official use within the government. The 20 languages that were included in the bill are:\n# Inupiaq\n# Siberian Yupik\n# Central Alaskan Yup’ik\n# Alutiiq\n# Unangax\n# Dena’ina\n# Deg Xinag\n# Holikachuk\n# Koyukon\n# Upper Kuskokwim\n# Gwich’in\n# Tanana\n# Upper Tanana\n# Tanacross\n# Hän\n# Ahtna\n# Eyak\n# Tlingit\n# Haida\n# Tsimshian\n\nReligion\n\nAccording to statistics collected by the Association of Religion Data Archives from 2010, about 34% of Alaska residents were members of religious congregations. 100,960 people identified as Evangelical Protestants, 50,866 as Roman Catholic, and 32,550 as mainline Protestants. Roughly 4% are Mormon, 0.5% are Jewish, 1% are Muslim, 0.5% are Buddhist, and 0.5% are Hindu. The largest religious denominations in Alaska were the Catholic Church with 50,866 adherents, non-denominational Evangelical Protestants with 38,070 adherents, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints with 32,170 adherents, and the Southern Baptist Convention with 19,891 adherents. Alaska has been identified, along with Pacific Northwest states Washington and Oregon, as being the least religious states of the USA, in terms of church membership. \n\nIn 1795, the First Russian Orthodox Church was established in Kodiak. Intermarriage with Alaskan Natives helped the Russian immigrants integrate into society. As a result, an increasing number of Russian Orthodox churches gradually became established within Alaska. Alaska also has the largest Quaker population (by percentage) of any state. In 2009 there were 6,000 Jews in Alaska (for whom observance of halakha may pose special problems). Alaskan Hindus often share venues and celebrations with members of other Asian religious communities, including Sikhs and Jains. \n\nEstimates for the number of Muslims in Alaska range from 2,000 to 5,000. The Islamic Community Center of Anchorage began efforts in the late 1990s to construct a mosque in Anchorage. They broke ground on a building in south Anchorage in 2010 and were nearing completion in late 2014. When completed, the mosque will be the first in the state and one of the northernmost mosques in the world. \n\nEconomy\n\nThe 2007 gross state product was $44.9 billion, 45th in the nation. Its per capita personal income for 2007 was $40,042, ranking 15th in the nation. According to a 2013 study by Phoenix Marketing International, Alaska had the fifth-largest number of millionaires per capita in the United States, with a ratio of 6.75 percent. The oil and gas industry dominates the Alaskan economy, with more than 80% of the state's revenues derived from petroleum extraction. Alaska's main export product (excluding oil and natural gas) is seafood, primarily salmon, cod, Pollock and crab.\n\nAgriculture represents a very small fraction of the Alaskan economy. Agricultural production is primarily for consumption within the state and includes nursery stock, dairy products, vegetables, and livestock. Manufacturing is limited, with most foodstuffs and general goods imported from elsewhere.\n\nEmployment is primarily in government and industries such as natural resource extraction, shipping, and transportation. Military bases are a significant component of the economy in the Fairbanks North Star, Anchorage and Kodiak Island boroughs, as well as Kodiak. Federal subsidies are also an important part of the economy, allowing the state to keep taxes low. Its industrial outputs are crude petroleum, natural gas, coal, gold, precious metals, zinc and other mining, seafood processing, timber and wood products. There is also a growing service and tourism sector. Tourists have contributed to the economy by supporting local lodging.\n\nEnergy\n\nAlaska has vast energy resources, although its oil reserves have been largely depleted. Major oil and gas reserves were found in the Alaska North Slope (ANS) and Cook Inlet basins, but according to the Energy Information Administration, by February 2014 Alaska had fallen to fourth place in the nation in crude oil production after Texas, North Dakota, and California. Prudhoe Bay on Alaska's North Slope is still the second highest-yielding oil field in the United States, typically producing about 400000 oilbbl/d, although by early 2014 North Dakota's Bakken Formation was producing over 900000 oilbbl/d. Prudhoe Bay was the largest conventional oil field ever discovered in North America, but was much smaller than Canada's enormous Athabasca oil sands field, which by 2014 was producing about of unconventional oil, and had hundreds of years of producible reserves at that rate. \n\nThe Trans-Alaska Pipeline can transport and pump up to of crude oil per day, more than any other crude oil pipeline in the United States. Additionally, substantial coal deposits are found in Alaska's bituminous, sub-bituminous, and lignite coal basins. The United States Geological Survey estimates that there are of undiscovered, technically recoverable gas from natural gas hydrates on the Alaskan North Slope. Alaska also offers some of the highest hydroelectric power potential in the country from its numerous rivers. Large swaths of the Alaskan coastline offer wind and geothermal energy potential as well. \n\nAlaska's economy depends heavily on increasingly expensive diesel fuel for heating, transportation, electric power and light. Though wind and hydroelectric power are abundant and underdeveloped, proposals for statewide energy systems (e.g. with special low-cost electric interties) were judged uneconomical (at the time of the report, 2001) due to low (less than 50¢/gal) fuel prices, long distances and low population. The cost of a gallon of gas in urban Alaska today is usually 30–60¢ higher than the national average; prices in rural areas are generally significantly higher but vary widely depending on transportation costs, seasonal usage peaks, nearby petroleum development infrastructure and many other factors.\n\nPermanent Fund\n\nThe Alaska Permanent Fund is a constitutionally authorized appropriation of oil revenues, established by voters in 1976 to manage a surplus in state petroleum revenues from oil, largely in anticipation of the then recently constructed Trans-Alaska Pipeline System. The fund was originally proposed by Governor Keith Miller on the eve of the 1969 Prudhoe Bay lease sale, out of fear that the legislature would spend the entire proceeds of the sale (which amounted to $900 million) at once. It was later championed by Governor Jay Hammond and Kenai state representative Hugh Malone. It has served as an attractive political prospect ever since, diverting revenues which would normally be deposited into the general fund.\n\nThe Alaska Constitution was written so as to discourage dedicating state funds for a particular purpose. The Permanent Fund has become the rare exception to this, mostly due to the political climate of distrust existing during the time of its creation. From its initial principal of $734,000, the fund has grown to $50 billion as a result of oil royalties and capital investment programs. Most if not all the principal is invested conservatively outside Alaska. This has led to frequent calls by Alaskan politicians for the Fund to make investments within Alaska, though such a stance has never gained momentum.\n\nStarting in 1982, dividends from the fund's annual growth have been paid out each year to eligible Alaskans, ranging from an initial $1,000 in 1982 (equal to three years' payout, as the distribution of payments was held up in a lawsuit over the distribution scheme) to $3,269 in 2008 (which included a one-time $1,200 \"Resource Rebate\"). Every year, the state legislature takes out 8% from the earnings, puts 3% back into the principal for inflation proofing, and the remaining 5% is distributed to all qualifying Alaskans. To qualify for the Permanent Fund Dividend, one must have lived in the state for a minimum of 12 months, maintain constant residency subject to allowable absences, and not be subject to court judgments or criminal convictions which fall under various disqualifying classifications or may subject the payment amount to civil garnishment.\n\nThe Permanent Fund is often considered to be one of the leading examples of a \"Basic Income\" policy in the world. \n\nCost of living\n\nThe cost of goods in Alaska has long been higher than in the contiguous 48 states. Federal government employees, particularly United States Postal Service (USPS) workers and active-duty military members, receive a Cost of Living Allowance usually set at 25% of base pay because, while the cost of living has gone down, it is still one of the highest in the country.\n\nRural Alaska suffers from extremely high prices for food and consumer goods compared to the rest of the country, due to the relatively limited transportation infrastructure.\n\nAgriculture and fishing\n\nDue to the northern climate and short growing season, relatively little farming occurs in Alaska. Most farms are in either the Matanuska Valley, about 40 mi northeast of Anchorage, or on the Kenai Peninsula, about 60 mi southwest of Anchorage. The short 100-day growing season limits the crops that can be grown, but the long sunny summer days make for productive growing seasons. The primary crops are potatoes, carrots, lettuce, and cabbage.\n\nThe Tanana Valley is another notable agricultural locus, especially the Delta Junction area, about 100 mi southeast of Fairbanks, with a sizable concentration of farms growing agronomic crops; these farms mostly lie north and east of Fort Greely. This area was largely set aside and developed under a state program spearheaded by Hammond during his second term as governor. Delta-area crops consist predominately of barley and hay. West of Fairbanks lies another concentration of small farms catering to restaurants, the hotel and tourist industry, and community-supported agriculture.\n\nAlaskan agriculture has experienced a surge in growth of market gardeners, small farms and farmers' markets in recent years, with the highest percentage increase (46%) in the nation in growth in farmers' markets in 2011, compared to 17% nationwide. The peony industry has also taken off, as the growing season allows farmers to harvest during a gap in supply elsewhere in the world, thereby filling a niche in the flower market. \n\nAlaska, with no counties, lacks county fairs. However, a small assortment of state and local fairs (with the Alaska State Fair in Palmer the largest), are held mostly in the late summer. The fairs are mostly located in communities with historic or current agricultural activity, and feature local farmers exhibiting produce in addition to more high-profile commercial activities such as carnival rides, concerts and food. \"Alaska Grown\" is used as an agricultural slogan.\n\nAlaska has an abundance of seafood, with the primary fisheries in the Bering Sea and the North Pacific. Seafood is one of the few food items that is often cheaper within the state than outside it. Many Alaskans take advantage of salmon seasons to harvest portions of their household diet while fishing for subsistence, as well as sport. This includes fish taken by hook, net or wheel. \n\nHunting for subsistence, primarily caribou, moose, and Dall sheep is still common in the state, particularly in remote Bush communities. An example of a traditional native food is Akutaq, the Eskimo ice cream, which can consist of reindeer fat, seal oil, dried fish meat and local berries.\n\nAlaska's reindeer herding is concentrated on Seward Peninsula, where wild caribou can be prevented from mingling and migrating with the domesticated reindeer. \n\nMost food in Alaska is transported into the state from \"Outside\", and shipping costs make food in the cities relatively expensive. In rural areas, subsistence hunting and gathering is an essential activity because imported food is prohibitively expensive. Though most small towns and villages in Alaska lie along the coastline, the cost of importing food to remote villages can be high, because of the terrain and difficult road conditions, which change dramatically, due to varying climate and precipitation changes. The cost of transport can reach as high as 50¢ per pound ($1.10/kg) or more in some remote areas, during the most difficult times, if these locations can be reached at all during such inclement weather and terrain conditions. The cost of delivering a 1 USgal of milk is about $3.50 in many villages where per capita income can be $20,000 or less. Fuel cost per gallon is routinely 20–30¢ higher than the continental United States average, with only Hawaii having higher prices. \n\nTransportation\n\nRoads\n\nAlaska has few road connections compared to the rest of the U.S. The state's road system covers a relatively small area of the state, linking the central population centers and the Alaska Highway, the principal route out of the state through Canada. The state capital, Juneau, is not accessible by road, only a car ferry, which has spurred several debates over the decades about moving the capital to a city on the road system, or building a road connection from Haines. The western part of Alaska has no road system connecting the communities with the rest of Alaska.\n\nOne unique feature of the Alaska Highway system is the Anton Anderson Memorial Tunnel, an active Alaska Railroad tunnel recently upgraded to provide a paved roadway link with the isolated community of Whittier on Prince William Sound to the Seward Highway about 50 mi southeast of Anchorage at Portage. At , the tunnel was the longest road tunnel in North America until 2007. The tunnel is the longest combination road and rail tunnel in North America.\n\nRail\n\nBuilt around 1915, the Alaska Railroad (ARR) played a key role in the development of Alaska through the 20th century. It links north Pacific shipping through providing critical infrastructure with tracks that run from Seward to Interior Alaska by way of South Central Alaska, passing through Anchorage, Eklutna, Wasilla, Talkeetna, Denali, and Fairbanks, with spurs to Whittier, Palmer and North Pole. The cities, towns, villages, and region served by ARR tracks are known statewide as \"The Railbelt\". In recent years, the ever-improving paved highway system began to eclipse the railroad's importance in Alaska's economy.\n\nThe railroad played a vital role in Alaska's development, moving freight into Alaska while transporting natural resources southward (i.e., coal from the Usibelli coal mine near Healy to Seward and gravel from the Matanuska Valley to Anchorage). It is well known for its summertime tour passenger service.\n\nThe Alaska Railroad was one of the last railroads in North America to use cabooses in regular service and still uses them on some gravel trains. It continues to offer one of the last flag stop routes in the country. A stretch of about 60 mi of track along an area north of Talkeetna remains inaccessible by road; the railroad provides the only transportation to rural homes and cabins in the area. Until construction of the Parks Highway in the 1970s, the railroad provided the only land access to most of the region along its entire route.\n\nIn northern Southeast Alaska, the White Pass and Yukon Route also partly runs through the state from Skagway northwards into Canada (British Columbia and Yukon Territory), crossing the border at White Pass Summit. This line is now mainly used by tourists, often arriving by cruise liner at Skagway. It was featured in the 1983 BBC television series Great Little Railways.\n\nThe Alaska Rail network is not connected to Outside. In 2000, the U.S. Congress authorized $6 million to study the feasibility of a rail link between Alaska, Canada, and the lower 48. \n\nAlaska Rail Marine provides car float service between Whittier and Seattle.\n\nMarine transport\n\nMany cities, towns and villages in the state do not have road or highway access; the only modes of access involve travel by air, river, or the sea.\n\nAlaska's well-developed state-owned ferry system (known as the Alaska Marine Highway) serves the cities of southeast, the Gulf Coast and the Alaska Peninsula. The ferries transport vehicles as well as passengers. The system also operates a ferry service from Bellingham, Washington and Prince Rupert, British Columbia in Canada through the Inside Passage to Skagway. The Inter-Island Ferry Authority also serves as an important marine link for many communities in the Prince of Wales Island region of Southeast and works in concert with the Alaska Marine Highway.\n\nIn recent years, cruise lines have created a summertime tourism market, mainly connecting the Pacific Northwest to Southeast Alaska and, to a lesser degree, towns along Alaska's gulf coast. The population of Ketchikan may rise by over 10,000 people on many days during the summer, as up to four large cruise ships at a time can dock, debarking thousands of passengers.\n\nAir transport\n\nCities not served by road, sea, or river can be reached only by air, foot, dogsled, or snowmachine, accounting for Alaska's extremely well developed bush air services—an Alaskan novelty. Anchorage and, to a lesser extent Fairbanks, is served by many major airlines. Because of limited highway access, air travel remains the most efficient form of transportation in and out of the state. Anchorage recently completed extensive remodeling and construction at Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport to help accommodate the upsurge in tourism (in 2012-2013, Alaska received almost 2 million visitors). \n\nRegular flights to most villages and towns within the state that are commercially viable are challenging to provide, so they are heavily subsidized by the federal government through the Essential Air Service program. Alaska Airlines is the only major airline offering in-state travel with jet service (sometimes in combination cargo and passenger Boeing 737-400s) from Anchorage and Fairbanks to regional hubs like Bethel, Nome, Kotzebue, Dillingham, Kodiak, and other larger communities as well as to major Southeast and Alaska Peninsula communities.\n\nThe bulk of remaining commercial flight offerings come from small regional commuter airlines such as Ravn Alaska, PenAir, and Frontier Flying Service. The smallest towns and villages must rely on scheduled or chartered bush flying services using general aviation aircraft such as the Cessna Caravan, the most popular aircraft in use in the state. Much of this service can be attributed to the Alaska bypass mail program which subsidizes bulk mail delivery to Alaskan rural communities. The program requires 70% of that subsidy to go to carriers who offer passenger service to the communities.\n\nMany communities have small air taxi services. These operations originated from the demand for customized transport to remote areas. Perhaps the most quintessentially Alaskan plane is the bush seaplane. The world's busiest seaplane base is Lake Hood, located next to Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport, where flights bound for remote villages without an airstrip carry passengers, cargo, and many items from stores and warehouse clubs. In 2006 Alaska had the highest number of pilots per capita of any U.S. state. \n\nOther transport\n\nAnother Alaskan transportation method is the dogsled. In modern times (that is, any time after the mid-late 1920s), dog mushing is more of a sport than a true means of transportation. Various races are held around the state, but the best known is the Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race, a 1150 mi trail from Anchorage to Nome (although the distance varies from year to year, the official distance is set at 1049 mi). The race commemorates the famous 1925 serum run to Nome in which mushers and dogs like Togo and Balto took much-needed medicine to the diphtheria-stricken community of Nome when all other means of transportation had failed. Mushers from all over the world come to Anchorage each March to compete for cash, prizes, and prestige. The \"Serum Run\" is another sled dog race that more accurately follows the route of the famous 1925 relay, leaving from the community of Nenana (southwest of Fairbanks) to Nome. \n\nIn areas not served by road or rail, primary transportation in summer is by all-terrain vehicle and in winter by snowmobile or \"snow machine,\" as it is commonly referred to in Alaska.\n\nData transport\n\nAlaska's internet and other data transport systems are provided largely through the two major telecommunications companies: GCI and Alaska Communications. GCI owns and operates what it calls the Alaska United Fiber Optic system and as of late 2011 Alaska Communications advertised that it has \"two fiber optic paths to the lower 48 and two more across Alaska. In January 2011, it was reported that a $1 billion project to run connect Asia and rural Alaska was being planned, aided in part by $350 million in stimulus from the federal government. \n\nLaw and government\n\nState government\n\nLike all other U.S. states, Alaska is governed as a republic, with three branches of government: an executive branch consisting of the Governor of Alaska and the other independently elected constitutional officers; a legislative branch consisting of the Alaska House of Representatives and Alaska Senate; and a judicial branch consisting of the Alaska Supreme Court and lower courts.\n\nThe state of Alaska employs approximately 16,000 people statewide. \n\nThe Alaska Legislature consists of a 40-member House of Representatives and a 20-member Senate. Senators serve four-year terms and House members two. The Governor of Alaska serves four-year terms. The lieutenant governor runs separately from the governor in the primaries, but during the general election, the nominee for governor and nominee for lieutenant governor run together on the same ticket.\n\nAlaska's court system has four levels: the Alaska Supreme Court, the Alaska Court of Appeals, the superior courts and the district courts. The superior and district courts are trial courts. Superior courts are courts of general jurisdiction, while district courts only hear certain types of cases, including misdemeanor criminal cases and civil cases valued up to $100,000.\n\nThe Supreme Court and the Court of Appeals are appellate courts. The Court of Appeals is required to hear appeals from certain lower-court decisions, including those regarding criminal prosecutions, juvenile delinquency, and habeas corpus. The Supreme Court hears civil appeals and may in its discretion hear criminal appeals.\n\nState politics\n\nAlthough in its early years of statehood Alaska was a Democratic state, since the early 1970s it has been characterized as Republican-leaning. Local political communities have often worked on issues related to land use development, fishing, tourism, and individual rights. Alaska Natives, while organized in and around their communities, have been active within the Native corporations. These have been given ownership over large tracts of land, which require stewardship.\n\nAlaska was formerly the only state in which possession of one ounce or less of marijuana in one's home was completely legal under state law, though the federal law remains in force.\n\nThe state has an independence movement favoring a vote on secession from the United States, with the Alaskan Independence Party. \n\nSix Republicans and four Democrats have served as governor of Alaska. In addition, Republican Governor Wally Hickel was elected to the office for a second term in 1990 after leaving the Republican party and briefly joining the Alaskan Independence Party ticket just long enough to be reelected. He subsequently officially rejoined the Republican party in 1994.\n\nAlaska's voter initiative making marijuana legal takes effect 24 February 2015, placing Alaska alongside Colorado and Washington as the three U.S. states where recreational marijuana is legal. The new law means people over age 21 can consume small amounts of pot — if they can find it. Commercial sales await implementation of Alaska Measure 2 (2014). \n\nTaxes\n\nTo finance state government operations, Alaska depends primarily on petroleum revenues and federal subsidies. This allows it to have the lowest individual tax burden in the United States. It is one of five states with no state sales tax, one of seven states that do not levy an individual income tax, and one of the two states that has neither. The Department of Revenue Tax Division reports regularly on the state's revenue sources. The Department also issues an annual summary of its operations, including new state laws that directly affect the tax division.\n\nWhile Alaska has no state sales tax, 89 municipalities collect a local sales tax, from 1.0–7.5%, typically 3–5%. Other local taxes levied include raw fish taxes, hotel, motel, and bed-and-breakfast 'bed' taxes, severance taxes, liquor and tobacco taxes, gaming (pull tabs) taxes, tire taxes and fuel transfer taxes. A part of the revenue collected from certain state taxes and license fees (such as petroleum, aviation motor fuel, telephone cooperative) is shared with municipalities in Alaska.\n\nFairbanks has one of the highest property taxes in the state as no sales or income taxes are assessed in the Fairbanks North Star Borough (FNSB). A sales tax for the FNSB has been voted on many times, but has yet to be approved, leading law makers to increase taxes dramatically on goods such as liquor and tobacco.\n\nIn 2014 the Tax Foundation ranked Alaska as having the fourth most \"business friendly\" tax policy, behind only Wyoming, South Dakota, and Nevada. \n\nFederal politics\n\nAlaska regularly supports Republicans in presidential elections and has done so since statehood. Republicans have won the state's electoral college votes in all but one election that it has participated in (1964). No state has voted for a Democratic presidential candidate fewer times. Alaska was carried by Democratic nominee Lyndon B. Johnson during his landslide election in 1964, while the 1960 and 1968 elections were close. Since 1972, however, Republicans have carried the state by large margins. In 2008, Republican John McCain defeated Democrat Barack Obama in Alaska, 59.49% to 37.83%. McCain's running mate was Sarah Palin, the state's governor and the first Alaskan on a major party ticket. Obama lost Alaska again in 2012, but he captured 40% of the state's vote in that election, making him the first Democrat to do so since 1968.\n\nThe Alaska Bush, central Juneau, midtown and downtown Anchorage, and the areas surrounding the University of Alaska Fairbanks campus and Ester have been strongholds of the Democratic Party. The Matanuska-Susitna Borough, the majority of Fairbanks (including North Pole and the military base), and South Anchorage typically have the strongest Republican showing. , well over half of all registered voters have chosen \"Non-Partisan\" or \"Undeclared\" as their affiliation, despite recent attempts to close primaries to unaffiliated voters.\n\nBecause of its population relative to other U.S. states, Alaska has only one member in the U.S. House of Representatives. This seat is held by Republican Don Young, who was re-elected to his 21st consecutive term in 2012. Alaska's At-large congressional district is one of the largest parliamentary constituencies in the world.\n\nIn 2008, Governor Sarah Palin became the first Republican woman to run on a national ticket when she became John McCain's running mate. She continued to be a prominent national figure even after resigning from the governor's job in July 2009. \n\nAlaska's United States Senators belong to Class 2 and Class 3. In 2008, Democrat Mark Begich, mayor of Anchorage, defeated long-time Republican senator Ted Stevens. Stevens had been convicted on seven felony counts of failing to report gifts on Senate financial discloser forms one week before the election. The conviction was set aside in April 2009 after evidence of prosecutorial misconduct emerged.\n\nRepublican Frank Murkowski held the state's other senatorial position. After being elected governor in 2002, he resigned from the Senate and appointed his daughter, State Representative Lisa Murkowski as his successor. She won full six-year terms in 2004 and 2010.\n\nFile:Bill Walker inauguration speech.jpg\|Bill Walker, Governor\nFile:Byron Mallott inaugural speech.jpg\|Byron Mallott, Lieutenant Governor\nFile:Lisa Murkowski.jpg\|Lisa Murkowski, senior United States Senator\nFile:Senator_Dan_Sullivan_official.jpg\|Dan Sullivan, junior United States Senator\nFile:Don Young, official photo portrait, color, 2006.jpg\|Don Young, at-large United States Representative\n\nCities, towns and boroughs\n\nAlaska is not divided into counties, as most of the other U.S. states, but it is divided into boroughs. Many of the more densely populated parts of the state are part of Alaska's 16 boroughs, which function somewhat similarly to counties in other states. However, unlike county-equivalents in the other 49 states, the boroughs do not cover the entire land area of the state. The area not part of any borough is referred to as the Unorganized Borough.\n\nThe Unorganized Borough has no government of its own, but the U.S. Census Bureau in cooperation with the state divided the Unorganized Borough into 11 census areas solely for the purposes of statistical analysis and presentation. A recording district is a mechanism for administration of the public record in Alaska. The state is divided into 34 recording districts which are centrally administered under a State Recorder. All recording districts use the same acceptance criteria, fee schedule, etc., for accepting documents into the public record.\n\nWhereas many U.S. states use a three-tiered system of decentralization—state/county/township—most of Alaska uses only two tiers—state/borough. Owing to the low population density, most of the land is located in the Unorganized Borough. As the name implies, it has no intermediate borough government but is administered directly by the state government. In 2000, 57.71% of Alaska's area has this status, with 13.05% of the population.\n\nAnchorage merged the city government with the Greater Anchorage Area Borough in 1975 to form the Municipality of Anchorage, containing the city proper and the communities of Eagle River, Chugiak, Peters Creek, Girdwood, Bird, and Indian. Fairbanks has a separate borough (the Fairbanks North Star Borough) and municipality (the City of Fairbanks).\n\nThe state's most populous city is Anchorage, home to 278,700 people in 2006, 225,744 of whom live in the urbanized area. The richest location in Alaska by per capita income is Halibut Cove ($89,895). Yakutat City, Sitka, Juneau, and Anchorage are the four largest cities in the U.S. by area.\n\nCities and census-designated places (by population)\n\nAs reflected in the 2010 United States Census, Alaska has a total of 355 incorporated cities and census-designated places (CDPs). The tally of cities includes four unified municipalities, essentially the equivalent of a consolidated city–county. The majority of these communities are located in the rural expanse of Alaska known as \"The Bush\" and are unconnected to the contiguous North American road network. The table at the bottom of this section lists the 100 largest cities and census-designated places in Alaska, in population order.\n\nOf Alaska's 2010 Census population figure of 710,231, 20,429 people, or 2.88% of the population, did not live in an incorporated city or census-designated place. Approximately three-quarters of that figure were people who live in urban and suburban neighborhoods on the outskirts of the city limits of Ketchikan, Kodiak, Palmer and Wasilla. CDPs have not been established for these areas by the United States Census Bureau, except that seven CDPs were established for the Ketchikan-area neighborhoods in the 1980 Census (Clover Pass, Herring Cove, Ketchikan East, Mountain Point, North Tongass Highway, Pennock Island and Saxman East), but have not been used since. The remaining population was scattered throughout Alaska, both within organized boroughs and in the Unorganized Borough, in largely remote areas.\n\nEducation\n\nThe Alaska Department of Education and Early Development administers many school districts in Alaska. In addition, the state operates a boarding school, Mt. Edgecumbe High School in Sitka, and provides partial funding for other boarding schools, including Nenana Student Living Center in Nenana and The Galena Interior Learning Academy in Galena. \n\nThere are more than a dozen colleges and universities in Alaska. Accredited universities in Alaska include the University of Alaska Anchorage, University of Alaska Fairbanks, University of Alaska Southeast, and Alaska Pacific University. Alaska is the only state that has no institutions that are part of the NCAA Division I.\n\nThe Alaska Department of Labor and Workforce Development operates AVTEC, Alaska's Institute of Technology. Campuses in Seward and Anchorage offer 1 week to 11-month training programs in areas as diverse as Information Technology, Welding, Nursing, and Mechanics.\n\nAlaska has had a problem with a \"brain drain\". Many of its young people, including most of the highest academic achievers, leave the state after high school graduation and do not return. , Alaska did not have a law school or medical school. The University of Alaska has attempted to combat this by offering partial four-year scholarships to the top 10% of Alaska high school graduates, via the Alaska Scholars Program. \n\nPublic health and public safety\n\nThe Alaska State Troopers are Alaska's statewide police force. They have a long and storied history, but were not an official organization until 1941. Before the force was officially organized, law enforcement in Alaska was handled by various federal agencies. Larger towns usually have their own local police and some villages rely on \"Public Safety Officers\" who have police training but do not carry firearms. In much of the state, the troopers serve as the only police force available. In addition to enforcing traffic and criminal law, wildlife Troopers enforce hunting and fishing regulations. Due to the varied terrain and wide scope of the Troopers' duties, they employ a wide variety of land, air, and water patrol vehicles.\n\nMany rural communities in Alaska are considered \"dry,\" having outlawed the importation of alcoholic beverages. Suicide rates for rural residents are higher than urban. \n\nDomestic abuse and other violent crimes are also at high levels in the state; this is in part linked to alcohol abuse. Alaska has the highest rate of sexual assault in the nation, especially in rural areas. The average age of sexually assaulted victims is 16 years old. In four out of five cases, the suspects were relatives, friends or acquaintances. \n\nCulture\n\nSome of Alaska's popular annual events are the Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race that starts in Anchorage and ends in Nome, World Ice Art Championships in Fairbanks, the Blueberry Festival and Alaska Hummingbird Festival in Ketchikan, the Sitka Whale Fest, and the Stikine River Garnet Fest in Wrangell. The Stikine River attracts the largest springtime concentration of American bald eagles in the world.\n\nThe Alaska Native Heritage Center celebrates the rich heritage of Alaska's 11 cultural groups. Their purpose is to encourage cross-cultural exchanges among all people and enhance self-esteem among Native people. The Alaska Native Arts Foundation promotes and markets Native art from all regions and cultures in the State, using the internet. \n\nMusic\n\nInfluences on music in Alaska include the traditional music of Alaska Natives as well as folk music brought by later immigrants from Russia and Europe. Prominent musicians from Alaska include singer Jewel, traditional Aleut flautist Mary Youngblood, folk singer-songwriter Libby Roderick, Christian music singer/songwriter Lincoln Brewster, metal/post hardcore band 36 Crazyfists and the groups Pamyua and Portugal. The Man.\n\nThere are many established music festivals in Alaska, including the Alaska Folk Festival, the Fairbanks Summer Arts Festival, the [http://anchoragefolkfestival.org/ Anchorage Folk Festival], the Athabascan Old-Time Fiddling Festival, the Sitka Jazz Festival, and the Sitka Summer Music Festival. The most prominent orchestra in Alaska is the Anchorage Symphony Orchestra, though the Fairbanks Symphony Orchestra and Juneau Symphony are also notable. The Anchorage Opera is currently the state's only professional opera company, though there are several volunteer and semi-professional organizations in the state as well.\n\nThe official state song of Alaska is \"Alaska's Flag\", which was adopted in 1955; it celebrates the flag of Alaska.\n\nAlaska in film and on television\n\nAlaska's first independent picture entirely made in Alaska was The Chechahcos, produced by Alaskan businessman Austin E. Lathrop and filmed in and around Anchorage. Released in 1924 by the Alaska Moving Picture Corporation, it was the only film the company made.\n\nOne of the most prominent movies filmed in Alaska is MGM's Eskimo/Mala The Magnificent, starring Alaska Native Ray Mala. In 1932 an expedition set out from MGM's studios in Hollywood to Alaska to film what was then billed as \"The Biggest Picture Ever Made.\" Upon arriving in Alaska, they set up \"Camp Hollywood\" in Northwest Alaska, where they lived during the duration of the filming. Louis B. Mayer spared no expense in spite of the remote location, going so far as to hire the chef from the Hotel Roosevelt in Hollywood to prepare meals.\n\nWhen Eskimo premiered at the Astor Theatre in New York City, the studio received the largest amount of feedback in its history to that point. Eskimo was critically acclaimed and released worldwide; as a result, Mala became an international movie star. Eskimo won the first Oscar for Best Film Editing at the Academy Awards, and showcased and preserved aspects of Inupiat culture on film.\n\nThe 1983 Disney movie Never Cry Wolf was at least partially shot in Alaska. The 1991 film White Fang, based on Jack London's novel and starring Ethan Hawke, was filmed in and around Haines. Steven Seagal's 1994 On Deadly Ground, starring Michael Caine, was filmed in part at the Worthington Glacier near Valdez. The 1999 John Sayles film Limbo, starring David Strathairn, Mary Elizabeth Mastrantonio, and Kris Kristofferson, was filmed in Juneau.\n\nThe psychological thriller Insomnia, starring Al Pacino and Robin Williams, was shot in Canada, but was set in Alaska. The 2007 film directed by Sean Penn, Into The Wild, was partially filmed and set in Alaska. The film, which is based on the novel of the same name, follows the adventures of Christopher McCandless, who died in a remote abandoned bus along the Stampede Trail west of Healy in 1992.\n\nMany films and television shows set in Alaska are not filmed there; for example, Northern Exposure, set in the fictional town of Cicely, Alaska, was filmed in Roslyn, Washington. The 2007 horror feature 30 Days of Night is set in Barrow, but was filmed in New Zealand.\n\nMany reality television shows are filmed in Alaska. In 2011 the Anchorage Daily News found ten set in the state. \n\nState symbols\n\n* State motto: North to the Future\n* Nicknames: \"The Last Frontier\" or \"Land of the Midnight Sun\" or \"Seward's Icebox\"\n* State bird: willow ptarmigan, adopted by the Territorial Legislature in 1955. It is a small (15 –) Arctic grouse that lives among willows and on open tundra and muskeg. Plumage is brown in summer, changing to white in winter. The willow ptarmigan is common in much of Alaska.\n* State fish: king salmon, adopted 1962.\n* State flower: wild/native forget-me-not, adopted by the Territorial Legislature in 1917. It is a perennial that is found throughout Alaska, from Hyder to the Arctic Coast, and west to the Aleutians.\n* State fossil: woolly mammoth, adopted 1986.\n* State gem: jade, adopted 1968.\n* State insect: four-spot skimmer dragonfly, adopted 1995.\n* State land mammal: moose, adopted 1998.\n* State marine mammal: bowhead whale, adopted 1983.\n* State mineral: gold, adopted 1968.\n* State song: \"Alaska's Flag\"\n* State sport: dog mushing, adopted 1972.\n* State tree: Sitka spruce, adopted 1962.\n* State dog: Alaskan Malamute, adopted 2010. \n* State soil: Tanana, adopted unknown." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Standard Oil New Jersey", "Exxon Company", "Exxon", "Jersey Standard", "EXXon", "Exxon Research and Engineering Company", "Esso Petroleum", "Standard Oil Company of New Jersey", "Exxon Company USA" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "exxon company usa", "jersey standard", "esso petroleum", "exxon research and engineering company", "standard oil new jersey", "standard oil company of new jersey", "exxon company", "exxon" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "exxon", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Exxon" }
In which decade of the 20th century was Dan Aykroyd born?	tc_290	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "20th_century.txt", "Dan_Aykroyd.txt" ], "title": [ "20th century", "Dan Aykroyd" ], "wiki_context": [ "The 20th century was a century that began on \n\nJanuary 1, 1901 and ended on December 31, 2000. It was the tenth and final century of the 2nd millennium. It is distinct from the century known as the 1900s (sometimes written as 19XX), which began on January 1, 1900 and ended on December 31, 1999.\n\nThe 20th Century was dominated by chain of events that heralded significant changes in world history as to redefine the era: World War I and World War II, nuclear power and space exploration, nationalism and decolonization, the Cold War and Post-Cold War conflicts; intergovernmental organizations and cultural homogenization through developments in emerging transportation and communications technology; poverty reduction and world population growth, awareness of environmental degradation, ecological extinction; and the birth of the Digital Revolution. It saw great advances in communication and medical technology that by the late 1980s allowed for near-instantaneous worldwide computer communication and genetic modification of life. The term \"short twentieth century\" was coined to represent the events from 1914 to 1991.\n\nGlobal total fertility rates, sea level rise and ecological collapses skyrocketed exponentially; the resulting competition for land and dwindling resources accelerated deforestation, water depletion and the mass extinction of half the world's wildlife population; consequences which are now being dealt with. It took all of human history up to 1804 for the world's population to reach 1 billion; world population reached 2 billion estimates in 1927; by late 1999, the global population reached 6 billion. Global literacy averaged 80%; global lifespan-averages exceeded 40+ years for the first time in history, with over half achieving 70+ years; and income earnings of $10 or more per day outnumbered those earning $1 or less. Globally approximately 45% of those who were married and able to have children used contraception; 40% of pregnancies were unplanned; half of unplanned pregnancies were aborted.\n\nOverview\n\nThe century had the first global-scale total wars between world powers across continents and oceans in World War I and World War II. Nationalism became a major political issue in the world in the 20th century, acknowledged in international law along with the right of nations to self-determination, official decolonization in the mid-century, and nationalist-influenced armed regional-conflicts.\n\nThe century saw a major shift in the way that many people lived, with changes in politics, ideology, economics, society, culture, science, technology, and medicine. The 20th century may have seen more technological and scientific progress than all the other centuries combined since the dawn of civilization. Terms like ideology, world war, genocide, and nuclear war entered common usage. Scientific discoveries, such as the theory of relativity and quantum physics, profoundly changed the foundational models of physical science, forcing scientists to realize that the universe was more complex than previously believed, and dashing the hopes (or fears) at the end of the 19th century that the last few details of scientific knowledge were about to be filled in. It was a century that started with horses, simple automobiles, and freighters but ended with high-speed rail, cruise ships, global commercial air travel and the space shuttle. Horses, Western society's basic form of personal transportation for thousands of years, were replaced by automobiles and buses within a few decades. These developments were made possible by the exploitation of fossil fuel resources, which offered energy in an easily portable form, but also caused concern about pollution and long-term impact on the environment. Humans explored space for the first time, taking their first footsteps on the Moon.\n\nMass media, telecommunications, and information technology (especially computers, paperback books, public education, and the Internet) made the world's knowledge more widely available. Advancements in medical technology also improved the welfare of many people: the global life expectancy increased from 35 years to 65 years. Rapid technological advancements, however, also allowed warfare to reach unprecedented levels of destruction. World War II alone killed over 60 million people, while nuclear weapons gave humankind the means to annihilate itself in a short time. However, these same wars resulted in the destruction of the Imperial system. For the first time in human history, empires and their wars of expansion and colonization ceased to be a factor in international affairs, resulting in a far more globalized and cooperative world. The last time major powers clashed openly was in 1945, and since then, violence has seen an unprecedented decline. \n\nThe world also became more culturally homogenized than ever with developments in transportation and communications technology, popular music and other influences of Western culture, international corporations, and what was arguably a true global economy by the end of the 20th century.\n\nSummary\n\nTechnological advancements during World War I (1914-1918) changed the way war was fought, as new inventions such as tanks, chemical weapons, and aircraft modified tactics and strategy. After more than four years of trench warfare in western Europe, and 20 million dead, the powers that had formed the Triple Entente (France, Britain, and Russia, later replaced by the United States and joined by Italy and Romania) emerged victorious over the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman Empire). In addition to annexing much of the colonial possessions of the vanquished states, the Triple Entente exacted punitive restitution payments from them, plunging Germany in particular into economic depression. The regime of Tsar Nicholas II was overthrown during the conflict, Russia became the first communist state, and the Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman empires were dismantled at the war's conclusion.\n\nAt the beginning of the period, Britain was the world's most powerful nation, having acted as the world's policeman for the past century. Fascism, a movement which grew out of post-war angst and which accelerated during the Great Depression of the 1930s, gained momentum in Italy, Germany and Spain in the 1920s and 1930s, culminating in World War II (1939–1945), sparked by Nazi Germany's aggressive expansion at the expense of its neighbors. Meanwhile, Japan had rapidly transformed itself into a technologically advanced industrial power. Its military expansion into eastern Asia and the Pacific Ocean culminated in a surprise attack on the United States, bringing it into World War II. After some years of dramatic military success, Germany was defeated in 1945, having been invaded by the Soviet Union and Poland from the east and by the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, and Free France from the west. The war ended with the dropping of two atomic bombs on Japan. Japan later became a western ally with an economy based on the manufacture of consumer goods and trade. Germany was divided between the Western powers and the Soviet Union; all areas recaptured by the Soviet Union (East Germany and eastward) became Soviet puppet states under communist rule. Meanwhile, Western European countries were influenced by the American Marshall Plan and made a quick economic recovery, becoming major allies of the United States under capitalist economies and relatively democratic governments.\n\nWorld War II left about 60 million people dead. When the conflict ended in 1945, the United States and the Soviet Union emerged as the major world powers. Allies during the war, they soon became hostile to one another as the competing ideologies of communism and democratic capitalism occupied Europe, divided by the Iron Curtain and the Berlin Wall. The military alliances headed by these nations (NATO in North America and Western Europe; the Warsaw Pact in Eastern Europe) threatened each other with total war in what was called the Cold War (1947–91). The period was marked by a new arms race, and nuclear weapons were produced in the tens of thousands, sufficient to end most human life on the planet had a large-scale nuclear exchange ever occurred. The size of the nuclear arsenals is believed by many historians to have staved off war between the two, as the consequences were too great to bear. The policy of massive nuclear attack, knowing a similar counterattack would be forthcoming, was called mutually assured destruction (MAD). However, several proxy wars, such as the Korean War (1950–1953) and the Vietnam War (1957–1975), were waged as the United States implemented its worldwide \"containment\" policy against communism.\n\nAfter World War II, most of the European-colonized world in Africa and Asia gained independence in a process of decolonization. Meanwhile, the wars empowered several nations, including the UK, USA, Russia, China and Japan, to exert a strong influence over many world affairs. American culture spread around the world with the advent of Hollywood, Broadway, rock and roll, pop music, fast food, big-box stores, and the hip-hop lifestyle. Britain continued to influence world culture, including the \"British Invasion\" into American music, leading many rock bands from other countries (such as Swedish ABBA) to sing in English. The western world and parts of Asia enjoyed a post-World War II economic boom. After the Soviet Union collapsed under internal pressure in 1991, the communist governments of the Eastern bloc were dismantled, followed by awkward transitions into market economies.\n\nFollowing World War II the United Nations, successor to the League of Nations, was established as an international forum in which the world's nations could discuss issues diplomatically. It enacted resolutions on such topics as the conduct of warfare, environmental protection, international sovereignty, and human rights. Peacekeeping forces consisting of troops provided by various countries, with various United Nations and other aid agencies, helped to relieve famine, disease, and poverty, and to suppress some local armed conflicts. Europe slowly united, economically and, in some ways, politically, to form the European Union, which consisted of 15 European countries by the end of the 20th century.\n\nIn the last third of the century, concern about humankind's impact on the Earth's environment made environmentalism popular. In many countries, especially in Europe, the movement was channeled into politics through Green parties. Increasing awareness of global warming began in the 1980s, commencing decades of social and political debate.\n\nThe nature of innovation and change \n\nDue to continuing industrialization and expanding trade, many significant changes of the century were, directly or indirectly, economic and technological in nature. Inventions such as the light bulb, the automobile, and the telephone in the late 19th century, followed by supertankers, airliners, motorways, radio, television, antibiotics, frozen food, computers and microcomputers, the Internet, and mobile telephones affected people's quality of life across the developed world. Scientific research, engineering professionalization and technological development drove changes in everyday life.\n\nSocial change \n\nAt the beginning of the century, strong discrimination based on race and sex was significant in general society. Although the Atlantic slave trade had ended in the 19th century, the fight for equality for non-white people in white-dominated societies of North America, Europe, and South Africa continued. During the century, the social taboo of sexism fell. By the end of the 20th century, women had the same legal rights as men in many parts of the world, and racism had come to be seen as abhorrent. Attitudes towards homosexuality also began to change in the latter part of the century.\n\nEvent timeline \n\nDevelopments in brief \n\nWars and politics \n\nThe number of people killed during the century by government actions was in the hundreds of millions. This includes deaths caused by wars, genocide, politicide and mass murders. The deaths from acts of war during the two world wars alone have been estimated at between 50 and 80 million. Political scientist Rudolph Rummel estimated 262,000,000 deaths caused by democide, which excludes those killed in war battles, civilians unintentionally killed in war and killings of rioting mobs. According to Charles Tilly, \"Altogether, about 100 million people died as a direct result of action by organized military units backed by one government or another over the course of the century. Most likely a comparable number of civilians died of war-induced disease and other indirect effects.\" It is estimated that approximately 70 million Europeans died through war, violence and famine between 1914 and 1945. \n* After gaining political rights in the United States and much of Europe in the first part of the century, and with the advent of new birth control techniques, women became more independent throughout the century.\n* Rising nationalism and increasing national awareness were among the many causes of World War I (1914–1918), the first of two wars to involve many major world powers including Germany, France, Italy, Japan, Russia/USSR, the British Empire and the United States. World War I led to the creation of many new countries, especially in Eastern Europe. At the time, it was said by many to be the \"war to end war\".\n* Civil wars occurred in many nations. A violent civil war broke out in Spain in 1936 when General Francisco Franco rebelled against the Second Spanish Republic. Many consider this war as a testing battleground for World War II, as the fascist armies bombed some Spanish territories.\n* The economic and political aftermath of World War I and the Great Depression in the 1930s led to the rise of fascism and Nazism in Europe, and subsequently to World War II (1939–1945). This war also involved Asia and the Pacific, in the form of Japanese aggression against China and the United States. Civilians also suffered greatly in World War II, due to the aerial bombing of cities on both sides, and the German genocide of the Jews and others, known as the Holocaust. In August 1945, Hiroshima and Nagasaki were bombed with nuclear weapons. And then, Japan surrendered, ending the war.\n* During World War I, in the Russian Revolution of 1917, 300 years of Romanov reign were ended and the Bolsheviks, under the leadership of Vladimir Lenin, established the world's first socialist state, precipitating the founding of the Soviet Union and the rise of communism. After the Soviet Union's involvement in World War II, communism became a major force in global politics, notably in Eastern Europe, China, Indochina and Cuba, where communist parties gained near-absolute power. This led to the Cold War and proxy wars with the Western World, including wars in Korea (1950–1953) and Vietnam (1957–1975).\n\n* The Cold War had caused an arms race and increasing competition between the two major players in the world: the Soviet Union and the United States. This competition included the development and improvement of nuclear weapons and the Space Race.\n* The Soviet authorities caused the deaths of millions of their own citizens in order to eliminate domestic opposition. More than 18 million people passed through the Gulag, with a further 6 million being exiled to remote areas of the Soviet Union. \n* The civil rights movement in the United States and the movement against apartheid in South Africa challenged racial segregation in those countries.\n* The two world wars led to efforts to increase international cooperation, notably through the founding of the League of Nations after World War I, and its successor, the United Nations, after World War II.\n* Nationalist movements in the subcontinent led to the independence of India and Pakistan.\n* Gandhi's non-violence and civil disobedience against the British Raj influenced many political movements around the world, including the African American civil rights movement in USA, and freedom movements in South Africa and Burma.\n* The creation in 1948 of Israel, a Jewish state in the Middle East, by the British Mandate of Palestine fueled many regional conflicts. These were also influenced by the vast oil fields in many of the other countries of the mostly Arab region.\n* The end of colonialism led to the independence of many African and Asian countries. During the Cold War, many of these aligned with the United States, the USSR, or China for defense.\n* After a long period of civil wars and conflicts with European powers, China's last imperial dynasty ended in 1912. The resulting republic was replaced, after another civil war, by a communist People's Republic in 1949. At the end of the 20th century, though still ruled by a communist party, China's economic system had largely transformed to capitalism.\n* The Great Chinese Famine was a direct cause of the death of tens of millions of Chinese peasants between 1959 and 1962. It is thought to be the largest famine in human history. \n\n* The Vietnam War caused two million deaths, changed the dynamics between the Eastern and Western Blocs, and altered North-South relations. \n* The Soviet War in Afghanistan caused one million deaths and contributed to the downfall of the Soviet Union.\n* The Tiananmen Square protests of 1989, culminating in the deaths of hundreds of civilian protesters, were a series of demonstrations in and near Tiananmen Square in Beijing, China. Led mainly by students and intellectuals, the protests occurred in a year that saw the collapse of a number of communist governments around the world.\n* The revolutions of 1989 released Eastern and Central Europe from Soviet supremacy. Soon thereafter, the Soviet Union, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia dissolved, the latter violently over several years, into successor states, many rife with ethnic nationalism. East Germany and West Germany were reunified in 1990.\n* European integration began in earnest in the 1950s, and eventually led to the European Union, a political and economic union that comprised 15 countries at the end of the 20th century.\n\nCulture and entertainment \n\n* As the century began, Paris was the artistic capital of the world, where both French and foreign writers, composers and visual artists gathered.\n* Movies, music and the media had a major influence on fashion and trends in all aspects of life. As many movies and much music originate from the United States, American culture spread rapidly over the world.\n* 1953 saw the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II, an iconic figure of the century.\n* Visual culture became more dominant not only in movies but in comics and television as well. During the century a new skilled understanding of narrativist imagery was developed.\n* Computer games and internet surfing became new and popular form of entertainment during the last 25 years of the century.\n* In literature, science fiction, fantasy (with well-developed fictional worlds, rich in detail), and alternative history fiction gained unprecedented popularity. Detective fiction gained unprecedented popularity between the two world wars.\n* Tango was created in Argentina and became extremely popular in the rest of the Americas and Europe. Blues and jazz music became popularized during the 1910s and 1920s in the United States. Blues went on to influence rock and roll in the 1950s, which only increased in popularity with the British Invasion of the mid-to-late 1960s. Rock soon branched into many different genres, including heavy metal, punk rock, and alternative rock and became the dominant genre of popular music. This was challenged with the rise of hip hop in the 1980s and 1990s. Other genres such as house, techno, reggae, and soul all developed during the latter half of the century and went through various periods of popularity. Some of the most renowned artists of the century include the Beatles, the Rolling Stones, U2, Madonna, Michael Jackson, Pink Floyd, Led Zeppelin, ABBA, the Beach Boys, Queen, Elton John, Bob Dylan, Jimi Hendrix, James Brown, Tupac Shakur, David Bowie, Aretha Franklin, Ray Charles, Neil Young, Bruce Springsteen, Elvis Presley, Chuck Berry, Johnny Cash, Little Richard, Metallica, Nirvana and Radiohead.\n* Modern Dance is born in America as a 'rebellion' against centuries-old European ballet. Dancers and choreographers such as Isadora Duncan, Ruth St. Denis, Martha Graham, Jose Limon, Doris Humphrey, Merce Cunningham and Paul Taylor re-defined movement, struggling to bring it back to its 'natural' roots and along with Jazz, created a solely American art form.\n* In classical music, composition branched out into many completely new domains, including dodecaphony, aleatoric (chance) music, and minimalism.\n* Synthesizers began to be employed widely in music and crossed over into the mainstream with new wave music in the 1980s. Electronic instruments have been widely deployed in all manners of popular music and has led to the development of such genres as house, synthpop, electronic dance music, and industrial.\n* The art world experienced the development of new styles and explorations such as expressionism, Dadaism, cubism, de stijl, abstract expressionism and surrealism.\n* The modern art movement revolutionized art and culture and set the stage for both Modernism and its counterpart postmodern art as well as other contemporary art practices.\n* Art Nouveau began as advanced architecture and design but fell out of fashion after World War I. The style was dynamic and inventive but unsuited to the depression of the Great War.\n* In Europe, modern architecture departed from the decorated styles of the Victorian era. Streamlined forms inspired by machines became commonplace, enabled by developments in building materials and technologies. Before World War II, many European architects moved to the United States, where modern architecture continued to develop.\n* The automobile increased the mobility of people in the Western countries in the early-to-mid-century, and in many other places by the end of the 20th century. City design throughout most of the West became focused on transport via car.\n* The popularity of sport increased considerably—both as an activity for all, and as entertainment, particularly on television.\n\nScience and mathematics \n\nScience advanced dramatically during the century. There were new and radical developments in the physical, life and human sciences, building on the progress made in the 19th century. Big Science flourished, especially after the Second World War, as funding for science increased. Mathematics became ever more specialized and abstract.\n\nMathematics \n\n* New fields of mathematics studying the theory of computation were developed. The work of Alan Turing, including the Turing machine, and of John von Neumann was seminal.\n* Gödel's incompleteness theorems were formulated and proven.\n* Fermat's Last Theorem was proved after 358 years (proof published in 1995).\n\nPhysics \n\n* New areas of physics, like special relativity, general relativity, and quantum mechanics, were developed during the first half of the century. In the process, the internal structure of atoms came to be clearly understood, followed by the discovery of elementary particles.\n* It was found that all the known forces can be traced to only four fundamental interactions. It was discovered further that two forces, electromagnetism and weak interaction, can be merged in the electroweak interaction, leaving only three different fundamental interactions.\n* Discovery of nuclear reactions, in particular nuclear fusion, finally revealed the source of solar energy.\n* Radiocarbon dating was invented, and became a powerful technique for determining the age of prehistoric animals and plants as well as historical objects.\n\nAstronomy \n\n* A much better understanding of the evolution of the universe was achieved, its age (about 13.75 billion years) was determined, and the Big Bang theory on its origin was proposed and generally accepted.\n* The age of the solar system, including Earth, was determined, and it turned out to be much older than believed earlier: more than 4 billion years, rather than the 20 million years suggested by Lord Kelvin in 1862. \n* The planets of the solar system and their moons were closely observed via numerous space probes. Pluto was discovered in 1930 on the edge of the solar system, although in the early 21st century, it was reclassified as a plutoid instead of a planet proper, leaving eight planets.\n* No trace of life was discovered on any of the other planets in our solar system (or elsewhere in the universe), although it remained undetermined whether some forms of primitive life might exist, or might have existed, somewhere. Extrasolar planets were observed for the first time.\n* In 1969, Apollo 11 was launched towards the Moon and Neil Armstrong became the first person from Earth to walk on another celestial body.\n\nBiology \n\n* Genetics was unanimously accepted and significantly developed. The structure of DNA was determined in 1953 by James Watson, Francis Crick, Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins, following by developing techniques which allow to read DNA sequences and culminating in starting the Human Genome Project (not finished in the 20th century) and cloning the first mammal in 1996.\n* The role of sexual reproduction in evolution was understood, and bacterial conjugation was discovered.\n* The convergence of various sciences for the formulation of the modern evolutionary synthesis (produced between 1936 and 1947), providing a widely accepted account of evolution.\n\nEngineering and technology \n\nOne of the prominent traits of the 20th century was the dramatic growth of technology. Organized research and practice of science led to advancement in the fields of communication, engineering, travel, medicine, and war.\n\n* The number and types of home appliances increased dramatically due to advancements in technology, electricity availability, and increases in wealth and leisure time. Such basic appliances as washing machines, clothes dryers, furnaces, exercise machines, refrigerators, freezers, electric stoves, and vacuum cleaners all became popular from the 1920s through the 1950s. The microwave oven became popular during the 1980s and have become a standard in all homes by the 1990s. Radios were popularized as a form of entertainment during the 1920s, which extended to television during the 1950s. Cable and satellite television spread rapidly during the 1980s and 1990s. Personal computers began to enter the home during the 1970s–1980s as well. The age of the portable music player grew during the 1960s with the development of the transitor radio, 8-track and cassette tapes, which slowly began to replace record players These were in turn replaced by the CD during the late 1980s and 1990s. The proliferation of the Internet in the mid-to-late 1990s made digital distribution of music (mp3s) possible. VCRs were popularized in the 1970s, but by the end of the 20th century, DVDs were beginning to replace them, making VHS obsolete by the end of the first decade of the 21st century.\n* The first airplane was flown in 1903. With the engineering of the faster jet engine in the 1940s, mass air travel became commercially viable.\n* The assembly line made mass production of the automobile viable. By the end of the 20th century, billions of people had automobiles for personal transportation. The combination of the automobile, motor boats and air travel allowed for unprecedented personal mobility. In western nations, motor vehicle accidents became the greatest cause of death for young people. However, expansion of divided highways reduced the death rate.\n* The triode tube, transistor and integrated circuit revolutionized computers, leading to the proliferation of the personal computer in the 1980s and cell phones and the public-use Internet in the 1990s.\n* New materials, most notably stainless steel, plastics, polyethylene, Velcro, and teflon, came into widespread use for many various applications.\n* Aluminum became an inexpensive metal and became second only to iron in use. Semiconductors were put to use in electronic objects.\n* Thousands of chemicals were developed for industrial processing and home use.\n* The Space Race between the United States and the Soviet Union gave a peaceful outlet to the political and military tensions of the Cold War, leading to the first human spaceflight with the Soviet Union's Vostok 1 mission in 1961, and man's first landing on another world—the Moon—with America's Apollo 11 mission in 1969. Later, the first space station was launched by the Soviet space program. The United States developed the first (and to date only) reusable spacecraft system with the Space Shuttle program, first launched in 1981. As the century ended, a permanent manned presence in space was being founded with the ongoing construction of the International Space Station.\n* In addition to human spaceflight, unmanned space probes became a practical and relatively inexpensive form of exploration. The first orbiting space probe, Sputnik 1, was launched by the Soviet Union in 1957. Over time, a massive system of artificial satellites was placed into orbit around Earth. These satellites greatly advanced navigation, communications, military intelligence, geology, climate, and numerous other fields. Also, by the end of the 20th century, unmanned probes had visited the Moon, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and various asteroids and comets. The Hubble Space Telescope, launched in 1990, greatly expanded our understanding of the Universe and brought brilliant images to TV and computer screens around the world.\n\nMedicine \n\n* Placebo-controlled, randomized, blinded clinical trials became a powerful tool for testing new medicines.\n* Antibiotics drastically reduced mortality from bacterial diseases and their prevalence.\n* A vaccine was developed for polio, ending a worldwide epidemic. Effective vaccines were also developed for a number of other serious infectious diseases, including influenza, diphtheria, pertussis (whooping cough), tetanus, measles, mumps, rubella (German measles), chickenpox, hepatitis A, and hepatitis B.\n* Epidemiology and vaccination led to the eradication of the smallpox virus in humans.\n* X-rays became powerful diagnostic tool for wide spectrum of diseases, from bone fractures to cancer. In the 1960s, computerized tomography was invented. Other important diagnostic tools developed were sonography and magnetic resonance imaging.\n* Development of vitamins virtually eliminated scurvy and other vitamin-deficiency diseases from industrialized societies.\n* New psychiatric drugs were developed. These include antipsychotics for treating hallucinations and delusions, and antidepressants for treating depression.\n* The role of tobacco smoking in the causation of cancer and other diseases was proven during the 1950s (see British Doctors Study).\n* New methods for cancer treatment, including chemotherapy, radiation therapy, and immunotherapy, were developed. As a result, cancer could often be cured or placed in remission.\n* The development of blood typing and blood banking made blood transfusion safe and widely available.\n* The invention and development of immunosuppressive drugs and tissue typing made organ and tissue transplantation a clinical reality.\n* New methods for heart surgery were developed, including pacemakers and artificial hearts.\n* Cocaine/crack and heroin were found to be dangerous addictive drugs, and their wide usage had been outlawed; mind-altering drugs such as LSD and MDMA were discovered and later outlawed. In many countries, a war on drugs caused prices to soar 10x-20x higher, leading to profitable black market drugdealing, and to prison inmate sentences being 80% related to drug use by the 1990s.\n* Contraceptive drugs were developed, which reduced population growth rates in industrialized countries, as well as decreased the taboo of premarital sex throughout many western countries.\n* The development of medical insulin during the 1920s helped raise the life expectancy of diabetics to three times of what it had been earlier.\n* Vaccines, hygiene and clean water improved health and decreased mortality rates, especially among infants and the young.\n\nNotable diseases \n\n* An influenza pandemic, Spanish Flu, killed anywhere from 20 to 100 million people between 1918 and 1919.\n* A new viral disease, called the Human Immunodeficiency Virus,or HIV, arose in Africa and subsequently killed millions of people throughout the world. HIV leads to a syndrome called Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome, or AIDS. Treatments for HIV remained inaccessible to many people living with AIDS and HIV in developing countries, and a cure has yet to be discovered.\n* Because of increased life spans, the prevalence of cancer, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and other diseases of old age increased slightly.\n* Sedentary lifestyles, due to labor-saving devices and technology, along with the increase in home entertainment and technology such as television, video games, and the internet contributed to an \"epidemic\" of obesity, at first in the rich countries, but by the end of the 20th century spreading to the developing world.\n\nEnergy and the environment \n\n* The dominant use of fossil sources and nuclear power, considered the conventional energy sources.\n* Widespread use of petroleum in industry—both as a chemical precursor to plastics and as a fuel for the automobile and airplane—led to the geopolitical importance of petroleum resources. The Middle East, home to many of the world's oil deposits, became a center of geopolitical and military tension throughout the latter half of the century. (For example, oil was a factor in Japan's decision to go to war against the United States in 1941, and the oil cartel, OPEC, used an oil embargo of sorts in the wake of the Yom Kippur War in the 1970s).\n* The increase in fossil fuel consumption also fueled a major scientific controversy over its effect on air pollution, global warming, and global climate change.\n* Pesticides, herbicides and other toxic chemicals accumulated in the environment, including in the bodies of humans and other animals.\n* Overpopulation and worldwide deforestation diminished the quality of the environment.\n\nThe world at the end of the 20th century \n\nCommunications and information technology, transportation technology, and medical advances had radically altered daily lives. Europe appeared to be at a sustainable peace for the first time in recorded history. The people of the Indian subcontinent, a sixth of the world population at the end of the 20th century, had attained an indigenous independence for the first time in centuries. China, an ancient nation comprising a fifth of the world population, was finally open to the world in a new and powerful synthesis of west and east, creating a new state after the near-complete destruction of the old cultural order. With the end of colonialism and the Cold War, nearly a billion people in Africa were left in new nation states after centuries of foreign domination.\n\nThe world was undergoing its second major period of globalization; the first, which started in the 18th century, having been terminated by World War I. Since the US was in a dominant position, a major part of the process was Americanization. The influence of China and India was also rising, as the world's largest populations were rapidly integrating with the world economy.\n\nTerrorism, dictatorship, and the spread of nuclear weapons were some issues requiring attention. The world was still blighted by small-scale wars and other violent conflicts, fueled by competition over resources and by ethnic conflicts. Despots such as Kim Jong-il of North Korea continued to lead their nations toward the development of nuclear weapons.\n\nDisease threatened to destabilize many regions of the world. New viruses such as SARS and West Nile continued to spread. Malaria and other diseases affected large populations. Millions were infected with HIV, the virus which causes AIDS. The virus was becoming an epidemic in southern Africa.\n\nBased on research done by climate scientists, the majority of the scientific community consider that in the long term environmental problems may threaten the planet's habitability. One argument is that of global warming occurring, and that it may be due (at least partially) to human-caused emission of greenhouse gases, particularly carbon dioxide produced by the burning of fossil fuels.\"Total radiative forcing is positive, and has led to an uptake of energy by the climate system. The largest contribution to total radiative forcing is caused by the increase in the atmospheric concentration of CO2 since 1750.\" (p 11) \"From 1750 to 2011, CO2 emissions from fossil fuel combustion and cement production have released 375 [345 to 405] GtC to the atmosphere, while deforestation and other land use change are estimated to have released 180 [100 to 260] GtC.\" (p 10), IPCC, Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis - Summary for Policymakers, Observed Changes in the Climate System, [http://www.climatechange2013.org/spm p. 10&11], in . This prompted many nations to negotiate and sign the Kyoto treaty, which set mandatory limits on carbon dioxide emissions.\n\nWorld population increased from about 1.6 billion people in 1901 to 6.1 billion at the century's end.", "Daniel Edward \"Dan\" Aykroyd, (born July 1, 1952) is a Canadian actor, comedian, producer, screenwriter and musician. He was an original member of the \"Not Ready for Prime Time Players\" on Saturday Night Live (1975–79), as Elwood Blues of The Blues Brothers (with John Belushi), and as Ray Stantz in Ghostbusters (1984) and Ghostbusters II (1989). In 1990, he was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for his work in the 1989 film Driving Miss Daisy.\n\nEarly life\n\nAykroyd was born on Canada Day (July 1), 1952, at the Ottawa General Hospital in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. He grew up in Ottawa, Canada's capital, where his father, Samuel Cuthbert Peter Hugh Aykroyd, a civil engineer, worked as a policy adviser to Canadian Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau. His mother, Lorraine Hélène (née Gougeon), was a secretary. His mother was of French Canadian descent and his father of English, Irish, Scottish, Dutch, and French ancestry. His brother, Peter, is also an actor.\n\nAykroyd was born with syndactyly, or webbed toes, which was revealed in the movie Mr. Mike's Mondo Video and in a short film on Saturday Night Live titled \"Don't Look Back In Anger.\" He was also born with heterochromia – his right eye is blue and his left eye is brown.\n\nAykroyd was raised in the Catholic Church, and until age 17 he intended to become a priest. He attended St. Pius X and St. Patrick's High Schools and studied criminology and sociology at Carleton University, but dropped out before completing his degree. He worked as a comedian in various Canadian nightclubs and ran an after-hours speakeasy, Club 505, in Toronto for several years.\n\nAykroyd developed his musical career in Ottawa, particularly through his regular attendances at Le Hibou, a club that featured many blues artists. He describes these influences as follows:...there was a little disco club there called Le Hibou, which in French means 'the owl.' And it was run by a gentleman named Harvey Glatt, and he brought every, and I mean every, blues star that you or I would ever have wanted to have seen through Ottawa in the late '50s, well I guess more late '60s sort of, in around the Newport jazz rediscovery. I was going to Le Hibou and hearing James Cotton, Otis Spann, Pinetop Perkins, and Muddy Waters. I actually jammed behind Muddy Waters. S.P. Leary left the drum kit one night, and Muddy said 'anybody out there play drums? I don't have a drummer.' And I walked on stage and we started, I don't know, Little Red Rooster, something. He said 'keep that beat going, you make Muddy feel good.' And I heard Howlin' Wolf (Chester Burnett). Many, many times I saw Howlin' Wolf. As well as The Doors. And of course Buddy Guy, Buddy Guy and Junior Wells, Sonny Terry and Brownie McGhee. So I was exposed to all of these players, playing there as part of this scene to service the academic community in Ottawa, a very well-educated community. Had I lived in a different town I don't think that this would have happened, because it was just the confluence of educated government workers, and then also all the colleges in the area, Ottawa University, Carleton, and all the schools—these people were interested in blues culture. This recollection of Aykroyd is subject to challenge. Some assert that it was Ottawa artist [http://astro.ncf.ca/images/fuzzy6.pdf Arthur II] who joined the band to play drums and that, at best, Aykroyd was a member of the audience. Aykroyd's recollection as to who actually played at Le Hibou is also questionable as Pinetop Perkins never appeared, and Howlin' Wolf appeared once.[citation required]\nAykroyd's first professional experience, which he gained at the age of 17, was as a member of the cast of the short-lived Canadian sketch comedy series The Hart and Lorne Terrific Hour with Lorne Michaels, among others. He was a member of the Second City comedy troupe in 1973 in both Toronto and Chicago. \n\nSaturday Night Live\n\nAykroyd gained fame on the American late-night comedy show Saturday Night Live. He was originally hired, and paid $278 a week, as a writer for the show, but became a part of the cast before the series premiered. The original cast was referred to on the show as \"The Not Ready For Prime Time Players\". Aykroyd was the youngest member of the cast, and appeared on the show for its first four seasons, from 1975-79. He brought a unique sensibility to the show, combining youth, unusual interests, talent as an impersonator and an almost lunatic intensity. Guest host Eric Idle, of Monty Python, said that Aykroyd's ability to write and act out characters flawlessly made him the only member of the SNL cast capable of being a Python. \n\nHe was known for his impersonations of celebrities like Jimmy Carter, Vincent Price, Richard Nixon, Rod Serling, Tom Snyder, Julia Child, and others. He was also known for his recurring roles, such as Beldar, father of the Coneheads family; with Steve Martin, Yortuk Festrunk, one of the \"Two Wild and Crazy Guys\" Czech brothers; sleazy late-night cable TV host E. Buzz Miller and his cousin, corrupt maker of children's toys and costumes Irwin Mainway (who extolled the virtues and defended the safety of the \"Bag-o-Glass\" toy, perhaps the retail leader of the \"Bag-o\" series of toys); Fred Garvin – male prostitute; and high-bred but low-brow critic Leonard Pinth-Garnell. He also co-hosted the Weekend Update segment for one season with Jane Curtin, coining the famous catchphrase \"Jane, you ignorant slut\" during point-counterpoint segments.\n\nAykroyd's eccentric talent was recognized by others in the highly competitive SNL environment: when he first presented his famous \"Super Bass-O-Matic '76\" sketch, a fake T.V. commercial in which a garish, hyper-pitchman touts a food blender that turns an entire bass into liquid pulp, \"to [other writers and cast members] the 'Bass-O-Matic' was so exhilaratingly strange that many remember sitting and listening, open-mouthed ... Nobody felt jealous of it because they couldn't imagine writing anything remotely like it.\" \n\nWhile Aykroyd was a close friend and partner with fellow cast member John Belushi and shared some of the same sensibilities, Aykroyd was more reserved and less self-destructive. In 1977, he received an Emmy Award for writing on SNL; he later received two more nominations for writing and one for acting. In Rolling Stone Magazines February 2015 appraisal of all 141 SNL cast members to date, Aykroyd was ranked fifth (behind Belushi, Eddie Murphy, Tina Fey, and Mike Myers). \"Of all the original [SNL] greats, Aykroyd is the least imitated\", they wrote, \"because nobody else can do what he did.\" \n\nIn later decades, Aykroyd made occasional guest appearances and unannounced cameos on SNL, often impersonating the American politician Bob Dole. He would also bring back past characters including Irwin Mainway and Leonard Pinth-Garnell. During some guest appearances he resurrected The Blues Brothers musical act with frequent host John Goodman in place of Belushi. He became the second member of the original cast to host SNL in May 2003 when he appeared in the season finale. During his monologue, he performed a musical number with James Belushi similar to the Blues Brothers, but neither Aykroyd nor Belushi donned the famous black suit and sunglasses. On March 24, 2007, Aykroyd appeared as a crying fan of American Idol finalist Sanjaya Malakar (played by Andy Samberg) during Weekend Update. On February 14, 2009, he appeared as U.S. House Minority leader John Boehner. Aykroyd also made a surprise guest appearance, along with many other SNL alumni, on the show of March 9, 2013.\n\nThe Blues Brothers\n\nAykroyd was a close friend of John Belushi. According to Aykroyd, it was their first meeting that helped spark the popular Blues Brothers act. When they met in a club Aykroyd frequented, he played a blues record in the background, and it stimulated a fascination with blues in Belushi, who was primarily a fan of heavy rock bands at the time. Aykroyd educated Belushi on the finer points of blues music and, with a little encouragement from then-SNL music director Paul Shaffer, it led to the creation of their Blues Brothers characters.\n\nBacked by such experienced professional R&B sidemen as lead guitarist Steve Cropper, sax man Lou Marini, trumpeter Alan Rubin and bass guitarist Donald \"Duck\" Dunn, the Blues Brothers proved more than an SNL novelty. Taking off with the public as a legitimate musical act, they performed live gigs and in 1978 released the hit album Briefcase Full of Blues (drawn from the fact that Aykroyd, as \"Elwood Blues,\" carried his blues harmonicas in a briefcase that he kept handcuffed to his wrist, in the manner of a CIA courier; Belushi originally carried the key to those handcuffs). Briefcase Full of Blues eventually sold 3.5 million copies, and is one of the highest-selling blues albums of all time. The band was much further popularized in the 1980 film The Blues Brothers, which Aykroyd co-wrote.\n\nEarly in the incarnation of the Blues Brothers, Belushi joined the Grateful Dead on stage on April 2, 1980, for a rendition of \"Good Morning Little School Girl\" at the Capitol Theatre in Passaic, New Jersey that coincided with the Dead's appearance on SNL that weekend. Belushi sang the part usually carried by the late band member Ron \"Pigpen\" McKernan.\n\nCherokee Studios in Los Angeles was a regular haunt for the original Blues Brothers in the early days of the band. Belushi and Aykroyd became fixtures at the recording studio, while fellow Blues Brother Steve Cropper called Cherokee his producing home. Whenever they needed a bass player, they were joined by another Blues Brother, Donald \"Duck\" Dunn. During this time, Cropper, along with producing partner and Cherokee owner Bruce Robb, worked on a number of music projects with the two comedians/musicians, including Belushi's favorite band, Fear, and later Aykroyd's movie Dragnet.\n\nThe Blues Brothers Band continues to tour today, both with and without Aykroyd. The band features original members Cropper and Marini, along with vocalist Eddie Floyd. Aykroyd sometimes performs as Elwood, along with Belushi's younger brother Jim Belushi, who plays \"Brother Zee\" on stage. They are most frequently backed by The Sacred Hearts Band. \n\nOther film and television work\n\nConcurrent with his work in Saturday Night Live, Aykroyd played the role of Purvis Bickle, lift operator at the fictitious office block 99 Sumach Street in the CBC Television series Coming Up Rosie.\n\nAfter leaving Saturday Night Live, Aykroyd starred in a number of films, mostly comedies, with uneven results both commercially and artistically. His first three American feature films all co-starred Belushi. The first, 1941 (1979), directed by Steven Spielberg, was a box office disappointment. The second, The Blues Brothers (1980), which he co-wrote with director John Landis, was a massive hit. The third, Neighbors (1981) had mixed critical reaction but was another box-office hit.\n\nOne of his best-received performances was as a blueblood-turned-wretch in the 1983 comedy Trading Places, in which he co-starred with fellow SNL alumnus Eddie Murphy as well as Jamie Lee Curtis.\n\nIn the early 1980s, Aykroyd began work on a script for the film that eventually became Ghostbusters, inspired by his fascination with parapsychology. The script initially included a much greater fantasy element, including time travel, but this was toned down substantially through work on the script with Harold Ramis (who became a co-writer) and director Ivan Reitman. Aykroyd originally wrote the role of Dr. Peter Venkman with Belushi in mind, but rewrote it for Bill Murray after Belushi's death. Aykroyd joked that the green ghost, later known as \"Slimer,\" was \"the ghost of John Belushi\" and was based on Belushi's party animal personality. Ghostbusters was released in 1984 and became a huge success for Aykroyd, who also appeared as one of the lead actors; the film earned nearly on a budget.\n\nAykroyd's next major film role was in the 1985 spy comedy film Spies Like Us, which like The Blues Brothers was co-conceived and co-written by Aykroyd, and directed by Landis. Aykroyd had again intended for Belushi to be the other lead in the film; the part was instead given to SNL alumnus Chevy Chase. The film was intended as an homage to the Bob Hope/Bing Crosby \"Road to ...\" movies of the 1940s to 1960s. Bob Hope made a cameo appearance in the film.\n\n1987 saw the release of Dragnet, which Aykroyd co-starred in (with Tom Hanks) and co-wrote. The film was both an homage and a satire of the previous Dragnet series, with Aykroyd playing Sgt. Joe Friday as a police officer whose law-and-order attitude is at odds with modern sensibilities.\n\nAykroyd appeared in five films released in 1988, all of them critical and commercial failures.\n\nA sequel to Ghostbusters, Ghostbusters II, was released in 1989; Aykroyd and the other co-creators were reluctant to make another Ghostbusters film but succumbed to pressure from the film's studio, Columbia Pictures. The film, though it was considered inferior to the original, was another big hit, earning .\n\nAykroyd was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for 1989's Driving Miss Daisy. He was the second SNL cast member to be nominated for an Oscar, the first being Joan Cusack.\n\nAykroyd's directorial debut was 1991's Nothing but Trouble starring Demi Moore, Chevy Chase, John Candy and Aykroyd, sporting a bulbous prosthetic nose. The film was a critical and box office flop. Aykroyd's other films in the 1990s were mostly similarly poorly-received, including Coneheads (also based on a Saturday Night Live skit), Exit to Eden, Blues Brothers 2000, and Getting Away with Murder, all of which were poorly received. Two exceptions were Tommy Boy (1995), which starred SNL alumni David Spade and Chris Farley, in which Aykroyd played the role of Ray Zalinsky, and Grosse Pointe Blank (1997), in which Aykroyd had a well-received role as a rival hit man. In 1994, Aykroyd made a guest appearance in an episode of the sitcom The Nanny as a refrigerator repairman. In 1997, he starred as an Episcopal priest in the ABC sitcom Soul Man which lasted two seasons.\n\nIn 2001, he starred in the Woody Allen film The Curse of the Jade Scorpion. Most of his film roles since then have tended to be small character parts in big-budget productions, such as a signals analyst in Pearl Harbor and a neurologist in 50 First Dates. In 2009, Aykroyd and Ramis wrote and appeared in Ghostbusters: The Video Game, which also featured Bill Murray, Ernie Hudson, Annie Potts, William Atherton, and Brian Doyle-Murray. In 2010, he played the voice of the title character, Yogi Bear, in the live-action/CGI-animated-film Yogi Bear. That same year, Aykroyd and Chevy Chase guest starred in the Family Guy episode \"Spies Reminiscent of Us\", an homage to Spies Like Us.\n\nAykroyd appeared in two February 2011 episodes of CBS's The Defenders, which starred Jim Belushi. He also appeared on Top Chef Canada as a guest judge. \n\nIn 2015, he appeared in a State Farm insurance commercial along with Jane Curtin, as the Coneheads, talking to \"Jake\", a State Farm agent.\n\nAykroyd was one of the executive producers of Ghostbusters, a long-discussed reboot of the Ghostbusters franchise, which was released in 2016. Aykroyd had a cameo appearance in the film, along with many of the rest of the original Ghostbusters cast. \n\nHe is set to narrate Defend - Conserve - Protect, a crowdfunded documentary directed by Stephen Amis about the work of Sea Shepherd Conservation Society.\n\nOther musical endeavors\n\nAykroyd participated in the recording of \"We Are the World\" in 1985.\n\nAykroyd wrote the liner notes for fellow Ottawa born blues musician JW-Jones' album Bluelisted in 2008.\n\nHe also hosts the nationally, now internationally as well, syndicated radio show \"Elwood's BluesMobile\", formerly known as House of Blues Radio Hour, under his Blues Brothers moniker Elwood Blues. \n\nBusiness ventures\n\nIn 1992, Aykroyd and Hard Rock Cafe co-founder Isaac Tigrett founded the House of Blues, a chain of music venues, with the mission to promote African-American cultural contributions of blues music and folk art. Many other music and Hollywood personalities helped to finance it at its start. It began as a single location in Cambridge, Massachusetts, although other locations quickly followed, starting with a venue in New Orleans in 1994. In 2004 House of Blues became the second-largest live music promoter in the world, with seven venues and 22 amphitheaters in the United States and Canada. It was bought by Live Nation in 2006.\n\nIn 2007, Aykroyd and artist John Alexander founded Crystal Head Vodka, a brand of high-end vodka known for its distinctive skull-shaped bottle and for being filtered through Herkimer diamond crystals. \n\nAykroyd is also part owner of several wineries in the Niagara region and the company that distributes Patrón tequila in Canada. \n\nCharitable works\n\nIn 2009, Aykroyd contributed a series of reminiscences on his upbringing in Canada for a charity album titled Dan Aykroyd's Canada.\n\nAykroyd helped start the Blue Line Foundation, which is redeveloping flood-damaged lots in New Orleans and helping first responders buy them at reduced prices. Coastal Blue Line LLC, hopes to eventually rebuild 400 properties in New Orleans. \n\nPersonal life\n\nAykroyd is a permanent resident of the United States although he maintains his Canadian citizenship. Aykroyd was briefly engaged to Star Wars actress Carrie Fisher. He proposed to her on the set of The Blues Brothers (1980), in which she appeared as a spurned girlfriend of John Belushi's Jake Blues who was trying to kill both brothers. The engagement ended when she reconciled with her former boyfriend, musician Paul Simon.\n\nIn 1983, he married actress Donna Dixon, with whom he starred in the movies Doctor Detroit (1983), on whose set they first met, Spies Like Us (1985) and The Couch Trip (1988). They have three daughters, Danielle, Stella and Belle. He maintains his Canadian roots as a longtime resident of Sydenham, Ontario, with his estate on Loughborough Lake.\n\nAykroyd described in a 2004 NPR interview with host Terry Gross as having been analyzed in childhood with Tourette syndrome (TS) as well as Asperger syndrome (AS). He stated that his TS was successfully treated with therapy. He described additional details about his conditions in a 2013 DailyMail.com interview when he stated that \"I was diagnosed with Tourette's at 12. I had physical tics, nervousness and made grunting noises and it affected how outgoing I was. I had therapy which really worked and by 14 my symptoms eased. I also have Asperger's but I can manage it. It wasn’t diagnosed until the early Eighties when my wife persuaded me to see a doctor.\" Finally, in 2015, he stated during a HuffPost Show interview with hosts Roy Sekoff and Marc Lamont Hill that his AS was \"never diagnosed\" but was \"sort of a self-diagnosis\" based on several of his own characteristics.\n\nHe is a former reserve commander for the police department in Harahan, Louisiana, working for Chief of Police Peter Dale. Aykroyd would carry his badge with him at all times. \n\nHe currently serves as a Reserve Deputy of the Hinds County Sheriff's Department in Hinds County, Mississippi. He supports the Reserves with a fundraiser concert along with other Blues and Gospel singers in the State of Mississippi. \n\nFriendship with John Belushi\n\nIn an appearance on the Today show, Aykroyd referred to himself and John Belushi as \"kindred spirits.\" In the biography \"Belushi,\" Aykroyd claims that Belushi was the only man he could ever dance with.\n\nAykroyd and Belushi were scheduled to present the Academy Award for Visual Effects in 1982, but Belushi died only a few weeks prior to the ceremony. Though devastated by his friend's death, Aykroyd presented the award alone, remarking from the stage: \"My partner would have loved to have been here to present this, given that he was something of a visual effect himself.\"\n\nAykroyd was openly hostile to the 1989 film Wired, a biopic of Belushi (which featured Aykroyd as a character), and has since refused to work with anyone involved in the film. He had actor J.T. Walsh fired from the film Loose Cannons after Walsh had already done two days of filming, after finding out that Walsh had been in the cast of Wired. \n\nBeliefs\n\nAykroyd considers himself a Spiritualist, stating that:\nI am a Spiritualist, a proud wearer of the Spiritualist badge. Mediums and psychic research have gone on for many, many years.... Loads of people have seen spirits, heard a voice or felt the cold temperature. I believe that they are between here and there, that they exist between the fourth and fifth dimension, and that they visit us frequently. \n\nHis great-grandfather, a dentist, was a mystic who corresponded with author Sir Arthur Conan Doyle on the subject of Spiritualism, and who was a member of the Lily Dale Society.\n\nOther than Spiritualism, Aykroyd is also interested in various other aspects of the paranormal, particularly UFOlogy. He is a lifetime member of and official Hollywood consultant for the Mutual UFO Network. Along these lines, he served, from 1996 to 2000, as \"host\" of Psi Factor: Chronicles of the Paranormal, which claimed to describe cases drawn from the archives of \"The Office Of Scientific Investigation And Research.\" In 2005, Aykroyd produced the DVD Dan Aykroyd: Unplugged on UFOs. Aykroyd is interviewed for 80 minutes by UFOlogist David Sereda discussing in depth many aspects of the UFO phenomenon, and reveals specifically that they are blue, not green, but appear that way because of a filter.\n\nOn September 29, 2009, Peter Aykroyd Sr., Dan's father, published a book entitled A History of Ghosts. This book chronicled the family's historical involvement in the Spiritualist Movement, to which Aykroyd readily refers. Aykroyd wrote the introduction and accompanied his father on a series of promotional activities, including launches in New York and Toronto, appearances on Larry King Live, Coast to Coast AM and various other public relations initiatives. Aykroyd also read the introduction for the audio version of the book.\n\nFilmography\n\nFilm\n\nTelevision\n\nVideo games\n\nGuest appearances on SNL\n\nAccolades\n\nIn 1977, Aykroyd received an Emmy Award for Outstanding Writing in a Comedy-Variety or Music Series for his collaborative work on Saturday Night Live. In 1994, he received an honorary Doctor of Literature degree from Carleton University. In 1998, Aykroyd was made a Member of the Order of Canada. He was inducted into Canada's Walk of Fame in 2002." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "The Fifties", "1950s", "1950-1959", "50's", "1950’s", "50s", "1950–1959", "Nineteen-fifties", "1950s (decade)", "1950ies", "1950's", "'50s", "195%3F", "Fifties" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "50s", "1950s", "1950–1959", "1950s decade", "nineteen fifties", "1950ies", "fifties", "195 3f", "1950 1959", "50 s", "1950 s" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "50s", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "50s" }
Which leader did Hitler meet in the Brenner Pass in WWII?	tc_292	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe", "Search" ], "filename": [ "Adolf_Hitler.txt", "Brenner_Pass.txt", "1940.txt" ], "title": [ "Adolf Hitler", "Brenner Pass", "1940" ], "wiki_context": [ "Adolf Hitler (; 20 April 1889 – 30 April 1945) was a German politician who was the leader of the Nazi Party (Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei; NSDAP), Chancellor of Germany from 1933 to 1945, and Führer (\"leader\") of Nazi Germany from 1934 to 1945. As dictator of Nazi Germany, he initiated World War II in Europe with the invasion of Poland in September 1939 and was a central figure of the Holocaust.\n\nHitler was born in Austria, then part of Austria-Hungary, and raised near Linz. He moved to Germany in 1913 and was decorated during his service in the German Army in World War I. He joined the German Workers' Party, the precursor of the NSDAP, in 1919 and became leader of the NSDAP in 1921. In 1923, he attempted a coup in Munich to seize power. The failed coup resulted in Hitler's imprisonment, during which time he dictated the first volume of his autobiography and political manifesto Mein Kampf (\"My Struggle\"). After his release in 1924, Hitler gained popular support by attacking the Treaty of Versailles and promoting Pan-Germanism, anti-Semitism, and anti-communism with charismatic oratory and Nazi propaganda. Hitler frequently denounced international capitalism and communism as being part of a Jewish conspiracy.\n\nBy 1933, the Nazi Party was the largest elected party in the German Reichstag, which led to Hitler's appointment as Chancellor on 30 January 1933. Following fresh elections won by his coalition, the Reichstag passed the Enabling Act, which began the process of transforming the Weimar Republic into Nazi Germany, a one-party dictatorship based on the totalitarian and autocratic ideology of National Socialism. Hitler aimed to eliminate Jews from Germany and establish a New Order to counter what he saw as the injustice of the post-World War I international order dominated by Britain and France. His first six years in power resulted in rapid economic recovery from the Great Depression, the effective abandonment of restrictions imposed on Germany after World War I, and the annexation of territories that were home to millions of ethnic Germans—actions which gave him significant popular support.\n\nHitler sought Lebensraum (\"living space\") for the German people. His aggressive foreign policy is considered to be the primary cause of the outbreak of World War II in Europe. He directed large-scale rearmament and on 1 September 1939 invaded Poland, resulting in British and French declarations of war on Germany. In June 1941, Hitler ordered an invasion of the Soviet Union. By the end of 1941 German forces and the European Axis powers occupied most of Europe and North Africa. Failure to defeat the Soviets and the entry of the United States into the war forced Germany onto the defensive and it suffered a series of escalating defeats. In the final days of the war, during the Battle of Berlin in 1945, Hitler married his long-time lover, Eva Braun. On 30 April 1945, less than two days later, the two killed themselves to avoid capture by the Red Army, and their corpses were burned.\n\nUnder Hitler's leadership and racially motivated ideology, the Nazi regime was responsible for the genocide of at least 5.5 million Jews and millions of other victims whom he and his followers deemed Untermenschen (\"sub-humans\") and socially undesirable. Hitler and the Nazi regime were also responsible for the killing of an estimated 19.3 million civilians and prisoners of war. In addition, 29 million soldiers and civilians died as a result of military action in the European Theatre of World War II. The number of civilians killed during the Second World War was unprecedented in warfare, and constitutes the deadliest conflict in human history.\n\nEarly years\n\nAncestry\n\nHitler's father Alois Hitler, Sr. (1837 – 1903) was the illegitimate child of Maria Anna Schicklgruber. The baptismal register did not show the name of his father, and Alois initially bore his mother's surname Schicklgruber. In 1842, Johann Georg Hiedler married Alois's mother Maria Anna. Alois was brought up in the family of Hiedler's brother, Johann Nepomuk Hiedler. In 1876, Alois was legitimated and the baptismal register changed by a priest to register Johann Georg Hiedler as Alois's father (recorded as \"Georg Hitler\"). Alois then assumed the surname \"Hitler\", also spelled as Hiedler, Hüttler, or Huettler. The Hitler surname is probably based on \"one who lives in a hut\" (German Hütte for \"hut\").\n\nNazi official Hans Frank suggested that Alois's mother had been employed as a housekeeper for a Jewish family in Graz, and that the family's 19-year-old son Leopold Frankenberger had fathered Alois. No Frankenberger was registered in Graz during that period, and no record has been produced of Leopold Frankenberger's existence, so historians dismiss the claim that Alois's father was Jewish.\n\nChildhood and education\n\nAdolf Hitler was born on 20April 1889 in Braunau am Inn, a town in Austria-Hungary (in present-day Austria), close to the border with the German Empire. He was one of six children born to Alois Hitler and Klara Pölzl (1860–1907). Three of Hitler's siblings—Gustav, Ida, and Otto—died in infancy. When Hitler was three, the family moved to Passau, Germany. There he acquired the distinctive lower Bavarian dialect, rather than Austrian German, which marked his speech throughout his life. The family returned to Austria and settled in Leonding in 1894, and in June 1895 Alois retired to Hafeld, near Lambach, where he farmed and kept bees. Hitler attended Volksschule (a state-owned school) in nearby Fischlham.\n\nThe move to Hafeld coincided with the onset of intense father-son conflicts caused by Hitler's refusal to conform to the strict discipline of his school. Alois Hitler's farming efforts at Hafeld ended in failure, and in 1897 the family moved to Lambach. The eight-year-old Hitler took singing lessons, sang in the church choir, and even considered becoming a priest. In 1898 the family returned permanently to Leonding. The death of his younger brother Edmund, who died from measles in 1900, deeply affected Hitler. He changed from a confident, outgoing, conscientious student to a morose, detached boy who constantly fought with his father and teachers.\n\nAlois had made a successful career in the customs bureau and wanted his son to follow in his footsteps. Hitler later dramatised an episode from this period when his father took him to visit a customs office, depicting it as an event that gave rise to an unforgiving antagonism between father and son, who were both strong-willed. Ignoring his son's desire to attend a classical high school and become an artist, Alois sent Hitler to the Realschule in Linz in September 1900. Hitler rebelled against this decision, and in Mein Kampf stated that he intentionally did poorly in school, hoping that once his father saw \"what little progress I was making at the technical school he would let me devote myself to my dream\".\n\nLike many Austrian Germans, Hitler began to develop German nationalist ideas from a young age. He expressed loyalty only to Germany, despising the declining Habsburg Monarchy and its rule over an ethnically variegated empire. Hitler and his friends used the greeting \"Heil\", and sang the \"Deutschlandlied\" instead of the Austrian Imperial anthem.\n\nAfter Alois's sudden death on 3January 1903, Hitler's performance at school deteriorated and his mother allowed him to leave. He enrolled at the Realschule in Steyr in September 1904, where his behaviour and performance improved. In 1905, after passing a repeat of the final exam, Hitler left the school without any ambitions for further education or clear plans for a career.\n\nEarly adulthood in Vienna and Munich\n\nFrom 1905, Hitler lived a bohemian life in Vienna, financed by orphan's benefits and support from his mother. He worked as a casual labourer and eventually as a painter, selling watercolours of Vienna's sights. The Academy of Fine Arts Vienna rejected him in 1907 and again in 1908, citing \"unfitness for painting\". The director recommended that Hitler study architecture, which was also an interest, but he lacked academic credentials as he had not finished secondary school. On 21December 1907, his mother died of breast cancer at the age of 47. Hitler ran out of money and was forced to live in homeless shelters and men's hostels.\n\nAt the time Hitler lived there, Vienna was a hotbed of religious prejudice and racism. Fears of being overrun by immigrants from the East were widespread, and the populist mayor Karl Lueger exploited the rhetoric of virulent anti-Semitism for political effect. German nationalism had a widespread following in the Mariahilf district, where Hitler lived. German nationalist Georg Ritter von Schönerer, who advocated Pan-Germanism, anti-Semitism, anti-Slavism, and anti-Catholicism, was one influence on Hitler. Hitler read local newspapers such as the Deutsches Volksblatt that fanned prejudice and played on Christian fears of being swamped by an influx of eastern Jews. Hitler also read newspapers that published the main thoughts of philosophers and theoreticians such as Darwin, Nietzsche, Le Bon and Schopenhauer. Hostile to what he saw as \"Catholic Germanophobia\", he developed an admiration for Martin Luther. \n\nThe origin and first expression of Hitler's anti-Semitism remain a matter of debate. Hitler states in Mein Kampf that he first became an anti-Semite in Vienna. His close friend, August Kubizek, claimed that Hitler was a \"confirmed anti-Semite\" before he left Linz. Several sources provide strong evidence that Hitler had Jewish friends in his hostel and in other places in Vienna. Historian Richard J. Evans states that \"historians now generally agree that his notorious, murderous anti-Semitism emerged well after Germany's defeat [in World War I], as a product of the paranoid \"stab-in-the-back\" explanation for the catastrophe\".\n\nHitler received the final part of his father's estate in May 1913 and moved to Munich. Historians believe he left Vienna to evade conscription into the Austro-Hungarian Army. Hitler later claimed that he did not wish to serve Austria-Hungary because of the mixture of races in its armed forces. After he was deemed unfit for service—he failed his physical exam in Salzburg on 5 February 1914—he returned to Munich.\n\nWorld War I\n\nAt the outbreak of World War I, Hitler was living in Munich and as an Austrian citizen volunteered to serve in the Bavarian Army. According to a subsequent report by the Bavarian authorities in 1924, Hitler almost certainly served in the Bavarian Army by error. Posted to the Bavarian Reserve Infantry Regiment 16 (1st Company of the List Regiment), he served as a dispatch runner on the Western Front in France and Belgium, spending nearly half his time at the regimental headquarters in Fournes-en-Weppes, well behind the front lines. He was present at the First Battle of Ypres, the Battle of the Somme, the Battle of Arras, and the Battle of Passchendaele, and was wounded at the Somme. He was decorated for bravery, receiving the Iron Cross, Second Class, in 1914. On a recommendation by Lieutenant Hugo Gutmann, Hitler's Jewish superior, he received the Iron Cross, First Class on 4 August 1918, a decoration rarely awarded to one of Hitler's Gefreiter rank. He received the Black Wound Badge on 18May 1918.\n\nDuring his service at headquarters, Hitler pursued his artwork, drawing cartoons and instructions for an army newspaper. During the Battle of the Somme in October 1916, he was wounded in the left thigh when a shell exploded in the dispatch runners' dugout. Hitler spent almost two months in hospital at Beelitz, returning to his regiment on 5March 1917. On 15October 1918, he was temporarily blinded in a mustard gas attack and was hospitalised in Pasewalk. While there, Hitler learnt of Germany's defeat, and—by his own account—upon receiving this news, he suffered a second bout of blindness.\n\nHitler described the war as \"the greatest of all experiences\", and was praised by his commanding officers for his bravery. His wartime experience reinforced his German patriotism and he was shocked by Germany's capitulation in November 1918. His bitterness over the collapse of the war effort began to shape his ideology. Like other German nationalists, he believed the Dolchstoßlegende (stab-in-the-back myth), which claimed that the German army, \"undefeated in the field\", had been \"stabbed in the back\" on the home front by civilian leaders and Marxists, later dubbed the \"November criminals\".\n\nThe Treaty of Versailles stipulated that Germany must relinquish several of its territories and demilitarise the Rhineland. The treaty imposed economic sanctions and levied heavy reparations on the country. Many Germans saw the treaty as an unjust humiliation—they especially objected to Article 231, which they interpreted as declaring Germany responsible for the war. The Versailles Treaty and the economic, social, and political conditions in Germany after the war were later exploited by Hitler for political gain.\n\nEntry into politics\n\nAfter World War I, Hitler returned to Munich. With no formal education or career prospects, he remained in the army. In July 1919 he was appointed Verbindungsmann (intelligence agent) of an Aufklärungskommando (reconnaissance commando) of the Reichswehr, assigned to influence other soldiers and to infiltrate the German Workers' Party (DAP). While monitoring the activities of the DAP, Hitler was attracted to the founder Anton Drexler's anti-Semitic, nationalist, anti-capitalist, and anti-Marxist ideas. Drexler favoured a strong active government, a non-Jewish version of socialism, and solidarity among all members of society. Impressed with Hitler's oratorical skills, Drexler invited him to join the DAP. Hitler accepted on 12September 1919, becoming party member 555 (the party began counting membership at 500 to give the impression they were a much larger party).\n\nAt the DAP, Hitler met Dietrich Eckart, one of the party's founders and a member of the occult Thule Society. Eckart became Hitler's mentor, exchanging ideas with him and introducing him to a wide range of Munich society. To increase its appeal, the DAP changed its name to the Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei (National Socialist German Workers Party; NSDAP). Hitler designed the party's banner of a swastika in a white circle on a red background.\n\nHitler was discharged from the army on 31March 1920 and began working full-time for the NSDAP. The party headquarters was in Munich, a hotbed of anti-government German nationalists determined to crush Marxism and undermine the Weimar Republic. In February 1921—already highly effective at speaking to large audiences—he spoke to a crowd of over 6,000. To publicise the meeting, two truckloads of party supporters drove around Munich waving swastika flags and distributing leaflets. Hitler soon gained notoriety for his rowdy polemic speeches against the Treaty of Versailles, rival politicians, and especially against Marxists and Jews.\n\nIn June 1921, while Hitler and Eckart were on a fundraising trip to Berlin, a mutiny broke out within the NSDAP in Munich. Members of its executive committee wanted to merge with the rival German Socialist Party (DSP). Hitler returned to Munich on 11July and angrily tendered his resignation. The committee members realised that the resignation of their leading public figure and speaker would mean the end of the party. Hitler announced he would rejoin on the condition that he would replace Drexler as party chairman, and that the party headquarters would remain in Munich. The committee agreed, and he rejoined the party on 26July as member 3,680. Hitler continued to face some opposition within the NSDAP: Opponents of Hitler in the leadership had Hermann Esser expelled from the party, and they printed 3,000 copies of a pamphlet attacking Hitler as a traitor to the party. In the following days, Hitler spoke to several packed houses and defended himself and Esser, to thunderous applause. His strategy proved successful, and at a special party congress on 29July, he was granted absolute powers as party chairman, replacing Drexler, by a vote of 533to1.\n\nHitler's vitriolic beer hall speeches began attracting regular audiences. He became adept at using populist themes, including the use of scapegoats, who were blamed for his listeners' economic hardships. Hitler used personal magnetism and an understanding of crowd psychology to his advantage while engaged in public speaking. Historians have noted the hypnotic effect of his rhetoric on large audiences, and of his eyes in small groups. Alfons Heck, a former member of the Hitler Youth, later recalled:\n\nSome visitors who met Hitler privately noted that his appearance and demeanour failed to make a lasting impression.\n\nEarly followers included Rudolf Hess, former air force ace Hermann Göring, and army captain Ernst Röhm. Röhm became head of the Nazis' paramilitary organisation, the Sturmabteilung (SA, \"Stormtroopers\"), which protected meetings and attacked political opponents. A critical influence on Hitler's thinking during this period was the Aufbau Vereinigung, a conspiratorial group of White Russian exiles and early National Socialists. The group, financed with funds channelled from wealthy industrialists, introduced Hitler to the idea of a Jewish conspiracy, linking international finance with Bolshevism.\n\nBeer Hall Putsch\n\nIn 1923 Hitler enlisted the help of World War I General Erich Ludendorff for an attempted coup known as the \"Beer Hall Putsch\". The NSDAP used Italian Fascism as a model for their appearance and policies. Hitler wanted to emulate Benito Mussolini's \"March on Rome\" of 1922 by staging his own coup in Bavaria, to be followed by a challenge to the government in Berlin. Hitler and Ludendorff sought the support of Staatskommissar (state commissioner) Gustav Ritter von Kahr, Bavaria's de facto ruler. However, Kahr, along with Police Chief Hans Ritter von Seisser and Reichswehr General Otto von Lossow, wanted to install a nationalist dictatorship without Hitler.\n\nOn 8November 1923 Hitler and the SA stormed a public meeting of 3,000 people organised by Kahr in the Bürgerbräukeller, a beer hall in Munich. Interrupting Kahr's speech, he announced that the national revolution had begun and declared the formation of a new government with Ludendorff. Retiring to a back room, Hitler, with handgun drawn, demanded and got the support of Kahr, Seisser, and Lossow. Hitler's forces initially succeeded in occupying the local Reichswehr and police headquarters, but Kahr and his cohorts quickly withdrew their support. Neither the army nor the state police joined forces with Hitler. The next day, Hitler and his followers marched from the beer hall to the Bavarian War Ministry to overthrow the Bavarian government, but police dispersed them. Sixteen NSDAP members and four police officers were killed in the failed coup.\n\nHitler fled to the home of Ernst Hanfstaengl and by some accounts contemplated suicide. He was depressed but calm when arrested on 11 November 1923 for high treason. His trial before the special People's Court in Munich began in February 1924, and Alfred Rosenberg became temporary leader of the NSDAP. On 1April, Hitler was sentenced to five years' imprisonment at Landsberg Prison. There, he received friendly treatment from the guards, and he was allowed mail from supporters and regular visits by party comrades. Pardoned by the Bavarian Supreme Court, he was released from jail on 20December 1924, against the state prosecutor's objections. Including time on remand, Hitler served just over one year in prison.\n\nWhile at Landsberg, Hitler dictated most of the first volume of Mein Kampf (My Struggle; originally entitled Four and a Half Years of Struggle against Lies, Stupidity, and Cowardice) to his deputy, Rudolf Hess. The book, dedicated to Thule Society member Dietrich Eckart, was an autobiography and exposition of his ideology. The book laid out Hitler's plans for transforming German society into one based on race. Some passages implied genocide. Published in two volumes in 1925 and 1926, it sold 228,000 copies between 1925 and 1932. One million copies were sold in 1933, Hitler's first year in office.\n\nShortly before Hitler was eligible for parole, the Bavarian government attempted to have him deported back to Austria. The Austrian federal chancellor rejected the request on the specious grounds that his service in the German Army made his Austrian citizenship void. In response, Hitler formally renounced his Austrian citizenship on 7 April 1925.\n\nRebuilding the NSDAP\n\nAt the time of Hitler's release from prison, politics in Germany had become less combative and the economy had improved, limiting Hitler's opportunities for political agitation. As a result of the failed Beer Hall Putsch, the NSDAP and its affiliated organisations were banned in Bavaria. In a meeting with Prime Minister of Bavaria Heinrich Held on 4 January 1925, Hitler agreed to respect the authority of the state and promised that he would seek political power only through the democratic process. The meeting paved the way for the ban on the NSDAP to be lifted on 16February. Hitler was barred from public speaking by the Bavarian authorities, a ban that remained in place until 1927. To advance his political ambitions in spite of the ban, Hitler appointed Gregor Strasser, Otto Strasser, and Joseph Goebbels to organise and grow the NSDAP in northern Germany. A superb organiser, Gregor Strasser steered a more independent political course, emphasising the socialist elements of the party's programme.\n\nThe stock market in the United States crashed on 24 October 1929. The impact in Germany was dire: millions were thrown out of work and several major banks collapsed. Hitler and the NSDAP prepared to take advantage of the emergency to gain support for their party. They promised to repudiate the Versailles Treaty, strengthen the economy, and provide jobs.\n\nRise to power\n\nBrüning administration\n\nThe Great Depression provided a political opportunity for Hitler. Germans were ambivalent about the parliamentary republic, which faced challenges from right- and left-wing extremists. The moderate political parties were increasingly unable to stem the tide of extremism, and the German referendum of 1929 helped to elevate Nazi ideology. The elections of September 1930 resulted in the break-up of a grand coalition and its replacement with a minority cabinet. Its leader, chancellor Heinrich Brüning of the Centre Party, governed through emergency decrees from President Paul von Hindenburg. Governance by decree became the new norm and paved the way for authoritarian forms of government. The NSDAP rose from obscurity to win 18.3 percent of the vote and 107 parliamentary seats in the 1930 election, becoming the second-largest party in parliament.\n\nHitler made a prominent appearance at the trial of two Reichswehr officers, Lieutenants Richard Scheringer and Hans Ludin, in late 1930. Both were charged with membership in the NSDAP, at that time illegal for Reichswehr personnel. The prosecution argued that the NSDAP was an extremist party, prompting defence lawyer Hans Frank to call on Hitler to testify. On 25 September 1930, Hitler testified that his party would pursue political power solely through democratic elections, which won him many supporters in the officer corps.\n\nBrüning's austerity measures brought little economic improvement and were extremely unpopular. Hitler exploited this by targeting his political messages specifically at people who had been affected by the inflation of the 1920s and the Depression, such as farmers, war veterans, and the middle class.\n\nAlthough Hitler had terminated his Austrian citizenship in 1925, he did not acquire German citizenship for almost seven years. This meant he was stateless, unable to run for public office, and still faced the risk of deportation. On 25February 1932, the interior minister of Brunswick, Dietrich Klagges, who was a member of the NSDAP, appointed Hitler as administrator for the state's delegation to the Reichsrat in Berlin, making Hitler a citizen of Brunswick, and thus of Germany.\n\nIn 1932, Hitler ran against Hindenburg in the presidential elections. A 27January 1932 speech to the Industry Club in Düsseldorf won him support from many of Germany's most powerful industrialists. Hindenburg had support from various nationalist, monarchist, Catholic, and republican parties, and some Social Democrats. Hitler used the campaign slogan \"Hitler über Deutschland\" (\"Hitler over Germany\"), a reference to his political ambitions and his campaigning by aircraft. He was one of the first politicians to use aircraft travel for political purposes, and utilised it effectively. Hitler came in second in both rounds of the election, garnering more than 35 percent of the vote in the final election. Although he lost to Hindenburg, this election established Hitler as a strong force in German politics.\n\nAppointment as chancellor\n\nThe absence of an effective government prompted two influential politicians, Franz von Papen and Alfred Hugenberg, along with several other industrialists and businessmen, to write a letter to Hindenburg. The signers urged Hindenburg to appoint Hitler as leader of a government \"independent from parliamentary parties\", which could turn into a movement that would \"enrapture millions of people\".\n\nHindenburg reluctantly agreed to appoint Hitler as chancellor after two further parliamentary elections—in July and November 1932—had not resulted in the formation of a majority government. Hitler headed a short-lived coalition government formed by the NSDAP and Hugenberg's party, the German National People's Party (DNVP). On 30January 1933, the new cabinet was sworn in during a brief ceremony in Hindenburg's office. The NSDAP gained three posts: Hitler was named chancellor, Wilhelm Frick Minister of the Interior, and Hermann Göring Minister of the Interior for Prussia. Hitler had insisted on the ministerial positions as a way to gain control over the police in much of Germany.\n\nReichstag fire and March elections\n\nAs chancellor, Hitler worked against attempts by the NSDAP's opponents to build a majority government. Because of the political stalemate, he asked Hindenburg to again dissolve the Reichstag, and elections were scheduled for early March. On 27 February 1933, the Reichstag building was set on fire. Göring blamed a communist plot, because Dutch communist Marinus van der Lubbe was found in incriminating circumstances inside the burning building. According to the British historian Sir Ian Kershaw, the consensus of nearly all historians is that van der Lubbe actually set the fire. Others, including William L. Shirer and Alan Bullock, are of the opinion that the NSDAP itself was responsible. At Hitler's urging, Hindenburg responded with the Reichstag Fire Decree of 28February, which suspended basic rights and allowed detention without trial. The decree was permitted under Article 48 of the Weimar Constitution, which gave the president the power to take emergency measures to protect public safety and order. Activities of the German Communist Party (KPD) were suppressed, and some 4,000 communist party members were arrested.\n\nIn addition to political campaigning, the NSDAP engaged in paramilitary violence and the spread of anti-communist propaganda in the days preceding the election. On election day, 6March 1933, the NSDAP's share of the vote increased to 43.9 percent, and the party acquired the largest number of seats in parliament. Hitler's party failed to secure an absolute majority, necessitating another coalition with the DNVP.\n\nDay of Potsdam and the Enabling Act\n\nOn 21March 1933, the new Reichstag was constituted with an opening ceremony at the Garrison Church in Potsdam. This \"Day of Potsdam\" was held to demonstrate unity between the Nazi movement and the old Prussian elite and military. Hitler appeared in a morning coat and humbly greeted Hindenburg.\n\nTo achieve full political control despite not having an absolute majority in parliament, Hitler's government brought the Ermächtigungsgesetz (Enabling Act) to a vote in the newly elected Reichstag. The Act—officially titled the Gesetz zur Behebung der Not von Volk und Reich (\"Law to Remedy the Distress of People and Reich\")—gave Hitler's cabinet the power to enact laws without the consent of the Reichstag for four years. These laws could (with certain exceptions) deviate from the constitution. Since it would affect the constitution, the Enabling Act required a two-thirds majority to pass. Leaving nothing to chance, the Nazis used the provisions of the Reichstag Fire Decree to arrest all 81 Communist deputies (in spite of their virulent campaign against the party, the Nazis had allowed the KPD to contest the election) and prevent several Social Democrats from attending.\n\nOn 23March 1933, the Reichstag assembled at the Kroll Opera House under turbulent circumstances. Ranks of SA men served as guards inside the building, while large groups outside opposing the proposed legislation shouted slogans and threats towards the arriving members of parliament. The position of the Centre Party, the third largest party in the Reichstag, was decisive. After Hitler verbally promised party leader Ludwig Kaas that Hindenburg would retain his power of veto, Kaas announced the Centre Party would support the Enabling Act. The Act passed by a vote of 441–84, with all parties except the Social Democrats voting in favour. The Enabling Act, along with the Reichstag Fire Decree, transformed Hitler's government into a de facto legal dictatorship.\n\nRemoval of remaining limits\n\nHaving achieved full control over the legislative and executive branches of government, Hitler and his allies began to suppress the remaining opposition. The Social Democratic Party was banned and its assets seized. While many trade union delegates were in Berlin for May Day activities, SA stormtroopers demolished union offices around the country. On 2May 1933 all trade unions were forced to dissolve and their leaders were arrested. Some were sent to concentration camps. The German Labour Front was formed as an umbrella organisation to represent all workers, administrators, and company owners, thus reflecting the concept of national socialism in the spirit of Hitler's Volksgemeinschaft (\"people's community\").\n\nBy the end of June, the other parties had been intimidated into disbanding. This included the Nazis' nominal coalition partner, the DNVP; with the SA's help, Hitler forced its leader, Hugenberg, to resign on 29June. On 14July 1933, the NSDAP was declared the only legal political party in Germany. The demands of the SA for more political and military power caused anxiety among military, industrial, and political leaders. In response, Hitler purged the entire SA leadership in the Night of the Long Knives, which took place from 30June to 2July 1934. Hitler targeted Ernst Röhm and other SA leaders who, along with a number of Hitler's political adversaries (such as Gregor Strasser and former chancellor Kurt von Schleicher), were rounded up, arrested, and shot. While the international community and some Germans were shocked by the murders, many in Germany believed Hitler was restoring order.\n\nOn 2August 1934, Hindenburg died. The previous day, the cabinet had enacted the \"Law Concerning the Highest State Office of the Reich\". This law stated that upon Hindenburg's death, the office of president would be abolished and its powers merged with those of the chancellor. Hitler thus became head of state as well as head of government, and was formally named as Führer und Reichskanzler (leader and chancellor). With this action, Hitler eliminated the last legal remedy by which he could be removed from office.\n\nAs head of state, Hitler became supreme commander of the armed forces. The traditional loyalty oath of servicemen was altered to affirm loyalty to Hitler personally, by name, rather than to the office of supreme commander or the state. On 19August, the merger of the presidency with the chancellorship was approved by 90 percent of the electorate voting in a plebiscite.\n\nIn early 1938, Hitler used blackmail to consolidate his hold over the military by instigating the Blomberg–Fritsch Affair. Hitler forced his War Minister, Field Marshal Werner von Blomberg, to resign by using a police dossier that showed that Blomberg's new wife had a record for prostitution. Army commander Colonel-General Werner von Fritsch was removed after the Schutzstaffel (SS) produced allegations that he had engaged in a homosexual relationship. Both men had fallen into disfavour because they objected to Hitler's demand to make the Wehrmacht ready for war as early as 1938. Hitler assumed Blomberg's title of Commander-in-Chief, thus taking personal command of the armed forces. He replaced the Ministry of War with the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (Armed Forces High Command: OKW), headed by General Wilhelm Keitel. On the same day, sixteen generals were stripped of their commands and 44 more were transferred; all were suspected of not being sufficiently pro-Nazi. By early February 1938, twelve more generals had been removed.\n\nHitler took care to give his dictatorship the appearance of legality. Many of his decrees were explicitly based on the Reichstag Fire Decree and hence on Article 48 of the Weimar Constitution. The Reichstag renewed the Enabling Act twice, each time for a four-year period. While elections to the Reichstag were still held (in 1933, 1936, and 1938), voters were presented with a single list of Nazis and pro-Nazi \"guests\" which carried with well over 90 percent of the vote. These elections were held in far-from-secret conditions; the Nazis threatened severe reprisals against anyone who didn't vote or dared to vote no.\n\nNazi Germany\n\nEconomy and culture\n\nIn August 1934, Hitler appointed Reichsbank President Hjalmar Schacht as Minister of Economics, and in the following year, as Plenipotentiary for War Economy in charge of preparing the economy for war. Reconstruction and rearmament were financed through Mefo bills, printing money, and seizing the assets of people arrested as enemies of the State, including Jews. Unemployment fell from six million in 1932 to one million in 1936. Hitler oversaw one of the largest infrastructure improvement campaigns in German history, leading to the construction of dams, autobahns, railroads, and other civil works. Wages were slightly lower in the mid to late 1930s compared with wages during the Weimar Republic, while the cost of living increased by 25 percent. The average work week increased during the shift to a war economy; by 1939, the average German was working between 47 and 50 hours a week.\n\nHitler's government sponsored architecture on an immense scale. Albert Speer, instrumental in implementing Hitler's classicist reinterpretation of German culture, was placed in charge of the proposed architectural renovations of Berlin. In 1936, Hitler opened the summer Olympic games in Berlin.\n\nRearmament and new alliances\n\nIn a meeting with German military leaders on 3February 1933, Hitler spoke of \"conquest for Lebensraum in the East and its ruthless Germanisation\" as his ultimate foreign policy objectives. In March, Prince Bernhard Wilhelm von Bülow, secretary at the Auswärtiges Amt (Foreign Office), issued a statement of major foreign policy aims: Anschluss with Austria, the restoration of Germany's national borders of 1914, rejection of military restrictions under the Treaty of Versailles, the return of the former German colonies in Africa, and a German zone of influence in Eastern Europe. Hitler found Bülow's goals to be too modest. In speeches during this period, he stressed the peaceful goals of his policies and a willingness to work within international agreements. At the first meeting of his cabinet in 1933, Hitler prioritised military spending over unemployment relief.\n\nGermany withdrew from the League of Nations and the World Disarmament Conference in October 1933. In January 1935, over 90 percent of the people of the Saarland, then under League of Nations administration, voted to unite with Germany. That March, Hitler announced an expansion of the Wehrmacht to 600,000 members—six times the number permitted by the Versailles Treaty—including development of an air force (Luftwaffe) and an increase in the size of the navy (Kriegsmarine). Britain, France, Italy, and the League of Nations condemned these violations of the Treaty, but did nothing to stop it. The Anglo-German Naval Agreement (AGNA) of 18June allowed German tonnage to increase to 35 percent of that of the British navy. Hitler called the signing of the AGNA \"the happiest day of his life\", believing that the agreement marked the beginning of the Anglo-German alliance he had predicted in Mein Kampf. France and Italy were not consulted before the signing, directly undermining the League of Nations and setting the Treaty of Versailles on the path towards irrelevance.\n\nGermany reoccupied the demilitarised zone in the Rhineland in March 1936, in violation of the Versailles Treaty. Hitler also sent troops to Spain to support General Franco during the Spanish Civil War after receiving an appeal for help in July 1936. At the same time, Hitler continued his efforts to create an Anglo-German alliance. In August 1936, in response to a growing economic crisis caused by his rearmament efforts, Hitler ordered Göring to implement a Four Year Plan to prepare Germany for war within the next four years. The plan envisaged an all-out struggle between \"Judeo-Bolshevism\" and German national socialism, which in Hitler's view required a committed effort of rearmament regardless of the economic costs.\n\nCount Galeazzo Ciano, foreign minister of Mussolini's government, declared an axis between Germany and Italy, and on 25November, Germany signed the Anti-Comintern Pact with Japan. Britain, China, Italy, and Poland were also invited to join the Anti-Comintern Pact, but only Italy signed in 1937. Hitler abandoned his plan of an Anglo-German alliance, blaming \"inadequate\" British leadership. At a meeting in the Reich Chancellery with his foreign ministers and military chiefs that November, Hitler restated his intention of acquiring Lebensraum for the German people. He ordered preparations for war in the East, to begin as early as 1938 and no later than 1943. In the event of his death, the conference minutes, recorded as the Hossbach Memorandum, were to be regarded as his \"political testament\". He felt that a severe decline in living standards in Germany as a result of the economic crisis could only be stopped by military aggression aimed at seizing Austria and Czechoslovakia. Hitler urged quick action before Britain and France gained a permanent lead in the arms race. In early 1938, in the wake of the Blomberg–Fritsch Affair, Hitler asserted control of the military-foreign policy apparatus, dismissing Neurath as foreign minister and appointing himself Oberster Befehlshaber der Wehrmacht (supreme commander of the armed forces). From early 1938 onwards, Hitler was carrying out a foreign policy ultimately aimed at war.\n\nWorld War II\n\nEarly diplomatic successes\n\nAlliance with Japan\n\nIn February 1938, on the advice of his newly appointed foreign minister, the strongly pro-Japanese Joachim von Ribbentrop, Hitler ended the Sino-German alliance with the Republic of China to instead enter into an alliance with the more modern and powerful Japan. Hitler announced German recognition of Manchukuo, the Japanese-occupied state in Manchuria, and renounced German claims to their former colonies in the Pacific held by Japan. Hitler ordered an end to arms shipments to China and recalled all German officers working with the Chinese Army. In retaliation, Chinese General Chiang Kai-shek cancelled all Sino-German economic agreements, depriving the Germans of many Chinese raw materials.\n\nAustria and Czechoslovakia\n\nOn 12March 1938, Hitler announced the unification of Austria with Nazi Germany in the Anschluss. Hitler then turned his attention to the ethnic German population of the Sudetenland region of Czechoslovakia.\n\nOn 28–29March 1938, Hitler held a series of secret meetings in Berlin with Konrad Henlein of the Sudeten Heimfront (Home Front), the largest of the ethnic German parties of the Sudetenland. The men agreed that Henlein would demand increased autonomy for Sudeten Germans from the Czechoslovakian government, thus providing a pretext for German military action against Czechoslovakia. In April 1938 Henlein told the foreign minister of Hungary that \"whatever the Czech government might offer, he would always raise still higher demands ... he wanted to sabotage an understanding by any means because this was the only method to blow up Czechoslovakia quickly\". In private, Hitler considered the Sudeten issue unimportant; his real intention was a war of conquest against Czechoslovakia.\n\nIn April Hitler ordered the OKW to prepare for Fall Grün (Case Green), the code name for an invasion of Czechoslovakia. As a result of intense French and British diplomatic pressure, on 5 September Czechoslovakian President Edvard Beneš unveiled the \"Fourth Plan\" for constitutional reorganisation of his country, which agreed to most of Henlein's demands for Sudeten autonomy. Henlein's Heimfront responded to Beneš' offer by instigating a series of violent clashes with the Czechoslovakian police that led to the declaration of martial law in certain Sudeten districts.\n\nGermany was dependent on imported oil; a confrontation with Britain over the Czechoslovakian dispute could curtail Germany's oil supplies. This forced Hitler to call off Fall Grün, originally planned for 1October 1938. On 29September Hitler, Neville Chamberlain, Édouard Daladier, and Mussolini attended a one-day conference in Munich that led to the Munich Agreement, which handed over the Sudetenland districts to Germany.\n\nChamberlain was satisfied with the Munich conference, calling the outcome \"peace for our time\", while Hitler was angered about the missed opportunity for war in 1938; he expressed his disappointment in a speech on 9October in Saarbrücken. In Hitler's view, the British-brokered peace, although favourable to the ostensible German demands, was a diplomatic defeat which spurred his intent of limiting British power to pave the way for the eastern expansion of Germany. As a result of the summit, Hitler was selected Time magazine's Man of the Year for 1938.\n\nIn late 1938 and early 1939, the continuing economic crisis caused by rearmament forced Hitler to make major defence cuts. In his \"Export or die\" speech of 30January 1939, he called for an economic offensive to increase German foreign exchange holdings to pay for raw materials such as high-grade iron needed for military weapons.\n\nOn 15March 1939, in violation of the Munich accord and possibly as a result of the deepening economic crisis requiring additional assets, Hitler ordered the Wehrmacht to invade Prague, and from Prague Castle he proclaimed Bohemia and Moravia a German protectorate.\n\nStart of World War II\n\nIn private discussions in 1939, Hitler declared Britain the main enemy to be defeated and that Poland's obliteration was a necessary prelude for that goal. The eastern flank would be secured and land would be added to Germany's Lebensraum. Offended by the British \"guarantee\" on 31March 1939 of Polish independence, he said, \"I shall brew them a devil's drink\". In a speech in Wilhelmshaven for the launch of the battleship on 1April, he threatened to denounce the Anglo-German Naval Agreement if the British continued to guarantee Polish independence, which he perceived as an \"encirclement\" policy. Poland was to either become a German satellite state or be neutralised to secure the Reich's eastern flank and to prevent a possible British blockade. Hitler initially favoured the idea of a satellite state, but upon its rejection by the Polish government, he decided to invade and made this the main foreign policy goal of 1939. On 3 April, Hitler ordered the military to prepare for Fall Weiss (\"Case White\"), the plan for invading Poland on 25August. In a Reichstag speech on 28April, he renounced both the Anglo-German Naval Agreement and the German–Polish Non-Aggression Pact. Historians such as William Carr, Gerhard Weinberg, and Kershaw have argued that one reason for Hitler's rush to war was his fear of an early death.\n\nHitler was concerned that a military attack against Poland could result in a premature war with Britain. Hitler's foreign minister and former Ambassador to London, Joachim von Ribbentrop, assured him that neither Britain nor France would honour their commitments to Poland. Accordingly, on 22 August 1939 Hitler ordered a military mobilisation against Poland.\n\nThis plan required tacit Soviet support, and the non-aggression pact (the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact) between Germany and the Soviet Union, led by Joseph Stalin, included a secret agreement to partition Poland between the two countries. Contrary to Ribbentrop's prediction that Britain would sever Anglo-Polish ties, Britain and Poland signed the Anglo-Polish alliance on 25August 1939. This, along with news from Italy that Mussolini would not honour the Pact of Steel, prompted Hitler to postpone the attack on Poland from 25August to 1September. Hitler unsuccessfully tried to manoeuvre the British into neutrality by offering them a non-aggression guarantee on 25August; he then instructed Ribbentrop to present a last-minute peace plan with an impossibly short time limit in an effort to blame the imminent war on British and Polish inaction.\n\nOn 1September 1939, Germany invaded western Poland under the pretext of having been denied claims to the Free City of Danzig and the right to extraterritorial roads across the Polish Corridor, which Germany had ceded under the Versailles Treaty. In response, Britain and France declared war on Germany on 3September, surprising Hitler and prompting him to angrily ask Ribbentrop, \"Now what?\" France and Britain did not act on their declarations immediately, and on 17September, Soviet forces invaded eastern Poland.\n\nThe fall of Poland was followed by what contemporary journalists dubbed the \"Phoney War\" or Sitzkrieg (\"sitting war\"). Hitler instructed the two newly appointed Gauleiters of north-western Poland, Albert Forster of Reichsgau Danzig-West Prussia and Arthur Greiser of Reichsgau Wartheland, to Germanise their areas, with \"no questions asked\" about how this was accomplished. Whereas Polish citizens in Forster's area merely had to sign forms stating that they had German blood, Greiser carried out a brutal ethnic cleansing campaign on the Polish population in his purview. Greiser complained that Forster was allowing thousands of Poles to be accepted as \"racial\" Germans and thus endangered German \"racial purity\". Hitler refrained from getting involved. This inaction has been advanced as an example of the theory of \"working towards the Führer\": Hitler issued vague instructions and expected his subordinates to work out policies on their own.\n\nAnother dispute pitched one side represented by Himmler and Greiser, who championed ethnic cleansing in Poland, against another represented by Göring and Hans Frank, governor-general of the General Government territory of occupied Poland, who called for turning Poland into the \"granary\" of the Reich. On 12February 1940, the dispute was initially settled in favour of the Göring–Frank view, which ended the economically disruptive mass expulsions. On 15May 1940, Himmler issued a memo entitled \"Some Thoughts on the Treatment of Alien Population in the East\", calling for the expulsion of the entire Jewish population of Europe into Africa and reducing the Polish population to a \"leaderless class of labourers\". Hitler called Himmler's memo \"good and correct\", and, ignoring Göring and Frank, implemented the Himmler–Greiser policy in Poland.\n\nHitler began a military build-up on Germany's western border, and in April 1940, German forces invaded Denmark and Norway. On 9April, Hitler proclaimed the birth of the Greater Germanic Reich, his vision of a united empire of the Germanic nations of Europe, where the Dutch, Flemish, and Scandinavians were joined into a \"racially pure\" polity under German leadership. In May 1940, Germany attacked France, and conquered Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and Belgium. These victories prompted Mussolini to have Italy join forces with Hitler on 10 June. France and Germany signed an armistice on 22June. Kershaw notes that Hitler's popularity within Germany – and German support for the war – reached its peak when he returned to Berlin on 6July from his tour of Paris. Following the unexpected swift victory, Hitler promoted twelve generals to the rank of field marshal during the 1940 Field Marshal Ceremony.\n\nBritain, whose troops were forced to evacuate France by sea from Dunkirk, continued to fight alongside other British dominions in the Battle of the Atlantic. Hitler made peace overtures to the new British leader, Winston Churchill, and upon their rejection he ordered a series of aerial attacks on Royal Air Force airbases and radar stations in south-east England. The German Luftwaffe failed to defeat the Royal Air Force in what became known as the Battle of Britain. By the end of October, Hitler realised that air superiority for the invasion of Britain (in Operation Sea Lion) could not be achieved, and he ordered nightly air raids on British cities, including London, Plymouth, and Coventry.\n\nOn 27September 1940, the Tripartite Pact was signed in Berlin by Saburō Kurusu of Imperial Japan, Hitler, and Italian foreign minister Ciano, and later expanded to include Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria, thus yielding the Axis powers. Hitler's attempt to integrate the Soviet Union into the anti-British bloc failed after inconclusive talks between Hitler and Molotov in Berlin in November, and he ordered preparations for the invasion of the Soviet Union.\n\nIn the Spring of 1941, German forces were deployed to North Africa, the Balkans, and the Middle East. In February, German forces arrived in Libya to bolster the Italian presence. In April, Hitler launched the invasion of Yugoslavia, quickly followed by the invasion of Greece. In May, German forces were sent to support Iraqi rebel forces fighting against the British and to invade Crete.\n\nPath to defeat\n\nOn 22June 1941, contravening the Hitler–Stalin Non-Aggression Pact of 1939, 4–5 million Axis troops attacked the Soviet Union. This offensive (codenamed Operation Barbarossa) was intended to destroy the Soviet Union and seize its natural resources for subsequent aggression against the Western powers. The invasion conquered a huge area, including the Baltic republics, Belarus, and West Ukraine. By early August, Axis troops had advanced 500 km and won the Battle of Smolensk. Hitler ordered Army Group Centre to temporarily halt its advance to Moscow and divert its Panzer groups to aid in the encirclement of Leningrad and Kiev. His generals disagreed with this change, having advanced within 400 km of Moscow, and his decision caused a crisis among the military leadership. The pause provided the Red Army with an opportunity to mobilise fresh reserves; historian Russel Stolfi considers it to be one of the major factors that caused the failure of the Moscow offensive, which was resumed in October 1941 and ended disastrously in December.\n\nOn 7December 1941, Japan attacked the American fleet based at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. Four days later, Hitler declared war against the United States.\n\nOn 18December 1941, Himmler asked Hitler, \"What to do with the Jews of Russia?\", to which Hitler replied, \"als Partisanen auszurotten\" (\"exterminate them as partisans\"). Israeli historian Yehuda Bauer has commented that the remark is probably as close as historians will ever get to a definitive order from Hitler for the genocide carried out during the Holocaust.\n\nIn late 1942, German forces were defeated in the second battle of El Alamein, thwarting Hitler's plans to seize the Suez Canal and the Middle East. Overconfident in his own military expertise following the earlier victories in 1940, Hitler became distrustful of his Army High Command and began to interfere in military and tactical planning, with damaging consequences. In December 1942 and January 1943, Hitler's repeated refusal to allow their withdrawal at the Battle of Stalingrad led to the almost total destruction of the 6th Army. Over 200,000 Axis soldiers were killed and 235,000 were taken prisoner. Thereafter came a decisive strategic defeat at the Battle of Kursk. Hitler's military judgement became increasingly erratic, and Germany's military and economic position deteriorated, as did Hitler's health.\n\nFollowing the allied invasion of Sicily in 1943, Mussolini was removed from power by Victor Emmanuel III after a vote of no confidence of the Grand Council. Marshal Pietro Badoglio, placed in charge of the government, soon surrendered to the Allies. Throughout 1943 and 1944, the Soviet Union steadily forced Hitler's armies into retreat along the Eastern Front. On 6June 1944, the Western Allied armies landed in northern France in one of the largest amphibious operations in history, Operation Overlord. Many German officers concluded that defeat was inevitable and that continuing under Hitler's leadership would result in the complete destruction of the country.\n\nBetween 1939 and 1945, there were many plans to assassinate Hitler, some of which proceeded to significant degrees. The most well known came from within Germany and was at least partly driven by the increasing prospect of a German defeat in the war. In July 1944, in the 20 July plot, part of Operation Valkyrie, Claus von Stauffenberg planted a bomb in one of Hitler's headquarters, the Wolf's Lair at Rastenburg. Hitler narrowly survived because staff officer Heinz Brandt moved the briefcase containing the bomb behind a leg of the heavy conference table, which deflected much of the blast. Later, Hitler ordered savage reprisals resulting in the execution of more than 4,900 people.\n\nDefeat and death\n\nBy late 1944, both the Red Army and the Western Allies were advancing into Germany. Recognising the strength and determination of the Red Army, Hitler decided to use his remaining mobile reserves against the American and British troops, which he perceived as far weaker. On 16December, he launched the Ardennes Offensive to incite disunity among the Western Allies and perhaps convince them to join his fight against the Soviets. The offensive failed after some temporary successes. With much of Germany in ruins in January 1945, Hitler spoke on the radio: \"However grave as the crisis may be at this moment, it will, despite everything, be mastered by our unalterable will.\" Hitler's hope to negotiate peace with the United States and Britain was encouraged by the death of Franklin D. Roosevelt on 12April 1945, but contrary to his expectations, this caused no rift among the Allies. Acting on his view that Germany's military failures meant it had forfeited its right to survive as a nation, Hitler ordered the destruction of all German industrial infrastructure before it could fall into Allied hands. Minister for Armaments Albert Speer was entrusted with executing this scorched earth policy, but he secretly disobeyed the order.\n\nOn 20April, his 56thbirthday, Hitler made his last trip from the Führerbunker (Führer's shelter) to the surface. In the ruined garden of the Reich Chancellery, he awarded Iron Crosses to boy soldiers of the Hitler Youth, who were now fighting the Red Army at the front near Berlin. By 21April, Georgy Zhukov's 1st Belorussian Front had broken through the defences of General Gotthard Heinrici's Army Group Vistula during the Battle of the Seelow Heights and advanced to the outskirts of Berlin. In denial about the dire situation, Hitler placed his hopes on the undermanned and under-equipped Armeeabteilung Steiner (Army Detachment Steiner), commanded by Waffen SS General Felix Steiner. Hitler ordered Steiner to attack the northern flank of the salient, while the German Ninth Army was ordered to attack northward in a pincer attack.\n\nDuring a military conference on 22April, Hitler asked about Steiner's offensive. He was told that the attack had not been launched and that the Soviets had entered Berlin. Hitler asked everyone except Wilhelm Keitel, Alfred Jodl, Hans Krebs, and Wilhelm Burgdorf to leave the room, then launched into a tirade against the treachery and incompetence of his commanders, culminating in his declaration—for the first time—that \"everything was lost\". He announced that he would stay in Berlin until the end and then shoot himself.\n\nBy 23April the Red Army had surrounded Berlin, and Goebbels made a proclamation urging its citizens to defend the city. That same day, Göring sent a telegram from Berchtesgaden, arguing that since Hitler was isolated in Berlin, Göring should assume leadership of Germany. Göring set a deadline, after which he would consider Hitler incapacitated. Hitler responded by having Göring arrested, and in his last will and testament, written on 29April, he removed Göring from all government positions. On 28 April Hitler discovered that Himmler, who had left Berlin on 20April, was trying to negotiate a surrender to the Western Allies. He ordered Himmler's arrest and had Hermann Fegelein (Himmler's SS representative at Hitler's HQ in Berlin) shot.\n\nAfter midnight on 29April, Hitler married Eva Braun in a small civil ceremony in the Führerbunker. After a wedding breakfast with his new wife, Hitler dictated his will to his secretary Traudl Junge. The event was witnessed and documents signed by Krebs, Burgdorf, Goebbels, and Bormann. Later that afternoon, Hitler was informed of the execution of Mussolini, which presumably increased his determination to avoid capture.\n\nOn 30April 1945, when Soviet troops were within a block or two of the Reich Chancellery, Hitler shot himself and Braun bit into a cyanide capsule. Their bodies were carried outside to the bombed-out garden behind the Reich Chancellery, where they were placed in a bomb crater and doused with petrol. The corpses were set on fire as the Red Army shelling continued. Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz and Joseph Goebbels assumed Hitler's roles as head of state and chancellor respectively.\n\nBerlin surrendered on 2May. Records in the Soviet archives obtained after the fall of the Soviet Union state that the remains of Hitler, Braun, Joseph and Magda Goebbels, the six Goebbels children, General Hans Krebs, and Hitler's dogs were repeatedly buried and exhumed. On 4April 1970, a Soviet KGB team used detailed burial charts to exhume five wooden boxes at the SMERSH facility in Magdeburg. The remains from the boxes were burned, crushed, and scattered into the Biederitz river, a tributary of the Elbe. According to Kershaw, the corpses of Braun and Hitler were fully burned when the Red Army found them, and only a lower jaw with dental work could be identified as Hitler's remains.\n\nThe Holocaust\n\nThe Holocaust and Germany's war in the East was based on Hitler's long-standing view that the Jews were the enemy of the German people and that Lebensraum was needed for Germany's expansion. He focused on Eastern Europe for this expansion, aiming to defeat Poland and the Soviet Union and then removing or killing the Jews and Slavs. The Generalplan Ost (General Plan East) called for deporting the population of occupied Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union to West Siberia, for use as slave labour or to be murdered; the conquered territories were to be colonised by German or \"Germanised\" settlers. The goal was to implement this plan after the conquest of the Soviet Union, but when this failed, Hitler moved the plans forward. By January 1942, he had decided that the Jews, Slavs, and other deportees considered undesirable should be killed.\n\nThe genocide was ordered by Hitler and organised and executed by Heinrich Himmler and Reinhard Heydrich. The records of the Wannsee Conference, held on 20January 1942 and led by Heydrich, with fifteen senior Nazi officials participating, provide the clearest evidence of systematic planning for the Holocaust. On 22February, Hitler was recorded saying, \"we shall regain our health only by eliminating the Jews\". Although no direct order from Hitler authorising the mass killings has surfaced, his public speeches, orders to his generals, and the diaries of Nazi officials demonstrate that he conceived and authorised the extermination of European Jewry. He approved the Einsatzgruppen—killing squads that followed the German army through Poland, the Baltic, and the Soviet Union—and was well informed about their activities. By summer 1942, Auschwitz concentration camp was expanded to accommodate large numbers of deportees for killing or enslavement. Scores of other concentration camps and satellite camps were set up throughout Europe, with several camps devoted exclusively to extermination.\n\nBetween 1939 and 1945, the Schutzstaffel (SS), assisted by collaborationist governments and recruits from occupied countries, was responsible for the deaths of at least eleven million people, including 5.5 to 6 million Jews (representing two-thirds of the Jewish population of Europe), and between 200,000 and 1,500,000 Romani people. Deaths took place in concentration and extermination camps, ghettos, and through mass executions. Many victims of the Holocaust were gassed to death, whereas others died of starvation or disease or while working as slave labourers. In addition to eliminating Jews, the Nazis planned to reduce the population of the conquered territories by 30 million people through starvation in an action called the Hunger Plan. Food supplies would be diverted to the German army and German civilians. Cities would be razed and the land allowed to return to forest or resettled by German colonists. Together, the Hunger Plan and Generalplan Ost would have led to the starvation of 80 million people in the Soviet Union. These partially fulfilled plans resulted in the democidal deaths of an estimated 19.3million civilians and prisoners of war.\n\nHitler's policies resulted in the killing of nearly two million Poles, over three million Soviet prisoners of war, communists and other political opponents, homosexuals, the physically and mentally disabled, Jehovah's Witnesses, Adventists, and trade unionists. Hitler did not speak publicly about the killings, and seems never to have visited the concentration camps.\n\nThe Nazis embraced the concept of racial hygiene. On 15September 1935, Hitler presented two laws—known as the Nuremberg Laws—to the Reichstag. The laws banned sexual relations and marriages between Aryans and Jews and were later extended to include \"Gypsies, Negroes or their bastard offspring\". The laws stripped all non-Aryans of their German citizenship and forbade the employment of non-Jewish women under the age of 45 in Jewish households. Hitler's early eugenic policies targeted children with physical and developmental disabilities in a programme dubbed Action Brandt, and he later authorised a euthanasia programme for adults with serious mental and physical disabilities, now referred to as Action T4.\n\nLeadership style\n\nHitler ruled the NSDAP autocratically by asserting the Führerprinzip (leader principle). The principle relied on absolute obedience of all subordinates to their superiors; thus he viewed the government structure as a pyramid, with himself—the infallible leader—at the apex. Rank in the party was not determined by elections—positions were filled through appointment by those of higher rank, who demanded unquestioning obedience to the will of the leader. Hitler's leadership style was to give contradictory orders to his subordinates and to place them into positions where their duties and responsibilities overlapped with those of others, to have \"the stronger one [do] the job\". In this way, Hitler fostered distrust, competition, and infighting among his subordinates to consolidate and maximise his own power. His cabinet never met after 1938, and he discouraged his ministers from meeting independently. Hitler typically did not give written orders; instead he communicated verbally, or had them conveyed through his close associate, Martin Bormann. He entrusted Bormann with his paperwork, appointments, and personal finances; Bormann used his position to control the flow of information and access to Hitler.\n\nHitler dominated his country's war effort during World War II to a greater extent than any other national leader. He assumed the role of supreme commander of the armed forces during 1938, and subsequently made all major decisions regarding Germany's military strategy. His decision to mount a risky series of offensives against Norway, France, and the Low Countries in 1940 against the advice of the military proved successful, though the diplomatic and military strategies he employed in attempts to force the United Kingdom out of the war ended in failure. Hitler deepened his involvement in the war effort by appointing himself commander-in-chief of the Army in December 1941; from this point forward he personally directed the war against the Soviet Union, while his military commanders facing the Western Allies retained a degree of autonomy. Hitler's leadership became increasingly disconnected from reality as the war turned against Germany, with the military's defensive strategies often hindered by his slow decision making and frequent directives to hold untenable positions. Nevertheless, he continued to believe that only his leadership could deliver victory. In the final months of the war Hitler refused to consider peace negotiations, regarding the complete destruction of Germany as preferable to surrender. The military did not challenge Hitler's dominance of the war effort, and senior officers generally supported and enacted his decisions.\n\nLegacy\n\nHitler's suicide was likened by contemporaries to a \"spell\" being broken. Public support for Hitler had collapsed by the time of his death and few Germans mourned his passing; Kershaw argues that most civilians and military personnel were too busy adjusting to the collapse of the country or fleeing from the fighting to take any interest. According to historian John Toland, National Socialism \"burst like a bubble\" without its leader.\n\nHitler's actions and Nazi ideology are almost universally regarded as gravely immoral; according to Kershaw, \"Never in history has such ruination—physical and moral—been associated with the name of one man\". Hitler's political programme brought about a world war, leaving behind a devastated and impoverished Eastern and Central Europe. Germany itself suffered wholesale destruction, characterised as Stunde Null (Zero Hour). Hitler's policies inflicted human suffering on an unprecedented scale; according to R.J. Rummel, the Nazi regime was responsible for the democidal killing of an estimated 19.3 million civilians and prisoners of war. In addition, 29million soldiers and civilians died as a result of military action in the European Theatre of World War II. The number of civilians killed during the Second World War was unprecedented in the history of warfare. Historians, philosophers, and politicians often use the word \"evil\" to describe the Nazi regime. Many European countries have criminalised both the promotion of Nazism and Holocaust denial.\n\nHistorian Friedrich Meinecke described Hitler as \"one of the great examples of the singular and incalculable power of personality in historical life\". English historian Hugh Trevor-Roper saw him as \"among the 'terrible simplifiers' of history, the most systematic, the most historical, the most philosophical, and yet the coarsest, cruelest, least magnanimous conqueror the world has ever known\". For the historian John M. Roberts, Hitler's defeat marked the end of a phase of European history dominated by Germany. In its place emerged the Cold War, a global confrontation between the Western Bloc, dominated by the United States and other NATO nations, and the Eastern Bloc, dominated by the Soviet Union. Historian Sebastian Haffner avers that without Hitler and the displacement of the Jews, the modern nation state of Israel would not exist. He contends that without Hitler, the de-colonisation of former European spheres of influence would have been postponed. Further, Haffner claims that other than Alexander the Great, Hitler had a more significant impact than any other comparable historical figure, in that he too caused a wide range of worldwide changes in a relatively short time span.\n\nViews on religion\n\nHitler was born to a practising Catholic mother and an anticlerical father; after leaving home Hitler never again attended Mass or received the sacraments. Speer states that Hitler made harsh pronouncements against the church to his political associates and though he never officially left it, he had no attachment to it. He adds that Hitler felt that in the absence of the church the faithful would turn to mysticism, which he considered a step backwards. According to Speer, Hitler believed that either Japanese religious beliefs or Islam would have been a more suitable religion for the Germans than Christianity, with its \"meekness and flabbiness\".\n\nHistorian John S. Conway states that Hitler was fundamentally opposed to the Christian churches. According to Bullock, Hitler did not believe in God, was anticlerical, and held Christian ethics in contempt because they contravened his preferred view of \"survival of the fittest\". He favoured aspects of Protestantism that suited his own views, and adopted some elements of the Catholic Church's hierarchical organisation, liturgy, and phraseology in his politics.\n\nHitler viewed the church as an important politically conservative influence on society, and he adopted a strategic relationship with it that \"suited his immediate political purposes\". In public, Hitler often praised Christian heritage and German Christian culture, though professing a belief in an \"Aryan Jesus\", one who fought against the Jews. Any pro-Christian public rhetoric was at variance with his private statements, which described Christianity as \"absurdity\" and nonsense founded on lies.\n\nAccording to a U.S. Office of Strategic Services report, \"The Nazi Master Plan\", Hitler planned to destroy the influence of Christian churches within the Reich. His eventual goal was the total elimination of Christianity. This goal informed Hitler's movement early on, but he saw it as inexpedient to express this extreme position publicly. According to Bullock, Hitler wanted to wait until after the war before executing this plan.\n\nSpeer wrote that Hitler had a negative view of Himmler's and Alfred Rosenberg's mystical notions and Himmler's attempt to mythologise the SS. Hitler was more pragmatic, and his ambitions centred on more practical concerns.\n\nHealth\n\nResearchers have variously suggested that Hitler suffered from irritable bowel syndrome, skin lesions, irregular heartbeat, coronary sclerosis, Parkinson's disease, syphilis, giant cell arteritis with temporal arteritis, and tinnitus. In a report prepared for the Office of Strategic Services in 1943, Walter C. Langer of Harvard University described Hitler as a \"neurotic psychopath\". In his 1977 book The Psychopathic God: Adolf Hitler, historian Robert G. L. Waite proposes that Hitler suffered from borderline personality disorder. Historians Henrik Eberle and Hans-Joachim Neumann consider that while Hitler suffered from a number of illnesses including Parkinson's disease, he did not experience pathological delusions and was always fully aware of, and therefore responsible for, the decisions he was making. Theories about Hitler's medical condition are difficult to prove, and placing too much weight on them may have the effect of attributing many of the events and consequences of Nazi Germany to the possibly impaired physical health of one individual. Kershaw feels that it is better to take a broader view of German history by examining what social forces led to the Nazi dictatorship and its policies rather than to pursue narrow explanations for the Holocaust and World WarII based on only one person.\n\nHitler followed a vegetarian diet. At social events he sometimes gave graphic accounts of the slaughter of animals in an effort to make his dinner guests shun meat. Bormann had a greenhouse constructed near the Berghof (near Berchtesgaden) to ensure a steady supply of fresh fruit and vegetables for Hitler throughout the war. Hitler publicly avoided alcohol. He occasionally drank beer and wine in private, but gave up drinking because of weight gain in 1943. He was a non-smoker for most of his life, but smoked heavily in his youth (25 to 40 cigarettes a day). He eventually quit, calling the habit \"a waste of money\". He encouraged his close associates to quit by offering a gold watch to any who were able to break the habit. Hitler began using amphetamine occasionally after 1937 and became addicted to it in late 1942. Speer linked this use of amphetamine to Hitler's increasingly inflexible decision making (for example, rarely allowing military retreats).\n\nPrescribed 90 medications during the war years, Hitler took many pills each day for chronic stomach problems and other ailments. He regularly consumed methamphetamine, barbiturates, opiates, and cocaine. He suffered ruptured eardrums as a result of the 20 July plot bomb blast in 1944, and 200 wood splinters had to be removed from his legs. Newsreel footage of Hitler shows tremors of his hand and a shuffling walk, which began before the war and worsened towards the end of his life. Ernst-Günther Schenck and several other doctors who met Hitler in the last weeks of his life also formed a diagnosis of Parkinson's disease.\n\nFamily\n\nHitler created a public image as a celibate man without a domestic life, dedicated entirely to his political mission and the nation. He met his lover, Eva Braun, in 1929, and married her in April 1945. In September 1931, his half-niece, Geli Raubal, committed suicide with Hitler's gun in his Munich apartment. It was rumoured among contemporaries that Geli was in a romantic relationship with him, and her death was a source of deep, lasting pain. Paula Hitler, the last living member of his immediate family, died in 1960.\n\nIn propaganda films\n\nHitler exploited documentary films and newsreels to inspire a cult of personality. He was involved and appeared in a series of propaganda films throughout his political career—such as Der Sieg des Glaubens and Triumph des Willens—made by Leni Riefenstahl, regarded as a pioneer of modern filmmaking.\n\nList of propaganda and film appearances\n\nDer Sieg des Glaubens (Victory of Faith, 1933)\nTriumph des Willens (Triumph of the Will, 1935)\nTag der Freiheit: Unsere Wehrmacht (Day of Freedom: Our Armed Forces, 1935)\nOlympia (1938)", "Brenner Pass (; ) is a mountain pass through the Alps which forms the border between Italy and Austria. It is one of the principal passes of the Eastern Alpine range and has the lowest altitude among Alpine passes of the area.\n\nDairy cattle graze in alpine pastures throughout the summer in valleys beneath the pass and on the mountains above it. At lower altitudes, farmers log pine trees, plant crops and harvest hay for winter fodder. Many of the high pastures are at an altitude of over 1,500 metres; a small number of them stands high in the mountains at around 2,000 metres.\n\nThe central section of Brenner Pass covers a four-lane motorway and railway tracks connecting Bozen/Bolzano in the south and Innsbruck to the north. The village of Brenner consists of an outlet shopping centre (supermarkets and stores), fruit stores, restaurants, cafes, hotels and a gas station. It has a population of 400 to 600 ().\n\nEtymology \n\nPrenner was originally the name of a nearby farm which derived from its former owner. The farm of a certain Prennerius is mentioned in documents in 1288, a certain Chunradus Prenner de Mittenwalde is mentioned in 1299. The name Prenner is traced back to the German word for somebody who clears woodland. A name for the pass itself appears for the first time in 1328 as ob dem Prenner (German for above the Prenner). \n\nHistory \n\nRoman Empire\n\nThe Romans regularized the mountain pass at Brenner, which had already been under frequent use during the prehistoric eras after the most recent Ice Age. Brenner Pass, however, was not the first trans-Alpine Roman road to become regularized under the Roman Empire.\n\nThe first Roman road to cross this Alpine range, Via Claudia Augusta, connected Verona in northern Italy with Augusta Vindelicorum (modern-day Augsburg) in the Roman province of Raetia. Via Augusta was completed in 46–47 AD; the route took its course along the Adige valley to the neighbouring Reschen Pass (west of Brenner Pass at above 2,100 metres), then descended into the Inn valley before rising to Fern Pass towards Augsburg.\n\nThe Roman road that physically crossed over Brenner Pass did not exist until the 2nd century AD. It took the \"eastern\" route through the Puster Valley and descended into Veldidena (modern-day Wilten), where it crossed the Inn and into Zirl and arrived at Augsburg via Garmish-Partenkirchen.\n\nThe Alamanni (Germanic tribe) crossed the Brenner Pass southward into modern-day Italy in 268 AD; however, they were stopped in November 268 at the Battle of Lake Benacus. The Romans kept control over this mountain pass until their breakup in the 5th century. \n\nHoly Roman Empire\n\nDuring the High Middle Ages, Brenner Pass was a part of the important Via Imperii, an imperial road linking the Kingdom of Germany north of the Alps with the Italian March of Verona. Since the 12th century, Brenner Pass was controlled by the Counts of Tyrol within the Holy Roman Empire. Emperor Frederick Barbarossa made frequent uses of the Brenner Pass in order to cross the Alps during his imperial expeditions of Italy. This 12th-century Brenner Pass was a trackway for mule trains and carts.\n\nAustrian Empire\n\nModernisation of Brenner Pass took place under the Austrian Empire. In 1777, a carriage road was laid out at the behest of Empress Maria Theresa. The Brenner Railway, which was completed in stages from 1853 to 1867, became the first trans-Alpine rail route being built without a major tunnel and at high altitude (crossing Brenner Pass at 1,371 m). Completion of this railway has enabled the Austrians to move their troops more efficiently; the Austrians had hoped to secure their territories of Venetia and Lombardy (south of the Alps). These areas were lost to Italy following the Milan Uprisingsain 1859 and Austro-Prussian Wars in 1866.n 1866 \n\nPost-World War I\n\nAt the end of the First World War in 1918, control of Brenner Pass became shared between Italy and Austria under the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1919). Italy was awarded the territories south of Brenner Pass for betraying the Central Powers and switching side to the Entente Powers. Welschtirol/Trentino, along with the southern part of County of Tyrol (now South Tyrol), was transferred to Italy. Italian troops arrived at Brenner Pass in 1919-20.\n\nDuring the Second World War, German Führer Adolf Hitler and Italian Duce Benito Mussolini met at Brenner Pass to celebrate their Pact of Steel on 18 March 1940. Brenner Pass was part of the ratlines used by some fleeing Nazis after the German surrender in 1945.\n\nMotorway\n\nThe motorway E45 (European designation; in Italy A22, in Austria A13), Brenner Autobahn/Autostrada del Brennero, begins in Innsbruck, runs through Brenner Pass, Bozen/Bolzano, Verona and finishes outside Modena. It is one of the most important routes of north-south connections in Europe.\n\nAfter the signing of the Schengen Agreement in 1992 and Austria's subsequent entry into the European Union in 1995, customs and immigration posts at Brenner Pass were removed in 1997. However, Austria reinstituted border checks in 2015 as a response to the European migrant crisis. In April 2016, Austria announced it would build a 370-meter long fence at the Pass but clarify that \"it would be used only to \"channel\" people and was not a barrier. \"\n\nThe Europabrücke (Europe Bridge), located roughly halfway between Innsbruck and the Brenner Pass, is a large concrete bridge carrying the six-lane Brenner Autobahn over the valley of Sill River (Wipptal). At a height of 180 metres and span of 820 metres, the bridge was celebrated as a masterpiece of engineering upon its completion in 1963. It is a site where bungee-jumping from the bridge has become a popular tourist attraction.\n\nThe ever increasing freight and leisure traffic, however, has been causing long traffic jams at busy times even without border enforcements. The Brenner Pass is the only major mountain pass within the area; other nearby alternatives are footpaths across higher mountains at an altitude of above 2,000 metres. As a result, air and noise pollution have generated heavy debate in regional and European politics. , about 1.8 million trucks crossed the Europa Bridge per year. \n\nRailway\n\nIn order to ease the road traffic, there are plans to upgrade the Brenner Railway from Verona to Innsbruck with a series of tunnels, including the Brenner Base Tunnel underneath Brenner.[http://www.bbt-ewiv.com/ Galleria di Base del Brennero – Brenner Basistunnel BBT SE – Offline] While the official groundbreaking of the tunnel had taken place in 2006 (with survey tunnels drilled in the same year), substantial work did not begin until 2011. Funding issues have delayed the tunnel's scheduled date of completion from 2022 to 31 December 2025.", "Events \n\nBelow, the events of World War II have the \"WWII\" prefix.\n\nJanuary \n\n* January 4 – WWII: Axis powers: Luftwaffe General Hermann Göring assumes control of most war industries in Germany.\n* January 6 – WWII: Winter War: General Semyon Timoshenko takes command of all Soviet forces.\n* January 8\n WWII: Winter War – Battle of Suomussalmi: The Soviet 44th Rifle Division is destroyed by Finnish forces.\n WWII: Food rationing begins in Great Britain.\n* January 9 – WWII; British submarine is sunk.\n* January 10 – WWII: Mechelen incident: A German plane carrying secret plans for the invasion of western Europe makes a forced landing in Belgium, leading to mobilization of defense forces in the Low Countries.\n* January 19 – The Three Stooges short subject comedy film You Nazty Spy! is released, the first Hollywood parody of Adolf Hitler and the Nazis, with Moe Howard portraying \"Moe Hailstone\" as the Hitler-parody lead.\n* January 26 – Brisbane, Australia swelters through its hottest day ever, 43.2 degrees Celsius (109.76 Fahrenheit).\n* January 27 – WWII: A peace resolution introduced in the Parliament of South Africa is defeated 81–59.\n* January 29 – Three gasoline-powered trains carrying factory workers crash and explode while approaching Ajikawaguchi Station, Yumesaki Line (Nishinari Line), Osaka, Japan, killing at least 181 people and injuring at least 92.\n\nFebruary \n\n* February 1 – WWII: Winter War – Soviet forces launch a major assault on Finnish troops occupying the Karelian Isthmus.\n* February 2 – Vsevolod Meyerhold is executed in the Soviet Union on charges of treason and espionage. He is cleared of all charges 15 years later in the first waves of de-Stalinization\n* February 7 – RKO release Walt Disney's second full-length animated film, Pinocchio.\n* February 9 – Mae West & W. C. Fields join comedic forces for My Little Chickadee with tremendous success. The film becomes one of the highest grossing of the year.\n* February 10 – Tom and Jerry make their debut in Puss Gets the Boot. However it is not until 1941 that their current names are adopted.\n* February 16 – WWII: Altmark Incident: The British destroyer pursues the German tanker Altmark into the neutral waters of Jøssingfjord in southwestern Norway and frees the 290 British seamen held aboard.\n* February 22 – In Tibet, province of Ando, 4-year-old Tenzin Gyatso is proclaimed the tulku (rebirth) of the thirteenth Dalai Lama.\n* February 27 – Martin Kamen and Sam Ruben discover carbon-14.\n* February 29 – Hattie McDaniel becomes the first African-American to win an Academy Award.\n\nMarch \n\n* March 2 – Cartoon character Elmer Fudd makes his debut in the animated short Elmer's Candid Camera.\n* March 3 – In Luleå, Sweden, a time bomb destroys the office of Swedish communist newspaper Norrskensflamman.\n* March 5 – Katyn massacre: Members of the Soviet Politburo (Joseph Stalin, Vyacheslav Molotov, Lazar Kaganovich, Mikhail Kalinin, Kliment Voroshilov and Lavrentiy Beria) sign an order, prepared by Beria, for the execution of 25,700 Polish intelligentsia, including 14,700 Polish POWs.\n* March 11 – Ed Ricketts, John Steinbeck and six others leave Monterey, California for the Gulf of California on a collecting expedition.\n* March 12 – The Soviet Union and Finland sign a peace treaty in Moscow ending the Winter War; Finns, along with the world at large, are shocked by the harsh terms.\n* March 18 – WWII: Axis powers: Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini meet at Brenner Pass in the Alps. After being informed by Hitler that the Germans are ready to attack in the west, Mussolini agrees to bring Italy into the war in due course.\n* March 21 – Édouard Daladier resigns as prime minister of France; Paul Reynaud succeeds him.\n* March 23\nPakistan Movement: The Lahore Resolution, calling for greater autonomy for what will become Pakistan in British India, is drawn up by the All-India Muslim League during a three-day general session at Iqbal Park, Lahore.\n Truth or Consequences debuts on NBC Radio.\n* March 31 – WWII: Commerce raiding , leaves the Wadden Sea for what will become the longest warship cruise of the war. (622 days without in-port replenishment or repair) \n\nApril \n\n* April – Robin the Boy Wonder, Batman's trusted sidekick, makes his debut in Detective Comics #38.\n* April 3 – WWII: Operation Weserübung: German ships set out for the invasion of Norway.\n* April 4 – Neville Chamberlain, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, in what proves to be a tragic misjudgment, declares in a major public speech that Hitler has \"missed the bus\".\n* April 7 – Booker T. Washington becomes the first African American to be depicted on a United States postage stamp.\n* April 8 – WWII: Operation Wilfred: The British fleet lays naval mines off the coast of neutral Norway.\n* April 9 – WWII: Germany invades the neutral countries of Denmark and Norway in Operation Weserübung, opening the Norwegian Campaign. The British Royal Navy attempts to attack elements of the German fleet off Norway. Vidkun Quisling proclaims a new collaborationist regime in Norway. The German invasion of Denmark lasts for about six hours before that country capitulates.\n* April 10 – WWII: First Naval Battle of Narvik: The British Royal Navy attacks the German fleet in the Ofotfjord. At Bergen, German cruiser Königsberg is sunk by British Fleet Air Arm Blackburn Skua dive bombers flying from RNAS Hatston in Orkney.\n* April 12\nThe Faroe Islands are occupied by British troops, following the German invasion of Denmark. This action is taken to avert a possible German occupation of the islands with serious consequences for the course of the Battle of the Atlantic.\nOpening day at Jamaica Race Course features the use of parimutuel betting equipment, a departure from bookmaking heretofore used exclusively throughout New York. Other tracks in the state follow suit later in 1940.\n* April 13\n WWII: Second Naval Battle of Narvik: The British Royal Navy causes all eight defending German destroyers in the Ofotfjord to be sunk.\n The New York Rangers win the 1940 Stanley Cup Finals in ice hockey. It will be another 54 years before their next win in 1994.\n* April 14 – Norwegian Campaign: First British ground forces land in Norway at Namsos and Harstad.\n* April 16 – The Cleveland Indians, behind Bob Feller's Opening Day no-hitter, defeat the Chicago White Sox, 1-0.\n* April 21 – Take It or Leave It makes its debut on CBS Radio, with Bob Hawk as host.\n* April 23 – The Rhythm Club fire at a dance hall in Natchez, Mississippi, kills 198.\n\nMay \n\n* May 6 – The International Olympic Committee formally cancels the 1940 Summer Olympics.\n* May 10 – WWII:\n Battle of France begins\n German forces invade Low Countries\n* Battle of the Netherlands begins\n* Battle of Belgium begins\n* Invasion of Luxembourg begins\n British Invasion of Iceland.\n** With the resignation of Neville Chamberlain, Winston Churchill becomes Prime Minister of the United Kingdom.\n\n* May 13 – WWII:\n Winston Churchill, in his first address as Prime Minister, tells the House of Commons of the United Kingdom, \"I have nothing to offer you but blood, toil, tears, and sweat.\"\n German armies open a 60 mi wide breach in the Maginot Line at Sedan, France.\n* May 13–May 14 – Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands and her government are evacuated to London using the British destroyer .\n* May 14 – WWII:\n Rotterdam is subjected to savage terror bombing by the Luftwaffe; 980 are killed, and 20,000 buildings destroyed. General Henri Winkelman announces surrender of the Dutch army (outside Zeeland) to German forces\n Recruitment begins in Britain for a home defence force: the Local Defence Volunteers, later known as the Home Guard.\n* May 15\n WWII: The Dutch Army formally signs a surrender document.\n The very first McDonald's restaurant opens in San Bernardino, California.\n** Women's stockings made of nylon are first placed on sale across the United States. Almost five million pairs are bought on this day. \n* May 16 – President of the United States Franklin D. Roosevelt, addressing a joint session of the U.S. Congress, asks for an extraordinary credit of approximately $900 million to finance construction of at least 50,000 airplanes per year.\n* May 17 – WWII:\n Brussels falls to German forces; the Belgian government flees to Ostend.\n Zeeland is overrun by German forces, ending the Battle of the Netherlands and beginning full German occupation of the Netherlands (Noord-Beveland surrenders on May 18 and remaining Dutch troops are withdrawn from Zeelandic Flanders on May 19).\n* May 18 – Marshal Philippe Pétain is named vice-premier of France.\n* May 19 – General Maxime Weygand replaces Maurice Gamelin as commander-in-chief of all French forces.\n* May 20\n WWII: German forces (2nd Panzer division), under General Rudolf Veiel, reach Noyelles on the English Channel.\n Holocaust: The Nazi concentration camp and extermination camp Auschwitz-Birkenau, the largest of the German concentration camps, opens in occupied Poland near the town of Oświęcim. From now until January 1945, around 1.1 million people will be killed here.\n* May 22 – WWII: The Parliament of the United Kingdom passes the Emergency Powers (Defence) Act 1939, giving the government full control over all persons and property.\n* May 24 – WWII: The Anglo-French Supreme War Council decides to withdraw all forces under its control from Norway.\n* May 26\n WWII: The Dunkirk evacuation of the British Expeditionary Force starts.\n First free flight of Igor Sikorsky's Vought-Sikorsky VS-300 helicopter.\n* May 28 WWII:\n King Leopold III of Belgium orders the Belgian forces to cease fighting, ending the 18-day Battle of Belgium. Leaders of the Belgian government on French territory declare Leopold deposed.\n In the land battle of Narvik, German forces retire giving the Allies their first victory on land in the war; however, the British have already decided to evacuate Narvik.\n** Winston Churchill warns the House of Commons of the United Kingdom to \"prepare itself for hard and heavy tidings.\"\n* May 29 – The Vought XF4U-1, prototype of the F4U Corsair U.S. fighter later used in WWII, makes its first flight.\n\nJune \n\n* June 3\n WWII: Paris is bombed by the Luftwaffe for the first time.\n The Holocaust: Franz Rademacher proposes the Madagascar Plan.\n** Weather Bureau transferred to the United States Department of Commerce.\n* June 4 – WWII:\n The Dunkirk evacuation ends – the British and French navies together with large numbers of civilian vessels from various nations complete evacuating 300,000 troops from Dunkirk in France to England.\n Winston Churchill tells the House of Commons of the United Kingdom, \"We shall not flag or fail. We shall fight on the beaches... on the landing grounds... in the fields and the streets.... We shall never surrender.\"\n* June 7\n Daisy Duck debuts in Mr. Duck Steps Out.\n King Haakon VII of Norway and his government are evacuated from Tromsø to London on HMS Devonshire.\n* June 9 – WWII: The British Commandos are created.\n* June 10\n WWII: Italy declares war on France and the United Kingdom.\n WWII: U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt denounces Italy's actions with his [ftp://webstorage2.mcpa.virginia.edu/library/nara/fdr/audiovisual/speeches/fdr_1940_0610.mp3 \"Stab in the Back\"] speech during the graduation ceremonies of the University of Virginia.\n WWII: Canada declares war on Italy.\n WWII: The Norwegian Army surrenders to German forces.\n WWII: The French government flees to Tours.\n Jamaican political activist Marcus Garvey dies of a stroke in London.\n* June 11 – WWII: The Western Desert Campaign opens with British forces crossing the Frontier Wire into Italian Libya.\n* June 12 – WWII: 13,000 British and French troops surrender to Major-General Erwin Rommel's 7th Panzer Division at Saint-Valery-en-Caux.\n* June 13 – WWII: Paris is declared an open city.\n* June 14\n WWII: The French government flees to Bordeaux and Paris falls under German occupation.\n WWII: U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt signs the Naval Expansion Act into law, which aims to increase the United States Navy's tonnage by 11%.\n** WWII: A group of 728 Polish political prisoners from Tarnów become the first residents of the Auschwitz concentration camp.\n* June 15\n WWII: The Soviet Union occupies Lithuania.\n WWII: Verdun falls to German forces.\n* June 16\n The Churchill war ministry in the United Kingdom offers a Franco-British Union to Paul Reynaud, Prime Minister of France, in the hope of preventing France from agreeing to an armistice with Germany, but Reynaud resigns when his own cabinet refuses to accept it.\n The Sturgis Motorcycle Rally is held for the first time in Sturgis, South Dakota.\n* June 17\n WWII: Philippe Pétain becomes Prime Minister of France and immediately asks Germany for peace terms.\n WWII: The Soviet Union occupies Estonia and Latvia.\n WWII: Operation Ariel begins: Allied troops start to evacuate France, following Germany's takeover of Paris and most of the nation.\n WWII: , serving as a troopship, is bombed and sunk by Luftwaffe Junkers Ju 88 aircraft while evacuating British troops and nationals from Saint-Nazaire in France with the loss of at least 4,000 lives, the largest single UK loss in any World War II event, immediate news of which is suppressed in the British press. Destroyer rescues around 600.\n* June 18\n WWII: Winston Churchill tells the House of Commons of the United Kingdom: \"The Battle of France is over. The Battle of Britain is about to begin.\"\n WWII: Appeal of 18 June: General Charles de Gaulle, de facto leader of the Free French Forces, makes his first broadcast appeal over Radio Londres from London rallying French Resistance, calling on all French people to continue the fight against Nazi Germany: \"France has lost a battle. But France has not lost the war\".\n* June 22 – WWII: Second Armistice at Compiègne: The French Third Republic and Nazi Germany sign an armistice ending the Battle of France in the Forest of Compiègne, in the same Compagnie Internationale des Wagons-Lits railroad car used by Marshal Ferdinand Foch to agree the Armistice with Germany in 1918. This divides France into a Zone occupée in the north and west under the Military Administration in France (Nazi Germany) and a southern Zone libre, Vichy France.\n* June 23 – WWII: German leader Adolf Hitler surveys newly defeated Paris in now occupied France. \n* June 24\n United States politics: The Republican Party begins its national convention in Philadelphia and nominates Wendell Willkie as its candidate for president.\n WWII: Vichy France signs armistice terms with Italy.\n* June 25 – WWII: After the defeat of France, Hitler plans for an invasion of Switzerland, known as Operation Tannenbaum\n* June 28 – General Charles de Gaulle is officially recognized by Britain as the \"Leader of all Free Frenchmen, wherever they may be.\"\n* June 30\n WWII: German forces land in Guernsey, marking the start of the 5-year Occupation of the Channel Islands.\n Federal government of the United States reorganisation:\n* The Civil Aeronautics Administration is placed under the Department of Commerce.\n* The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is placed under the Federal Security Agency.\n*** The United States Fish and Wildlife Service is placed under the Department of the Interior.\n\nJuly \n\n* July 1 – The first Tacoma Narrows Bridge opens for business, built with an 8 ft girder and 190 ft above the water, as the third longest suspension bridge in the world.\n* July 2 – WWII: British-owned , carrying civilian internees and POWs of Italian and German origin from Liverpool to Canada, is torpedoed and sunk by the off northwest Ireland with the loss of around 865 lives.\n* July 3 – WWII: Attack on Mers-el-Kébir: British naval units sink or seize ships of the French fleet anchored in the Algerian ports of Mers-el-Kebir and Oran to prevent them falling into German hands. The following day, Vichy France breaks off diplomatic relations with Britain.\n* July 6\n Opening of Story Bridge in Brisbane.\n British submarine is sunk.\n* July 10 – WWII: The Battle of Britain begins.\n* July 11\n WWII: British destroyer is torpedoed and sunk by an Italian submarine.\n WWII: Vichy France begins with a constitutional law which only 80 members of the parliament vote against. Philippe Pétain becomes Prime Minister of France.\n* July 14 – WWII: Winston Churchill, in a worldwide broadcast, proclaims the intention of Great Britain to fight alone against Germany whatever the outcome: \"We shall seek no terms. We shall tolerate no parley. We may show mercy. We shall ask none.\"\n* July 15 – U.S. politics: The Democratic Party begins its national convention in Chicago, and nominates Franklin D. Roosevelt for an unprecedented third term as president.\n* July 19\n WWII: Allied victory at the Battle of Cape Spada and five destroyers sink the Italian cruiser Bartolomeo Colleoni.\n WWII: Adolf Hitler makes a peace appeal to Britain in an address to the Reichstag. Lord Halifax, the British foreign minister, flatly rejects peace terms in a broadcast reply on July 22.\n* July 21 – After rigged parliamentary elections in the three occupied countries on July 14–15, the parliaments proclaim the Estonian, Latvian and Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republics\n* July 23 – Welles Declaration: United States Under Secretary of State Sumner Welles announces that the U.S. will not accord diplomatic recognition to the Soviet Union's occupation of the Baltic states.\n* July 25 – General Henri Guisan addresses the officer corps of the Swiss army at Rütli resolving to resist any invasion of the country.\n* July 27 – Bugs Bunny makes his debut in the Oscar-nominated cartoon short, A Wild Hare. However, it is not until 1941 that his name is adopted.\n\nAugust \n\n* August 1 – WWII: British submarine is sunk in the English Channel by what is much later discovered to be a mine.\n* August 3 – The Lithuanian SSR is annexed into the Soviet Union, followed by the Latvian SSR on August 5 and the Estonian SSR August 6, just seven weeks after their occupation.\n* August 3–19 – WWII: Italian conquest of British Somaliland.\n* August 4 – Gen. John J. Pershing, in a nationwide radio broadcast, urges all-out aid to Britain in order to defend the Americas, while Charles Lindbergh speaks to an isolationist rally at Soldier Field in Chicago.\n* August 8 – WWII: Wilhelm Keitel signs the \"Aufbau Ost\" directive, which eventually leads to the invasion of the Soviet Union.\n* August 10 – WWII: British armed merchant cruiser is torpedoed off Malin Head, Ireland, by German submarine U-56.\n* August 13 – WWII: The Adlertag (\"Eagle Day\") strike on southern England occurs, starting the rapid escalation of the Battle of Britain air offensive of the Luftwaffe against RAF Fighter Command.\n* August 15 – Italy, without having declared war on Greece, sinks the Greek boat Elli (Έλλη).\n* August 18 – HRH The Prince Edward, Duke of Windsor, is installed as Governor of the Bahamas. \n* August 20\n WWII: Winston Churchill pays tribute in the House of Commons of the United Kingdom to the Royal Air Force: \"Never in the field of human conflict was so much owed by so many to so few.\"\n Leon Trotsky is attacked with an ice axe in his Mexico home by NKVD agent Ramón Mercader.\n* August 21 – Leon Trotsky dies of injuries sustained.\n* August 24 – Howard Florey and a team including Ernst Chain and Norman Heatley at the Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, publish their laboratory results showing the in vivo bactericidal action of penicillin. They have also purified the drug. \n* August 26 – WWII: Chad is the first French colony to proclaim its support for the Allies.\n* August 30 – Second Vienna Award: Germany and Italy compel Romania to cede half of Transylvania to Hungary.\n\nSeptember \n\n* September – The U.S. Army 45th Infantry Division (previously a National Guard Division in Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, and Oklahoma), is activated and ordered into federal service for 1 year, to engage in a training program in Ft. Sill and Louisiana, prior to serving in WWII.\n* September 2 – WWII: An agreement between America and Great Britain is announced to the effect that 50 U.S. destroyers needed for escort work will be transferred to Great Britain. In return, America gains 99-year leases on British bases in the North Atlantic, West Indies and Bermuda.\n* September 4 – WWII: In Berlin, Adolf Hitler declares in a speech that Nazi Germany will avenge all night air raids carried out by England.\n* September 5 – WWII: Commerce raiding German auxiliary cruiser Komet enters the Pacific Ocean via the Bering Strait after crossing the Arctic Ocean from the North Sea with the help of Soviet icebreakers Lenin, Stalin, and Kaganovich. \n* September 7\n Treaty of Craiova: Romania loses Southern Dobruja to Bulgaria.\n WWII: The Blitz – Nazi Germany begins to rain bombs on London (the first of 57 consecutive nights of strategic bombing).\n* September 9 – Treznea massacre: The Hungarian Army, supported by local Hungarians kill 93 Romanian civilians in Treznea, Sălaj, a village in Northern Transylvania, as part of attempts to ethnic cleansing.\n* September 12\n In Lascaux, France, 17,000-year-old cave paintings are discovered by a group of young Frenchmen hiking through Southern France. The paintings depict animals and date to the Stone Age.\n The Hercules Munitions Plant in Succasunna-Kenvil, New Jersey explodes, killing 55 people.\n* September 14 – Ip massacre: The Hungarian Army, supported by local Hungarians, kill 158 Romanian civilians in Ip, Sălaj, a village in Northern Transylvania, as part of attempts at ethnic cleansing.\n* September 16 – WWII: The Selective Training and Service Act of 1940 is signed into law by Franklin D. Roosevelt, creating the first peacetime draft in U.S. history.\n* September 17–18 – WWII: is torpedoed by in the Atlantic with the loss of 248 of the 406 on board, including child evacuees bound for Canada. This results in cancellation of the British Children's Overseas Reception Board's plan to relocate children overseas.\n* September 22 – Japan enters French Indochina: an agreement is signed in which Japan promises to station no more than 6,000 troops there, and never have more than 25,000 transiting the colony. Rights were also given for three airfields.\n* September 25 – Occupation of Norway by Nazi Germany: German Reichskommissar Josef Terboven appoints a provisional council of state from the pro-Nazi Nasjonal Samling party under Vidkun Quisling as a puppet government for Norway.\n* September 26 – A group of Japanese officers in violation of an agreement signed four days earlier with French Indochina, take Đồng Đăng and Lam Sơn with 40 Franco-Vietnamese troops killed and around 1,000 deserting. The same day the United States imposes a total embargo on all scrap metal shipments to Japan.\n* September 27 – WWII: Germany, Italy and Japan sign the Tripartite Pact.\n\nOctober \n\n* October 1 – The first section of the Pennsylvania Turnpike, the United States' first long-distance controlled-access highway, is opened.\n* October 11 – Portuguese-born performer Carmen Miranda makes her American film debut in Down Argentine Way one of the first films produced to promote the Good Neighbor policy.\n* October 14 – The Balham tube station disaster in London, England, occurs during the Nazi Luftwaffe air raids on Great Britain.\n* October 15 – Charlie Chaplin releases his brilliant and controversial wartime satire The Great Dictator, nine months after the Stooges' You Nazty Spy!.\n* October 16 – The draft registration of approximately 16 million men begins in the United States.\n* October 18–19 – WWII: Thirty-two ships are sunk from Convoy SC 7 and Convoy HX 79 by the most effective \"wolfpack\" of the war including U-boat aces Kretschmer, Prien and Schepke.\n* October 26–28 – WWII: , serving as a troopship under the British flag, is bombed, torpedoed and sunk off the Donegal coast with the loss of 45 lives. At 42,348 GRT she is the war's largest merchant ship loss.\n* October 28 – WWII: Italian troops invade Greece, meeting strong resistance from Greek troops and civilians. This action signals the beginning of the Balkan Campaign.\n* October 29 – The Selective Service System lottery is held in Washington, D.C..\n\nNovember \n\n* November – In Cambodia the Khmer Issarak is formed to overthrow the French Army within the nation.\n* November 2–8 – WWII (Greco-Italian War): In the Battle of Elaia–Kalamas in Epirus outnumbered Greek forces repel the Italian Army.\n* November 5 – United States presidential election, 1940: Democrat incumbent Franklin D. Roosevelt defeats Republican challenger Wendell Willkie and becomes the United States' first and only third-term president.\n* November 6 – Agatha Christie's mystery novel And Then There Were None is published in book form in the United States.\n* November 7 – In Tacoma, Washington, the 600 ft-long center span of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge (known as Galloping Gertie) collapses.\n* November 8 – WWII: is sunk by a naval mine, the first United States Merchant Marine loss of the war, off Cape Otway, Australia.\n* November 9 – Joaquín Rodrigo's Concierto de Aranjuez premieres in Barcelona, Spain.\n* November 10 – 1940 Vrancea earthquake: An earthquake in Romania kills 1,000.\n* November 11\n WWII: The Royal Navy launches the first aircraft carrier strike in history, on the Italian battleship fleet anchored at Taranto naval base.\n WWII: captures top secret British mail intended for British Far East Command from the and sends it to Japan.\n** Armistice Day Blizzard: An unexpected blizzard kills 144 in the Midwestern United States.\n* November 13 – Walt Disney's Fantasia is released. It is the first box office failure for Disney, though it eventually recoups its cost years later, and becomes one of the most highly regarded of Disney's films.\n* November 14 – WWII: The city centre of Coventry, England is destroyed by 500 Luftwaffe bombers: 150,000 fire bombs, 503 tons of high explosives, and 130 parachute mines level 60,000 of the city's 75,000 buildings; 568 people are killed, during the Coventry Blitz.\n* November 15 – Abbott and Costello make their film debut in One Night in the Tropics.\n* November 16\n WWII: In response to Germany levelling Coventry 2 days before, the Royal Air Force begins to bomb Hamburg (by war's end, 50,000 Hamburg residents will have died from Allied attacks).\n An unexploded pipe bomb is found in the Consolidated Edison office building (only years later is the culprit, George Metesky, apprehended).\n** The Jamaica Association of Local Government Officers is founded.\n* November 18 – WWII: German leader Adolf Hitler and Italian Foreign Minister Galeazzo Ciano meet to discuss Benito Mussolini's disastrous invasion of Greece.\n* November 20 – WWII: Hungary, Romania and Slovakia join the Axis powers.\n* November 25\n Patria disaster: As British authorities attempt to deport Jewish refugees (originating from German-occupied Europe) from Mandatory Palestine to Mauritius aboard the requisitioned emigrant liner at Haifa, the Jewish paramilitary organization Haganah sinks the ship with a bomb, killing around 250 refugees and crew.\n de Havilland Mosquito and Martin B-26 Marauder military aircraft both make their first flights.\n** Woody Woodpecker makes his debut in the animated short, Knock Knock.\n* November 26–27 – Jilava Massacre: In Romania, coup leader General Ion Antonescu's Iron Guard arrests and executes over 60 of exiled king Carol II of Romania's aides, starting at a penitentiary near Bucharest. Among the dead is former minister and acclaimed historian Nicolae Iorga.\n* November 27 – WWII: The British Royal Navy and Italian Regia Marina fight the Battle of Cape Spartivento.\n\nDecember \n\n* December – Timely Comics' Captain America Comics #1 (cover dated March 1941), first appearance of Captain America and Bucky, hits newsstands in the United States.\n* December 1 – Manuel Ávila Camacho takes office as President of Mexico.\n* December 6 – British submarine is sunk near Taranto.\n* December 8 – The Chicago Bears, in what will become the most one-sided victory in National Football League history, defeat the Washington Redskins 73–0 in the 1940 NFL Championship Game.\n* December 9 – WWII: Operation Compass – British forces in North Africa begin their first major offensive with an attack on Italian forces at Sidi Barrani, Egypt.\n* December 12 and December 15 – WWII: \"Sheffield Blitz\" (\"Operation Crucible\") – The Yorkshire city of Sheffield is badly damaged by German air-raids.\n* December 14\n WWII British destroyers and sink an Italian submarine off Bardia.\n Royal Navy Fairey Swordfish based on Malta bomb Tripoli.\n** Plutonium is first synthesized in the laboratory by a team led by Glenn T. Seaborg and Edwin McMillan at the University of California, Berkeley.\n* December 16 – WWII: Operation Abigail Rachel – RAF bombing of Mannheim.\n* December 17 – President Roosevelt, at his regular press conference, first sets forth the outline of his plan to send aid to Great Britain that will become known as Lend-Lease.\n* December 23 – WWII: Winston Churchill, in a broadcast address to the people of Italy, blames Benito Mussolini for leading his nation to war against the British, contrary to Italy's historic friendship with them: \"One man has arrayed the trustees and inheritors of ancient Rome upon the side of the ferocious pagan barbarians.\"\n* December 24 – Mahatma Gandhi, Indian spiritual non-violence leader writes his second letter to Adolf Hitler addressing him \"My friend\", requesting him to stop the war Germany had begun.\n* December 29\n Franklin D. Roosevelt, in a fireside chat to the nation, declares that the United States must become \"the great arsenal of democracy.\"\n WWII: \"Second Great Fire of London\" – Luftwaffe carries out a massive incendiary bombing raid, starting 1,500 fires. Many famous buildings, including the Guildhall and Trinity House, are either damaged or destroyed.\n* December 30\n California's first modern freeway, the future State Route 110, opens to traffic in Pasadena, California, as the Arroyo Seco Parkway (now the Pasadena Freeway).\n In Sweden, Victor Hasselblad forms the Victor Hasselblad AB Camera Company.\n\nUndated \n\n* In Korea, the Hunminjeongeum (1446) is discovered, explaining the basis of the Hangul alphabet.\n* US historian Arthur Marder publishes The Anatomy of British Sea Power: a history of British naval policy in the pre-Dreadnought era, 1880-1905.\n* Walter Knott begins construction of ghost town replica which would soon evolve into Knott's Berry Farm.\n* The plane Mitsubishi A6M Zero was designed, so named as 1940 roughly corresponds to the year 2600 on the Japanese Imperial calendar.\n\nBirths \n\nJanuary \n\n* January 2 – Jim Bakker, American televangelist and former husband of Tammy Faye\n* January 3 – Leo de Berardinis, Italian stage actor and theatre director (d. 2008)\n* January 4\n Brian Josephson, Welsh physicist, Nobel Prize laureate\n Gao Xingjian, Chinese-born writer, Nobel Prize laureate\n* January 6 – Penny Lernoux, American journalist and author (d. 1989)\n* January 9 – Miguel Ángel Rodríguez, Costa Rican politician, lawyer, economist, and businessman\n* January 14 – Julian Bond, American civil rights activist (d. 2015)\n* January 16 – Franz Müntefering, German politician\n* January 17 \n Tabaré Vázquez, President of Uruguay\n Nerses Bedros XIX Tarmouni, Armenian Catholic Patriarch of Cilicia (d. 2015)\n* January 19 – Mike Reid, English actor (d. 2007)\n* January 20 – Carol Heiss, American figure skater\n* January 21\n Jeremy Jacobs, American businessman, owner (Boston Bruins)\n Jack Nicklaus, American golfer\n* January 22 – John Hurt, English actor\n* January 24 – Joachim Gauck, German president\n* January 27 – James Cromwell, American actor\n* January 28 – Carlos Slim, Mexican businessman\n\nFebruary \n\n* February 1 – Ajmer Singh, Indian athlete and educator (d. 2010)\n* February 2 – David Jason, English actor\n* February 3 – Fran Tarkenton, American football player\n* February 4 – George A. Romero, American film writer and director\n* February 5 – H. R. Giger, Swiss artist (d. 2014)\n* February 6\n Tom Brokaw, American television news reporter\n Jimmy Tarbuck, English comedian\n* February 8 – Ted Koppel, American journalist\n* February 9\n Brian Bennett, British drummer and songwriter (The Shadows)\n J. M. Coetzee, South African writer, Nobel Prize laureate\n** Seamus Deane, Irish poet and novelist\n* February 12\n Ralph Bates, English actor (d. 1991)\n Richard Lynch, American actor (d. 2012)\n* February 17 – Gene Pitney, American singer (d. 2006)\n* February 18 – Fabrizio De André, Italian singer-songwriter (d. 1999)\n* February 19 – Smokey Robinson, American musician\n* February 20 – Jimmy Greaves, English footballer\n* February 21 – Akihiko Kumashiro, Japanese politician\n* February 22\n Judy Cornwell, English actress\n Johnson Mlambo, South African politician\n** Billy Name, American photographer and Warhol archivist\n* February 23 – Peter Fonda, American actor\n* February 24\n Pete Duel, American actor (d. 1971)\n Denis Law, Scottish football player\n* February 25 – Ron Santo, American baseball player (d. 2010)\n* February 27 – Howard Hesseman, American actor\n* February 28 \n Mario Andretti, American race car driver\n Joe South, American singer and songwriter (d. 2012)\n\nMarch \n\n \n\n* March 1 – Nuala O'Faolain, Irish journalist and author (d. 2008)\n* March 3\n Germán Castro Caycedo, Colombian writer and journalist\n Owen Spencer-Thomas, English broadcaster, journalist and clergyman\n* March 6 – Willie Stargell, American baseball player (d. 2001)\n* March 7 – Rudi Dutschke, German radical student leader (d. 1979)\n* March 8 – Susan Clark, Canadian actress (Webster)\n* March 9 – Raúl Juliá, Puerto Rican actor (d. 1994)\n* March 10\n Chuck Norris, American actor and martial artist\n Dean Torrence, American singer (Jan and Dean)\n* March 12 – Al Jarreau, American singer\n* March 13 – Candi Staton, American singer\n* March 15 – Phil Lesh, American musician (Grateful Dead)\n* March 16\n Bernardo Bertolucci, Italian writer and film director\n Jan Pronk, Dutch politician and diplomat\n** James Wong, Hong Kong composer (d. 2004)\n* March 17 – Mark White, Governor of Texas\n* March 21 – Solomon Burke, American singer and songwriter (d. 2010)\n* March 22 – Haing S. Ngor, Cambodian actor (d. 1996)\n* March 25\n Anita Bryant, American entertainer\n Mina, Italian singer\n* March 26\n James Caan, American actor\n Nancy Pelosi, Speaker of the United States House of Representatives\n* March 29\n Ray Davis, American musician (P-Funk) (d. 2005)\n Astrud Gilberto, Brazilian-born singer\n\nApril \n\n* April 1 – Wangari Maathai, Kenyan environmentalist, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (d .2011)\n* April 2 – Penelope Keith, English actress\n* April 8 – John Havlicek, American basketball player\n* April 12\n John Hagee, American televangelist\n Herbie Hancock, American musician\n* April 13 – Max Mosley, British motorsport boss\n* April 16 – Queen Margrethe II of Denmark\n* April 18 – Joseph L. Goldstein, American scientist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine\n* April 24 – Sue Grafton, American novelist\n* April 25 \n Al Pacino, American actor\n Tristram Powell, English television director, film director, writer and producer\n* April 26 – Giorgio Moroder, Italian film composer\n\nMay \n\n* May 1 – Elsa Peretti, Italian jewelry designer\n* May 2 – Jo Ann Pflug, American former actress and motivational speaker\n* May 5 – Lance Henriksen, American actor and potter\n* May 7\n Angela Carter, English author and editor (d. 1992)\nJim Connors, American radio personality (d. 1987)\n* May 8\n Peter Benchley, American author (d. 2006)\n Ricky Nelson, American singer (d. 1985)\n** Toni Tennille, American singer\n* May 9 – James L. Brooks, American film producer and writer\n* May 11 – Juan Downey, Chilean-born video artist (d. 1993)\n* May 13 – Bruce Chatwin, British author (d. 1989)\n* May 14 – 'H'. Jones, British soldier (VC recipient) (d. 1982)\n* May 15\n Lainie Kazan, American actress and singer\n Don Nelson, American basketball player and coach\n* May 17\n Alan Kay, American computer scientist\n Reynato Puno, Filipino Supreme Court Chief Justice\n* May 18 – Lenny Lipton, American inventor\n* May 20\n Stan Mikita, Slovakian-born Canadian hockey player\n Sadaharu Oh, Japanese baseball player\n* May 22 – Bernard Shaw, American journalist and television news reporter\n* May 24 – Joseph Brodsky, Russian-born poet, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1996)\n* May 29 – Farooq Leghari, President of Pakistan (d. 2010)\n\nJune \n\n* June 1 – René Auberjonois, American actor\n* June 2 – Constantine II of Greece\n* June 4 – Ludwig Schwarz, Austrian bishop\n* June 6 – Richard Paul, American actor (d. 1998)\n* June 7\n Monica Evans, British actress\n Tom Jones, Welsh singer\n* June 8 – Nancy Sinatra, American singer\n* June 16\n Carole Ann Ford, British actress\n Neil Goldschmidt, Governor of Oregon\n** Taylor Gun-Jin Wang, Chinese-American astronaut\n* June 17\n George Akerlof, American economist, Nobel Prize laureate\n Alan Murray, Australian professional golfer\n* June 19 – Paul Shane, English-born actor (d. 2013)\n* June 20 – John Mahoney, English-born actor\n* June 21 – Mariette Hartley, American actress\n* June 22\n Abbas Kiarostami, Iranian film director, screenwriter, and film producer (d. 2016)\n Esther Rantzen, British broadcaster\n* June 23\n Adam Faith, English singer and actor (d. 2003)\n Lord Irvine of Lairg, Lord Chancellor of England\n** Wilma Rudolph, American athlete (d. 1994)\n* June 25 – A. J. Quinnell, English writer (d. 2005)\n* June 27 – Anil Karanjai, Indian painter of the Hungry generation movement. (d. 2001)\n* June 28 – Muhammad Yunus, founder of Grameen Bank, Nobel Prize laureate\n* June 29 – Vyacheslav Artyomov, Russian composer\n\nJuly \n\n* July 2 – Christopher Awdry, English children's writer & son of Wilbert Awdry\n* July 3\n César Tovar, Venezuelan baseball player\n Fontella Bass, American soul singer (d. 2012)\n* July 6 – Nursultan Abishuly Nazarbayev, President of Kazakhstan\n* July 7 – Ringo Starr, British drummer (The Beatles)\n* July 10\n Gene Alley, American baseball player\n Helen Donath, American soprano\n** Tom Farmer, Scottish entrepreneur\n* July 13\n Paul Prudhomme, American celebrity chef and cookbook author\n Patrick Stewart, English actor\n* July 17\n Tim Brooke-Taylor, English comedian\n Verne Lundquist, American sportscaster\n* July 18\n James Brolin, American actor and director\n Joe Torre, American baseball player and manager\n* July 22 – Alex Trebek, Canadian game show host\n* July 24 – Stanley Hauerwas, American theologian\n* July 26 – Mary Jo Kopechne, American aide to Ted Kennedy (d. 1969)\n* July 27\n Pina Bausch, German choreographer (d. 2009)\n Bharati Mukherjee, Indian-born novelist\n* July 31 – Roy Walker, Northern Irish comedian\n\nAugust \n\n* August 1 – Ram Loevy, Israeli screenwriter and director\n* August 3 – Martin Sheen, American actor, father of Charlie Sheen\n* August 7 – Jean-Luc Dehaene, Prime Minister of Belgium (d. 2014)\n* August 8 – Dilip Sardesai, former Indian cricketer (d. 2007)\n* August 10 – Bobby Hatfield, American singer (The Righteous Brothers) (d. 2003)\n* August 13 – Dirk Sager, German journalist (d. 2014)\n* August 14 \n Galen Hall, American football coach\n Max Schautzer, Austrian born, German radio and television presenter\n* August 19 – Jill St. John, American actress\n* August 20\n Musa Geshaev, Chechen poet and historian (d. 2014)\n Rubén Hinojosa, American politician\n* August 23 – Tom Baker, American actor (d. 1982)\n* August 25 – José van Dam, Belgian bass-baritone\n* August 27\n Fernest Arceneaux, American musician (d. 2008)\n Sonny Sharrock, American jazz musician (d. 1994)\n* August 29\n Bennie Maupin, American musician\n Johnny Paris, American musician (Johnny and the Hurricanes) (d. 2006)\n** Wim Ruska, Dutch wrestler and martial artist (d. 2015)\n* August 31\n Wilton Felder, American saxophonist and bassist (d. 2015)\n Jack Thompson, Australian actor\n\nSeptember \n\n* September 3 \n Joseph C. Strasser, American admiral\n Eduardo Galeano, Uruguayan writer (d. 2015)\n** Pauline Collins, English actress\n* September 5 – Raquel Welch, American actress\n* September 7\nAbdurrahman Wahid, former President of Indonesia (d. 2009)\nDario Argento, Italian filmmaker.\n* September 10 – David Mann, American artist (d. 2004)\n* September 11\n Brian De Palma, American film director\n Ajit Singh, Indian-born economist (d. 2015)\n* September 12\n Linda Gray, American model and actress\n Skip Hinnant, American actor\n** Mickey Lolich, American baseball player\n* September 13 – Óscar Arias, Costa Rican politician, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize\n* September 14 – Larry Brown, American basketball coach\n* September 18 – Frankie Avalon, American singer and actor\n* September 20 – Tarō Asō, 59th Prime Minister of Japan\n* September 23 \n Mohammad-Reza Shajarian, Iranian traditional singer\n Michel Temer, Brazilian politician, acting President of Brazil in 2016\n* September 24 – Michiko Suganuma, Urushi Japanese lacquer artist\n\nOctober \n\n* October 9 – John Lennon, British musician and singer (The Beatles) (d. 1980)\n* October 13 – Pharoah Sanders, American saxophonist\n* October 14 – Cliff Richard, American pop Sensation\n* October 15 – Peter C. Doherty, Australian immunologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine\n* October 16 – Ivan Della Mea, Italian singer-songwriter (d. 2009)\n* October 19 – Sir Michael Gambon, Irish actor\n* October 20 – Robert Pinsky, United States Poet Laureate\n* October 21\n Geoffrey Boycott, English cricketer\n Manfred Mann, South African rock musician\n* October 23 – Pelé, Brazilian footballer\n* October 24 – Yossi Sarid, Israeli politician (d. 2015)\n* October 25 – Bobby Knight, American basketball coach\n* October 27 – John Gotti, American gangster (d. 2002)\n* October 28 – Jack Shepherd, English actor\n\nNovember \n\n* November 1 – Ramesh Chandra Lahoti, Chief Justice of India\n* November 2 – Carolin Reiber, German television presenter\n* November 11 – Turan Emeksiz, Turkish student killed in demonstrations (d. 1960)\n* November 12 – Glenn Stetson, Canadian singer (d. 2003)\n* November 15\n Roberto Cavalli, Italian designer\n Sam Waterston, American actor\n* November 17 – Luke Kelly, Irish ballad singer (The Dubliners) (d. 1984)\n* November 18 – Qaboos bin Said al Said, sultan of Oman\n* November 20 – Helma Sanders-Brahms, German film director (d. 2014)\n* November 21 – Richard Marcinko, U.S. Navy SEAL team member and author\n* November 22\n Andrzej Żuławski, Polish film director and writer (d. 2016)\n Terry Gilliam, American-born British screenwriter, director and animator\n* November 25 \n Joe Gibbs, American football coach\n Percy Sledge, American singer (d. 2015)\n* November 27 – Bruce Lee, Chinese-American martial artist and actor (d. 1973)\n* November 29 – Chuck Mangione, American flugelhorn player\n\nDecember \n\n* December 1 – Richard Pryor, American actor and comedian (d. 2005)\n* December 4\n Freddy Cannon, American singer\n Gary Gilmore, American murderer (d. 1977)\n* December 5 – Peter Pohl, Swedish writer\n* December 11 – Donna Mills, American actress and dancer\n* December 12\n Sharad Pawar, Indian politician\n Dionne Warwick, American singer\n* December 15\n** Barbara Valentin, Austrian actress (d. 2002)\n* December 20 – Pat Chapman, English author\n* December 21 – Frank Zappa, American musician, composer, and satirist (d. 1993)\n* December 22 – Noel Jones, British ambassador to Kazakhstan (d. 1995)\n* December 23\n Jorma Kaukonen, American musician (Jefferson Airplane, Hot Tuna)\n Robert Labine, former mayor of Gatineau, Quebec\n* December 24 – Janet Carroll, American actress and singer (d. 2012)\n* December 26 – Edward C. Prescott, American economist, Nobel Prize laureate\n\nDate unknown \n\n* Michael Jackson, New Zealand poet and anthropologist\n\nDeaths \n\nJanuary\n\n* January – Fusajiro Yamauchi, Japanese business executive (b. 1859)\n* January 4 – Flora Finch, English-born actress and comedian (b. 1869)\n* January 18 – Kazimierz Przerwa-Tetmajer, Polish poet and writer (b. 1865)\n* January 27 – Isaac Babel, Ukrainian writer (executed) (b. 1894)\n\nFebruary\n\n* February 1 – Philip Francis Nowlan, American science fiction writer, creator of Buck Rogers (b. 1888)\n* February 2\n Vsevolod Meyerhold, Russian theatre practitioner (b. 1874)\n Mikhail Koltsov, Soviet journalist (executed) (b. 1898)\n* February 4 – Samuel M. Vauclain, American engineer (b. 1856)\n* February 9 – William Edward Dodd, American historian and diplomat (b. 1869)\n* February 11 – John Buchan, 1st Baron Tweedsmuir, Scottish-born novelist and Governor General of Canada (b. 1875)\n* February 26 – Michael Hainisch, 2nd President of Austria (b. 1858)\n* February 27 – Peter Behrens, German architect and designer (b. 1868)\n* February 29 – Edward Frederic Benson, English writer\n\nMarch\n\n* March 1 – Anton Hansen Tammsaare, Estonian writer (b. 1878)\n* March 5\n Maxine Elliott, American actress (b. 1868)\n Cai Yuanpei, Chinese educator (b. 1868)\n* March 10 – Mikhail Bulgakov, Russian writer (b. 1891)\n* March 11 – John Monk Saunders, American writer (b. 1897)\n* March 16 – Selma Lagerlöf, Swedish writer, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1858)\n* March 20 – Alfred Ploetz, German physician, biologist, and eugenicist (b. 1860)\n* March 26 – Spyridon Louis, Greek runner (b. 1873)\n* March 27\n Madeleine Astor, American survivor of the sinking of the RMS Titanic (b. 1893)\n Michael Joseph Savage, Prime Minister of New Zealand (b. 1872)\n* March 30 – George Egerton, British admiral (b. 1852)\n* March 31 – Tinsley Lindley, English footballer (b. 1865)\n\nApril\n\n* April 1 – John A. Hobson, English economist (b. 1858)\n* April 21 – George Barnes, British Labour politician (b. 1859)\n* April 26 – Carl Bosch, German chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1874)\n* April 28 – Luisa Tetrazzini, Italian opera singer (b. 1871)\n\nMay\n\n* May 7 – George Lansbury, British Labour politician (b. 1859)\n* May 11 – Chujiro Hayashi, Japanese Reiki Master (b. 1880)\n* May 14 – Emma Goldman, Lithuanian-born anarchist (b. 1869)\n* May 15 – Menno ter Braak, Dutch writer (b. 1902)\n* May 19 – Diego Mazquiarán, Spanish matador (b. 1895)\n* May 20 – Verner von Heidenstam, Swedish writer, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1859)\n* May 25 – Joe De Grasse, Canadian film director (b. 1873)\n* May 26 – Wilhelm of Prussia, Prussian prince (b. 1906)\n* May 28\n Prince Frederick Charles of Hesse (b. 1868)\n Walter Connolly, American actor (b. 1887)\n* May 29 – Mary Anderson, American stage actress (b. 1859)\n\nJune\n\n* June 7\n James Hall, American actor (b. 1900)\n Hugh Rodman, American admiral (b. 1859)\n* June 10 – Marcus Garvey, Jamaican-born publisher, entrepreneur, and black nationalist (b. 1887)\n* June 11 – Alfred S. Alschuler, American architect (b. 1876)\n* June 13 – George Fitzmaurice, American director (b. 1885)\n* June 14 – Henry W. Antheil, Jr., American diplomat (b. 1912)\n* June 17 – Arthur Harden, English chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1865)\n* June 19 – Maurice Jaubert, French composer (b. 1900)\n* June 20 – Charley Chase, American comedian (b. 1893)\n* June 21\n Édouard Vuillard, French painter (b. 1868)\n Smedley Butler, U.S. general (b. 1881)\n** Janusz Kusociński, Polish athlete (b. 1907)\n* June 22 – Walter Hasenclever, German poet and playwright (b. 1890)\n* June 28 – Italo Balbo, Italian Fascist leader (b. 1896)\n* June 29 – Paul Klee, Swiss artist (b. 1879)\n\nJuly\n\n* July 1 – Ben Turpin, American actor (b. 1869)\n* July 9– Józef Biniszkiewicz, Silesian politician (b. 1875)\n* July 15 – Robert Wadlow, tallest man ever (infection) (b. 1918)\n* July 30 – Spencer S. Wood, United States Navy rear admiral (b. 1861)\n\nAugust\n\n* August 5 – Frederick Albert Cook, American explorer (b. 1865)\n* August 8 – Johnny Dodds, American jazz clarinetist (b. 1892)\n* August 13\n James Fairbairn, Australian pastoralist, aviator, and politician (b. 1897)\n Sir Henry Gullett, Australian politician (b. 1878)\n Geoffrey Street, Australian politician (b. 1894)\n Sir Brudenell White, Australian general (b. 1876)\n* August 18 – Walter Chrysler, American automobile pioneer (b. 1875)\n* August 21\n Hermann Obrecht, Swiss Federal Councillor (b. 1882)\n Leon Trotsky, Russian revolutionary (assassinated) (b. 1879)\n* August 22\n Sir Oliver Lodge, British physicist (b. 1851)\n Gerald Strickland, 4th Prime Minister of Malta, 23rd Governor of New South Wales, 15th Governor of Western Australia and 9th Governor of Tasmania (b. 1861)\n** Mary Vaux Walcott, American artist and naturalist (b. 1860)\n* August 24 – Paul Nipkow, German technician and inventor (b. 1860)\n* August 28 – William Bowie, American geodetic engineer (b. 1872)\n* August 30 – J. J. Thomson, English physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1856)\n* August 31 – Ernest Lundeen, American lawyer and politician (b. 1878)\n\nSeptember\n\n* September 4 – George William de Carteret, author from Jersey island (b. 1869)\n* September 5 – Charles de Broqueville, former Prime Minister of Belgium (b. 1860)\n* September 10 – Nikola Ivanov, Bulgarian general (b. 1861)\n* September 23 – Hale Holden, president of Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad 1914-1918 and 1920-1929 (b. 1869)\n* September 25 – Marguerite Clark, American actress (b. 1883)\n* September 26 – Walter Benjamin, German philosopher and cultural critic (b. 1892)\n* September 27 \n Julius Wagner-Jauregg, Austrian neuroscientist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (b. 1857)\n Julián Besteiro, Spanish socialist politician (b. 1870)\n\nOctober \n\n* October 5\n Ballington Booth, American co-founder of Volunteers of America (b. 1857)\n Lincoln Loy McCandless, Hawaiian politician and cattle rancher (b. 1859)\n** Silvestre Revueltas, Mexican composer (b. 1899)\n* October 9 – Wilfred Grenfell, English medical missionary to Newfoundland and Labrador (b. 1865)\n* October 10 – Berton Churchill, Canadian actor (b. 1876)\n* October 11 – Adolf von Trotha, German admiral (b. 1868)\n* October 12 – Tom Mix, American actor (b. 1880)\n* October 15 – Lluís Companys, President of the Generalitat of Catalonia (executed) (b. 1882)\n* October 17 – George Davis, American baseball player and MLB Hall of Famer (b. 1870)\n\nNovember\n\n* November 3 – Manuel Azaña, 2nd President of the Spanish Second Republic and 55th Prime Minister of Spain (b. 1880)\n* November 5 – Otto Plath, father of American poet Sylvia Plath, and entomologist (b. 1885)\n* November 9\n Neville Chamberlain, former Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1869)\n John Henry Kirby, Texas legislator and American businessman (b. 1860)\n* November 17\n Eric Gill, British sculptor and writer (b. 1882)\n Raymond Pearl, American biologist (b. 1879)\n* November 19 – Ralph W. Barnes, American journalist (b. 1899)\n* November 27\nJean Chiappe, French civil servant (b. 1878)\nHenri Guillaumet, French aviator (b. 1902)\n\nDecember\n\n* December 2 – Nikolai Koltsov, Russian biologist and genetist (b. 1872)\n* December 5 – Jan Kubelík, Czech violinist (b. 1880)\n* December 14 – Anton Korošec, Slovenian political leader (b. 1872)\n* December 15 or December 16 (unclear) – Billy Hamilton, American baseball player and MLB Hall of Famer (b. 1866)\n* December 16 – Eugène Dubois, Dutch paleoanthropologist and geologist (b. 1858)\n* December 19 – Kyösti Kallio, President of Finland (b. 1873)\n* December 21 – F. Scott Fitzgerald, American writer (b. 1896)\n* December 22 – Nathanael West, American writer (b. 1903)\n* December 23 – Eddie August Schneider, American aviator (b. 1911)\n* December 25 – Agnes Ayres, American actress (b. 1898)\n* December 26 – Daniel Frohman, American theater producer (b. 1851)\n\nNobel Prizes \n\n* Physics – not awarded\n* Chemistry – not awarded\n* Physiology or Medicine – not awarded\n* Literature – not awarded\n* Peace – not awarded" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Moussolini", "Mouselinni", "Musilini", "Benito Musilini", "Benito Mussellini", "Benito Muselini", "Mussilini", "Benito Musellini", "Musollini", "Benito Moosillini", "Benito Moosilini", "Mussolinian", "Moosillini", "Mussolinism", "Mussellini", "Benito Mussalini", "Mussollini", "Mouselini", "Benito Mussollini", "Benito Amilcare Andrea Mussolini", "Musselini", "Moosolini", "Muselini", "Mussalini", "Benito Moosellini", "Benito Mussilini", "Benito Musselini", "Benito Musollini", "Benito Mussolini", "Benito mussolini", "Moosilini", "Musillini", "Mussloini", "Moosellini", "Benito Moosolini", "Benito Mooselini", "Benito Amilcare Mussolini", "Moosollini", "Mussillini", "Benito Musolini", "Benito Andrea Mussolini", "Benito Musillini", "Musellini", "Benny Mussolini", "Benito Mussillini", "Mooselini", "Benito Moosollini", "Musolini", "Mussolini, Benito", "Mussolini", "Benito Mussolini's religious beliefs" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "benito moosilini", "benito musillini", "mussolini benito", "mussloini", "benito mussillini", "benito mussilini", "mussolini", "benito amilcare andrea mussolini", "benito amilcare mussolini", "benito moosolini", "benito musilini", "benito musolini", "benito mussollini", "benny mussolini", "benito muselini", "benito moosellini", "mussolinism", "benito andrea mussolini", "musolini", "moosillini", "moosollini", "moussolini", "moosellini", "musellini", "mouselini", "benito mussalini", "musilini", "musollini", "musselini", "mussillini", "benito musollini", "benito mooselini", "benito moosollini", "muselini", "benito mussolini s religious beliefs", "benito mussellini", "mouselinni", "benito moosillini", "benito mussolini", "mussilini", "mussolinian", "mooselini", "moosilini", "mussalini", "mussellini", "benito musellini", "musillini", "mussollini", "moosolini", "benito musselini" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "mussolini", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Mussolini" }
Which company first manufactured the electric toothbrush?	tc_294	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Electric_toothbrush.txt" ], "title": [ "Electric toothbrush" ], "wiki_context": [ "An electric toothbrush is a toothbrush that makes rapid, automatic bristle motions, either back-and-forth oscillation or rotation-oscillation (where the brush head alternates clockwise and counterclockwise rotation), in order to clean teeth. Motions at sonic speeds or below are made by a motor. In the case of ultrasonic toothbrushes, ultrasonic motions are produced by a piezoelectric crystal. A modern electric toothbrush is usually powered by a rechargeable battery charged through inductive charging when the brush sits in the charging base between uses.\n\nElectric toothbrushes can be classified according to the frequency (speed) of their movements as power, sonic or ultrasonic toothbrushes, depending on whether they make movements that are below, in or above the audible range (20–20,000 Hz or 2400–2,400,000 movements per minute), respectively.\n\nHistory \n\nThe first electric toothbrush, the Broxodent, was invented in Switzerland in 1954 by Dr. Philippe Guy Woog. Woog's electric toothbrushes were originally manufactured in Switzerland (later in France) for Broxo S.A. The device plugged into a standard wall outlet and ran on line voltage. Electric toothbrushes were initially created for patients with limited motor skills and for orthodontic patients (such as those with braces).\n\nThe Broxo Electric Toothbrush was introduced in the USA by E. R. Squibb and Sons Pharmaceuticals in 1959. After introduction, it was marketed in the USA by Squibb under the names Broxo-Dent or Broxodent. In the 1980s Squibb transferred distribution of the Broxodent line to the Somerset Labs division of Bristol Myers/Squibb. \n\nThe General Electric Automatic Toothbrush was introduced in the early 1960s; it was cordless with rechargeable NiCad batteries and although portable, was rather bulky, about the size of a two-D-cell flashlight handle. NiCad batteries of this period suffered from the Memory effect. The GE Automatic Toothbrush came with a charging stand which held the hand piece upright; most units were kept in the charger, which is not the best way to get maximum service life from a NiCad battery. Also, early NiCad batteries tended to have a short lifespan. The batteries were sealed inside the GE device, and the whole unit had to be discarded when the batteries failed.\n\nThe use of an AC line voltage appliance in a bathroom environment was problematic. By the early 1990s Underwriter Laboratories (UL) and Canadian Standards Association (CSA) no longer certified line-voltage appliances for bathroom use. Newer appliances had to use a step-down transformer to operate the actual toothbrush at low voltage (typically 12, 16 or 24 volts). Wiring standards in many countries require that outlets in bath areas must be protected by a RCD/GFCI device (e.g., required in USA since the 1970s on bathroom outlets in new construction).\n\nBy the 1990s there were problems with safety certification of Broxo's original design. Further, improved battery-operated toothbrushes were providing formidable competition. Broxo S. A. still produces and markets a low-voltage model, but its public visibility in the USA has been limited in the face of large competitors, such as Philips Sonicare and Braun Oral-B models.\n\nThe first ultrasonic toothbrush, first called the Ultima and later the Ultrasonex, was patented in the USA in 1992, the same year the FDA gave it approval for daily home use. Initially, the Ultima worked only on ultrasound, but a few years later, a motor was added to give the Ultrasonex brush additional sonic vibration. Today, several ultrasonic toothbrushes simultaneously provide both ultrasound and sonic vibration. In more modern times, electric toothbrushes have been used as a substitute for vibrators for those that wish to avoid embarrassment. \n\nTypes\n\nElectric brushes can be classified into two categories according to the type of action that they employ: vibration or rotation-oscillation. When using vibrating toothbrush, a brushing technique similar to that used with a manual toothbrush is recommended, whereas with rotating-oscillating brushes the recommended cleaning technique is to simply move the brush slowly from tooth to tooth. \n\nElectric toothbrushes can also be classified according to the speed of their movements as standard power toothbrushes, sonic toothbrushes or ultrasonic toothbrushes. If the motion of the toothbrush is sufficiently rapid to produce a hum in the audible frequency of human range (20 Hz to 20,000 Hz), it can be classified as a sonic toothbrush. Any electric toothbrush with movement faster than this limit can be classified as an ultrasonic toothbrush. Certain ultrasonic toothbrushes, such as the Megasonex and the Ultreo, have both sonic and ultrasonic movements. \n\nSonic toothbrush \n\nSonic toothbrushes are a subset of electric toothbrushes with movement that is fast enough to produce vibration in the audible range. Most modern rechargeable electric toothbrushes from brands such as Sonicare, FOREO, and Oral-B fall into this category and typically have a frequencies that range from 200 to 400 Hz, that is 12,000-24,000 oscillations or 24,000-48,000 movements per minute. Because sonic toothbrushes rely on sweeping motion alone to clean the teeth, the movement that they provide is often high in amplitude, meaning that the length of the sweeping movements that they make is large.\n\nUltrasonic toothbrush \n\nThe newest developments in this field are ultrasonic toothbrushes, which use ultrasonic waves to clean the teeth. In order for a toothbrush to be considered \"ultrasonic\" it has to emit a wave at a minimum frequency of 20,000 Hz or 2,400,000 movements per minute. Typically, ultrasonic toothbrushes approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) operate at a frequency of 1.6 MHz, which translates to 192,000,000 movements per minute.\n\nUltrasonic toothbrushes emit vibrations that are very high in frequency but low in amplitude. These vibrations break up bacterial chains that make up dental plaque and remove their methods of attachment to the tooth surface up to 5 mm below the gum line. \n\nSome ultrasonic toothbrushes, such as the Emmi-Dent, provide only ultrasonic motion. Other ultrasonic toothbrushes, such as the Ultreo and the Megasonex, provide additional sonic vibration ranging from 9,000 to 40,000 movements per minute, comparable to a sonic toothbrush, in order to provide additional sweeping motion which facilitates removal of food particles and bacterial chain remnants. The sonic vibration in these ultrasonic toothbrushes may be lower in amplitude than that found in a comparable sonic toothbrush because the bacterial chains do not need to be removed through sonic vibration, simply swept away, as they have already been broken up by the ultrasound.\n\nBecause of the similarity of the terms “ultrasonic” and “sonic”, there is some confusion in the marketplace and sonic toothbrushes are frequently mislabeled as ultrasonic ones. A toothbrush operating at a frequency or vibration of less than 2,400,000 movements per minute (20,000 Hz) is a \"sonic\" toothbrush. It is called \"sonic\" because its operating frequency, for example 31,000 movements per minute, is within the human hearing range of between roughly 20 Hz to about 20,000 Hz. Only a toothbrush that emits ultrasound, or vibration at a frequency greater than the upper limit of human hearing, can be called an \"ultrasonic\" toothbrush.\n\nEffectiveness\n\nClaims have been made that electric toothbrushes are more effective than manual ones as they are less dependent upon a user's personal brushing technique. Some dentists also claim that they help children with overcoming their fear of the dentist. Independent research finds that most electric toothbrushes are no more effective than manual brushes—assuming that people use a manual toothbrush brush effectively. — Meta-analysis of studies of the effectiveness of electric toothbrushes The rotation-oscillation-models have been found to be marginally better than manual ones. The research concludes that the way brushing is done, including the amount of time spent, is more important than the choice of brush. For patients with limited manual dexterity or where difficulty exists in reaching rear teeth, however, dentists regard electric toothbrushes as being especially beneficial. A 2014 Cochrane review suggested the effectiveness of electric toothbrushes over manual ones: plaque build-up and gingival inflammation was reduced by 11% and 6% respectively after one to three months of use and after three months of use, the reduction observed was greater - 21% reduction in plaque and 11% reduction in gingival inflammation. In addition, ultrasound from a commercially available ultrasonic toothbrush has been shown to break up dental plaque composed of chains of cariogenic Streptococcus mutans bacteria, destroying their cell walls and removing their methods of attachment to the enamel surface, at a distance of 5mm from the plaque.\n\nThe effectiveness of an electric toothbrush depends not only on its type of action and on correct use, but also on the condition of the brush head. Most manufacturers recommend that heads be changed every three to six months at minimum, or as soon as the brush head has visibly deteriorated.\n\nPower source and charging \n\nModern electric toothbrushes run on low voltage, 12v or less. A few units use a step-down transformer to power the brush, but most use a battery, usually but not always rechargeable and non-replaceable, fitted inside the handle, which is hermetically sealed to prevent water damage. While early NiCd battery toothbrushes used metal tabs to connect with the charging base, modern toothbrushes use contactless inductive charging: the brush unit and charger stand each contain a coil of wire; when placed in proximity, the powered coil from the stand transfers power by induction to the handle, charging the battery.\n\nEnvironmental concerns\n\nAccording to Friends of the Earth, \"Disposable electric toothbrushes are one example of a terrible product ... it's virtually impossible to separate out the tech from the batteries and plastic casing which means valuable and often toxic materials are dumped in landfill or burnt in incinerators.\"\n\nOptional features\n\nTimer\n\nMany modern electric toothbrushes have a timer which buzzes, or briefly interrupts power, typically after two minutes, and sometimes every 30 seconds. This is associated with a customary recommendation to brush for two minutes, 30 seconds for each of the four quadrants of the mouth.\n\nDisplay \n\nSome electric toothbrushes have LCD screens which show brushing time and sometimes smiley face icons or other images to encourage optimal brushing. These features could encourage people to brush more accurately. \n\nPressure sensor \n\nBrushing teeth too hard causes enamel and gum damage. Most modern top-end sonic toothbrushes come with a pressure sensor, which prevents users from brushing too aggressively. There are two types of pressure sensors. Some sensors produce a sound warning and some immediately stop movements of the sonic toothbrush when it is used too aggressively.\n\nUltrasound indicator \n\nBecause of the fact that ultrasonic frequencies are beyond the audible range and the amplitude of movement emitted by an ultrasonic toothbrush is typically too small to be perceived, the ultrasound is imperceptible to humans and it may not be apparent that a brush running in pure ultrasound is turned on. Ultrasonic toothbrushes may include an indicator to notify the patient that ultrasound is being emitted.\n\nCleaning modes \n\nMost sonic toothbrushes come with different cleaning modes and intensity levels. Cleaning modes are designed for special types of cleaning efficiency. Some of the most well known are Sensitive, Daily care, Whitening and Tongue cleaning.\n\nCertain toothbrushes that offer both ultrasonic and sonic motion allow for the intensity of the sonic motion to be reduced, or even for the sonic motion to be turned off entirely so that only ultrasound is emitted. Since ultrasound movements are very low in amplitude, this setting may be indicated for patients who may not be suitable candidates for typical sonic or power toothbrush vibration but need the additional cleaning power of an ultrasonic toothbrush, such as patients who have recently undergone periodontal surgery." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Bristol Myers-Squibb", "Bristl-Myers Squibb", "Bristol-Myers Squib", "Bristol-Meyers", "E. R. Squibb and Sons", "Bristol Myers Squibb", "Bristol–Myers Squibb", "Bristol-Myers Squibb Company", "Bristol-Myers Squibb Epsilon Holdings", "Bristol Myers", "BMY", "Bristol-Myers", "Bristol Myer Squib", "Bristol Myers Squib", "E. R. Squibb & Sons", "Bristol-Myers Corporation", "Bristol Meyers-Squibb", "Bristol-Myers Squibb HIV", "Bristol-Myers-Squibb", "Squibb", "Bristol-Myers Corp.", "Bristol Meyers Squibb", "Bristol Myers Squibb Co.", "The Bristol-Myers Squibb Company", "Squibb Institute for Medical Research", "Bristol-Myers Squibb Luxembourg Sarl", "Bristol-Myers Squibb", "Bristol-Myers Squibb Pharmaceutical Research Institute" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "bristol meyers squibb", "bmy", "bristol myers squibb co", "bristol myers squibb luxembourg sarl", "bristol myers squibb", "bristol myers corp", "e r squibb and sons", "e r squibb sons", "bristl myers squibb", "squibb", "squibb institute for medical research", "bristol myers squibb pharmaceutical research institute", "bristol myers squibb hiv", "bristol meyers", "bristol myers squib", "bristol myers squibb company", "bristol myers squibb epsilon holdings", "bristol myer squib", "bristol myers corporation", "bristol–myers squibb", "bristol myers" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "squibb", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Squibb" }
Which actor bought the island of Tetiaroa?	tc_296	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Tetiaroa.txt" ], "title": [ "Tetiaroa" ], "wiki_context": [ "Teti'aroa is a privately owned atoll in the Windward group of the Society Islands of French Polynesia, an overseas collectivity of France in the Pacific Ocean. Once the vacation spot for Tahitian royalty, the atoll is widely known for having been purchased by Marlon Brando.\n\nGeography\n\nTeti'aroa is administratively part of the commune (municipality) of 'Ārue.\n\nThe atoll is located 33 mi north of Tahiti. The atoll stretches on a total surface of ; approximately 1,445 acr (585 hectares) of sand are divided in 12 motus (islets) with varying surface areas. The lagoon is approximately wide and 100 ft deep. The atoll has no reef opening, making access by boat nearly impossible.\n\nThe islets (or motus), in clockwise order starting from the southwest corner, include:\n\n# Onetahi (with regulated airstrip and site of The Brando Resort)\n# Honuea\n# Tiaruanu\n# Motu Tauvini (Tauini)\n# Motu Ahurea (Auroa)\n# Hiraanae\n# Horoatera (Oroatera)\n# Motu 'Ā'i.e.\n# Tahuna Iti (almost out of sight, immersed)\n# Tahuna Rahi\n# Reiono\n# Motu One\n# Rimatu'u (with an ornithology reserve)\n\nOwnership and history\n\nThe atoll of Teti'aroa holds a special place in the hearts of the people of French Polynesia. It has become almost a “sacred spot” for the people. In historic times, Teti'aroa belonged to the Pomare family, rulers of Tahiti. The royal family placed Teti'aroa in the care of faithful retainers who managed it and lived there.\n\nMembers of the royal family spent time on Teti'aroa when they needed quiet time and relaxation. The female members of the family are said to have gone there to eat (gain weight) and stay out of the sun (have their skin lighten up) “for the purposes of beautifying their person.” According to legend, in times of trouble the King placed his treasures there for safekeeping. In 1789, William Bligh is said to have been the first European to visit the atoll while looking for early mutineers prior to the departure of the HMS Bounty which eventually suffered a full mutiny.\n\nIn 1904, the royal family gave Teti'aroa to Johnston Walter Williams, the only dentist in Tahiti. Williams later became Consul of the United Kingdom from 1916 to 1935. Williams managed Teti'aroa as a residence and a copra plantation.\n\nIn 1960, Marlon Brando “discovered” Teti'aroa while scouting filming locations for Mutiny on the Bounty, which was shot on Tahiti and neighboring Moorea. After filming was completed, Brando hired a local fisherman to ferry him to Teti'aroa. It was “more gorgeous than anything I had anticipated,” he marveled in his 1994 autobiography Songs My Mother Taught Me.\n\nBrando eventually purchased Teti'aroa's islets (motus) from one of Williams’ direct descendants, Mrs Duran. The reef and lagoon belong to French Polynesia. (Williams and his wife are buried on motu Rimatuu). Brando purchased most of the atoll in 1966 for $200,000 and the other part in 1967 for $70,000. He had to overcome political interference and local resistance to purchase the atoll. Many important archaeological sites have been located, identified, and studied on Teti'aroa. Thus, the historical significance of Teti'aroa to the people and the government of French Polynesia continue to make future development and/or sale questionable at best. \n\nWanting to live on the atoll, Brando built a small village on Motu Onetahi in 1970. It consisted of an airstrip to get there without breaching the reef, 12 simple bungalows, a kitchen hut, dining hall and bar, all built from local materials - coconut wood, thatch roofs and even large sea shells for sinks. The village became a place for friends, family and scientists studying the atoll's ecology and archeology.\n\nOver the years, Brando spent as much time as he could there and used it as a getaway from his hectic life in Hollywood. Although he didn’t spend as much time there as he wished, it is said that he always cherished his moments on Teti'aroa. During his stay on the island he was often visited by his children, grandchildren and great-grandchildren. Upon his death, Brando's son Teihotu lived on the island for some time.\n\nEventually the village became a modest hotel managed by his Tahitian wife, Tarita Teriipaia, who had played his on-screen love in Mutiny on the Bounty. The hotel operated for more than 25 years, even after Brando left French Polynesia to return to Los Angeles. Many hotel guests lamented the lack of amenities normally found at an island resort. \n\nIn 1980, the famous maxi yacht S/Y Condor of Bermuda ran aground on the Onetahi reef, which caused it to be shipwrecked and written off by insurers. Purportedly, Brando and the owner of the yacht engaged in a brief bidding war for rights to the vessel’s polished mahogany hull (as reported by its owner in the New Zealand yachting magazine, Sail in 1981), which Brando, it is believed, wanted to use as a bar at a resort he planned to build on the island. The yacht was salvaged, and sent to New Zealand for repair.\n\nIn 2002, two years before the actor’s death, Brando signed a new will and trust agreement that left no instructions for Teti'aroa. Following his death in 2004, the executors of the estate granted development rights to Pacific Beachcomber SC, a Tahitian company that owns hotels throughout French Polynesia.\n\nFuture of Teti'aroa \n\nTeti'aroa Pacific Beachcomber SC began construction on Teti'aroa in 2009. The first phase of building included reconstruction and reorientation of the runway, as the original surface was in disrepair and not long enough to meet current aviation regulations. In addition, a reef dock was built to enable the transfer of supplies from the ocean side of the reef to the lagoon side.\n\nWhen construction is completed, the motu Onetahi will include a luxury eco-hotel (The Brando), spa, research station, staff village and private runway.\n\nIn February 2014, it was announced that the building of the resort had been finished. The Brando will be officially opened for the public in July 2014. The Brando Estate and eight of Marlon Brando's sixteen children are involved in the project." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Marlon Brando Jr.", "Marlon brando", "Marlon Brando Jr", "Marlin Brando", "Marlon Brando, Jr.", "Brandoesque", "Marlon Brando", "Brando family" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "marlon brando", "marlon brando jr", "marlin brando", "brando family", "brandoesque" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "marlon brando", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Marlon Brando" }
Between 1952 and 1954 did the number of TV stations in the USA double, triple or quadruple?	tc_297	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "Search" ], "filename": [ "Derrick_Rose.txt" ], "title": [ "Derrick Rose" ], "wiki_context": [ "Derrick Martell Rose (born October 4, 1988) is an American professional basketball player for the New York Knicks of the National Basketball Association (NBA). He played one year of college basketball for the Memphis Tigers before being drafted first overall by his hometown Chicago Bulls in the 2008 NBA draft. After being named the NBA Rookie of the Year, Rose, at age 22, became the youngest player to win the NBA Most Valuable Player Award in 2011.\n\nIn 2009, an NCAA investigation revealed that Rose's SAT scores had been invalidated, making him retroactively ineligible to play for Memphis. As a result, the NCAA vacated Memphis' entire 2007–08 season.\n\nRose has struggled with significant knee injuries since his 2010–11 MVP campaign. In the first round of the 2012 NBA Playoffs against the Philadelphia 76ers, Rose tore his ACL in his left knee. Rose required surgery and was subsequently sidelined for the entire 2012–13 season. Rose returned to play in 2013–14. However, on November 22, 2013, during a regular season game against the Portland Trail Blazers, Rose injured his right meniscus which caused him to miss the remainder of the season. Rose returned once again the following season, but knee injuries continued to riddle him, causing him to miss 30 games. In June 2016, he was traded to the New York Knicks.\n\nEarly life\n\nRose was born and raised in the Englewood area, one of the most dangerous neighborhoods on Chicago's South Side. He is the youngest son of Brenda Rose after Dwayne, Reggie, and Allan. All three were talented basketball players who taught Rose the in and outs of basketball on nearby courts.[http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/vault/article/magazine/MAG1114058/index.htm The Well-guarded Guard] As his talent for the sport grew, Rose began to attract much more outside attention in Chicago's basketball circles, leading his mother and brothers to restrict outside contact to him. She feared he would be exploited and his path to the NBA diverted by outside parties like street agents, similar to what happened to former Chicago prospect Ronnie Fields. \n\nHigh school career\n\nBy the time Rose enrolled at Simeon Career Academy in 2003, he was a hot commodity for collegiate coaches. Despite his reputation, he played freshmen and JV basketball for the Wolverines. He wore No. 25 in honor of Ben \"Benji\" Wilson, a promising player who was murdered by a gang member during his senior year in 1984. Rose was not allowed on varsity due to a long-standing tradition that head coach Bob Hambric, who had been with the school since 1980 had no freshmen on the varsity team. That rule did not lessen Rose's play, and he went on to put up 18.5 points, 6.6 assists, 4.7 rebounds and 2.1 steals per game and led both the freshmen and sophomores to city championships with a 24–1 record. Hambric softened his stance and allowed the freshman a chance to play on varsity in the state tournament, but Rose declined, wanting the players to get due credit. The next year Hambric retired and Robert Smith was hired, opening the path to varsity. In Rose's debut, he had 22 points, 7 rebounds and 5 steals over Thornwood High School in a sold-out game filled with college scouts and coaches. He led the Wolverines to a 30–5 mark while averaging 19.8 points, 5.1 rebounds, 8.3 assists and 2.4 steals but the season ended after a loss in state regionals. Rose's play garnered him his first national award: a Parade All-American third team spot. \n\nDuring Rose's junior year in 2006, the Simeon Wolverines broke through and won the Chicago Public League championship held at the United Center, where Rose starred with 25 points and crowd pleasing dunks. The team advanced through the playoffs and earned a berth in the Class AA state championship against Richwoods High School, where a fourth quarter buzzer beater by Richwood forced overtime. The score was knotted at 29 late in the extra period when Rose stole the ball and buried the game winning jumper as time expired, giving Simeon its first state title since the Wilson-led Wolverines won in 1984. The team finished 33–4 and ranked nationally, and Rose was awarded with an All-State Illinois mention, EA Sports All-American Second Team pick and another Parade All-American selection. \n\nEntering his senior year, Rose was ranked the fifth best prospect in the nation by Sports Illustrated. In January 2007, Simeon traveled to Madison Square Garden to play Rice High School and star guard Kemba Walker. The Wolverines lost 53–51. The season's highlight was a nationally televised contest on ESPN against Virginia perennial power Oak Hill Academy two weeks later. Matched up with hyped junior guard Brandon Jennings, Rose had 28 points, 9 assists, and 8 rebounds and in a 78–75 win. For his performance, USA Today named him their high school player of the week. Simeon went on to repeat as Public League champions and defended their state championship, defeating O'Fallon High School 77–54. In doing so, Simeon became the first Chicago Public League school to win two straight state championships. In his final high school game, Rose scored 2 points, but pulled down 7 rebounds and totaled 8 assists, while Simeon big man Tim Flowers scored 35 points. The Wolverines ended the season 33–2 and ranked first in the nation by Sports Illustrated and 6th on USA Today Super 25. Rose averaged 25.2 points, 9.1 assists, 8.8 rebounds and 3.4 steals.\n\nOverall, Simeon's record while Rose played was 120–12. After his senior year, Rose was again All-State after being named Illinois Mr. Basketball and was named to the McDonald's All-American team. He was also awarded with First Team honors by Parade selection and USA Today and USA Today First Team All-American.\n\nRose was selected to play in the Jordan Brand All-Star Game and Nike Hoop Summit. In 2009, Rose was named the decade's third greatest high school point guard by ESPN RISE magazine behind Chris Paul and T.J. Ford, and had his jersey number (#25) retired along with Ben Wilson. \n\nCollege career\n\nRose accepted a scholarship to play for the University of Memphis Tigers under John Calipari, who recruited him after seeing him play in an AAU game. Strong efforts were made by Indiana University and in-state University of Illinois to sign Rose to their own programs. Illinois in particular planned to pair Rose and their five-star recruit Eric Gordon, who had played AAU basketball with Rose. Gordon, however, retracted his verbal commitment from the Fighting Illini, opting to play for Indiana, and Rose subsequently gave his verbal commitment before the start of his senior season. Rose chose Memphis because of the school's history of putting players in the NBA and the prospect of Rod Strickland, a 17-year veteran of the league, mentoring him. Rose switched to #23, due to the fact that #25 had been retired by the school in honor of Penny Hardaway. \n\nWith the addition of Rose and led by veteran upperclassmen Joey Dorsey and Chris Douglas-Roberts, the Tigers started out the season ranked third in the nation. Memphis sprinted to a 26–0 start and claimed the number one ranking in the country for the first time in over 25 years before falling to the University of Tennessee Volunteers 66–62 in February. Memphis was able to bounce back and capture the Conference USA Tournament to qualify for the \"Big Dance\" with a 33–1 record. Rose averaged 14.9 points per game, 4.7 assists and 4.5 rebounds per game during the regular season and earned All-American Third Team honors among others. He finished as a finalist for the Bob Cousy Award as well as the John R. Wooden Award. \n\nMemphis was seeded No. 1 in the South Region. Rose earned high praise for his increased focus on defense, hounding Texas Longhorn guard D.J. Augustin into a low-percentage game in the Elite Eight. In a match-up against UCLA in the Final Four, Rose finished with 25 points and 9 rebounds to lead the Tigers to an 85–67 win and a trip to the NCAA championship game against the Kansas Jayhawks. The win set a NCAA mark for most wins in a season (38). Against Kansas, Rose scored 17 points on 7–of–17 shooting, along with six rebounds and seven assists, but missed a critical free throw at the end of the second half as Memphis fell in overtime, 75–68. Memphis concluded the season 38–2. Rose was named to the All-Final Four team after averaging 20.8 points, 6.5 rebounds and 6.0 assists per game. \n\nOn April 15, Rose announced he would forgo his final three seasons at Memphis and declared for the 2008 NBA draft. \n\nGrading controversy\n\nAccording to Sheri Lipman of the University of Memphis legal counsel, a month after the loss to Kansas, the NCAA sent a letter to the school stating that Rose had \"an invalidated standardized test score the previous year at Chicago's Simeon High School.\" The next January, the NCAA sent another letter, charging Memphis with knowing that Rose had someone else take his SAT for him. Memphis started its own investigation and sent its response back on April 24. \n\nOn May 28, 2009, the Memphis Commercial Appeal obtained the letter through the Freedom of Information Act and released it. Although the player's name was redacted due to privacy laws, process of elimination and sources revealed the player as Derrick Rose. The next day, in a separate investigation, James Sullivan, Inspector General of the Chicago Public Schools district's Board of Education, released a report of his investigation stating that four student-athletes of a CPS school had one-month grade boosts to alter their college transcripts. The Chicago Sun-Times revealed the school as Simeon Career Academy and that three of the four were Rose and his former teammates Kevin Johnson and Tim Flowers, prominent members of the back-to-back championship teams. The newspaper claimed that Rose's grade was changed from a D to a C. Another part of the report stated that \"high school staff lost the original permanent records for three of the above mentioned students athletes\" (including the unknown four). Sullivan started the investigation because \"none of the grade changes were supported by any documentation.” He also failed to find a suspect as \"at least seven people at Simeon had the ability to access student grades and records.\" Illinois High School Association (IHSA) executive director Marty Hickman reacted by saying, \"It is obvious that this is worth taking a look into.\" Robert Smith, who coached the Wolverines from 2004 to 2007, denied any wrongdoing. District spokeswoman Monique Bond said the students involved probably did not know about the grade change.\n\nAllegations surfaced that Rose's brother, Reggie, had been allowed to travel with the team for free on several occasions. \n\nMemphis contended that it had learned of the allegations about Rose's SAT score shortly after he enrolled at the school. It conducted its own investigation, in which Rose was questioned by four school officials. Ultimately, Memphis was unable to find any evidence that Rose had cheated based on what was available at the time and cleared him to play.[http://www.commercialappeal.com/news/2009/aug/20/memphis-tigers-found-guilty-ncaa-must-forfeit-2007/ Memphis Tigers found guilty by NCAA; must vacate 2007–08 basketball season, will appeal »]\n\nRose released a statement through his lawyer Daniel E. Reidy: \"Mr. Rose is aware of the allegations reported in the press. Mr. Rose cooperated fully with the University of Memphis' athletic and legal departments’ investigation of this issue when he was a student, and that investigation uncovered no wrongdoing on his part.\"\n\nOn August 20, 2009, the NCAA vacated Memphis' 2007–08 season. It took the position that because the Educational Testing Service voided Rose's SAT score after Rose's freshman year at Memphis, strict liability required that Rose be retroactively declared ineligible.[http://sports.espn.go.com/ncb/news/story?id\n4412279 Memphis also gets 3 years' probation] It also determined that even without the questions about his test score, Rose would have lost his eligibility in December 2007 due to Reggie Rose being allowed to travel for free. \n\nOn May 28, 2010, Rose, former Memphis basketball coach John Calipari, and Memphis athletic director R.C. Johnson reached a $100,000 out-of-court settlement with three attorneys who represented Memphis season ticket holders and threatened a lawsuit over the vacated 2007–08 season. The Memphis Commercial Appeal first reported on this settlement in October 2011. \n\nCollege statistics\n\n\|-\n\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\| 2007–08\n\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\| Memphis\n\| 40 \|\| 40 \|\| 29.2 \|\| .477 \|\| .337 \|\| .712 \|\| 4.5 \|\| 4.7 \|\| 1.2 \|\| .4 \|\| 14.9\n\nNBA career\n\nChicago Bulls (2008–2016)\n\n2008–09 season: Rookie of the Year\n\nRose was selected with the first overall pick in the 2008 draft by the Chicago Bulls. He was selected to the U.S. Select Team to scrimmage against and prepare the National Team for the Olympics in Beijing. In mid-July, he played two games in the Orlando Pro Summer League until forced out by tendinitis in his right knee, ending his summer, but returned in October to play all eight preseason games. \n\nRose became the first Bulls draftee to score 10 points or more in his first 10 games since Michael Jordan, and earned Eastern Conference Rookie of the Month honors for November and December. During the All-Star Weekend, Rose played in the Rookie Challenge, and won the Skills Challenge, where he beat out several All-Stars to become the first rookie to claim the trophy. Overcoming a January and February slump, Rose returned to form and won monthly rookie honors in March. Meanwhile, the Bulls, re-energized by the trade deadline acquisitions of John Salmons and Brad Miller, finished the regular season on a 12–4 spurt to qualify as the seventh seed in the Eastern Conference. Rose won Rookie of the Year, joining Michael Jordan (1985) and Elton Brand (2000) as the only Bulls to do so. He was also the first number-one draft pick since LeBron James to win the award. He averaged 16.8 points on 47.5% field goal shooting, 6.3 assists (leading all rookies) and 3.9 rebounds per game and was also named to the NBA All-Rookie First Team. \n\nIn his playoff debut against the defending champion Boston Celtics, Rose recorded 36 points (tying Kareem Abdul-Jabbar's NBA record for points scored by a rookie in his playoff debut, set in 1970), 11 assists, and 4 rebounds as the Bulls prevailed in a 105–103 overtime win on the road. Rose became the second player in NBA history to record 35 points and 10 assists in his playoff debut, after Chris Paul. Rose averaged 19.7 points on 47.5% shooting, 6.3 assists and 4.9 rebounds per game in his first playoff series, as the Bulls were defeated by the Celtics in seven games. \n\n2009–10 season: First All-Star season\n\nRose's sophomore season started off with an ankle injury in his first preseason game. Rose would go on to miss the rest of the preseason. Rose started the Bulls' season opener against the San Antonio Spurs but played limited minutes. Rose's ankle bothered him for most of November, but as his ankle healed, his game improved. On January 28, 2010, Rose was elected to his first career All-Star Game as a reserve for the Eastern Conference, making him the first Bulls player to be selected since Michael Jordan in 1998. Rose ended up with eight points, four assists and three steals in the game. The Bulls once again made the playoffs in the 2009–10 season, finishing with a 41–41 record. In the playoffs Rose averaged 26.8 points and 7.2 assists, but the Bulls lost in five games to the Cleveland Cavaliers.[http://www.nba.com/playerfile/derrick_rose/index.html NBA.com : Derrick Rose Info Page]\n\nOn April 13, 2010, Rose scored 39 points against the Celtics, making 15–22 field goals and 9–10 free throws.\n\nAccording to a January 2010 report by ESPN, Rose had the fourth best selling jersey in the league.[http://sports.espn.go.com/chicago/nba/news/story?id=4841813 Chicago Bulls' Derrick Rose cracks NBA's top 5 in jersey sales – ESPN Chicago]\n\n2010–11 season: MVP/Number one seed\n\nOn October 30, 2010, in the Bulls' second game of the season, Rose scored 39 points in a 101–91 win against the Detroit Pistons. Two days after, Rose contributed 13 assists, helping Luol Deng score a career high 40 points in a win against the Portland Trail Blazers. On December 10, Rose scored 29 points and had 9 assists, leading the Bulls to their first victory over the Los Angeles Lakers since December 19, 2006.\n\nOn January 17, 2011, Rose recorded his first career triple-double with 22 points, 10 rebounds and 12 assists in a 96–84 win over the Memphis Grizzlies. On January 27, he was announced as a starting guard on the 2011 NBA All-Star Team for the East squad.[http://www.nba.com/allstar/2011/ All-Star 2011 \| NBA.com]\n\nOn February 17, in the Bulls' last game before the All-Star break, Rose set a career-high with 42 points, while also recording 8 assists and 5 rebounds, as the Bulls beat the San Antonio Spurs 109–99. On March 26, Rose had a career high 17 assists, along with 30 points, in a 95–87 victory over the Milwaukee Bucks.\n\nAt the end of the 2010–11 NBA season the Bulls finished with a league leading record of 62–20. Their 60+ wins was the Bulls' first such season since 1997–98 and sixth 60+ win in franchise history. At season's end, Rose became only the third player since the 1972–73 NBA season to record 2,000 points and 600 assists in a single season. The other two players were LeBron James and Michael Jordan. \n\nOn May 3, Rose was named the NBA Most Valuable Player, joining Michael Jordan as the only players to receive the award in Chicago Bulls history. At 22 years and 6 months old, Rose also became the youngest player to receive the award (Wes Unseld, formerly the youngest MVP, won the award in 1968–69 at age 23 years, 2 months).\n\nIn the 2011 NBA Playoffs, the Bulls defeated the Indiana Pacers and Atlanta Hawks in the first two rounds. In the Eastern Conference Finals, the Bulls faced the Miami Heat, led by LeBron James, Dwyane Wade and Chris Bosh. The Bulls lost the series in five games. During the 2011 playoffs, Rose averaged 27.1 points per game, but only shot 39% from the field and 24% for three-pointers. \n\n2011–12 season: Playoff appearance/ACL tear\n\nIn December 2011, Rose signed a five-year contract extension with the Bulls for $94.8 million. The contract was 30 percent of the Bulls' salary cap, the maximum allowed under a rule dubbed the \"Derrick Rose Rule\" from the 2011 NBA Collective Bargaining Agreement. \n\nRose was voted as an All-Star Game starter for the second consecutive year. He was the second leading vote getter behind Orlando Magic center Dwight Howard. He averaged 21.8 ppg, along with a career high 7.9 apg in 35.3 mpg, but played a career low 39 games due to injuries. He helped Luol Deng become an All-Star for the first time in his career.\n\nDuring Game 1 of the first round of the playoffs against the Philadelphia 76ers, Rose injured his left knee while trying to jump. He was immediately helped off the court. The injury occurred when the Bulls were leading by 12 points with 1:22 left to play. Rose came up just short of a triple-double, finishing with 23 points, 9 assists, and 9 rebounds in 37 minutes of action. An MRI later revealed that Rose tore the ACL in his left knee and would miss the rest of the playoffs. Rose had surgery performed on May 12, 2012, with an estimated recovery period of 8–12 months.\n\n2012–13 season: Year absence\n\nRose returned to full contact practice in January 2013, and was cleared by doctor to play that March, but he did not appear in a game during the 2012–13 NBA season. Despite Rose's absence, the Bulls advanced to the Eastern Conference Semifinals, where they lost to the eventual champions, the Miami Heat.\n\n2013–14 season: Return/Torn meniscus\n\nRose's much awaited return came on October 5, 2013, in a pre-season game against the Indiana Pacers. He had a slow start but scored his first point in the first quarter. He finished the game with 13 points in 20 minutes of play. On October 16, 2013, Rose returned to play in Chicago for the first time, scoring 22 points against the Detroit Pistons. \"I think I'm way more explosive now. Like getting to the rim. I think I can take contact a little bit better. And as far as jumping-wise, I think I can jump even higher. They tested my vertical -- I increased it by 5 inches,\" Rose said after the win. During the pre-season, Rose averaged 20.7 points and 5 assists.\n\nHis first official game was in 107–95 loss against the defending champions Miami Heat on October 29. Rose was limited to 12 points, while having 4 assists in 34 minutes of play. He played his usual minutes, but was inefficient from the field, shooting 4–15. Two days later, he played his first official home game against the New York Knicks where he hit the game-winning floater in an 82–81 win. He had 18 points, 6 rebounds and 3 assists. On November 3, 2013, Rose scored 13 points and committed 8 turnovers in the loss against the Philadelphia 76ers. He struggled in his return, shooting 28.8% from the field and averaging 5.7 turnovers in his first three games. \n\nOn November 22, Rose injured his right knee during a game against the Portland Trail Blazers. An MRI the next day confirmed that Rose tore his right knee meniscus and that surgery was required. At the time, Rose was averaging 15.9 points and 4.3 assists in 31.1 minutes per game. On November 25, Rose underwent surgery on the torn meniscus in his right knee. The same day, the Bulls announced Rose was out for the season, after a successful surgery. \n\n2014–15 season: Back to the playoffs\n\nRose returned from injury to play in the Bulls' season opener against the New York Knicks on October 29, 2014 and recorded 13 points and 5 assists in 21 minutes of action. He went on to score a season-high 32 points on January 14 against the Washington Wizards, before being ruled out again with another knee injury a month later. He appeared in 51 games, the most he'd played since the 2010–11 season. \n\nOn February 24, it was announced Rose required another round of surgery on his right knee and was ruled out indefinitely. An exam and subsequent MRI confirmed a medial meniscus tear of the right knee, the same injury he sustained on November 22, 2013 against the Portland Trail Blazers. On February 27, he was deemed a possibility of returning toward the end of the season after he underwent successful surgery and was ruled out for just four to six weeks. \n\nRose returned to action on April 8 after a 20-game absence, and working on a minutes restriction, he was 3-of-9 from the field and finished with nine points in 19 minutes as the Bulls lost to the Orlando Magic. \n\nOn April 18, Rose played in his first playoff game since Game 1 of the 2012 playoffs (the game where he tore his left ACL). Rose finished with 23 points and 7 assists on 9-of-16 shooting. During the Bulls' first round series against the Bucks, Rose averaged 21.5 points per game. On May 8, Rose banked in a three-pointer at the buzzer and scored 30 points to give the Bulls a 99-96 victory over the Cleveland Cavaliers and a 2-1 lead in the Eastern Conference semi-finals. However, the Cavaliers won the final three games to take the series in six games.\n\n2015–16 season: Final season with the Bulls\n\nA preseason left orbital bone fracture saw Rose begin the regular season wearing a face mask. On November 5, 2015, Rose scored a then season-high 29 points on 12-of-25 shooting in a 104–98 win over the Oklahoma City Thunder. He showed signs of his old MVP self as he scored 10 points over the final three and a half minutes to lift the Bulls after they blew a 10-point lead in the fourth quarter. On December 18, he scored a season-high 34 points in a 147–144 quadruple overtime loss to the Detroit Pistons. On February 5, 2016, he had a season-best game with 30 points, 9 rebounds and 8 assists in a 115–110 loss to the Denver Nuggets. \n\nNew York Knicks (2016–present)\n\nOn June 22, 2016, Rose was traded, along with Justin Holiday and a 2017 second-round draft pick, to the New York Knicks in exchange for José Calderón, Jerian Grant and Robin Lopez. Rose recently told reporters that the Knicks are now considered one of two 'super teams' in the NBA, alongside the Golden State Warriors. \n\nNational team career\n\nRose was a member of the United States men's national basketball teams that won gold medals at the 2010 and 2014 FIBA World Cup respectively.\n\nPlayer profile\n\nStanding at 6 feet 3 inches tall (1.91 m) and weighing 190 pounds (86 kg), Rose plays mostly at point guard. Prior to his injury troubles, Rose established himself as one of the most athletic point guards in NBA history. Primarily a slasher, he averages 19.9 points per game for his career. During his MVP run, Rose was especially known for his ability to convert difficult layups. The biggest weakness cited in Rose's ability is his three-point shooting; he has a career average of 30.0% on three-point field goal attempts. He is also a poor jump shooter, but he has developed into a better bank-shot shooter since his eye problems affected his depth perception. He has made nearly 70% of his bank shots, even when he only made 40% of his shots. \n\nNBA career statistics\n\nRegular season\n\n\|-\n\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\| \n\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\| Chicago\n\| 81 \|\| 80 \|\| 37.0 \|\| .475 \|\| .222 \|\| .788 \|\| 3.9 \|\| 6.3 \|\| .8 \|\| .2 \|\| 16.8\n\|-\n\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\| \n\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\| Chicago\n\| 78 \|\| 78 \|\| 36.8 \|\| .489 \|\| .267 \|\| .766 \|\| 3.8 \|\| 6.0 \|\| .7 \|\| .3 \|\| 20.8\n\|-\n\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\| \n\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\| Chicago\n\| 81 \|\| 81 \|\| 37.4 \|\| .445 \|\| .332\|\| .858 \|\| 4.1 \|\| 7.7 \|\| 1.0 \|\| .6 \|\| 25.0\n\|-\n\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\| \n\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\| Chicago\n\| 39 \|\| 39 \|\| 35.3 \|\| .435 \|\| .312 \|\| .812 \|\| 3.4 \|\| 7.9 \|\| .9 \|\| .7 \|\| 21.8\n\|- \n\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\| \n\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\| Chicago\n\| 10 \|\| 10 \|\| 31.1 \|\| .354 \|\| .340 \|\| .844 \|\| 3.2 \|\| 4.3 \|\| .5 \|\| .1 \|\| 15.9\n\|- \n\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\| \n\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\| Chicago\n\| 51 \|\| 51 \|\| 30.0 \|\| .405 \|\| .280 \|\| .813 \|\| 3.2 \|\| 4.9 \|\| .7 \|\| .3 \|\| 17.7\n\|- \n\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\| \n\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\| Chicago\n\| 66 \|\| 66 \|\| 31.8 \|\| .427 \|\| .293 \|\| .793 \|\| 3.4 \|\| 4.7 \|\| .7 \|\| .2 \|\| 16.4\n\|- class=\"sortbottom\"\n\| style\"text-align:center;\" colspan\n\"2\"\| Career\n\| 406 \|\| 405 \|\| 35.0 \|\| .448 \|\| .302 \|\| .813 \|\| 3.7 \|\| 6.2 \|\| .8 \|\| .4 \|\| 19.7\n\|- class=\"sortbottom\"\n\| style\"text-align:center;\" colspan\n\"2\"\| All-Star\n\| 3 \|\| 2 \|\| 21.0 \|\| .517 \|\| .667 \|\| .500 \|\| 1.3 \|\| 4.0 \|\| 1.3 \|\| .0 \|\| 11.0\n\nPlayoffs\n\n\|-\n\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\| 2009\n\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\| Chicago\n\| 7 \|\| 7 \|\| 44.7 \|\| .492 \|\| .000 \|\| .800 \|\| 6.3 \|\| 6.4 \|\| .6 \|\| .7 \|\| 19.7\n\|-\n\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\| 2010\n\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\| Chicago\n\| 5 \|\| 5 \|\| 42.4 \|\| .456 \|\| .333 \|\| .818 \|\| 3.4 \|\| 7.2 \|\| .8 \|\| .0 \|\| 26.8\n\|-\n\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\| 2011\n\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\| Chicago\n\| 16 \|\| 16 \|\| 40.6 \|\| .396 \|\| .248 \|\| .828 \|\| 4.3 \|\| 7.7 \|\| 1.4 \|\| .7 \|\| 27.1\n\|-\n\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\| 2012\n\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\| Chicago\n\| 1 \|\| 1 \|\| 37.0 \|\| .391 \|\| .500 \|\| 1.000 \|\| 9.0 \|\| 9.0 \|\| 1.0 \|\| 1.0 \|\| 23.0\n\|-\n\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\| 2015\n\| style=\"text-align:left;\"\| Chicago\n\| 12 \|\| 12 \|\| 37.8 \|\| .396 \|\| .348 \|\| .897 \|\| 4.8 \|\| 6.5 \|\| 1.2 \|\| .5 \|\| 20.3\n\|- class=\"sortbottom\"\n\| style\"text-align:center;\" colspan\n\"2\"\| Career\n\| 41 \|\| 41 \|\| 40.6 \|\| .418 \|\| .290 \|\| .838 \|\| 4.8 \|\| 7.1 \|\| 1.1 \|\| .6 \|\| 23.7\n\nCareer highs\n\nRegular season\n\nPlayoffs\n\nAccomplishments and awards\n\nNBA\n\n* NBA Most Valuable Player: 2011\n* NBA All-Star Selection: 2010,[http://www.nba.com/2010/allstar/2010/01/28/reserves.release/index.html NBA.com: Nowitzki leads parade of reserves to Dallas] 2011, 2012 \n* All-NBA First Team: 2011 \n* NBA Rookie of the Year: 2009\n* NBA All-Rookie First Team: 2009\n* Skills Challenge Champion: 2009\n* Conference Rookie of the Month: November, December, March \n* Conference Player of the Month: April 2010, March 2011 \n\nCollege\n\nFreshman year (2007–08)\n* NCAA Tournament All-Final Four Team\n NCAA Tournament South Region MVP \n NABC 3rd Team All-American\nNABC All-District 7 First Team\nAll-Conference USA First Team \n Conference USA Freshman of the Year\nConference USA All Freshman Team 1st Team\nSporting News All-Freshman Team \nConference USA Player of the Week for games between December 17 through the 23rd \n 2K Sports College Hoops Classic MVP \n2K Sports College Hoops Classic All-Tournament Team\n\nHigh school\n\nSenior year (2006–07)\nClass AA State Championship\nClass AA Tournament MVP\n* Illinois Mr. Basketball 2007\n2007 McDonald's All-American\nUSA Today 2007 All-USA First Team \n2007 First-team Parade All-American\nEA Sports 2007 All-American First Team \nAll State Illinois 2007 \nMaxPreps.com All-America First Team\nSlam Magazine 2007 First Team\nMidStateHoops.com 2007 Class AA Player of the Year \nJunior year (2005–06)\nClass AA State Championship\nClass AA Tournament MVP\n2006 Parade All-American Fourth Team\nAll State Illinois 2006\nEA Sports 2006 All-American Second Team\nSophomore year (2004–05)\n2005 Parade All-American Third Team\nChicago Sun-Times All-Area \n\nOff the court\n\nPersonal life\n\nHis agent is former Bulls guard B. J. Armstrong. \n\nRose is a Christian. Rose has spoken about his faith saying, \"... God does everything for a reason.\" Rose wears a wristband that says \"In Jesus Name I Play\" and has several tattoos about his faith. \n\nOn October 9, 2012, Rose's girlfriend, Mieka Reese, gave birth to their son, Derrick Jr. \n\nEndorsements\n\nRose was the cover athlete of NBA 2K13 alongside fellow NBA players Kevin Durant and Blake Griffin. \n\nRose was the lone cover athlete for the 2K Sports Downloadable Content game, NBA 2K10 Draft Combine, which was released on Xbox Live Arcade for the Xbox 360 and PlayStation Network for the PlayStation 3. \n\nRose is a part-owner and spokesman for the Chicago-based Giordano's Pizzeria. \n\nIn 2008, Rose signed a shoe deal with Adidas for $1 million per year. He has also signed with Wilson Sporting Goods. Other endorsement deals include Skullcandy headphones, Powerade, Force Factor sports drinks and a suburban Chicago Nissan dealership. \n\nIn 2011, Rose was estimated by Crain's Chicago Business to earn $1.5–$2.5 million annually in endorsements, ranking just outside the top 10 NBA players in that category. In December 2011, it was reported that Rose was nearing a contract extension with Adidas, worth $250 million over 10 years." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Thricefold", "Triple (disambiguation)", "Triples", "Triple" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "triples", "triple", "triple disambiguation", "thricefold" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "triple", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Triple" }
What was Wham!'s first No 1?	tc_299	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Wham!.txt" ], "title": [ "Wham!" ], "wiki_context": [ "Wham! were an English musical duo formed by members George Michael and Andrew Ridgeley in the early 1980s. They were briefly known in the United States as Wham! UK due to a naming conflict with an American band. Wham! sold more than 25 million certified records worldwide from 1982 to 1986. \n\nHistory\n\nMichael and Ridgeley met at Bushey Meads School in Bushey near the town of Watford in Hertfordshire. The two at first performed in a short-lived ska band called The Executive, alongside three of their former school friends David (Austin) Mortimer, Harry Tadayon and Andrew Leaver. When this group split, Michael and Ridgeley eventually formed Wham!, signing with Innervision Records.\n\nMichael took on the majority of roles and responsibilities within the band—composer, producer, singer, and occasional instrumentalist. Still teenagers, they promoted themselves as hedonistic youngsters, proud to live a carefree life without work or commitment. This was reflected in their earliest singles which, part-parody, part-social comment, briefly earned Wham! a reputation as a dance protest group.\n\nThe debut record to be released by the band was \"Wham Rap! (Enjoy What You Do)\" in June 1982. It was a double A-side including the Social Mix and the Anti-Social Mix. The record was not playlisted by BBC Radio 1 in the UK, partly because of the profanity in the Anti-Social Mix. Separate videos were recorded for each set of lyrics.\n\n\"Wham Rap!\" did not chart for the group, but in October 1982 \"Young Guns (Go for It!)\" was issued. Initially, it also stalled outside the UK Top 40 but the band got lucky when the BBC programme Top of the Pops scheduled them after another act unexpectedly pulled out of the show.\n\nIncreasing success\n\nWham!'s first manager was Bryan Morrison. The effect of Wham! on the public, especially teenage girls, was felt from the moment they finished their début performance of \"Young Guns (Go for It!)\" on Top of the Pops. Michael wore espadrilles, an open suede jacket, and rolled-up denim jeans. Ridgeley stood behind him, flanked by backing dancers Dee C. Lee and Shirlie Holliman. Afterwards, the song shot into the Top 40 at No. 24 and peaked at No. 3 in December. The following year (1983), Dee C. Lee began her work with Paul Weller in The Style Council, and was replaced by Pepsi DeMacque. Holliman and DeMacque would later record as Pepsi & Shirlie.\n\nWham! followed up \"Young Guns (Go for It!)\" with a reissue of \"Wham Rap! (Enjoy What You Do)\", \"Bad Boys\" and \"Club Tropicana\". By the end of 1983, Wham! were competing against pop rivals Duran Duran and Culture Club as Britain's biggest pop act. Their début LP Fantastic spent two weeks at No. 1 in the UK album charts in 1983. Notoriety and increased newspaper and magazine coverage were duly achieved with their antics of placing shuttlecocks down their shorts during performances on their first tour, the Club Fantastic Tour.\n\nLegal disputes with Innervision\n\nSoon after this Ridgeley became conscious of legal problems with their initial contract at Innervision. While the legal battle raged, Innervision released a medley of non-single album tracks from Fantastic, entitled \"Club Fantastic Megamix\". Wham! publicly denounced the release and urged fans not to buy it. After all the legal wrangling, Innervision admitted there were royalty discrepancies with Wham!'s contract, the fall-out of which led to the bankruptcy and eventual dissolution of Innervision altogether in 1985.\n\nSwitch to Epic and continued success\n\nNow signed to Epic Records (and other CBS Records imprints around the world), Wham! returned in 1984 with an updated pop image. These changes helped to propel Wham!'s next single, \"Wake Me Up Before You Go-Go\", to the top of the charts around the world. It became their first UK #1 single and rose to that position in the USA as well, accompanied by a memorable video of the duo with Pepsi and Shirlie, all wearing Katharine Hamnett T-shirts with the slogans \"CHOOSE LIFE\" and \"GO GO\".\n\nThe next single \"Careless Whisper\" was issued as a George Michael solo piece, yet unlike any Wham! single except \"Wham Rap!\" and \"Club Tropicana\", it was co-written by Ridgeley. The song, about a remorseful two-timer, had more emotional depth than previous releases. It quickly reached No. 1, selling over 1.3 million copies in the UK. \"Careless Whisper\" marked a new phase in George Michael's career, as he somewhat distanced himself from Wham!'s playboy image. In the U.S.—so as not to confuse American listeners just being exposed to Wham!—the single was billed as \"Wham! featuring George Michael\".\n\nIn the autumn of 1984, Wham! returned as a duo with \"Freedom\", another UK chart-topper and the first single for quite some time to reach #1 in the UK without an accompanying video. Wham! subsequently decided to use a video edited together from footage of their tour of China in time for \"Freedom's\" U.S. single release. The group by then had achieved three number-one singles in a row. In November, they released their second album, Make It Big, which quickly climbed to #1 on the album charts, and the band set off on an arena tour at the end of 1984. \n\nThe double A-side single \"Last Christmas/Everything She Wants\" became the highest-selling single ever to peak at No. 2 in the UK charts. It stayed at No. 2 for five weeks and, to date, is the 24th best-selling single of all time in the United Kingdom, selling over 1.4 million copies in the UK. Wham! donated all their royalties from the single to the Ethiopian famine appeal to coincide with the fund-raising intentions of Band Aid's \"Do They Know It's Christmas?\", the song which kept them out of the top spot. Nevertheless, Band Aid's success meant that Michael had achieved #1 status in the UK within three separate entities in 1984—as a solo artist, as one half of a duo, and as part of a charity ensemble. \n\nAt the end of 1985, the U.S. Billboard charts listed \"Wake Me Up Before You Go-Go\" as the number-three song and \"Careless Whisper\" as the number-one song of the year. \n\nChina (1985)\n\nIn March 1985, Wham! took a break from recording to embark on a lengthy world tour, including a ground-breaking 10-day visit to China, the first by a Western pop group. The China excursion was a publicity scheme devised by Simon Napier-Bell (one of their two managers—Jazz Summers being the other). It culminated in a concert at the Workers' Gymnasium in Beijing in front of 15,000 people. Wham!'s visit to China attracted huge media attention across the world. Napier-Bell later admitted that he used cunning tactics to sabotage the efforts of rock band Queen to be the first to play in China: he made two brochures for the Chinese authorities – one featuring Wham! fans as pleasant middle-class youngsters, and one portraying Queen lead singer Freddie Mercury in typically flamboyant poses. The Chinese opted for Wham! \n\nBritish Director Lindsay Anderson was engaged to accompany Wham! to China and make a documentary film about the visit. The film was shot over two weeks of March and April and edited over late spring and summer 1985 in London. Anderson called his one-hour and 18 minute film If You Were There.\nIn the final stages of editing, Anderson was dismissed by Wham!'s management, the editing team quit, and the film was entirely re-edited, renamed and released as Foreign Skies: Wham! In China. According to a 2006 interview with The Independent, Andy Stephens, manager for George Michael, says that the film [Anderson's version] was simply not good enough to be shown in public. \"It's a dreadful film ... It's 20 years old and it's rubbish. Why on earth should we allow it to be shown?\"\n\nLive Aid (1985)\n\nSporting a beard, Michael appeared with Ridgeley onstage at Live Aid on 13 July 1985 (although they did not perform as Wham!). Michael sang \"Don't Let the Sun Go Down on Me\" with Elton John while Ridgeley joined Kiki Dee in the row of backing singers. In September, Wham! released the single \"I'm Your Man\" which went to No. 1 in the UK charts.\n\nMichael claimed to have begun a relationship with model/makeup artist Kathy Yeung around this time, and Ridgeley began one with Keren Woodward of Bananarama. Ridgeley also took up the hobby of rally driving. \"Last Christmas\" was re-issued for the festive season and again made the UK Top 10, peaking at No. 6, while Michael took up offers he was starting to receive to add his voice to other artists' songs. He performed backing vocals for David Cassidy, and also for Elton John on his successful singles \"Nikita\" (UK No. 3) and \"Wrap Her Up\" (UK No. 12), on which he sang co-lead vocals.\n\nBreakup (1986)\n\nMichael was keen to create music targeted at a more sophisticated adult market rather than the duo's primarily teenage audience and therefore, Michael and Ridgeley officially announced the breakup of Wham! in the spring of 1986. Before going their separate ways, a farewell single \"The Edge of Heaven\", and a greatest hits record titled The Final would be forthcoming, along with a farewell concert entitled The Final. Announcing the breakup, Michael said: \"I think it should be the most amicable split in pop history.\" \n\nThe farewell single reached No. 1 in June 1986. \"Where Did Your Heart Go?\" was the group's final single in the United States. The song, originally recorded by Was (Not Was), was a gloomy and sombre affair. The duo's last release was a double-LP collection of all the singles to date, including some extended versions. This was released in North America as the severely pared-down Music from the Edge of Heaven with alternate tracks.\n\nAt London's Wembley Stadium on Saturday 28 June 1986, Wham! bade goodbye to their fans and each other with an emotional embrace at the end of its final concert. 72,000 people attended the eight-hour event, which included support artists, on a scorching hot day in London. The band had been together for five years, selling over 25 million albums and 15 million singles. Foreign Skies, the documentary of their tour of China, received its world premiere as part of the festivities.\n\nPost-Wham!\n\nFor several years after becoming a solo artist, George Michael spoke negatively, in public, about his time with Wham!, partly because of the negativity of intense media coverage on Ridgeley. Michael complained of the constant pressure he felt, and he claimed that the duo had been mistreated financially. He also spoke disparagingly about some of the songs from the Wham! repertoire, especially the songs from the first album. \n\nHowever, his perspective on the era has softened somewhat in recent years. At his solo concerts he still performs \"I'm Your Man\" and \"Everything She Wants\", one of the more critically acclaimed songs from the Wham! era.\n\nAndrew Ridgeley moved to Monaco after Wham!'s break-up and tried his hand at Formula Three motor racing. Meeting with little success, Ridgeley moved to Los Angeles to pursue his singing/acting career, the failure of which caused him to return to England in 1990. Regardless, CBS Records, having taken up the option on Wham!'s contract that specified solo albums from Michael and Ridgeley, released a solo effort from Ridgeley, Son of Albert, in 1990. After poor sales, CBS declined the option of a second album.\n\nOn 25 June 1988, George Michael's 25th birthday, he played the third of three dates at Birmingham's NEC as part of the Faith World Tour. He became visibly emotional when he was surprised on stage by many members of his family with Andrew Ridgeley, who was pushing a trolley carrying a huge birthday cake. They led the 13,000-strong crowd in a rendition of \"Happy Birthday\", before Ridgely accompanied Michael in a performance of \"I'm Your Man\"\n\nIn January 1991, Ridgeley joined George Michael on stage for a few songs at the encore of his performance at the Rock in Rio event at the Maracanã Stadium in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.\n\nOn 21 November 2009, there was a Wham!-themed night on television's The X Factor in the UK. Michael later appeared on the show's final episode, performing a duet of \"Don't Let the Sun Go Down on Me\" with finalist and eventual winner Joe McElderry.\n\nIn 2012, Michael said that there was no truth in speculation that he and Ridgeley were set for a Wham! reunion to mark the 30th anniversary of the group's first record. \n\nDiscography\n\n* Fantastic (1983)\n* Make It Big (1984)\n* Music from the Edge of Heaven (1986)" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Wake Me Up Before You Go-Go", "Wake Me Up Before You Go Go" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "wake me up before you go go" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "wake me up before you go go", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Wake Me Up Before You Go Go" }
Which musical featured the song You'll Never Walk Alone?	tc_300	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "You'll_Never_Walk_Alone.txt" ], "title": [ "You'll Never Walk Alone" ], "wiki_context": [ "\"You'll Never Walk Alone\" is a show tune from the 1945 Rodgers and Hammerstein musical Carousel.\nIn the second act of the musical, Nettie Fowler, the cousin of the female protagonist Julie Jordan, sings \"You'll Never Walk Alone\" to comfort and encourage Julie when her husband, Billy Bigelow, the male lead, commits suicide after a failed robbery attempt. It is reprised in the final scene to encourage a graduation class of which Louise (Billy and Julie's daughter) is a member. The now invisible Billy, who has been granted the chance to return to Earth for one day in order to redeem himself, watches the ceremony and is able to silently motivate the unhappy Louise to join in the song.\n\nThe song is also sung at association football clubs around the world, where it is performed by a massed chorus of supporters on matchday; this tradition began at Liverpool Football Club in the early 1960s.\n\nBackground\n\nChristine Johnson, who created the role of Nettie Fowler, introduced the song in the original Broadway production. Later in the show Jan Clayton, as Julie Jordan, reprised it, with the chorus joining in.\n\nIn the film, it is first sung by Claramae Turner as Nettie. The weeping Julie Jordan (Shirley Jones) tries to sing it but cannot; it is later reprised by Julie and those attending the graduation.\n\nSubsequent history\n\nBesides the recordings of the song on the Carousel cast albums and the film soundtrack, the song has been recorded by many artists, with notable hit versions made by Roy Hamilton, Frank Sinatra, Gerry & the Pacemakers, Judy Garland, Elvis Presley, Andy Williams, and Doris Day. Progressive rock group Pink Floyd took a recording by the Liverpool Kop choir, and \"interpolated\" it into their own song, \"Fearless\", on their 1971 album Meddle.\n\nFrom 1964 through 2010, Jerry Lewis concluded the annual Jerry Lewis MDA Telethon by singing the song. After the end of a concert by the rock band Queen, the audience spontaneously sang this song, according to lead guitarist Brian May, and this helped to inspire the creation of their songs \"We Are the Champions\" and \"We Will Rock You\". Italian-American tenor Sergio Franchi sang a notable version accompanied by the Welsh Men's Choir on the June 9, 1968 telecast of The Ed Sullivan Show. He also covered this song in his 1964 RCA Victor album The Exciting Voice of Sergio Franchi. American singer and songwriter Barbra Streisand sang this song in a surprise appearance at the close of the 2001 Emmy Awards, in honor of the victims of the September 11th, 2001 attacks. \n\nIn 1990 at the Nelson Mandela: An International Tribute for a Free South Africa concert at Wembley Stadium London, the audience spontaneously broke out into a mass rendition. Mandela turned to Adelaide Tambo who accompanied him onto the stage and asked what the song was. She replied, \"A football song\".\n\nRenée Fleming sang the song at the Concert for America, which marked the first anniversary of 9/11, and for the Inauguration of Barack Obama on January 20, 2009. \n \nIn 2010, this was sung during the festivities of the Last Night of the Proms, with the choir at the Royal Albert Hall joined by crowds of the public from Hillsborough Castle, Northern Ireland; Caird Hall, Dundee; Hyde Park, London; Salford, Greater Manchester; and Wales, to mark the fiftieth anniversary of the death of Oscar Hammerstein II.\n\nIn the second season of American Horror Story, this song was recited as a poem.\n\nIt has been the song of the Madison Scouts drum and bugle corps song since 1954, where they first performed it as a part of their first field show in 1954. Challenged by the Rosemont Cavaliers singing \"Somewhere Over The Rainbow\" in 1957, the corps responded with \"You'll Never Walk Alone\", and it has been the official corps song ever since. \n\nSporting anthem\n\nIn the United Kingdom, the song's most successful cover was released in 1963 by the Liverpudlian Merseybeat group Gerry and the Pacemakers, peaking at number one in the singles chart for four consecutive weeks. The song quickly became the anthem of Liverpool Football Club and is invariably sung by its supporters moments before the start of each home game. \n\nAccording to former player Tommy Smith, lead vocalist Gerry Marsden presented Liverpool manager Bill Shankly with a recording of his forthcoming cover single during a pre-season coach trip in the summer of 1963. \"Shanks was in awe of what he heard. ... Football writers from the local newspapers were travelling with our party and, thirsty for a story of any kind between games, filed copy back to their editors to the effect that we had adopted Gerry Marsden's forthcoming single as the club song.\" The squad was subsequently invited to perform the track with the band on The Ed Sullivan Show and Shankly later picked the song as his eighth and final selection for Desert Island Discs on the eve of the 1965 FA Cup Final. \n\nMarsden himself told BBC Radio how, in the 1960s, the disc jockey at Anfield would play the top-ten commercial records in descending order, with the number one single played last, shortly before kickoff. Spectators would sing along, but unlike with other hit singles, once \"You'll Never Walk Alone\" dropped out of the top-ten, instead of disregarding the song, supporters continued to sing it. \n\nThe song was later adopted by Scottish team Celtic and is now sung by their fans prior to every home European tie. The song has also been adopted by Dutch teams Feyenoord, FC Twente and SC Cambuur, Germany's Borussia Dortmund, FSV Mainz 05, 1. FC Kaiserslautern, SV Darmstadt 98, Eintracht Braunschweig, Borussia Mönchengladbach, VfL Osnabrück, Alemannia Aachen, FC St Pauli, TSV 1860 Munich, Belgium's Club Brugge, Japan's F.C. Tokyo, Spain's CD Lugo. and the Marist St. Pats MSP 80/80 Blues. In Ice Hockey, the song has been adopted by German Deutsche Eishockey Liga side Krefeld Pinguine and Croatian Medveščak Zagreb.\n\nA special recording of the song was made in solidarity with Bradford City following the Valley Parade fire in 1985, when 56 spectators died and many more were seriously injured. The song was performed by The Crowd, featuring Gerry Marsden and Paul McCartney, among others.\n\nSome years later, after witnessing a rendition of \"You'll Never Walk Alone\" at Anfield in 2007, the President of the Spanish Olympic Committee, Alejandro Blanco, said he felt inspired to seek lyrics to his country's wordless national anthem, the Marcha Real, ahead of Madrid's bid to host the 2016 Olympic Games. \n\nDuring the 2014 Hong Kong protests, legislator Tam Yiu Chung quoted the song during a Legislative Council of Hong Kong meeting, to salute the Hong Kong Police, who had received widespread criticism for using excessive force against pro-democracy protesters. More than 2,000 Liverpool Football Club fans in Hong Kong condemned his inappropriate use of the song, comparing his support of the police action to the police actions in the 1989 Hillsborough disaster, where British Police were found to have distorted facts relating to the unlawful killing by negligence of 96 Liverpool supporters.\n \n \n \n\nThe song was also the inspiration for Australian Football League club Port Adelaide’s use of Never Tear Us Apart by INXS as their pre-match anthem, which is played before every AFL home game at Adelaide Oval. \n\nOn March 13, 2016, after Borussia Dortmund's 2-0 win against 1. FSV Mainz 05 in the German Bundesliga, supporters of both teams performed the song to commemorate a Dortmund fan who died from a cardiac arrest in the stands during the game. \n\nRecorded versions\n\nThe Adicts \nAlfie Boe (\"Onward\") (2007)\nAlicia Keys (Hurricane Katrina disaster relief, 2005)\nAndré Hazes\nAndré Rieu (2009 Maastricht concert)\nAndy Williams (with orchestra conducted by Archie Bleyer)\nAretha Franklin (1972, on the live album Amazing Grace)\nThe Bachelors\nBarbra Streisand\nBarry Manilow & Cilla Black (1993) \nBela B. & the Tikiwolves feat. Gary'o'Wolf (official FC St. Pauli Stadionhymn, 1992)\nBernadette Peters\nBilly Eckstine (1960): Live album No Cover, No Minimum, recorded in Las Vegas. Production was by Teddy Reig. The album was originally released by Roulette Records, but is also available on the Blue Note label.\nBryn Terfel (1996) – Something Wonderful: Bryn Terfel Sings Rodgers and Hammerstein\nCharice (2008)\nCeltic Woman (Believe 2011) \nChris de Burgh (2008)\nChristy Gibson (Thai Language Version) (2001) – Soo Yod Kao\nChristine Johnson on the Carousel Original Cast Album (1945)\nClaramae Turner on the Carousel film soundtrack (1956)\nThe Crowd (1985)\nThe Crusaders (1966)\nDavid Campbell (2010)\nDavid Phelps on the album Classic (2012)\nDavid Whitfield\nDie Toten Hosen (2000, Bayern ep)\nDionne Warwick (1967, On Stage and in the Movies album track)\nDoris Akers (1963)\nDoris Day (on the You'll Never Walk Alone album) (1962)\nDropkick Murphys (the band begun performing the song live in 2016 and plan to record it for their ninth studio album)\nDudu Fisher (2006)\nElha Mae Nympha (2015, performed on the Live Semi-finals on the second season of The Voice Kids, and was moved to the grand finals)\nElvis Presley (1968 single release)\nEngelbert Humperdinck (1972 album \"Live at the Riviera\", in Las Vegas)\nFrank Sinatra (1945) (1963)\nFrankie Vaughan (1979)\nGene Vincent (1958) (Gene Vincent Rocks and the Blue Caps Roll album track)\nGerry & The Pacemakers (1963)\nHayley Westenra (2001)\nIl Divo (A Musical Affair, 2013)\nJackie Wilson (1965)\nJerry Reed (1971) (Ko-Ko Joe album track)\nJo Stafford and Gordon MacRae (1963)\nJohn Barrowman (2010) (John Barrowman album track)\nJohn Farnham (1998) - The Spirit of Christmas (compilation album)\nJohnny Cash (2003)\nJohnny Preston (1960) \nJohnny Maestro & the Brooklyn Bridge (1969)\nJoseph Calleja (Last Night of the Proms, 2012) \nJosh Groban (2015) \nJoyce DiDonato (2012) \nJuan Diego Flórez (Live 8 – Berlin) (2005)\nJudy Garland (1960) \nKatherine Jenkins (2005)\nKevin Rowland (1999)\nKiri Te Kanawa with the Mormon Tabernacle Choir (1990) – Songs of Inspiration\nLee Greenwood\nLee Towers (1976) \nThe Lettermen (1964) \nLiverpool F.C. (1977) (FA Cup single: A-side - \"We Can Do It\" / \"Liverpool Lou\" B-side - \"We Shall Not Be Moved\" / \"You'll Never Walk Alone\")\nLos Fastidios\nLouis Armstrong (1954) in a medley with Tenderly\nMahalia Jackson\nMalena Ernman (2013)\nMalcolm Vaughan (1959)\nMark Vincent (2010)\nMario Lanza (1952 and 1956)\nMaureen Forrester on the Carousel MCA Classics album (1987)\nMelanie Chisholm (2012)\nMichael Crawford (1987)\nMormon Tabernacle Choir (1971)\nThe Muppets (1980) on an episode of The Muppet Show\nNina Simone (1960, At Newport)\nOlivia Newton-John (1989) – Warm and Tender\nPatricia Neway in the soundtrack of the 1967 television adaptation of Carousel (1967)\nPatti Labelle & The Blue Belles (1964)\nPatti LaBelle (1980's)\nPink Floyd (1971) – \"Fearless\"\nPips, Chips & Videoclips (Dernjava album, 1995)\nThe Priests (2009)\nPerry Como (1956)\nRay Charles (Ingredients in a Recipe for Soul album track, July 1963)\nRegine Velasquez (1992)\nRenée Fleming (2003)\nThe Righteous Brothers (1965)\nRobin S (appears on the 1998 movie soundtrack, Welcome to Woop Woop)\nRobson & Jerome (1996)\nRoy Hamilton (1954)\nSamuel Ramey (1989)\nSergio Franchi recorded on 1964 RCA album, The Exciting Voice of Sergio Franchi\nThe Shadows (Reflection album track, 1990)\nShirley Bassey (1962, single B-side to \"Ave Maria\") \nShirley Jones recorded it on the original movie soundtrack of Carousel and again on her 1989 album Silent Strength\nSissel Kyrkjebø (2004)\nSmoking Popes\nThe Soldiers (2011)\nSteven Houghton (1997) – Steven Houghton\nSusan Boyle (Standing Ovation: The Greatest Songs from the Stage, 2012)\nTammy Wynette \n The 465 CT Transit driver with Máiréad Nesbitt on the Violin during EWR's Arrivals Ceremony (2013)\nThe Three Tenors (The Three Tenors: Paris 1998, 1998)\nTokyo Ska Paradise Orchestra (2009) – Paradise Blue\nTom Jones (1969)\nTrisha Yearwood (2016) - The Passion\nVocal Majority (1997) – How Sweet the Sound\nWayne Hussey and Julianne Regan (as Hussey-Regan) (2011) (in support of Liverpool F.C.'s disability charity, Respect 4 All)" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Carousels", "🎠", "Merry-go-round", "Loof", "Marry Go Round", "Merry-Go-Round", "Merry Go Round", "Merry go round", "Merry-go-Round", "Merrygoround", "Carousel", "Carrousel" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "carrousel", "carousels", "carousel", "merry go round", "🎠", "merrygoround", "marry go round", "loof" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "carousel", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Carousel" }
In which year was Bloody Sunday in Londonderry?	tc_301	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Bloody_Sunday_(1972).txt", "Derry.txt" ], "title": [ "Bloody Sunday (1972)", "Derry" ], "wiki_context": [ "Bloody Sunday – sometimes called the Bogside Massacre – was an incident on 30 January 1972 in the Bogside area of Derry, Northern Ireland. British soldiers shot 26 unarmed civilians during a protest march against internment. Fourteen people died: thirteen were killed outright, while the death of another man four months later was attributed to his injuries. Many of the victims were shot while fleeing from the soldiers and some were shot while trying to help the wounded. Other protesters were injured by rubber bullets or batons, and two were run down by army vehicles. The march had been organised by the Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association and the Northern Resistance Movement. The soldiers involved were members of the 1st Battalion, Parachute Regiment, also known as \"1 Para\".\n\nTwo investigations have been held by the British government. The Widgery Tribunal, held in the immediate aftermath of the incident, largely cleared the soldiers and British authorities of blame. It described the soldiers' shooting as \"bordering on the reckless\", but accepted their claims that they shot at gunmen and bomb-throwers. The report was widely criticised as a \"whitewash\". The Saville Inquiry, chaired by Lord Saville of Newdigate, was established in 1998 to reinvestigate the incident. Following a 12-year inquiry, Saville's report was made public in 2010 and concluded that the killings were both \"unjustified\" and \"unjustifiable\". It found that all of those shot were unarmed, that none were posing a serious threat, that no bombs were thrown, and that soldiers \"knowingly put forward false accounts\" to justify their firing. On the publication of the report, British prime minister David Cameron made a formal apology on behalf of the United Kingdom. Following this, police began a murder investigation into the killings.\n\nBloody Sunday was one of the most significant events of \"the Troubles\" because a large number of civilian citizens were killed, by forces of the state, in full view of the public and the press. It was the highest number of people killed in a single shooting incident during the conflict. Bloody Sunday increased Catholic and Irish nationalist hostility towards the British Army and exacerbated the conflict. Support for the Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) rose and there was a surge of recruitment into the organisation, especially locally. \n\nBackground\n\nThe City of Derry was perceived by many Catholics and Irish nationalists in Northern Ireland to be the epitome of what was described as \"fifty years of Unionist misrule\": despite having a nationalist majority, gerrymandering ensured elections to the City Corporation always returned a unionist majority. At the same time the city was perceived to be deprived of public investment – rail routes to the city were closed, motorways were not extended to it, a university was opened in the relatively small (Protestant-majority) town of Coleraine rather than Derry and, above all, the city's housing stock was in an appalling state. The city therefore became a significant focus of the civil rights campaign led by organisations such as Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association (NICRA) in the late 1960s and it was in Derry that the so-called Battle of the Bogside – the event that more than any other pushed the Northern Ireland administration to ask for military support for civil policing – took place in August 1969. \n\nWhile many Catholics initially welcomed the British Army as a neutral force, in contrast to what was regarded as a sectarian police force, relations between them soon deteriorated. \n\nIn response to escalating levels of violence across Northern Ireland, internment without trial was introduced on 9 August 1971. There was disorder across Northern Ireland following the introduction of internment, with 21 people being killed in three days of rioting. In Belfast, soldiers of the Parachute Regiment shot dead 11 Catholic civilians in what became known as the Ballymurphy Massacre. On 10 August, Bombardier Paul Challenor became the first soldier to be killed by the Provisional IRA in Derry, when he was shot by a sniper on the Creggan estate. A further six soldiers had been killed in Derry by mid-December 1971. At least 1,332 rounds were fired at the British Army, who also faced 211 explosions and 180 nail bombs, and who fired 364 rounds in return.\n\nIRA activity also increased across Northern Ireland with thirty British soldiers being killed in the remaining months of 1971, in contrast to the ten soldiers killed during the pre-internment period of the year. Both the Official IRA and Provisional IRA had established no-go areas for the British Army and RUC in Derry through the use of barricades. By the end of 1971, 29 barricades were in place to prevent access to what was known as Free Derry, 16 of them impassable even to the British Army's one-ton armoured vehicles. IRA members openly mounted roadblocks in front of the media, and daily clashes took place between nationalist youths and the British Army at a spot known as \"aggro corner\". Due to rioting and damage to shops caused by incendiary devices, an estimated total of worth of damage had been done to local businesses.\n\nOn 18 January 1972 Brian Faulkner, Prime Minister of Northern Ireland, banned all parades and marches in Northern Ireland until the end of the year.\n\nOn 22 January 1972, a week before Bloody Sunday, an anti-internment march was held at Magilligan strand, near Derry. The protesters marched to a new internment camp there, but were stopped by soldiers of the Parachute Regiment. When some protesters threw stones and tried to go around the barbed wire, paratroopers drove them back by firing rubber bullets at close range and making baton charges. The paratroopers badly beat a number of protesters and had to be physically restrained by their own officers. These allegations of brutality by paratroopers were reported widely on television and in the press. Some in the Army also thought there had been undue violence by the paratroopers. \n\nNICRA intended, despite the ban, to hold another anti-internment march in Derry on Sunday 30 January. The authorities decided to allow it to proceed in the Catholic areas of the city, but to stop it from reaching Guildhall Square, as planned by the organisers. The authorities expected that this would lead to rioting. Major General Robert Ford, then Commander of Land Forces in Northern Ireland, ordered that the 1st Battalion, Parachute Regiment (1 Para), should travel to Derry to be used to arrest possible rioters. The arrest operation was codenamed 'Operation Forecast'. The Saville Report criticised General Ford for choosing the Parachute Regiment for the operation, as it had \"a reputation for using excessive physical violence\". The paratroopers arrived in Derry on the morning of the march and took up positions in the city. Brigadier Pat MacLellan was the operational commander and issued orders from Ebrington Barracks. He gave orders to Lieutenant Colonel Derek Wilford, commander of 1 Para. He in turn gave orders to Major Ted Loden, who commanded the company who launched the arrest operation.\n\nEvents of the day\n\nThe protesters planned on marching from Bishop's Field, in the Creggan housing estate, to the Guildhall, in the city centre, where they would hold a rally. The march set off at about 2:45pm. There were 10–15,000 people on the march, with many joining along its route. Lord Widgery, in his now discredited tribunal, said that there were only 3,000 to 5,000.\n\nThe march made its way along William Street but, as it neared the city centre, its path was blocked by British Army barriers. The organisers redirected the march down Rossville Street, intending to hold the rally at Free Derry Corner instead. However, some broke off from the march and began throwing stones at soldiers manning the barriers. The soldiers fired rubber bullets, CS gas and water cannon to try and disperse the rioters. Such clashes between soldiers and youths were common, and observers reported that the rioting was not intense. \n\nSome of the crowd spotted paratroopers hiding in a derelict three-storey building overlooking William Street, and began throwing stones at the windows. At about 3:55pm, these paratroopers opened fire. Civilians Damien Donaghy and John Johnston were shot and wounded while standing on waste ground opposite the building. These were the first shots fired. The soldiers claimed Donaghy was holding a black cylindrical object, but the Saville Inquiry concluded that all of those shot were unarmed.\n\nAt 4:07pm, the paratroopers were ordered to go through the barriers and arrest rioters. The paratroopers, on foot and in armoured vehicles, chased people down Rossville Street and into the Bogside. Two people were knocked down by the vehicles. Brigadier MacLellan had ordered that only one company of paratroopers be sent through the barriers, on foot, and that they should not chase people down Rossville Street. Colonel Wilford disobeyed this order, which meant there was no separation between rioters and peaceful marchers. \n\nThe paratroopers disembarked and began seizing people. There were many claims of paratroopers beating people, clubbing them with rifle butts, firing rubber bullets at them from close range, making threats to kill, and hurling abuse. The Saville Report agreed that soldiers \"used excessive force when arresting people […] as well as seriously assaulting them for no good reason while in their custody\". \n\nOne group of paratroopers took up position at a low wall about 80 yd in front of a rubble barricade that stretched across Rossville Street. There were people at the barricade and some were throwing stones at the soldiers, but none were near enough to hit them. The soldiers fired on the people at the barricade, killing six and wounding a seventh. \n\nA large group of people fled or were chased into the car park of Rossville Flats. This area was like a courtyard, surrounded on three sides by high-rise flats. The soldiers opened fire, killing one civilian and wounding six others. This fatality, Jackie Duddy, was running alongside a priest, Father Edward Daly, when he was shot in the back. \n\nAnother group of people fled into the car park of Glenfada Park, which was also a courtyard-like area surrounded by flats. Here, the soldiers shot at people across the car park, about 40–50 yards away. Two civilians were killed and at least four others wounded. The Saville Report says it is \"probable\" that at least one soldier fired from the hip towards the crowd, without aiming. \n\nThe soldiers went through the car park and out the other side. Some soldiers went out the southwest corner, where they shot dead two civilians. The other soldiers went out the southeast corner and shot four more civilians, killing two. \n\nAbout ten minutes had elapsed between the time soldiers drove into the Bogside and the time the last of the civilians was shot. More than 100 rounds were fired by the soldiers.\n\nSome of those shot were given first aid by civilian volunteers, either on the scene or after being carried into nearby homes. They were then driven to hospital, either in civilian cars or in ambulances. The first ambulances arrived at 4:28pm. The three boys killed at the rubble barricade were driven to hospital by the paratroopers. Witnesses said paratroopers lifted the bodies by the hands and feet and dumped them in the back of their APC, as if they were \"pieces of meat\". The Saville Report agreed that this is an \"accurate description of what happened\". It says the paratroopers \"might well have felt themselves at risk, but in our view this does not excuse them\". \n\nCasualties\n\nIn all, 26 people were shot by the paratroopers; 13 died on the day and another died four months later. Most of them were killed in four main areas: the rubble barricade across Rossville Street, the courtyard car park of Rossville Flats (on the north side of the flats), the courtyard car park of Glenfada Park, and the forecourt of Rossville Flats (on the south side of the flats).\n\nAll of the soldiers responsible insisted that they had shot at, and hit, gunmen or bomb-throwers. The Saville Report concluded that all of those shot were unarmed and that none were posing a serious threat. It also concluded that none of the soldiers fired in response to attacks, or threatened attacks, by gunmen or bomb-throwers. \n\nThe casualties are listed in the order in which they were killed.\n\n* John 'Jackie' Duddy, age 17. Shot as he ran away from soldiers in the car park of Rossville Flats. The bullet struck him in the shoulder and entered his chest. Three witnesses said they saw a soldier take deliberate aim at the youth as he ran. He was the first fatality on Bloody Sunday. Like Saville, Widgery also concluded that Kelly was unarmed. His nephew is boxer John Duddy.\n* Michael Kelly, age 17. Shot in the stomach while standing at the rubble barricade on Rossville Street. Both Saville and Widgery concluded that Kelly was unarmed.\n* Hugh Gilmour (or Gilmore), age 17. Shot as he ran away from soldiers near the rubble barricade. The bullet went through his left elbow and entered his chest. Widgery acknowledged that a photograph taken seconds after Gilmour was hit corroborated witness reports that he was unarmed, and that tests for gunshot residue were negative.\n* William Nash, age 19. Shot in the chest at the rubble barricade. Witnesses stated Nash was unarmed. Three people were shot while apparently going to his aid, including his father Alexander Nash.[http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20101103103930/http://report.bloody-sunday-inquiry.org/volume05/chapter086/ Report of the Bloody Sunday Inquiry, Volume V, Chapter 86], paragraphs 360-364\n* John Young, age 17. Shot in the face at the rubble barricade, apparently while crouching and going to the aid of William Nash. Two witnesses stated Young was unarmed.\n* Michael McDaid, age 20. Shot in the face at the rubble barricade, apparently while crouching and going to the aid of William Nash.\n* Kevin McElhinney, age 17. Shot from behind, near the rubble barricade, while attempting to crawl to safety. Two witnesses stated McElhinney was unarmed.\n* James 'Jim' Wray, age 22. Shot in the back while running away from soldiers in Glenfada Park courtyard. He was then shot again in the back as he lay mortally wounded on the ground. Witnesses, who were not called to the Widgery Tribunal, stated that Wray was calling out that he could not move his legs before he was shot the second time.\n* William McKinney, age 26. Shot in the back as he attempted to flee through Glenfada Park courtyard. \n* Gerard McKinney, age 35. Shot in the chest at Abbey Park. A soldier ran through an alleyway from Glenfada Park and shot him from a few yards away. Witnesses said that when he saw the soldier, McKinney stopped and held up his arms, shouting \"Don't shoot! Don't shoot!\", before being shot. The bullet apparently went through his body and struck Gerard Donaghy behind him.\n* Gerard Donaghy, age 17. Shot in the stomach at Abbey Park while standing behind Gerard McKinney. Both were apparently struck by the same bullet. Bystanders brought Donaghy to a nearby house, where he was examined by a doctor. The doctor opened Donaghy's clothes to examine him, and his pockets were also searched for identification. Two bystanders then attempted to drive Donaghy to hospital, but the car was stopped at an Army checkpoint. They were ordered to leave the car and a soldier drove it to a Regimental Aid Post, where an Army medical officer pronounced Donaghy dead. Shortly after, soldiers found four nail bombs in his pockets. The civilians who searched him, the soldier who drove him to the Army post, and the Army medical officer, all said that they did not see any bombs. This led to claims that soldiers planted the bombs on Donaghy to justify the killings. Donaghy was a member of Fianna Éireann, an IRA-linked republican youth movement. Paddy Ward, a police informer[http://www.derryjournal.com/journal/Death-of-39informer39-.6096320.jp Death of 'informer' – Local – Derry Journal] who gave evidence at the Saville Inquiry, claimed he gave two nail bombs to Donaghy several hours before he was shot. The Saville Report concluded that the bombs were probably in Donaghy's pockets when he was shot. However, it concluded that he was not about to throw a bomb when he was shot; and that he was not shot because he had bombs. \"He was shot while trying to escape from the soldiers\".\n* Patrick Doherty, age 31. Shot from behind while attempting to crawl to safety in the forecourt of Rossville Flats. He was shot by soldiers who came out of Glenfada Park. Doherty was photographed, moments before and after he died, by French journalist Gilles Peress. Despite testimony from \"Soldier F\" that he had shot a man holding a pistol, Widgery acknowledged that the photographs show Doherty was unarmed, and that forensic tests on his hands for gunshot residue proved negative. \n* Bernard 'Barney' McGuigan, age 41. Shot in the head when he walked out from cover to help Patrick Doherty. He had been waving a white handkerchief to indicate his peaceful intentions. \n* John Johnston, age 59. Shot in the leg and left shoulder on William Street 15 minutes before the rest of the shooting started. Johnston was not on the march, but on his way to visit a friend in Glenfada Park. He died on 16 June 1972; his death has been attributed to the injuries he received on the day. He was the only one not to die immediately or soon after being shot.\n\nAftermath\n\nThirteen people were shot and killed, with another man later dying of his wounds. The official army position, backed by the British Home Secretary the next day in the House of Commons, was that the paratroopers had reacted to gun and nail bomb attacks from suspected IRA members. All eyewitnesses (apart from the soldiers), including marchers, local residents, and British and Irish journalists present, maintain that soldiers fired into an unarmed crowd, or were aiming at fleeing people and those tending the wounded, whereas the soldiers themselves were not fired upon. No British soldier was wounded by gunfire or reported any injuries, nor were any bullets or nail bombs recovered to back up their claims.\n\nOn 2 February, the day that 12 of those killed were buried, there was a general strike in the Republic, described as the biggest general strike in Europe since the Second World War relative to population. Memorial services were held in Catholic and Protestant churches, as well as synagogues, throughout the Republic. The same day, irate crowds burned down the British embassy on Merrion Square in Dublin. Anglo-Irish relations hit one of their lowest ebbs with the Irish Minister for Foreign Affairs, Patrick Hillery, going to the United Nations Security Council in New York to demand the involvement of a UN peacekeeping force in the Northern Ireland \"Troubles\". \n\nAlthough there were many IRA men—both Official and Provisional—at the protest, it is claimed they were all unarmed, apparently because it was anticipated that the paratroopers would attempt to \"draw them out.\" March organiser and MP Ivan Cooper had been promised beforehand that no armed IRA men would be near the march. One paratrooper who gave evidence at the tribunal testified that they were told by an officer to expect a gunfight and \"We want some kills.\" In the event, one man was witnessed by Father Edward Daly and others haphazardly firing a revolver in the direction of the paratroopers. Later identified as a member of the Official IRA, this man was also photographed in the act of drawing his weapon, but was apparently not seen or targeted by the soldiers. Various other claims have been made to the Saville Inquiry about gunmen on the day. \n\nThe city's coroner, Hubert O'Neill, a retired British Army major, issued a statement on 21 August 1973 at the completion of the inquest into the deaths of those killed. He declared:\n\nTwo days after Bloody Sunday, the Westminster Parliament adopted a resolution for a tribunal into the events of the day, resulting in Prime Minister Edward Heath commissioning the Lord Chief Justice, Lord Widgery, to undertake it. Many witnesses intended to boycott the tribunal as they lacked faith in Widgery's impartiality, but were eventually persuaded to take part. Widgery's quickly-produced report—completed within 10 weeks (10 April) and published within 11 (19 April)—supported the Army's account of the events of the day. Among the evidence presented to the tribunal were the results of paraffin tests, used to identify lead residues from firing weapons, and that nail bombs had been found on the body of one of those killed. Tests for traces of explosives on the clothes of eleven of the dead proved negative, while those of the remaining man could not be tested as they had already been washed. Most witnesses to the event disputed the report's conclusions and regarded it as a whitewash. It has been argued that firearms residue on some deceased may have come from contact with the soldiers who themselves moved some of the bodies, or that the presence of lead on the hands of one (James Wray) was easily explained by the fact that his occupation involved the use of lead-based solder. In 1992, John Major, writing to John Hume stated:\n\nFollowing the events of Bloody Sunday Bernadette Devlin, an Independent Socialist nationalist MP from Northern Ireland, expressed anger at what she perceived as government attempts to stifle accounts being reported about the day. Having witnessed the events firsthand, she was later infuriated that Speaker Selwyn Lloyd consistently denied her the chance to speak in Parliament about the day, although parliamentary convention decreed that any MP witnessing an incident under discussion would be granted an opportunity to speak about it in the House. \nDevlin punched Reginald Maudling, the Secretary of State for the Home Department in the Conservative government, when he made a statement to Parliament on the events of Bloody Sunday stating that the British Army had fired only in self-defence. \nShe was temporarily suspended from Parliament as a result of the incident. Nonetheless, six months after Bloody Sunday, Lieutenant Colonel Derek Wilford who was directly in charge of 1 Para, the soldiers who went into the Bogside, was awarded the Order of the British Empire by Queen Elizabeth II, while other soldiers were also decorated with honours for their actions on the day. \n\nIn January 1997, the UK television broadcaster Channel 4 carried a news report suggesting that members of the Royal Anglian Regiment had also opened fire on the protesters, and could have been responsible for three of the 14 deaths.\n\nOn 29 May 2007, General (then Captain) Sir Mike Jackson, second-in-command of 1 Para on Bloody Sunday, said: \"I have no doubt that innocent people were shot.\" This was in sharp contrast to his insistence, for more than 30 years, that those killed on the day had not been innocent. In 2008 a former aide to British Prime Minister Tony Blair, Jonathan Powell, described Widgery as a \"complete and utter whitewash.\" \nIn 1998 Lieutenant Colonel Derek Wilford expressed his anger at Tony Blair's intention of setting up the Saville inquiry, citing he was proud of his actions on Bloody Sunday. Two years later in 2000 during an interview with the BBC, Wilford said: \"There might have been things wrong in the sense that some innocent people, people who were not carrying a weapon, were wounded or even killed. But that was not done as a deliberate malicious act. It was done as an act of war.\" \n\nOn 10 November 2015, a 66-year-old former member of the Parachute Regiment was arrested for questioning over the deaths of William Nash, Michael McDaid and John Young. \n\nSaville Inquiry\n\nAlthough British Prime Minister John Major rejected John Hume's requests for a public inquiry into the killings, his successor, Tony Blair, decided to start one. A second commission of inquiry, chaired by Lord Saville, was established in January 1998 to re-examine Bloody Sunday. The other judges were John Toohey QC, a former Justice of the High Court of Australia who had worked on Aboriginal issues (he replaced New Zealander Sir Edward Somers QC, who retired from the Inquiry in 2000 for personal reasons), and Mr Justice William Hoyt QC, former Chief Justice of New Brunswick and a member of the Canadian Judicial Council. The hearings were concluded in November 2004, and the report was published 15 June 2010. The Saville Inquiry was a more comprehensive study than the Widgery Tribunal, interviewing a wide range of witnesses, including local residents, soldiers, journalists and politicians. Lord Saville declined to comment on the Widgery report and made the point that the Saville Inquiry was a judicial inquiry into Bloody Sunday, not the Widgery Tribunal.\n\nEvidence given by Martin McGuinness, a senior member of Sinn Féin and now the deputy First Minister of Northern Ireland, to the inquiry stated that he was second-in-command of the Derry City brigade of the Provisional IRA and was present at the march. He did not answer questions about where he had been staying because he said it would compromise the safety of the individuals involved.\n\nA claim was made at the Saville Inquiry that McGuinness was responsible for supplying detonators for nail bombs on Bloody Sunday. Paddy Ward claimed he was the leader of the Fianna Éireann, the youth wing of the IRA in January 1972. He claimed that McGuinness, the second-in-command of the IRA in the city at the time, and another anonymous IRA member gave him bomb parts on the morning of 30 January, the date planned for the civil rights march. He said his organisation intended to attack city-centre premises in Derry on the day when civilians were shot dead by British soldiers. In response McGuinness rejected the claims as \"fantasy\", while Gerry O'Hara, a Sinn Féin councillor in Derry stated that he and not Ward was the Fianna leader at the time.\n\nMany observers allege that the Ministry of Defence acted in a way to impede the inquiry. Over 1,000 army photographs and original army helicopter video footage were never made available. Additionally, guns used on the day by the soldiers that could have been evidence in the inquiry were lost by the MoD. The MoD claimed that all the guns had been destroyed, but some were subsequently recovered in various locations (such as Sierra Leone and Beirut) despite the obstruction. \n\nBy the time the inquiry had retired to write up its findings, it had interviewed over 900 witnesses, over seven years, making it the biggest investigation in British legal history. The cost of this process has drawn criticism; as of the publication of the Saville Report being . \n\nThe inquiry was expected to report in late 2009 but was delayed until after the general election on 6 May 2010. \n\nThe report of the inquiry was published on 15 June 2010. The report concluded, \"The firing by soldiers of 1 PARA on Bloody Sunday caused the deaths of 13 people and injury to a similar number, none of whom was posing a threat of causing death or serious injury.\" Saville stated that British paratroopers \"lost control\", fatally shooting fleeing civilians and those who tried to aid civilians who had been shot by the British soldiers. The report stated that British soldiers had concocted lies in their attempt to hide their acts. Saville stated that the civilians had not been warned by the British soldiers that they intended to shoot. The report states, contrary to the previously established belief, that no stones and no petrol bombs were thrown by civilians before British soldiers shot at them, and that the civilians were not posing any threat. \n\nThe report concluded that an Official IRA sniper fired on British soldiers, albeit that on the balance of evidence his shot was fired after the Army shots that wounded Damien Donaghey and John Johnston. The Inquiry rejected the sniper's account that this shot had been made in reprisal, stating the view that he and another Official IRA member had already been in position, and the shot had probably been fired simply because the opportunity had presented itself. Ultimately the Saville Inquiry was inconclusive on Martin McGuinness' role, due to a lack of certainty over his movements, concluding that while he was \"engaged in paramilitary activity\" during Bloody Sunday, and had probably been armed with a Thompson submachine gun, there was insufficient evidence to make any finding other than they were \"sure that he did not engage in any activity that provided any of the soldiers with any justification for opening fire\". \n\nRegarding the soldiers in charge on the day of Bloody Sunday, the Saville Inquiry arrived at the following findings:\n\nLieutenant Colonel Derek Wilford: Commander of 1 Para and directly responsible for arresting rioters and returning to base. Found to have 'deliberately disobeyed' his superior Brigadier Patrick MacLellan's orders by sending Support Company into the Bogside (and without informing MacLellan).\nMajor Ted Loden: Commander in charge of soldiers, following orders issued by Lieutenant Colonel Wilford. Cleared of misconduct; Saville cited in the report that Loden \"neither realised nor should have realised that his soldiers were or might be firing at people who were not posing or about to pose a threat\". The inquiry found that Loden could not be held responsible for claims (whether malicious or not) by some of the individual soldiers that they had received fire from snipers.\nCaptain Mike Jackson: Second in command of 1 Para on the day of Bloody Sunday. Cleared of sinister actions following Jackson's compiling of a list of what soldiers told Major Loden on why they had fired. This list became known as the \"Loden List of Engagements\" which played a role in the Army's initial explanations. While the inquiry found the compiling of the list was 'far from ideal', Jackson's explanations were accepted based on the list not containing the names of soldiers and the number of times they fired.\nMajor General Robert Ford: Commander of land forces and set the British strategy to oversee the civil march in Derry. Cleared of any fault, but his selection of 1 Para, and in particular his selection of Colonel Wilford to be in control of arresting rioters, was found to be disconcerting, specifically as \"1 PARA was a force with a reputation for using excessive physical violence, which thus ran the risk of exacerbating the tensions between the Army and nationalists\".\nBrigadier Pat MacLellan: Operational commander of the day. Cleared of any wrongdoing as he was under the impression that Wilford would follow orders by arresting rioters and then returning to base, and could not be blamed for Wilford's actions.\nMajor Michael Steele: With MacLellan in the operations room and in charge of passing on the orders of the day. The inquiry report accepted that Steele could not believe other than that a separation had been achieved between rioters and marchers, because both groups were in different areas. \nOther soldiers: Lance Corporal F was found responsible for a number of the deaths and that a number of soldiers have \"knowingly put forward false accounts in order to seek to justify their firing\".\nIntelligence officer Colonel Maurice Tugwell and Colin Wallace, (an IPU army press officer): Cleared of wrongdoing. Saville believed the information Tugwell and Wallace released through the media was not down to any deliberate attempt to deceive the public but rather due to much of the inaccurate information Tugwell had received at the time by various other figures. \n\nReporting on the findings of the Saville Inquiry in the House of Commons, the British Prime Minister David Cameron said:\n\n\"Mr Speaker, I am deeply patriotic. I never want to believe anything bad about our country. I never want to call into question the behaviour of our soldiers and our army, who I believe to be the finest in the world. And I have seen for myself the very difficult and dangerous circumstances in which we ask our soldiers to serve. But the conclusions of this report are absolutely clear. There is no doubt, there is nothing equivocal, there are no ambiguities. What happened on Bloody Sunday was both unjustified and unjustifiable. It was wrong.\" \n\nImpact on Northern Ireland divisions\n\nHarold Wilson, then the Leader of the Opposition in the House of Commons, reiterated his belief that a united Ireland was the only possible solution to Northern Ireland's Troubles. William Craig, then Stormont Home Affairs Minister, suggested that the west bank of Derry should be ceded to the Republic of Ireland. \n\nWhen it was deployed on duty in Northern Ireland, the British Army was welcomed by Roman Catholics as a neutral force there to protect them from Protestant mobs, the Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC) and the B-Specials. After Bloody Sunday many Catholics turned on the British army, seeing it no longer as their protector but as their enemy. Young nationalists became increasingly attracted to violent republican groups. With the Official IRA and Official Sinn Féin having moved away from mainstream Irish republicanism towards Marxism, the Provisional IRA began to win the support of newly radicalised, disaffected young people.\n\nIn the following twenty years, the Provisional Irish Republican Army and other smaller republican groups such as the Irish National Liberation Army (INLA) mounted an armed campaign against the British, by which they meant current and former members of the RUC, the British Army, the Ulster Defence Regiment (UDR) of the British Army, the Prison Service, suppliers to the security services, the judiciary and opposition politicians amongst others (and, according to their critics, the Protestant and unionist establishment and community). With rival paramilitary organisations appearing in both the nationalist/republican and Irish unionist/Ulster loyalist communities (the Ulster Defence Association, Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF), etc. on the loyalist side), the Troubles cost the lives of thousands of people. Incidents included the killing by the Provisionals of eighteen members of the Parachute Regiment in the Warrenpoint Ambush – seen by some as revenge for Bloody Sunday.\n\nWith the official cessation of violence by some of the major paramilitary organisations and the creation of the power-sharing executive at Stormont in Belfast under the 1998 Good Friday Agreement, the Saville Inquiry's re-examination of the events of that day is widely hoped to provide a thorough account of the events of Bloody Sunday.\n\nIn his speech to the House of Commons on the Inquiry, British Prime Minister David Cameron stated: \"These are shocking conclusions to read and shocking words to have to say. But you do not defend the British Army by defending the indefensible.\" He acknowledged that all those who died were unarmed when they were killed by British soldiers, and that a British soldier had fired the first shot at civilians. He also said that this was not a premeditated action, though \"there was no point in trying to soften or equivocate\" as \"what happened should never, ever have happened\". Cameron then apologised on behalf of the British Government by saying he was \"deeply sorry\".\n\nA survey conducted by Angus Reid Public Opinion in June 2010 found that 61 per cent of Britons and 70 per cent of Northern Irish agreed with Cameron's apology for the Bloody Sunday events. \n\nStephen Pollard, solicitor representing several of the soldiers, said on 15 June 2010 that Saville had cherry-picked the evidence and did not have justification for his findings. \n\nIn 2012 an actively serving British army soldier from Belfast was charged with inciting hatred by a surviving relative of the deceased, due to their online use of social media to promote sectarian slogans about the killings while featuring banners of the Parachute Regiment logo. \n\nIn January 2013, shortly before the annual Bloody Sunday remembrance march, two Parachute Regiment flags appeared in the loyalist Fountain, and Waterside, Drumahoe areas of Derry. The display of the flags was heavily criticised by nationalist politicians and relatives of the Bloody Sunday dead. The Ministry of Defence also condemned the flying of the flags. The flags were removed to be replaced by Union Flags. In the run up to the loyalist marching season in 2013 the flag of the Parachute Regiment appeared alongside other loyalist flags in other parts of Northern Ireland. In 2014 loyalists in Cookstown erected the flags in opposition, close to the route of a St.Patrick's Day parade in the town. \n\nArtistic reaction\n\nPaul McCartney (who is of Irish descent) recorded the first song in response only two days after the incident. The single entitled \"Give Ireland Back to the Irish\", expressed his views on the matter. It was one of a few McCartney solo songs to be banned by the BBC. \n\nThe 1972 John Lennon album Some Time in New York City features a song entitled \"Sunday Bloody Sunday\", inspired by the incident, as well as the song \"The Luck of the Irish\", which dealt more with the Irish conflict in general. Lennon, who was of Irish descent, also spoke at a protest in New York in support of the victims and families of Bloody Sunday. \n\nIrish poet Thomas Kinsella's 1972 poem Butcher's Dozen is a satirical and angry response to the Widgery Tribunal and the events of Bloody Sunday.\n\nBlack Sabbath's Geezer Butler (also of Irish descent) wrote the lyrics to the Black Sabbath song \"Sabbath Bloody Sabbath\" on the album of the same name in 1973. Butler stated, \"…the Sunday Bloody Sunday thing had just happened in Ireland, when the British troops opened fire on the Irish demonstrators… So I came up with the title 'Sabbath Bloody Sabbath', and sort of put it in how the band was feeling at the time, getting away from management, mixed with the state Ireland was in.\" \n\nThe Roy Harper song \"All Ireland\" from the album Lifemask, written in the days following the incident, is critical of the military but takes a long term view with regard to a solution. In Harper's book (The Passions of Great Fortune), his comment on the song ends \"…there must always be some hope that the children of 'Bloody Sunday', on both sides, can grow into some wisdom\".\n\nBrian Friel's 1973 play The Freedom of the City deals with the incident from the viewpoint of three civilians.\n\nThe Belfast punk rock band Stiff Little Fingers released the song \"Bloody Sunday\" in 1979, available on the 2001 reissue of the Nobody's Heroes album.\n\nIrish poet Seamus Heaney's Casualty (published in Field Work, 1981) criticizes Britain for the death of his friend.\n\nThe incident has been commemorated by Irish band, U2, in their 1983 protest song \"Sunday Bloody Sunday\". \n\nChristy Moore's song \"Minds Locked Shut\" on the album Graffiti Tongue is all about the events of the day, and names the dead civilians. \n\nThe events of the day have been dramatised in two 2002 television films, Bloody Sunday (starring James Nesbitt) and Sunday by Jimmy McGovern.\n\nThe Celtic metal band Cruachan addressed the incident in a song \"Bloody Sunday\" from their 2004 album Folk-Lore. \n\nWillie Doherty, a Derry-born artist, has amassed a large body of work which addresses the troubles in Northern Ireland. \"30 January 1972\" deals specifically with the events of Bloody Sunday.\n\nIn mid-2005, the play Bloody Sunday: Scenes from the Saville Inquiry, a dramatisation based on the Saville Inquiry, opened in London, and subsequently travelled to Derry and Dublin. The writer, journalist Richard Norton-Taylor, distilled four years of evidence into two hours of stage performance by Tricycle Theatre. The play received glowing reviews in all the British broadsheets, including The Times: \"The Tricycle's latest recreation of a major inquiry is its most devastating\"; The Daily Telegraph: \"I can't praise this enthralling production too highly… exceptionally gripping courtroom drama\"; and The Independent: \"A necessary triumph\". \n\nSwedish troubadour Fred Åkerström wrote a song called \"Den 30/1-72\" about the incident.\n\nIn October 2010, T with the Maggies released the song Domhnach na Fola (Irish for Bloody Sunday), written by Mairéad Ní Mhaonaigh and Tríona Ní Dhomhnaill on their debut album.", "Derry ( ), officially Londonderry (), is the second-largest city in Northern Ireland and the fourth-largest city on the island of Ireland. The name Derry is an anglicisation of the Irish name Daire or Doire meaning \"oak grove\". In 1613, the city was granted a Royal Charter by King James I and gained the \"London\" prefix to reflect the funding of its construction by the London guilds. While the city is more usually known colloquially as Derry, Londonderry is also commonly used and remains the legal name.\n\nThe old walled city lies on the west bank of the River Foyle, which is spanned by two road bridges and one footbridge. The city now covers both banks (Cityside on the west and Waterside on the east). The population of the city was 83,652 at the 2001 Census, while the Derry Urban Area had a population of 90,736. The district administered by Derry City and Strabane District Council contains both Londonderry Port and City of Derry Airport.\n\nDerry is close to the border with County Donegal, with which it has had a close link for many centuries. The person traditionally seen as the founder of the original Derry is Saint Colmcille, a holy man from Tír Chonaill, the old name for almost all of modern County Donegal, of which the west bank of the Foyle was a part before 1610. \n\nIn 2013, Derry was the inaugural UK City of Culture, having been awarded the title in 2010. \n\nName\n\nAccording to the city's Royal Charter of 10 April 1662, the official name is \"Londonderry\". This was reaffirmed in a High Court decision in 2007 when Derry City Council sought guidance on the procedure for effecting a name change. The council had changed its name from \"Londonderry City Council\" to \"Derry City Council\" in 1984; the court case was seeking clarification as to whether this had also changed the name of the city. The decision of the court was that it had not but it was clarified that the correct procedure to do so was via a petition to the Privy Council. Derry City Council since started this process and were involved in conducting an equality impact assessment report (EQIA). Firstly it held an opinion poll of district residents in 2009, which reported that 75% of Catholics and 77% of Nationalists found the proposed change acceptable, compared to 6% of Protestants and 8% of Unionists. Then the EQIA held two consultative forums, and solicited comments from the general public on whether or not the city should have its name changed to Derry. A total of 12,136 comments were received, of which 3,108 were broadly in favour of the proposal, and 9,028 opposed to it. On 23 July 2015, the council voted in favour of a motion to change the official name of the city to Derry and to write to Mark H. Durkan, Northern Ireland Minister of the Environment, to ask how the change could be effected. \n\nDespite the official name, the city is more usually known as \"Derry\", which is an anglicisation of the Irish Daire or Doire, and translates as \"oak-grove/oak-wood\". The name derives from the settlement's earliest references, Daire Calgaich (\"oak-grove of Calgach\"). The name was changed from Derry in 1613 during the Plantation of Ulster to reflect the establishment of the city by the London guilds. \n\nThe name \"Derry\" is preferred by nationalists and it is broadly used throughout Northern Ireland's Catholic community, as well as that of the Republic of Ireland, whereas many unionists prefer \"Londonderry\"; however in everyday conversation Derry is used by most Protestant residents of the city. Linguist Kevin McCafferty argues that \"It is not, strictly speaking, correct that Northern Ireland Catholics call it Derry, while Protestants use the Londonderry form, although this pattern has become more common locally since the mid-1980s, when the city council changed its name by dropping the prefix\". In McCafferty's survey of language use in the city, \"only very few interviewees—all Protestants—use the official form\".\n\nApart from the name of Derry City Council, the city is usually known as Londonderry in official use within the UK. In the Republic of Ireland, the city and county are almost always referred to as Derry, on maps, in the media and in conversation. In April 2009, however, the Republic of Ireland's Minister for Foreign Affairs, Micheál Martin, announced that Irish passport holders who were born there could record either Derry or Londonderry as their place of birth. Whereas official road signs in the Republic use the name Derry, those in Northern Ireland bear Londonderry (sometimes abbreviated to \"L'Derry\"), although some of these have been defaced with the reference to London obscured. Usage varies among local organisations, with both names being used. Examples are City of Derry Airport, City of Derry Rugby Club, Derry City FC and the Protestant Apprentice Boys of Derry, as opposed to Londonderry Port, Londonderry YMCA Rugby Club and Londonderry Chamber of Commerce. Most companies within the city choose local area names such as Pennyburn, Rosemount or \"Foyle\" from the River Foyle to avoid alienating the other community. Londonderry railway station is often referred to as Waterside railway station within the city but is called Derry/Londonderry at other stations. The council changed the name of the local government district covering the city to Derry on 7 May 1984, consequently renaming itself Derry City Council. This did not change the name of the city, although the city is coterminous with the district, and in law the city council is also the \"Corporation of Londonderry\" or, more formally, the \"Mayor, Aldermen and Citizens of the City of Londonderry\". The form \"Londonderry\" is used for the post town by the Royal Mail, however use of Derry will still ensure delivery.\n\nThe city is also nicknamed the Maiden City by virtue of the fact that its walls were never breached despite being besieged on three separate occasions in the 17th century, the most notable being the Siege of Derry of 1688-89. It is also nicknamed Stroke City by local broadcaster, Gerry Anderson, due to the 'politically correct' use of the oblique notation Derry/Londonderry (which appellation has itself been used by BBC Television ). A recent addition to the landscape has been the erection of several large stone columns on main roads into the city welcoming drivers, euphemistically, to \"the walled city\".\n\nThe name Derry is very much in popular use throughout Ireland for the naming of places, and there are at least six towns bearing that name and at least a further 79 places. The word Derry often forms part of the place name, for example Derrybeg, Derryboy, Derrylea and Derrymore.\n\nThe names Derry and Londonderry are not limited to Ireland. There is a town called Derry situated right beside another town called Londonderry in New Hampshire in the United States. There are also Londonderrys in Yorkshire, England, in Vermont, United States, in Nova Scotia, Canada, and in northern and eastern Australia. Londonderry Island is situated off Tierra del Fuego in Chile.\n\nDerry is also a fictional town in Maine, United States, used in some Stephen King novels. \n\nCity walls\n\nDerry is the only remaining completely intact walled city in Ireland and one of the finest examples of a walled city in Europe. The walls constitute the largest monument in State care in Northern Ireland and, as the last walled city to be built in Europe, stands as the most complete and spectacular. \n\nThe Walls were built in 1613–1619 by The Honourable The Irish Society as defences for early 17th century settlers from England and Scotland. The Walls, which are approximately 1 mi in circumference and which vary in height and width between 12 and, are completely intact and form a walkway around the inner city. They provide a unique promenade to view the layout of the original town which still preserves its Renaissance style street plan. The four original gates to the Walled City are Bishop's Gate, Ferryquay Gate, Butcher Gate and Shipquay Gate. Three further gates were added later, Magazine Gate, Castle Gate and New Gate, making seven gates in total. Historic buildings within the walls include the 1633 Gothic cathedral of St Columb, the Apprentice Boys Memorial Hall and the courthouse.\n\nIt is one of the few cities in Europe that never saw its fortifications breached, withstanding several sieges including one in 1689 which lasted 105 days, hence the city's nickname, The Maiden City. \n\nHistory\n\nEarly history\n\nDerry is one of the oldest continuously inhabited places in Ireland.\n\n The earliest historical references date to the 6th century when a monastery was founded there by St Columba or Colmcille, a famous saint from what is now County Donegal, but for thousands of years before that people had been living in the vicinity.\n\nBefore leaving Ireland to spread Christianity elsewhere, Colmcille founded a monastery at Derry (which was then called Doire Calgach), on the west bank of the Foyle. According to oral and documented history, the site was granted to Colmcille by a local king. The monastery then remained in the hands of the federation of Columban churches who regarded Colmcille as their spiritual mentor. The year 546 is often referred to as the date that the original settlement was founded. However, it is now accepted by historians that this was an erroneous date assigned by medieval chroniclers. It is accepted that between the 6th century and the 11th century, Derry was known primarily as a monastic settlement.\n\nThe town became strategically more significant during the Tudor conquest of Ireland and came under frequent attack. During O'Doherty's Rebellion in 1608 it was attacked by Sir Cahir O'Doherty, Irish chieftain of Inishowen, who burnt much of the town and killed the governor George Paulet. The soldier and statesman Sir Henry Docwra made vigorous efforts to develop the town, earning the reputation of being \" the founder of Derry\"; but he was accused of failing to prevent the O'Doherty attack, and returned to England.\n\nPlantation\n\nWhat became the City of Derry was part of the relatively new County Donegal up until 1610. In that year, the west bank of the future city was transferred by the English Crown to The Honourable The Irish Society and was combined with County Coleraine, part of County Antrim and a large portion of County Tyrone to form County Londonderry. Planters organised by London livery companies through The Honourable The Irish Society arrived in the 17th century as part of the Plantation of Ulster, and rebuilt the town with high walls to defend it from Irish insurgents who opposed the plantation. The aim was to settle Ulster with a population supportive of the Crown. It was then renamed \"Londonderry\".\n\nThis city was the first planned city in Ireland: it was begun in 1613, with the walls being completed in 1619, at a cost of £10,757. The central diamond within a walled city with four gates was thought to be a good design for defence. The grid pattern chosen was subsequently much copied in the colonies of British North America. The charter initially defined the city as extending three Irish miles (about 6.1 km) from the centre.\n\nThe modern city preserves the 17th century layout of four main streets radiating from a central Diamond to four gateways – Bishop's Gate, Ferryquay Gate, Shipquay Gate and Butcher's Gate. The city's oldest surviving building was also constructed at this time: the 1633 Plantation Gothic cathedral of St Columb. In the porch of the cathedral is a stone that records completion with the inscription: \"If stones could speake, then London's prayse should sound, Who built this church and cittie from the grounde.\" \n\n17th-century upheavals\n\nDuring the 1640s, the city suffered in the Wars of the Three Kingdoms, which began with the Irish Rebellion of 1641, when the Gaelic Irish insurgents made a failed attack on the city. In 1649 the city and its garrison, which supported the republican Parliament in London, were besieged by Scottish Presbyterian forces loyal to King Charles I. The Parliamentarians besieged in Derry were relieved by a strange alliance of Roundhead troops under George Monck and the Irish Catholic general Owen Roe O'Neill. These temporary allies were soon fighting each other again however, after the landing in Ireland of the New Model Army in 1649. The war in Ulster was finally brought to an end when the Parliamentarians crushed the Irish Catholic Ulster army at the Battle of Scarrifholis, near Letterkenny in nearby County Donegal, in 1650.\n\nDuring the Glorious Revolution, only Derry and nearby Enniskillen had a Protestant garrison by November 1688. An army of around 1,200 men, mostly \"Redshanks\" (Highlanders), under Alexander Macdonnell, 3rd Earl of Antrim, was slowly organised (they set out on the week William of Orange landed in England). When they arrived on 7 December 1688 the gates were closed against them and the Siege of Derry began. In April 1689, King James came to the city and summoned it to surrender. The King was rebuffed and the siege lasted until the end of July with the arrival of a relief ship.\n\n18th and 19th centuries\n\nThe city was rebuilt in the 18th century with many of its fine Georgian style houses still surviving. The city's first bridge across the River Foyle was built in 1790. During the 18th and 19th centuries the port became an important embarkation point for Irish emigrants setting out for North America. Some of these founded the colonies of Derry and Londonderry in the state of New Hampshire.\n\nAlso during the 19th century, it became a destination for migrants fleeing areas more severely affected by the Irish Potato Famine. One of the most notable shipping lines was the McCorkell Line operated by Wm. McCorkell & Co. Ltd. from 1778. The McCorkell's most famous ship was the Minnehaha, which was known as the \"Green Yacht from Derry\".\n\nEarly 20th century\n\nWorld War I\n\nThe city contributed over 5,000 men to the British Army from Catholic and Protestant families.\n\nPartition\n\nDuring the Irish War of Independence, the area was rocked by sectarian violence, partly prompted by the guerilla war raging between the Irish Republican Army and British forces, but also influenced by economic and social pressures. By mid-1920 there was severe sectarian rioting in the city. Many lives were lost and in addition many Catholics and Protestants were expelled from their homes during this communal unrest. After a week's violence, a truce was negotiated by local politicians on both unionist and republican sides.\n\nIn 1921, following the Anglo-Irish Treaty and the Partition of Ireland, it unexpectedly became a 'border city', separated from much of its traditional economic hinterland in County Donegal.\n\nWorld War II\n\nDuring World War II, the city played an important part in the Battle of the Atlantic. \nShips from the Royal Navy, the Royal Canadian Navy, and other Allied navies were stationed in the city and the United States military established a base. Over 20,000 Royal Navy, 10,000 Royal Canadian Navy, and 6,000 American Navy personnel were stationed in the city during the war. \nThe establishment of the American presence in the city was the result of a secret agreement between the Americans and the British before the Americans entered the war. It was the first American naval base in Europe and the terminal for American convoys en route to Europe.\n\nThe reason for such a high degree of military and naval activity was self-evident: Derry was the United Kingdom's westernmost port; indeed, the city was the westernmost Allied port in Europe: thus, Derry was a crucial jumping-off point, together with Glasgow and Liverpool, for the shipping convoys that ran between Europe and North America. The large numbers of military personnel in Derry substantially altered the character of the city, bringing in some outside colour to the local area, as well as some cosmopolitan and economic buoyancy during these years. Several airfields were built in the outlying regions of the city at this time, Maydown, Eglinton and Ballykelly. RAF Eglinton went on to become City of Derry Airport.\n\nThe city contributed significant number of men to the war effort throughout the services, most notably the 500 men in the 9th (Londonderry) Heavy Anti-Aircraft Regiment, known as the 'Derry Boys'. This regiment served in North Africa, the Sudan, Italy and mainland UK. Many others served in the Merchant Navy taking part in the convoys that supplied the UK and Russia during the war.\n\nThe border location of the city, and influx of trade from the military convoys allowed for significant smuggling operations to develop in the city.\n\nAt the conclusion of the Second World War, eventually some 60 U-boats of the German Kriegsmarine ended in the city's harbour at Lisahally after their surrender. The initial surrender was attended by Admiral Sir Max Horton, Commander-in-Chief of the Western Approaches, and Sir Basil Brooke, third Prime Minister of Northern Ireland.\n\nLate 20th century\n\n1950s and 1960s\n\nThe city languished after the second world war, with unemployment and development stagnating. A large campaign, led by the University for Derry Committee, to have Northern Ireland's second university located in the city, ended in failure.\n\nThe Civil Rights Movement\n\nDerry was a focal point for the nascent civil rights movement in Northern Ireland.\n\nCatholics were discriminated against under Unionist government in Northern Ireland, both politically and economically. In the late 1960s the city became the flashpoint of disputes about institutional gerrymandering. Political scientist John Whyte explains that:\n\nAll the accusations of gerrymandering, practically all the complaints about housing and regional policy, and a disproportionate amount of the charges about public and private employment come from this area. The area – which consisted of Counties Tyrone and Fermanagh, Londonderry County Borough, and portions of Counties Londonderry and Armagh – had less than a quarter of the total population of Northern Ireland yet generated not far short of three-quarters of the complaints of discrimination...The unionist government must bear its share of responsibility. It put through the original gerrymander which underpinned so many of the subsequent malpractices, and then, despite repeated protests, did nothing to stop those malpractices continuing. The most serious charge against the Northern Ireland government is not that it was directly responsible for widespread discrimination, but that it allowed discrimination on such a scale over a substantial segment of Northern Ireland. \n\nA civil rights demonstration in 1968 led by the Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association was banned by the Government and blocked using force by the Royal Ulster Constabulary. The events that followed the August 1969 Apprentice Boys parade resulted in the Battle of the Bogside, when Catholic rioters fought the police, leading to widespread civil disorder in Northern Ireland and is often dated as the starting point of the Troubles.\n\nOn Sunday 30 January 1972, 13 unarmed civilians were shot dead by British paratroopers during a civil rights march in the Bogside area. Another 13 were wounded and one further man later died of his wounds. This event came to be known as Bloody Sunday.\n\nThe Troubles\n\nThe conflict which became known as the Troubles is widely regarded as having started in Derry with the Battle of the Bogside. The Civil Rights movement had also been very active in the city. In the early 1970s the city was heavily militarised and there was widespread civil unrest. Several districts in the city constructed barricades to control access and prevent the forces of the state from entering.\n\nViolence eased towards the end of the Troubles in the late 1980s and early 1990s. Irish journalist Ed Maloney claims in \"The Secret History of the IRA\" that republican leaders there negotiated a de facto ceasefire in the city as early as 1991. Whether this is true or not, the city did see less bloodshed by this time than Belfast or other localities.\n\nThe city was visited by a killer whale in November 1977 at the height of the Troubles; it was dubbed Dopey Dick by the thousands who came from miles around to see him.\n\nGovernance\n\nThe local district council is Derry City Council, which consists of five electoral areas: Cityside, Northland, Rural, Shantallow and Waterside. The council of 30 members is re-elected every four years. As of the 2011 election, 14 Social Democratic and Labour Party (SDLP) members, ten Sinn Féin, five Democratic Unionist Party (DUP), and one Ulster Unionist Party (UUP) make up the council. The mayor and deputy mayor are elected annually by councillors.\n\nThe local authority boundaries correspond to the Foyle constituency of the Parliament of the United Kingdom and the Foyle constituency of the Northern Ireland Assembly. In European Parliament elections, it is part of the Northern Ireland constituency.\n\nCoat of arms and motto\n\nThe devices on the city's arms are a skeleton and a three-towered castle on a black field, with the chief or top third of the shield depicting the arms of the City of London: a red cross and sword on white. In the centre of the cross is a gold harp.\nThe blazon of the arms is as follows:\n\nSable, a human skeleton Or seated upon a mossy stone proper and in dexter chief a castle triple towered argent on a chief also argent a cross gules thereon a harp or and in the first quarter a sword erect gules \n\nAccording to documents in the College of Arms in London and the Office of the Chief Herald of Ireland in Dublin, the arms of the city were confirmed in 1613 by Daniel Molyneux, Ulster King of Arms. The College of Arms document states that the original arms of the City of Derry were ye picture of death (or a skeleton) on a moissy stone & in ye dexter point a castle and that upon grant of a charter of incorporation and the renaming of the city as Londonderry in that year the first mayor had requested the addition of a \"chief of London\". \n\nTheories have been advanced as to the meaning of the \"old\" arms of Derry, before the addition of the chief bearing the arms of the City of London:\n* A suggestion has been made that the castle is related to an early 14th-century castle in nearby Greencastle belonging to the Anglo-Norman Earl of Ulster Richard de Burgh.\n* The most popular theory about the skeleton is that it is that of a Norman De Burgh knight who was starved to death in the castle dungeons in 1332 on the orders of his cousin the above-mentioned Earl of Ulster. Another explanation put forward was that it depicted Cahir O'Doherty (Sir Charles O'Dogherty), who was put to death after Derry was invested by the English army in 1608. During the days of Gerrymandering and discrimination against the Catholic population of Derry, Derry's Roman Catholics often used to claim in dark wit that the skeleton was a local waiting for help from the council bureaucracy.\n\nIn 1979, Londonderry City Council, as it was then known, commissioned a report into the city's arms and insignia, as part of the design process for an heraldic badge. The published report found that there was no basis for any of the popular explanations for the skeleton and that it was \"purely symbolic and does not refer to any identifiable person\". \n\nThe 1613 records of the arms depicted a harp in the centre of the cross, but this was omitted from later depictions of the city arms, and in the Letters Patent confirming the arms to Londonderry Corporation in 1952. In 2002 Derry City Council applied to the College of Arms to have the harp restored to the city arms, and Garter and Norroy & Ulster Kings of Arms accepted the 17th century evidence, issuing letters patent to that effect in 2003.\n\nThe motto attached to the coat of arms reads in Latin, \"Vita, Veritas, Victoria\". This translates into English as, \"Life, Truth, Victory\".\n\nThe councillors elected in 2014 for the city are:\n\nGeography\n\nDerry is characterised by its distinctively hilly topography. The River Foyle forms a deep valley as it flows through the city, making Derry a place of very steep streets and sudden, startling views. The original walled city of Londonderry lies on a hill on the west bank of the River Foyle. In the past, the river branched and enclosed this wooded hill as an island; over the centuries, however, the western branch of the river dried up and became a low-lying and boggy district that is now called the Bogside. \n\nToday, modern Derry extends considerably north and west of the city walls and east of the river. The half of the city the west of the Foyle is known as the Cityside and the area east is called the Waterside. The Cityside and Waterside are connected by the Craigavon Bridge and Foyle Bridge, and by a foot bridge in the centre of the city called Peace Bridge. The district also extends into rural areas to the southeast of the city.\n\nThis much larger city, however, remains characterised by the often extremely steep hills that form much of its terrain on both sides of the river. A notable exception to this lies on the north-eastern edge of the city, on the shores of Lough Foyle, where large expanses of sea and mudflats were reclaimed in the middle of the 19th century. Today, these slob lands are protected from the sea by miles of sea walls and dikes. The area is an internationally important bird sanctuary, ranked among the top 30 wetland sites in the UK. \n\nOther important nature reserves lie at Ness Country Park, 10 mi east of Derry; and at Prehen Wood, within the city's south-eastern suburbs.\n\nClimate\n\nDerry has, like most of Ireland, a temperate maritime climate according to the Köppen climate classification system. The nearest official Met Office Weather Station for which climate data is available is Carmoney, just west of City of Derry Airport and about 5 mi north east of the city centre. However, observations ceased in 2004 and the nearest Weather Station is currently Ballykelly, due 12 mi east north east. Typically, 27 nights of the year will report an air frost at Ballykelly, and at least 1 mm of precipitation will be reported on 170 days (1981–2010 averages).\n\nThe lowest temperature recorded at Carmoney was on 27 December 1995. \n\nDemography\n\nDerry Urban Area (DUA), including the city and the neighbouring settlements of Culmore, Newbuildings and Strathfoyle, is classified as a city by the Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency (NISRA) since its population exceeds 75,000. On census day (27 March 2011) there were 105,066 people living in Derry Urban Area. Of these, 27% were aged under 16 years and 14% were aged 60 and over; 49% of the population were male and 51% were female; 75% were from a Roman Catholic background and 23% (up three per cent from 2001) were from a Protestant background.\n\nThe mid-2006 population estimate for the wider Derry City Council area was 107,300. Population growth in 2005/06 was driven by natural change, with net out-migration of approximately 100 people.\n\nThe city was one of the few in Ireland to experience an increase in population during the Irish Potato Famine as migrants came to it from other, more heavily affected areas.\n\nProtestant minority\n\nConcerns have been raised by both communities over the increasingly divided nature of the city. There were about 17,000 Protestants on the west bank of the River Foyle in 1971. The proportion rapidly declined during the 1970s; the 2011 census recorded 3,169 Protestants on the west bank, compared to 54,976 Catholics, and it is feared that the city could become permanently divided. \n\nHowever, concerted efforts have been made by local community, church and political leaders from both traditions to redress the problem. A conference to bring together key actors and promote tolerance was held in October 2006. The Rt Rev. Dr Ken Good, the Church of Ireland Bishop of Derry and Raphoe, said he was happy living on the cityside. \"I feel part of it. It is my city and I want to encourage other Protestants to feel exactly the same\", he said.\n\nSupport for Protestants in the district has been strong from the former SDLP city Mayor Helen Quigley. Cllr Quigley has made inclusion and tolerance key themes of her mayoralty. The Mayor Helen Quigley said it is time for \"everyone to take a stand to stop the scourge of sectarian and other assaults in the city.\" \n\nEconomy\n\nHistory\n\nThe economy of the district was based significantly on the textile industry until relatively recently. For many years women were often the sole wage earners working in the shirt factories while the men predominantly in comparison had high levels of unemployment. This led to significant male emigration. The history of shirt making in the city dates back as far as 1831 and is said to have been started by William Scott and his family who first exported shirts to Glasgow. Within 50 years, shirt making in the city was the most prolific in the UK with garments being exported all over the world. It was known so well that the industry received a mention in Das Kapital by Karl Marx, when discussing the factory system:\n\nThe industry reached its peak in the 1920s employing around 18,000 people. In modern times however the textile industry declined due to in most part cheaper Asian wages. \n\nA long-term foreign employer in the area is Du Pont, which has been based at Maydown since 1958, its first European production facility. Originally Neoprene was manufactured at Maydown and subsequently followed by Hypalon. More recently Lycra and Kevlar production units were active. Thanks to a healthy worldwide demand for Kevlar which is made at the plant, the facility recently undertook a £40 million upgrade to expand its global Kevlar production. Du Pont has stated that contributing factors to its continued commitment to Maydown are \"low labour costs, excellent communications, and tariff-free, easy access to the Britain and European continent.\"\n\nInward investment\n\nIn the last 15 years there has been a drive to increase inward investment in the city, more recently concentrating on digital industries. Currently the three largest private-sector employers are American firms. Economic successes have included call centres and a large investment by Seagate, which has operated a factory in the Springtown Industrial Estate since 1993. Seagate currently employs over 1,000 people, producing more than half of the company's total requirement for hard drive read-write heads.\n\nA controversial new employer in the area was Raytheon Systems Limited, a software division of the American defence contractor, which was set up in Derry in 1999. Although some of the local people welcomed the jobs boost, others in the area objected to the jobs being provided by a firm involved heavily in the arms trade. Following four years of protest by the Foyle Ethical Investment Campaign, in 2004 Derry City Council passed a motion declaring the district a \"A 'No – Go' Area for the Arms Trade\", and in 2006 its offices were briefly occupied by anti-war protestors who became known as the Raytheon 9. In 2009, the company announced that it was not renewing its lease when it expired in 2010 and was looking for a new location for its operations. \n\nSignificant multinational employers in the region include Firstsource of India, DuPont, INVISTA, Stream International, Seagate Technology, Perfecseal, NTL, Raytheon and Northbrook Technology of the United States, Arntz Belting and Invision Software of Germany, and Homeloan Management of the UK. Major local business employers include Desmonds, Northern Ireland's largest privately owned company, manufacturing and sourcing garments, E&I Engineering, St. Brendan's Irish Cream Liqueur and McCambridge Duffy, one of the largest insolvency practices in the UK. \n\nEven though the city provides cheap labour by standards in Western Europe, critics have noted that the grants offered by the Northern Ireland Industrial Development Board have helped land jobs for the area that only last as long as the funding lasts. This was reflected in questions to the Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Northern Ireland, Richard Needham, in 1990. It was noted that it cost £30,000 to create one job in an American firm in Northern Ireland.\n\nCritics of investment decisions affecting the district often point to the decision to build a new university building in nearby (predominantly Protestant) Coleraine rather than developing the Ulster UniversityMagee Campus. Another major government decision affecting the city was the decision to create the new town of Craigavon outside Belfast, which again was detrimental to the development of the city. Even in October 2005, there was perceived bias against the comparatively impoverished North West of the province, with a major civil service job contract going to Belfast. Mark Durkan, the Social Democratic and Labour Party (SDLP) leader and Member of Parliament (MP) for Foyle was quoted in the Belfast Telegraph as saying:\n\nIn July 2005, the Irish Minister for Finance, Brian Cowen, called for a joint task force to drive economic growth in the cross border region. This would have implications for Counties Londonderry, Tyrone, and Donegal across the border.\n\nShopping\n\nThe city is the north west's foremost shopping district, housing two large shopping centres along with numerous shop packed streets serving much of the greater county, as well as Tyrone and Donegal. While retail developments in Letterkenny have lessened cross-border traffic from north County Donegal, the weakness of the pound sterling over the course of 2009 made border towns such as Derry attractive to shoppers from south of the border. \n\nThe city centre has two main shopping centres; the Foyleside Shopping Centre which has 45 stores and 1430 parking spaces, and the Richmond Centre, which has 39 retail units. The Quayside Shopping Centre also serves the city-side and there is also Lisnagelvin Shopping Centre in the Waterside. These centres, as well as local-run businesses, feature numerous national and international stores. A recent addition was the Crescent Link Retail Park located in the Waterside with many international chain stores, including Homebase, Currys & PC World (stores combined), Carpet Right, Maplin, Argos Extra, Toys R Us, Halfords, DW Sports (formerly JJB Sports), Pets at Home, Next Home, Starbucks, McDonalds, Tesco Express and M&S Simply Food. In the short period of time that this site has been operational, it has quickly grown to become the second largest retail park in Northern Ireland (second only to Sprucefield in Lisburn). Plans have also been approved for Derry's first Asda store, which will be located at the retail park sharing a unit with Homebase. Sainsbury's also applied for planning permission for a store at Crescent Link, but Environment Minister Alex Attwood turned it down. \n\nThe city is also home to the world's oldest independent department store; Austins. Established in 1830, Austins predates Jenners of Edinburgh by 5 years, Harrods of London by 15 years and Macy's of New York by 25 years. The store's five-story Edwardian building is located within the walled city in the area known as The Diamond.\n\nLandmarks\n\nDerry is renowned for its architecture. This can be primarily ascribed to the formal planning of the historic walled city of Derry at the core of the modern city. This is centred on the Diamond with a collection of late Georgian, Victorian and Edwardian buildings maintaining the gridlines of the main thoroughfares (Shipquay Street, Ferryquay Street, Butcher Street and Bishop Street) to the City Gates. St Columb's Cathedral does not follow the grid pattern reinforcing its civic status. This Church of Ireland Cathedral was the first post-Reformation Cathedral built for an Anglican church. The construction of the Roman Catholic St Eugene's Cathedral in the Bogside in the 19th-century was another major architectural addition to the city. The more recent infill buildings within the walls are of varying quality and in many cases these were low quality hurriedly constructed replacements for 1970s bomb damaged buildings. The Townscape Heritage Initiative has funded restoration works to key listed buildings and other older structures.\n\nIn the three centuries since their construction, the city walls have been adapted to meet the needs of a changing city. The best example of this adaptation is the insertion of three additional gates – Castle Gate, New Gate and Magazine Gate – into the walls in the course of the 19th century. Today, the fortifications form a continuous promenade around the city centre, complete with cannon, avenues of mature trees and views across Derry. Historic buildings within the city walls include St Augustine's Church, which sits on the city walls close to the site of the original monastic settlement; the copper-domed Austin's department store, which claims to the oldest such store in the world; and the imposing Greek Revival Courthouse on Bishop Street. The red-brick late-Victorian Guildhall, also crowned by a copper dome, stands just beyond Shipquay Gate and close to the river front.\n\nThere are many museums and sites of interest in and around the city, including the Foyle Valley Railway Centre, the Amelia Earhart Centre And Wildlife Sanctuary, the Apprentice Boys Memorial Hall, Ballyoan Cemetery, The Bogside, numerous murals by the Bogside Artists, Derry Craft Village, Free Derry Corner, O'Doherty Tower (now home to part of the Tower Museum), the Guildhall, the Harbour Museum, the Museum of Free Derry, Chapter House Museum, the Workhouse Museum, the Nerve Centre, St. Columb's Park and Leisure Centre, St Eugene's Cathedral, Creggan Country Park, The Millennium Forum and the Foyle and Craigavon bridges.\n\nThe city has seen a large boost to its economy in the form of tourism over the last few years. Cheap flights offered by budget airlines have enticed many people to visit the city. Tourism mainly focuses around the pubs, mainly those of Waterloo Street. Other attractions include museums, a vibrant shopping centre and trips to the Giant's Causeway, which is approximately 50 mi away, though poorly connected by public transport. Lonely Planet called Londonderry the fourth best city in the world to see in 2013. \n\nFuture projects include the Walled City Signature Project, which intends to ensure that the city's walls become a world class tourist experience. The Ilex Urban Regeneration Company is charged with delivering several landmark redevelopments. It has taken control of two former British Army barracks in the centre of the city. The Ebrington site is nearing completion and is linked to the city centre by the new Peace Bridge.\n\nTransport\n\nThe transport network is built out of a complex array of old and modern roads and railways throughout the city and county. The city's road network also makes use of two bridges to cross the River Foyle, the Craigavon Bridge and the Foyle Bridge, the longest bridge in Ireland. Derry also serves as a major transport hub for travel throughout nearby County Donegal.\n\nIn spite of it being the second city of Northern Ireland (and it being the second-largest city in all of Ulster), road and rail links to other cities are below par for its standing. Many business leaders claim that government investment in the city and infrastructure has been badly lacking. Some have stated that this is due to its outlying border location whilst others have cited a sectarian bias against the region west of the River Bann due to its high proportion of Catholics. There is no direct motorway link with Dublin or Belfast. The rail link to Belfast has been downgraded over the years so that presently it is not a viable alternative to the roads for industry to rely on. There are currently plans for £1 billion worth of transport infrastructure investment in and around the district. Planned upgrades to the A5 Dublin road agreed as part of the Good Friday Agreement and St. Andrews Talks fell through when the government of the Republic of Ireland reneged on its funding citing the recent economic crisis.\n\nBuses\n\nMost public transport in Northern Ireland is operated by the subsidiaries of Translink. Originally the city's internal bus network was run by Ulsterbus, which still provides the city's connections with other towns in Northern Ireland. The city's buses are now run by Ulsterbus Foyle, just as Translink Metro now provides the bus service in Belfast. The Ulsterbus Foyle network offers 13 routes across the city into the suburban areas, excluding an Easibus link which connects to the Waterside and Drumahoe, and a free Rail Link Bus runs from the Waterside Railway Station to the city centre. All buses leave from the Foyle Street Bus Station in the city centre.\n\nLong distance buses depart from Foyle Street Bus Station to destinations throughout Ireland. Buses are operated by both Ulsterbus and Bus Éireann on cross-border routes. Lough Swilly formerly operated buses to Co. Donegal, but the company entered liquidation and is no longer in operation. There is a half-hourly service to Belfast every day, called the Maiden City Flyer, which is the Goldline Express flagship route. There are hourly services to Strabane, Omagh, Coleraine, Letterkenny and Buncrana, and up to twelve services a day to bring people to Dublin. There is a daily service to Sligo, Galway, Shannon Airport and Limerick.\n\nAir\n\nCity of Derry Airport, the council-owned airport near Eglinton, has been growing in recent years with new investment in extending the runway and plans to redevelop the terminal. It is hoped that the new investment will add to the airport's currently limited array of domestic and international flights and reduce the annual subsidy of £3.5 million from the local council.\n\nThe A2 from Maydown to Eglinton, serving airport, has recently been turned into a dual carriageway. City of Derry airport is the main regional airport for County Donegal, County Londonderry and west County Tyrone as well as Derry City itself.\n\nThe airport is served by Ryanair with scheduled flights to Birmingham International Airport, Glasgow Airport, Liverpool, and London Stansted all year round with a summer schedule to Alicante and Faro.\n\nRailways\n\nNorthern Ireland Railways (N.I.R.) has a single route from Londonderry railway station (also known as Waterside Station) on the Waterside to Belfast Great Victoria Street via , , , , Mossley West and Belfast Central. The service, which had been allowed to deteriorate in the 1990s, has since been improved by increased investment.\n\nIn 2008 the Department for Regional Development announced plans to have the track re-laid between Derry and Coleraine by 2013, add a passing loop to increase traffic capacity and increase the number of trains by introducing two additional diesel multiple units. The £86 million plan will reduce the journey time to Belfast by 30 minutes and allow commuter trains to arrive before 9 a.m. for the first time. Many still do not use the train, because, at over two hours, it is slower centre-to-centre than the 100-minute Ulsterbus Goldline Express service. \n\nRailway history\n\nThroughout the first half of the 20th century the city was served by four different railways that between them linked the city with much of the province of Ulster, plus a harbour railway network that linked the other four lines. There was also a tramway on the City side of the Foyle.\n\n19th and 20th century growth\n\nDerry's first railway was the Irish gauge () Londonderry and Enniskillen Railway (L&ER). Construction began in 1845 from a temporary station at Cow Market on the City side of the Foyle, reached Strabane in 1847 and was extended from Cow Market to its permanent terminus at Foyle Road in 1850.Hajducki, op. cit., inset to map 2 The L&ER reached Omagh in 1852 and Enniskillen in 1854, and was absorbed into the Great Northern Railway (Ireland) in 1883. \n\nThe Londonderry and Coleraine Railway (L&CR), also Irish gauge, reached the city in 1852 and opened its terminus at Waterside. The Belfast and Northern Counties Railway leased the line from 1861 and took it over in 1871.\n\nThe Londonderry and Lough Swilly Railway opened between Farland Point on Lough Swilly and a temporary terminus at Pennyburn in 1863. In 1866 it extended from Pennyburn to its permanent terminus at Graving Dock. The L&LSR was Irish gauge until 1885, when it was converted to narrow gauge for through running with the Letterkenny Railway.\n\nThe Londonderry Port and Harbour Commissioners (LPHC) linked Graving Dock and Foyle Road stations with a railway through Middle Quay in 1867, and linked this line with Waterside station by a railway over the new Carlisle Bridge in 1868. The bridge was replaced in 1933 with the double-deck Craigavon Bridge, with the LPHC railway on its lower deck.\n\nIn 1900 the gauge Donegal Railway extended from Strabane to Derry, establishing a terminus at Victoria Road. This was next to Carlisle Bridge and had a junction with the LPHC railway. The LPHC line was altered to dual gauge which allowed gauge traffic between the Donegal Railway and L&LSR as well as Irish gauge traffic between the GNR and B&NCR. In 1906 the Northern Counties Committee (NCC, successor to the B&NCR) and the GNR jointly took over the Donegal Railway, making it the County Donegal Railways Joint Committee (CDRJC).\n\nThe United Kingdom Government subsidised both the L&LSR and the Donegal Railway to build long extensions into remote parts of County Donegal. By 1905 these served much of the county, making Derry (and also Strabane) a key rail hub for the county.\n\nThe City of Derry Tramways was opened in 1897.Hajducki, op. cit., page xvii This was a standard gauge () line served by horse trams and was never electrified. The tramway had only one line, was long, and ran along the City side of the Foyle parallel to the LPHC's line on that side of the river. It was closed in 1919.\n\n20th century decline\n\nThe partition of Ireland in 1922 turned the boundary with County Donegal into an international frontier. This changed trade patterns to the railways' detriment and placed border posts on every line to and from Derry except the NCC route to . The L&LSR crossed the border between Pennyburn and Bridge End, the CDRJC crossed just beyond Strabane, and the GNR line crossed twice between Derry and Strabane. Stops for customs inspections greatly delayed trains and disrupted timekeeping.\n\nOver the next few years customs agreements between the two states enabled GNR trains to and from Derry to pass through the Free State without inspection unless they were scheduled to serve local stations on the west bank of the Foyle, and for goods on all railways to be carried between different parts of the Free State to pass through Northern Ireland under customs bond. However, local passenger and goods traffic continued to be delayed by customs examinations.\n\nIn the 1920s and 30s and again after the Second World War the railways also faced increasing road competition. The L&LSR closed its line in 1953, followed by the CDRJC in 1954.Hajducki, op. cit., map 39 The Ulster Transport Authority took over the NCC in 1949 and the GNR's lines in Northern Ireland in 1958. The UTA also took over the LPHC railway, which it closed in 1962. In accordance with The Benson Report submitted to the Northern Ireland Government in 1963, the UTA closed the former GNR line to Derry in 1965. \n\nSince 1965 the former L&CR line has been Derry's sole railway link. As such it has carried not only passenger services between Derry and Belfast but also CIÉ freight services using Derry as a railhead for Donegal.\n\nRoad network\n\nThe road network has historically seen under-investment and has lacked good road connections to both Belfast and Dublin for many years. Long overdue, the largest road investment in the north west's history is now (2010) taking place with building of the 'A2 Broadbridge Maydown to City of Derry Airport dualling' project and announcement of the 'A6 Londonderry to Dungiven Dualling Scheme' which will help to reduce the travel time to Belfast. The latter project brings a dual-carriageway link between Northern Ireland's two largest cities one step closer. The project is costing £320 million and is expected to be completed in 2016.\n\nIn October 2006 the Government of Ireland announced that it was to invest €1 billion in Northern Ireland; and one of the planned projects will be 'The A5 Western Transport Corridor', the complete upgrade of the A5 Derry – Omagh – Aughnacloy (– Dublin) road, around 90 km long, to dual carriageway standard. \n\nIt is not yet known if these two separate projects will connect at any point, although there have been calls for some form of connection between the two routes. In June 2008 Conor Murphy, Minister for Regional Development, announced that there will be a study into the feasibility of connecting the A5 and A6. Should it proceed, the scheme would most likely run from Drumahoe to south of Prehen along the south east of the City.\n\nSea\n\nLondonderry Port at Lisahally is the United Kingdom's most westerly port and has capacity for 30,000-ton vessels. The Londonderry Port and Harbour Commissioners (LPHC) announced record turnover, record profits and record tonnage figures for the year ended March 2008. The figures are the result of a significant capital expenditure programme for the period 2000 to 2007 of about £22 million. Tonnage handled by LPHC increased almost 65% between 2000 and 2007, according to the latest annual results.\n\nThe port gave vital Allied service in the longest running campaign of the Second World War, the Battle of the Atlantic, and saw the surrender of the German U-Boat fleet at Lisahally on 8 May 1945. \n\nInland waterways\n\nThe tidal River Foyle is navigable from the coast at Derry to approximately 10 mi inland. In 1796, the Strabane Canal was opened, continuing the navigation a further 4 mi southwards to Strabane. The canal was closed in 1962.\n\nEducation\n\nDerry is home to the Magee Campus of Ulster University, formerly Magee College. However, Lockwood's 1960s decision to locate Northern Ireland's second university in Coleraine rather than Derry helped contribute to the formation of the civil rights movement that ultimately led to The Troubles. Derry was the town more closely associated with higher learning, with Magee College already more than a century old by that time. In the mid-1980s a half-hearted attempt was made at rectifying this mistake by forming Magee College as a campus of the Ulster University but this has failed to stifle calls for the establishment of an independent University in Derry that can grow to it full potential. The campus has never thrived and currently only has 3,500 students out of a total Ulster University student population of 27,000. Ironically, although Coleraine is blamed by many in the city for 'stealing the University', it has only 5,000 students, the remaining 19,000 being based in Belfast. \n\nThe North West Regional College is also based in the city. In recent years it has grown to almost 30,000 students. \n\nOne of the two oldest secondary schools in Northern Ireland is located in Derry, Foyle and Londonderry College. It was founded in 1616 by the merchant taylors and remains a popular choice. Other secondary schools include St. Columb's College, Oakgrove Integrated College, St Cecilia's College, St Mary's College, St. Joseph's Boys' School, Lisneal College, Thornhill College, Lumen Christi College and St. Brigid's College. There are also numerous primary schools.\n\nSports\n\nThe city is home to sports clubs and teams. Both association football and Gaelic football are popular in the area.\n\nAssociation football\n\nIn association football, the city's most prominent clubs include Derry City who play in the national league of the Republic of Ireland; Institute of the NIFL Championship and Oxford United Stars and Trojans, both of the Northern Ireland Intermediate League.\nIn addition to these clubs, who all play in national leagues, other clubs are based in the city. The local football league governed by the IFA is the North-West Junior League, which contains many clubs from the city, such as BBOB (Boys Brigade Old Boys) and Lincoln Courts. The city's other junior league is the Derry and District League and teams from the city and surrounding areas participate, including Don Boscos and Creggan Swifts. The Foyle Cup youth soccer tournament is held annually in the city. It has attracted many notable teams in the past, including Werder Bremen, IFK Göteborg and Ferencváros.\n\nGaelic football\n\nIn Gaelic football Derry GAA are the county team and play in the Gaelic Athletic Association's National Football League, Ulster Senior Football Championship and All-Ireland Senior Football Championship. They also field hurling teams in the equivalent tournaments. There are many Gaelic games clubs in and around the city, for example Na Magha CLG, Steelstown GAC, Doire Colmcille CLG, Seán Dolans GAC, Na Piarsaigh CLG Doire Trasna and Slaughtmanus GAC.\n\nBoxing\n\nThere are many boxing clubs, the most well-known being The Ring Boxing Club, which is associated with Charlie Nash and John Duddy, amongst others.\n\nRugby Union\n\nRugby Union is also quite popular in the city, with the City of Derry Rugby Club situated not far from the city centre. City of Derry won both the Ulster Towns Cup and the Ulster Junior Cup in 2009.\nLondonderry YMCA RFC is another rugby club and is based in Drumahoe which is just outside the city.\n\nBasketball\n\nThe city's only basketball club is North Star Basketball Club which has teams in the Basketball Northern Ireland senior and junior Leagues. \n\nCricket\n\nCricket is also a popular sport in the city, particularly in the Waterside. The city is home to two cricket clubs, Brigade Cricket Club and Glendermott Cricket Club, both of whom play in the North West Senior League.\n\nGolf\n\nGolf is also a sport which is popular with many in the City. There are two golf clubs situated in the city, City of Derry Golf Club and Foyle International Golf Centre.\n\nCulture\n\nIn recent years the city and surrounding countryside have become well known for their artistic legacy, producing Nobel Prize-winning poet Seamus Heaney, poet Seamus Deane, playwright Brian Friel, writer and music critic Nik Cohn, artist Willie Doherty, socio-political commentator and activist Eamonn McCann and bands such as The Undertones. The large political gable-wall murals of Bogside Artists, Free Derry Corner, the Foyle Film Festival, the Derry Walls, St Eugene's and St Columb's Cathedrals and the annual Halloween street carnival are popular tourist attractions. In 2010, Derry was named the UK's tenth 'most musical' city by PRS for Music. \n\nIn May 2013 a perpetual Peace Flame Monument was unveiled by Martin Luther King III and Presbyterian minister Rev. David Latimer. The flame was lit by children from both traditions in the city and is one of only 15 such flames across the world. \n\nMedia\n\nThe local papers the Derry Journal (known as the Londonderry Journal until 1880) and the Londonderry Sentinel reflect the divided history of the city: the Journal was founded in 1772 and is Ireland's second oldest newspaper; the Sentinel newspaper was formed in 1829 when new owners of the Journal embraced Catholic Emancipation, and the editor left the paper to set up the Sentinel. There are numerous radio stations receivable: the largest stations based in the city are BBC Radio Foyle and the commercial station Q102.9. There was a locally based television station, C9TV, one of only two local or 'restricted' television services in Northern Ireland, which ceased broadcasts in 2007.\n\nNight-life\n\nThe city's night-life is mainly focused on the weekends, with several bars and clubs providing \"student nights\" during the weekdays. Waterloo Street and Strand Road provide the main venues. Waterloo Street, a steep street lined with both Irish traditional and modern pubs, frequently has live rock and traditional music at night. The city is renowned for producing talented musicians and many bands perform in venues around the city, for example the Smalltown America duo, Fighting with Wire and Jetplane Landing. Numerous other young local and indeed international bands perform at the Nerve Centre.\n\nEvents\n\n* In 2013, Derry became the first city to be designated UK City of Culture, having been awarded the title in July 2010.\n* Also in 2013 the city hosted Radio 1's Big Weekend and the Lumiere festival. \n* The \"Banks of the Foyle Hallowe'en Carnival\" (known in Irish as Féile na Samhna) in Derry are a huge tourism boost for the city. The carnival is promoted as being the first and longest running Halloween carnival in the whole of Ireland, It is called the largest street party in Ireland by the Derry Visitor and Convention Bureau with more than 30,000 ghoulish revellers taking to the streets annually. \n* In March, the city hosts the Big Tickle Comedy Festival, which in 2006 featured Dara Ó Briain and Colin Murphy. In April the city plays host to the City of Derry Jazz and Big Band Festival and in November the Foyle Film Festival, the biggest film festival in Northern Ireland.\n* Every summer the city hosts Tomo-Dachi, Ireland's largest Anime convention, which in July 2006 was held at Magee College, Ulster University. \n* The Siege of Derry is commemorated annually by the fraternal organisation the Apprentice Boys of Derry in the week-long Maiden City Festival.\n* The Instinct Festival is an annual youth festival celebrating the Arts. It is held around Easter and has proven a success in recent years.\n* Celtronic is a major annual electronic dance festival held at venues all around the city. The 2007 Festival featured the DJ, Erol Alkan.\n* The Millennium Forum is the main theatre in the city, it holds numerous shows weekly.\n* On 9 December 2007 Derry entered the Guinness Book of Records when 13,000 Santas gathered to break the world record beating previous records held by Liverpool and Las Vegas. \n* Winner of the 2005 Britain in Bloom competition (City category). Runner-up 2009.\n\nReferences in popular music\n\nNotable people\n\nNotable people who were born or have lived in Derry include:\n\n* Frederick Hervey, Bishop of Derry and 4th Earl of Bristol\nEdward Leach, recipient of the Victoria Cross\n The Restoration dramatist George Farquhar\n* Authors Joyce Cary, Seamus Deane, Jennifer Johnston and Nell McCafferty\n* Poet and Nobel laureate Seamus Heaney\n* Social Democratic and Labour Party founder and Nobel Peace Prize winner John Hume\n* Scientist and Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine winner William C. Campbell \n* Deputy First Minister of Northern Ireland Martin McGuinness\n* Republic of Ireland national football team head coach Martin O'Neill\n* Everton player Darron Gibson\n* Actresses Amanda Burton and Roma Downey\n* Girls Aloud member Nadine Coyle\n* Neil Hannon lead singer of The Divine Comedy\n* Eurovision Song Contest winner and former politician Dana\n* The band The Undertones and their one-time lead singer Feargal Sharkey\n* Jimmy McShane of Baltimora\n* Triathlete Aileen Morrison\nTom McGuinness, Gaelic footballer \n Damian McGinty and Keith Harkin, vocalists with the group Celtic Thunder\nJohn Park, recipient of the Victoria Cross\n Daniel Quigley (World ISKA Professional Super Heaveyweight Kickboxing Champion)[http://www.derryjournal.com/sport/other-sports/world-championship-kickboxing-coming-to-the-venue-1-5572123 World Championship Kickboxing coming to ‘The Venue’ – Derry Journal]\n*Miles Ryan, recipient of the Victoria Cross" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "one thousand, nine hundred and seventy-two", "1972" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "one thousand nine hundred and seventy two", "1972" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "1972", "type": "Numerical", "value": "1972" }
The first untethered space walk took place from which space craft?	tc_302	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Extravehicular_activity.txt", "Spacecraft.txt" ], "title": [ "Extravehicular activity", "Spacecraft" ], "wiki_context": [ "Extravehicular activity (EVA) is any activity done by an astronaut or cosmonaut outside a spacecraft beyond the Earth's appreciable atmosphere. The term most commonly applies to a spacewalk made outside a craft orbiting Earth (such as the International Space Station), but also has applied to lunar surface exploration (commonly known as moonwalks) performed by six pairs of American astronauts in the Apollo program from 1969 to 1972. On each of the last three of these missions, astronauts also performed deep-space EVAs on the return to Earth, to retrieve film canisters from the outside of the spacecraft. Astronauts also used EVA in 1973 to repair launch damage to Skylab, the United States' first space station.\n\nA \"Stand-up\" EVA (SEVA) is where the astronaut does not fully leave a spacecraft, but is completely reliant on the spacesuit for environmental support. Its name derives from the astronaut \"standing up\" in the open hatch, usually to record or assist a spacewalking astronaut.\n\nEVAs may be either tethered (the astronaut is connected to the spacecraft; oxygen and electrical power can be supplied through an umbilical cable; no propulsion is needed to return to the spacecraft), or untethered. Untethered spacewalks were only performed on three missions in 1984 using the Manned Maneuvering Unit (MMU), and on a flight test in 1994 of the Simplified Aid For EVA Rescue (SAFER), a safety device worn on tethered U.S. EVAs.\n\nThe Soviet Union/Russia, the United States, and China have conducted EVAs.\n\nDevelopment history\n\nNASA planners invented the term extravehicular activity (abbreviated with the acronym EVA) in the early 1960s for the Apollo program to land men on the Moon, because the astronauts would leave the spacecraft to collect lunar material samples and deploy scientific experiments. To support this, and other Apollo objectives, the Gemini program was spun off to develop the capability for astronauts to work outside a two-man Earth orbiting spacecraft. However, the Soviet Union was fiercely competitive in holding the early lead it had gained in manned spaceflight, so the Soviet Communist Party, led by Nikita Khrushchev, ordered the conversion of its single-pilot Vostok capsule into a two- or three-person craft named Voskhod, in order to compete with Gemini and Apollo. The Soviets were able to launch two Voskhod capsules before U.S. was able to launch its first manned Gemini.\n\nThe Voskhod's avionics required cooling by cabin air to prevent overheating, therefore an airlock was required for the spacewalking cosmonaut to exit and re-enter the cabin while it remained pressurized. By contrast, the Gemini avionics did not require air cooling, allowing the spacewalking astronaut to exit and re-enter the depressurized cabin through an open hatch. Because of this, the American and Soviet space programs developed different definitions for the duration of an EVA. The Soviet (now Russian) definition begins when the outer airlock hatch is open and the cosmonaut is in vacuum. An American EVA began when the astronaut had at least his head outside the spacecraft. The USA has changed its EVA definition since.\n\nFirst spacewalk\n\nThe first EVA was performed on March 18, 1965 by Soviet cosmonaut Alexey Leonov, who spent 12 minutes outside the Voskhod 2 spacecraft. Carrying a white metal backpack containing 45 minutes worth of breathing and pressurization oxygen, Leonov had no means to control his motion other than pulling on his tether. After the flight, he claimed this was easy, but his space suit ballooned from its internal pressure against the vacuum of space, stiffening so much that he could not activate the shutter on his chest-mounted camera.\n\nAt the end of his space walk, the suit stiffening caused a more serious problem: Leonov had to re-enter the capsule through the inflatable cloth airlock, in diameter and long. He improperly entered the airlock head-first and got stuck sideways. He could not get back in without reducing the pressure in his suit, risking \"the bends\". This added another 12 minutes to his time in vacuum, and he was overheated by from the exertion. It would be almost four years before the Soviets tried another EVA. They misrepresented to the press how difficult Leonov found it to work in weightlessness and concealed the problems encountered until after the end of the Cold War. \n\nProject Gemini\n\nThe first American spacewalk was performed on June 3, 1965, by Edward H. White, II from the second manned Gemini flight, Gemini 4, for 21 minutes. White was tethered to the spacecraft, and his oxygen was supplied through a 25 ft umbilical, which also carried communications and biomedical instrumentation. He was the first to control his motion in space with a Hand-Held Maneuvering Unit, which worked well but only carried enough propellant for 20 seconds. White found his tether useful for limiting his distance from the spacecraft but difficult to use for moving around, contrary to Leonov's claim. However, a defect in the capsule's hatch latching mechanism caused difficulties opening and closing the hatch, which delayed the start of the EVA and put White and his crewmate at risk of not getting back to Earth alive. \n\nNo EVAs were planned on the next three Gemini flights. The next EVA was planned to be made by David Scott on Gemini 8, but that mission had to be aborted due to a critical spacecraft malfunction before the EVA could be conducted. Astronauts on the next three Gemini flights (Eugene Cernan, Michael Collins, and Richard Gordon), performed several EVAs, but none was able to successfully work for long periods outside the spacecraft without tiring and overheating. Cernan attempted but failed to test an Air Force Astronaut Maneuvering Unit which included a self-contained oxygen system.\n\nOn November 13, 1966, Edwin \"Buzz\" Aldrin became the first to successfully work in space without tiring, on the Gemini 12 last flight. Aldrin worked outside the spacecraft for 2 hours and 6 minutes, in addition to two stand-up EVAs in the spacecraft hatch for an additional 3 hours and 24 minutes. Aldrin's interest in scuba diving inspired the use of underwater EVA training to simulate weightlessness, which has been used ever since to allow astronauts to practice techniques of avoiding wasted muscle energy.\n\nFirst EVA crew transfer\n\nOn January 16, 1969, Soviet cosmonauts Aleksei Yeliseyev and Yevgeny Khrunov transferred from Soyuz 5 to Soyuz 4, which were docked together. This was the second Soviet EVA, and it would be almost another nine years before the Soviets performed their third.\n\nApollo lunar EVA\n\nAmerican astronauts Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin performed the first EVA on the lunar surface on July 21, 1969 (UTC), after landing their Apollo 11 Lunar Module spacecraft. This first Moon walk, using self-contained Portable Life Support Systems, lasted 2 hours 36 minutes. A total of fifteen Moon walks were performed among six Apollo crews, including Charles \"Pete\" Conrad, Alan Bean, Alan Shepard, Edgar Mitchell, David Scott, James Irwin, John Young, Charles Duke, Eugene Cernan, and Dr. Harrison \"Jack\" Schmitt. Cernan was the last Apollo astronaut to step off the surface of the Moon.\n\nApollo 15 Command Module Pilot Al Worden made an EVA on August 5, 1971 on the return trip from the Moon, to retrieve a film and data recording canister from the Service Module. He was assisted by Lunar Module Pilot James Irwin standing up in the Command Module hatch. This procedure was repeated by Ken Mattingly and Charles Duke on Apollo 16, and by Ronald Evans and Harrison Schmitt on Apollo 17.\n\nPost-Apollo EVAs\n\nThe first EVA repairs of a spacecraft were made by Charles \"Pete\" Conrad, Joseph Kerwin, and Paul J. Weitz on May 26, June 7, and June 19, 1973, on the Skylab 2 mission. They rescued the functionality of the launch-damaged Skylab space station by freeing a stuck solar panel, deploying a solar heating shield, and freeing a stuck circuit breaker relay. The Skylab 2 crew made three EVAs, and a total of ten EVAs were made by the three Skylab crews. They found that activities in weightlessness required about 2½ times longer than on Earth because many astronauts suffered spacesickness early in their flights. \n\nAfter Skylab, no more EVAs were made by the United States until the advent of the Space Shuttle program in the early 1980s. In this period, the Soviets resumed EVAs, making four from the Salyut 6 and Salyut 7 space stations between December 20, 1977, and July 30, 1982.\n\nWhen the United States resumed EVAs on April 7, 1983, astronauts started using an Extravehicular Mobility Unit (EMU) for self-contained life support independent of the spacecraft. STS-6 was the first Space Shuttle mission during which a spacewalk was conducted. Also, for the first time, American astronauts used an airlock to enter and exit the spacecraft like the Soviets. Accordingly, the American definition of EVA start time was redefined to when the astronaut switches the EMU to battery power.\n\nMilestones\n\nCapability milestones\n\n* The first untethered spacewalk was made by American Bruce McCandless II on February 7, 1984, during Challenger mission STS-41-B, using the Manned Maneuvering Unit. He was subsequently joined by Robert L. Stewart during the 5 hour 55 minute spacewalk. A self-contained spacewalk was first attempted by Eugene Cernan in 1966 on Gemini 9A, but Cernan could not reach the maneuvering unit without tiring.\n* The first metalwork in open space, consisting of welding, brazing and metal spraying, was conducted by Soviet cosmonauts Svetlana Savitskaya and Vladimir Dzhanibekov on July 25, 1984. A specially designed multipurpose tool was used to perform these activities during a 3-hour, 30 minute EVA outside the Salyut 7 space station. \n* The first three-person EVA was performed on May 13, 1992, as the third EVA of STS-49, the maiden flight of Endeavour. Pierre Thuot, Richard Hieb, and Thomas Akers conducted the EVA to hand-capture and repair a non-functional Intelsat VI-F3 satellite. it was the only three-person EVA. \n* The first EVA to perform an in-flight repair of the Space Shuttle was by American Steve Robinson on August 3, 2005, during \"Return to Flight\" mission STS-114. Robinson was sent to remove two protruding gap fillers from Discovery's heat shield, after engineers determined there was a small chance they could affect the shuttle upon re-entry. Robinson successfully removed the loose material while Discovery was docked to the International Space Station.\n* The longest EVA as of 2007, was 8 hours and 56 minutes, performed by Susan Helms and James S. Voss on March 11, 2001. \n\nPersonal cumulative duration records\n\n* Russian Anatoly Solovyev holds both the record for most EVAs and for the greatest cumulative duration spent in EVA (16 EVAs; 82 hr and 22 min).\n* Michael Lopez-Alegria holds the American record (10 EVAs; 67 hr and 40 min).\n* Christer Fuglesang holds the European (non-Russian) record (5 EVAs; 31 hr and 55 min).\n\nNational, ethnic and gender firsts\n\n* The first woman to perform an EVA was Soviet Svetlana Savitskaya on July 25, 1984 while aboard the Salyut 7 space station. Her EVA lasted 3 hours and 35 minutes.\n* The first American woman to perform an EVA was Kathryn D. Sullivan on October 11, 1984 during Space Shuttle Challenger mission STS-41-G.\n* The first EVA by a non-Soviet, non-American was made on December 9, 1988 by Jean-Loup Chrétien of France during a three-week stay on the Mir space station.\n* The first EVA by a black African-American was on February 9, 1995 by Bernard A. Harris, Jr..\n* The first EVA by a Japanese astronaut was made on November 25, 1997 by Takao Doi during STS-87.\n* The first EVA by an Australian-born person was on March 13, 2001 by Andy Thomas (although he is a naturalized US citizen).\n* The first EVA by a Scandinavian astronaut was made on December 12, 2006 by Christer Fuglesang.\n* The first EVA by a Chinese astronaut was made on September 27, 2008 by Zhai Zhigang during Shenzhou 7 mission. The spacewalk, using a Feitian space suit, made China the third country to independently carry out an EVA.\n* The first EVA by an Italian astronaut was made on July 9, 2013 by Luca Parmitano along with NASA Astronaut Chris Cassidy during Expedition 36 on the International Space Station.\n* The first EVA by a British astronaut was on January 15, 2016 by Tim Peake this is opposed to the first EVA by a Briton carried out by Briton was on February 9, 1995 by Michael Foale who had joint British-American nationality and flew as an American astronaut after being selected by NASA. \n\nCommemoration\n\nThe first spacewalk, that of the Soviet cosmonaut Alexey Leonov was commemorated in several Eastern Bloc stamps (see the stamps section in the Alexey Leonov article). Since the Soviet Union did not distribute diagrams or images of the Voskhod spacecraft at the time, the spaceship depiction in the stamps was purely fictional.\n\nThe US Post Office issued the Accomplishments in Space stamp in 1967. Along with astronaut Ed White, the issue depicts the Gemini IV spacecraft in orbit.\n\nDesignations\n\nNASA \"spacewalkers\" during the space shuttle program were designated as EV-1, EV-2, EV-3 and EV-4 (assigned to mission specialists for each mission, if applicable). \n\nCamp-out procedure\n\nFor EVAs from the International Space Station, NASA now routinely employs a camp out procedure to reduce the risk of decompression sickness. This was first tested by the Expedition 12 crew. During a camp out, astronauts sleep overnight in the airlock prior to an EVA, lowering the air pressure to , compared to the normal station pressure of . Spending a night at the lower air pressure helps flush nitrogen from the body, thereby preventing \"the bends\".", "A spacecraft is a vehicle, or machine designed to fly in outer space. Spacecraft are used for a variety of purposes, including communications, earth observation, meteorology, navigation, space colonization, planetary exploration, and transportation of humans and cargo.\n\nOn a sub-orbital spaceflight, a spacecraft enters space and then returns to the surface, without having gone into an orbit. For orbital spaceflights, spacecraft enter closed orbits around the Earth or around other celestial bodies. Spacecraft used for human spaceflight carry people on board as crew or passengers from start or on orbit (space stations) only, whereas those used for robotic space missions operate either autonomously or telerobotically. Robotic spacecraft used to support scientific research are space probes. Robotic spacecraft that remain in orbit around a planetary body are artificial satellites. Only a handful of interstellar probes, such as Pioneer 10 and 11, Voyager 1 and 2, and New Horizons, are on trajectories that leave the Solar System.\n\nOrbital spacecraft may be recoverable or not. By method of reentry to Earth they may be divided in non-winged space capsules and winged spaceplanes.\n\nHumanity has achieved space flight but only a few nations have the technology for orbital launches, including: Russia (Roskosmos), the United States (NASA), the member states of the European Space Agency (ESA), Japan (JAXA), India (ISRO), and China (CNSA).\n\nHistory\n\nSputnik was the first artificial satellite. It was launched into an elliptical low Earth orbit (LEO) by the Soviet Union on 4 October 1957. The launch ushered in new political, military, technological, and scientific developments; while the Sputnik launch was a single event, it marked the start of the Space Age. Apart from its value as a technological first, Sputnik also helped to identify the upper atmospheric layer's density, through measuring the satellite's orbital changes. It also provided data on radio-signal distribution in the ionosphere. Pressurized nitrogen in the satellite's false body provided the first opportunity for meteoroid detection. Sputnik 1 was launched during the International Geophysical Year from Site No.1/5, at the 5th Tyuratam range, in Kazakh SSR (now at the Baikonur Cosmodrome). The satellite travelled at 29,000 kilometers (18,000 mi) per hour, taking 96.2 minutes to complete an orbit, and emitted radio signals at 20.005 and 40.002 MHz\n\nWhile Sputnik 1 was the first spacecraft to orbit the Earth, other man-made objects had previously reached an altitude of 100 km, which is the height required by the international organization Fédération Aéronautique Internationale to count as a spaceflight. This altitude is called the Kármán line. In particular, in the 1940s there were several test launches of the V-2 rocket, some of which reached altitudes well over 100 km.\n\nPast and present spacecraft\n\nManned spacecraft\n\n \nAs of 2016, only three nations have flown manned spacecraft: USSR/Russia, USA, and China. \nThe first manned spacecraft was Vostok 1, which carried Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin into space in 1961, and completed a full Earth orbit. There were five other manned missions which used a Vostok spacecraft. The second manned spacecraft was named Freedom 7, and it performed a sub-orbital spaceflight in 1961 carrying American astronaut Alan Shepard to an altitude of just over 187 km. There were five other manned missions using Mercury spacecraft.\n\nOther Soviet manned spacecraft include the Voskhod, Soyuz, flown unmanned as Zond/L1, L3, TKS, and the Salyut and Mir manned space stations. Other American manned spacecraft include the Gemini Spacecraft, Apollo Spacecraft, the Skylab space station, and the Space Shuttle with undetached European Spacelab and private US Spacehab space stations-modules. China developed, but did not fly Shuguang, and is currently using Shenzhou (its first manned mission was in 2003).\n\nExcept for the space shuttle, all of the recoverable manned orbital spacecraft were space capsules.\n\nFile:Vostok spacecraft diagram.png \|alt=Line drawing of Vostok capsule \|Soviet Vostok capsule\nFile:NASA spacecraft comparison.jpg \|alt=Drawings of Mercury, Gemini capsules and Apollo spacecraft, with their launch rockets\|American Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo spacecraft\nFile:Voskhod 1 and 2.png \|alt=Line drawing of Voskhod capsules \|Soviet Voskhod (variant of Vostok)\nFile:Soyuz 7K-OK(A) drawing.svg \|alt=Soyuz 7K-OK(A) drawing \|1967 Soviet/Russian Soyuz spacecraft\nFile:Post S-7 Shenzhou spacecraft.png \|alt=Drawing of Shenzhou spacecraft \|Chinese Shenzhou\n\nThe International Space Station, manned since November 2000, is a joint venture between Russia, the United States, Canada and several other countries.\n\nSpaceplanes\n\nSome reusable vehicles have been designed only for manned spaceflight, and these are often called spaceplanes. The first example of such was the North American X-15 spaceplane, which conducted two manned flights which reached an altitude of over 100 km in the 1960s. The first reusable spacecraft, the X-15, was air-launched on a suborbital trajectory on July 19, 1963.\n\nThe first partially reusable orbital spacecraft, a winged non-capsule, the Space Shuttle, was launched by the USA on the 20th anniversary of Yuri Gagarin's flight, on April 12, 1981. During the Shuttle era, six orbiters were built, all of which have flown in the atmosphere and five of which have flown in space. Enterprise was used only for approach and landing tests, launching from the back of a Boeing 747 SCA and gliding to deadstick landings at Edwards AFB, California. The first Space Shuttle to fly into space was Columbia, followed by Challenger, Discovery, Atlantis, and Endeavour. Endeavour was built to replace Challenger when it was lost in January 1986. Columbia broke up during reentry in February 2003.\n\nThe first automatic partially reusable spacecraft was the Buran (Snowstorm), launched by the USSR on November 15, 1988, although it made only one flight and this was unmanned. This spaceplane was designed for a crew and strongly resembled the U.S. Space Shuttle, although its drop-off boosters used liquid propellants and its main engines were located at the base of what would be the external tank in the American Shuttle. Lack of funding, complicated by the dissolution of the USSR, prevented any further flights of Buran. The Space Shuttle was subsequently modified to allow for autonomous re-entry in case of necessity.\n\nPer the Vision for Space Exploration, the Space Shuttle was retired in 2011 due mainly to its old age and high cost of program reaching over a billion dollars per flight. The Shuttle's human transport role is to be replaced by Space X's Dragon V2 and Boeing's CST-100 Starliner no later than 2017. The Shuttle's heavy cargo transport role is to be replaced by expendable rockets such as the Space Launch System and Space X's Falcon Heavy.\n\nScaled Composites' SpaceShipOne was a reusable suborbital spaceplane that carried pilots Mike Melvill and Brian Binnie on consecutive flights in 2004 to win the Ansari X Prize. The Spaceship Company will build its successor SpaceShipTwo. A fleet of SpaceShipTwos operated by Virgin Galactic was planned to begin reusable private spaceflight carrying paying passengers in 2014, but was delayed after the VSS Enterprise crash.\n\nUnmanned spacecraft\n\nDesigned as manned but flown as unmanned only spacecraft\n\n* Zond/L1 – lunar flyby capsule\n* L3 – capsule and lunar lander\n* TKS – capsule\n* Buran – Soviet shuttle\n\nSemi-manned – manned as space stations or part of space stations\n\n* Progress – unmanned USSR/Russia cargo spacecraft\n* TKS – unmanned USSR/Russia cargo spacecraft and space station module\n* Automated Transfer Vehicle (ATV) – unmanned European cargo spacecraft\n* H-II Transfer Vehicle (HTV) – unmanned Japanese cargo spacecraft\n* Dragon (spacecraft) – unmanned private spacecraft (SpaceX)\n* Tianzhou 1(spacecraft) – China's unmanned spacecraft\n\nEarth-orbit satellites\n\n* Explorer 1 – first US satellite\n* Project SCORE – first communications satellite\n* SOHO - orbits the Sun near L1\n* Sputnik 1 – world's first artificial satellite\n* Sputnik 2 – first animal in orbit (Laika)\n* Sputnik 5 – first capsule recovered from orbit (Vostok precursor) – animals survived\n* Syncom – first geosynchronous communications satellite\n* Hubble Space Telescope – largest orbital observatory\n* X-37 – spaceplane\n\nLunar probes\n\n* Clementine – US Navy mission, orbited Moon, detected hydrogen at the poles\n* Kaguya JPN – Lunar orbiter\n* Luna 1 – first lunar flyby\n* Luna 2 – first lunar impact\n* Luna 3 – first images of lunar far side\n* Luna 9 – first soft landing on the Moon\n* Luna 10 – first lunar orbiter\n* Luna 16 – first unmanned lunar sample retrieval\n* Lunar Orbiter – very successful series of lunar mapping spacecraft\n* Lunar Prospector – confirmed detection of hydrogen at the lunar poles\n* Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter – Identifies safe landing sites & Locates moon resources\n* Lunokhod - Soviet lunar rovers\n* SMART-1 ESA – Lunar Impact\n* Surveyor – first USA soft lander\n* Chang'e 1 – China's Chang'e Lunar mission\n* Chang'e 2 – China's Chang'e Lunar mission\n* Chang'e 3 – China's Chang'e Lunar mission\n* Chang'e 4 – China's Chang'e Lunar mission\n* Chang'e 5 – China's Chang'e Lunar mission\n* Chang'e 6 – China's Chang'e Lunar mission\n* Chandrayaan 1 – First Indian Lunar mission\n\nPlanetary probes\n\n* Akatsuki JPN – a Venus orbiter\n* Cassini–Huygens – first Saturn orbiter + Titan lander\n* Curiosity rover – Rover sent to Mars by NASA in 2012\n* Galileo – first Jupiter orbiter+descent probe\n* IKAROS JPN – first solar-sail spacecraft\n* Mariner 4 – first Mars flyby, first close and high resolution images of Mars\n* Mariner 9 – first Mars orbiter\n* Mariner 10 – first Mercury flyby, first close up images\n* Mars Exploration Rover – a Mars rover\n* Mars Express – a Mars orbiter\n* Mars Global Surveyor – a Mars orbiter\n* Mars Orbiter Mission - India's first Interplanetary probe.\n* Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter – an advanced climate, imaging, sub-surface radar, and telecommunications Mars orbiter\n* MESSENGER – first Mercury orbiter (arrival 2011)\n* Mars Pathfinder – a Mars lander + rover\n* New Horizons – first Pluto flyby (arrival 2015)\n* Pioneer 10 – first Jupiter flyby, first close up images\n* Pioneer 11 – second Jupiter flyby + first Saturn flyby (first close up images of Saturn)\n* Pioneer Venus – first Venus orbiter+landers\n* Vega 1 – Balloon release into Venus atmosphere and lander (joint mission with Vega 2), mothership continued on to fly by Halley's Comet\n* Venera 4 – first soft landing on another planet (Venus)\n* Viking 1 – first soft landing on Mars\n* Voyager 2 – Jupiter flyby + Saturn flyby + first flybys/images of Neptune and Uranus\n\nOther – deep space\n\n* Cluster\n* Deep Space 1\n* Deep Impact\n* Genesis\n* Hayabusa\n* Near Earth Asteroid Rendezvous\n* Stardust\n* STEREO – Heliospheric and solar sensing; first images of the entire Sun\n* WMAP\n\nFastest spacecraft\n\n* Helios I & II Solar Probes (252792 km/h)\n\nFurthest spacecraft from the Sun\n\n* Pioneer 10 at 89.7 AU as of 2005, traveling outward at about 2.6 AU/year\n* Pioneer 11\n* Voyager 1 at 106.3 AU as of July 2008, traveling outward at about 3.6 AU/year\n* Voyager 2 at 85.49 AU as of July 2008, traveling outward at about 3.3 AU/year\n\nUnfunded and canceled programs\n\nManned spacecraft\n\n* Shuguang – Chinese capsule\n* Soyuz Kontakt – USSR capsule\n* Almaz – USSR space station\n* Manned Orbiting Laboratory – US space station\n* Altair – US lunar lander of Orion spacecraft\n\nMulti-stage spaceplanes\n\n* X-20 – US shuttle\n* Soviet Spiral Shuttle\n* Soviet Buran Shuttle\n* ESA Hermes shuttle\n* Kliper Russian semi-shuttle/semi-capsule\n* Japanese HOPE-X shuttle\n* Chinese Shuguang Project 921-3 shuttle\n\nSSTO spaceplanes\n\n* RR/British Aerospace HOTOL\n* ESA Hopper Orbiter\n* McDonnell Douglas DC-X (Delta Clipper)\n* Roton Rotored-Hybrid\n* Lockheed-Martin VentureStar\n\nSpacecraft under development\n\nManned\n\n* (US-NASA) Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle – capsule\n* (US-SpaceX ) Dragon V2 – capsule\n* (US-Boeing) CST-100 – capsule\n* (US-Sierra Nevada Corporation) Dream Chaser – orbital spaceplane\n* (US-The SpaceShip company)SpaceShipTwo suborbital spaceplane\n* (US-Blue Origin) New Shepard – VTVL capsule\n* (US-XCOR) Lynx rocketplane – suborbital spaceplane\n* China Shenzhou 3 spacecraft Cargo \n* China Shenzhou 4 spacecraft Cargo \n* China Shenzhou 5 spacecraft Cargo \n* China Shenzhou 6 spacecraft Cargo \n* China Shenzhou 7 spacecraft Cargo \n* China Shenzhou 8 spacecraft Cargo \n* China Shenzhou 9 spacecraft Cargo \n* China Shenzhou 10 spacecraft Cargo \n* (India-ISRO) Avatar RLV -Under development, First demonstration flight planned in 2015. \n* (India-ISRO) Orbital Vehicle – capsule\n* (India-ISRO) Indian Space Shuttle Program - Spacecraft\n* SpaceX reusable rocket\n* (Russia-RKA) Prospective Piloted Transport System (PPTS) – capsule\n* (Europe-ESA) Advanced Crew Transportation System – capsule\n* (Iranian Space Agency) Orbital Vehicle – capsule\n\nUnmanned\n\nSpaceX Dragon – cargo delivery to the ISS\nOrbital Sciences Cygnus – cargo delivery to the ISS\nCNES Mars Netlander\nJames Webb Space Telescope (delayed)\nESA Darwin14 probe\nMars Science Laboratory rover\n* China Shenzhou 1 spacecraft Cargo\n* China Shenzhou 2 spacecraft Cargo\nTerrestrial Planet Finder cancelled probe\nSystem F6—a DARPA Fractionated Spacecraft demonstrator\n*Reaction Engines Limited Skylon (spacecraft)\n\nSubsystems\n\nA spacecraft system comprises various subsystems, depending on the mission profile. Spacecraft subsystems comprise the spacecraft's \"bus\" and may include attitude determination and control (variously called ADAC, ADC, or ACS), guidance, navigation and control (GNC or GN&C), communications (comms), command and data handling (CDH or C&DH), power (EPS), thermal control (TCS), propulsion, and structures. Attached to the bus are typically payloads.\n\n; Life support\nSpacecraft intended for human spaceflight must also include a life support system for the crew.\n\n; Attitude control\nA Spacecraft needs an attitude control subsystem to be correctly oriented in space and respond to external torques and forces properly. The attitude control subsystem consists of sensors and actuators, together with controlling algorithms. The attitude-control subsystem permits proper pointing for the science objective, sun pointing for power to the solar arrays and earth pointing for communications.\n\n; GNC\nGuidance refers to the calculation of the commands (usually done by the CDH subsystem) needed to steer the spacecraft where it is desired to be. Navigation means determining a spacecraft's orbital elements or position. Control means adjusting the path of the spacecraft to meet mission requirements.\n\n; Command and data handling\nThe CDH subsystem receives commands from the communications subsystem, performs validation and decoding of the commands, and distributes the commands to the appropriate spacecraft subsystems and components. The CDH also receives housekeeping data and science data from the other spacecraft subsystems and components, and packages the data for storage on a data recorder or transmission to the ground via the communications subsystem. Other functions of the CDH include maintaining the spacecraft clock and state-of-health monitoring.\n\n; Communications\nSpacecraft, both robotic and crewed, utilize various communications systems for communication with terrestrial stations as well as for communication between spacecraft in space. Technologies utilized include RF and optical communication. In addition, some spacecraft payloads are explicitly for the purpose of ground–ground communication using receiver/retransmitter electronic technologies.\n\n; Power\nSpacecraft need an electrical power generation and distribution subsystem for powering the various spacecraft subsystems. For spacecraft near the Sun, solar panels are frequently used to generate electrical power. Spacecraft designed to operate in more distant locations, for example Jupiter, might employ a radioisotope thermoelectric generator (RTG) to generate electrical power. Electrical power is sent through power conditioning equipment before it passes through a power distribution unit over an electrical bus to other spacecraft components. Batteries are typically connected to the bus via a battery charge regulator, and the batteries are used to provide electrical power during periods when primary power is not available, for example when a low Earth orbit spacecraft is eclipsed by Earth.\n\n; Thermal control\nSpacecraft must be engineered to withstand transit through Earth's atmosphere and the space environment. They must operate in a vacuum with temperatures potentially ranging across hundreds of degrees Celsius as well as (if subject to reentry) in the presence of plasmas. Material requirements are such that either high melting temperature, low density materials such as beryllium and reinforced carbon–carbon or (possibly due to the lower thickness requirements despite its high density) tungsten or ablative carbon–carbon composites are used. Depending on mission profile, spacecraft may also need to operate on the surface of another planetary body. The thermal control subsystem can be passive, dependent on the selection of materials with specific radiative properties. Active thermal control makes use of electrical heaters and certain actuators such as louvers to control temperature ranges of equipments within specific ranges.\n\n; Spacecraft propulsion\nSpacecraft may or may not have a propulsion subsystem, depending on whether or not the mission profile calls for propulsion. The Swift spacecraft is an example of a spacecraft that does not have a propulsion subsystem. Typically though, LEO spacecraft include a propulsion subsystem for altitude adjustments (drag make-up maneuvers) and inclination adjustment maneuvers. A propulsion system is also needed for spacecraft that perform momentum management maneuvers. Components of a conventional propulsion subsystem include fuel, tankage, valves, pipes, and thrusters. The thermal control system interfaces with the propulsion subsystem by monitoring the temperature of those components, and by preheating tanks and thrusters in preparation for a spacecraft maneuver.\n\n; Structures\nSpacecraft must be engineered to withstand launch loads imparted by the launch vehicle, and must have a point of attachment for all the other subsystems. Depending on mission profile, the structural subsystem might need to withstand loads imparted by entry into the atmosphere of another planetary body, and landing on the surface of another planetary body.\n\n; Payload\nThe payload depends on the mission of the spacecraft, and is typically regarded as the part of the spacecraft \"that pays the bills\". Typical payloads could include scientific instruments (cameras, telescopes, or particle detectors, for example), cargo, or a human crew.\n\n; Ground segment\n\nThe ground segment, though not technically part of the spacecraft, is vital to the operation of the spacecraft. Typical components of a ground segment in use during normal operations include a mission operations facility where the flight operations team conducts the operations of the spacecraft, a data processing and storage facility, ground stations to radiate signals to and receive signals from the spacecraft, and a voice and data communications network to connect all mission elements. \n\n; Launch vehicle\nThe launch vehicle propels the spacecraft from Earth's surface, through the atmosphere, and into an orbit, the exact orbit being dependent on the mission configuration. The launch vehicle may be expendable or reusable." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Challenger", "Challengers", "Challengers (disambiguation)", "Challenger (album)", "Challenger (disambiguation)" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "challenger", "challengers", "challenger disambiguation", "challengers disambiguation", "challenger album" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "challenger", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Challenger" }
Richard Nixon was Vice President to which US state?	tc_305	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Richard_Nixon.txt", "Vice_President_of_the_United_States.txt" ], "title": [ "Richard Nixon", "Vice President of the United States" ], "wiki_context": [ "Richard Milhous Nixon (January 9, 1913 – April 22, 1994) was the 37th President of the United States, serving from 1969 to 1974 when he became the only U.S. president to resign the office. Nixon had previously served as a U.S. Representative and Senator from California and as the 36th Vice President of the United States from 1953 to 1961.\n\nNixon was born in Yorba Linda, California. After completing his undergraduate studies at Whittier College, he graduated from Duke University School of Law in 1937 and returned to California to practice law. He and his wife, Pat Nixon, moved to Washington in 1942 to work for the federal government. He subsequently served on active duty in the U.S. Navy Reserve during World War II. Nixon was elected to the House of Representatives in 1946 and to the Senate in 1950. His pursuit of the Hiss Case established his reputation as a leading anti-communist, and elevated him to national prominence. He was the running mate of Dwight D. Eisenhower, the Republican Party presidential nominee in the 1952 election. Nixon served for eight years as vice president. He waged an unsuccessful presidential campaign in 1960, narrowly losing to John F. Kennedy, and lost a race for Governor of California to Pat Brown in 1962. In 1968 he ran again for the presidency and was elected when he defeated Hubert Humphrey.\n\nNixon ended American involvement in the war in Vietnam in 1973 and brought the American POWs home. At the same time, he ended military draft. Nixon's visit to the People's Republic of China in 1972 opened diplomatic relations between the two nations, and he initiated détente and the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty with the Soviet Union the same year. His administration generally transferred power from Washington to the states. He imposed wage and price controls for a period of ninety days, enforced desegregation of Southern schools and established the Environmental Protection Agency. Nixon also presided over the Apollo 11 moon landing, which signaled the end of the moon race. He was reelected by one of the largest landslides in U.S. history in 1972, when he defeated George McGovern.\n\nThe year 1973 saw an Arab oil embargo, gasoline rationing, and a continuing series of revelations about the Watergate scandal. The scandal escalated, costing Nixon much of his political support, and on August 9, 1974, he resigned in the face of almost certain impeachment and removal from office. After his resignation, he was issued a pardon by his successor, Gerald Ford. In retirement, Nixon's work writing several books and undertaking of many foreign trips helped to rehabilitate his image. He suffered a debilitating stroke on April 18, 1994, and died four days later at the age of 81. \n\nEarly life \n\nRichard Milhous Nixon was born on January 9, 1913 in Yorba Linda, California, in a house his father built. He was the son of Hannah (Milhous) Nixon and Francis A. Nixon. His mother was a Quaker and his father converted from Methodism to the Quaker faith; Nixon's upbringing was marked by evangelical Quaker observances of the time, such as refraining from alcohol, dancing, and swearing. Nixon had four brothers: Harold (1909–33), Donald (1914–87), Arthur (1918–25), and Edward (born 1930). Four of the five Nixon boys were named after kings who had ruled in historical or legendary England; Richard, for example, was named after Richard the Lionheart. \n\nNixon's early life was marked by hardship, and he later quoted a saying of Eisenhower to describe his boyhood: \"We were poor, but the glory of it was we didn't know it\". The Nixon family ranch failed in 1922, and the family moved to Whittier, California. In an area with many Quakers, Frank Nixon opened a grocery store and gas station. Richard's younger brother Arthur died in 1925 after a short illness. At the age of twelve, Richard was found to have a spot on his lung and, with a family history of tuberculosis, he was forbidden to play sports. Eventually, the spot was found to be scar tissue from an early bout of pneumonia.\n\nPrimary and secondary education \n\nYoung Richard attended East Whittier Elementary School, where he was president of his eighth-grade class. His parents believed that attendance at Whittier High School had caused Richard's older brother Harold to live a dissolute lifestyle before the older boy fell ill of tuberculosis (he died of the disease in 1933). Instead, they sent Richard to the larger Fullerton Union High School. He had to ride a school bus for an hour each way during his freshman year and he received excellent grades. Later, he lived with an aunt in Fullerton during the week. He played junior varsity football, and seldom missed a practice, even though he was rarely used in games. He had greater success as a debater, winning a number of championships and taking his only formal tutelage in public speaking from Fullerton's Head of English, H. Lynn Sheller. Nixon later remembered Sheller's words, \"Remember, speaking is conversation ... don't shout at people. Talk to them. Converse with them.\" Nixon stated that he tried to use the conversational tone as much as possible.\n\nHis parents permitted Richard to transfer to Whittier High School for his junior year, beginning in September 1928. At Whittier High, Nixon suffered his first electoral defeat, for student body president. He generally rose at 4 a.m., to drive the family truck into Los Angeles and purchase vegetables at the market. He then drove to the store to wash and display them, before going to school. Harold had been diagnosed with tuberculosis the previous year; when their mother took him to Arizona in the hopes of improving his health, the demands on Richard increased, causing him to give up football. Nevertheless, Richard graduated from Whittier High third in his class of 207 students.\n\nCollegiate and law school education \n\nNixon was offered a tuition grant to attend Harvard University, but Harold's continued illness and the need for their mother to care for him meant Richard was needed at the store. He remained in his hometown and attended Whittier College, his expenses there covered by a bequest from his maternal grandfather. Nixon played for the basketball team; he also tried out for football, but lacked the size to play. He remained on the team as a substitute, and was noted for his enthusiasm. Instead of fraternities and sororities, Whittier had literary societies. Nixon was snubbed by the only one for men, the Franklins; many members of the Franklins were from prominent families but Nixon was not. He responded by helping to found a new society, the Orthogonian Society. In addition to the society, schoolwork, and work at the store, Nixon found time for a large number of extracurricular activities, becoming a champion debater and gaining a reputation as a hard worker. In 1933, he became engaged to Ola Florence Welch, daughter of the Whittier police chief. The two broke up in 1935.\n\nAfter his graduation from Whittier in 1934, Nixon received a full scholarship to attend Duke University School of Law. The school was new and sought to attract top students by offering scholarships. It paid high salaries to its professors, many of whom had national or international reputations. The number of scholarships was greatly reduced for second- and third-year students, forcing recipients into intense competition. Nixon not only kept his scholarship but was elected president of the Duke Bar Association, inducted into the Order of the Coif, and graduated third in his class in June 1937.\n\nEarly career and marriage \n\nAfter graduating from Duke, Nixon initially hoped to join the Federal Bureau of Investigation. He received no response to his letter of application and learned years later that he had been hired, but his appointment had been canceled at the last minute due to budget cuts. Instead, he returned to California and was admitted to the bar in 1937. He began practicing with the law firm Wingert and Bewley in Whittier, working on commercial litigation for local petroleum companies and other corporate matters, as well as on wills. In later years, Nixon proudly stated that he was the only modern president to have previously worked as a practicing attorney. Nixon was reluctant to work on divorce cases, disliking frank sexual talk from women. In 1938, he opened up his own branch of Wingert and Bewley in La Habra, California, and became a full partner in the firm the following year.\n\nIn January 1938, Nixon was cast in the Whittier Community Players production of The Dark Tower. There he played opposite a high school teacher named Thelma \"Pat\" Ryan. Nixon described it in his memoirs as \"a case of love at first sight\"—for Nixon only, as Pat Ryan turned down the young lawyer several times before agreeing to date him. Once they began their courtship, Ryan was reluctant to marry Nixon; they dated for two years before she assented to his proposal. They wed at a small ceremony on June 21, 1940. After a honeymoon in Mexico, the Nixons began their married life in Whittier. They had two daughters, Tricia (born 1946) and Julie (born 1948).\n\nWorld War II \n\nIn January 1942, the couple moved to Washington, D.C., where Nixon took a job at the Office of Price Administration. In his political campaigns, Nixon would suggest that this was his response to Pearl Harbor, but he had sought the position throughout the latter part of 1941. Both Nixon and his wife believed he was limiting his prospects by remaining in Whittier. He was assigned to the tire rationing division, where he was tasked with replying to correspondence. He did not enjoy the role, and four months later, applied to join the United States Navy. As a birthright Quaker, he could have claimed exemption from the draft; he might also have been deferred because he worked in government service. But instead of exploiting his circumstance, Nixon opted to enlist in the Navy. His application to enlist was successful, and was appointed a lieutenant junior grade in the U.S Naval Reserve (U.S. Navy Reserve) on June 15, 1942. \n\nIn October 1942, he was assigned as aide to the commander of the Naval Air Station Ottumwa in Iowa until May 1943. On October 1, 1943, Nixon was promoted to lieutenant. Seeking more excitement, he requested sea duty and was reassigned as the naval passenger control officer for the South Pacific Combat Air Transport Command, supporting the logistics of operations in the South West Pacific theater; he was the Officer in Charge of the Combat Air Transport Command at Guadalcanal in the Solomons and in March 1944 at Green Island (Nissan island) just north of Bougainville. His unit prepared manifests and flight plans for C-47 operations and supervised the loading and unloading of the cargo aircraft. For this service, he received a Navy Letter of Commendation (awarded a Navy Commendation Ribbon which was later updated to the Navy and Marine Corps Commendation Medal) from his commanding officer for \"meritorious and efficient performance of duty as Officer in Charge of the South Pacific Combat Air Transport Command\". \nUpon his return to the U.S., Nixon was appointed the administrative officer of the Alameda Naval Air Station in California. In January 1945, he was transferred to the Bureau of Aeronautics office in Philadelphia to help negotiate the termination of war contracts, and received his second letter of commendation, from the Secretary of the Navy for \"meritorious service, tireless effort, and devotion to duty\". Later, Nixon was transferred to other offices to work on contracts and finally to Baltimore. On October 3, 1945, he was promoted to lieutenant commander. On March 10, 1946, he was relieved of active duty. He resigned his commission on New Year's Day 1946. On June 1, 1953, he was promoted to commander. He retired in the U.S. Naval Reserve on June 6, 1966.\n\nRising politician \n\nCongressional career \n\nIn 1945, Republicans in California's 12th congressional district, frustrated by their inability to defeat Democratic Congressman Jerry Voorhis, sought a consensus candidate who would run a strong campaign against him. They formed a \"Committee of 100\" to decide on a candidate, hoping to avoid internal dissensions which had led to Voorhis victories. After the committee failed to attract higher-profile candidates, Herman Perry, Whittier's Bank of America branch manager, suggested Nixon, a family friend with whom he had served on the Whittier College Board of Trustees before the war. Perry wrote to Nixon in Baltimore. After a night of excited talk between the Nixons, the naval officer responded to Perry with enthusiasm. Nixon flew to California and was selected by the committee. When he left the Navy at the start of 1946, Nixon and his wife returned to Whittier, where Nixon began a year of intensive campaigning. He contended that Voorhis had been ineffective as a congressman and suggested that Voorhis's endorsement by a group linked to communists meant that Voorhis must have radical views. Nixon won the election, receiving 65,586 votes to Voorhis' 49,994.\n\nIn Congress, Nixon supported the Taft–Hartley Act of 1947, a federal law that monitors the activities and power of labor unions, and served on the Education and Labor Committee. He was part of the Herter Committee, which went to Europe to report on the need for U.S. foreign aid. Nixon was the youngest member of the committee, and the only Westerner. Advocacy by Herter Committee members, including Nixon, led to congressional passage of the Marshall Plan.\n\nNixon first gained national attention in 1948 when his investigation, as a member of the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC), broke the Alger Hiss spy case. While many doubted Whittaker Chambers' allegations that Hiss, a former State Department official, had been a Soviet spy, Nixon believed them to be true and pressed for the committee to continue its investigation. Under suit for defamation filed by Hiss, Chambers produced documents corroborating his allegations. These included paper and microfilm copies that Chambers turned over to House investigators after having hidden them overnight in a field; they became known as the \"Pumpkin Papers\". Hiss was convicted of perjury in 1950 for denying under oath he had passed documents to Chambers. In 1948, Nixon successfully cross-filed as a candidate in his district, winning both major party primaries, and was comfortably reelected.\n\nIn 1949, Nixon began to consider running for the United States Senate against the Democratic incumbent, Sheridan Downey, and entered the race in November of that year. Downey, faced with a bitter primary battle with Representative Helen Gahagan Douglas, announced his retirement in March 1950. Nixon and Douglas won the primary elections and engaged in a contentious campaign in which the ongoing Korean War was a major issue. Nixon tried to focus attention on Douglas' liberal voting record. As part of that effort, a \"Pink Sheet\" was distributed by the Nixon campaign suggesting that, as Douglas' voting record was similar to that of New York Congressman Vito Marcantonio (believed by some to be a communist), their political views must be nearly identical. Nixon won the election by almost twenty percentage points. During this campaign, Nixon was first called \"Tricky Dick\" by his opponents for his campaign tactics.\n\nIn the Senate, Nixon took a prominent position in opposing global communism, traveling frequently and speaking out against the threat. He maintained friendly relations with his fellow anti-communist, the controversial Wisconsin senator, Joseph McCarthy, but was careful to keep some distance between himself and McCarthy's allegations. Nixon also criticized President Harry S. Truman's handling of the Korean War. He supported statehood for Alaska and Hawaii, voted in favor of civil rights for minorities, and supported federal disaster relief for India and Yugoslavia. He voted against price controls and other monetary restrictions, benefits for illegal immigrants, and public power.\n\nVice Presidency \n\nGeneral Dwight D. Eisenhower was nominated for president by the Republicans in 1952. He had no strong preference for a vice presidential candidate, and Republican officeholders and party officials met in a \"smoke-filled room\" and recommended Nixon to the general, who agreed to the senator's selection. Nixon's youth (he was then 39), stance against communism, and political base in California—one of the largest states—were all seen as vote-winners by the leaders. Among the candidates considered along with Nixon were Ohio Senator Robert A. Taft, New Jersey Governor Alfred Driscoll and Illinois Senator Everett Dirksen. On the campaign trail, Eisenhower spoke to his plans for the country, leaving the negative campaigning to his running mate.\n\nIn mid-September, the Republican ticket faced a major crisis. The media reported that Nixon had a political fund, maintained by his backers, which reimbursed him for political expenses. Such a fund was not illegal, but it exposed Nixon to allegations of possible conflict of interest. With pressure building for Eisenhower to demand Nixon's resignation from the ticket, the senator went on television to deliver an address to the nation on September 23, 1952. The address, later termed the Checkers speech, was heard by about 60 million Americans—including the largest television audience up to that point. Nixon emotionally defended himself, stating that the fund was not secret, nor had donors received special favors. He painted himself as a man of modest means (his wife had no mink coat; instead she wore a \"respectable Republican cloth coat\") and a patriot. The speech would be remembered for the gift which Nixon had received, but which he would not give back: \"a little cocker spaniel dog … sent all the way from Texas. And our little girl—Tricia, the 6-year-old—named it Checkers.\" The speech was a masterpiece and prompted a huge public outpouring of support for Nixon. Eisenhower decided to retain him on the ticket, which proved victorious in the November election.\n\nEisenhower gave Nixon responsibilities during his term as vice president—more than any previous vice president. Nixon attended Cabinet and National Security Council meetings and chaired them when Eisenhower was absent. A 1953 tour of the Far East succeeded in increasing local goodwill toward the United States and prompted Nixon to appreciate the potential of the region as an industrial center. He visited Saigon and Hanoi in French Indochina. On his return to the United States at the end of 1953, Nixon increased the amount of time he devoted to foreign relations.\n\nBiographer Irwin Gellman, who chronicled Nixon's congressional years, said of his vice presidency:\n\nDespite intense campaigning by Nixon, who reprised his strong attacks on the Democrats, the Republicans lost control of both houses of Congress in the 1954 elections. These losses caused Nixon to contemplate leaving politics once he had served out his term. On September 24, 1955, President Eisenhower suffered a heart attack; his condition was initially believed to be life-threatening. Eisenhower was unable to perform his duties for six weeks. The 25th Amendment to the United States Constitution had not yet been proposed, and the Vice President had no formal power to act. Nonetheless, Nixon acted in Eisenhower's stead during this period, presiding over Cabinet meetings and ensuring that aides and Cabinet officers did not seek power. According to Nixon biographer Stephen Ambrose, Nixon had \"earned the high praise he received for his conduct during the crisis ... he made no attempt to seize power\".\n\nHis spirits buoyed, Nixon sought a second term, but some of Eisenhower's aides aimed to displace him. In a December 1955 meeting, Eisenhower proposed that Nixon not run for reelection in order to give him administrative experience before a 1960 presidential run and instead become a Cabinet officer in a second Eisenhower administration. Nixon, however, believed such an action would destroy his political career. When Eisenhower announced his reelection bid in February 1956, he hedged on the choice of his running mate, stating that it was improper to address that question until he had been renominated. Although no Republican was opposing Eisenhower, Nixon received a substantial number of write-in votes against the President in the 1956 New Hampshire primary election. In late April, the President announced that Nixon would again be his running mate. Eisenhower and Nixon were reelected by a comfortable margin in the November 1956 election.\n\nIn the spring of 1957, Nixon undertook another major foreign trip, this time to Africa. On his return, he helped shepherd the Civil Rights Act of 1957 through Congress. The bill was weakened in the Senate, and civil rights leaders were divided over whether Eisenhower should sign it. Nixon advised the President to sign the bill, which he did. Eisenhower suffered a mild stroke in November 1957, and Nixon gave a press conference, assuring the nation that the Cabinet was functioning well as a team during Eisenhower's brief illness.\n\nOn April 27, 1958, Richard and Pat Nixon embarked on a goodwill tour of South America. In Montevideo, Uruguay, Nixon made an impromptu visit to a college campus, where he fielded questions from students on U.S. foreign policy. The trip was uneventful until the Nixon party reached Lima, Peru, where he was met with student demonstrations. Nixon went to the campus, got out of his car to confront the students, and stayed until forced back into the car by a volley of thrown objects. At his hotel, Nixon faced another mob, and one demonstrator spat on him. In Caracas, Venezuela, Nixon and his wife were spat on by anti-American demonstrators and their limousine was attacked by a pipe-wielding mob. According to Ambrose, Nixon's courageous conduct \"caused even some of his bitterest enemies to give him some grudging respect\".\n\nIn July 1959, President Eisenhower sent Nixon to the Soviet Union for the opening of the American National Exhibition in Moscow. On July 24, while touring the exhibits with Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev, the two stopped at a model of an American kitchen and engaged in an impromptu exchange about the merits of capitalism versus communism that became known as the \"Kitchen Debate\".\n\n1960 and 1962 elections; wilderness years \n\nIn 1960, Nixon launched his first campaign for President of the United States. He faced little opposition in the Republican primaries and chose former Massachusetts Senator Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. as his running mate. His Democratic opponent was John F. Kennedy, and the race remained close for the duration. Nixon campaigned on his experience, but Kennedy called for new blood and claimed the Eisenhower–Nixon administration had allowed the Soviet Union to overtake the U.S. in ballistic missiles (the \"missile gap\"). A new political medium was introduced in the campaign: televised presidential debates. In the first of four such debates, Nixon appeared pale, with a five o'clock shadow, in contrast to the photogenic Kennedy. Nixon's performance in the debate was perceived to be mediocre in the visual medium of television, though many people listening on the radio thought that Nixon had won. Nixon lost the election narrowly, with Kennedy ahead by only 120,000 votes (0.2 percent) in the popular vote.\n\nThere were charges of vote fraud in Texas and Illinois, both states won by Kennedy; Nixon refused to consider contesting the election, feeling a lengthy controversy would diminish the United States in the eyes of the world, and the uncertainty would hurt U.S. interests. At the end of his term of office as vice president in January 1961, Nixon and his family returned to California, where he practiced law and wrote a bestselling book, Six Crises, which included coverage of the Hiss case, Eisenhower's heart attack, and the Fund Crisis, which had been resolved by the Checkers speech.\n\nLocal and national Republican leaders encouraged Nixon to challenge incumbent Pat Brown for Governor of California in the 1962 election. Despite initial reluctance, Nixon entered the race. The campaign was clouded by public suspicion that Nixon viewed the office as a stepping-stone for another presidential run, some opposition from the far-right of the party, and his own lack of interest in being California's governor. Nixon hoped that a successful run would confirm him in his status as the nation's leading active Republican politician, and ensure he remained a major player in national politics. Instead, he lost to Brown by more than five percentage points, and the defeat was widely believed to be the end of his political career. In an impromptu concession speech the morning after the election, Nixon blamed the media for favoring his opponent, saying, \"You won't have Nixon to kick around anymore because, gentlemen, this is my last press conference\". The California defeat was highlighted in the November 11, 1962, episode of ABC's Howard K. Smith: News and Comment entitled \"The Political Obituary of Richard M. Nixon\". Alger Hiss appeared on the program, and many members of the public complained that it was unseemly to allow a convicted felon air time to attack a former vice president. The furor drove Smith and his program from the air, and public sympathy for Nixon grew.\n\nThe Nixon family traveled to Europe in 1963, where Nixon gave press conferences and met with leaders of the countries he visited. The family moved to New York City, where Nixon became a senior partner in the leading law firm Nixon, Mudge, Rose, Guthrie & Alexander. Nixon had pledged, when announcing his California campaign, not to run for president in 1964; even if he had not, he believed it would be difficult to defeat Kennedy, or after his assassination, Kennedy's successor, Lyndon Johnson. In 1964, he supported Arizona Senator Barry Goldwater for the Republican nomination for president; when Goldwater was successful in gaining the nomination, Nixon was selected to introduce the candidate to the convention. Although he thought Goldwater unlikely to win, Nixon campaigned for him loyally. The election was a disaster for the Republicans; Goldwater's landslide loss to Johnson was matched by heavy losses for the party in Congress and among state governors.\n\nNixon was one of the few leading Republicans not blamed for the disastrous results, and he sought to build on that in the 1966 congressional elections. He campaigned for many Republicans seeking to regain seats lost in the Johnson landslide and received credit for helping the Republicans make major gains in the midterm election.\n\n1968 presidential election \n\nAt the end of 1967, Nixon told his family he planned to run for president a second time. Although Pat Nixon did not always enjoy public life (for example, she had been embarrassed by the need to reveal how little the family owned in the Checkers speech), she was supportive of her husband's ambitions. Nixon believed that with the Democrats torn over the issue of the Vietnam War, a Republican had a good chance of winning, although he expected the election to be as close as in 1960.\n\nOne of the most tumultuous primary election seasons ever began as the Tet Offensive was launched, followed by the withdrawal of President Johnson as a candidate after doing unexpectedly poorly in the New Hampshire primary; it concluded with the assassination of one of the Democratic candidates, Senator Robert F. Kennedy, just moments after his victory in the California primary. On the Republican side, Nixon's main opposition was Michigan Governor George Romney, though New York Governor Nelson Rockefeller and California Governor Ronald Reagan each hoped to be nominated in a brokered convention. Nixon secured the nomination on the first ballot. He selected Maryland Governor Spiro Agnew as his running mate, a choice which Nixon believed would unite the party, appealing to both Northern moderates and Southerners disaffected with the Democrats.\n\nNixon's Democratic opponent in the general election was Vice President Hubert Humphrey, who was nominated at a convention marked by violent protests. Throughout the campaign, Nixon portrayed himself as a figure of stability during a period of national unrest and upheaval. He appealed to what he later called the \"silent majority\" of socially conservative Americans who disliked the hippie counterculture and the anti-war demonstrators. Agnew became an increasingly vocal critic of these groups, solidifying Nixon's position with the right.\n\nNixon waged a prominent television advertising campaign, meeting with supporters in front of cameras. He stressed that the crime rate was too high, and attacked what he perceived as a surrender by the Democrats of the United States' nuclear superiority. Nixon promised \"peace with honor\" in the Vietnam War and proclaimed that \"new leadership will end the war and win the peace in the Pacific\". He did not release specifics of how he hoped to end the war, resulting in media intimations that he must have a \"secret plan\". His slogan of \"Nixon's the One\" proved to be effective.\n\nJohnson's negotiators hoped to reach a truce in Vietnam prior to the election. Nixon received astute analysis on the talks from Henry Kissinger, then a consultant to U.S. negotiator Averell Harriman, and his campaign was in regular contact with Anna Chennault in Saigon. She advised South Vietnamese president Thieu not to go to Paris to join the talks, hinting that Nixon would give him a better deal if elected. Johnson was aware of what was going on, as he had both Chennault and the South Vietnamese ambassador to Washington bugged, and was enraged by what he considered an attempt by Nixon to undermine U.S. foreign policy. On October 31, with no agreement, Johnson announced a unilateral halt to the bombing, and that peace negotiations would start in Paris on November 6, the day after Election Day. On November 2, after speaking with Chennault again, Thieu stated he would not go to Paris. Johnson telephoned Nixon, who denied any involvement; the President did not believe him. Johnson felt he could not publicly mention Chennault's involvement, which had been obtained by wiretapping, but told Humphrey, who chose not to use the information.\n\nIn a three-way race between Nixon, Humphrey, and independent candidate former Alabama Governor George Wallace, Nixon defeated Humphrey by nearly 500,000 votes (seven-tenths of a percentage point), with 301 electoral votes to 191 for Humphrey and 46 for Wallace. In his victory speech, Nixon pledged that his administration would try to bring the divided nation together. Nixon said: \"I have received a very gracious message from the Vice President, congratulating me for winning the election. I congratulated him for his gallant and courageous fight against great odds. I also told him that I know exactly how he felt. I know how it feels to lose a close one.\"\n\nPresidency (1969–74) \n\nNixon was inaugurated as president on January 20, 1969, sworn in by his onetime political rival, Chief Justice Earl Warren. Pat Nixon held the family Bibles open at Isaiah 2:4, which reads, \"They shall beat their swords into plowshares, and their spears into pruning hooks.\" In his inaugural address, which received almost uniformly positive reviews, Nixon remarked that \"the greatest honor history can bestow is the title of peacemaker\"—a phrase that would later be placed on his gravestone. He spoke about turning partisan politics into a new age of unity:\n\nForeign policy \n\nChina \n\nNixon laid the groundwork for his overture to China even before he became president, writing in Foreign Affairs a year before his election: \"There is no place on this small planet for a billion of its potentially most able people to live in angry isolation.\" Assisting him in this venture was his National Security Advisor and future Secretary of State, Henry Kissinger, with whom the President worked closely, bypassing Cabinet officials. With relations between the Soviet Union and China at a nadir—border clashes between the two took place during Nixon's first year in office—Nixon sent private word to the Chinese that he desired closer relations. A breakthrough came in early 1971, when Chairman Mao invited a team of American table tennis players to visit China and play against top Chinese players. Nixon followed up by sending Kissinger to China for clandestine meetings with Chinese officials. On July 15, 1971, it was simultaneously announced by Beijing and by Nixon (on television and radio) that the President would visit China the following February. The announcements astounded the world. The secrecy allowed both sets of leaders time to prepare the political climate in their countries for the contact.\n\nIn February 1972, Nixon and his wife traveled to China. Kissinger briefed Nixon for over 40 hours in preparation. Upon touching down, the President and First Lady emerged from Air Force One and greeted Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai. Nixon made a point of shaking Zhou's hand, something which then-Secretary of State John Foster Dulles had refused to do in 1954 when the two met in Geneva. Over 100 television journalists accompanied the president. On Nixon's orders, television was strongly favored over printed publications, as Nixon felt that the medium would capture the visit much better than print. It also gave him the opportunity to snub the print journalists he despised.\n\nNixon and Kissinger met for an hour with Mao and Zhou at Mao's official private residence, where they discussed a range of issues. Mao later told his doctor that he had been impressed by Nixon, whom he considered forthright, unlike the leftists and the Soviets. He said he was suspicious of Kissinger, though the National Security Advisor referred to their meeting as his \"encounter with history\". A formal banquet welcoming the presidential party was given that evening in the Great Hall of the People. The following day, Nixon met with Zhou; the joint communique following this meeting recognized Taiwan as a part of China, and looked forward to a peaceful solution to the problem of reunification. When not in meetings, Nixon toured architectural wonders including the Forbidden City, Ming Tombs, and the Great Wall. Americans received their first glimpse into Chinese life through the cameras which accompanied Pat Nixon, who toured the city of Beijing and visited communes, schools, factories, and hospitals.\n\nThe visit ushered in a new era of Sino-American relations. Fearing the possibility of a Sino-American alliance, the Soviet Union yielded to pressure for détente with the United States.\n\nVietnam War \n\nWhen Nixon took office, about 300 American soldiers were dying each week in Vietnam, and the war was broadly unpopular in the United States, with violent protests against the war ongoing. The Johnson administration had agreed to suspend bombing in exchange for negotiations without preconditions, but this agreement never fully took force. According to Walter Isaacson, soon after taking office, Nixon had concluded that the Vietnam War could not be won and he was determined to end the war quickly. Conversely, Black argues that Nixon sincerely believed he could intimidate North Vietnam through the \"Madman theory\". Nixon sought some arrangement which would permit American forces to withdraw, while leaving South Vietnam secure against attack.\n\nNixon approved a secret bombing campaign of North Vietnamese and allied Khmer Rouge positions in Cambodia in March 1969 (code-named Operation Menu), a policy begun under Johnson. These operations resulted in heavy bombing of Cambodia; by one measurement more bombs were dropped over Cambodia under Johnson and Nixon than the Allies dropped during World War II. In mid-1969, Nixon began efforts to negotiate peace with the North Vietnamese, sending a personal letter to North Vietnamese leaders, and peace talks began in Paris. Initial talks, however, did not result in an agreement. In May 1969 he publicly proposed to withdraw all American troops from South Vietnam provided North Vietnam also did so and for South Vietnam to hold internationally supervised elections with Viet Cong participation. \n\nIn July 1969, Nixon visited South Vietnam, where he met with his U.S. military commanders and President Nguyễn Văn Thiệu. Amid protests at home demanding an immediate pullout, he implemented a strategy of replacing American troops with Vietnamese troops, known as \"Vietnamization\". He soon instituted phased U.S. troop withdrawals but authorized incursions into Laos, in part to interrupt the Ho Chi Minh trail, used to supply North Vietnamese forces, that passed through Laos and Cambodia. Nixon announced the ground invasion of Cambodia to the American public on April 30, 1970. His responses to protesters included an impromptu, early morning meeting with them at the Lincoln Memorial on May 9, 1970. Documents uncovered from the Soviet archives after 1991 reveal that the North Vietnamese attempt to overrun Cambodia in 1970 was launched at the explicit request of the Khmer Rouge and negotiated by Pol Pot's then-second-in-command, Nuon Chea. Nixon's campaign promise to curb the war, contrasted with the escalated bombing, led to claims that Nixon had a \"credibility gap\" on the issue.\n\nIn 1971, excerpts from the \"Pentagon Papers\", which had been leaked by Daniel Ellsberg, were published by The New York Times and The Washington Post. When news of the leak first appeared, Nixon was inclined to do nothing; the Papers, a history of United States' involvement in Vietnam, mostly concerned the lies of prior administrations and contained few real revelations. He was persuaded by Kissinger that the papers were more harmful than they appeared, and the President tried to prevent publication. The Supreme Court eventually ruled for the newspapers.\n\nAs U.S. troop withdrawals continued, conscription was reduced and in 1973 ended; the armed forces became all-volunteer. After years of fighting, the Paris Peace Accords were signed at the beginning of 1973. The agreement implemented a cease fire and allowed for the withdrawal of remaining American troops; however, it did not require the 160,000 North Vietnam Army regulars located in the South to withdraw. Once American combat support ended, there was a brief truce, before fighting broke out again, this time without American combat involvement. North Vietnam conquered South Vietnam in 1975.\n\nLatin American policy \n\nNixon had been a firm supporter of Kennedy in the 1961 Bay of Pigs Invasion and 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis; on taking office he stepped up covert operations against Cuba and its president, Fidel Castro. He maintained close relations with the Cuban-American exile community through his friend, Bebe Rebozo, who often suggested ways of irritating Castro. These activities concerned the Soviets and Cubans, who feared Nixon might attack Cuba and break the understanding between Kennedy and Khrushchev which had ended the missile crisis. In August 1970, the Soviets asked Nixon to reaffirm the understanding; despite his hard line against Castro, Nixon agreed. The process had not yet been completed when the Soviets began expanding their base at the Cuban port of Cienfuegos in October 1970. A minor confrontation ensued, which was concluded with an understanding that the Soviets would not use Cienfuegos for submarines bearing ballistic missiles. The final round of diplomatic notes, reaffirming the 1962 accord, were exchanged in November.\n\nThe election of Marxist candidate Salvador Allende as President of Chile in September 1970 spurred Nixon and Kissinger to pursue a vigorous campaign of covert resistance to Allende, first designed to convince the Chilean congress to confirm Jorge Alessandri as the winner of the election and then messages to military officers in support of a coup. Other support included strikes organized against Allende and funding for Allende opponents. It was even alleged that \"Nixon personally authorized\" $700,000 in covert funds to print anti-Allende messages in a prominent Chilean newspaper. Following an extended period of social, political, and economic unrest, General Augusto Pinochet assumed power in a violent coup d'état on September 11, 1973; among the dead was Allende.\n\nSoviet Union \n\nNixon used the improving international environment to address the topic of nuclear peace. Following the announcement of his visit to China, the Nixon administration concluded negotiations for him to visit the Soviet Union. The President and First Lady arrived in Moscow on May 22, 1972 and met with Leonid Brezhnev, the General Secretary of the Communist Party; Alexei Kosygin, the Chairman of the Council of Ministers; and Nikolai Podgorny, the head of state, among other leading Soviet officials.\n\nNixon engaged in intense negotiations with Brezhnev. Out of the summit came agreements for increased trade and two landmark arms control treaties: SALT I, the first comprehensive limitation pact signed by the two superpowers, and the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty, which banned the development of systems designed to intercept incoming missiles. Nixon and Brezhnev proclaimed a new era of \"peaceful coexistence\". A banquet was held that evening at the Kremlin.\n\nSeeking to foster better relations with the United States, both China and the Soviet Union cut back on their diplomatic support for North Vietnam and advised Hanoi to come to terms militarily. Nixon later described his strategy:\n\nHaving made considerable progress over the previous two years in U.S.-Soviet relations, Nixon embarked on a second trip to the Soviet Union in 1974. He arrived in Moscow on June 27 to a welcome ceremony, cheering crowds, and a state dinner at the Grand Kremlin Palace that evening. Nixon and Brezhnev met in Yalta, where they discussed a proposed mutual defense pact, détente, and MIRVs. While he considered proposing a comprehensive test-ban treaty, Nixon felt he would not have time as president to complete it. There were no significant breakthroughs in these negotiations.\n\nMiddle Eastern policy \n\nAs part of the Nixon Doctrine that the U.S. would avoid direct combat assistance to allies where possible, instead giving them assistance to defend themselves, the U.S. greatly increased arms sales to the Middle East—particularly Israel, Iran and Saudi Arabia—during the Nixon administration. The Nixon administration strongly supported Israel, an American ally in the Middle East, but the support was not unconditional. Nixon believed that Israel should make peace with its Arab neighbors and that the United States should encourage it. The president believed that—except during the Suez Crisis—the U.S. had failed to intervene with Israel, and should use the leverage of the large U.S. military aid to Israel to urge the parties to the negotiating table. However, the Arab-Israeli conflict was not a major focus of Nixon's attention during his first term—for one thing, he felt that no matter what he did, American Jews would oppose his reelection.\n\nOn October 6, 1973, an Arab coalition led by Egypt and Syria, supported with tons of arms and materiel by the Soviet Union, attacked Israel in what was known as the Yom Kippur War. Israel suffered heavy losses and Nixon ordered an airlift to resupply Israeli losses, cutting through inter-departmental squabbles and bureaucracy and taking personal responsibility for any response by Arab nations. More than a week later, by the time the U.S. and Soviet Union began negotiating a truce, Israel had penetrated deep into enemy territory. The truce negotiations rapidly escalated into a superpower crisis; when Israel gained the upper-hand, Egyptian President Sadat requested a joint U.S.-USSR peacekeeping mission, which the U.S. refused. When Soviet Premier Brezhnev threatened to unilaterally enforce any peacekeeping mission militarily, Nixon ordered the U.S. military to DEFCON3, placing all U.S. military personnel and bases on alert for nuclear war. This was the closest that the world had come to nuclear war since the Cuban Missile Crisis. Brezhnev backed down as a result of Nixon's actions.\n\nBecause Israel's victory was largely due to U.S. support, the Arab OPEC nations retaliated by refusing to sell crude oil to the U.S., resulting in the 1973 oil crisis. The embargo caused gasoline shortages and rationing in the United States in late 1973, and was eventually ended by the oil-producing nations as peace in the Middle East took hold.\n\nAfter the war, and under Nixon's presidency, the U.S. reestablished relations with Egypt for the first time since 1967. Nixon used the Middle East crisis to restart the stalled Middle East Peace Negotiations; he wrote in a confidential memo to Kissinger on October 20:\nI believe that, beyond a doubt, we are now facing the best opportunity we have had in 15 years to build a lasting peace in the Middle East. I am convinced history will hold us responsible if we let this opportunity slip by... I now consider a permanent Middle East settlement to be the most important final goal to which we must devote ourselves. \n\nNixon made one of his final international visits as president to the Middle East in June 1974, and became the first President to visit Israel.\n\nDomestic policy \n\nEconomy \n\nAt the time Nixon took office in 1969, inflation was at 4.7 percent—its highest rate since the Korean War. The Great Society had been enacted under Johnson, which, together with the Vietnam War costs, was causing large budget deficits. Unemployment was low, but interest rates were at their highest in a century. Nixon's major economic goal was to reduce inflation; the most obvious means of doing so was to end the war. This could not be accomplished overnight, and the U.S. economy continued to struggle through 1970, contributing to a lackluster Republican performance in the midterm congressional elections (Democrats controlled both Houses of Congress throughout Nixon's presidency). According to political economist Nigel Bowles in his 2011 study of Nixon's economic record, the new president did little to alter Johnson's policies through the first year of his presidency.\n\nNixon was far more interested in foreign affairs than domestic policies, but believed that voters tend to focus on their own financial condition, and that economic conditions were a threat to his reelection. As part of his \"New Federalism\" views, he proposed grants to the states, but these proposals were for the most part lost in the congressional budget process. However, Nixon gained political credit for advocating them. In 1970, Congress had granted the President the power to impose wage and price freezes, though the Democratic majorities, knowing Nixon had opposed such controls through his career, did not expect Nixon to actually use the authority. With inflation unresolved by August 1971, and an election year looming, Nixon convened a summit of his economic advisers at Camp David. He then announced temporary wage and price controls, allowed the dollar to float against other currencies, and ended the convertibility of the dollar into gold. Bowles points out, \n\nby identifying himself with a policy whose purpose was inflation's defeat, Nixon made it difficult for Democratic opponents ... to criticize him. His opponents could offer no alternative policy that was either plausible or believable since the one they favored was one they had designed but which the president had appropriated for himself.\n\nNixon's policies dampened inflation through 1972, although their aftereffects contributed to inflation during his second term and into the Ford administration.\n\nAfter he won reelection, Nixon found inflation returning. He reimposed price controls in June 1973. The price controls became unpopular with the public and businesspeople, who saw powerful labor unions as preferable to the price board bureaucracy. The controls produced food shortages, as meat disappeared from grocery stores and farmers drowned chickens rather than sell them at a loss. Despite the failure to control inflation, controls were slowly ended, and on April 30, 1974, their statutory authorization lapsed.\n\nGovernmental initiatives and organization \n\nNixon advocated a \"New Federalism\", which would devolve power to state and local elected officials, though Congress was hostile to these ideas and enacted few of them. He eliminated the Cabinet-level United States Post Office Department, which in 1971 became the government-run United States Postal Service.\n\nNixon was a late convert to the conservation movement. Environmental policy had not been a significant issue in the 1968 election; the candidates were rarely asked for their views on the subject. He saw that the first Earth Day in April 1970 presaged a wave of voter interest on the subject, and sought to use that to his benefit; in June he announced the formation of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Nixon broke new ground by discussing environment policy in his State of the Union speech; other initiatives supported by Nixon included the Clean Air Act of 1970 and Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA); the National Environmental Policy Act required environmental impact statements for many Federal projects. Nixon vetoed the Clean Water Act of 1972—objecting not to the policy goals of the legislation but to the amount of money to be spent on them, which he deemed excessive. After Congress overrode his veto, Nixon impounded the funds he deemed unjustifiable.\n\nIn 1971, Nixon proposed health insurance reform—a private health insurance employer mandate, federalization of Medicaid for poor families with dependent minor children, and support for health maintenance organizations (HMOs). A limited HMO bill was enacted in 1973. In 1974, Nixon proposed more comprehensive health insurance reform—a private health insurance employer mandate and replacement of Medicaid by state-run health insurance plans available to all, with income-based premiums and cost sharing.\n\nConcerned about the prevalence of drug use both domestically and among American soldiers in Vietnam, Nixon called for a War on Drugs, pledging to cut off sources of supply abroad, and to increase funds for education and for rehabilitation facilities.\n\nAs one policy initiative, Nixon called for more money for sickle-cell research, treatment, and education in February 1971 and signed the National Sickle Cell Anemia Control Act on May 16, 1972. While Nixon called for increased spending on such high-profile items as sickle-cell disease and for a War on Cancer, at the same time he sought to reduce overall spending at the National Institutes of Health.\n\nCivil rights \n\nThe Nixon presidency witnessed the first large-scale integration of public schools in the South. Nixon sought a middle way between the segregationist Wallace and liberal Democrats, whose support of integration was alienating some Southern whites. Hopeful of doing well in the South in 1972, he sought to dispose of desegregation as a political issue before then. Soon after his inauguration, he appointed Vice President Agnew to lead a task force, which worked with local leaders—both white and black—to determine how to integrate local schools. Agnew had little interest in the work, and most of it was done by Labor Secretary George Shultz. Federal aid was available, and a meeting with President Nixon was a possible reward for compliant committees. By September 1970, less than ten percent of black children were attending segregated schools. By 1971, however, tensions over desegregation surfaced in Northern cities, with angry protests over the busing of children to schools outside their neighborhood to achieve racial balance. Nixon opposed busing personally but enforced court orders requiring its use.\n\nIn addition to desegregating public schools, Nixon implemented the Philadelphia Plan in 1970—the first significant federal affirmative action program. He also endorsed the Equal Rights Amendment after it passed both houses of Congress in 1972 and went to the states for ratification. Nixon had campaigned as an ERA supporter in 1968, though feminists criticized him for doing little to help the ERA or their cause after his election. Nevertheless, he appointed more women to administration positions than Lyndon Johnson had.\n\nSpace policy \n\nAfter a nearly decade-long national effort, the United States won the race to land astronauts on the Moon on July 20, 1969, with the flight of Apollo 11. Nixon spoke with Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin during their moonwalk. He called the conversation \"the most historic phone call ever made from the White House\".\n\nNixon, however, was unwilling to keep funding for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) at the high level seen through the 1960s as NASA prepared to send men to the Moon. NASA Administrator Thomas O. Paine drew up ambitious plans for the establishment of a permanent base on the Moon by the end of the 1970s and the launch of a manned expedition to Mars as early as 1981. Nixon, however, rejected both proposals due to the expense. Nixon also canceled the Air Force Manned Orbital Laboratory program in 1969, because unmanned spy satellites were shown to be a more cost-effective way to achieve the same reconnaissance objective.\n\nOn March 7, 1970, Nixon announced the end of the Kennedy-Johnson era's massive efforts in the space race, stating \"We must think of [space activities] as part of a continuing process... and not as a series of separate leaps, each requiring a massive concentration of energy. Space expenditures must take their proper place within a rigorous system of national priorities... What we do in space from here on in must become a normal and regular part of our national life and must therefore be planned in conjunction with all of the other undertakings which are important to us.\" He then cancelled the last three planned Apollo lunar missions to place Skylab in orbit more efficiently and free money up for the design and construction of the Space Shuttle. \n\nOn May 24, 1972, Nixon approved a five-year cooperative program between NASA and the Soviet space program, culminating in the 1975 joint mission of an American Apollo and Soviet Soyuz spacecraft linking in space.\n\nReelection, Watergate scandal, and resignation \n\n1972 presidential campaign \n\nNixon believed his rise to power had peaked at a moment of political realignment. The Democratic \"Solid South\" had long been a source of frustration to Republican ambitions. Goldwater had won several Southern states by opposing the Civil Rights Act of 1964 but had alienated more moderate Southerners. Nixon's efforts to gain Southern support in 1968 were diluted by Wallace's candidacy. Through his first term, he pursued a Southern Strategy with policies, such as his desegregation plans, that would be broadly acceptable among Southern whites, encouraging them to realign with the Republicans in the aftermath of the Civil Rights era. He nominated two Southern conservatives, Clement Haynsworth and G. Harrold Carswell to the Supreme Court, but neither was confirmed by the Senate.\n\nNixon entered his name on the New Hampshire primary ballot on January 5, 1972, effectively announcing his candidacy for reelection. Virtually assured the Republican nomination, the President had initially expected his Democratic opponent to be Massachusetts Senator Ted Kennedy (brother of the late president), but he was largely removed from contention after the 1969 Chappaquiddick incident. Instead, Maine Senator Edmund Muskie became the front runner, with South Dakota Senator George McGovern in a close second place.\n\nOn June 10, McGovern won the California primary and secured the Democratic nomination. The following month, Nixon was renominated at the 1972 Republican National Convention. He dismissed the Democratic platform as cowardly and divisive. McGovern intended to sharply reduce defense spending and supported amnesty for draft evaders as well as abortion rights. With some of his supporters believed to be in favor of drug legalization, McGovern was perceived as standing for \"amnesty, abortion and acid\". McGovern was also damaged by his vacillating support for his original running mate, Missouri Senator Thomas Eagleton, dumped from the ticket following revelations that he had received treatment for depression. Nixon was ahead in most polls for the entire election cycle, and was reelected on November 7, 1972 in one of the largest landslide election victories in American history. He defeated McGovern with over 60 percent of the popular vote, losing only in Massachusetts and the District of Columbia.\n\nWatergate \n\nThe term Watergate has come to encompass an array of clandestine and often illegal activities undertaken by members of the Nixon administration. Those activities included \"dirty tricks,\" or bugging the offices of political opponents and the harassment of activist groups and political figures. The activities were brought to light after five men were caught breaking into Democratic party headquarters at the Watergate complex in Washington, D.C. on June 17, 1972. The Washington Post picked up on the story; reporters Carl Bernstein and Bob Woodward relied on an informant known as \"Deep Throat\"—later revealed to be Mark Felt, associate director at the FBI—to link the men to the Nixon administration. Nixon downplayed the scandal as mere politics, calling news articles biased and misleading. A series of revelations made it clear that the Committee to Re-elect President Nixon, and later the White House, was involved in attempts to sabotage the Democrats. Senior aides such as White House Counsel John Dean faced prosecution; in total 48 officials were convicted of wrongdoing.\n\nIn July 1973, White House aide Alexander Butterfield testified under oath to Congress that Nixon had a secret taping system that recorded his conversations and phone calls in the Oval Office. These tapes were subpoenaed by Watergate Special Counsel Archibald Cox; Nixon provided transcripts of the conversations but not the actual tapes, citing executive privilege. With the White House and Cox at loggerheads, Nixon had Cox fired in October in the \"Saturday Night Massacre\"; he was replaced by Leon Jaworski. In November, Nixon's lawyers revealed that an audio tape of conversations, held in the White House on June 20, 1972, featured an 18½ minute gap. Rose Mary Woods, the President's personal secretary, claimed responsibility for the gap, alleging that she had accidentally wiped the section while transcribing the tape, though her tale was widely mocked. The gap, while not conclusive proof of wrongdoing by the President, cast doubt on Nixon's statement that he had been unaware of the cover-up.\n\nThough Nixon lost much popular support, even from his own party, he rejected accusations of wrongdoing and vowed to stay in office. He insisted that he had made mistakes, but had no prior knowledge of the burglary, did not break any laws, and did not learn of the cover-up until early 1973. On October 10, 1973, Vice President Agnew resigned —unrelated to Watergate— and was convicted on charges of bribery, tax evasion and money laundering during his tenure as Governor of Maryland. Nixon chose Gerald Ford, Minority Leader of the House of Representatives, to replace Agnew.\n\nOn November 17, 1973, during a televised question and answer session with the press, Nixon said, \"People have got to know whether or not their President is a crook. Well, I'm not a crook. I've earned everything I've got.\"\n\nThe legal battle over the tapes continued through early 1974, and in April 1974 Nixon announced the release of 1,200 pages of transcripts of White House conversations between him and his aides. The House Judiciary Committee opened impeachment hearings against the President on May 9, 1974, which were televised on the major TV networks. These hearings culminated in votes for impeachment. On July 24, the Supreme Court ruled unanimously that the full tapes, not just selected transcripts, must be released.\n\nThe scandal grew to involve a slew of additional allegations against the President, ranging from the improper use of government agencies to accepting gifts in office and his personal finances and taxes; Nixon repeatedly stated his willingness to pay any outstanding taxes due, and paid $465,000 in back taxes in 1974.\n\nEven with support diminished by the continuing series of revelations, Nixon hoped to fight the charges. However, one of the new tapes, recorded soon after the break-in, demonstrated that Nixon had been told of the White House connection to the Watergate burglaries soon after they took place, and had approved plans to thwart the investigation. In a statement accompanying the release of what became known as the \"Smoking Gun Tape\" on August 5, 1974, Nixon accepted blame for misleading the country about when he had been told of White House involvement, stating that he had a lapse of memory. He met with Republican congressional leaders soon after, and was told he faced certain impeachment in the House and had, at most, only 15 votes in his favor in the Senate— far fewer than the 34 he needed to avoid removal from office.\n\nResignation \n\nIn light of his loss of political support and the near-certainty of impeachment, Nixon resigned the office of the presidency on August 9, 1974, after addressing the nation on television the previous evening. The resignation speech was delivered from the Oval Office and was carried live on radio and television. Nixon stated that he was resigning for the good of the country and asked the nation to support the new president, Gerald Ford. Nixon went on to review the accomplishments of his presidency, especially in foreign policy. He defended his record as president, quoting from Theodore Roosevelt's 1910 speech Citizenship in a Republic:\n\nNixon's speech received generally favorable initial responses from network commentators, with only Roger Mudd of CBS stating that Nixon had not admitted wrongdoing. It was termed \"a masterpiece\" by Conrad Black, one of his biographers. Black opined that \"What was intended to be an unprecedented humiliation for any American president, Nixon converted into a virtual parliamentary acknowledgement of almost blameless insufficiency of legislative support to continue. He left while devoting half his address to a recitation of his accomplishments in office.\"\n\nLater years and death \n\nPardon and illness \n\nFollowing his resignation, the Nixons flew to their home La Casa Pacifica in San Clemente, California. According to his biographer, Aitken, after his resignation, \"Nixon was a soul in torment\". Congress had funded Nixon's transition costs, including some salary expenses, though reducing the appropriation from $850,000 to $200,000. With some of his staff still with him, Nixon was at his desk by 7 a.m.—with little to do. His former press secretary, Ron Ziegler, sat with him alone for hours each day.\n\nNixon's resignation had not put an end to the desire among many to see him punished. The Ford White House considered a pardon of Nixon, though it would be unpopular in the country. Nixon, contacted by Ford emissaries, was initially reluctant to accept the pardon, but then agreed to do so. Ford, however, insisted on a statement of contrition; Nixon felt he had not committed any crimes and should not have to issue such a document. Ford eventually agreed, and on September 8, 1974, he granted Nixon a \"full, free, and absolute pardon\", which ended any possibility of an indictment. Nixon then released a statement:\n\nIn October 1974, Nixon fell ill with phlebitis, the inflammation of the walls of a vein. Told by his doctors that he could either be operated on or die, a reluctant Nixon chose surgery, and President Ford visited him in the hospital. Nixon was under subpoena for the trial of three of his former aides—Dean, Haldeman, and John Ehrlichman—and The Washington Post, disbelieving his illness, printed a cartoon showing Nixon with a cast on the \"wrong foot\". Judge John Sirica excused Nixon's presence despite the defendants' objections. Congress instructed Ford to retain Nixon's presidential papers—beginning a three-decade legal battle over the documents that was eventually won by the former president and his estate. Nixon was in the hospital when the 1974 midterm elections were held, and Watergate and the pardon were contributing factors to the Republican loss of 43 seats in the House and three in the Senate.\n\nReturn to public life \n\nIn December 1974, Nixon began planning his comeback despite the considerable ill-will against him in the country. He wrote in his diary, referring to himself and Pat,\n\nBy early 1975, Nixon's health was improving. He maintained an office in a Coast Guard station 300 yards from his home, at first taking a golf cart and later walking the route each day; he mainly worked on his memoirs. He had hoped to wait before writing his memoirs; the fact that his assets were being eaten away by expenses and lawyer fees compelled him to begin work quickly. He was handicapped in this work by the end of his transition allowance in February, which compelled him to part with many of his staff, including Ziegler. In August of that year, he met with British talk-show host and producer David Frost, who paid him $600,000 for a series of sit-down interviews, filmed and aired in 1977. They began on the topic of foreign policy, recounting the leaders he had known, but the most remembered section of the interviews was that on Watergate. Nixon admitted that he had \"let down the country\" and that \"I brought myself down. I gave them a sword and they stuck it in. And they twisted it with relish. And, I guess, if I'd been in their position, I'd have done the same thing.\" The interviews garnered 45–50 million viewers—becoming the most-watched program of their kind in television history.\n\nThe interviews helped improve Nixon's financial position—at one point in early 1975 he had only $500 in the bank—as did the sale of his Key Biscayne property to a trust set up by wealthy Nixon friends such as Bebe Rebozo. In February 1976, Nixon visited China at the personal invitation of Mao. Nixon had wanted to return to China, but chose to wait until after Ford's own visit in 1975. Nixon remained neutral in the close 1976 primary battle between Ford and Reagan. Ford won, but was defeated by Georgia Governor Jimmy Carter in the general election. The Carter administration had little use for Nixon and blocked his planned trip to Australia, causing the government of Prime Minister Malcolm Fraser to withhold its official invitation.\n\nIn 1976, Nixon was disbarred in the state of New York for obstruction of justice in the Watergate affair. Nixon chose not to present any defense. \nIn early 1978, Nixon went to the United Kingdom. He was shunned by American diplomats and by most ministers of the James Callaghan government. He was welcomed, however, by the Leader of the Opposition, Margaret Thatcher, as well as by former prime ministers Lord Home and Sir Harold Wilson. Two other former prime ministers, Harold Macmillan and Edward Heath declined to meet him. Nixon addressed the Oxford Union regarding Watergate:\n\nAuthor and elder statesman \n\nIn 1978, Nixon published his memoirs, RN: The Memoirs of Richard Nixon, the first of ten books he was to author in his retirement. The book was a bestseller and attracted a generally positive critical response. Nixon journeyed to the White House in 1979, invited by Carter for the state dinner for Chinese Vice Premier Deng Xiaoping. Carter had not wanted to invite Nixon, but Deng had stated he would visit Nixon in California if the former president was not invited. Nixon had a private meeting with Deng and visited Beijing again in mid-1979.\n\nOn August 10, 1979, the Nixons purchased a New York City townhouse at 817 Fifth Avenue after being rejected by two Manhattan co-ops. When the former Shah of Iran died in Egypt in July 1980, Nixon defied the State Department, which intended to send no U.S. representative, by attending the funeral. Though Nixon had no official credentials, as a former president he was seen as the American presence at its former ally's funeral. Nixon supported Ronald Reagan for president in 1980, making television appearances portraying himself as, in biographer Stephen Ambrose's words, \"the senior statesman above the fray\". He wrote guest articles for many publications both during the campaign and after Reagan's victory. After eighteen months in the New York City townhouse, Nixon and his wife moved in 1981 to Saddle River, New Jersey.\n\nThroughout the 1980s, Nixon maintained an ambitious schedule of speaking engagements and writing, traveled, and met with many foreign leaders, especially those of Third World countries. He joined former Presidents Ford and Carter as representatives of the United States at the funeral of Egyptian President Anwar Sadat. On a trip to the Middle East, Nixon made his views known regarding Saudi Arabia and Libya, which attracted significant U.S. media attention; The Washington Post ran stories on Nixon's \"rehabilitation\". Nixon journeyed to the Soviet Union in 1986 and on his return sent President Reagan a lengthy memorandum containing foreign policy suggestions and his personal impressions of Mikhail Gorbachev. Following this trip, Nixon was ranked in a Gallup poll as one of the ten most admired men in the world.\n\nIn 1986, Nixon addressed a convention of newspaper publishers, impressing his audience with his tour d'horizon of the world. At the time, political pundit Elizabeth Drew wrote, \"Even when he was wrong, Nixon still showed that he knew a great deal and had a capacious memory, as well as the capacity to speak with apparent authority, enough to impress people who had little regard for him in earlier times.\" Newsweek ran a story on \"Nixon's comeback\" with the headline \"He's back\".\n\nOn July 19, 1990, the Richard Nixon Library and Birthplace in Yorba Linda, California opened as a private institution with the Nixons in attendance. They were joined by a large crowd of people, including Presidents Ford, Reagan, and George H. W. Bush, as well as their wives, Betty, Nancy, and Barbara. In January 1991, the former president founded the Nixon Center (today the Center for the National Interest), a Washington policy think tank and conference center.\n\nPat Nixon died on June 22, 1993, of emphysema and lung cancer. Her funeral services were held on the grounds of the Richard Nixon Library and Birthplace. Former President Nixon was distraught throughout the interment and delivered a moving tribute to her inside the library building.\n\nDeath and funeral \n\nNixon suffered a severe stroke on April 18, 1994, while preparing to eat dinner in his Park Ridge, New Jersey home. A blood clot resulting from the atrial fibrillation he had suffered for many years had formed in his upper heart, broken off, and traveled to his brain. He was taken to New York Hospital–Cornell Medical Center in Manhattan, initially alert but unable to speak or to move his right arm or leg. Damage to the brain caused swelling (cerebral edema), and Nixon slipped into a deep coma. He died at 9:08 p.m. on April 22, 1994, with his daughters at his bedside. He was 81 years old.\n\nNixon's funeral took place on April 27, 1994 in Yorba Linda, California. Eulogists at the Nixon Library ceremony included President Bill Clinton, former Secretary of State Henry Kissinger, Senate Minority Leader Bob Dole, California Governor Pete Wilson, and the Reverend Billy Graham. Also in attendance were former Presidents Ford, Carter, Reagan, George H. W. Bush, and their wives.\n\nRichard Nixon is buried beside his wife Pat on the grounds of the Nixon Library. He was survived by his two daughters, Tricia and Julie, and four grandchildren. In keeping with his wishes, his funeral was not a full state funeral, though his body did lie in repose in the Nixon Library lobby from April 26 to the morning of the funeral service. Mourners waited in line for up to eight hours in chilly, wet weather to pay their respects. At its peak, the line to pass by Nixon's casket was three miles long with an estimated 42,000 people waiting to pay their respects.\n\nJohn F. Stacks of Time magazine said of Nixon shortly after his death,\nAn outsize energy and determination drove him on to recover and rebuild after every self-created disaster that he faced. To reclaim a respected place in American public life after his resignation, he kept traveling and thinking and talking to the world's leaders ... and by the time Bill Clinton came to the White House [in 1993], Nixon had virtually cemented his role as an elder statesman. Clinton, whose wife served on the staff of the committee that voted to impeach Nixon, met openly with him and regularly sought his advice. \nTom Wicker of The New York Times noted that Nixon had been equalled only by Franklin Roosevelt in being five times nominated on a major party ticket and, quoting Nixon's 1962 farewell speech, wrote,\nRichard Nixon's jowly, beard-shadowed face, the ski-jump nose and the widow's peak, the arms upstretched in the V-sign, had been so often pictured and caricatured, his presence had become such a familiar one in the land, he had been so often in the heat of controversy, that it was hard to realize the nation really would not 'have Nixon to kick around anymore'.\nAmbrose said of the reaction to Nixon's death, \"To everyone's amazement, except his, he's our beloved elder statesman.\"\n\nUpon Nixon's death, almost all of the news coverage mentioned Watergate, but for the most part, the coverage was favorable to the former president. The Dallas Morning News stated, \"History ultimately should show that despite his flaws, he was one of our most farsighted chief executives.\" This offended some; columnist Russell Baker complained of \"a group conspiracy to grant him absolution\". Cartoonist Jeff Koterba of the Omaha World-Herald depicted History before a blank canvas, his subject Nixon, as America looks on eagerly. The artist urges his audience to sit down; the work will take some time to complete, as \"this portrait is a little more complicated than most\".\n\nLegacy \n\nHistorian and political scientist James MacGregor Burns observed of Nixon, \"How can one evaluate such an idiosyncratic president, so brilliant and so morally lacking?\" Nixon's biographers disagree on how he will be perceived by history. According to Ambrose, \"Nixon wanted to be judged by what he accomplished. What he will be remembered for is the nightmare he put the country through in his second term and for his resignation.\" Irwin Gellman, who chronicled Nixon's congressional career, suggests that \"he was remarkable among his congressional peers, a success story in a troubled era, one who steered a sensible anti-Communist course against the excess of McCarthy\". Aitken feels that \"Nixon, both as a man and as a statesman, has been excessively maligned for his faults and inadequately recognised for his virtues. Yet even in a spirit of historical revisionism, no simple verdict is possible.\"\n\nNixon's Southern Strategy is credited by some historians as causing the South to become a Republican stronghold, though others deem economic factors more important to the change. Throughout his career, he was instrumental in moving his party away from the control of isolationists, and as a congressman was a persuasive advocate of containing Soviet communism. According to his biographer, Herbert Parmet, \"Nixon's role was to steer the Republican party along a middle course, somewhere between the competitive impulses of the Rockefellers, the Goldwaters, and the Reagans.\"\n\nNixon is given credit for his stance on domestic affairs, which resulted in the passage and enforcement of environmental and regulatory legislation. Historian Paul Charles Milazzo in his 2011 paper on Nixon and the environment, points to Nixon's creation of the EPA and his enforcement of legislation such as the 1973 Endangered Species Act, stating that \"though unsought and unacknowledged, Richard Nixon's environmental legacy is secure.\"\n\nNixon saw his policies regarding Vietnam, China, and the Soviets as key to his place in history. George McGovern, Nixon's onetime opponent, commented in 1983, \"President Nixon probably had a more practical approach to the two superpowers, China and the Soviet Union, than any other president since World War II ... With the exception of his inexcusable continuation of the war in Vietnam, Nixon really will get high marks in history.\" Political scientist Jussi M. Hanhimäki disagrees, saying Nixon's diplomacy was merely a continuation of the Cold War policy of containment, using diplomatic rather than military means. Historian Christopher Andrew concludes that \"Nixon was a great statesman on the world stage as well as a shabby practitioner of electoral politics in the domestic arena. While the criminal farce of Watergate was in the making, Nixon's inspirational statesmanship was establishing new working relationships with both Communist China and the Soviet Union.\"\n\nHistorian Keith W. Olson has written that Nixon left a negative legacy: fundamental mistrust of government with its roots in Vietnam and Watergate. During the impeachment of Bill Clinton in 1998, both sides tried to use Nixon and Watergate to their advantage: Republicans suggested that Clinton's misconduct had been comparable to Nixon's, while Democrats contended that Nixon's actions had been far more serious than those of the incumbent. Another legacy, for a time, was a decrease in the power of the presidency as Congress passed restrictive legislation in the wake of Watergate. Olson suggests that grants of power to George W. Bush in the aftermath of the 9/11 attacks restored the president's power.\n\nPersonality and public image \n\nNixon's career was frequently dogged by his persona and the public's perception of it. Editorial cartoonists and comedians often exaggerated his appearance and mannerisms, to the point where the line between the human and the caricature became increasingly blurred. He was often portrayed with unshaven jowls, slumped shoulders, and a furrowed, sweaty brow.\n\nNixon had a complex personality, both very secretive and awkward, yet strikingly reflective about himself. He was inclined to distance himself from people and was formal in all aspects, wearing a coat and tie even when home alone. Nixon biographer Conrad Black described him as being \"driven\" though also \"uneasy with himself in some ways\". According to Black, Nixon\nthought that he was doomed to be traduced, double-crossed, unjustly harassed, misunderstood, underappreciated, and subjected to the trials of Job, but that by the application of his mighty will, tenacity, and diligence, he would ultimately prevail.\nBiographer Elizabeth Drew summarized Nixon as a \"smart, talented man, but most peculiar and haunted of presidents\". In his account of the Nixon presidency, author Richard Reeves described Nixon as \"a strange man of uncomfortable shyness, who functioned best alone with his thoughts\". Nixon's presidency was doomed by his personality, Reeves argues:\nHe assumed the worst in people and he brought out the worst in them ... He clung to the idea of being 'tough'. He thought that was what had brought him to the edge of greatness. But that was what betrayed him. He could not open himself to other men and he could not open himself to greatness.\n\nNixon believed that putting distance between himself and other people was necessary for him as he advanced in his political career and became president. Even Bebe Rebozo, by some accounts his closest friend, did not call him by his first name. Nixon stated of this,\nEven with close friends, I don't believe in letting your hair down, confiding this and that and the other thing—saying, 'Gee, I couldn't sleep' ... I believe you should keep your troubles to yourself. That's just the way I am. Some people are different. Some people think it's good therapy to sit with a close friend and, you know, just spill your guts ... [and] reveal their inner psyche—whether they were breast-fed or bottle-fed. Not me. No way. When told that most Americans, even at the end of his career, did not feel they knew him, Nixon replied, \"Yeah, it's true. And it's not necessary for them to know.\"", "The Vice President of the United States (VPOTUS) is the second-highest position in the executive branch of the United States, after the President. The executive power of both the vice president and the president is granted under Article Two, Section One of the Constitution. The vice president is indirectly elected, together with the president, to a four-year term of office by the people of the United States through the Electoral College. The vice president is the first person in the presidential line of succession, and would normally ascend to the presidency upon the death, resignation, or removal of the president. The Office of the Vice President of the United States assists and organizes the vice president's official functions.\n\nThe vice president is also president of the United States Senate and in that capacity only votes when it is necessary to break a tie. While Senate customs have created supermajority rules that have diminished this constitutional tie-breaking authority, the vice president still retains the ability to influence legislation; for example, the Deficit Reduction Act of 2005 was passed in the Senate by a tie-breaking vice presidential vote. Additionally, pursuant to the Twelfth Amendment, the vice president presides over the joint session of Congress when it convenes to count the vote of the Electoral College.\n\nWhile the vice president's only constitutionally prescribed functions aside from presidential succession relate to their role as President of the Senate, the office is commonly viewed as a component of the executive branch of the federal government. The United States Constitution does not expressly assign the office to any one branch, causing a dispute among scholars whether it belongs to the executive branch, the legislative branch, or both. The modern view of the vice president as a member of the executive branch is due in part to the assignment of executive duties to the vice president by either the president or Congress, though such activities are only recent historical developments.\n\nOrigin\n\nThe creation of the office of vice president was a direct consequence of the creation of the Electoral College. Delegates to the Philadelphia Convention gave each state a number of presidential electors equal to that state's combined share of House and Senate seats. Yet the delegates were worried that each elector would only favor his own state's favorite son candidate, resulting in deadlocked elections that would produce no winners. To counter this potential difficulty, the delegates gave each presidential elector two votes, requiring that at least one of their votes be for a candidate from outside the elector's state; they also mandated that the winner of an election must obtain an absolute majority of the total number of electors. The delegates expected that each elector's second vote would go to a statesman of national character.\n\nFearing that electors might throw away their second vote to bolster their favorite son's chance of winning, however, the Philadelphia delegates specified that the runner-up would become vice president. Creating this new office imposed a political cost on discarded votes and forced electors to cast their second ballot.\n\nRoles of the vice president\n\nThe Constitution limits the formal powers and role of vice president to becoming president, should the president become unable to serve, prompting the well-known expression \"only a heartbeat away from the presidency,\" and to acting as the presiding officer of the U.S. Senate.\nOther statutorily granted roles include membership of both the National Security Council and the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. \n\nPresident of the United States Senate\n\nAs President of the Senate, the vice president has two primary duties: to cast a vote in the event of a Senate deadlock and to preside over and certify the official vote count of the U.S. Electoral College. For example, in the first half of 2001, the Senators were divided 50-50 between Republicans and Democrats and Dick Cheney's tie-breaking vote gave the Republicans the Senate majority.\n\nRegular duties\n\nAs President of the Senate (Article I, Section 3, Clause 4), the vice president oversees procedural matters and may cast a tie-breaking vote. There is a strong convention within the U.S. Senate that the vice president should not use their position as President of the Senate to influence the passage of legislation or act in a partisan manner, except in the case of breaking tie votes. As President of the Senate, John Adams cast twenty-nine tie-breaking votes, a record no successor except John C. Calhoun ever threatened. Adams's votes protected the president's sole authority over the removal of appointees, influenced the location of the national capital, and prevented war with Great Britain. On at least one occasion Adams persuaded senators to vote against legislation he opposed, and he frequently addressed the Senate on procedural and policy matters. Adams's political views and his active role in the Senate made him a natural target for critics of George Washington's administration. Toward the end of his first term, a threatened resolution that would have silenced him except for procedural and policy matters caused him to exercise more restraint in hopes of seeing his election as President of the United States.\n\nFormerly, the vice president would preside regularly over Senate proceedings, but in modern times, the vice president rarely presides over day-to-day matters in the Senate; in their place, the Senate chooses a President pro tempore (or \"president for a time\") to preside in the vice president's absence; the Senate normally selects the longest-serving senator in the majority party. The President pro tempore has the power to appoint any other senator to preside, and in practice junior senators from the majority party are assigned the task of presiding over the Senate at most times.\n\nExcept for this tie-breaking role, the Standing Rules of the Senate vest no significant responsibilities in the vice president. Rule XIX, which governs debate, does not authorize the vice president to participate in debate, and grants only to members of the Senate (and, upon appropriate notice, former presidents of the United States) the privilege of addressing the Senate, without granting a similar privilege to the sitting vice president. Thus, as Time magazine wrote during the controversial tenure of Vice President Charles G. Dawes, \"once in four years the Vice President can make a little speech, and then he is done. For four years he then has to sit in the seat of the silent, attending to speeches ponderous or otherwise, of deliberation or humor.\" \n\nRecurring, infrequent duties\n\nThe President of the Senate also presides over counting and presentation of the votes of the Electoral College. This process occurs in the presence of both houses of Congress, generally on January 6 of the year following a U.S. presidential election. In this capacity, only four vice presidents have been able to announce their own election to the presidency: John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, Martin Van Buren, and George H. W. Bush. At the beginning of 1961, it fell to Richard Nixon to preside over this process, which officially announced the election of his 1960 opponent, John F. Kennedy. In 2001, Al Gore announced the election of his opponent, George W. Bush. In 1969, Vice President Hubert Humphrey would have announced the election of his opponent, Richard Nixon; however, on the date of the Congressional joint session (January 6), Humphrey was in Norway attending the funeral of Trygve Lie, the first elected Secretary-General of the United Nations. \n\nIn 1933, incumbent Vice President Charles Curtis announced the election of House Speaker John Nance Garner as his successor, while Garner was seated next to him on the House dais.\n\nThe President of the Senate may also preside over most of the impeachment trials of federal officers. However, whenever the President of the United States is impeached, the US Constitution requires the Chief Justice of the United States to preside over the Senate for the trial. The Constitution is silent as to the presiding officer in the instance where the vice president is the officer impeached.\n\nSuccession and the Twenty-Fifth Amendment\n\nThe U.S. Constitution provides that should the president die, become disabled while in office or removed from office, the \"powers and duties\" of the office are transferred to the vice president. Initially, it was unclear whether the vice president actually became the new president or merely an acting president. This was first tested in 1841 with the death of President William Henry Harrison. Harrison's vice president, John Tyler, asserted that he had succeeded to the full presidential office, powers, and title, and declined to acknowledge documents referring to him as \"Acting President.\" Despite some strong calls against it, Tyler took the oath of office as the tenth President. Tyler's claim was not challenged legally, and so the Tyler precedent of full succession was established. This was made explicit by Section 1 of the Twenty-fifth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, ratified in 1967.\n\nSection 2 of the Twenty-fifth Amendment provides for vice presidential succession:\n Gerald Ford was the first vice president selected by this method, after the resignation of Vice President Spiro Agnew in 1973; after succeeding to the presidency, Ford nominated Nelson Rockefeller as vice president.\n\nAnother issue was who had the power to declare that an incapacitated president is unable to discharge his duties. This question had arisen most recently with the illnesses of President Dwight D. Eisenhower. Section 3 and Section 4 of the amendment provide means for the vice president to become acting president upon the temporary disability of the president. Section 3 deals with self-declared incapacity of the president. Section 4 deals with incapacity declared by the joint action of the vice president and of a majority of the Cabinet.\n\nWhile Section 4 has never been invoked, Section 3 has been invoked three times: on July 13, 1985 when Ronald Reagan underwent surgery to remove cancerous polyps from his colon, and twice more on June 29, 2002 and July 21, 2007 when George W. Bush underwent colonoscopy procedures requiring sedation. Prior to this amendment, Vice President Richard Nixon informally assumed some of President Dwight Eisenhower's duties for several weeks on each of three occasions when Eisenhower was ill.\n\nInformal roles\n\nThe extent of any informal roles and functions of the vice president depend on the specific relationship between the president and the vice president, but often include tasks such as drafter and spokesperson for the administration's policies, adviser to the president, and being a symbol of American concern or support. The influence of the vice president in this role depends almost entirely on the characteristics of the particular administration. Dick Cheney, for instance, was widely regarded as one of President George W. Bush's closest confidants. Al Gore was an important adviser to President Bill Clinton on matters of foreign policy and the environment. Often, vice presidents are chosen to act as a \"balance\" to the president, taking either more moderate or radical positions on issues.\n\nUnder the American system the president is both head of state and head of government, and the ceremonial duties of the former position are often delegated to the vice president. The vice president is often assigned the ceremonial duties of representing the president and the government at state funerals or other functions in the United States. This often is the most visible role of the vice president, and has occasionally been the subject of ridicule, such as during the vice presidency of George H. W. Bush. The vice president may meet with other heads of state or attend state funerals in other countries, at times when the administration wishes to demonstrate concern or support but cannot send the president themselves.\n\nOffice as stepping stone to the presidency\n\nIn recent decades, the vice presidency has frequently been used as a platform to launch bids for the presidency. The transition of the office to its modern stature occurred primarily as a result of Franklin Roosevelt's 1940 nomination, when he captured the ability to nominate his running mate instead of leaving the nomination to the convention. Prior to that, party bosses often used the vice presidential nomination as a consolation prize for the party's minority faction. A further factor potentially contributing to the rise in prestige of the office was the adoption of presidential preference primaries in the early 20th century. By adopting primary voting, the field of candidates for vice president was expanded by both the increased quantity and quality of presidential candidates successful in some primaries, yet who ultimately failed to capture the presidential nomination at the convention.\n\nOf the thirteen presidential elections from 1956 to 2004, nine featured the incumbent president; the other four (1960, 1968, 1988, 2000) all featured the incumbent vice president. Former vice presidents also ran, in 1984 (Walter Mondale), and in 1968 (Richard Nixon, against the incumbent vice president, Hubert Humphrey). The first presidential election to include neither the incumbent president nor the incumbent vice president on a major party ticket since 1952 came in 2008 when President George W. Bush had already served two terms and Vice President Cheney chose not to run. Richard Nixon is also the only non-sitting vice president to be elected president, as well as the only person to be elected president and vice president twice each.\n\nSelection process\n\nEligibility\n\nThe Twelfth Amendment states that \"no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible to that of Vice President of the United States.\" Thus, to serve as vice president, an individual must:\n* Be a natural-born U.S. citizen;\n* Be at least 35 years old\n* Have resided in the U.S. at least 14 years. \n\nDisqualifications\n\nAdditionally, Section 3 of the Fourteenth Amendment denies eligibility for any federal office to anyone who, having sworn an oath to support the United States Constitution, later has rebelled against the United States. This disqualification, originally aimed at former supporters of the Confederacy, may be removed by a two-thirds vote of each house of the Congress.\n\nUnder the Twenty-second Amendment, the President of the United States may not be elected to more than two terms. However, there is no similar such limitation as to how many times one can be elected vice president. Scholars disagree whether a former president barred from election to the presidency is also ineligible to be elected or appointed vice president, as suggested by the Twelfth Amendment. The issue has never been tested in practice.\n\nAlso, Article I, Section 3, Clause 7 allows the Senate, upon voting to remove an impeached federal official from office, to disqualify that official from holding any federal office.\n\nResidency limitation\n\nWhile it is commonly held that the president and vice president must be residents of different states, this is not actually the case. Nothing in the Constitution prohibits both candidates being from a single state. Instead, the limitation imposed is on the members of the Electoral College, who must cast a ballot for at least one candidate who is not from their own state.\n\nIn theory, the candidates elected could both be from one state, but the electors of that state would, in a close electoral contest, run the risk of denying their vice presidential candidate the absolute majority required to secure the election, even if the presidential candidate is elected. This would then place the vice presidential election in the hands of the Senate.\n\nIn practice, however, residency is rarely an issue. Parties have avoided nominating tickets containing two candidates from the same state. Further, the candidates may themselves take action to alleviate any residency conflict. For example, at the start of the 2000 election cycle Dick Cheney was a resident of Texas; Cheney quickly changed his residency back to Wyoming, where he had previously served as a U.S. Representative, when Texas governor and Republican presidential nominee George W. Bush asked Cheney to be his vice presidential candidate.\n\nNominating process\n\nThough the vice president does not need to have any political experience, most major-party vice presidential nominees are current or former United States Senators or Representatives, with the occasional nominee being a current or former Governor, a high-ranking military officer, or a holder of a major post within the Executive Department. The vice presidential candidates of the major national political parties are formally selected by each party's quadrennial nominating convention, following the selection of the party's presidential candidates. The official process is identical to the one by which the presidential candidates are chosen, with delegates placing the names of candidates into nomination, followed by a ballot in which candidates must receive a majority to secure the party's nomination.\n\nIn practice, the presidential nominee has considerable influence on the decision, and in the 20th century it became customary for that person to select a preferred running mate, who is then nominated and accepted by the convention. In recent years, with the presidential nomination usually being a foregone conclusion as the result of the primary process, the selection of a vice presidential candidate is often announced prior to the actual balloting for the presidential candidate, and sometimes before the beginning of the convention itself. The first presidential aspirant to announce his selection for vice president before the beginning of the convention was Ronald Reagan who, prior to the 1976 Republican National Convention announced that Richard Schweiker would be his running mate. Reagan's supporters then sought to amend the convention rules so that Gerald R. Ford would be required to name his vice presidential running mate in advance as well. The proposal was defeated, and Reagan did not receive the nomination in 1976. Often, the presidential nominee will name a vice presidential candidate who will bring geographic or ideological balance to the ticket or appeal to a particular constituency.\n\nThe vice presidential candidate might also be chosen on the basis of traits the presidential candidate is perceived to lack, or on the basis of name recognition. To foster party unity, popular runners-up in the presidential nomination process are commonly considered. While this selection process may enhance the chances of success for a national ticket, in the past it often insured that the vice presidential nominee represented regions, constituencies, or ideologies at odds with those of the presidential candidate. As a result, vice presidents were often excluded from the policy-making process of the new administration. Many times their relationships with the president and his staff were aloof, non-existent, or even adversarial.\n\nThe ultimate goal of vice presidential candidate selection is to help and not hurt the party's chances of getting elected. A selection whose positive traits make the presidential candidate look less favorable in comparison can backfire, such as in 1988 when Democratic candidate Michael Dukakis chose experienced Texas Senator Lloyd Bentsen, and in 2008 when Republican candidate John McCain picked dynamic Alaska Governor Sarah Palin. However, Palin also hurt McCain when her interviews with Katie Couric led to concerns about her fitness for the presidency. In 1984, Walter Mondale picked Geraldine Ferraro whose nomination became a drag on the ticket due to repeated questions about her husband's finances. Questions about Dan Quayle's experience and temperament were raised in the 1988 presidential campaign of George H.W. Bush, but he still won. James Stockdale, the choice of third-party candidate Ross Perot in 1992, was seen as unqualified by many, but the Perot-Stockdale ticket still won about 19% of the vote.\n\nHistorically, vice presidential candidates were chosen to provide geographic and ideological balance to a presidential ticket, widening a presidential candidate's appeal to voters from outside his regional base or wing of the party. Candidates from electoral-vote rich states were usually preferred. However, in 1992, moderate Democrat Bill Clinton (of Arkansas) chose moderate Democrat Al Gore (of Tennessee)\nas his running mate. Despite the two candidates' near-identical ideological and regional backgrounds, Gore's extensive experience in national affairs enhanced the appeal of a ticket headed by Clinton, whose political career had been spent entirely at the local and state levels of government. In 2000, George W. Bush chose Dick Cheney of Wyoming, a reliably Republican state with only three electoral votes, and in 2008, Barack Obama mirrored Bush's strategy when he chose Joe Biden of Delaware, a reliably Democratic state, likewise one with only three electoral votes. Both Cheney and Biden were chosen for their experience in national politics (experience lacked by both Bush and Obama) rather than the ideological balance or electoral vote advantage they would provide.\n\nThe first presidential candidate to choose his vice presidential candidate was Franklin Delano Roosevelt in 1940. The last not to name a vice presidential choice, leaving the matter up to the convention, was Democrat Adlai Stevenson in 1956. The convention chose Tennessee Senator Estes Kefauver over Massachusetts Senator (and later president) John F. Kennedy. At the tumultuous 1972 Democratic convention, presidential nominee George McGovern selected Senator Thomas Eagleton as his running mate, but numerous other candidates were either nominated from the floor or received votes during the balloting. Eagleton nevertheless received a majority of the votes and the nomination, though he later resigned from the ticket, resulting in Sargent Shriver becoming McGovern's final running mate; both lost to the Nixon-Agnew ticket by a wide margin, carrying only Massachusetts and the District of Columbia.\n\nIn cases where the presidential nomination is still in doubt as the convention approaches, the campaigns for the two positions may become intertwined. In 1976, Ronald Reagan, who was trailing President Gerald R. Ford in the presidential delegate count, announced prior to the Republican National Convention that, if nominated, he would select Senator Richard Schweiker as his running mate. This move backfired to a degree, as Schweiker's relatively liberal voting record alienated many of the more conservative delegates who were considering a challenge to party delegate selection rules to improve Reagan's chances. In the end, Ford narrowly won the presidential nomination and Reagan's selection of Schweiker became moot.\n\nElection, oath, and tenure\n\nVice presidents are elected indirectly in the United States. A number of electors, collectively known as the Electoral College, officially select the president. On Election Day, voters in each of the states and the District of Columbia cast ballots for these electors. Each state is allocated a number of electors, equal to the size of its delegation in both Houses of Congress combined. Generally, the ticket that wins the most votes in a state wins all of that state's electoral votes and thus has its slate of electors chosen to vote in the Electoral College.\n\nThe winning slate of electors meet at its state's capital on the first Monday after the second Wednesday in December, about six weeks after the election, to vote. They then send a record of that vote to Congress. The vote of the electors is opened by the sitting vice president, acting in his capacity as President of the Senate and read aloud to a joint session of the incoming Congress, which was elected at the same time as the president.\n\nPursuant to the Twentieth Amendment, the vice president's term of office begins at noon on January 20 of the year following the election. This date, known as Inauguration Day, marks the beginning of the four-year terms of both the president and vice president.\n\nAlthough Article VI requires that the vice president take an oath or affirmation of allegiance to the US Constitution, unlike the president, the United States Constitution does not specify the precise wording of the oath of office for the vice president. Several variants of the oath have been used since 1789; the current form, which is also recited by Senators, Representatives and other government officers, has been used since 1884:\n\nThe term of office for vice president is four years. While the Twenty-Second Amendment generally restricts the president to two terms, there is no similar limitation on the office of vice president, meaning an eligible person could hold the office as long as voters continued to vote for electors who in turn would renew the vice president's tenure. A vice president could even serve under different administrations, as George Clinton and John C. Calhoun have done.\n\nOriginal election process and reform\n\nUnder the original terms of the Constitution, the electors of the Electoral College voted only for office of president rather than for both president and vice president. Each elector was allowed to vote for two people for the top office. The person receiving the greatest number of votes (provided that such a number was a majority of electors) would be president, while the individual who received the next largest number of votes became vice president. If no one received a majority of votes, then the House of Representatives would choose among the five candidates with the largest numbers of votes, with each state's representatives together casting a single vote. In such a case, the person who received the highest number of votes but was not chosen president would become vice president. In the case of a tie for second, then the Senate would choose the vice president.Wikisource:Constitution of the United States of America#Section 1 2\n\nThe original plan, however, did not foresee the development of political parties and their adversarial role in the government. For example, in the election of 1796, Federalist John Adams came in first, but because the Federalist electors had divided their second vote amongst several vice presidential candidates, Democratic-Republican Thomas Jefferson came second. Thus, the president and vice president were from opposing parties. Predictably, Adams and Jefferson clashed over issues such as states' rights and foreign policy. \n\nA greater problem occurred in the election of 1800, in which the two participating parties each had a secondary candidate they intended to elect as vice president, but the more popular Democratic-Republican party failed to execute that plan with their electoral votes. Under the system in place at the time (Article II, Section 1, Clause 3), the electors could not differentiate between their two candidates, so the plan had been for one elector to vote for Thomas Jefferson but not for Aaron Burr, thus putting Burr in second place. This plan broke down for reasons that are disputed, and both candidates received the same number of votes. After 35 deadlocked ballots in the House of Representatives, Jefferson finally won on the 36th ballot and Burr became vice president. \n\nThis tumultuous affair led to the adoption of the Twelfth Amendment in 1804, which directed the electors to use separate ballots to vote for the president and vice president. While this solved the problem at hand, it ultimately had the effect of lowering the prestige of the vice presidency, as the office was no longer for the leading challenger for the presidency.\n\nThe separate ballots for president and vice president became something of a moot issue later in the 19th century when it became the norm for popular elections to determine a state's Electoral College delegation. Electors chosen this way are pledged to vote for a particular presidential and vice presidential candidate (offered by the same political party). So, while the Constitution says that the president and vice president are chosen separately, in practice they are chosen together.\n\nIf no vice presidential candidate receives an Electoral College majority, then the Senate selects the vice president, in accordance with the United States Constitution. The Twelfth Amendment states that a \"majority of the whole number\" of Senators (currently 51 of 100) is necessary for election. Further, the language requiring an absolute majority of Senate votes precludes the sitting vice president from breaking any tie which might occur. The election of 1836 is the only election so far where the office of the vice president has been decided by the Senate. During the campaign, Martin Van Buren's running mate Richard Mentor Johnson was accused of having lived with a black woman. Virginia's 23 electors, who were pledged to Van Buren and Johnson, refused to vote for Johnson (but still voted for Van Buren). The election went to the Senate, where Johnson was elected 33-17.\n\nSalary\n\nThe vice president's salary is $230,700. The salary was set by the 1989 Government Salary Reform Act, which also provides an automatic cost of living adjustment for federal employees.\n\nThe vice president does not automatically receive a pension based on that office, but instead receives the same pension as other members of Congress based on his position as President of the Senate. The vice president must serve a minimum of five years to qualify for a pension. \n\nSince 1974, the official residence of the vice president and their family has been Number One Observatory Circle, on the grounds of the United States Naval Observatory in Washington, D.C.\n\nVacancy\n\nArticle I, Section 2, Clause 5 and Article II, Section 4 of the Constitution both authorize the House of Representatives to serve as a \"grand jury\" with the power to impeach high federal officials, including the president, for \"treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors.\" Similarly, Article I, Section 3, Clause 6 and Article II, Section 4 both authorize the Senate to serve as a court with the power to remove impeached officials from office, given a two-thirds vote to convict. No vice president has ever been impeached.\n\nPrior to ratification of the Twenty-fifth Amendment in 1967, no provision existed for filling a vacancy in the office of vice president. As a result, the vice presidency was left vacant 16 times—sometimes for nearly four years—until the next ensuing election and inauguration: eight times due to the death of the sitting president, resulting in the vice presidents becoming president; seven times due to the death of the sitting vice president; and once due to the resignation of Vice President John C. Calhoun to become a senator.\n\nCalhoun resigned because he had been dropped from the ticket by President Andrew Jackson in favor of Martin Van Buren, due primarily to conflicting with the President over the issue of nullification. Already a lame duck vice president, he was elected to the Senate by the South Carolina state legislature and resigned the vice presidency early to begin his Senate term because he believed he would have more power as a senator.\n\nSince the adoption of the Twenty-Fifth Amendment, the office has been vacant twice while awaiting confirmation of the new vice president by both houses of Congress. The first such instance occurred in 1973 following the resignation of Spiro Agnew as Richard Nixon's vice president. Gerald Ford was subsequently nominated by President Nixon and confirmed by Congress. The second occurred 10 months later when Nixon resigned following the Watergate scandal and Ford assumed the presidency. The resulting vice presidential vacancy was filled by Nelson Rockefeller. Ford and Rockefeller are the only two people to have served as vice president without having been elected to the office, and Ford remains the only person to have served as both vice president and president without being elected to either office.\n\nThe original Constitution had no provision for selecting such a replacement, so the office of vice president would remain vacant until the beginning of the next presidential and vice presidential terms. This issue had arisen most recently when the John F. Kennedy assassination caused a vacancy from November 22, 1963, until January 20, 1965, and was rectified by Section 2 of the Twenty-Fifth Amendment.\n\nGrowth of the office\n\nFor much of its existence, the office of vice president was seen as little more than a minor position. Adams, the first vice president, was the first of many who found the job frustrating and stupefying, writing to his wife Abigail that \"My country has in its wisdom contrived for me the most insignificant office that ever the invention of man contrived or his imagination conceived.\" Many vice presidents lamented the lack of meaningful work in their role. John Nance Garner, who served as vice president from 1933 to 1941 under President Franklin D. Roosevelt, claimed that the vice presidency \"isn't worth a pitcher of warm piss.\" Harry Truman, who also served as vice president under Roosevelt, said that the office was as \"useful as a cow's fifth teat.\" \n\nThomas R. Marshall, the 28th vice president, lamented: \"Once there were two brothers. One ran away to sea; the other was elected Vice President of the United States. And nothing was heard of either of them again.\" His successor, Calvin Coolidge, was so obscure that Major League Baseball sent him free passes that misspelled his name, and a fire marshal failed to recognize him when Coolidge's Washington residence was evacuated. \n\nWhen the Whig Party asked Daniel Webster to run for the vice presidency on Zachary Taylor's ticket, he replied \"I do not propose to be buried until I am really dead and in my coffin.\" This was the second time Webster declined the office, which William Henry Harrison had first offered to him. Ironically, both of the presidents making the offer to Webster died in office, meaning the three-time presidential candidate could have become president if he had accepted either. Since presidents rarely died in office, however, the better preparation for the presidency was considered to be the office of Secretary of State, in which Webster served under Harrison, Tyler, and later, Taylor's successor, Fillmore.\n\nFor many years, the vice president was given few responsibilities. Garret Hobart, the first vice president under William McKinley, was one of the very few vice presidents at this time who played an important role in the administration. A close confidant and adviser of the president, Hobart was called \"Assistant President.\" However, until 1919, vice presidents were not included in meetings of the President's Cabinet. This precedent was broken by President Woodrow Wilson when he asked Thomas R. Marshall to preside over Cabinet meetings while Wilson was in France negotiating the Treaty of Versailles. President Warren G. Harding also invited his vice president, Calvin Coolidge, to meetings. The next vice president, Charles G. Dawes, did not seek to attend Cabinet meetings under President Coolidge, declaring that \"the precedent might prove injurious to the country.\" Vice President Charles Curtis was also precluded from attending by President Herbert Hoover.\n\nIn 1933, Franklin D. Roosevelt raised the stature of the office by renewing the practice of inviting the vice president to cabinet meetings, which every president since has maintained. Roosevelt's first vice president, John Nance Garner, broke with him at the start of the second term on the Court-packing issue and became Roosevelt's leading political enemy. In 1937, Garner became the first vice president to be sworn in on the Capitol steps in the same ceremony with the president, a tradition that continues. Prior to that time, vice presidents were traditionally inaugurated at a separate ceremony in the Senate chamber. Gerald R. Ford and Nelson A. Rockefeller, who were both appointed to the office under the terms of the 25th amendment, were inaugurated in the House and Senate chambers, respectively.\n\nGarner's successor, Henry Wallace, was given major responsibilities during the war, but he moved further to the left than the Democratic Party and the rest of the Roosevelt administration and was relieved of actual power. Roosevelt kept his last vice president, Harry Truman, uninformed on all war and postwar issues, such as the atomic bomb, leading Truman to remark, wryly, that the job of the vice president was to \"go to weddings and funerals.\" Following Roosevelt's death and Truman's ascension to the presidency, the need to keep vice presidents informed on national security issues became clear, and Congress made the vice president one of four statutory members of the National Security Council in 1949.\n\nRichard Nixon reinvented the office of vice president. He had the attention of the media and the Republican party, when Dwight Eisenhower ordered him to preside at Cabinet meetings in his absence. Nixon was also the first vice president to formally assume temporary control of the executive branch, which he did after Eisenhower suffered a heart attack on September 24, 1955, ileitis in June 1956, and a stroke in November 1957.\n\nUntil 1961, vice presidents had their offices on Capitol Hill, a formal office in the Capitol itself and a working office in the Russell Senate Office Building. Lyndon B. Johnson was the first vice president to be given an office in the White House complex, in the Old Executive Office Building. The former Navy Secretary's office in the OEOB has since been designated the \"Ceremonial Office of the Vice President\" and is today used for formal events and press interviews. President Jimmy Carter was the first president to give his vice president, Walter Mondale, an office in the West Wing of the White House, which all vice presidents have since retained. Because of their function as Presidents of the Senate, vice presidents still maintain offices and staff members on Capitol Hill.\n\nThough Walter Mondale's tenure was the beginning of the modern day power of the vice presidency, the tenure of Dick Cheney saw a rapid growth in the office of the vice president. Vice President Cheney held a tremendous amount of power and frequently made policy decisions on his own, without the knowledge of the President. After his tenure, and during the 2008 presidential campaign, both vice presidential candidates, Sarah Palin and Joe Biden, stated that the office had expanded too much under Cheney's tenure and both had planned to reduce the role to simply being an adviser to the president. \n\nPost–vice presidency\n\nThe five former vice presidents now living are:\n\nFile:Walter Mondale 2014.jpg\|Walter Mondale42nd (1977–1981)\nFile:President George H. W.tif\|George H. W. Bush43rd (1981–1989)\nFile:Quayle2k11.tif\|Dan Quayle44th (1989–1993)\nFile:Gore2k11.tif\|Al Gore45th (1993–2001)\nFile:Cheney.tif\|Dick Cheney46th (2001–2009)\n\nFour vice presidents have been elected to the presidency immediately after serving as vice president: John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, Martin Van Buren and George H. W. Bush. Richard Nixon, John C. Breckinridge, Hubert Humphrey and Al Gore were all nominated by their respective parties, but failed to succeed the presidents with whom they were elected, though Nixon was elected president eight years later.\n\nTwo vice presidents served under different presidents. George Clinton served under both Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, while John C. Calhoun served under John Quincy Adams and Andrew Jackson. In the modern era, Adlai Stevenson I became the first former vice president to seek election with a different running mate, running in 1900 with William Jennings Bryan after serving under Bryan's rival, Grover Cleveland. (He was also narrowly defeated for Governor of Illinois in 1908.) Charles W. Fairbanks, vice president under Theodore Roosevelt, sought unsuccessfully to return to office as Charles Evans Hughes' running mate in 1916.\n\nSome former vice presidents have sought other offices after serving as vice president. Daniel D. Tompkins ran for Governor of New York in 1820 whilst serving as vice president under James Monroe. He lost to DeWitt Clinton, but was re-elected vice president. John C. Calhoun resigned as vice president to accept election as US Senator from South Carolina. Hannibal Hamlin, Andrew Johnson, Alben Barkley and Hubert H. Humphrey were all elected to the Senate after leaving office. Levi P. Morton, vice president under Benjamin Harrison, was elected Governor of New York after leaving office.\n\nRichard Nixon unsuccessfully sought the governorship of California in 1962, nearly two years after leaving office as vice president and just over six years before becoming president. Walter Mondale ran unsuccessfully for president in 1984, served as U.S. Ambassador to Japan from 1993 to 1996, and then sought unsuccessfully to return to the Senate in 2002. George H. W. Bush won the presidency, and his vice president, Dan Quayle, sought the Republican nomination in 2000. Al Gore also ran unsuccessfully for the presidency in 2000, turning to environmental advocacy afterward. Cheney had previously explored the possibility of running for president before serving as vice president, but chose not to run for president after his two terms as vice president.\n\nSince 1977, former presidents and vice presidents who are elected or re-elected to the Senate are entitled to the largely honorific position of Deputy President pro tempore. So far, the only former vice president to have held this title is Hubert Humphrey following his return to the Senate. Walter Mondale would have been entitled to the position had his 2002 Senate bid been successful.\n\nUnder the terms of an 1886 Senate resolution, all former vice presidents are entitled to a portrait bust in the Senate wing of the United States Capitol, commemorating their service as presidents of the Senate. Dick Cheney is the most recent former vice president to be so honored.\n\nUnlike former presidents, who receive a pension automatically regardless of their time in office, former vice presidents must reach pension eligibility by accumulating the appropriate time in federal service. Since 2008, former vice president are also entitled to Secret Service personal protection. Former vice presidents traditionally receive Secret Service protection for up to six months after leaving office, by order of the Secretary of Homeland Security, though this can be extended if the Secretary believes the level of threat is sufficient. In 2008, a bill titled the \"Former Vice President Protection Act\" was passed by Congress and signed into law by President Bush. It provides six-month Secret Service protection by law to a former vice president and family. According to the Department of Homeland Security, protection for former vice president Cheney has been extended numerous times because threats against him have not decreased since his leaving office. \n\nTimeline of vice presidents" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Eisenhower Dwight", "Health issues of Dwight D. Eisenhower", "D. D. Eisenhower", "Dynamic Conservatism", "General Dwight Eisenhower", "David Jacob Eisenhower", "Dweight Eisenhower", "34th President of the United States", "Dwight E Eisenhower", "Eisehower", "President Dwight D. Eisenhower", "David Dwight Eisenhower", "Ike (nickname)", "Eisenhower", "Eishenhower", "General Dwight David Eisenhower", "Dwight D. Eisenhower", "President Eisenhower", "Ike Eisenhower", "Dwight Eisenhower", "D. Eisenhower", "General Eisenhower", "David D. Eisenhower", "President Dwight Eisenhower", "Dwight eisenhower", "Dwight Eisenhour", "Dwight Eisienhower", "Dwight Eisenhauer", "Dwight David Eisenhower", "Dwight D Eisenhower", "General of the Army Dwight Eisenhower" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "dwight eisenhauer", "dwight eisenhower", "dwight eisienhower", "dwight d eisenhower", "general dwight david eisenhower", "general eisenhower", "eisenhower dwight", "d eisenhower", "eisenhower", "david d eisenhower", "d d eisenhower", "34th president of united states", "general of army dwight eisenhower", "dwight e eisenhower", "dweight eisenhower", "ike nickname", "dwight eisenhour", "dwight david eisenhower", "health issues of dwight d eisenhower", "david jacob eisenhower", "david dwight eisenhower", "eisehower", "eishenhower", "ike eisenhower", "dynamic conservatism", "general dwight eisenhower", "president dwight d eisenhower", "president dwight eisenhower", "president eisenhower" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "dwight eisenhower", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Dwight Eisenhower" }
Luxor international airport is in which country?	tc_306	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Luxor_International_Airport.txt" ], "title": [ "Luxor International Airport" ], "wiki_context": [ "Luxor International Airport is the main airport serving the city of Luxor, Egypt. It is located four miles (6 km) east of the city. Many charter airlines use the airport, as it is a popular tourist destination for those visiting the River Nile and the Valley of the Kings.\n\nFacilities\n\nIn 2005 the airport was upgraded to accommodate up to 8 million passengers a year. Facilities for passengers include 48 check-in desks, 8 gates, 5 baggage claim belts, a post office, a bank, a Bureau de change, an auto exchange machine (CIB), restaurants, cafeterias, a VIP Lounge, a duty-free shop, a newsagent/tobacconist, a chemist shop, a gift shop, a travel agency, a tourist help desk, car rental, first aid, a baby/parent Room, disabled access/facilities and a business centre. \n\nFacilities for cargo include refrigerated storage, animal quarantine, livestock handling, health officials, X-Ray equipment, and fumigation equipment. The cargo terminal handling agent for the airport is EgyptAir Cargo.\n\nAirlines and destinations\n\nAccidents and incidents\n\n* On 20 February 2009, an Antonov An-12 crashed after an engine caught fire on take-off. All five crew were killed." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "EGY", "Arab Republic of Egypt", "A .R . EGYPT", "The Arab Republic of Egypt", "Eygpt", "Etymology of Egypt", "مصر", "Kemmet", "Gift of the Nile", "Arab Republic Of Egypt", "Names of Egypt", "Miṣr", "A .R . Egypt", "Eytp", "National identity of Egyptians", "Jumhuriyat Misr al'Arabiyah", "Eypt", "Egyptian Republic", "Ejipt", "Name of Egypt", "Egipto", "Kimet", "جمهوريّة مصرالعربيّة", "Egypte", "Egypt (name)", "Egypt", "جمهورية مصرالعربية", "A.R. Egypt", "Republic of Eygpt", "Égypte", "Second Egyptian Republic", "Egipt", "ISO 3166-1:EG", "Egypt info" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "names of egypt", "jumhuriyat misr al arabiyah", "eytp", "iso 3166 1 eg", "egypt", "r egypt", "eygpt", "kimet", "name of egypt", "جمهورية مصرالعربية", "arab republic of egypt", "egypt name", "gift of nile", "kemmet", "miṣr", "egipto", "جمهوريّة مصرالعربيّة", "egy", "egypt info", "egyptian republic", "egypte", "eypt", "ejipt", "national identity of egyptians", "égypte", "etymology of egypt", "egipt", "مصر", "second egyptian republic", "republic of eygpt" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "egypt", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Egypt" }
Which country did Albert Einstein move to as the Nazis rose to power?	tc_307	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Albert_Einstein.txt", "Nazism.txt" ], "title": [ "Albert Einstein", "Nazism" ], "wiki_context": [ "Albert Einstein (; ; 14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955) was a German-born theoretical physicist. He developed the general theory of relativity, one of the two pillars of modern physics (alongside quantum mechanics). Einstein's work is also known for its influence on the philosophy of science. Einstein is best known in popular culture for his mass–energy equivalence formula (which has been dubbed \"the world's most famous equation\"). He received the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics for his \"services to theoretical physics\", in particular his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect, a pivotal step in the evolution of quantum theory. \n\nNear the beginning of his career, Einstein thought that Newtonian mechanics was no longer enough to reconcile the laws of classical mechanics with the laws of the electromagnetic field. This led to the development of his special theory of relativity. He realized, however, that the principle of relativity could also be extended to gravitational fields, and with his subsequent theory of gravitation in 1916, he published a paper on general relativity. He continued to deal with problems of statistical mechanics and quantum theory, which led to his explanations of particle theory and the motion of molecules. He also investigated the thermal properties of light which laid the foundation of the photon theory of light. In 1917, Einstein applied the general theory of relativity to model the large-scale structure of the universe. \n\nHe was visiting the United States when Adolf Hitler came to power in 1933 and, being Jewish, did not go back to Germany, where he had been a professor at the Berlin Academy of Sciences. He settled in the U.S., becoming an American citizen in 1940. On the eve of World War II, he endorsed a letter to President Franklin D. Roosevelt alerting him to the potential development of \"extremely powerful bombs of a new type\" and recommending that the U.S. begin similar research. This eventually led to what would become the Manhattan Project. Einstein supported defending the Allied forces, but largely denounced the idea of using the newly discovered nuclear fission as a weapon. Later, with the British philosopher Bertrand Russell, Einstein signed the Russell–Einstein Manifesto, which highlighted the danger of nuclear weapons. Einstein was affiliated with the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey, until his death in 1955.\n\nEinstein published more than 300 scientific papers along with over 150 non-scientific works. On 5 December 2014, universities and archives announced the release of Einstein's papers, comprising more than 30,000 unique documents. Einstein's intellectual achievements and originality have made the word \"Einstein\" synonymous with \"genius\". \n\nBiography \n\nEarly life and education \n\nAlbert Einstein was born in Ulm, in the Kingdom of Württemberg in the German Empire on 14 March 1879. His parents were Hermann Einstein, a salesman and engineer, and Pauline Koch. In 1880, the family moved to Munich, where Einstein's father and his uncle Jakob founded Elektrotechnische Fabrik J. Einstein & Cie, a company that manufactured electrical equipment based on direct current.\n\nThe Einsteins were non-observant Ashkenazi Jews, and Albert attended a Catholic elementary school in Munich from the age of 5 for three years. At the age of 8, he was transferred to the Luitpold Gymnasium (now known as the Albert Einstein Gymnasium), where he received advanced primary and secondary school education until he left the German Empire seven years later.\n\nIn 1894, Hermann and Jakob's company lost a bid to supply the city of Munich with electrical lighting because they lacked the capital to convert their equipment from the direct current (DC) standard to the more efficient alternating current (AC) standard. The loss forced the sale of the Munich factory. In search of business, the Einstein family moved to Italy, first to Milan and a few months later to Pavia. When the family moved to Pavia, Einstein stayed in Munich to finish his studies at the Luitpold Gymnasium. His father intended for him to pursue electrical engineering, but Einstein clashed with authorities and resented the school's regimen and teaching method. He later wrote that the spirit of learning and creative thought was lost in strict rote learning. At the end of December 1894, he travelled to Italy to join his family in Pavia, convincing the school to let him go by using a doctor's note. During his time in Italy he wrote a short essay with the title \"On the Investigation of the State of the Ether in a Magnetic Field\". \n\nIn 1895, at the age of 16, Einstein sat the entrance examinations for the Swiss Federal Polytechnic in Zürich (later the Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule, ETH). He failed to reach the required standard in the general part of the examination, but obtained exceptional grades in physics and mathematics. On the advice of the principal of the Polytechnic, he attended the Argovian cantonal school (gymnasium) in Aarau, Switzerland, in 1895–96 to complete his secondary schooling. While lodging with the family of professor Jost Winteler, he fell in love with Winteler's daughter, Marie. (Albert's sister Maja later married Winteler's son Paul.) In January 1896, with his father's approval, Einstein renounced his citizenship in the German Kingdom of Württemberg to avoid military service. In September 1896, he passed the Swiss Matura with mostly good grades, including a top grade of 6 in physics and mathematical subjects, on a scale of 1–6. Though only 17, he enrolled in the four-year mathematics and physics teaching diploma program at the Zürich Polytechnic. Marie Winteler moved to Olsberg, Switzerland, for a teaching post.\n\nEinstein's future wife, Mileva Marić, also enrolled at the Polytechnic that year. She was the only woman among the six students in the mathematics and physics section of the teaching diploma course. Over the next few years, Einstein and Marić's friendship developed into romance, and they read books together on extra-curricular physics in which Einstein was taking an increasing interest. In 1900, Einstein was awarded the Zürich Polytechnic teaching diploma, but Marić failed the examination with a poor grade in the mathematics component, theory of functions. There have been claims that Marić collaborated with Einstein on his celebrated 1905 papers, but historians of physics who have studied the issue find no evidence that she made any substantive contributions. \n\nMarriages and children \n\nThe discovery and publication in 1987 of an early correspondence between Einstein and Marić revealed that they had had a daughter, called \"Lieserl\" in their letters, born in early 1902 in Novi Sad where Marić was staying with her parents. Marić returned to Switzerland without the child, whose real name and fate are unknown. Einstein probably never saw his daughter. The contents of his letter to Marić in September 1903 suggest that the girl was either adopted or died of scarlet fever in infancy. \n\nEinstein and Marić married in January 1903. In May 1904, their first son, Hans Albert Einstein, was born in Bern, Switzerland. Their second son, Eduard, was born in Zürich in July 1910. In April they moved to Berlin. After a few months his wife returned to Zürich with their sons, after learning that Einstein's chief romantic attraction was his first and second cousin Elsa. They divorced on 14 February 1919, having lived apart for five years. Eduard, whom his father called \"Tete\" (for petit), had a breakdown at about age 20 and was diagnosed with schizophrenia. His mother cared for him and he was also committed to asylums for several periods, finally being committed permanently after her death.\n\nIn letters revealed in 2015, Einstein wrote to his early love, Marie Winteler, about his marriage and his still-strong feelings for Marie. In 1910 he wrote to her that \"I think of you in heartfelt love every spare minute and am so unhappy as only a man can be\" while his wife was pregnant with their second child. Einstein spoke about a \"misguided love\" and a \"missed life\" regarding his love for Marie. \n\nEinstein married Elsa Löwenthal in 1919, after having had a personal relationship with her since 1912. She was a first cousin maternally and a second cousin paternally. In 1933, they emigrated to the United States. In 1935, Elsa Einstein was diagnosed with heart and kidney problems; she died in December 1936.\n\nPatent office \n\nAfter graduating in 1900, Einstein spent almost two frustrating years searching for a teaching post. He acquired Swiss citizenship in February 1901, but was not conscripted for medical reasons. With the help of Marcel Grossmann's father, Einstein secured a job in Bern at the Federal Office for Intellectual Property, the patent office, as an assistant examiner. He evaluated patent applications for a variety of devices including a gravel sorter and an electromechanical typewriter. In 1903, Einstein's position at the Swiss Patent Office became permanent, although he was passed over for promotion until he \"fully mastered machine technology\".\n\nMuch of his work at the patent office related to questions about transmission of electric signals and electrical-mechanical synchronization of time, two technical problems that show up conspicuously in the thought experiments that eventually led Einstein to his radical conclusions about the nature of light and the fundamental connection between space and time.\n\nWith a few friends he had met in Bern, Einstein started a small discussion group, self-mockingly named \"The Olympia Academy\", which met regularly to discuss science and philosophy. Their readings included the works of Henri Poincaré, Ernst Mach, and David Hume, which influenced his scientific and philosophical outlook.\n\nAcademic career \n\nIn 1900, Einstein's paper \"Folgerungen aus den Capillaritätserscheinungen\" (\"Conclusions from the Capillarity Phenomena\") was published in the prestigious Annalen der Physik. On 30 April 1905, Einstein completed his thesis, with Alfred Kleiner, Professor of Experimental Physics, serving as pro-forma advisor. As a result, Einstein was awarded a PhD by the University of Zürich, with his dissertation entitled, \"A New Determination of Molecular Dimensions.\" That same year, which has been called Einstein's annus mirabilis (miracle year), he published four groundbreaking papers, on the photoelectric effect, Brownian motion, special relativity, and the equivalence of mass and energy, which were to bring him to the notice of the academic world, at the age of 26.\n\nBy 1908, he was recognized as a leading scientist and was appointed lecturer at the University of Bern. The following year, after giving a lecture on electrodynamics and the relativity principle at the University of Zurich, Alfred Kleiner recommended him to the faculty for a newly created professorship in theoretical physics. Einstein was appointed associate professor in 1909. \n\nEinstein became a full professor at the German Charles-Ferdinand University in Prague in April 1911, accepting Austrian citizenship in the Austro-Hungarian Empire to do so. During his Prague stay, Einstein wrote 11 scientific works, five of them on radiation mathematics and on the quantum theory of solids. In July 1912, he returned to his alma mater in Zürich. From 1912 until 1914, he was professor of theoretical physics at the ETH Zurich, where he taught analytical mechanics and thermodynamics. He also studied continuum mechanics, the molecular theory of heat, and the problem of gravitation, on which he worked with mathematician and friend Marcel Grossmann. \n\nIn 1914, he returned to the German Empire after being appointed director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics (1914–1932) and a professor at the Humboldt University of Berlin, but freed from most teaching obligations. He soon became a member of the Prussian Academy of Sciences, and in 1916 was appointed president of the German Physical Society (1916–1918). \n\nBased on calculations Einstein made in 1911, about his new theory of general relativity, light from another star should be bent by the Sun's gravity. In 1919, that prediction was confirmed by Sir Arthur Eddington during the solar eclipse of 29 May 1919. Those observations were published in the international media, making Einstein world famous. On 7 November 1919, the leading British newspaper The Times printed a banner headline that read: \"Revolution in Science – New Theory of the Universe – Newtonian Ideas Overthrown\". \n\nIn 1920, he became a Foreign Member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences. In 1922, Einstein was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics \"for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect\". While the general theory of relativity was still considered somewhat controversial, the citation also does not treat the cited work as an explanation but merely as a discovery of the law, as the idea of photons was considered outlandish and did not receive universal acceptance until the 1924 derivation of the Planck spectrum by S. N. Bose. Einstein was elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS) in 1921. He also received the Copley Medal from the Royal Society in 1925.\n\n1921–1922: Travels abroad \n\nEinstein visited New York City for the first time on 2 April 1921, where he received an official welcome by Mayor John Francis Hylan, followed by three weeks of lectures and receptions. He went on to deliver several lectures at Columbia University and Princeton University, and in Washington he accompanied representatives of the National Academy of Science on a visit to the White House. On his return to Europe he was the guest of the British statesman and philosopher Viscount Haldane in London, where he met several renowned scientific, intellectual and political figures, and delivered a lecture at King's College London. \n\nHe also published an essay, \"My First Impression of the U.S.A.,\" in July 1921, in which he tried briefly to describe some characteristics of Americans, much as had Alexis de Tocqueville, who published his own impressions in Democracy in America (1835). For some of his observations, Einstein was clearly surprised: \"What strikes a visitor is the joyous, positive attitude to life . . . The American is friendly, self-confident, optimistic, and without envy.\"\n\nIn 1922, his travels took him to Asia and later to Palestine, as part of a six-month excursion and speaking tour, as he visited Singapore, Ceylon and Japan, where he gave a series of lectures to thousands of Japanese. After his first public lecture, he met the emperor and empress at the Imperial Palace, where thousands came to watch. In a letter to his sons, Einstein described his impression of the Japanese as being modest, intelligent, considerate, and having a true feel for art.\n\nBecause of Einstein's travels to the Far East, he was unable to personally accept the Nobel Prize for Physics at the Stockholm award ceremony in December 1922. In his place, the banquet speech was held by a German diplomat, who praised Einstein not only as a scientist but also as an international peacemaker and activist. \n\nOn his return voyage, he visited Palestine for 12 days in what would become his only visit to that region. Einstein was greeted as if he were a head of state, rather than a physicist, which included a cannon salute upon arriving at the home of the British high commissioner, Sir Herbert Samuel. During one reception, the building was stormed by people who wanted to see and hear him. In Einstein's talk to the audience, he expressed happiness that the Jewish people were beginning to be recognized as a force in the world.\n\n1930–1931: Travel to the U.S. \n\nIn December 1930, Einstein visited America for the second time, originally intended as a two-month working visit as a research fellow at the California Institute of Technology. After the national attention he received during his first trip to the U.S., he and his arrangers aimed to protect his privacy. Although swamped with telegrams and invitations to receive awards or speak publicly, he declined them all.\n\nAfter arriving in New York City, Einstein was taken to various places and events, including Chinatown, a lunch with the editors of the New York Times, and a performance of Carmen at the Metropolitan Opera, where he was cheered by the audience on his arrival. During the days following, he was given the keys to the city by Mayor Jimmy Walker and met the president of Columbia University, who described Einstein as \"the ruling monarch of the mind.\" Harry Emerson Fosdick, pastor at New York's Riverside Church, gave Einstein a tour of the church and showed him a full-size statue that the church made of Einstein, standing at the entrance. Also during his stay in New York, he joined a crowd of 15,000 people at Madison Square Garden during a Hanukkah celebration.\n\nEinstein next traveled to California where he met Caltech president and Nobel laureate, Robert A. Millikan. His friendship with Millikan was \"awkward\", as Millikan \"had a penchant for patriotic militarism,\" where Einstein was a pronounced pacifist. During an address to Caltech's students, Einstein noted that science was often inclined to do more harm than good.\n\nThis aversion to war also led Einstein to befriend author Upton Sinclair and film star Charlie Chaplin, both noted for their pacifism. Carl Laemmle, head of Universal Studios, gave Einstein a tour of his studio and introduced him to Chaplin. They had an instant rapport, with Chaplin inviting Einstein and his wife, Elsa, to his home for dinner. Chaplin said Einstein's outward persona, calm and gentle, seemed to conceal a \"highly emotional temperament,\" from which came his \"extraordinary intellectual energy.\"Chaplin, Charles. Charles Chaplin: My Autobiography, Simon and Schuster, N.Y. (1964)\n\nChaplin also remembers Elsa telling him about the time Einstein conceived his theory of relativity. During breakfast one morning, he seemed lost in thought and ignored his food. She asked him if something was bothering him. He sat down at his piano and started playing. He continued playing and writing notes for half an hour, then went upstairs to his study, where he remained for two weeks, with Elsa bringing up his food. At the end of the two weeks, he came downstairs with two sheets of paper bearing his theory.\n\nChaplin's film, City Lights, was to premiere a few days later in Hollywood, and Chaplin invited Einstein and Elsa to join him as his special guests. Walter Isaacson, Einstein's biographer, described this as \"one of the most memorable scenes in the new era of celebrity.\" Einstein and Chaplin arrived together, in black tie, with Elsa joining them, \"beaming.\" The audience applauded as they entered the theater. Chaplin visited Einstein at his home on a later trip to Berlin, and recalled his \"modest little flat\" and the piano at which he had begun writing his theory. Chaplin speculated that it was \"possibly used as kindling wood by the Nazis.\"\n\n1933: Emigration to the U.S. \n\nIn February 1933 while on a visit to the United States, Einstein knew he could not return to Germany with the rise to power of the Nazis under Germany's new chancellor, Adolf Hitler.\n\nWhile at American universities in early 1933, he undertook his third two-month visiting professorship at the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena. He and his wife Elsa returned to Belgium by ship in March, and during the trip they learned that their cottage was raided by the Nazis and his personal sailboat confiscated. Upon landing in Antwerp on 28 March, he immediately went to the German consulate and turned in his passport, formally renouncing his German citizenship. A few years later, the Nazis sold his boat and turned his cottage into a Hitler Youth camp. \n\nRefugee status \n\nIn April 1933, Einstein discovered that the new German government had passed laws barring Jews from holding any official positions, including teaching at universities. Historian Gerald Holton describes how, with \"virtually no audible protest being raised by their colleagues,\" thousands of Jewish scientists were suddenly forced to give up their university positions and their names were removed from the rolls of institutions where they were employed.Holton, Gerald. [https://books.google.com/books?id\nprgDAAAAMBAJ&pgPA18&dq\nGerald+Holton+migration+physicists+United+States+Einstein+jews&hlen&sa\nX&eicFWCU9qcLsr6oASvhYLgBA&ved\n0CC8Q6AEwAA#vonepage&q\nGerald%20Holton%20migration%20physicists%20United%20States%20Einstein%20jews&f=false \"The migration of physicists to the United States\"], Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, April 1984 pp. 18–24\n\nA month later, Einstein's works were among those targeted by the German Student Union in the Nazi book burnings, with Nazi propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels proclaiming, \"Jewish intellectualism is dead.\" One German magazine included him in a list of enemies of the German regime with the phrase, \"not yet hanged\", offering a $5,000 bounty on his head.Jerome, Fred, and Taylor, Rodger. [https://books.google.com/books?id\n4d79VQdOfFUC&pgPR10&dq\nEinstein+on+Race+and+Racism+america's+worst+disease#vonepage&q&f\nfalse Einstein on Race and Racism] Rutgers University Press, (2006) In a subsequent letter to physicist and friend Max Born, who had already emigrated from Germany to England, Einstein wrote, \"... I must confess that the degree of their brutality and cowardice came as something of a surprise.\" After moving to the U.S., he described the book burnings as a \"spontaneous emotional outburst\" by those who \"shun popular enlightenment,\" and \"more than anything else in the world, fear the influence of men of intellectual independence.\"\n\nEinstein was now without a permanent home, unsure where he would live and work, and equally worried about the fate of countless other scientists still in Germany. He rented a house in De Haan, Belgium, where he lived for a few months. In late July 1933, he went to England for about six weeks at the personal invitation of British naval officer Commander Oliver Locker-Lampson, who had become friends with Einstein in the preceding years. To protect Einstein, Locker-Lampson had two assistants watch over him at his secluded cottage outside London, with the press publishing a photo of them guarding Einstein.\n\nLocker-Lampson took Einstein to meet Winston Churchill at his home, and later, Austen Chamberlain and former Prime Minister Lloyd George. Einstein asked them to help bring Jewish scientists out of Germany. British historian Martin Gilbert notes that Churchill responded immediately, and sent his friend, physicist Frederick Lindemann to Germany to seek out Jewish scientists and place them in British universities.Gilbert, Martin. Churchill and the Jews, Henry Holt and Company, N.Y. (2007) pp. 101, 176 Churchill later observed that as a result of Germany having driven the Jews out, they had lowered their \"technical standards\" and put the Allies' technology ahead of theirs.\n\nEinstein later contacted leaders of other nations, including Turkey's Prime Minister, İsmet İnönü, to whom he wrote in September 1933 requesting placement of unemployed German-Jewish scientists. As a result of Einstein's letter, Jewish invitees to Turkey eventually totaled over \"1,000 saved individuals.\" \n\nLocker-Lampson also submitted a bill to parliament to extend British citizenship to Einstein, during which period Einstein made a number of public appearances describing the crisis brewing in Europe. The bill failed to become law, however, and Einstein then accepted an earlier offer from the Princeton Institute for Advanced Study, in the U.S., to become a resident scholar.\n\nResident scholar at the Institute for Advanced Study \n\nIn October 1933 Einstein returned to the U.S. and took up a position at the Institute for Advanced Study (in Princeton, New Jersey), noted for having become a refuge for scientists fleeing Nazi Germany. At the time, most American universities, including Harvard, Princeton and Yale, had minimal or no Jewish faculty or students, as a result of their Jewish quota which lasted until the late 1940s. \n\nEinstein was still undecided on his future. He had offers from several European universities, including Christ Church, Oxford where he stayed for three short periods between May 1931 and June 1933 and was offered a 5 year Studentship, but in 1935 he arrived at the decision to remain permanently in the United States and apply for citizenship.\n\nEinstein's affiliation with the Institute for Advanced Study would last until his death in 1955.\nHe was one of the four first selected (two of the others being John von Neumann and Kurt Gödel) at the new Institute, where he soon developed a close friendship with Gödel. The two would take long walks together discussing their work. Bruria Kaufman, his assistant, later became a physicist. During this period, Einstein tried to develop a unified field theory and to refute the accepted interpretation of quantum physics, both unsuccessfully.\n\nWorld War II and the Manhattan Project \n\nIn 1939, a group of Hungarian scientists that included émigré physicist Leó Szilárd attempted to alert Washington to ongoing Nazi atomic bomb research. The group's warnings were discounted. Einstein and Szilárd, along with other refugees such as Edward Teller and Eugene Wigner, \"regarded it as their responsibility to alert Americans to the possibility that German scientists might win the race to build an atomic bomb, and to warn that Hitler would be more than willing to resort to such a weapon.\" \nTo make certain the U.S. was aware of the danger, in July 1939, a few months before the beginning of World War II in Europe, Szilárd and Wigner visited Einstein to explain the possibility of atomic bombs, which Einstein, a pacifist, said he had never considered. He was asked to lend his support by writing a letter, with Szilárd, to President Roosevelt, recommending the U.S. pay attention and engage in its own nuclear weapons research.\n\nThe letter is believed to be \"arguably the key stimulus for the U.S. adoption of serious investigations into nuclear weapons on the eve of the U.S. entry into World War II\". In addition to the letter, Einstein used his connections with the Belgian Royal Family and the Belgian queen mother to get access with a personal envoy to the White House's Oval Office. President Roosevelt could not take the risk of allowing Hitler to possess atomic bombs first. As a result of Einstein's letter and his meetings with Roosevelt, the U.S. entered the \"race\" to develop the bomb, drawing on its \"immense material, financial, and scientific resources\" to initiate the Manhattan Project. The U.S. became the only country to successfully develop nuclear weapons during World War II and also remains the only country to use them in combat, against Hiroshima and Nagasaki on August 6 and 9, 1945, respectively, towards the end of the war.\n\nFor Einstein, \"war was a disease ... [and] he called for resistance to war.\" By signing the letter to Roosevelt, he went against his pacifist principles. In 1954, a year before his death, Einstein said to his old friend, Linus Pauling, \"I made one great mistake in my life—when I signed the letter to President Roosevelt recommending that atom bombs be made; but there was some justification—the danger that the Germans would make them ...\"\n\nU.S. citizenship \n\nEinstein became an American citizen in 1940. Not long after settling into his career at the Institute for Advanced Study (in Princeton, New Jersey), he expressed his appreciation of the meritocracy in American culture when compared to Europe. He recognized the \"right of individuals to say and think what they pleased\", without social barriers, and as a result, individuals were encouraged, he said, to be more creative, a trait he valued from his own early education.\n\nPersonal life \n\nSupporter of civil rights \n\nEinstein was a passionate, committed antiracist and joined National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in Princeton, where he campaigned for the civil rights of African Americans. He considered racism America's \"worst disease,\" seeing it as \"handed down from one generation to the next.\" As part of his involvement, he corresponded with civil rights activist W. E. B. Du Bois and was prepared to testify on his behalf during his trial in 1951.Robeson, Paul. Paul Robeson Speaks, Citadel (2002) p. 333 When Einstein offered to be a character witness for Du Bois, the judge decided to drop the case.\n\nIn 1946 Einstein visited Lincoln University in Pennsylvania where he was awarded an honorary degree. Lincoln was the first university in the United States to grant college degrees to blacks, including Langston Hughes and Thurgood Marshall. To its students, Einstein gave a speech about racism in America, adding, \"I do not intend to be quiet about it.\" A resident of Princeton recalls that Einstein had once paid the college tuition for a black student,[http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2007/04/albert-einstein-civil-rights-activist/ \"Albert Einstein, Civil Rights activist\"], Harvard Gazette, April 12, 2007 and black physicist Sylvester James Gates states that Einstein had been one of his early science heroes, later finding out about Einstein's support for civil rights.\n\nAssisting Zionist causes \n\nEinstein was a figurehead leader in helping establish the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, which opened in 1925, and was among its first Board of Governors. Earlier, in 1921, he was asked by the biochemist and president of the World Zionist Organization, Chaim Weizmann, to help raise funds for the planned university. He also submitted various suggestions as to its initial programs.\n\nAmong those, he advised first creating an Institute of Agriculture in order to settle the undeveloped land. That should be followed, he suggested, by a Chemical Institute and an Institute of Microbiology, to fight the various ongoing epidemics such as malaria, which he called an \"evil\" that was undermining a third of the country's development. Establishing an Oriental Studies Institute, to include language courses given in both Hebrew and Arabic, for scientific exploration of the country and its historical monuments, was also important.Rowe, David E. and Schulmann, Robert, editors. Einstein on Politics, Princeton University Press (2007)\n\nChaim Weizmann later became Israel's first president. Upon his death while in office in November 1952 and at the urging of Ezriel Carlebach, Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion offered Einstein the position of President of Israel, a mostly ceremonial post. The offer was presented by Israel's ambassador in Washington, Abba Eban, who explained that the offer \"embodies the deepest respect which the Jewish people can repose in any of its sons\". Einstein declined, and wrote in his response that he was \"deeply moved\", and \"at once saddened and ashamed\" that he could not accept it.\n\nLove of music \n\nEinstein developed an appreciation of music at an early age, and later wrote: \"If I were not a physicist, I would probably be a musician. I often think in music. I live my daydreams in music. I see my life in terms of music... I get most joy in life out of music.\" \n\nHis mother played the piano reasonably well and wanted her son to learn the violin, not only to instill in him a love of music but also to help him assimilate into German culture. According to conductor Leon Botstein, Einstein is said to have begun playing when he was 5, although he did not enjoy it at that age.\n\nWhen he turned 13, he discovered the violin sonatas of Mozart, whereupon \"Einstein fell in love\" with Mozart's music and studied music more willingly. He taught himself to play without \"ever practicing systematically\", he said, deciding that \"love is a better teacher than a sense of duty.\" At age 17, he was heard by a school examiner in Aarau as he played Beethoven's violin sonatas, the examiner stating afterward that his playing was \"remarkable and revealing of 'great insight'.\" What struck the examiner, writes Botstein, was that Einstein \"displayed a deep love of the music, a quality that was and remains in short supply. Music possessed an unusual meaning for this student.\"\n\nMusic took on a pivotal and permanent role in Einstein's life from that period on. Although the idea of becoming a professional himself was not on his mind at any time, among those with whom Einstein played chamber music were a few professionals, and he performed for private audiences and friends. Chamber music had also become a regular part of his social life while living in Bern, Zürich, and Berlin, where he played with Max Planck and his son, among others. He is sometimes erroneously credited as the editor of the 1937 edition of the Köchel catalogue of Mozart's work; that edition was actually prepared by Alfred Einstein, who may have been a distant relation. \n\nIn 1931, while engaged in research at the California Institute of Technology, he visited the Zoellner family conservatory in Los Angeles, where he played some of Beethoven and Mozart's works with members of the Zoellner Quartet.[http://articles.latimes.com/1985-12-22/entertainment/ca-20526_1_life-estate Cariaga, Daniel, \"Not Taking It with You: A Tale of Two Estates,\" Los Angeles Times], 22 December 1985. Retrieved April 2012.[http://www.rrauction.com/albert_einstein_signed_photo_to_joseph_zoellner.cfm Auction listing] by RR Auction, auction closed 13 October 2010. Near the end of his life, when the young Juilliard Quartet visited him in Princeton, he played his violin with them, and the quartet was \"impressed by Einstein's level of coordination and intonation.\"\n\nPolitical and religious views \n\nEinstein's political view was in favor of socialism and critical of capitalism, which he detailed in his essays such as \"Why Socialism?\". Einstein offered and was called on to give judgments and opinions on matters often unrelated to theoretical physics or mathematics. He strongly advocated the idea of a democratic global government that would check the power of nation-states in the framework of a world federation.\n\nEinstein's views about religious belief have been collected from interviews and original writings. He called himself an agnostic, while disassociating himself from the label atheist. He said he believed in the \"pantheistic\" God of Baruch Spinoza, but not in a personal god, a belief he criticized. Einstein once wrote: \"I do not believe in a personal God and I have never denied this but expressed it clearly\". \n\nDeath \n\nOn 17 April 1955, Albert Einstein experienced internal bleeding caused by the rupture of an abdominal aortic aneurysm, which had previously been reinforced surgically by Rudolph Nissen in 1948. He took the draft of a speech he was preparing for a television appearance commemorating the State of Israel's seventh anniversary with him to the hospital, but he did not live long enough to complete it.\n\nEinstein refused surgery, saying: \"I want to go when I want. It is tasteless to prolong life artificially. I have done my share, it is time to go. I will do it elegantly.\" He died in Princeton Hospital early the next morning at the age of 76, having continued to work until near the end.\n\nDuring the autopsy, the pathologist of Princeton Hospital, Thomas Stoltz Harvey, removed Einstein's brain for preservation without the permission of his family, in the hope that the neuroscience of the future would be able to discover what made Einstein so intelligent. Einstein's remains were cremated and his ashes were scattered at an undisclosed location. \n\nIn his lecture at Einstein's memorial, nuclear physicist Robert Oppenheimer summarized his impression of him as a person: \"He was almost wholly without sophistication and wholly without worldliness ... There was always with him a wonderful purity at once childlike and profoundly stubborn.\"\n\nScientific career \n\nThroughout his life, Einstein published hundreds of books and articles. He published more than 300 scientific papers and 150 non-scientific ones. On 5 December 2014, universities and archives announced the release of Einstein's papers, comprising more than 30,000 unique documents. Einstein's intellectual achievements and originality have made the word \"Einstein\" synonymous with \"genius\". In addition to the work he did by himself he also collaborated with other scientists on additional projects including the Bose–Einstein statistics, the Einstein refrigerator and others. \n\n1905 – Annus Mirabilis papers \n\nThe Annus Mirabilis papers are four articles pertaining to the photoelectric effect (which gave rise to quantum theory), Brownian motion, the special theory of relativity, and E = mc2 that Albert Einstein published in the Annalen der Physik scientific journal in 1905. These four works contributed substantially to the foundation of modern physics and changed views on space, time, and matter. The four papers are:\n\nThermodynamic fluctuations and statistical physics \n\nAlbert Einstein's first paper submitted in 1900 to Annalen der Physik was on capillary attraction. It was published in 1901 with the title \"Folgerungen aus den Capillaritätserscheinungen\", which translates as \"Conclusions from the capillarity phenomena\". Two papers he published in 1902–1903 (thermodynamics) attempted to interpret atomic phenomena from a statistical point of view. These papers were the foundation for the 1905 paper on Brownian motion, which showed that Brownian movement can be construed as firm evidence that molecules exist. His research in 1903 and 1904 was mainly concerned with the effect of finite atomic size on diffusion phenomena.\n\nGeneral principles \n\nHe articulated the principle of relativity. This was understood by Hermann Minkowski to be a generalization of rotational invariance from space to space-time. Other principles postulated by Einstein and later vindicated are the principle of equivalence and the principle of adiabatic invariance of the quantum number.\n\nTheory of relativity and E \n mc² \n\nEinstein's \"Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper\" (\"On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies\") was received on 30 June 1905 and published 26 September of that same year. It reconciles Maxwell's equations for electricity and magnetism with the laws of mechanics, by introducing major changes to mechanics close to the speed of light. This later became known as Einstein's special theory of relativity.\n\nConsequences of this include the time-space frame of a moving body appearing to slow down and contract (in the direction of motion) when measured in the frame of the observer. This paper also argued that the idea of a luminiferous aether—one of the leading theoretical entities in physics at the time—was superfluous.\n\nIn his paper on mass–energy equivalence, Einstein produced E = mc2 from his special relativity equations. Einstein's 1905 work on relativity remained controversial for many years, but was accepted by leading physicists, starting with Max Planck. \n\nPhotons and energy quanta \n\nIn a 1905 paper, Einstein postulated that light itself consists of localized particles (quanta). Einstein's light quanta were nearly universally rejected by all physicists, including Max Planck and Niels Bohr. This idea only became universally accepted in 1919, with Robert Millikan's detailed experiments on the photoelectric effect, and with the measurement of Compton scattering.\n\nEinstein concluded that each wave of frequency f is associated with a collection of photons with energy hf each, where h is Planck's constant. He does not say much more, because he is not sure how the particles are related to the wave. But he does suggest that this idea would explain certain experimental results, notably the photoelectric effect.\n\nQuantized atomic vibrations \n\nIn 1907, Einstein proposed a model of matter where each atom in a lattice structure is an independent harmonic oscillator. In the Einstein model, each atom oscillates independently—a series of equally spaced quantized states for each oscillator. Einstein was aware that getting the frequency of the actual oscillations would be different, but he nevertheless proposed this theory because it was a particularly clear demonstration that quantum mechanics could solve the specific heat problem in classical mechanics. Peter Debye refined this model. \n\nAdiabatic principle and action-angle variables \n\nThroughout the 1910s, quantum mechanics expanded in scope to cover many different systems. After Ernest Rutherford discovered the nucleus and proposed that electrons orbit like planets, Niels Bohr was able to show that the same quantum mechanical postulates introduced by Planck and developed by Einstein would explain the discrete motion of electrons in atoms, and the periodic table of the elements.\n\nEinstein contributed to these developments by linking them with the 1898 arguments Wilhelm Wien had made. Wien had shown that the hypothesis of adiabatic invariance of a thermal equilibrium state allows all the blackbody curves at different temperature to be derived from one another by a simple shifting process. Einstein noted in 1911 that the same adiabatic principle shows that the quantity which is quantized in any mechanical motion must be an adiabatic invariant. Arnold Sommerfeld identified this adiabatic invariant as the action variable of classical mechanics.\n\nWave–particle duality \n\nAlthough the patent office promoted Einstein to Technical Examiner Second Class in 1906, he had not given up on academia. In 1908, he became a Privatdozent at the University of Bern.\nIn \"über die Entwicklung unserer Anschauungen über das Wesen und die Konstitution der Strahlung\" (\"The Development of our Views on the Composition and Essence of Radiation\"), on the quantization of light, and in an earlier 1909 paper, Einstein showed that Max Planck's energy quanta must have well-defined momenta and act in some respects as independent, point-like particles. This paper introduced the photon concept (although the name photon was introduced later by Gilbert N. Lewis in 1926) and inspired the notion of wave–particle duality in quantum mechanics. Einstein saw this wave–particle duality in radiation as concrete evidence for his conviction that physics needed a new, unified foundation.\n\nTheory of critical opalescence \n\nEinstein returned to the problem of thermodynamic fluctuations, giving a treatment of the density variations in a fluid at its critical point. Ordinarily the density fluctuations are controlled by the second derivative of the free energy with respect to the density. At the critical point, this derivative is zero, leading to large fluctuations. The effect of density fluctuations is that light of all wavelengths is scattered, making the fluid look milky white. Einstein relates this to Rayleigh scattering, which is what happens when the fluctuation size is much smaller than the wavelength, and which explains why the sky is blue. Einstein quantitatively derived critical opalescence from a treatment of density fluctuations, and demonstrated how both the effect and Rayleigh scattering originate from the atomistic constitution of matter.\n\nZero-point energy \n\nIn a series of works completed from 1911 to 1913, Planck reformulated his 1900 quantum theory and introduced the idea of zero-point energy in his \"second quantum theory.\" Soon, this idea attracted the attention of Albert Einstein and his assistant Otto Stern. Assuming the energy of rotating diatomic molecules contains zero-point energy, they then compared the theoretical specific heat of hydrogen gas with the experimental data. The numbers matched nicely. However, after publishing the findings, they promptly withdrew their support, because they no longer had confidence in the correctness of the idea of zero-point energy.\n\nGeneral relativity and the equivalence principle \n\nGeneral relativity (GR) is a theory of gravitation that was developed by Albert Einstein between 1907 and 1915. According to general relativity, the observed gravitational attraction between masses results from the warping of space and time by those masses. General relativity has developed into an essential tool in modern astrophysics. It provides the foundation for the current understanding of black holes, regions of space where gravitational attraction is so strong that not even light can escape.\n\nAs Albert Einstein later said, the reason for the development of general relativity was that the preference of inertial motions within special relativity was unsatisfactory, while a theory which from the outset prefers no state of motion (even accelerated ones) should appear more satisfactory. Consequently, in 1907 he published an article on acceleration under special relativity. In that article titled \"On the Relativity Principle and the Conclusions Drawn from It\", he argued that free fall is really inertial motion, and that for a free-falling observer the rules of special relativity must apply. This argument is called the equivalence principle. In the same article, Einstein also predicted the phenomena of gravitational time dilation, gravitational red shift and deflection of light.\n\nIn 1911, Einstein published another article \"On the Influence of Gravitation on the Propagation of Light\" expanding on the 1907 article, in which he estimated the amount of deflection of light by massive bodies. Thus, the theoretical prediction of general relativity can for the first time be tested experimentally.\n\nGravitational waves\n\nIn 1916, Einstein predicted gravitational waves, ripples in the curvature of spacetime which propagate as waves, traveling outward from the source, transporting energy as gravitational radiation. The existence of gravitational waves is possible under general relativity due to its Lorentz invariance which brings the concept of a finite speed of propagation of the physical interactions of gravity with it. By contrast, gravitational waves cannot exist in the Newtonian theory of gravitation, which postulates that the physical interactions of gravity propagate at infinite speed.\n\nThe first, indirect, detection of gravitational waves came in the 1970s through observation of a pair of closely orbiting neutron stars, PSR B1913+16. The explanation of the decay in their orbital period was that they were emitting gravitational waves. Einstein's prediction was confirmed on 11 February 2016, when researchers at LIGO published the first observation of gravitational waves, on Earth, exactly one hundred years after the prediction. \n\nHole argument and Entwurf theory \n\nWhile developing general relativity, Einstein became confused about the gauge invariance in the theory. He formulated an argument that led him to conclude that a general relativistic field theory is impossible. He gave up looking for fully generally covariant tensor equations, and searched for equations that would be invariant under general linear transformations only.\n\nIn June 1913, the Entwurf (\"draft\") theory was the result of these investigations. As its name suggests, it was a sketch of a theory, less elegant and more difficult than general relativity, with the equations of motion supplemented by additional gauge fixing conditions. After more than two years of intensive work, Einstein realized that the hole argument was mistaken and abandoned the theory in November 1915.\n\nCosmology \n\nIn 1917, Einstein applied the general theory of relativity to the structure of the universe as a whole. He discovered that the general field equations predicted a universe that was dynamic, either contracting or expanding. As observational evidence for a dynamic universe was not known at the time, Einstein introduced a new term, the cosmological constant, to the field equations, in order to allow the theory to predict a static universe. The modified field equations predicted a static universe of closed curvature, in accordance with Einstein's understanding of Mach's principle in these years. \n\nFollowing the discovery of the recession of the nebulae by Edwin Hubble in 1929, Einstein abandoned his static model of the universe, and proposed two dynamic models of the cosmos, the Friedman-Einstein model of 1931 and the Einstein-deSitter model of 1932. In each of these models, Einstein discarded the cosmological constant, claiming that it was \"in any case theoretically unsatisfactory\".\n\nIn many Einstein biographies, it is claimed that Einstein referred to the cosmological constant in later years as his \"biggest blunder\". The astrophysicist Mario Livio has recently cast doubt on this claim, suggesting that it may be exaggerated. \n\nIn late 2013, a team led by the Irish physicist Cormac O'Raifeartaigh discovered evidence that, shortly after learning of Hubble's observations of the recession of the nebulae, Einstein considered a steady-state model of the universe. In a hitherto overlooked manuscript, apparently written in early 1931, Einstein explored a model of the expanding universe in which the density of matter remains constant due to a continuous creation of matter, a process he associated with the cosmological constant. As he stated in the paper, \"In what follows, I would like to draw attention to a solution to equation (1) that can account for Hubbel's [sic] facts, and in which the density is constant over time\"...\"If one considers a physically bounded volume, particles of matter will be continually leaving it. For the density to remain constant, new particles of matter must be continually formed in the volume from space.\"\n\nIt thus appears that Einstein considered a Steady State model of the expanding universe many years before Hoyle, Bondi and Gold. However, Einstein's steady-state model contained a fundamental flaw and he quickly abandoned the idea. \n\nModern quantum theory \n\nEinstein was displeased with quantum theory and quantum mechanics (the very theory he helped create), despite its acceptance by other physicists, stating that God \"is not playing at dice.\" Einstein continued to maintain his disbelief in the theory, and attempted unsuccessfully to disprove it until he died at the age of 76. In 1917, at the height of his work on relativity, Einstein published an article in Physikalische Zeitschrift that proposed the possibility of stimulated emission, the physical process that makes possible the maser and the laser.\nThis article showed that the statistics of absorption and emission of light would only be consistent with Planck's distribution law if the emission of light into a mode with n photons would be enhanced statistically compared to the emission of light into an empty mode. This paper was enormously influential in the later development of quantum mechanics, because it was the first paper to show that the statistics of atomic transitions had simple laws.\nEinstein discovered Louis de Broglie's work, and supported his ideas, which were received skeptically at first. In another major paper from this era, Einstein gave a wave equation for de Broglie waves, which Einstein suggested was the Hamilton–Jacobi equation of mechanics. This paper would inspire Schrödinger's work of 1926.\n\nBose–Einstein statistics \n\nIn 1924, Einstein received a description of a statistical model from Indian physicist Satyendra Nath Bose, based on a counting method that assumed that light could be understood as a gas of indistinguishable particles. Einstein noted that Bose's statistics applied to some atoms as well as to the proposed light particles, and submitted his translation of Bose's paper to the Zeitschrift für Physik. Einstein also published his own articles describing the model and its implications, among them the Bose–Einstein condensate phenomenon that some particulates should appear at very low temperatures. It was not until 1995 that the first such condensate was produced experimentally by Eric Allin Cornell and Carl Wieman using ultra-cooling equipment built at the NIST–JILA laboratory at the University of Colorado at Boulder. Bose–Einstein statistics are now used to describe the behaviors of any assembly of bosons. Einstein's sketches for this project may be seen in the Einstein Archive in the library of the Leiden University.\n\nEnergy momentum pseudotensor \n\nGeneral relativity includes a dynamical spacetime, so it is difficult to see how to identify the conserved energy and momentum. Noether's theorem allows these quantities to be determined from a Lagrangian with translation invariance, but general covariance makes translation invariance into something of a gauge symmetry. The energy and momentum derived within general relativity by Noether's presecriptions do not make a real tensor for this reason.\n\nEinstein argued that this is true for fundamental reasons, because the gravitational field could be made to vanish by a choice of coordinates. He maintained that the non-covariant energy momentum pseudotensor was in fact the best description of the energy momentum distribution in a gravitational field. This approach has been echoed by Lev Landau and Evgeny Lifshitz, and others, and has become standard.\n\nThe use of non-covariant objects like pseudotensors was heavily criticized in 1917 by Erwin Schrödinger and others.\n\nUnified field theory \n\nFollowing his research on general relativity, Einstein entered into a series of attempts to generalize his geometric theory of gravitation to include electromagnetism as another aspect of a single entity. In 1950, he described his \"unified field theory\" in a Scientific American article entitled \"On the Generalized Theory of Gravitation\". Although he continued to be lauded for his work, Einstein became increasingly isolated in his research, and his efforts were ultimately unsuccessful.\nIn his pursuit of a unification of the fundamental forces, Einstein ignored some mainstream developments in physics, most notably the strong and weak nuclear forces, which were not well understood until many years after his death. Mainstream physics, in turn, largely ignored Einstein's approaches to unification. Einstein's dream of unifying other laws of physics with gravity motivates modern quests for a theory of everything and in particular string theory, where geometrical fields emerge in a unified quantum-mechanical setting.\n\nWormholes \n\nEinstein collaborated with others to produce a model of a wormhole. His motivation was to model elementary particles with charge as a solution of gravitational field equations, in line with the program outlined in the paper \"Do Gravitational Fields play an Important Role in the Constitution of the Elementary Particles?\". These solutions cut and pasted Schwarzschild black holes to make a bridge between two patches.\n\nIf one end of a wormhole was positively charged, the other end would be negatively charged. These properties led Einstein to believe that pairs of particles and antiparticles could be described in this way.\n\nEinstein–Cartan theory \n\nIn order to incorporate spinning point particles into general relativity, the affine connection needed to be generalized to include an antisymmetric part, called the torsion. This modification was made by Einstein and Cartan in the 1920s.\n\nEquations of motion \n\nThe theory of general relativity has a fundamental law—the Einstein equations which describe how space curves, the geodesic equation which describes how particles move may be derived from the Einstein equations.\n\nSince the equations of general relativity are non-linear, a lump of energy made out of pure gravitational fields, like a black hole, would move on a trajectory which is determined by the Einstein equations themselves, not by a new law. So Einstein proposed that the path of a singular solution, like a black hole, would be determined to be a geodesic from general relativity itself.\n\nThis was established by Einstein, Infeld, and Hoffmann for pointlike objects without angular momentum, and by Roy Kerr for spinning objects.\n\nOther investigations \n\nEinstein conducted other investigations that were unsuccessful and abandoned. These pertain to force, superconductivity, gravitational waves, and other research.\n\nCollaboration with other scientists \n\nIn addition to longtime collaborators Leopold Infeld, Nathan Rosen, Peter Bergmann and others, Einstein also had some one-shot collaborations with various scientists.\n\nEinstein–de Haas experiment \n\nEinstein and De Haas demonstrated that magnetization is due to the motion of electrons, nowadays known to be the spin. In order to show this, they reversed the magnetization in an iron bar suspended on a torsion pendulum. They confirmed that this leads the bar to rotate, because the electron's angular momentum changes as the magnetization changes. This experiment needed to be sensitive, because the angular momentum associated with electrons is small, but it definitively established that electron motion of some kind is responsible for magnetization.\n\nSchrödinger gas model \n\nEinstein suggested to Erwin Schrödinger that he might be able to reproduce the statistics of a Bose–Einstein gas by considering a box. Then to each possible quantum motion of a particle in a box associate an independent harmonic oscillator. Quantizing these oscillators, each level will have an integer occupation number, which will be the number of particles in it.\n\nThis formulation is a form of second quantization, but it predates modern quantum mechanics. Erwin Schrödinger applied this to derive the thermodynamic properties of a semiclassical ideal gas. Schrödinger urged Einstein to add his name as co-author, although Einstein declined the invitation. \n\nEinstein refrigerator \n\nIn 1926, Einstein and his former student Leó Szilárd co-invented (and in 1930, patented) the Einstein refrigerator. This absorption refrigerator was then revolutionary for having no moving parts and using only heat as an input. On 11 November 1930, was awarded to Albert Einstein and Leó Szilárd for the refrigerator. Their invention was not immediately put into commercial production, and the most promising of their patents were acquired by the Swedish company Electrolux.In September 2008 it was reported that Malcolm McCulloch of Oxford University was heading a three-year project to develop more robust appliances that could be used in locales lacking electricity, and that his team had completed a prototype Einstein refrigerator. He was quoted as saying that improving the design and changing the types of gases used might allow the design's efficiency to be quadrupled.\n\nBohr versus Einstein \n\n The Bohr–Einstein debates were a series of public disputes about quantum mechanics between Albert Einstein and Niels Bohr who were two of its founders. Their debates are remembered because of their importance to the philosophy of science. From Albert Einstein: Philosopher-Scientist (1949), publ. Cambridge University Press, 1949. Niels Bohr's report of conversations with Einstein. Their debates would influence later interpretations of quantum mechanics.\n\nEinstein–Podolsky–Rosen paradox \n\nIn 1935, Einstein returned to the question of quantum mechanics. He considered how a measurement on one of two entangled particles would affect the other. He noted, along with his collaborators, that by performing different measurements on the distant particle, either of position or momentum, different properties of the entangled partner could be discovered without disturbing it in any way.\n\nHe then used a hypothesis of local realism to conclude that the other particle had these properties already determined. The principle he proposed is that if it is possible to determine what the answer to a position or momentum measurement would be, without in any way disturbing the particle, then the particle actually has values of position or momentum.\n\nThis principle distilled the essence of Einstein's objection to quantum mechanics. As a physical principle, it was shown to be incorrect when the Aspect experiment of 1982 confirmed Bell's theorem, which had been promulgated in 1964.\n\nNon-scientific legacy \n\nWhile traveling, Einstein wrote daily to his wife Elsa and adopted stepdaughters Margot and Ilse. The letters were included in the papers bequeathed to The Hebrew University. Margot Einstein permitted the personal letters to be made available to the public, but requested that it not be done until twenty years after her death (she died in 1986 ). Albert Einstein had expressed his interest in the profession of plumber and was made an honorary member of the Plumbers and Steamfitters Union. Barbara Wolff, of The Hebrew University's Albert Einstein Archives, told the BBC that there are about 3,500 pages of private correspondence written between 1912 and 1955. \n\nCorbis, successor to The Roger Richman Agency, licenses the use of his name and associated imagery, as agent for the university.\n\nIn popular culture \n\nIn the period before World War II, The New Yorker published a vignette in their \"The Talk of the Town\" feature saying that Einstein was so well known in America that he would be stopped on the street by people wanting him to explain \"that theory\". He finally figured out a way to handle the incessant inquiries. He told his inquirers \"Pardon me, sorry! Always I am mistaken for Professor Einstein.\" \n\nEinstein has been the subject of or inspiration for many novels, films, plays, and works of music. He is a favorite model for depictions of mad scientists and absent-minded professors; his expressive face and distinctive hairstyle have been widely copied and exaggerated. Time magazine's Frederic Golden wrote that Einstein was \"a cartoonist's dream come true\".\n\nAwards and honors \n\nEinstein received numerous awards and honors and in 1922 he was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics \"for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect.\" None of the nominations in 1921 met the criteria set by Alfred Nobel, so the 1921 prize was carried forward and awarded to Einstein in 1922. \n\nPublications \n\nThe following publications by Albert Einstein are referenced in this article. A more complete list of his publications may be found at List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein.\n\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* . First of a series of papers on this topic.\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* . The chasing a light beam thought experiment is described on pages 48–51.\n* Collected Papers: . Further information about the volumes published so far can be found on the webpages of the [http://www.einstein.caltech.edu/index.html Einstein Papers Project] and on the Princeton University Press [http://press.princeton.edu/einstein/ Einstein Page]", "National Socialism (), more commonly known as Nazism (), is the ideology and practice associated with the 20th-century German Nazi Party and Nazi state – and, by extension, other far-right groups. Usually characterized as a form of fascism that incorporates scientific racism and antisemitism, Nazism developed out of the influences of Pan-Germanism, the Völkisch German nationalist movement, and the anti-communist Freikorps paramilitary groups that emerged during the Weimar Republic after German defeat in World War I.\n\nNazism subscribed to theories of racial hierarchy and Social Darwinism, identifying Germans as part of what Nazis regarded as an Aryan or Nordic master race. It aimed to overcome social divisions and create a homogeneous society, or \"people's community\" based on national unity. The Nazis aimed to unite all Germans living in historically German territory, as well as gain additional lands for German expansion under the doctrine of Lebensraum, while excluding those deemed either to be community aliens or foreign peoples. The term \"National Socialism\" arose out of attempts to create a nationalist redefinition of \"socialism\", as an alternative to both international socialism and free market capitalism. Nazism rejected the Marxist concept of class struggle, opposed cosmopolitan internationalism, and sought to defend the private property and privately owned businesses of Aryans.\n\nThe Nazi Party was founded as the Pan-German nationalist and antisemitic German Workers' Party on 5 January 1919. By the early 1920s, Adolf Hitler assumed control of the organization and renamed it the National Socialist German Workers' Party (Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei, NSDAP) to broaden its appeal. The National Socialist Program, adopted in 1920, called for a united Greater Germany that would deny citizenship to Jews or those of Jewish descent, while also supporting land reform and the nationalization of some industries. In Mein Kampf, written in 1924, Hitler outlined the antisemitism and anti-communism at the heart of his political philosophy, as well as his disdain for parliamentary democracy and his belief in Germany’s right to territorial expansion.\n\nIn 1933, with the support of traditional conservative nationalists, Hitler was appointed Chancellor of Germany and the Nazis gradually established a one-party state, under which Jews, political opponents and other \"undesirable\" elements were marginalized, with several millions eventually imprisoned and killed. Hitler purged the party’s more socially and economically radical factions in the mid-1934 Night of the Long Knives and, after the death of President Hindenburg, political power was concentrated in his hands, as Führer or \"leader\". Following the Holocaust and German defeat in World War II, only a few fringe racist groups, usually referred to as neo-Nazis, still describe themselves as following National Socialism.\n\nEtymology\n\nThe full name of Adolf Hitler's party was Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei (National-Socialist German Workers' Party; NSDAP). The shorthand Nazi was formed from the first two syllables of the German pronunciation of the word \"national\".\n\nThe term was in use before the rise of the NSDAP as a colloquial and derogatory word for a backwards peasant, characterizing an awkward and clumsy person. It derived from Ignaz, being a shortened version of Ignatius, a common name in Bavaria, the area from which the Nazis emerged. Opponents seized on this and shortened the first word of the party's name, Nationalsozialistische, to the dismissive \"Nazi\".\n\nThe NSDAP briefly adopted the Nazi designation, attempting to reappropriate the term, but soon gave up this effort and generally avoided it while in power. The use of \"Nazi Germany\", \"Nazi regime\", and so on was popularized by German exiles abroad. From them, the term spread into other languages and was eventually brought back to Germany after World War II. In English, Nazism is a common name for the ideology the party advocated; a rarer alternative spelling, though representing a common pronunciation, is Naziism.\n\nPosition in the political spectrum\n\nThe majority of scholars identify Nazism in practice as a form of far-right politics. Far-right themes in Nazism include the argument that superior people have a right to dominate over other people and purge society of supposed inferior elements. Adolf Hitler and other proponents officially portrayed Nazism as being neither left- nor right-wing, but syncretic. Hitler in Mein Kampf directly attacked both left-wing and right-wing politics in Germany, saying:\n\nToday our left-wing politicians in particular are constantly insisting that their craven-hearted and obsequious foreign policy necessarily results from the disarmament of Germany, whereas the truth is that this is the policy of traitors [...] But the politicians of the Right deserve exactly the same reproach. It was through their miserable cowardice that those ruffians of Jews who came into power in 1918 were able to rob the nation of its arms.\n\nHitler, when asked whether he supported the \"bourgeois right-wing\", claimed that Nazism was not exclusively for any class, and indicated that it favoured neither the left nor the right, but preserved \"pure\" elements from both \"camps\", stating: \"From the camp of bourgeois tradition, it takes national resolve, and from the materialism of the Marxist dogma, living, creative Socialism\".\n\nThe Nazis were strongly influenced by the post–World War I far-right in Germany, which held common beliefs such as anti-Marxism, anti-liberalism, and antisemitism, along with nationalism, contempt towards the Treaty of Versailles, and condemnation of the Weimar Republic for signing the armistice in November 1918 that later led to their signing of the Treaty of Versailles. A major inspiration for the Nazis were the far-right nationalist Freikorps, paramilitary organisations that engaged in political violence after World War I. Initially, the post-World War I German far right was dominated by monarchists, but the younger generation, who were associated with Völkisch nationalism, were more radical and did not express any emphasis on the restoration of the German monarchy. This younger generation desired to dismantle the Weimar Republic and create a new radical and strong state based upon a martial ruling ethic that could revive the \"Spirit of 1914\" that was associated with German national unity (Volksgemeinschaft).\n\nThe Nazis, the far-right monarchist, reactionary German National People's Party (DNVP), and others, such as monarchist officers of the German Army and several prominent industrialists, formed an alliance in opposition to the Weimar Republic on 11 October 1931 in Bad Harzburg; officially known as the \"National Front\", but commonly referred to as the Harzburg Front. The Nazis stated the alliance was purely tactical and there remained substantial differences with the DNVP. The Nazis described the DNVP as a bourgeois party and called themselves an anti-bourgeois party. After the elections in 1932, the alliance broke after the DNVP lost many of its seats in the Reichstag. The Nazis denounced them as \"an insignificant heap of reactionaries\". The DNVP responded by denouncing the Nazis for their socialism, their street violence, and the \"economic experiments\" that would take place if the Nazis rose to power.\n\nKaiser Wilhelm II, who was pressured to abdicate the throne and flee into exile amidst an attempted communist revolution in Germany, initially supported the Nazi Party. His four sons, including Prince Eitel Friedrich and Prince Oskar, became members of the Nazi Party, in hopes that in exchange for their support, the Nazis would permit the restoration of the monarchy.\n\nThere were factions in the Nazi Party, both conservative and radical. The conservative Nazi Hermann Göring urged Hitler to conciliate with capitalists and reactionaries. Other prominent conservative Nazis included Heinrich Himmler and Reinhard Heydrich.\n\nThe radical Nazi Joseph Goebbels hated capitalism, viewing it as having Jews at its core, and he stressed the need for the party to emphasise both a proletarian and national character. Those views were shared by Otto Strasser, who later left the Nazi Party in the belief that Hitler had betrayed the party's socialist goals by allegedly endorsing capitalism. Large segments of the Nazi Party staunchly supported its official socialist, revolutionary, and anti-capitalist positions and expected both a social and economic revolution upon the party's gaining power in 1933. Many of the million members of the Sturmabteilung (SA) were committed to the party's official socialist program. The leader of the SA, Ernst Röhm, pushed for a \"second revolution\" (the \"first revolution\" being the Nazis' seizure of power) that would entrench the party's official socialist program. Further, Röhm desired that the SA absorb the much smaller German Army into its ranks under his leadership.\n\nPrior to becoming an antisemite and a Nazi, Hitler had lived a Bohemian lifestyle as a wandering watercolour artist in Austria and southern Germany, though he maintained elements of it later in life. Hitler served in World War I. After the war, his battalion was absorbed by the Bavarian Soviet Republic from 1918 to 1919, where he was elected Deputy Battalion Representative. According to the historian Thomas Weber, Hitler attended the funeral of communist Kurt Eisner (a German Jew), wearing a black mourning armband on one arm and a red communist armband on the other, which he took as evidence that Hitler's political beliefs had not yet solidified. In Mein Kampf, Hitler never mentioned any service with the Bavarian Soviet Republic, and stated that he became an antisemite in 1913 in Vienna. This statement has been disputed with the contention he was not an antisemite at that time.\n\nHitler altered his political views in response to the Treaty of Versailles of June 1919, and it was then that he became an antisemitic, German nationalist. As a Nazi, Hitler had expressed opposition to capitalism, having regarded capitalism as having Jewish origins. He accused capitalism of holding nations ransom in the interests of a parasitic cosmopolitan rentier class.\n\nHitler took a pragmatic position between the conservative and radical factions of the Nazi Party, in that he accepted private property and allowed capitalist private enterprises to exist so long as they adhered to the goals of the Nazi state. However, if a capitalist private enterprise resisted Nazi goals, he sought to destroy it. Upon the Nazis achieving power, Röhm's SA began attacks against individuals deemed to be associated with conservative reaction, without Hitler's authorisation. Hitler considered Röhm's independent actions to be violating and threatening his leadership, as well as jeopardising the regime by alienating the conservative President Paul von Hindenburg and the conservative-oriented German Army. This resulted in Hitler purging Röhm and other radical members of the SA in what came to be known as the Night of the Long Knives.\n\nAlthough he opposed communist ideology, Hitler on numerous occasions publicly praised the Soviet Union's leader Joseph Stalin and Stalinism. Hitler commended Stalin for seeking to purify the Communist Party of the Soviet Union of Jewish influences, noting Stalin's purging of Jewish communists such as Leon Trotsky, Grigory Zinoviev, Lev Kamenev, and Karl Radek. While Hitler always intended to bring Germany into conflict against the Soviet Union to gain Lebensraum (living space), he supported a temporary strategic alliance between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union to form a common anti-liberal front to crush liberal democracies, particularly France.\n\nOrigins\n\nVölkisch nationalism\n\nOne of the most significant ideological influences on the Nazis was the German nationalist Johann Gottlieb Fichte, whose works had served as inspiration to Hitler and other Nazi members, including Dietrich Eckart and Arnold Fanck. In Speeches to the German Nation (1808), written amid Napoleonic France's occupation of Berlin, Fichte called for a German national revolution against the French occupiers, making passionate public speeches, arming his students for battle against the French, and stressing the need for action by the German nation to free itself. Fichte's nationalism was populist and opposed to traditional elites, spoke of the need of a \"People's War\" (Volkskrieg), and put forth concepts similar to those the Nazis adopted. Fichte promoted German exceptionalism and stressed the need for the German nation to be purified (including purging the German language of French words, a policy that the Nazis undertook upon rising to power).\n\nAnother important figure in pre-Nazi völkisch thinking was Wilhelm Heinrich Riehl, whose work—Land und Leute (Land and People, written between 1857 and 1863)—collectively tied the organic German Volk to its native landscape and nature, a pairing which stood in stark opposition to the mechanical and materialistic civilization developing as a result of industrialization. Geographers Friedrich Ratzel and Karl Haushofer borrowed from Riehl’s work as did Nazi ideologues Alfred Rosenberg and Paul Schultze-Naumburg; both of whom employed some of Riehl’s philosophy in arguing that \"each nation-state was an organism that required a particular living space to survive\". Riehl’s influence is overtly discernible in the Blut und Boden (Blood and Soil) philosophy introduced by Oswald Spengler, which the Nazi agriculturalist Walther Darré and other prominent Nazis adopted. \n\nVölkisch nationalism denounced soulless materialism, individualism, and secularized urban industrial society, while advocating a \"superior\" society based on ethnic German \"folk\" culture and German \"blood\". It denounced foreigners and foreign ideas, and declared that Jews, Freemasons, and others were \"traitors to the nation\" and unworthy of inclusion. Völkisch nationalism saw the world in terms of natural law and romanticism; it viewed societies as organic, extolling the virtues of rural life, condemning the neglect of tradition and decay of morals, denounced the destruction of the natural environment, and condemned \"cosmopolitan\" cultures such as Jews and Romani.\n\nDuring the era of Imperial Germany, Völkisch nationalism was overshadowed by both Prussian patriotism and the federalist tradition of various states therein. The events of World War I, including the end of the Prussian monarchy in Germany, resulted in a surge of revolutionary Völkisch nationalism. The Nazis supported such revolutionary Völkisch nationalist policies and claimed that their ideology was influenced by the leadership and policies of German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, the founder of the German Empire. The Nazis declared that they were dedicated to continuing the process of creating a unified German nation state that Bismarck had begun and desired to achieve. While Hitler was supportive of Bismarck's creation of the German Empire, he was critical of Bismarck's moderate domestic policies. On the issue of Bismarck's support of a Kleindeutschland (\"Lesser Germany\", excluding Austria) versus the Pan-German Großdeutschland (\"Greater Germany\") of the Nazis, Hitler stated that Bismarck's attainment of Kleindeutschland was the \"highest achievement\" Bismarck could have achieved \"within the limits possible of that time\". In Mein Kampf (My Struggle), Hitler presented himself as a \"second Bismarck\".\n\nDuring his youth in Austria, Hitler was politically influenced by Austrian Pan-Germanist proponent Georg Ritter von Schönerer, who advocated radical German nationalism, antisemitism, anti-Catholicism, anti-Slavism, and anti-Habsburg views. From von Schönerer and his followers, Hitler adopted for the Nazi movement the Heil greeting, the Führer title, and the model of absolute party leadership. Hitler was also impressed with the populist antisemitism and anti-liberal bourgeois agitation of Karl Lueger, who as the mayor of Vienna during Hitler's time in the city used a rabble-rousing oratory style that appealed to the wider masses. Unlike von Schönerer, however, Lueger was not a German nationalist, but a pro-Catholic Habsburg supporter.\n\nRacial theories and antisemitism\n\nThe concept of the Aryan race, which the Nazis promoted, stems from racial theories asserting that Europeans are the descendants of Indo-Iranian settlers, people of ancient India and ancient Persia. Proponents of this theory based their assertion on the similarity of European words and their meaning to those of Indo-Iranian languages. Johann Gottfried Herder argued that the Germanic peoples held close racial connections with the ancient Indians and ancient Persians, who he claimed were advanced peoples possessing a great capacity for wisdom, nobility, restraint, and science. Contemporaries of Herder used the concept of the Aryan race to draw a distinction between what they deemed \"high and noble\" Aryan culture versus that of \"parasitic\" Semitic culture.\n\nNotions of white supremacy and Aryan racial superiority combined in the 19th century, with white supremacists maintaining that certain groups of white people were members of an Aryan \"master race\" that is superior to other races, and particularly superior to the Semitic race, which they associated with \"cultural sterility\". Arthur de Gobineau, a French racial theorist and aristocrat, blamed the fall of the ancien régime in France on racial degeneracy caused by racial intermixing, which he argued destroyed the purity of the Aryan race, a term which he reserved only for Germanic people. Gobineau's theories, which attracted a strong following in Germany, emphasised the existence of an irreconcilable polarity between Aryan (Germanic) and Jewish cultures.\n\nAryan mysticism claimed that Christianity originated in Aryan religious tradition and that Jews had usurped the legend from Aryans. Houston Stewart Chamberlain, an English proponent of racial theory, supported notions of Germanic supremacy and antisemitism in Germany. Chamberlain's work, The Foundations of the Nineteenth Century (1899), praised Germanic peoples for their creativity and idealism while asserting that the Germanic spirit was threatened by a \"Jewish\" spirit of selfishness and materialism. Chamberlain used his thesis to promote monarchical conservatism while denouncing democracy, liberalism, and socialism. The book became popular, especially in Germany. Chamberlain stressed the need of a nation to maintain racial purity in order to prevent degeneration, and argued that racial intermingling with Jews should never be permitted. In 1923, Chamberlain met Hitler, whom he admired as a leader of the rebirth of the free spirit. Madison Grant's work The Passing of the Great Race (1916) advocated Nordicism and proposed using a eugenic program to preserve the Nordic race. After reading the book, Hitler called it \"my Bible\". \n\nIn Germany, the idea of Jews economically exploiting Germans became prominent upon the foundation of Germany due to the ascendance of many wealthy Jews into prominent positions upon the unification of Germany in 1871. Empirical evidence demonstrates that from 1871 to the early 20th century, German Jews were overrepresented in Germany's upper and middle classes while they were underrepresented in Germany's lower class, particularly in the fields of work of agricultural and industrial labour. German Jewish financiers and bankers played a key role in fostering Germany's economic growth from the 1871 to 1913, and such Jewish financiers and bankers benefited enormously from this boom. In 1908, amongst the twenty-nine wealthiest German families with aggregate fortunes of up to 55 million marks at the time, five were Jewish, and the Rothschilds were the second wealthiest German family. The predominance of Jews in Germany's banking, commerce, and industry sectors in this time period was very high with consideration to Jews being estimated to have accounted for 1 percent of the population of Germany. This overrepresentation of Jews in these areas created resentment by non-Jewish Germans during periods of economic crisis. The 1873 stock market crash and ensuing depression resulted in a spate of attacks on alleged Jewish economic dominance in Germany and increased antisemitism.\n\nAt this time period in the 1870s, German Völkisch nationalism began to adopt antisemitic and racist themes and was adopted by a number of radical right political movements.\n\nThe Protocols of the Elders of Zion (1912) was an antisemitic forgery created by the secret service of the Russian Empire, the Okhrana. Many antisemites believed it was real and the Protocol became widely popular after World War I. The Protocols claimed that there was a secret international Jewish conspiracy to take over the world. Hitler had been introduced to The Protocols by Alfred Rosenberg, and from 1920 onward, Hitler focused his attacks on claiming that Judaism and Marxism were directly connected, that Jews and Bolsheviks were one and the same, and that Marxism was a Jewish ideology. Hitler believed that The Protocols were authentic.\n\nRadical Antisemitism was promoted by prominent advocates of Völkisch nationalism, including Eugen Diederichs, Paul de Lagarde, and Julius Langbehn. De Lagarde called the Jews a \"bacillus, the carrier of decay ... who pollute every national culture ... and destroy all faith with their materialistic liberalism\", and he called for the extermination of the Jews. Langbehn called for a war of annihilation of the Jews; his genocidal policies were published by the Nazis and given to soldiers on the front during World War II. One antisemitic ideologue of the period, Friedrich Lange, even used the term \"national socialism\" to describe his own anti-capitalist take on the Völkisch nationalist template. \n\nJohann Gottlieb Fichte accused Jews in Germany of having been, and inevitably continuing to be, a \"state within a state\" that threatened German national unity. Fichte promoted two options to address this: the first was the creation of a Jewish state in Palestine to impel the Jews to leave Europe. The other option was violence against Jews, saying that the goal would be \"... to cut off all their heads in one night, and set new ones on their shoulders, which should not contain a single Jewish idea\".\n\nPrior to the Nazi ascension to power, Hitler often blamed moral degradation on Rassenschande (racial defilement), a way to assure his followers of his continuing antisemitism, which had been toned down for popular consumption. Prior to the induction of the Nuremberg Race Laws in 1935 by the Nazis, many German nationalists such as Roland Freisler strongly supported laws to ban Rassenschande between Aryans and Jews as racial treason. Even before the laws were officially passed, the Nazis banned sexual relations and marriages between party members and Jews. Party members found guilty of Rassenschande were heavily punished; some members were even sentenced to death. \n\nThe Nazis claimed that Bismarck was unable to complete German national unification because of Jewish infiltration of the German parliament, and that their abolition of parliament ended the obstacle to unification. Using the stab-in-the-back myth, the Nazis accused Jews—and other populaces it considered non-German—of possessing extra-national loyalties, thereby exacerbating German antisemitism about the Judenfrage (the Jewish Question), the far-right political canard popular when the ethnic Völkisch movement and their politics of Romantic nationalism for establishing a Großdeutschland were strong.\n\nNazism's racial policy positions may have developed from the views of important biologists of the 19th century, including French biologist Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, through Ernst Haeckel's idealist version of Lamarckism and the father of genetics, German botanist Gregor Mendel. However, Haeckel's works were later condemned and banned from bookshops and libraries by the Nazis as inappropriate for \"National-Socialist formation and education in the Third Reich\". This may have been because of his \"monist\" atheistic, materialist philosophy, which the Nazis disliked. Unlike Darwinian theory, Lamarckian theory officially ranked races in a hierarchy of evolution from apes while Darwinian theory did not grade races in a hierarchy of higher or lower evolution from apes, simply categorising humans as a whole of all as having progressed in evolution from apes. Many Lamarckians viewed \"lower\" races as having been exposed to debilitating conditions for too long for any significant \"improvement\" of their condition in the near future. Haeckel utilised Lamarckian theory to describe the existence of interracial struggle and put races on a hierarchy of evolution, ranging from being wholly human to subhuman.\n\nMendelian inheritance, or Mendelism, was supported by the Nazis, as well as by mainstream eugenics proponents at the time. The Mendelian theory of inheritance declared that genetic traits and attributes were passed from one generation to another. Proponents of eugenics used Mendelian inheritance theory to demonstrate the transfer of biological illness and impairments from parents to children, including mental disability; others also utilised Mendelian theory to demonstrate the inheritance of social traits, with racialists claiming a racial nature of certain general traits such as inventiveness or criminal behaviour.\n\nResponse to World War I and fascism\n\nDuring World War I, German sociologist Johann Plenge spoke of the rise of a \"National Socialism\" in Germany within what he termed the \"ideas of 1914\" that were a declaration of war against the \"ideas of 1789\" (the French Revolution). According to Plenge, the \"ideas of 1789\" that included rights of man, democracy, individualism and liberalism were being rejected in favour of \"the ideas of 1914\" that included \"German values\" of duty, discipline, law, and order. Plenge believed that ethnic solidarity (Volksgemeinschaft) would replace class division and that \"racial comrades\" would unite to create a socialist society in the struggle of \"proletarian\" Germany against \"capitalist\" Britain. He believed that the \"Spirit of 1914\" manifested itself in the concept of the \"People's League of National Socialism\". This National Socialism was a form of state socialism that rejected the \"idea of boundless freedom\" and promoted an economy that would serve the whole of Germany under the leadership of the state. This National Socialism was opposed to capitalism due to the components that were against \"the national interest\" of Germany, but insisted that National Socialism would strive for greater efficiency in the economy. Plenge advocated an authoritarian, rational ruling elite to develop National Socialism through a hierarchical technocratic state. Plenge's ideas formed the basis of Nazism.\n\nOswald Spengler, a German cultural philosopher, was a major influence on Nazism, although, after 1933, Spengler became alienated from Nazism and was later condemned by the Nazis for criticising Adolf Hitler. Spengler's conception of national socialism and a number of his political views were shared by the Nazis and the Conservative Revolutionary movement. Spengler's views were also popular amongst Italian Fascists, including Benito Mussolini.\n\nSpengler's book The Decline of the West (1918) written during the final months of World War I, addressed the claim of decadence of modern European civilisation, which he claimed was caused by atomising and irreligious individualization and cosmopolitanism. Spengler's major thesis was that a law of historical development of cultures existed involving a cycle of birth, maturity, ageing, and death when it reaches its final form of civilisation. Upon reaching the point of civilisation, a culture will lose its creative capacity and succumb to decadence until the emergence of \"barbarians\" creates a new epoch. Spengler considered the Western world as having succumbed to decadence of intellect, money, cosmopolitan urban life, irreligious life, atomised individualization, and was at the end of its biological and \"spiritual\" fertility. He believed that the \"young\" German nation as an imperial power would inherit the legacy of Ancient Rome, lead a restoration of value in \"blood\" and instinct, while the ideals of rationalism would be revealed as absurd.\n\nSpengler's notions of \"Prussian socialism\" as described in his book Preussentum und Sozialismus (\"Prussiandom and Socialism\", 1919), influenced Nazism and the Conservative Revolutionary movement. Spengler wrote: \"The meaning of socialism is that life is controlled not by the opposition between rich and poor, but by the rank that achievement and talent bestow. That is our freedom, freedom from the economic despotism of the individual.\" Spengler adopted the anti-English ideas addressed by Plenge and Sombart during World War I that condemned English liberalism and English parliamentarianism while advocating a national socialism that was free from Marxism and that would connect the individual to the state through corporatist organisation. Spengler claimed that socialistic Prussian characteristics existed across Germany, including creativity, discipline, concern for the greater good, productivity, and self-sacrifice. He prescribed war as a necessity, saying \"War is the eternal form of higher human existence and states exist for war: they are the expression of the will to war.\"\n\nSpengler's definition of socialism did not advocate a change to property relations. He denounced Marxism for seeking to train the proletariat to \"expropriate the expropriator\", the capitalist, and then to let them live a life of leisure on this expropriation. He claimed that \"Marxism is the capitalism of the working class\" and not true socialism. True socialism, according to Spengler, would be in the form of corporatism, stating that: \"local corporate bodies organised according to the importance of each occupation to the people as a whole; higher representation in stages up to a supreme council of the state; mandates revocable at any time; no organised parties, no professional politicians, no periodic elections\".\n\nWilhelm Stapel, an antisemitic German intellectual, utilized Spengler's thesis on the cultural confrontation between Jews as whom Spengler described as a Magian people versus Europeans as a Faustian people. Stapel described Jews as a landless nomadic people in pursuit of an international culture whereby they can integrate into Western civilisation. As such, Stapel claims that Jews have been attracted to \"international\" versions of socialism, pacifism, or capitalism because as a landless people the Jews have transgressed various national cultural boundaries.\n\nArthur Moeller van den Bruck was initially the dominant figure of the Conservative Revolutionaries influenced Nazism. He rejected reactionary conservatism, while proposing a new state, that he coined the \"Third Reich\", which would unite all classes under authoritarian rule. Van den Bruck advocated a combination of the nationalism of the right and the socialism of the left.\n\nFascism was a major influence on Nazism. The seizure of power by Italian Fascist leader Benito Mussolini in the March on Rome in 1922 drew admiration by Hitler, who less than a month later had begun to model himself and the Nazi Party upon Mussolini and the Fascists. Hitler presented the Nazis as a form of German fascism.\n\nIn November 1923, the Nazis attempted a \"March on Berlin\", modelled after the March on Rome, which resulted in the failed Beer Hall Putsch in Munich.\n\nHitler spoke of Nazism being indebted to the success of Fascism's rise to power in Italy. In a private conversation in 1941 he said \"the brown shirt would probably not have existed without the black shirt\", the \"brown shirt\" referring to the Nazi militia and the \"black shirt\" referring to the Fascist militia. He also said in regards to the 1920s \"If Mussolini had been outdistanced by Marxism, I don't know whether we could have succeeded in holding out. At that period National Socialism was a very fragile growth.\".\n\nOther Nazis—especially those at the time associated with the party's more radical wing such as Gregor Strasser, Joseph Goebbels, and Heinrich Himmler—rejected Italian Fascism, accusing it of being too conservative or capitalist. Alfred Rosenberg condemned Italian Fascism for being racially confused and having influences from philosemitism. Strasser criticised the policy of Führerprinzip as being created by Mussolini, and considered its presence in Nazism as a foreign imported idea. Throughout the relationship between Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy, a number of lower-ranking Nazis scornfully viewed fascism as a conservative movement that lacked a full revolutionary potential.\n\nIdeology\n\nNationalism and racialism\n\nGerman Nazism emphasised German nationalism, including both irredentism and expansionism. Nazism held racial theories based upon the belief of the existence of an Aryan master race that was superior to all other races. The Nazis emphasised the existence of racial conflict between the Aryan race and others—particularly Jews, whom the Nazis viewed as a mixed race that had infiltrated multiple societies, and was responsible for exploitation and repression of the Aryan race. The Nazis also categorized Slavs as Untermensch. \n\nIrredentism and expansionism\n\nThe German Nazi Party supported German irredentist claims to Austria, Alsace-Lorraine, the region now known as the Czech Republic, and the territory known since 1919 as the Polish Corridor. A major policy of the German Nazi Party was Lebensraum (\"living space\") for the German nation based on claims that Germany after World War I was facing an overpopulation crisis and that expansion was needed to end the country's overpopulation within existing confined territory, and provide resources necessary to its people's well-being. Since the 1920s, the Nazi Party publicly promoted the expansion of Germany into territories held by the Soviet Union. \n\nIn his early years as the Nazi leader, Hitler had claimed that he would be willing to accept friendly relations with Russia on the tactical condition that Russia agree to return to the borders established by the German–Russian peace agreement of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk signed by Vladimir Lenin of the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic in 1918 which gave large territories held by Russia to German control in exchange for peace. Hitler in 1921 had commended the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk as opening the possibility for restoration of relations between Germany and Russia, saying:\n\nHitler from 1921 to 1922 evoked rhetoric of both the achievement of Lebensraum involving the acceptance of a territorially reduced Russia as well as supporting Russian nationals in overthrowing the Bolshevik government and establishing a new Russian government. Hitler's attitudes changed by the end of 1922, in which he then supported an alliance of Germany with Britain to destroy Russia. Later Hitler declared how far he intended to expand Germany into Russia:\n\nPolicy for Lebensraum planned mass expansion of Germany eastwards to the Ural Mountains. Hitler planned for the \"surplus\" Russian population living west of the Urals to be deported to the east of the Urals. \n\nRacial theories\n\nNazism viewed what it called the Aryan race as the master race of the world - a race that was superior to all other races. The Nazi regarded the Aryan race as the same as the Nordic race. \n\nA Nazi era school textbook for German students entitled Heredity and Racial Biology for Students written by Jakob Graf described to students the Nazi conception of the Aryan race in a section titled \"The Aryan: The Creative Force in Human History\". Graf claimed that the original Aryans developed from Nordic peoples who invaded ancient India that resulted in the initial development of Aryan culture there that later spread to ancient Persia and claimed that the Aryan presence in Persia was what was responsible for its development into an empire. He claimed that ancient Greek culture was developed by Nordics due to paintings of the time showing Greeks who were tall, light-skinned, light-eyed, blond-haired people. He said that the Roman Empire was having been developed by the Italics who were related to the Celts who were a Nordic people. He regarded the vanishing of the Nordic component of the populations in Greece and Rome led to their downfall. The Renaissance was claimed to have developed in the Western Roman Empire because of the Germanic invasions that brought new Nordic blood to the Empire's lands, such as presence of Nordic blood in the Lombards (referred to as Longobards in the book); that remnants of the western Goths were responsible for the creation of the Spanish Empire; and that heritage of Franks, Goths, and Germanic peoples in France was what was responsible for its rise to be a major power. He claimed that the rise of the Russian Empire was due to its leadership by people of Norman descent. He described the rise of Anglo-Saxon societies in North America, South Africa, and Australia, as being the result of the Nordic heritage of Anglo-Saxons. He concluded these points by saying that \"Everywhere Nordic creative power has built mighty empires with high-minded ideas, and to this very day Aryan languages and cultural values are spread over a large part of the world, though the creative Nordic blood has long since vanished in many places.\".\n\nIn its racial categorisation, Nazism viewed what it called the Aryan race as the master race of the world—a race that was superior to all other races. It viewed Aryans as being in racial conflict with a mixed race people, the Jews, whom Nazis identified as a dangerous enemy of the Aryans. It also viewed a number of other peoples as dangerous to the well-being of the Aryan race. In order to preserve the perceived racial purity of the Aryan race, a set of race laws were introduced in 1935 which came to be known as the Nuremberg Laws. At first these laws only prevented sexual relations and marriages between Germans and Jews, but were later extended to the \"Gypsies, Negroes, and their bastard offspring\", who were described by the Nazis as people of \"alien blood\". Such relations between Aryans (cf. Aryan certificate) and non-Aryans were now punishable under the race laws as Rassenschande or \"race defilement\". After the war began, the race defilement law was extended to include all foreigners (non-Germans). At the bottom of the racial scale of non-Aryans were Jews, Romani,Slavs and blacks. To maintain the \"purity and strength\" of the Aryan race, the Nazis eventually sought to exterminate Jews, Romani, Slavs, and the physically and mentally disabled. Other groups deemed \"degenerate\" and \"asocial\" who were not targeted for extermination, but received exclusionary treatment by the Nazi state, included homosexuals, blacks, Jehovah's Witnesses, and political opponents. One of Hitler's ambitions at the start of the war was to exterminate, expel, or enslave most or all Slavs from central and eastern Europe in order to make living space for German settlers.\n\nIn Nazi Germany, the idea of creating a master race resulted in efforts to \"purify\" the Deutsche Volk through eugenics; its culmination was compulsory sterilization or involuntary euthanasia of physically or mentally disabled people. The name given after World War II for the euthanasia programme is Action T4. The ideological justification was Adolf Hitler's view of Sparta (11th century – 195 BC) as the original Völkisch state; he praised their dispassionate destruction of congenitally deformed infants in maintaining racial purity. Some non-Aryans enlisted in Nazi organisations like the Hitler Youth and the Wehrmacht, including Germans of African descent and Jewish descent. The Nazis began to implement \"racial hygiene\" policies as soon as they came to power. The July 1933 \"Law for the Prevention of Hereditarily Diseased Offspring\" prescribed compulsory sterilisation for people with a range of conditions thought to be hereditary, such as schizophrenia, epilepsy, Huntington's chorea, and \"imbecility\". Sterilisation was also mandated for chronic alcoholism and other forms of social deviance. An estimated 360,000 people were sterilised under this `law between 1933 and 1939. Although some Nazis suggested that the programme should be extended to people with physical disabilities, such ideas had to be expressed carefully, given that some Nazis had physical disabilities, one example being one of the most powerful figures of the regime, Joseph Goebbels, who had a deformed right leg. \n\nNazi racial theorist Hans F. K. Günther argued that European peoples were divided into five races: Nordic, Mediterranean, Dinaric, Alpine, and East Baltic. Günther applied a Nordicist conception that Nordics were the highest in the racial hierarchy. In his book Rassenkunde des deutschen Volkes (1922) (\"Racial Science of the German People\"), Günther recognised Germans as being composed of all five races, but emphasised the strong Nordic heritage among them.Anne Maxwell. Picture Imperfect: Photography and Eugenics, 1870-1940. Eastbourne, England: UK; Portland, Oregon, USA: SUSSEX ACADEMIC PRESS, 2008, 2010. P. 150. Hitler read Rassenkunde des deutschen Volkes, which influenced his racial policy. Gunther believed Slavs belonged to an \"East race\" and warned against Germans mixing with them \n\nThe Nazis described Jews as being racially mixed group of primarily Near Eastern and Oriental racial types. As such racial groups were concentrated outside of Europe, the Nazis claimed that Jews were \"racially alien\" to all European peoples and did not have deep racial roots in Europe.\n\nGünther empathised Jews' Near Eastern racial heritage. Günther identified the mass conversion of the Khazars to Judaism in the 8th century as creating the two major branches of the Jewish people, those of primarily Near Eastern racial heritage became the Ashkenazi Jews (that he called Eastern Jews) while those of primarily Oriental racial heritage became the Sephardic Jews (that he called Southern Jews). Günther claimed the Near Eastern type were commercially spirited and artful traders, that the type held strong psychological manipulation skills that aided them in trade. He claimed that the Near Eastern race had been \"bred not so much for the conquest and exploitation of nature as it was for the conquest and exploitation of people\". Günther described that European peoples had a racially motivated aversion to peoples of Near Eastern racial origin and their traits, and showed as evidence of this multiple examples of depictions of satanic figures with Near Eastern physiognomies in European art. \n\nHitler's conception of the Aryan Herrenvolk (\"Aryan master race\") excluded the vast majority of Slavs from central and eastern Europe (i.e., Poles, Russians, Ukrainians, etc.). They were regarded as a race of men not inclined to a higher form of civilization, which were under an instinctive force that reverted them back to nature. They also regarding the Slavs as having dangerous Jewish and Asiatic, that being Mongol, influences. The Nazis because of this declared Slavs to be Untermenschen (subhumans). Nazi anthropologists attempted to prove scientifically the historical admixture of the Slavs further East. Leading Nazi racial theorist, Hans Günther, regarded the Slavs as being primarily Nordic centuries ago but over time had mixed with non-Nordic types. There were exceptions for a small percentage of Slavs who were seen to be descended from German settlers and therefore fit to be Germanised and be considered part of the Aryan master race. Hitler described Slavs as \"a mass of born slaves who feel the need of a master\". The Nazi notion of Slavs being inferior served as legitimising their goal for creating Lebensraum for Germans and other Germanic people in eastern Europe, where millions of Germans and other Germanic settlers would be moved into conquered territories of Eastern Europe, while the original Slavic inhabitants were to be annihilated, removed, or enslaved. Nazi Germany's policy changed towards Slavs in response to military manpower shortages, in which it accepted Slavs to serve in its armed forces within occupied territories, in spite of them being considered subhuman. \n\nHitler declared that racial conflict against Jews was necessary to save Germany from suffering under them and dismissed concerns about such conflict being inhumane or an injustice:\n\nWe may be inhumane, but if we rescue Germany we have achieved the greatest deed in the world. We may work injustice, but if we rescue Germany then we have removed the greatest injustice in the world. We may be immoral, but if our people is rescued we have opened the way for morality.\n\nNazi propagandist Joseph Goebbels frequently employed antisemitic rhetoric to underline this view: \"The Jew is the enemy and destroyer of the purity of blood, the conscious destroyer of our race ... As socialists, we are opponents of the Jews, because we see, in the Hebrews, the incarnation of capitalism, of the misuse of the nation's goods.\" \n\nSocial class\n\nNazism rejected the Marxist concept of internationalist class struggle, but supported \"class struggle between nations\", and sought to resolve internal class struggle in the nation while it identified Germany as a proletarian nation fighting against plutocratic nations. \n\nIn 1922, Adolf Hitler discredited other nationalist and racialist political parties as disconnected from the mass populace, especially lower and working-class young people:\n\nThe Nazi Party had many working-class supporters and members, and a strong appeal to the middle class. The financial collapse of the white collar middle-class of the 1920s figures much in their strong support of Nazism. In the poor country that was the Weimar Republic of the early 1930s, the Nazi Party realised their socialist policies with food and shelter for the unemployed and the homeless—later recruited to the Brownshirt Sturmabteilung (SA – Storm Detachment).\n\nSex and gender\n\nNazi ideology advocated excluding women from political involvement and confining them to the spheres of \"Kinder, Küche, Kirche\" (Children, Kitchen, Church). Many women enthusiastically supported the regime but formed their own internal hierarchies. \n\nHitler's own opinion on the matter of women in Nazi Germany was that while other eras of German history experienced the development and liberation of the female mind, the National Socialist goal was essentially singular in that they wished for them to produce a child. Along this theme, Hitler once remarked of women, \"with every child that she brings into the world, she fights her battle for the nation. The man stands up for the Volk, exactly as the woman stands up for the family.\" Proto-natalist programs in Nazi Germany offered favourable loans and grants to encourage newlyweds with additional incentives for the birth of offspring. Contraception was discouraged for racially valuable women in Nazi Germany and abortion was forbidden through strict legal mandates, including prison sentences for those seeking them and for doctors performing them; whereas abortion for racially \"undesirable\" persons was encouraged. \n\nWhile unmarried until the very end of the regime, Hitler often made excuses about his busy life hindering any chance for marriage. Among National Socialist ideologues, marriage was valued not from moral considerations but because it provided an optimal breeding environment. Reichsführer-SS Heinrich Himmler, reportedly told a confidant that when he established the Lebensborn program, an organization to dramatically increase the birth rate of \"Aryan\" children through extramarital relations between women classified as racially pure and their male equals, he had only the purest male \"conception assistants\" in mind. \n\nSince the Nazis at the beginning of the war extended the Rassenschande (race defilement) law to all foreigners, pamphlets were issued to German women to avoid sexual relations with foreign workers brought to Germany and to view them as a danger to their blood. Although the law was punishable to both genders, German women were targeted more for having sexual relations with foreign forced labourers in Germany. The Nazis issued the Polish decrees on 8 March 1940 which set out regulations concerning the Polish forced labourers (Zivilarbeiter) brought to Germany during World War II. One of the regulations stated that any Pole \"who has sexual relations with a German man or woman, or approaches them in any other improper manner, will be punished by death\". \n\nAfter the decrees were enacted, Himmler stated:\n\nThe Nazis later issued similar regulations against the Eastern Workers (Ost-Arbeiters), including the death penalty for sexual relations with a German person. Heydrich issued a decree on 20 February 1942 that declared sexual intercourse between a German woman and a Russian worker or prisoner of war would result in the Russian man being punished by the death penalty. A further decree issued by Himmler on 7 December 1942 stated any \"unauthorized sexual intercourse\" would result in the death penalty. As the Law for the Protection of German Blood and German Honour did not permit capital punishment for race defilement, special courts were convened to allow the death penalty for some cases. German women accused of race defilement were marched through the streets with her head shaven and a placard around her neck detailing her crime, those convicted were sent to a concentration camp. When Himmler reportedly asked Hitler what the punishment should be for German girls and German women who have been found guilty of race defilement with prisoners of war (POWs) he ordered \"every POW who has relations with a German girl or a German would be shot\" and the German woman should be publicly humiliated by \"having her hair shorn and being sent to a concentration camp\". \n\nThe League of German Girls was particularly regarded as instructing girls to avoid race defilement, which was treated with particular importance for young females. \n\nOpposition to homosexuality\n\nAfter the Night of the Long Knives, Hitler promoted Himmler and the SS, who then zealously suppressed homosexuality, saying: \"We must exterminate these people root and branch ... the homosexual must be eliminated.\" In 1936, Himmler established the \"Reichszentrale zur Bekämpfung der Homosexualität und Abtreibung\" (\"Reich Central Office for the Combating of Homosexuality and Abortion\"). The Nazi régime incarcerated some 100,000 homosexuals during the 1930s. As concentration camp prisoners, homosexual men were forced to wear pink triangle badges. Nazi ideology still viewed German gay men as part of the Aryan master race but attempted to force them into sexual and social conformity. Gay men who would not change or feign a change in their sexual orientation were sent to concentration camps under the \"Extermination Through Work\" campaign. \n\nReligion\n\nThe Nazi Party Programme of 1920 guaranteed freedom for all religious denominations not hostile to the State and endorsed Positive Christianity to combat “the Jewish-materialist spirit”. It was a modified version of Christianity which emphasised racial purity and nationalism. The Nazis were aided by theologians such as Ernst Bergmann. Bergmann, in his work, Die 25 Thesen der Deutschreligion (Twenty-five Points of the German Religion), held that the Old Testament and portions of the New Testament of the Bible were inaccurate. He claimed that Jesus was not a Jew but of Aryan origin, and that Adolf Hitler was the new messiah.\n\nHitler denounced the Old Testament as \"Satan's Bible\", and utilising components of the New Testament attempted to demonstrate that Jesus was Aryan and antisemitic, such as in John 8:44 where Hitler noted that Jesus is yelling at \"the Jews\", as well as Jesus saying to the Jews that \"your father is the devil\", and describing Jesus' whipping of the \"Children of the Devil\". Hitler claimed that the New Testament included distortions by Paul the Apostle, whom Hitler described as a \"mass-murderer turned saint\".\n\nThe Nazis utilised Protestant Martin Luther in their propaganda. They publicly displayed an original of Luther's On the Jews and their Lies during the annual Nuremberg rallies. The Nazis endorsed the pro-Nazi Protestant German Christians organisation.\n\nThe Nazis were initially highly hostile to Catholics because most Catholics supported the German Centre Party. Catholics opposed the Nazis' promotion of sterilisation of those deemed inferior, and the Catholic Church forbade its members to vote for the Nazis. In 1933, extensive Nazi violence occurred against Catholics due to their association with the Centre Party and their opposition to the Nazi regime's sterilisation laws. The Nazis demanded that Catholics declare their loyalty to the German state. In propaganda, the Nazis used elements of Germany's Catholic history, in particular the German Catholic Teutonic Knights and their campaigns in Eastern Europe. The Nazis identified them as \"sentinels\" in the East against \"Slavic chaos\", though beyond that symbolism the influence of the Teutonic Knights on Nazism was limited. Hitler also admitted that the Nazis' night rallies were inspired by the Catholic rituals he witnessed during his Catholic upbringing. The Nazis did seek official reconciliation with the Catholic Church and endorsed the creation of the pro-Nazi Catholic Kreuz und Adler organisation that supported a national Catholicism. On 20 July 1933, a concordat (Reichskonkordat) was signed between Nazi Germany and the Catholic Church; in exchange for acceptance of the Catholic Church in Germany, it required German Catholics to be loyal to the German state. The Catholic Church then ended its ban on members supporting the Nazi Party.\n\nHistorian Michael Burleigh claims that Nazism used Christianity for political purposes, but such use required that \"fundamental tenets were stripped out, but the remaining diffuse religious emotionality had its uses\". Burleigh claims that Nazism's conception of spirituality was \"self-consciously pagan and primitive\". However, historian Roger Griffin rejects the claim that Nazism was primarily pagan, noting that although there were some influential neo-paganists in the Nazi Party, such as Heinrich Himmler and Alfred Rosenberg, they represented a minority and their views did not influence Nazi ideology beyond its use for symbolism; it is noted that Hitler denounced Germanic paganism in Mein Kampf and condemned Rosenberg's and Himmler's paganism as \"nonsense\".\n\nEconomics\n\nGenerally speaking, Nazi theorists and politicians blamed Germany’s previous economic failures on political causes like the influence of Marxism on the workforce, the sinister and exploitative machinations of what they called international Jewry, and the vindictiveness of the western political leaders ‘war reparation’ demands. Instead of traditional economic incentives, the Nazis offered solutions of a political nature, such as the elimination of organized labour groups, rearmament (in contravention of the Versailles Treaty), and biological politics. Various work programs designed to establish full-employment for the German population were instituted once the Nazis seized full national power. Hitler encouraged nationally supported projects like the construction of the Autobahn, the introduction of an affordable people’s car (Volkswagen) and later, the Nazis bolstered the economy through the business and employment generated by military rearmament. Not only did the Nazis benefit early in the regime's existence from the first post-Depression economic upswing, their public works projects, job-procurement program, and subsidized home repair program reduced unemployment by as much as 40 percent in one year, a development which tempered the unfavourable psychological climate caused by the earlier economic crisis and encouraged Germans to march in step with the regime. \n\nTo protect the German people and currency from volatile market forces, the Nazis also promised social policies like a national labour service, state-provided health care, guaranteed pensions, and an agrarian settlement program. Agrarian policies were particularly important to the Nazis since they corresponded not just to the economy but to their geopolitical conception of Lebensraum as well. For Hitler, the acquisition of land and soil was requisite in moulding the German economy. To tie farmers to their land, selling agricultural land was prohibited. Farm ownership was nominally private, but business monopoly rights were granted to marketing boards to control production and prices with a quota system. \n\nThe Nazis sought to gain support of workers by declaring May Day, a day celebrated by organised labour, to be a paid holiday and held celebrations on 1 May 1933 to honour German workers. The Nazis stressed that Germany must honour its workers.Fritzsche 1998, p. 46. The regime believed that the only way to avoid a repeat of the disaster of 1918 was to secure workers' support for the German government. The Nazis wanted all Germans take part in the May Day celebrations in the hope that this would help break down class hostility between workers and burghers. Songs in praise of labour and workers were played by state radio throughout May Day as well as fireworks and an air show in Berlin. Hitler spoke of workers as patriots who had built Germany's industrial strength, had honourably served in the war and claimed that they had been oppressed under economic liberalism.Fritzsche 1998, p. 47. Berliner Morgenpost that had been strongly associated with the political left in the past praised the regime's May Day celebrations.\n\nThe Nazis continued social welfare policies initiated by the governments of the Weimar Republic and mobilised volunteers to assist those impoverished, \"racially-worthy\" Germans through the National Socialist People's Welfare organisation.Fritzsche 1998, p. 51. This organisation oversaw charitable activities, and became the largest civic organization in Nazi Germany. Successful efforts were made to get middle-class women involved in social work assisting large families. The Winter Relief campaigns acted as a ritual to generate public sympathy. Bonfires were made of school children's differently coloured caps as symbolic of the abolition of class differences. Large celebrations and symbolism were used extensively to encourage those engaged in physical labour on behalf of Germany, with leading National Socialists often praising the 'honour of labour', which fostered a sense of community (Gemeinschaft) for the German people and promoted solidarity towards the Nazi cause. \n \nHitler believed that private ownership was useful in that it encouraged creative competition and technical innovation, but insisted that it had to conform to national interests and be \"productive\" rather than \"parasitical\". Private property rights were conditional upon the economic mode of use; if it did not advance Nazi economic goals then the state could nationalise it. Although the Nazis privatised public properties and public services, they also increased economic state control. Under Nazi economics, free competition and self-regulating markets diminished; nevertheless, Hitler's social Darwinist beliefs made him reluctant to entirely disregard business competition and private property as economic engines.\n\nHitler primarily viewed the German economy as an instrument of power. Hitler believed the economy was not just about creating wealth and technical progress so as to improve the quality of life for a nation’s citizenry; economic success was paramount in that, it provided the means and material foundations necessary for military conquest. While economic progress generated by National Socialist programs had its role in appeasing the German people, the Nazis and Hitler in particular, did not believe that economic solutions alone were sufficient to thrust Germany onto the stage as a world power. Therefore, the Nazis sought first to secure a command economy through general economic revival accompanied by massive military spending for rearmament, especially later through the implementation of the Four Year Plan, which consolidated their rule and firmly secured a command relationship between the German arms industry and the National Socialist government. Between 1933 and 1939, military expenditures were upwards of 82 billion Reichsmarks and represented 23 percent of Germany's gross national product as the Nazis mobilized their people and economy for war. \n\nAnti-communism\n\nHistorians Ian Kershaw and Joachim Fest argue that in post-World War I Germany, the Nazis were one of many nationalist and fascist political parties contending for the leadership of Germany's anti-communist movement. The Nazis claimed that communism was dangerous to the well-being of nations because of its intention to dissolve private property, its support of class conflict, its aggression against the middle class, its hostility towards small business, and its atheism. Nazism rejected class conflict-based socialism and economic egalitarianism, favouring instead a stratified economy with social classes based on merit and talent, retaining private property, and the creation of national solidarity that transcends class distinction.\n\nDuring the 1920s, Hitler urged disparate Nazi factions to unite in opposition to Jewish Bolshevism. Hitler asserted that the \"three vices\" of \"Jewish Marxism\" were democracy, pacifism, and internationalism.\n\nIn 1930, Hitler said: \"Our adopted term 'Socialist' has nothing to do with Marxist Socialism. Marxism is anti-property; true Socialism is not.\" In 1942, Hitler privately said: \"I absolutely insist on protecting private property ... we must encourage private initiative\".\n\nDuring the late 1930s and the 1940s, anti-communist regimes and groups that supported Nazism included the Falange in Spain; the Vichy regime and the 33rd Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS Charlemagne (1st French) in France; and in Britain the Cliveden Set, Lord Halifax, the British Union of Fascists under Sir Oswald Mosley, and associates of Neville Chamberlain.\n\nAnti-capitalism\n\nThe Nazis argued that capitalism damages nations due to international finance, the economic dominance of big business, and Jewish influences. Nazi propaganda posters in working class districts emphasised anti-capitalism, such as one that said: \"The maintenance of a rotten industrial system has nothing to do with nationalism. I can love Germany and hate capitalism.\"\n\nAdolf Hitler, both in public and in private, expressed disdain for capitalism, arguing that it holds nations ransom in the interests of a parasitic cosmopolitan rentier class. He opposed free market capitalism's profit-seeking impulses and desired an economy in which community interests would be upheld.\n\nHitler distrusted capitalism for being unreliable due to its egotism, and he preferred a state-directed economy that is subordinated to the interests of the Volk.\n\nHitler told a party leader in 1934, \"The economic system of our day is the creation of the Jews.\" Hitler said to Benito Mussolini that capitalism had \"run its course\". Hitler also said that the business bourgeoisie \"know nothing except their profit. 'Fatherland' is only a word for them.\" Hitler was personally disgusted with the ruling bourgeois elites of Germany during the period of the Weimar Republic, who he referred to as \"cowardly shits\". \n\nIn Mein Kampf, Hitler effectively supported mercantilism, in the belief that economic resources from their respective territories should be seized by force; he believed that the policy of Lebensraum would provide Germany with such economically valuable territories. He argued that the only means to maintain economic security was to have direct control over resources rather than being forced to rely on world trade. He claimed that war to gain such resources was the only means to surpass the failing capitalist economic system.\n\nA number of other Nazis held strong revolutionary socialist and anti-capitalist beliefs, most prominently Ernst Röhm, the leader of the Sturmabteilung (SA). Röhm claimed that the Nazis' rise to power constituted a national revolution, but insisted that a socialist \"second revolution\" was required for Nazi ideology to be fulfilled. Röhm's SA began attacks against individuals deemed to be associated with conservative reaction. Hitler saw Röhm's independent actions as violating and possibly threatening his leadership, as well as jeopardising the regime by alienating the conservative President Paul von Hindenburg and the conservative-oriented German Army. This resulted in Hitler purging Röhm and other radical members of the SA.\n\nAnother radical Nazi, Propaganda Minister Joseph Goebbels had stressed the socialist character of Nazism, and claimed in his diary in the 1920s that if he were to pick between Bolshevism and capitalism, he said \"in final analysis\", \"it would be better for us to go down with Bolshevism than live in eternal slavery under capitalism.\"\n\nTotalitarianism\n\nUnder Nazism, with its emphasis on the nation, individual needs were subordinate to those of the wider community. Hitler declared that \"every activity and every need of every individual will be regulated by the collectivity represented by the party\" and that \"there are no longer any free realms in which the individual belongs to himself\". Himmler justified the establishment of a repressive police state, in which the security forces could exercise power arbitrarily, as national security and order should take precedence over the needs of the individual. \n\nAccording to the famous philosopher and political theorist, Hannah Arendt, the allure of Nazism as a totalitarian ideology (with its attendant mobilization of the German population), resided within the construct of helping that society deal with the cognitive dissonance resultant from the tragic interruption of the First World War, the economic and material suffering consequent the Depression, and brought to order the revolutionary unrest occurring all around them. Instead of the plurality that existed in democratic or parliamentary states, Nazism as a totalitarian system promulgated 'clear' solutions to the historical problems faced by Germany, levied support by de-legitimizing the former government of Weimar, and provided a politico-biological pathway to a better future, one free from the uncertainty of the past. It was the atomized and disaffected masses that Hitler and the party elite pointed in a particular direction, and using clever propaganda to make them into ideological adherents, exploited in bringing Nazism to life. \n \nWhile the ideologues of Nazism, much like those of Stalinism, abhorred democratic or parliamentary governance as practiced in the U.S. or Britain, their differences are substantial. An epistemic crisis occurs when one tries to synthesize and contrast Nazism and Stalinism as two-sides of the same coin with their similarly tyrannical leaders, state-controlled economies, and repressive police structures; namely, since while they share a common thematic political construction, they are entirely inimical to one another in their worldviews and when more carefully analyzed against one another on a one-to-one level, an \"irreconcilable asymmetry\" results. \n\nPost-war Nazism\n\nFollowing Nazi Germany's defeat in World War II and the end of the Holocaust, overt expressions of support for Nazi ideas were prohibited in Germany and other European countries. Nonetheless, movements that self-identify as National Socialist or are described as adhering to National Socialism continue to exist on the fringes of politics in many western societies. Usually espousing a white supremacist ideology, many deliberately adopt the symbols of Nazi Germany." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "The United States of America", "United States Of Amerca", "Us of a", "U.–S.–A.", "Americaland", "United States (U.S.A.)", "Amurika", "Unite states of america", "United States of America (redirect)", "The U S A", "Unietd States", "EE UU", "The U.S.A.", "U.-S.-A.", "Usa", "United Staets of America", "Unites States", "États-Unis d'Amérique", "Verenigde State", "U.–S.", "The United States of America.", "The U-S-A", "EEUU", "U. S. A.", "Nagkaisang mga Estado", "The U. S. of America", "The USA", "America (United States)", "The U. S. A.", "U S of America", "UNITED STATES", "Estados Unidos", "The U–S", "American United States", "US and A", "Unitd states", "The US of A", "EE.UU.", "U-S", "The U-S", "Etymology of the United States", "U.S.A.)", "EE. 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In the 90s how many points have been awarded for finishing first in a Grand Prix?	tc_308	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "Search" ], "filename": [ "Formula_One_racing.txt" ], "title": [ "Formula One racing" ], "wiki_context": [ "A Formula One race or Grand Prix is a sporting event which takes place over three days (usually Friday to Sunday), with a series of practice and qualifying sessions prior to a race on Sunday.\n\nCurrent regulations provide for two free practice sessions on Friday, a morning practice session and an afternoon qualifying session held on Saturday, and the race held on Sunday afternoon or evening, though the structure of the weekend has changed numerous times over the history of the sport.\n\nAt most Formula One race weekends, other events such as races in other FIA series (such as the GP2 Series) are staged.\n\nFree practice sessions\n\nSince 2006, three practice sessions are held before the race; the first on Friday morning and the second on Friday afternoon. Both sessions last one and a half hours. The third session is held on Saturday morning and lasts an hour. A third driver is permitted to take part in the Friday free practice sessions in the place of a regular driver. With testing in the middle of the season banned, many teams will nominate their third driver to take part in the first session. The Monaco Grand Prix traditionally begins on a Thursday, with Friday as a day of rest. Practice sessions for the Singapore and Abu Dhabi Grands Prix take place in the evening as these races are run at night. \n \nQualifying sessions\n\nTraditionally before , qualifying was split into two one-hour sessions; the first was held on Friday (Thursday at Monaco) afternoon from 13:00 to 14:00 local time, with the second held on Saturday afternoon at the same time. The fastest time set by each driver from either session counted towards his final grid position. Each driver was limited to twelve laps per qualifying session.\n\nIn 1996 qualifying was amended with the Friday qualifying session abolished in a favour for a single qualifying session held on Saturday afternoon. As previously, each driver was limited to twelve laps with the inclusion of a 107% rule to exclude drivers with slow lap times. This was calculated by using the time of the driver on pole position and adding on 7% to create a cut-off time. This format remained until the conclusion of the 2002 season.\n\nBetween and , the qualifying session was run as a one-lap session and took place on Friday and Saturday afternoon with the cars running one at a time.\n\nIn 2003 the Friday running order was determined with the leader of the Drivers' Championship heading out first. The Saturday running order was determined by times set in Friday afternoon qualifying with the fastest heading out last and the slowest running first. No refuelling was allowed between the start of Saturday qualifying and the start of the race, so drivers qualified on race fuel. The lap times from the Friday afternoon session did not determine the grid order.\n\nIn 2004 the Friday session was moved to Saturday. The running order for the first session was now based on the result of the previous race. At first both sessions were held back-to-back, but the first session was later moved earlier in the day.\n\nAt the start of 2005 the sessions were held on Saturday afternoon and Sunday morning. Lap times from both sessions were counted to give the overall aggregate position. From the 2005 European Grand Prix onwards, the Sunday morning session was dropped for a single run on Saturday afternoon having proved unpopular with drivers, teams and broadcasters. The running order was the reverse of the previous race result. \n\nSince , qualifying takes place on Saturday afternoon in a three-stage \"knockout\" system. One hour is dedicated to determining the grid order, divided into three periods with short intermissions between them. \n\nCurrently, the first qualifying period is eighteen minutes long, with all twenty two cars on the circuit. At the end of the period, the six slowest drivers are eliminated, and they fill positions seventeen to twenty two on the grid. Any driver attempting to set a qualifying time when the period ends is permitted to finish his lap, though no new laps may be started once the chequered flag is shown. After a short break, the second period begins, with sixteen cars on the circuit. At the end of the fifteen-minute period, the six slowest drivers are once again eliminated, filling grid positions eleven to sixteen. Finally, the third qualifying period features the ten fastest drivers from the second period. The drivers have twelve minutes to set a qualifying time, which will determine the top ten positions on the grid. The driver who sets the fastest qualifying time is said to be on pole position, the grid position that offers the best physical position from which to start the race. For the first two races of the 2016 season, a modified format was used where drivers were eliminated during the sessions rather than just at the end and only eight drivers progressed to the final session. Qualifying reverted to the previous format from the third race of the season onwards.\n\nDrivers may complete as many laps as they choose. However, the top ten drivers must start the race on the set of tyres they used during their fastest lap time in the second qualifying period. These may only be changed if qualifying and the race are held under different weather conditions, or if a tyre is damaged as a result of an accident. The remaining ten drivers are free to start the race with any tyres they choose.\n\nGenerally, a driver will leave the pits and drive around the track in order to get to the start/finish line (the out-lap). Having crossed the line, they will attempt to achieve the quickest time around the circuit that they can in one or more laps (the flying lap or hot lap). This is the lap time which is used in calculating grid position. Finally, the driver will continue back around the track and re-enter the pit-lane (the in-lap). However, this is merely strategy, and no teams are obliged by the rules to follow this formula.\n\nDNQ\n\nAs of 2016, eleven teams are entered for the Formula One World Championship, each entering two cars for a total of twenty two cars. The regulations place a limit of twenty-six entries for the championship. At some periods in the history of Formula One the number of cars entered for each race has exceeded the number permitted, which historically would vary from race to race according to the circuit used. Monaco, for example, for many years allowed only twenty cars to compete because of the restricted space available. The slowest cars excess to the circuit limit would not qualify for the race and would be list as 'Did Not Qualify' (DNQ) in race results. \n\nPre-qualifying\n\nIn the late 1980s and early 1990s the number of cars attempting to enter each race was as high as thirty-nine for some races. Because of the dangers of having so many cars on the track at the same time, a pre-qualifying session was introduced for the teams with the worst record over the previous six months, including any new teams. Only the four fastest cars from this session were then allowed into the qualifying session proper, where thirty cars competed for twenty-six places on the starting grid for the race. The slowest cars from the pre-qualifying session were listed in race results as 'Did Not Pre-Qualify' (DNPQ). Pre-qualifying was discontinued after 1992 when many small teams withdrew from the sport. \n\n107% rule\n\nAs the number of cars entered in the world championship fell below twenty-six, a situation arose in which any car entered would automatically qualify for the race, no matter how slowly it had been driven. The 107% rule was introduced in to prevent completely uncompetitive cars being entered in the championship. If a car's qualifying time was not within 107% of the pole sitter's time, that car would not qualify for the race, unless at the discretion of the race stewards for a situation such as a rain affected qualifying session. For example, if the pole-sitter's time was one minute and forty seconds, then all cars must set a time within one minute and forty-seven seconds. \n\nThe 107% rule was removed since the FIA's rules indicated previously that 24 cars can take the start of a Formula One race, and a minimum of twenty cars must enter a race. In , the qualifying procedure changed to a single-lap system, rendering the rule inoperable. However, there were concerns about the pace of the new teams in the 2010 season. As the qualifying procedure had been changed since the 2006 season to a three-part knockout system, the rule could now be reintroduced. As such, the 107% rule has been reintroduced for the 2011 Formula One season. Currently, cars have to be within 107% of the fastest Q1 time in order to qualify for the race. \n\nRace \n\nSee Formula One regulations for detailed information on the race start procedure.\n\nThe race itself is held on Sunday afternoon, with the exception of night races at Singapore since 2008 and Bahrain since 2014. \n\nThirty minutes prior to race time, the cars take to the track for any number of warm-up laps (formally known as reconnaissance laps), provided they pass through the pit lane and not the grid, after which they assemble on the starting grid in the order they qualified. At the hour of the race, a green light signifies the beginning of the relatively slow formation lap during which all cars parade around the course doing a final tire warmup and system checks. The cars then return to their assigned grid spot for the standing race start. The starting light system, which consists of five pairs of lights mounted above the start/finish line, then lights up each pair at one-second intervals. Once all five pairs are illuminated, after a random length of time (one to nine seconds), the red lights are turned off by the race director, at which point the race starts. The race length is defined as the smallest number of complete laps that exceeds 305 kilometers (the Monaco Grand Prix is the sole exception with a race length of 78 laps / 260.5 km), though occasionally some races are truncated due to special circumstances. The race can not exceed two hours in length; if this interval is reached the race will be ended at the end of that lap. The only exception is if the race is halted by a Red flag in which case the total time including the red flag stoppage must not exceed 4 hours (since 2012), and the total time excluding the red flag stoppage may not exceed 2 hours. \n\nSince the 2007, teams are supplied by the sole tyre supplier (currently Pirelli which replaced Bridgestone in 2011 ), and receive two different types of slick dry tyre compounds: \"Prime\" tyres (now either the Hard, Medium or Soft compound), and \"Option\" tyres (either the Medium, Soft or Supersoft compound). The Prime tyres are more durable than the Option tyres, however the Option tyres produce faster lap times than the Prime tyres (the Option tyres are said to be one second per lap quicker than the Prime tyres, though this figure varies between circuits). From 2014, drivers who qualify in the top ten must start the race with the tyres they used in the second qualifying session (previously this had been the tyres they used in the final qualifying session); all other drivers have freedom over which tyres they can start with. Each driver is also required to use both types of dry compound during a dry race, and so must make a mandatory pit-stop. Timing pitstops with reference to other cars is crucial - if they are following another car but are unable to pass, the driver may try to stay on the track as long as possible, or pit immediately, as newer tyres are usually faster. Prior to the 2010 season, drivers used to make pitstops for fuel more than once during a race, as the cars on average consumed two kilometres per litre (approximately five miles per gallon)- nowadays this figure is lower, due to changes in engines from 2014. From 2010, refuelling has been forbidden during a race. \n\nAt the end of the race, the first, second and third-placed drivers take their places on a podium, where they stand as the national anthem of the race winner's home country and that of his team is played. Dignitaries from the country hosting the race then present trophies to the drivers and a constructor's trophy to a representative from the winner's team, and the winning drivers spray champagne and are interviewed, often by a former racing driver. The three drivers then go to a media room for a press conference where they answer questions in English and their native languages.\n\nPoints system \n\nPoints are awarded to drivers and teams exclusively on where they finish in a race. The winner receives 25 points, the second-place finisher 18 points, with 15, 12, 10, 8, 6, 4, 2 and 1 points for positions 3 through 10. If a race has to be abandoned before 75% of the planned distance has been completed all points are halved. In a dead heat, prizes and points are added together and shared equally for all those drivers who tie. The winner of the annual championship is the driver (or team, for the Constructors' Championship) with the most points. If the number of points is the same, priority is given to the driver with more wins. If that is the same it will be decided on the most second places and so on. \n\nHistorically, the races were scored on the basis of a five-place tally: i.e. via an 8–6–4–3–2 scoring system, with the holder of the fastest race lap also receiving a bonus point. In 1961, the scoring was revised to give the winner nine points instead of eight, and the single point awarded for fastest lap was given for sixth place for the first time the previous year. In 1991, the points system was again revised to give the victor 10 points, with all other scorers recording the same 6–4–3–2–1 result. In 2003, the FIA further revised the scoring system to apportion points to the first eight classified finishers (a classified finisher must complete 90% of race distance) on a 10–8–6–5–4–3–2–1 basis.\n\nAt certain periods in Formula One's history, the world champion has been determined by virtue of the \"best 7 scores\" in each \"half\" of the world championship, meaning that drivers have had to \"discard\" lower scores in either half of the season. This was done in order to equalise the footings of teams which may not have had the wherewithal to compete in all events. With the advent of the Concorde Agreements, this practice has been discontinued, though it did feature prominently in several world championships through the 1970s and 1980s.\n\nThe change in the awarding of world championship points has rendered the comparison of historical teams and drivers to current ones largely ineffective. For instance, Michael Schumacher is widely credited with being the most successful GP driver of all time. While his statistics are very impressive and easily outstrip those of his nearest competitor, it is worth noting that his points tally vs points available, and winning percentage of grands prix entered, do not significantly exceed those of Juan Manuel Fangio, whom he recently dethroned as winner of the most World Championships. As with most other sports, it is very difficult to compare stars of different eras owing to the changes in the sport and regulations.\n\nWorldwide appeal \n\nDespite having the highest budget in all of auto racing, Formula One racing has often been accused of being unexciting when compared to less expensive categories. The differences in driver ability are usually dwarfed when compared to the relative speed of the different makes of cars, and on-track overtaking is very rare due to the aerodynamics of trailing cars being adversely affected by the car in front (making overtaking only possible by very risky and thus rarely taken chances, or a much faster car trailing a slower one). So, beginning in the 2011 season F1 adopted 2 new innovations to help with passing/overtaking and to bring a little more excitement to the races. These innovations are \"DRS\" and the \"KERS\" systems. The DRS (Drag Reduction System) allows for one of the horizontal fins/blade on the rear spoiler to be \"lifted\" open which reduces the downforce and increases the race car speed. This system is only operable on straightaways where rear downforce is not as important. The system cannot be activated unless the driver is within (1) second or less behind the car he is trying to pass. The DRS zones on each track are set by the F1 governing body. And although the system on is controlled by computers and timers, the driver has to activate it by pushing a button on the steering wheel when he wants to use it. The \"KERS\" (kinetic energy recovery system) grabs and stores the energy usually lost during braking (which has always been wasted) and stores the energy into the batteries. Again, when allowed and the driver wants to use this system it is a matter of pushing a button and the engine gets another 60-80 horse power for a short time. The system will deplete/discharge this stored energy quickly and the driver has to wait until it gets charged back up. Also the use of electronic driver aids such as semi-automatic gearboxes and traction control has been widely criticized by F1 fans around the globe. Traction control was banned in the 2008 Formula One season.\n\nThe sport is lesser-known in the United States than the NASCAR Sprint Cup Series or their mostly domestic open-wheel racing series, the IndyCar Series, but in terms of budgets and global TV audiences F1 is bigger than both combined.\n\nEstimates for Ferrari's racing budget in 1999 were around 240 million USD, and even tailender Minardi reportedly spent 50 million. Estimates of TV audiences are around 300 million per race." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "10", "ten" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "10", "ten" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "10", "type": "Numerical", "value": "10" }
Which lawyer made Raymond Burr famous?	tc_309	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Raymond_Burr.txt" ], "title": [ "Raymond Burr" ], "wiki_context": [ "Raymond William Stacy Burr (May 21, 1917 – September 12, 1993) was a Canadian-American actor, primarily known for his title roles in the television dramas Perry Mason and Ironside. He was prominently involved in multiple charitable endeavors, such as working on behalf of the United Service Organizations.\n\nBurr's early acting career included roles on Broadway, radio, television and in film, usually as the villain. \nHis portrayal of the suspected murderer in the Alfred Hitchcock thriller Rear Window (1954) is regarded as his best-known film role. He won two Emmy Awards, in 1959 and 1961, for the role of Perry Mason, which he played for nine seasons (1957–66) and reprised in a series of 26 television films (1985–93). His second hit TV series, Ironside, earned him six Emmy nominations and two Golden Globe nominations.\n\nAfter Burr's death from cancer in 1993, his personal life came into question, as many details of his known biography appeared to be unverifiable.\n\nIn 1996, Burr was listed as one of the 50 Greatest TV Stars of All Time by TV Guide. A 2014 study found that Burr was rated as the favorite actor by Netflix users, with the greatest number of dedicated microgenres.\n\nEarly life\n\nRaymond William Stacy Burr was born May 21, 1917, in New Westminster, British Columbia, Canada. His father, William Johnston Burr (1889–1985), was a hardware salesman; his mother, Minerva Annette (née Smith, 1892–1974), was a pianist and music teacher who had been born in Chicago, Illinois. Burr's ancestry included Irish, English, Scottish, and German. \n\nWhen Burr was six, his parents divorced. Burr's mother moved to Vallejo, California, with him and his younger siblings, Geraldine and James. His father remained in New Westminster. Burr attended a military academy for a while and graduated from Berkeley High School.\n\nIn later years, Burr freely invented stories of a happy childhood. In 1986 he told journalist Jane Ardmore that when he was 12 years old his mother sent him to New Mexico for a year to work as a ranch hand. He was already his full adult height and rather large and \"had fallen in with a group of college-aged kids who didn't realize how young Raymond was, and they let him tag along with them in activities and situations far too sophisticated for him to handle.\" He developed a passion for growing things and, while still a teenager, and joined the Civilian Conservation Corps for a year. Throughout his teenage years, he had some acting work, making his stage debut at age 12 with a Vancouver stock company.\n\nTheatre\n\nGrowing up during the Great Depression, Burr hoped to study acting at the Pasadena Playhouse, a revered community theater and school in Pasadena, California, but he was unable to afford the tuition. In 1934 he joined a repertory theatre group in Toronto that toured throughout Canada, then joined another company that toured India, Australia and England. He briefly attended Long Beach Junior College and taught for a semester at San Jose Junior College, working nights as a radio actor and singer. He also began his association with the Pasadena Playhouse in 1937. \n\nBurr moved to New York in 1940, and made his first Broadway appearance in Crazy With the Heat, a two-act musical revue produced by Kurt Kasznar that quickly folded. His first starring role on the stage came in November 1942, when he was an emergency replacement in a Pasadena Playhouse production of Quiet Wedding, directed by Lenore Shanewise. He became a member of the Pasadena Playhouse drama faculty for 18 months, and he performed in some 30 plays over the years. He returned to the Broadway stage for Patrick Hamilton's The Duke in Darkness (1944), a psychological drama set during the French Wars of Religion. Burr's performance as the loyal friend of the imprisoned protagonist led to a contract with RKO Radio Pictures.\n\nFilm\n\nBurr appeared in more than 50 feature films between 1946 and 1957, creating an array of villains that established him as an icon of film noir. Film historian Alain Silver concluded that Burr's most significant work in the genre is in these ten films: Desperate (1947), Sleep, My Love (1948), Raw Deal (1948), Pitfall (1948), Abandoned (1949), Red Light (1950), M (1951), His Kind of Woman (1951), The Blue Gardenia (1953) and Crime of Passion (1957). Silver described Burr's private detective in Pitfall as \"both reprehensible and pathetic\", a characterization also cited by film historian Richard Schickel as a prototype of film noir, in contrast with the appealing television characters for which Burr later became famous. \n\n\"He tried to make you see the psychosis below the surface, even when the parts weren't huge,\" said film historian James Ursini. \"He was able to bring such complexity and different levels to those characters, and create sympathy for his characters even though they were doing reprehensible things.\"\n\nOther titles in Burr's film noir legacy include Walk a Crooked Mile (1948), Borderline (1950), Unmasked (1950), The Whip Hand (1951), FBI Girl (1951), Meet Danny Wilson (1952), Rear Window (1954), They Were So Young (1954), A Cry in the Night (1956) and Affair in Havana (1957). Beyond noir, Burr's villains were also seen in Westerns, period dramas, horror films and adventure films. \n\n\"I was just a fat heavy,\" Burr told journalist James Bawden. \"I split the heavy parts with Bill Conrad. We were both in our twenties playing much older men. I never got the girl but I once got the gorilla in a 3-D picture called Gorilla at Large. I menaced Claudette Colbert, Lizabeth Scott, Paulette Goddard, Anne Baxter, Barbara Stanwyck. Those girls would take one look at me and scream and can you blame them? I was drowned, beaten, stabbed and all for my art. But I knew I was horribly overweight. I lacked any kind of self esteem. At 25 I was playing the fathers of people older than me.\" \n\nBurr's occasional roles on the right side of the law include the aggressive prosecutor in A Place in the Sun (1951). His courtroom performance in that film made an impression on Gail Patrick and her husband Cornwell Jackson, who had Burr in mind when they began casting the role of Los Angeles district attorney Hamilton Burger in the CBS-TV series Perry Mason.\n\nRadio\n\nAs a young man Burr weighed more than 300 lbs., which limited his on-screen roles. \"But in radio this presented no problems, given the magnificent quality of his voice,\" reported The Globe and Mail. \"He played romantic leads and menacing villains with equal authority, and he earned a steady and comfortable income.\" \n\nWorking steadily in radio since the 1940s, often uncredited, Burr was a leading player on the West Coast. He had a regular role in Jack Webb's first radio show, Pat Novak for Hire (1949), and in Dragnet (1949–50) he played Joe Friday's boss, Ed Backstrand, chief of detectives. Burr worked on other Los Angeles-based series including Suspense, Screen Directors Playhouse, Yours Truly, Johnny Dollar, Family Theater, Hallmark Playhouse and Hallmark Hall of Fame. He performed in five episodes of the experimental dramatic radio anthology series CBS Radio Workshop, and had what is arguably his best radio role in \"The Silent Witness\" (1957), in which his is the only voice. \n\nIn 1956 Burr was the star of CBS Radio's Fort Laramie, an adult Western drama produced, written and directed by the creators of Gunsmoke. He played the role of Lee Quince, captain of the cavalry, in the series set at a post-Civil War military post where disease, boredom, the elements and the uncharted terrain were the greatest enemies of \"ordinary men who lived in extraordinary times\". The half-hour transcribed program aired Sundays at 5:30 p.m. ET January 22 – October 28, 1956. Burr told columnist Sheilah Graham that he had received 1,500 fan letters after the first broadcasts, and he continued to receive letters praising the show's authenticity and presentation of human dignity. In August 1956, CBS announced that Burr would star in the television series Perry Mason. Although the network wanted Burr to continue work on Fort Laramie, as well, the TV series required an extraordinary commitment and the radio show ended. \n\nKnown for his loyalty and consciousness of history, Burr went out of his way to employ his radio colleagues in his television programs. Some 180 radio celebrities appeared on Perry Mason during the first season alone. \n\nTelevision\n\nBurr emerged as a prolific television character actor in the 1950s. He made his television debut in 1951, appearing in episodes of Stars Over Hollywood, The Bigelow Theatre, Family Theater and the debut episode of Dragnet. He went on to appear in such programs as Gruen Playhouse, Four Star Playhouse, Ford Theatre, Lux Video Theatre, Mr. and Mrs. North, Schlitz Playhouse of Stars and Playhouse 90.\n\nPerry Mason\n\nIn 1956, Burr auditioned for the role of District Attorney Hamilton Burger in Perry Mason, a new CBS-TV courtroom drama based on the highly successful novels by Erle Stanley Gardner. Impressed with his courtroom performance in the 1951 film A Place in the Sun, executive producer Gail Patrick Jackson told Burr he was perfect for Perry Mason, but at least 60 pounds overweight. Over the next month, Burr went on a crash diet. When he returned, he tested as Perry Mason and won the role. While Burr's test was running, Gardner reportedly stood up, pointed at the screen and said, \"That's Perry Mason.\" William Hopper also auditioned as Mason, but was instead cast as private detective Paul Drake. Also starring were Barbara Hale as Della Street, Mason's secretary; William Talman as Hamilton Burger, the district attorney who loses nearly every case to Mason; and Ray Collins as homicide detective Lieutenant Arthur Tragg.\n\nThe series ran from 1957 to 1966. Burr received three consecutive Emmy Award nominations and won the award in 1959 and 1961 for his performance as Perry Mason. The series has been rerun in syndication ever since. Beginning in 2006, the series has become available on DVD, with each calendar year having the release of one season as two separate volumes. The ninth and final season's DVD sets became available in 2013. Though Burr's character is often said never to have lost a case, he did lose two murder cases in early episodes of the series, once when his client misled him and another time when his client was later cleared.\n\nIronside\n\nBurr moved from CBS to Universal Studios, where he played the title role in the television drama Ironside, which ran on NBC. In the pilot episode, San Francisco Chief of Detectives Robert T. Ironside is wounded by a sniper during an attempt on his life and is left an invalid in a wheelchair. This role gave Burr another hit series, the first crime drama show ever to star a police officer with a disability. The show, which ran from 1967 to 1975, earned Burr six Emmy nominations—one for the pilot and five for his work in the series—and two Golden Globe nominations.\n\nOther series\n\nAfter Ironside went off the air, NBC failed in two attempts to launch Burr as the star of a new series. In a two-hour television movie format, Mallory: Circumstantial Evidence aired in February 1976 with Burr again in the role of the lawyer who outwits the district attorney. Despite good reviews for Burr, the critical reception was poor and NBC decided against developing it into a series. In 1977, Burr starred in the short-lived TV series Kingston: Confidential as R.B. Kingston, a William Randolph Hearst-esque publishing magnate, owner of numerous newspapers and TV stations, who, in his spare time, solved crimes along with a group of employees. It was a critical failure that was scheduled opposite the extraordinarily popular Charlie's Angels. It was cancelled after 13 weeks. Burr took on a shorter project next, playing an underworld boss in a six-hour miniseries, 79 Park Avenue. One last attempt to launch a series followed on CBS. The two-hour premiere of The Jordan Chance aroused little interest. \n\nOn January 20, 1987, Burr hosted the television special that later served as the pilot for the long-running series Unsolved Mysteries.\n\nTelevision films\n\nIn 1985, Burr was approached by producers Dean Hargrove and Fred Silverman to star in a made-for-TV movie, Perry Mason Returns. The same week, Burr recalled, he was asked to reprise the role he played in Godzilla, King of the Monsters! (1956), in a low-budget film that would be titled Godzilla 1985.\n\n\"When they asked me to do it a second time, I said, 'Certainly,' and everybody thought I was out of my mind,\" Burr told Tom Shales of The Washington Post. \"But it wasn't the large sum of money. It was the fact that, first of all, I kind of liked 'Godzilla,' and where do you get the opportunity to play yourself 30 years later? So I said yes to both of them.\" \n\nHe agreed to do the Mason movie if Barbara Hale returned to reprise her role as Della Street. Hale agreed and when Perry Mason Returns aired in December 1985, her character became the defendant. The rest of the principal cast had died, but Hale's real-life son William Katt played the role of Paul Drake, Jr. The movie was so successful that Burr made a total of 26 Perry Mason television films before his death. Many were filmed in and around Denver, Colorado. \n\nBy 1993, when Burr signed with NBC for another season of Mason films, he was using a wheelchair full-time because of his failing health. In his final Perry Mason movie, The Case of the Killer Kiss, he was shown either sitting or standing while leaning on a table, but only once standing unsupported for a few seconds. Twelve more Mason movies were scheduled before Burr's death, including one scheduled to film the month he died. \n\nAs he had with the Perry Mason TV movies, Burr decided to do an Ironside reunion movie. The Return of Ironside aired in May 1993, reuniting the entire original cast of the 1967–75 series. Like many of the Mason movies, it was set and filmed in Denver.\n\nPersonal life\n\nPhysical characteristics\n\nBurr said that he weighed 12.75 pounds at birth, and was chubby throughout his childhood. \"When you're a little fat boy in public school, or any kind of school, you're just persecuted something awful,\" he remembered.\n\nBurr's weight, always an issue for him in getting roles, became a public relations problem when Johnny Carson began making jokes about him during his Tonight Show monologues. Burr refused to appear as Carson's guest from then on and told Us Weekly years later: \"I have been asked a number of times to do his show and I won't do it. Because I like NBC. He's doing an NBC show. If I went on I'd have some things to say, not just about the bad jokes he's done about me, but bad jokes he does about everybody who can't fight back because they aren't there. And that wouldn't be good for NBC.\" In later life, his distinctive physique and manner could be used as a reference that would be universally recognized. One journal for librarians published a writer's opinion that \"asking persons without cataloging experience to design automated catalogs … is as practical as asking Raymond Burr to pole vault.\" A character in a 1989 short story refers to Burr as \"grossly overweight\" in Ironside. \n\nFamily life\n\nBurr married actress Isabella Ward (1919–2004) on January 10, 1948. They had met in 1943 while Ward was a student at the Pasadena Playhouse, where Burr was teaching. They met again in 1947, when Ward was in California with a short-lived theatre company. They were married shortly before Burr began work on the 1948 film noir Pitfall. In May 1948 they appeared on stage together, in a Pasadena Playhouse production based on the life of Paul Gauguin. The couple lived in a basement apartment in a large house in Hollywood that Burr shared with his mother and grandparents. The marriage ended within months, and Ward returned to her native Delaware. They divorced in 1952, and neither remarried.\n\nIn the mid-1950s, Burr met Robert Benevides (born February 9, 1930, Visalia, California) a young actor and Korean War veteran, on the set of Perry Mason. According to Benevides, they became a couple around 1960. Benevides gave up acting in 1963 and later became a production consultant for 21 of the Perry Mason TV movies.Murphy, Mary. \"With Raymond Burr During His Final Battle.\" TV Guide, 25 September 1993, pp. 34–43 Together they owned and operated an orchid business and then a vineyard, in the Dry Creek Valley in California. They were partners until Burr's death in 1993. Burr left Benevides his entire estate, including \"all my jewelry, clothing, books, works of art … and other items of a personal nature.\" Benevides subsequently renamed the Dry Creek property Raymond Burr Vineyards (reportedly against Burr's wishes) and managed it as a commercial enterprise. In 2016 the property was listed for sale. \n\nBiographical contradictions\n\nAt various times in his career, Burr and his managers and publicists offered spurious or unverifiable biographical details to the press and public. He may have served in the Coast Guard; reports of his service in the United States Navy cannot be confirmed, nor can his statements that he sustained battle injuries at Okinawa. Other invented biographical details include years of college education at a variety of institutions, being widowed twice, a son who died young, world travel, an acting tour of the United Kingdom, and success in high school athletics. Most of these claims were accepted as fact by the press at the time of his death and by his first biographer, Ona Hill.\n\nBurr was reportedly married at the beginning of World War II to a British actress named Annette Sutherland —killed, Burr said, in the same 1943 plane crash that claimed the life of actor Leslie Howard. However, multiple sources have reported that no one by that name appears on any of the published passenger manifests from the flight. A son supposedly born during this marriage, Michael Evan, was said to have died of leukemia in 1953 at the age of ten. Another marriage purportedly took place in the early 1950s to a Laura Andrina Morgan—who died of cancer, Burr said, in 1955. Yet no evidence exists of either marriage, nor of a son's birth, other than Burr's own claims. As late as 1991, Burr stood by the account of his son's life and death; he told Parade magazine that when he realized Michael was dying, he took him on a one-year tour of the United States. \"Before my boy left, before his time was gone,\" he said, \"I wanted him to see the beauty of his country and its people.\" After Burr's death, his publicist confirmed that Burr worked in Hollywood throughout the year that he was supposedly touring with his son.\n\nIn the late 1950s, Burr was rumored to be romantically involved with Natalie Wood. Wood's agent sent her on public dates so she could be noticed by directors and producers and so the men she dated could present themselves in public as heterosexuals. The dates also helped to disguise Wood's relationship with Robert Wagner, whom she later married. Burr felt enough attraction to Wood to resent Warner Bros.' decision to promote her attachment to Tab Hunter rather than him. Robert Benevides later said, \"He was a little bitter about it. He was really in love with her, I guess.\" \n\nLater accounts of Burr's life explain that he hid his homosexuality to protect his career. \"That was a time in Hollywood history when homosexuality was not countenanced,\" Associated Press reporter Bob Thomas recalled in a 2000 episode of Biography. \"Ray was not a romantic star by any means, but he was a very popular figure … If it was revealed at that time in Hollywood history it would have been very difficult for him to continue.\"\n\nArthur Marks, a producer of Perry Mason, recalled Burr's talk of wives and children: \"I know he was just putting on a show. … That was my gut feeling. I think the wives and the loving women, the Natalie Wood thing, were a bit of a cover.\" Dean Hargrove, executive producer of the Perry Mason television films, said in 2006, \"I had always assumed that Raymond was gay, because he had a relationship with Robert Benevides for a very long time. Whether or not he had relationships with women, I had no idea. I did know that I had trouble keeping track of whether he was married or not in these stories. Raymond had the ability to mythologize himself, to some extent, and some of his stories about his past … tended to grow as time went by.\"\n\nHobbies and businesses\n\nBurr had many hobbies over the course of his life: cultivating orchids and collecting wine, art, stamps, and seashells. He was very fond of cooking. He was also interested in flying, sailing, and fishing. According to A&E Biography, Burr was an avid reader with a retentive memory. He was also among the earliest importers and breeders of Portuguese Water Dogs in the United States. \n\nHe developed his interest in cultivating and hybridizing orchids into a business with Benevides. Over 20 years, their company, Sea God Nurseries, had nurseries in Fiji, Hawaii, the Azores, and California, and was responsible for adding more than 1,500 new orchids to the worldwide catalog. Burr named one of them the \"Barbara Hale Orchid\" after his Perry Mason costar. Burr and Benevides cultivated Cabernet Sauvignon, Chardonnay, and Port grapes, as well as orchids, at Burr's farmland holdings in Sonoma County, California. \n\nIn 1965, Burr purchased the Naitauba, a 4000 acre island in Fiji, rich in seashells. There, he and Benevides oversaw the raising of copra (coconut meat) and cattle, as well as orchids. Burr planned to retire there permanently. However, medical problems made that impossible and he sold the property in 1983. \n\nPhilanthropy\n\nBurr was a well-known philanthropist. He gave enormous sums of money, including his salaries from the Perry Mason movies, to charity. He was also known for sharing his wealth with friends. He sponsored 26 foster children through the Foster Parents' Plan or Save The Children, many with the greatest medical needs. He also gave money and some of his Perry Mason scripts to the McGeorge School of Law in Sacramento, California. \n\nBurr was an early supporter of the Bailey-Matthews National Shell Museum in Sanibel, Florida, raising funds and chairing its first capital campaign. He also donated a large collection of Fijian cowries and cones from his island in Fiji. In 1993, Sonoma State University awarded Burr an honorary doctorate. He supported medical and education institutions in Denver, and in 1993, the University of Colorado awarded him an honorary doctorate for his acting work. Burr also founded and financed the American Fijian Foundation that funded academic research, including efforts to develop a dictionary of the language. \n\nBurr made repeated trips on behalf of the United Service Organizations (USO). He toured both Korea and Vietnam during wartime and once spent six months touring Korea, Japan, and the Philippines. He sometimes organized his own troupe and toured bases both in the U.S. and overseas, often small installations that the USO did not serve, like one tour of Greenland, Baffinland, Newfoundland and Labrador. Returning from Vietnam in 1965, he made a speaking tour of the U.S. to advocate an intensified war effort. As the war became more controversial, he modified his tone, called for more attention to the sacrifice of the troops, and said, \"My only position on the war is that I wish it were over.\" In October 1967, NBC aired Raymond Burr Visits Vietnam, a documentary of one of his visits. The reception was mixed. \"The impressions he came up with are neither weighty nor particularly revealing\", wrote the Chicago Tribune; the Los Angeles Times called Burr's questions \"intelligent and elicited some interesting replies\".\n\nBurr had a reputation in Hollywood as a thoughtful, generous man years before much of his more-visible philanthropic work. In 1960, Ray Collins, who portrayed Lt. Arthur Tragg on the original Perry Mason series, and who was by that time often ill and unable to remember all the lines he was supposed to speak, stated, \"There is nothing but kindness from our star, Ray Burr. Part of his life is dedicated to us, and that's no bull. If there's anything the matter with any of us, he comes around before anyone else and does what he can to help. He's a great star—in the old tradition.\" \n\nIllness and death\n\nDuring the filming of his last Perry Mason movie in the spring of 1993, Raymond Burr fell ill. A Viacom spokesperson told the media that the illness might be related to the malignant kidney that Burr had removed that February. It was determined that the cancer had spread to his liver and was at that point inoperable. Burr threw several \"goodbye parties\" before his death on September 12, 1993, at his Sonoma County ranch near Healdsburg. He was 76 years old.\n\nThe day after Burr's death, American Bar Association president R. William Ide III released a statement: \"Raymond Burr's portrayals of Perry Mason represented lawyers in a professional and dignified manner. … Mr. Burr strove for such authenticity in his courtroom characterizations that we regard his passing as though we lost one of our own.\" The New York Times reported that Perry Mason had been named second—after F. Lee Bailey, and before Abraham Lincoln, Thurgood Marshall, Janet Reno, Ben Matlock and Hillary Clinton—in a recent National Law Journal poll that asked Americans to name the attorney, fictional or not, they most admired. \n\nBurr was interred with his parents at Fraser Cemetery, New Westminster, British Columbia. On October 1, 1993, about 600 family members and friends paid tribute to Burr at a private memorial service at the Pasadena Playhouse. \n\nAlthough Burr had not revealed his homosexuality during his lifetime, it was an open secret and was reported in the press upon his death. The Pittsburgh Post-Gazette wrote that People magazine was preparing a story on Burr's \"secret life\" and asked, \"Are the inevitable rumors true?\" It received sensational treatment in the tabloid press; biographer Michael Starr wrote of the \"wild stories about Raymond's private life spiced up with quotes from unidentified 'friends' who described his closeted homosexual lifestyle in almost cartoonish terms.\"\n\nBurr bequeathed his estate to Robert Benevides and excluded all relatives, including a sister, nieces, and nephews. His will was challenged, without success, by the two children of his late brother, James E. Burr. Benevides' attorney said that tabloid reports of an estate worth $32 million were an overestimate. \n\nAccolades\n\nFor his work in the TV series Perry Mason, Burr received the Emmy Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role (Continuing Character) in a Dramatic Series at the 11th Primetime Emmy Awards in 1959. Nominated again in 1960, he received his second Emmy Award for Outstanding Performance by an Actor in a Series (Lead) at the 13th Primetime Emmy Awards in 1961. \n\nBurr was named Favorite Male Performer, for Perry Mason, in TV Guide magazine's inaugural TV Guide Award readers poll in 1960. He also received the second annual award in 1961. \n\nIn 1960 Burr was awarded a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6656 Hollywood Blvd. \n\nBurr received six Emmy nominations (1968–72) for his work in the TV series Ironside. He was nominated twice, in 1969 and 1972, for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Television Series Drama. \n\nA benefactor of legal education, Burr was principal speaker at the founders banquet of the Thomas M. Cooley Law School in Lansing, Michigan, in June 1973. The Raymond Burr Award for Excellence in Criminal Law was established in his honor. \n\nBurr was ranked #44 on TV Guides 50 Greatest TV Stars of All Time in 1996. \n\nCompleted in 1996, a circular garden at the entrance to the Bailey-Matthews National Shell Museum in Sanibel, Florida, honors Burr for his role in establishing the museum. Burr was a trustee and an early supporter who chaired the museum's first capital campaign and made direct contributions from his collection. A display about Burr as an actor, benefactor and collector opened in the museum's Great Hall of Shells in 2012. \n\nFrom 2000 to 2006, the Raymond Burr Performing Arts Society leased the historic Columbia Theatre from the city of New Westminster, and renamed it the Raymond Burr Performing Arts Centre. Although the nonprofit organization hoped to raise funds to renovate and expand the venue, its contract was not renewed. The group was a failed bidder when the theater was sold in 2011. \n\nIn 2008, Canada Post issued a postage stamp in its \"Canadians in Hollywood\" series featuring Burr. Burr received the 2009 Canadian Legends Award and a star on Canada's Walk of Fame in Toronto. The induction ceremony was held on September 12, 2009. \n\nA 2014 article in The Atlantic that examined how Netflix categorized nearly 77,000 different personalized genres found that Burr was rated as the favorite actor by Netflix users, with the greatest number of dedicated microgenres. \n\nTheatre credits\n\nFilm credits\n\nRadio credits\n\nTelevision credits" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Perry Mason (film)", "Perry mason", "Perry Mason: The Case of the Defiant Daughter", "Perry Mason" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "perry mason", "perry mason case of defiant daughter", "perry mason film" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "perry mason", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Perry Mason" }
Which broadcasting company did Edward J Noble found?	tc_310	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "Search" ], "filename": [ "Edward_John_Noble.txt", "NBC.txt" ], "title": [ "Edward John Noble", "NBC" ], "wiki_context": [ "Edward John Noble (1882 – 1958, aged 76) was an American broadcasting and candy industrialist originally from Gouverneur, New York. He co-founded the Life Savers Corporation in 1913. He founded the American Broadcasting Company when he purchased the Blue Network in 1943 following the Federal Communications Commission's (FCC) decree that RCA divest itself of one of its two radio networks.\n \nEdward Noble was born in Gouverneur, New York and educated in the public schools. He attended Syracuse University and graduated from Yale in 1905.\n\nIn 1912, chocolate manufacturer Clarence Crane of Cleveland, Ohio invented Life Savers as a \"summer candy\" that could withstand heat better than chocolate. Since the mints looked like miniature life preservers, he called them Life Savers. After registering the trademark, Crane sold the rights to the peppermint candy to Edward Noble for $2,900. Instead of using cardboard rolls, which were not very successful, Noble created tin-foil wrappers to keep the mints fresh. Pep-O-Mint was the first Life Savers flavor.\n\nHe was the first chairman of the Civil Aeronautics Authority. He also served as secretary of Commerce under President Franklin D. Roosevelt, 1939-1940. Following the Federal Communications Commission's order that RCA divest itself of one of its two radio networks, he founded the American Broadcasting Company (ABC) when he purchased the Blue Network (formerly part of NBC) on October 12, 1943. Noble tried valiantly to build ABC into an innovative and competitive broadcaster, but was hampered by financial problems and the pressure of competing with long-established NBC and CBS, and by 1951 was forced to enter negotiations to merge the network with United Paramount Theaters, headed by Leonard Goldenson; Goldenson would become chairman of the ABC network, while Noble remained on the ABC board of directors for the remainder of his life.\n\nIn 1943, Edward John Noble bought the St. Catherines Island on the coast of Georgia; in 1968, ten years after his death, the island was transferred to the Edward J. Noble Foundation.\n\nThe island is now owned by the St. Catherines Island Foundation, and the island's interior is operated for charitable, scientific, literary, and educational purposes. The foundation aims to promote conservation of natural resources, the survival of endangered species, and the preservation of historic sites, and to expand human knowledge in the fields of ecology, botany, zoology, natural history, archaeology, and other scientific and educational disciplines.\n\nNoble was part of the St. Lawrence Seaway Project and was appointed to the advisory board by President Dwight D. Eisenhower in 1954. He owned Boldt Castle, the Thousand Island Club, and a summer residence on Wellesley Island. The ornamental street lights in the village park are all that remain of the gift of new street lights that were given to the village by Edward and his brother, Robert. The lights were in memory of their father.\n\nEdward Noble died peacefully in his sleep on December 28, 1958. \n\nThree hospitals and a foundation are named after him.\n\nIn Rocksteady Studios' most recent and final installment of the Batman Arkham video game series, Batman Arkham Knight, there is a possible dual reference to Edward J Noble and Arkham Knight 3D artist Edward Noble. After entering the tower from Bruce Wayne's office balcony, a plaque recognizing either (or both) Noble(s) can be found beside a model of Wayne Tower in the receptionist lobby. It reads \"Wayne Tower & Plaza Architecture by: Edward Noble\" followed by a model credit to \"Martin Teichmann\" (a Rocksteady Studios Environment Artist).", "The National Broadcasting Company (NBC) is an American commercial broadcast television network that is the flagship property of NBCUniversal, a subsidiary of Comcast. The network is headquartered in the Comcast Building (formerly known as the GE Building) at Rockefeller Center in New York City, with additional major offices near Los Angeles (at Universal City Plaza), Chicago (at the NBC Tower) and soon in Philadelphia at Comcast Innovation and Technology Center. The network is part of the Big Three television networks. NBC is sometimes referred to as the \"Peacock Network\", in reference to its stylized peacock logo, which was originally created in 1956 for its then-new color broadcasts and became the network's official emblem in 1979.\n\nFounded in 1926 by the Radio Corporation of America (RCA), NBC is the oldest major broadcast network in the United States. In 1986, control of NBC passed to General Electric (GE) – which previously owned RCA and NBC until 1930, when it was forced to sell the companies as a result of antitrust charges – through its $6.4 billion purchase of RCA. Following the acquisition by GE (which later liquidated RCA), Bob Wright served as chief executive officer of NBC, remaining in that position until his retirement in 2007, when he was succeeded by Jeff Zucker. In 2003, French media company Vivendi merged its entertainment assets with GE, forming NBC Universal. Comcast purchased a controlling interest in the company in 2011, and acquired General Electric's remaining stake in 2013. Following the Comcast merger, Zucker left NBC Universal and was replaced as CEO by Comcast executive Steve Burke.\n\nNBC has eleven owned-and-operated stations and nearly 200 affiliates throughout the United States and its territories, some of which are also available in Canada via pay-television providers or in border areas over-the-air; NBC also maintains brand licensing agreements for international channels in South Korea and Germany. \n\nHistory\n\nRadio\n\nEarliest stations: WEAF and WJZ\n\nDuring a period of early broadcast business consolidation, radio manufacturer Radio Corporation of America (RCA) acquired New York City radio station WEAF from American Telephone & Telegraph (AT&T). Westinghouse, a shareholder in RCA, had a competing outlet in Newark, New Jersey pioneer station WJZ (no relation to the radio and television station in Baltimore currently using those call letters), which also served as the flagship for a loosely structured network. This station was transferred from Westinghouse to RCA in 1923, and moved to New York City. \n\nWEAF acted as a laboratory for AT&T's manufacturing and supply outlet Western Electric, whose products included transmitters and antennas. The Bell System, AT&T's telephone utility, was developing technologies to transmit voice- and music-grade audio over short and long distances, using both wireless and wired methods. The 1922 creation of WEAF offered a research-and-development center for those activities. WEAF maintained a regular schedule of radio programs, including some of the first commercially sponsored programs, and was an immediate success. In an early example of \"chain\" or \"networking\" broadcasting, the station linked with Outlet Company-owned WJAR in Providence, Rhode Island; and with AT&T's station in Washington, D.C., WCAP.\n\nNew parent RCA saw an advantage in sharing programming, and after getting a license for radio station WRC in Washington, D.C., in 1923, attempted to transmit audio between cities via low-quality telegraph lines. AT&T refused outside companies access to its high-quality phone lines. The early effort fared poorly, since the uninsulated telegraph lines were susceptible to atmospheric and other electrical interference.\n\nIn 1925, AT&T decided that WEAF and its embryonic network were incompatible with the company's primary goal of providing a telephone service. AT&T offered to sell the station to RCA in a deal that included the right to lease AT&T's phone lines for network transmission.\n\nRed and Blue Networks\n\nRCA spent $1 million to purchase WEAF and Washington sister station WCAP, shut down the latter station, and merged its facilities with surviving station WRC; in late 1926, it subsequently announced the creation of a new division known as the National Broadcasting Company. The division's ownership was split among RCA (a majority partner at 50%), its founding corporate parent General Electric (which owned 30%) and Westinghouse (which owned the remaining 20%). NBC officially started broadcasting on November 15, 1926.\n\nWEAF and WJZ, the flagships of the two earlier networks, were operated side-by-side for about a year as part of the new NBC. On January 1, 1927, NBC formally divided their respective marketing strategies: the \"Red Network\" offered commercially sponsored entertainment and music programming; the \"Blue Network\" mostly carried sustaining – or non-sponsored – broadcasts, especially news and cultural programs. Various histories of NBC suggest the color designations for the two networks came from the color of the pushpins NBC engineers used to designate affiliates of WEAF (red) and WJZ (blue), or from the use of double-ended red and blue colored pencils.\n\nOn April 5, 1927, NBC expanded to the West Coast with the launch of the NBC Orange Network, also known as the Pacific Coast Network. This was followed by the debut of the NBC Gold Network, also known as the Pacific Gold Network, on October 18, 1931. The Orange Network carried Red Network programming, and the Gold Network carried programming from the Blue Network. Initially, the Orange Network recreated Eastern Red Network programming for West Coast stations at KPO in San Francisco. The Orange Network name was removed from use in 1936, and the network's affiliate stations became part of the Red Network. At the same time, the Gold Network became part of the Blue Network. In the 1930s, NBC also developed a network for shortwave radio stations, called the NBC White Network.\n\nIn 1927, NBC moved its operations to 711 Fifth Avenue in Manhattan, occupying the upper floors of a building designed by architect Floyd Brown. The space that NBC occupied was designed by Raymond Hood, who based the appearance of its multiple studio facilities on \"a Gothic church, the Roman forum, a Louis XIV room and, in a space devoted to jazz, something 'wildly futuristic, with plenty of color in bizarre designs.'\" NBC outgrew the Fifth Avenue facilities in 1933.\n\nIn 1930, General Electric was charged with antitrust violations, resulting in the company's decision to divest itself of RCA. The newly separate company signed leases to move its corporate headquarters into the new Rockefeller Center in 1931. John D. Rockefeller, Jr., founder and financier of Rockefeller Center, arranged the deal with GE chairman Owen D. Young and RCA president David Sarnoff. When it moved into the complex in 1933, RCA became the lead tenant at 30 Rockefeller Plaza, known as the \"RCA Building\" (now the GE Building), which housed NBC's production studios as well as theaters for RCA-owned RKO Pictures. \n\nChimes\n\nThe iconic three-note NBC chimes came about after several years of development. The three-note sequence, G-E'-C', was first heard over Red Network affiliate WSB in Atlanta, with a second inversion C Major triad as its outline. An executive at NBC's New York headquarters heard the WSB version of the notes during the networked broadcast of a Georgia Tech football game and asked permission to use it on the national network. NBC started to use the chimes sequence in 1931, and it eventually became the first audio trademark to be accepted by the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. \n\nA variant sequence with an additional note, G-E'-C'-G, known as \"the fourth chime\", was used during significant events of extreme urgency (including during World War II, especially in the wake of the December 1941 attack on Pearl Harbor; on D-Day and during disasters). The NBC chimes were mechanized in 1932 by Rangertone founder Richard H. Ranger; their purpose was to send a low-level signal of constant amplitude that would be heard by the various switching stations manned by NBC and AT&T engineers, and to be used as a system cue for switching individual stations between the Red and Blue network feeds. Contrary to popular legend, the G-E'-C' notes were not originally intended to reference to the General Electric Company (an early shareholder in NBC's founding parent RCA and whose Schenectady, New York radio station, WGY, was an early affiliate of NBC Red). The three-note sequence remains in use by the NBC television network, most notably incorporated into the John Williams-composed theme music used by NBC News, \"The Mission\" (first composed in 1985 for NBC Nightly News).\n\nNew beginnings: The Blue Network becomes ABC\n\nIn 1934, the Mutual Broadcasting System filed a complaint to the Federal Communications Commission (FCC), following the government agency's creation, claiming it ran into difficulties trying to establish new radio stations in a market largely controlled by NBC and the Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS). In 1938, the FCC began a series of investigations into the monopolistic effects of network broadcasting. A report published by the Commission in 1939 found that NBC's two networks and its owned-and-operated stations dominated audiences, affiliates and advertising in American radio; this led the Commission to file an order to RCA to divest itself of either NBC Red or NBC Blue.\n\nAfter Mutual's appeals were rejected by the FCC, RCA filed its own appeal to overturn the divestiture order. However, in 1941, the company decided to sell NBC Blue in the event its appeal was denied. The Blue Network was formally named NBC Blue Network, Inc. and NBC Red became NBC Red Network, Inc. for corporate purposes. Both networks formally divorced their operations on January 8, 1942, with the Blue Network being referred to on-air as either \"Blue\" or \"Blue Network\", and Blue Network Company, Inc. serving as its official corporate name. NBC Red, meanwhile, became known on-air as simply \"NBC\". Investment firm Dillon, Read & Co. placed a $7.5 million bid for NBC Blue, an offer that was rejected by NBC executive Mark Woods and RCA president David Sarnoff.\n\nAfter losing on final appeal before the U.S. Supreme Court in May 1943, RCA sold Blue Network Company, Inc., for $8 million to the American Broadcasting System, a recently founded company owned by Life Savers magnate Edward J. Noble. After the sale was completed on October 12, 1943, Noble acquired the rights to the Blue Network name, leases on landlines, the New York studios, two-and-a-half radio stations (WJZ in Newark/New York City; KGO in San Francisco and WENR in Chicago, which shared a frequency with Prairie Farmer station WLS); contracts with actors; and agreements with around 60 affiliates. In turn, to comply with FCC radio station ownership limits of the time, Noble sold off his existing New York City radio station WMCA. Noble, who wanted a better name for the network, acquired the branding rights to the \"American Broadcasting Company\" name from George B. Storer in 1944. The Blue Network became ABC officially on June 15, 1945, after the sale was completed. \n\nDefining radio's golden age\n\nNBC became home to many of the most popular performers and programs on the air. Al Jolson, Jack Benny, Edgar Bergen, Bob Hope, Fred Allen, and Burns and Allen called NBC home, as did Arturo Toscanini's NBC Symphony Orchestra, which the network helped him create. Other programs featured on the network included Vic and Sade, Fibber McGee and Molly, The Great Gildersleeve (arguably broadcasting's first spin-off program, from Fibber McGee), One Man's Family, Ma Perkins and Death Valley Days. NBC stations were often the most powerful, and some occupied unique clear-channel national frequencies, reaching hundreds or thousands of miles at night.\n\nIn the late 1940s, rival CBS gained ground by allowing radio stars to use their own production companies to produce programs, which became a profitable move for much of its talent. In the early years of radio, stars and programs commonly hopped between networks when their short-term contracts expired. During 1948 and 1949, beginning with the nation's top radio star, Jack Benny, many NBC performers – including Edgar Bergen and Charlie McCarthy, Burns and Allen and Frank Sinatra – jumped to CBS.\n\nIn addition, NBC stars began migrating to television, including comedian Milton Berle, whose Texaco Star Theater on the network became television's first major hit. Conductor Arturo Toscanini conducted the NBC Symphony Orchestra in ten television concerts on NBC between 1948 and 1952. The concerts were broadcast on both television and radio, in what perhaps was the first such instance of simulcasting. Two of the concerts were historic firsts – the first complete telecast of Beethoven's Symphony No. 9, and the first complete telecast of Verdi's Aida (starring Herva Nelli and Richard Tucker), performed in concert rather than with scenery and costumes.\n\nAiming to keep classic radio alive as television matured, and to challenge CBS's Sunday night radio lineup, which featured much of the programs and talent that had moved to that network following the defection of Jack Benny to CBS, NBC launched The Big Show in November 1950. This 90-minute variety show updated radio's earliest musical variety style with sophisticated comedy and dramatic presentations. Featuring stage legend Tallulah Bankhead as hostess, it lured prestigious entertainers, including Fred Allen, Groucho Marx, Lauritz Melchior, Ethel Barrymore, Louis Armstrong, Ethel Merman, Bob Hope, Danny Thomas, Douglas Fairbanks, Jr. and Ella Fitzgerald. However, The Big Shows initial success did not last despite critical praise, as most of its potential listeners were increasingly becoming television viewers. The show lasted two years, with NBC losing around $1 million on the project (the network was only able to sell advertising time during the middle half-hour of the program each week).\n\nNBC's last major radio programming push, beginning on June 12, 1955, was Monitor, a creation of NBC President Sylvester \"Pat\" Weaver, who also created the innovative programs Today, The Tonight Show and Home for the companion television network. Monitor was a continuous all-weekend mixture of music, news, interviews and features, with a variety of hosts including well-known television personalities Dave Garroway, Hugh Downs, Ed McMahon, Joe Garagiola and Gene Rayburn. The potpourri show tried to keep vintage radio alive by featuring segments from Jim and Marian Jordan (in character as Fibber McGee and Molly); Peg Lynch's dialog comedy Ethel and Albert (with Alan Bunce); and iconoclastic satirist Henry Morgan. Monitor was a success for a number of years, but after the mid-1960s, local stations, especially those in larger markets, were reluctant to break from their established formats to run non-conforming network programming. One exception was Toscanini: The Man Behind the Legend, a weekly series commemorating the great conductor's NBC broadcasts and recordings which ran for several years beginning in 1963. After Monitor ended its 20-year run on January 26, 1975, little remained of NBC network radio beyond hourly newscasts and news features, and Sunday morning religious program The Eternal Light.\n\nDecline\n\nOn June 18, 1975, NBC launched the NBC News and Information Service (NIS), which provided up to 55 minutes of news per hour around the clock to local stations that wanted to adopt an all-news radio format. NBC carried the service on WRC in Washington, and on its owned-and-operated FM stations in New York City, Chicago and San Francisco. NIS attracted several dozen subscribing stations, but by the fall of 1976, NBC determined that it could not project that the service would ever become profitable and gave its affiliates six months' notice that it would be discontinued. NIS ended operations on May 29, 1977. In 1979, NBC launched The Source, a modestly successful secondary network providing news and short features to FM rock stations.\n\nThe NBC Radio Network also pioneered personal advice call-in national talk radio with a satellite-distributed evening talk show, TalkNet; the program featured Bruce Williams (providing personal financial advice), Bernard Meltzer (personal and financial advice) and Sally Jessy Raphael (personal and romantic advice). While never much of a ratings success, TalkNet nonetheless helped further the national talk radio format. For affiliates, many of them struggling AM stations, TalkNet helped fill evening time slots with free programming, allowing the stations to sell local advertising in a dynamic format without the cost associated with producing local programming. Some in the industry feared this trend would lead to increasing control of radio content by networks and syndicators.\n\nGeneral Electric acquired RCA in 1986, and with it NBC, signaling the beginning of the end of NBC Radio. Three factors led to the radio division's demise: GE decided that radio did not fit its strategy, while the radio division had not been profitable for many years. In addition, FCC ownership rules at the time prevented companies acquiring broadcast properties from owning both a radio and television division. In the summer of 1987, GE sold NBC Radio's network operations to Westwood One, and sold off the NBC-owned stations to various buyers. By 1990, the NBC Radio Network as an independent programming service was pretty much dissolved, becoming a brand name for content produced by Westwood One, and ultimately by, ironically, CBS Radio. The Mutual Broadcasting System, which Westwood One had acquired two years earlier, met the same fate, and essentially merged with NBC Radio.\n\nGE's divestiture of NBC's entire radio division was the first cannon shot of what would play out in the national broadcast media, as each of the Big Three broadcast networks were soon acquired by other corporate entities. NBC was a particularly noteworthy case in that it was the first to be acquired – and was bought by a conglomerate outside the broadcast industry as GE otherwise primarily served as a manufacturing company. Prior to the GE acquisition, NBC operated its radio division partly out of tradition, and partly to meet its then-FCC-mandated requirement to distribute programming for the public good (the broadcast airwaves are owned by the public; as that broadcast spectrum is limited and only so many broadcast stations existed, this served as the basis for government regulation requiring broadcasters to provide certain content that meets the needs of the public). Syndicators such as Westwood One were not subject to such rules as they did not own any stations. GE's divestiture of NBC Radio – known as \"America's First Network\" – in many ways marked the \"beginning of the end\" of the old era of regulated broadcasting and the ushering in of the new, largely unregulated industry that is present today.\n\nBy the late 1990s, Westwood One was producing NBC Radio-branded newscasts on weekday mornings. These were discontinued in 1999 (along with Mutual branded newscasts), and the few remaining NBC Radio Network affiliates became affiliates of CNN Radio, carrying the Westwood-owned service's hourly newscasts 24 hours a day. In 2003, Westwood One began distributing NBC News Radio, a new service featuring minute-long news updates read by television anchors and reporters from NBC News and MSNBC, with content written by Westwood One employees.\n\nRestoration\n\nOn March 1, 2012, Dial Global announced that it would discontinue CNN Radio, and replace it with an expansion of NBC News Radio on April 1, 2012. This marked the first time since Westwood One's purchase of NBC Radio and its properties that NBC would have a 24-hour presence on radio. A previous program, First Light, placed new emphasis on the NBC brand after diminishing it over the years. With the change, NBC News Radio expanded its offerings from 60-second news updates airing only on weekdays to feature two hourly full-length newscasts 24 hours a day. Subsequently, on September 4, 2012, Dial Global launched a sports-talk radio service, NBC Sports Radio.\n\nTelevision\n\nFor many years, NBC was closely identified with David Sarnoff, who used it as a vehicle to sell consumer electronics. RCA and Sarnoff had captured the spotlight by introducing all-electronic television to the public at the 1939–40 New York World's Fair, simultaneously initiating a regular schedule of programs on the NBC-RCA television station in New York City. President Franklin D. Roosevelt appeared at the fair before the NBC camera, becoming the first U.S. president to appear on television on April 30, 1939 ([http://www.davidsarnoff.org/gallery-tv-bw/FDR_TV-WF_39.html an actual, off-the-monitor photograph] of the FDR telecast is available at the David Sarnoff Library). The broadcast was transmitted by NBC's New York television station W2XBS Channel 1 (later WNBC-TV; now WNBC, channel 4) and was seen by about 1,000 viewers within the station's roughly 40 mi coverage area from its transmitter at the Empire State Building.\n\nThe following day (May 1), four models of RCA television sets went on sale to the general public in various department stores around New York City, which were promoted in a series of splashy newspaper ads. DuMont Laboratories (and others) had actually offered the first home sets in 1938 in anticipation of NBC's announced April 1939 television launch. Later in 1939, NBC took its cameras to professional football and baseball games in the New York City area, establishing many \"firsts\" in television broadcasting.\n\nReportedly, the first NBC Television \"network\" program was broadcast on January 12, 1940, when a play titled Meet The Wife was originated at the W2XBS studios at Rockefeller Center and rebroadcast by W2XB/W2XAF (now WRGB) in Schenectady, which received the New York station directly off-air from a tower atop a mountain and relayed the live signal to the Capital District. About this time, occasional special events were also broadcast in Philadelphia (over W3XE, later called WPTZ, now known as KYW-TV) as well as Schenectady. The most ambitious NBC television \"network\" program of the pre-war era was the telecast of the Republican National Convention held in Philadelphia in the summer of 1940, which was fed live to the New York City and Schenectady stations. However, despite major promotion by RCA, television sales in New York during 1939 and 1940 were disappointing, primarily due to the high cost of the sets, and the lack of compelling regularly scheduled programming. Most sets were sold to bars, hotels and other public places, where the general public viewed special sports and news events. One special event was Franklin D. Roosevelt's second and final appearance on live television, when his speech at Madison Square Garden on October 28, 1940 was telecast over W2XBS to receivers in the New York City area. \n\nTelevision's experimental period ended, as the FCC allowed full-fledged commercial television broadcasts to begin on July 1, 1941. NBC station W2XBS in New York City received the first commercial license, adopting the call letters WNBT. The first official, paid television advertisement broadcast by any U.S. station was for watch manufacturer Bulova, which aired that day, just before the start of a Brooklyn Dodgers baseball telecast on WNBT. The ad consisted of test pattern, featuring the newly assigned WNBT call letters, which was modified to resemble a clock – complete with functioning hands – with the Bulova logo (featuring the phrase \"Bulova Watch Time\") in the lower right-hand quadrant of the test pattern (a photograph of the NBC camera setting up the test pattern-advertisement for that ad can be seen at [http://www.earlytelevision.org/images/rca_bulova_ad-1.jpg this page]). Among the programs that aired during the first week of WNBT's new, commercial schedule was The Sunoco News, a simulcast of the Sun Oil-sponsored NBC Radio program anchored by Lowell Thomas; amateur boxing at Jamaica Arena; the Eastern Clay Courts tennis championships; programming from the USO; the spelling bee-type game show Words on the Wing; a few feature films; and a one-time-only, test broadcast of the game show Truth or Consequences, sponsored by Lever Brothers. \n\nPrior to the first commercial television broadcasts and paid advertisements on WNBT, non-paid television advertising existed on an experimental basis dating back to 1930. NBC's earliest non-paid television commercials may have been those seen during the first Major League Baseball game ever telecast, between the Brooklyn Dodgers and Cincinnati Reds, on August 26, 1939 over W2XBS. In order to secure the rights to televise the game, NBC allowed each of the Dodgers' regular radio sponsors at the time to have one commercial during the telecast. The ads were conducted by Dodgers announcer Red Barber: for Ivory Soap, he held up a bar of the product; for Mobilgas he put on a filling station attendant's cap while giving his spiel; and for Wheaties he poured a bowl of the product, added milk and bananas, and took a big spoonful. Limited, commercial programming continued until the U.S. entered World War II. Telecasts were curtailed in the early years of the war, then expanded as NBC began to prepare for full-time service upon the end of the war. Even before the war concluded, a few programs were sent from New York City to affiliated stations in Philadelphia (WPTZ) and Albany/Schenectady (WRGB) on a regular weekly schedule beginning in 1944, the first of which is generally considered to be the pioneering special interest/documentary show The Voice of Firestone Televues, a television offshoot of The Voice of Firestone, a mainstay on NBC radio since 1928, which was transmitted from New York City to Philadelphia and Schenectady on a regular, weekly basis beginning on April 10, 1944. The series is considered to be the NBC television network's first regularly scheduled program.\n\nOn V-E Day, May 8, 1945, WNBT broadcast several hours of news coverage, and remotes from around New York City. This event was promoted in advance by NBC with a direct-mail card sent to television set owners in the New York area. At one point, a WNBT camera placed atop the marquee of the Hotel Astor panned the crowd below celebrating the end of the war in Europe. The vivid coverage was a prelude to television's rapid growth after the war ended.\n\nThe NBC television network grew from its initial post-war lineup of four stations. The 1947 World Series featured two New York City area teams (the Yankees and the Dodgers), and television sales boomed locally, since the games were being telecast in the New York market. Additional stations along the East Coast and in the Midwest were connected by coaxial cable through the late 1940s, and in September 1951 the first transcontinental telecasts took place.\n\nThe post-war 1940s and early 1950s brought success for NBC in the new medium. Television's first major star, Milton Berle, whose Texaco Star Theatre began in June 1948, drew the first large audiences to NBC Television. Under its innovative president, Sylvester \"Pat\" Weaver, the network launched Today and The Tonight Show, which would bookend the broadcast day for over 50 years, and which still lead their competitors. Weaver, who also launched the genre of periodic 90-minute network \"spectaculars\", network-produced motion pictures and the live 90-minute Sunday afternoon series Wide Wide World, left the network in 1955 in a dispute with its chairman David Sarnoff, who subsequently named his son Robert Sarnoff as president.\n\nIn 1951, NBC commissioned Italian-American composer Gian Carlo Menotti to compose the first opera ever written for television; Menotti came up with Amahl and the Night Visitors, a 45-minute work for which he wrote both music and libretto, about a disabled shepherd boy who meets the Three Wise Men and is miraculously cured when he offers his crutch to the newborn Christ Child. It was such a stunning success that it was repeated every year on NBC from 1951 to 1966, when a dispute between Menotti and NBC ended the broadcasts. However, by 1978, Menotti and NBC had patched things up, and an all-new production of the opera, filmed partly on location in the Middle East, was telecast that year.\n\nColor television\n\nWhile rivals CBS and the DuMont Television Network also had plans to begin offering color television broadcasts, RCA convinced the FCC to approve its color system in December 1953. NBC was ready with color programming within days of the Commission's decision. NBC began the transition with a few shows in 1954, and broadcast its first program to air all episodes in color beginning that summer, The Marriage.\n\nIn 1955, NBC broadcast a live production in color of Peter Pan, a new Broadway musical adaptation of J. M. Barrie's beloved play, on the Producers' Showcase anthology series, The first such telecast of its kind, the broadcast starred the musical's entire original cast, led by Mary Martin as Peter and Cyril Ritchard in a dual role as Mr. Darling and Captain Hook. The broadcast drew the highest ratings for a television program for that period. It was so successful that NBC restaged it as a live broadcast a mere ten months later; in 1960, long after Producers' Showcase had ended its run, Peter Pan, with most of the 1955 cast, was restaged again, this time as a standalone special, and was videotaped so that it would no longer have to be performed live on television.\n\nIn 1956, NBC started a subsidiary, California National Productions (CNP), for merchandising, syndication and NBC opera company operations with the production of Silent Services. By 1957, NBC planned to remove the opera company from CNP and CNP was in discussion with MGM Television about handling syndication distribution for MGM series.\n\nDuring a National Association of Broadcasters meeting in Chicago in 1956, NBC announced that its owned-and-operated station in that market, WNBQ (now WMAQ-TV), had become the first television station in the country to broadcast its programming in color (airing at least six hours of color broadcasts each day). In 1959, NBC premiered a televised version of the radio program The Bell Telephone Hour, which aired in color from its debut; the program would continue on the NBC television network for nine more years until it ended in 1968.\n\nIn 1961, NBC approached Walt Disney about acquiring the rights to his anthology series, offering to produce the program in color. Disney was in the midst of negotiating a new contract to keep the program (then known as Walt Disney Presents) on ABC, however ABC president Leonard Goldenson said that it could not counter the offer, as the network did not have the technical and financial resources to carry the program in color. Disney subsequently struck a deal with NBC, which began airing the anthology series in the format in September 1961 (as Walt Disney's Wonderful World of Color). As many of the Disney programs that aired in black-and-white on ABC were actually filmed in color, they could easily be re-aired in the format on the NBC broadcasts. In January 1962, NBC's telecast of the Rose Bowl became the first college football game ever to be telecast in color.\n\nBy 1963, much of NBC's prime time schedule was presented in color, although some popular series (such as The Man from U.N.C.L.E., which premiered in late 1964) were broadcast in black-and-white for their entire first season. In the fall of 1965, NBC was broadcasting 95% of its prime time schedule in color (with the exceptions of I Dream of Jeannie and Convoy), and began billing itself as \"The Full Color Network.\" Without television sets to sell, rival networks followed more slowly, finally committing to an all-color lineup in prime time in the 1966–67 season. Days of Our Lives became the first soap opera to premiere in color, when it debuted in November 1965.\n\nNBC contracted with Universal Studios in 1964 to produce the first feature-length film produced for television, See How They Run, which first aired on October 17, 1964; its second television movie, The Hanged Man, aired six weeks later on November 28. Even while the presentations performed well in the ratings, NBC did not broadcast another made-for-TV film for two years. \n\nIn 1967, NBC reached a deal with Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM) to acquire the broadcast rights to the classic 1939 film The Wizard of Oz. CBS, which had televised the film annually since 1956, refused to meet MGM's increased fee to renew its television rights. Oz had been, up to then, one of the few programs that CBS had telecast in color. However, by 1967, color broadcasts had become standard on television, and the film simply became another title in the list of specials that NBC telecast in the format. The film's showings on NBC were distinctive as it televised The Wizard of Oz without a hosted introduction, as CBS had long done; it was also slightly edited for time in order to make room to air more commercials. Despite the cuts, however, it continued to score excellent television ratings in those pre-VCR days, as audiences were generally unable to see the film any other way at that time. NBC aired The Wizard of Oz each year from 1968 to 1976, when CBS, realizing that they may have committed a colossal blunder by letting a huge ratings success like Oz go to another network, agreed to pay MGM more money to re-acquire the rights to show the film.\n\nThe late 1960s brought big changes in the programming practices of the major television networks. As baby boomers reached adulthood, NBC, CBS and ABC began to realize that much of their existing programming had not only been running for years, but had audiences that skewed older. In order to attract the large youth population that was highly attractive to advertisers, the networks moved to clean house of a number of veteran shows. In NBC's case, this included programs like The Bell Telephone Hour and Sing Along With Mitch, which both had an average viewer age of 50. During this period, the networks came to define adults between the ages of 18 and 49 as their main target audience, although depending on the show, this could be subdivided into other age demos: 35–45, 18–25 or 18–35. Regardless of the exact target demographic, the general idea was to appeal to viewers who were not close to retirement age and to modernize television programming, which the networks felt overall was stuck in a 1950s mentality, to closely resemble contemporary American society.\n\n1970s doldrums\n\nThe 1970s started strongly for NBC thanks to hits like Adam-12, Rowan & Martin's Laugh-In, Ironside, The Dean Martin Show and The Flip Wilson Show. However, despite of the success of such new shows as the NBC Mystery Movie, Sanford and Son, Chico and the Man, Little House on the Prairie, The Midnight Special, The Rockford Files, Police Woman and Emergency!, as well as continued success from veterans like The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson and The Wonderful World of Disney, the network entered a slump in the middle of the decade. Disney, in particular, saw its ratings nosedive once CBS put 60 Minutes up against the program in the Sunday 7:00 p.m. time slot in the 1975–76 season.\n\nIn 1974, under new president Herb Schlosser, the network tried to attract younger viewers with a series of costly movies, miniseries and specials. This failed to attract the desirable 18–34 demographic, and simultaneously alienated older viewers. None of the new prime-time shows that NBC introduced in the fall of 1975 earned a second season renewal, all failing in the face of established competition. The network's lone breakout success that season was the groundbreaking late-night comedy/variety show, NBC's Saturday Night – which would be renamed Saturday Night Live in 1976, after the cancellation of a Howard Cosell-hosted program of the same title on ABC – which replaced reruns of The Tonight Show that previously aired in its Saturday time slot.\n\nIn 1978, Schlosser was promoted to executive vice president at RCA, and a desperate NBC lured Fred Silverman away from top-rated ABC to turn its fortunes around. With the notable exceptions of Diff'rent Strokes and its spin-off The Facts of Life, Real People and the miniseries Shōgun, Silverman was unable to pull out a hit. Failures accumulated rapidly under his watch (such as Hello, Larry, Supertrain, Pink Lady and Jeff, The Krofft Superstar Hour and The Waverly Wonders). Ironically, many of them were beaten in the ratings by shows that Silverman had greenlit during his previous tenures at CBS and ABC.\n\nDuring this time, several longtime affiliates also defected from NBC in markets such as Atlanta (WSB-TV), Baltimore (WBAL-TV), Baton Rouge (WBRZ-TV), Charlotte (WSOC-TV), Dayton (WDTN), Indianapolis (WRTV), Jacksonville (WTLV), Minneapolis-St. Paul (KSTP-TV), San Diego (KGTV), Schenectady (WRGB) and Wheeling (WTRF-TV). Most were wooed away by ABC, which had lifted out of last place to become the #1 network during the late 1970s and early 1980s, while WBAL-TV, WRGB and WTRF-TV went to CBS; WBAL-TV was originally to go to ABC, but the station decided against it because ABC's evening newscasts had attracted ratings too dismal for them to consider doing so. In the case of WSB-TV and WSOC-TV, which have both since become ABC affiliates, both stations were (and remain) under common ownership with Cox Enterprises, with its other NBC affiliate at the time, WIIC-TV in Pittsburgh (which would become WPXI in 1981 and also remains owned by Cox), only staying with the network because WIIC-TV itself was a distant third to CBS-affiliated powerhouse KDKA-TV and ABC affiliate WTAE-TV (KDKA-TV, owned at the time by Group W and now owned by CBS, infamously passed up affiliating with NBC after Westinghouse bought the station from DuMont in 1954, leading to an acrimonious relationship between NBC and Westinghouse that lasted for years afterward). In markets such as San Diego, Charlotte and Jacksonville, NBC had little choice but to affiliate with a UHF station, with the San Diego station (KNSD) eventually becoming an NBC O&O. In Wheeling, NBC ultimately upgraded its affiliation when it partnered with WTOV-TV in nearby Steubenville, Ohio, overtaking former affiliate WTRF-TV in the ratings by a large margin. Other smaller television markets like Yuma, Arizona waited many years to get another local NBC affiliate (first with KIVA, and later KYMA). The stations in Baltimore, Dayton and Jacksonville, however, have since rejoined the network.\n\nAfter President Jimmy Carter pulled the U.S. team out of the 1980 Summer Olympics, NBC canceled a planned 150 hours of coverage (which had cost $87 million for the broadcast rights), placing the network's future in doubt. It had been counting on the broadcasts to help promote its new fall shows, and had been estimated to pull in $170 million in advertising revenue. \n\nThe press was merciless towards Silverman, but the two most savage attacks on his leadership came from within the network. The company that composed the promotional theme for NBC's \"Proud as a Peacock\" image campaign created a parody song called \"Loud as a Peacock,\" which was broadcast on Don Imus' program on WNBC radio in New York. Its lyrics blamed Silverman for the network's problems (\"The Peacock's dead, so thank you, Fred\"). An angered Silverman ordered all remaining copies of the spoof destroyed, although some copies remain in circulation. Saturday Night Live writer and occasional performer Al Franken satirized Silverman in a sketch on the program titled \"Limo for a Lame-O\". Silverman later admitted he \"never liked Al Franken to begin with\", and the sketch ruined Franken's chance of succeeding Lorne Michaels as executive producer of SNL following his 1980 departure (with the position going to Jean Doumanian, who was fired after one season following declining ratings and negative critical reviews. Michaels would later return to the show in 1985). \n\nTartikoff's turnaround\n\nFred Silverman resigned as entertainment president in the summer of 1981. Grant Tinker, a highly regarded producer who co-founded MTM Enterprises with then-wife Mary Tyler Moore, became president of the network and Brandon Tartikoff became president of the entertainment division. Tartikoff inherited a schedule full of aging dramas and very few sitcoms, but showed patience with promising programs. One such show was the critically acclaimed Hill Street Blues, which suffered from poor ratings during its first season. Rather than canceling the show, he moved the Emmy Award-winning police drama from Steven Bochco to Thursdays, where its ratings improved dramatically. He used the same tactics with St. Elsewhere and Cheers. Shows like these were able to get the same ad revenue as their higher-rated competition because of their desirable demographics, upscale adults ages 18–34. While the network claimed moderate successes with Gimme a Break!, Silver Spoons, Knight Rider and Remington Steele, its biggest hit during this period was The A-Team, which, at 10th place, was the network's only program to rank in the Nielsen Top-20 for the 1982–83 season, and ascended to third place the following year. These shows helped NBC through the disastrous 1983–84 season, which saw none of its nine new fall shows gaining a second year. \n\nIn February 1982, NBC canceled Tom Snyder's The Tomorrow Show and gave the 12:35 a.m. time slot to 34-year-old comedian David Letterman. Though Letterman was unsuccessful with his weekday morning talk show effort for the network (which debuted on June 23, 1980), Late Night with David Letterman proved much more successful, lasting for 11 years and serving as the launching pad for another late-night talk franchise that continues to this day.\n\nIn 1984, the huge success of The Cosby Show led to a renewed interest in sitcoms, while Family Ties and Cheers, both of which premiered in 1982 to mediocre ratings (the latter ranking at near dead last among all network shows during the 1982–83 season), saw their viewership increase from having Cosby as a lead-in. The network rose from third place to second in the ratings during the 1984–85 season and reached first place in 1985–86, with hits The Golden Girls, Miami Vice, 227, Night Court, Highway to Heaven and Hunter. The network's upswing continued late into the decade with ALF, Amen, Matlock, L.A. Law, The Hogan Family, A Different World, Empty Nest, Unsolved Mysteries and In the Heat of the Night. In 1986, Bob Wright was appointed as chairman of NBC.\n\nIn the fall of 1987, NBC conceived a syndication package for its owned-and-operated stations, under the brand \"Prime Time Begins at 7:30\", consisting of five sitcoms that each aired once a week, and were produced by various production companies contracted by NBC. The series included Marblehead Manor (from Paramount Television, airing Mondays), centering on a mansion owner and the people who live with him; She's the Sheriff (from Lorimar-Telepictures and airing Tuesdays), a comeback vehicle for Suzanne Somers which cast her as a widowed county sheriff; a series adapted from the George S. Kaufman play You Can't Take It with You (airing Wednesdays), starring Harry Morgan; Out of This World (from MCA Television and airing Thursdays), which starred Maureen Flannigan as a teenager born to an alien father and human mother that develops supernatural abilities on her 15th birthday; and a revival of the short-lived 1983 NBC series We Got It Made (produced by Fred Silverman for MGM Television and closing out the week on Fridays), as part of an ongoing trend at the time in which former network series were revived in first-run syndication.\n\nThe package was aimed at attracting viewers to NBC stations in the half-hour preceding prime time (8:00 p.m. in the Eastern and Pacific Time Zone, 7:00 p.m. elsewhere), and was conceived as a result of the FCC's loosening of the Prime Time Access Rule, legislation passed in 1971 that required networks to turn over the 7:30 p.m. (Eastern) time slot to local stations to program local or syndicated content; and the relaxation of the Financial Interest and Syndication Rules, which had prevented networks from producing content from their own syndication units to fill the void. The shows that were part of the package were regularly outrated in many markets by such syndicated game shows as Wheel of Fortune, Jeopardy! and Hollywood Squares. Marblehead Manor, We Got It Made and You Can't Take It With You were cancelled at the end of the 1987–88 season, with She's the Sheriff lasting one more season in weekend syndication before its cancellation. Out of This World ran for three additional seasons, airing mainly on weekends, and was the most successful of the five series.\n\nNBC aired the first of seven consecutive Summer Olympic Games broadcasts when it covered the 1988 Games in Seoul, South Korea. The 1988–89 season saw NBC have an astonishing 18 series in Nielsen's year-end Top 30 most-watched network programs; it also ranked at first place in the weekly ratings for more than 12 months, an unprecedented achievement that has not been duplicated since. The network continued its hot streak into the early 1990s with new hits such as The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air, Blossom and Law & Order.\n\n\"Must See TV\"\n\nIn 1991, Tartikoff left his role as NBC's President of Entertainment to take an executive position at Paramount Pictures. In the course of a decade, he had taken control of a network with no shows in the Nielsen Top 10 and left it with five. Tartikoff was succeeded by Warren Littlefield, whose first years as entertainment president proved shaky as a result of most of the Tartikoff-era hits ending their runs. Some blamed Littlefield for losing David Letterman to CBS after naming Jay Leno as the successor to Johnny Carson on The Tonight Show, following the latter's retirement as host in May 1992. Things turned around with the launches of new hit series such as Mad About You, Wings, Sisters, Frasier, Friends, ER and Will & Grace.\n\nOne of Tartikoff's late acquisitions, Seinfeld initially struggled from its debut in 1989 as a summer series, but grew to become one of NBC's top-rated shows after it was moved to Thursdays in the timeslot following Cheers. Seinfeld ended its run in 1998, becoming the latest overall television program in the U.S. to end its final season as the leader in the Nielsen ratings for a single television season. Consequently, Friends emerged as NBC's biggest television show after the 1998 Seinfeld final broadcast. It dominated the ratings, never leaving the top five watched shows of the year from its second through tenth seasons and landing on the number-one spot during season eight in the 2001–02 season as the latest sitcom in the U.S. to lead the annual Nielsen primetime television ratings. Cheers spinoff Frasier became a critical and commercial success, usually landing in the Nielsen Top 20 – although its ratings were overshadowed to a minor extent by Friends – and went on to win numerous Emmy Awards (eventually setting a record for a sitcom that lasted until it was overtaken by Modern Family in 2014). In 1994, the network began branding its strong Thursday night lineup, mainly in reference to the comedies airing in the first two hours, under the \"Must See TV\" tagline (which during the mid- and late 1990s, was also applied to NBC's comedy blocks on other nights, particularly on Tuesdays).\n\nBy the mid-1990s, NBC's sports division, headed by Dick Ebersol, had rights to three of the four major professional sports leagues (the NFL, Major League Baseball and the NBA), the Olympics, and the national powerhouse Notre Dame Fighting Irish football team. The NBA on NBC enjoyed great success in the 1990s due in large part to the Chicago Bulls' run of six championships at the hands of superstar Michael Jordan. However, NBC Sports would suffer a major blow in 1998, when it lost the rights to the American Football Conference (AFC) to CBS, which itself had lost rights to the National Football Conference (NFC) to Fox four years earlier; the deal stripped NBC of National Football League (NFL) game telecasts after 59 years and AFC games after 36 years (dating back to its existence as the American Football League prior to its 1970 merger with the NFL).\n\nLittlefield left NBC in 1998 to pursue a career as a television and film producer, with the network subsequently going through three entertainment presidents in three years. Littlefield was replaced as president of NBC Entertainment by Scott Sassa, who oversaw the development of such shows as The West Wing, Law & Order: Special Victims Unit and Fear Factor. After Sassa was reassigned to NBC's West Coast Division, Garth Ancier was named as his replacement in 1999. Jeff Zucker then succeeded Ancier as president of NBC Entertainment in 2000. \n\nNew century, new problems\n\nAt the start of the 2000s, NBC's fortunes started to take a rapid turn for the worse. The network had already lost many viewers in the late 1990s who boycotted NBC and its programming after the cancellation of the long-running soap opera Another World in 1999. That year, NBC's longstanding ratings lead ended as CBS (which had languished in the ratings after losing the NFL) overtook it for first place. In 2001, CBS chose to move its hit reality series Survivor to serve as the anchor of its Thursday night lineup. Its success was taken as a suggestion that NBC's nearly two decades of dominance on Thursday nights could be broken; even so, the strength of Friends, Will & Grace, ER and Just Shoot Me! (the latter of which saw its highest viewership following its move to that night in the 2000–01 season) helped the network continue to lead the Thursday ratings. Overall, NBC retook its first place lead that year, and spent much of the next four years (with the exception of the 2002–03 season, when it was briefly jumped again by CBS for first) in the top spot.\n\nOn the other hand, NBC was stripped of the broadcast rights to two other major sports leagues: it lost Major League Baseball to Fox after the 2000 season (by that point, NBC only had alternating rights to the All-Star Game, League Championship Series and World Series), and, later, the NBA to ABC after the 2001–02 season. After losing the NBA rights, NBC's major sports offerings were reduced to the Olympics (which in 2002, expanded to include rights to the Winter Olympics, as part of a contract that gave it the U.S. television rights to both the Summer and Winter Olympics through 2012), PGA Tour golf events and a floundering Notre Dame football program (however, it would eventually acquire the rights to the National Hockey League in May 2004).\n\nIn October 2001, NBC acquired Spanish-language network Telemundo from Liberty Media and Sony Pictures Entertainment for $2.7 billion, beating out other bidders including CBS/Viacom. The deal was finalized in 2002. \n\nIn 2003, French entertainment conglomerate Vivendi acquired a 49% interest in NBC from General Electric, integrating the company with Vivendi's various film, television and amusement properties (including Universal Pictures), under the integrated NBC Universal. In 2004, Zucker was promoted to the newly created position of president of NBC Universal Television Group. Kevin Reilly became the new president of NBC Entertainment. \n\nIn 2004, NBC experienced a Three on a match scenario (Friends and Frasier ended their runs; Jerry Orbach, who had played one of the most popular characters of its hit Law & Order, died suddenly later that year), and shortly afterward was left with several moderately rated shows and few true hits. In particular, Friends spin-off Joey, despite a relatively strong start, started to falter in the ratings during its second season. The 2004–05 season saw NBC become the first major network to air select dramas in letterbox over its analog broadcast feed; the move was done in the hopes of attracting new viewers, although the network saw only a slight boost.\n\nIn December 2005, NBC began its first week-long primetime game show event, Deal or No Deal; the series garnered high ratings, and returning as a weekly series in March 2006. Otherwise, the 2005–06 season was one of the worst for NBC in three decades, with only one fall series, the sitcom My Name Is Earl, surviving for a second season; the sole remaining anchor of the \"Must See TV\" lineup, Will & Grace also saw its ratings decline. That season, NBC's ratings freefalled to fourth place, behind a resurgent ABC, Fox (which would eventually become the most-watched U.S. broadcast network in the 2007–08 season) and top-rated CBS (which led for much of the remainder of the decade). During this time, all of the networks faced audience erosion from increased competition by cable television, home video, video games and the Internet, with NBC being the hardest hit.\n\nThe 2006–07 season was a mixed bag for the network, with Deal or No Deal remaining strong and Heroes becoming a surprise hit on Monday nights, while the highly touted Studio 60 on the Sunset Strip (from West Wing creator Aaron Sorkin) lost a third of its premiere-night viewers by Week 6 and was eventually cancelled; two critically acclaimed sitcoms, The Office and 30 Rock, also pulled in modest successes and went on to win the Emmy Award for Outstanding Comedy Series for four consecutive years. The network also regained the rights to the NFL after eight years that season when it acquired the Sunday Night Football package from ESPN (as part of a deal that also saw Monday Night Football move to ESPN from ABC). However, despite this, NBC remained at a very distant fourth place, barely ranking ahead of The CW.\n\nHowever, NBC did experience success with its summer schedule, despite its declining ratings during the main broadcast season. America's Got Talent, a reality talent competition series that premiered in 2006, earned a 4.6 rating in the 18-49 demographic, higher than that earned by the 2002 premiere of Fox's American Idol. Got Talent (which is the flagship of an international talent competition franchise) would continue to garner unusually high ratings throughout its summer run. However, NBC decided not to place it in the spring season, and instead use it as a platform to promote their upcoming fall shows. Originally hosted by Regis Philbin, the series is currently hosted by Nick Cannon, and continues to garner strong ratings throughout its summer seasons. In March 2007, NBC announced that it would begin offering full-length episodes of its prime time series for streaming on mobile devices, becoming the first U.S. broadcast network to offer on-demand mobile episode content, as the market began shifting away from traditional television. \n\nFollowing the unexpected termination of Kevin Reilly, in 2007, Ben Silverman was appointed president of NBC Entertainment, while Jeff Zucker was promoted to succeed Bob Wright as CEO of NBC. The network failed to generate any new primetime hits during the 2008–09 season (despite the rare good fortune of having the rights to both the Super Bowl and the Summer Olympics in which to promote their new programming slate), the sitcom Parks and Recreation survived for a second season after a six-episode first season, while Heroes and Deal or No Deal both collapsed in the ratings and were later cancelled (with a revamped Deal or No Deal being revived for one additional season in syndication). In a March 2009 interview, Zucker had stated that he no longer believed it would be possible for NBC to become #1 in prime time. Ben Silverman left the network in 2009, with Jeff Gaspin replacing him as president of NBC Entertainment.\n\nComcast Era (2011-present)\n\nOn December 3, 2009, Comcast announced they would purchase a 51% controlling stake in NBC Universal from General Electric (which would retain the remaining 49%) for $6.5 billion in cash. GE used $5.8 billion from the deal to buy out Vivendi's 20% interest in NBC Universal.\n\nNBC's broadcast of the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver, in February of that year, generated a ratings increase of 21% over its broadcast of the 2006 Winter Games in Torino. The network was criticized for repeatedly showing footage of a crash occurring during practice for an Olympic luge competition that killed Georgian luger Nodar Kumaritashvili. NBC News president Steve Capus ordered the footage not to be shown without his permission and Olympics prime time host Bob Costas promised on-air that the video would not be shown again during the Games. NBC Universal was on track to lose $250 million in advertising revenue on that year's Winter Olympics, failing to make up the $820 million it paid for the U.S. television rights. Even so, with its continuing position in fourth place (although it virtually tied with ABC in many demographics on the strength of NBC's sports broadcasts that year ), the 2009–10 season ended with only two scripted shows – Community and Parenthood, as well as three unscripted shows – The Marriage Ref, Who Do You Think You Are? and Minute to Win It – being renewed for second seasons, while other series such as Heroes and veteran crime drama Law & Order (the latter of which ended after 20 seasons, tying it with Gunsmoke as the longest-running prime time drama in U.S. television history) were cancelled.\n\nAfter Conan O'Brien succeeded Jay Leno as host of The Tonight Show in 2009, the network gave Leno a new prime time talk show, committing to air it every weeknight at 10:00 p.m. Eastern and Pacific as an inexpensive comedic alternative to the police procedurals and other hour-long dramas typically aired in that time slot. In doing so, NBC became the first major U.S. broadcast network in decades, if ever, to broadcast the same program in a weekdaily prime time strip. Its executives called the decision \"a transformational moment in the history of broadcasting\" and \"in effect, launching five shows.\" Conversely, industry executives criticized the network for abandoning a history of airing quality dramas in the 10:00 hour, and expressed concern that it would hurt NBC by undermining a reputation built on successful scripted series. Citing complaints from many affiliates, which saw their late-evening newscasts drop significantly in the local ratings during The Jay Leno Shows run, NBC announced on January 10, 2010 that it would drop Leno's show from the 10:00 p.m. slot – with Zucker announcing plans to shift the program (which would have been reduced to a half-hour) into the 11:35 p.m. slot and shift its existing late night lineup (including The Tonight Show) by 30 minutes. The removal of The Jay Leno Show from its prime time schedule had almost no impact on the network's ratings. The increases NBC experienced in the 2010–11 season compared to 2009–10 were almost entirely attributable to the rising viewership of NBC Sunday Night Football. By 2012, the shows that occupied the 10:00 p.m. time slot drew lower numbers than The Jay Leno Show did when it aired in that hour two years before. In the spring of 2010, cable provider and multimedia firm Comcast announced it would acquire a majority interest in NBC Universal from General Electric, which would retain a minority stake in the company in the interim.\n\nOn September 24, 2010, Jeff Zucker announced that he would step down as NBC Universal's CEO once the company's merger with Comcast was completed at the end of the year. After the deal was finalized, Steve Burke was named CEO of NBCUniversal and Robert Greenblatt replaced Jeff Gaspin as chairman of NBC Entertainment. In 2011, NBC was finally able to find a breakout hit in the midseason reality singing competition series The Voice. Otherwise, NBC had another tough season, with every single new fall program getting cancelled by season's end, the third time this has happened to the network after the fall of 1975, and the fall of 1983. Only the midseason legal drama Harry's Law being its only freshman scripted series to be renewed for the 2011–12 season. The network nearly completed its full conversion to an all-HD schedule (outside of the Saturday morning timeslot leased by the Qubo consortium, which NBCUniversal would rescind its stake in the following year) on September 20, 2011, when Last Call with Carson Daly converted to the format with the premiere of its 11th season.\n\nThe 2011–12 season was another tough season for NBC. On the upside, the network's broadcast of Super Bowl XLVI was the most-watched program in U.S. television history at the time, and the network's Monday night midseason lineup of The Voice and musical-drama Smash was very successful. The network managed to lift itself into third place in the 18-49 demographic in the 2011–12 season, primarily on the strength of those three programs (SNF, The Voice, and Smash), breaking the network's eight-year streak in fourth place. Four shows survived for a second season, but three of them were cancelled in the following year, none were unqualified ratings successes, and the network remained a distant fourth place in total viewership.\n\nIn the fall of 2012, NBC greatly expanded its sitcom roster, with eight comedy series airing on Tuesday, Wednesday and Thursday nights. NBC bounced back to first place network in adults 18-49 that fall, boosted by the new season of The Voice, the initial success of freshman drama Revolution and sitcom Go On, and the continued strength of Sunday Night Football. However, withholding the new season of The Voice and benching Revolution until late March, the network's midseason ratings suffered, falling to fifth place behind Spanish-language network Univision during the February sweeps period. The 2012–13 season ended with NBC finishing in third place overall, albeit by a narrow margin, with only three new shows, all dramas, surviving for a second season (Revolution, Chicago Fire and Hannibal).\n\nIn 2013, NBC Sports migrated its business and production operations (including NBCSN) to new facilities in Stamford, Connecticut. Production of the network's NFL pre-game show Football Night in America remained at the NBC Studios at Rockefeller Center (with production operations based in Studio 8G, while the program itself was broadcast in Studio 8H, the longtime home of Saturday Night Live), until it migrated to the Stamford facility in September 2014. Despite the failure of another highly advertised game show event, The Million Second Quiz, the 2013–14 season was mostly successful for NBC due to the continued success of The Voice, Chicago Fire, Revolution, Sunday Night Football and Grimm. Along with new hits including The Blacklist, Hannibal and Chicago PD and a significant ratings boost from its broadcast of the 2014 Winter Olympics, NBC became the #1 network in the coveted 18-49 demographic that season for the first time since 2003–04, when Friends ended. NBC also improved considerably in total viewership, finishing behind long-dominant CBS in second place for the season. \n\nThe 2014–15 season was something of a mixed bag for NBC, but still successful. NBC launched eight new series that year, with only one, comedy-drama police procedural The Mysteries of Laura, being renewed for a second season. Nevertheless, the network continued to experience success with most of its returning series, especially The Blacklist (despite a modest decline in viewership following its move to Thursdays midway through the season, due partly to an initial weak lead-in from miniseries The Slap). Combined with the record number of viewers tuning in to Super Bowl XLIX, NBC again finished #1 in the 18-49 demographic and in second place overall. \n\nThe 2015–16 season was successful for NBC, with the successful launch of the new drama Blindspot premiering after The Voice, then subsequently being renewed for a second season in November 2015. NBC also continued with the success with the Chicago franchise with launching its second spin-off Chicago Med, which also received an early second season pick up in February 2016. Thursday nights continues to be a struggle for NBC, with continued success with the third season of The Blacklist brought the failed launch of Heroes Reborn which was cancelled in January 2016, and thriller The Player, however NBC found success with police procedural Shades of Blue which improved the 10pm timeslot and was renewed for a second season in February 2016. On the comedy side, NBC surprisingly found success in the new workplace sitcom Superstore which premiered as a \"preview\" after The Voice in November 2015, and officially launched in January 2016 which brought decent ratings for a new comedy without The Voice as a lead-in and which was subsequently renewed for a second season in February 2016. \n\nProgramming\n\n, NBC provides 87 hours of regularly scheduled network programming each week. The network provides 22 hours of prime time programming to affiliated stations Monday through Saturdays from 8:00–11:00 p.m. (7:00–10:00 p.m. in all other U.S. time zones) and Sundays from 7:00–11:00 p.m. Eastern and Pacific Time (6:00–10:00 p.m. in all other time zones).\n\nDaytime programming is also provided weekdays between 12:00 and 3:00 p.m. in the form of the one-hour weekday soap opera Days of Our Lives (the scheduling of the program varies depending on the station, although it is initially fed to affiliates at 1:00 p.m. Eastern). NBC News programming includes the morning news/interview program Today from 7:00–11:00 a.m. weekdays, 7:00–9:00 on Saturdays and 7:00–8:00 on Sundays; nightly editions of NBC Nightly News (whose weekend editions are occasionally subject to abbreviation or preemption due to sports telecasts overrunning into the program's timeslot), the Sunday political talk show Meet the Press, weekday early-morning news program Early Today and newsmagazine Dateline NBC. Late nights feature the weeknight talk shows The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon, Late Night with Seth Meyers and Last Call with Carson Daly, weeknight replays of the fourth hour of Today and CNBC program Mad Money, and the sketch comedy show Saturday Night Live, and the LXTV-produced 1st Look and Open House NYC on Saturdays (replays of the previous week's 1st Look also air on Friday late nights on most stations).\n\nThe network's Saturday morning children's programming timeslot is programmed by sister cable channel Sprout, which produces the three-hour live-action/animation block for preschoolers, NBC Kids, under a time-lease agreement.\n\nSports programming is also provided weekend afternoons at any time between 12:00 and 6:00 p.m. (9:00 a.m.-3:00 p.m., or tape-delayed in the Pacific Time Zone). Due to the unpredictable length of sporting events, NBC will occasionally pre-empt scheduled programs (more common with the weekend editions of NBC Nightly News, and local and syndicated programs carried by its owned-and-operated stations and affiliates). NBC has also held the American broadcasting rights to the Summer Olympic Games since the 1988 games and the rights to the Winter Olympic Games since the 2002 games. Coverage of the Olympics on NBC have included pre-empting regularly scheduled programs during daytime, primetime, and late night.\n\nNBC News\n\nNews coverage has long been an important part of NBC's operations and public image, dating to the network's radio days. Notable NBC News productions past and present include Today, NBC Nightly News (and its immediate predecessor, the Huntley-Brinkley Report), Meet the Press (which has the distinction of the longest continuously running program in the history of American television), Dateline NBC, Early Today, NBC News at Sunrise, NBC Nightside and Rock Center with Brian Williams.\n\nIn 1989, the news division began its expansion to cable with the launch of business news channel CNBC. The company eventually formed other cable news services including MSNBC (created in 1996 originally as a joint venture with Microsoft, which now features a mix of general news and political discussion programs with a liberal stance), and the 2008 acquisition of The Weather Channel in conjunction with Blackstone Group and Bain Capital. In addition, NBCSN (operated as part of the NBC Sports Group, and which became an NBC property through Comcast's acquisition of NBCUniversal) carries sports news content alongside sports event telecasts. Key anchors from NBC News are also used during NBC Sports coverage of the Olympic Games.\n\nDaytime programming\n\nNBC is currently the home to only one daytime program, the hour-long soap opera Days of Our Lives, which has been broadcast on the network since 1965. Since NBC turned back an hour of its then two-hour daytime schedule to its affiliates as a result of the September 2007 expansion of Today to four hours, the network currently ties with The CW for the fewest daytime programming hours of any major broadcast television network.\n\nLong-running daytime dramas seen on NBC in the past include The Doctors (1963–1982), Another World (1964–1999), Santa Barbara (1984–1993), and Passions (1999–2007, later moving to The 101). NBC also aired the final 4½ years of Search for Tomorrow (1982–1986) after that series was initially cancelled by CBS, although many NBC affiliates did not clear the show during its tenure on the network. NBC has also aired numerous short-lived soap operas, including Generations (1989–1991), Sunset Beach (1997–1999), and the two Another World spin-offs, Somerset (1970–1976) and Texas (1980–1982).\n\nNotable daytime game shows that once aired on NBC include The Price Is Right (1956–1963), Concentration (1958–1973 and 1987–1991 as Classic Concentration), The Match Game (1962–1969), Let's Make a Deal (1963–1968 and 1990–1991, as well as a short-lived primetime revival in 2002), Jeopardy! (1964–1975 and 1978–1979), The Hollywood Squares (1966–1980), Wheel of Fortune (1975–1989 and 1991), Password Plus/Super Password (1979–1982 and 1984–1989), Sale of the Century (1969–1973 and 1983–1989) and Scrabble (1984–1990 and 1993). The last game show ever to air as part of NBC's daytime schedule was the short-lived Caesars Challenge, which ended in January 1994.\n\nNotable past daytime talk shows that have aired on NBC have included Home (1954–1957), The Ernie Kovacs Show (1955–1956), The Merv Griffin Show (1962–1963), Leeza (1994–1999) and Later Today (1999–2000).\n\nChildren's programming\n\nChildren's programming has played a part in NBC's programming since its initial roots in television. NBC's first major children's series, Howdy Doody, debuted in 1947 and was one of the era's first breakthrough television shows. From the mid-1960s until 1992, the bulk of NBC's children's programming was composed of mainly animated programming including classic Looney Tunes and Woody Woodpecker shorts; reruns of primetime animated sitcoms such as The Flintstones and The Jetsons; foreign acquisitions like Astro Boy and Kimba the White Lion; animated adaptions of Punky Brewster, ALF and Star Trek as well as animated vehicles for Gary Coleman and Mr. T; live-action programs like The Banana Splits, The Bugaloos and H.R. Pufnstuf; and the original broadcasts of Gumby, The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, Underdog, The Smurfs, Alvin and the Chipmunks and Disney's Adventures of the Gummi Bears. From 1984 to 1989, the network aired a series of public service announcements called One to Grow On, which aired after the end credits of every program or every other children's program. \n\nIn 1989, NBC premiered Saved by the Bell, a live-action teen sitcom which originated on The Disney Channel the previous year as Good Morning, Miss Bliss (which served as a starring vehicle for Hayley Mills; four cast members from that show were cast in the NBC series as the characters they originally played on Miss Bliss). Saved by the Bell, despite being given bad reviews from television critics, would become one of the most popular teen series in television history as well as the top-rated series on Saturday mornings, dethroning ABC's The Bugs Bunny and Tweety Show in its first season.\n\nThe success of Saved by the Bell led NBC to remove animated series from its Saturday morning lineup in August 1992 in favor of additional live-action series as part of a new block called TNBC, along with the debut of a Saturday edition of Today. Most of the series featured on the TNBC lineup were executive produced by Peter Engel (such as City Guys, Hang Time, California Dreams, One World and the Saved by the Bell spinoff, Saved by the Bell: The New Class), with the lineup being designed from the start to meet the earliest form of the FCC's educational programming guidelines under the Children's Television Act. NBA Inside Stuff, an analysis and interview program aimed at teens that was hosted for most of its run by Ahmad Rashad, was also a part of the TNBC lineup during the NBA season until 2002 (when the program moved to ABC as a result of that network taking the NBA rights from NBC).\n\nIn 2002, NBC entered into an agreement with Discovery Communications to carry educational children's programs from the Discovery Kids cable channel. Debuting that September, the Discovery Kids on NBC block originally consisted exclusively of live-action series, including reality series Trading Spaces: Boys vs. Girls (a kid-themed version of the TLC series Trading Spaces); the Emmy-nominated reality game show Endurance, hosted and produced by J. D. Roth (whose production company, 3-Ball Productions, would also produce reality series The Biggest Loser for NBC beginning in 2003); and scripted series such as Strange Days at Blake Holsey High and Scout's Safari. The block later expanded to include some animated series such as Kenny the Shark, Tutenstein and Time Warp Trio.\n\nIn May 2006, NBC announced plans to launch a new Saturday morning children's block under the Qubo brand in September 2006. An endeavor originally operated as a joint venture between NBC Universal, Ion Media Networks, Scholastic Press, Classic Media and Corus Entertainment's Nelvana unit (Ion acquired the other partners' shares in 2013), the Qubo venture also encompassed weekly blocks on Telemundo and Ion Television, a 24-hour digital multicast network on Ion's owned-and-operated and affiliated stations, as well as video on demand services and a branded website. Qubo launched on NBC on September 9, 2006 with six programs (VeggieTales, Dragon, VeggieTales Presents: 3-2-1 Penguins!, Babar, Jane and the Dragon and Jacob Two-Two).\n\nOn March 28, 2012, it was announced that NBC would launch a new Saturday morning preschool block programmed by Sprout (originally jointly owned by NBCUniversal, PBS, Sesame Workshop and Apax Partners, with the former acquiring the other's interests later that year). The block, NBC Kids, premiered on July 7, 2012, replacing the \"Qubo on NBC\" block. \n\nSpecials\n\nNBC holds the broadcast rights to several annual specials and award show telecasts including the Golden Globe Awards and the Emmy Awards (which is rotated across all four major networks each year). Since 1952, NBC has served as the official U.S. broadcaster of the Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade. CBS also carries unauthorized coverage of the Macy's parade as part of The Thanksgiving Day Parade on CBS; However, as NBC holds rights to the parade, it has exclusivity over the broadcast of Broadway and music performances appearing in the parade (CBS airs live performances separate from those seen in the parade as a result), and Macy's chose to reroute the parade in 2012 out of the view of CBS' cameras, although it continues to cover the parade. NBC began airing a same-day rebroadcast of the parade telecast in 2009 (replacing its annual Thanksgiving afternoon airing of Miracle on 34th Street). In 2007, NBC acquired the rights to the National Dog Show, which airs following the Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade each year.\n\nThe network also broadcasts several live-action and animated specials during the Christmas holiday season, including the 2014 debuts How Murray Saved Christmas (an animated musical adaptation of the children's book of the same name) and Elf: Buddy's Musical Christmas (a stop-motion animated special based on the 2003 live-action film Elf).\n\nSince 2013, the network airs live musical adaptations.\nThe Sound of Music in 2013\nPeter Pan in 2014\n*The Wiz in 2015\n\nFrom 2003 to 2014, NBC also held rights to two of the three pageants organized by the Miss Universe Organization: the Miss Universe and Miss USA pageants (NBC also held rights to the Miss Teen USA pageant from 2003, when NBC also assumed rights to the Miss USA and Miss Universe pageants as part of a deal brokered by Miss Universe Organization owner Donald Trump that gave the network half-ownership of the pageants, until 2007, when NBC declined to renew its contract to carry Miss Teen USA, effectively discontinuing televised broadcasts of that event). NBCUniversal relinquished the rights to Miss Universe and Miss USA on June 29, 2015, as part of its decision to cut business ties with Donald Trump and the Miss Universe Organization (which was half-owned by corporate parent NBCUniversal) in response to controversial remarks about Mexican immigrants made by Trump during the launch of his 2016 campaign for the Republican Presidential nomination. \n\nProgramming library\n\nThrough the years, NBC has produced many in-house programs, in addition to airing content from other producers such as Revue Studios and its successor Universal Television. Notable in-house productions by NBC have included Get Smart, Bonanza, Little House on the Prairie, Las Vegas and Crossing Jordan.\n\nNBC sold the distribution rights to programs it produced prior to that year to National Telefilm Associates in 1973; those rights are currently owned by CBS Television Distribution, although NBC still owns the copyrights to the episodes. As a result, NBC, in a way, now owns several other series aired on the network prior to 1973, such as Wagon Train. NBC continues to own its entire library of programs produced after 1973, through corporate sister NBCUniversal Television Group (the successor to Universal Television).\n\nStations\n\n, NBC has ten owned-and-operated stations and current and pending affiliation agreements with 221 additional television stations encompassing 48 states, the District of Columbia, six U.S. possessions and two non-U.S. territories (Aruba and Bermuda). The network has a national reach of 95.92% of all households in the United States (or 299,732,600 Americans with at least one television set).\n\nCurrently, New Hampshire and New Jersey are the only U.S. states where NBC does not have a locally licensed affiliate (New Hampshire is served by Boston affiliate WHDH and Hartford, Vermont affiliate WNNE, while New Jersey is served by New York City O&O WNBC-TV and Philadelphia O&O WCAU; New Jersey formerly had an in-state affiliate in Atlantic City-based WMGM-TV, which was affiliated with the network from 1955 to 2014). NBC maintains affiliations with low-power stations (broadcasting either in analog or digital) in a few smaller markets, such as Binghamton, New York (WBGH-CD), Jackson, Tennessee (WNBJ-LD) and Juneau, Alaska (KATH-LD), that do not have enough full-power stations to support a standalone affiliate. In some markets, these stations also maintain digital simulcasts on a subchannel of a co-owned/co-managed full-power television station.\n\nCurrently outside of the NBC Owned Television Stations-operated O&O group, Tegna Media is the largest operator of NBC stations in terms of overall market reach, owning or providing services to 20 NBC affiliates (including those in larger markets such as Denver, St. Louis, Seattle and Cleveland); Gray Television is the largest operator of NBC stations by numerical total, owning 23 NBC-affiliated stations.\n\nRelated services\n\nVideo-on-demand services\n\nNBC provides video on demand access for delayed viewing of the network's programming through various means, including via its website at NBC.com, a traditional VOD service called NBC on Demand available on most traditional cable and IPTV providers, and through content deals with Hulu and Netflix (the latter of which carries only cataloged episodes of NBC programs, after losing the right to carry newer episodes of its programs during their current seasons in July 2011). NBCUniversal is a part-owner of Hulu (as part of a consortium that includes, among other parties, the respective parent companies of ABC and Fox, The Walt Disney Company and 21st Century Fox), and has offered full-length episodes of most of NBC's programming through the streaming service (which are available for viewing on Hulu's website and mobile app) since Hulu launched in private beta testing on October 29, 2007. \n\nThe most recent episodes of the network's shows are usually made available on NBC.com and Hulu the day after their original broadcast. In addition, NBC.com and certain other partner websites (including Hulu) provide complete back catalogs of most of its current series as well as a limited selection of episodes of classic series from the NBCUniversal Television Distribution program library – including shows not broadcast by NBC during their original runs (including the complete or partial episode catalogs of shows like 30 Rock, The A-Team, Charles in Charge, Emergency!, Knight Rider (both the original series and the short-lived 2008 reboot), Kojak, Miami Vice, The Office, Quantum Leap and Simon & Simon). \n\nOn February 18, 2015, NBC began providing live programming streams of local NBC stations in select markets, which are only available to authenticated subscribers of participating pay television providers. All eleven NBC owned-and-operated stations owned by NBCUniversal Owned Television Stations' were the first stations to offer streams of their programming on NBC's website and mobile app, with intentions to reach agreements with other station groups to provide streams of NBC-affiliated stations in other markets. Due to restrictions imposed by the league, the network's NFL game telecasts are not permitted to be streamed on the service. \n\nNBC HD\n\nNBC's master feed is transmitted in 1080i high definition, the native resolution format for NBCUniversal's television properties. However, 19 of its affiliates transmit the network's programming in 720p HD, while four others carry the network feed in 480i standard definition either due to technical considerations for affiliates of other major networks that carry NBC programming on a digital subchannel or because a primary feed NBC affiliate has yet upgraded their transmission equipment to allow content to be presented in HD.\n\nMeet the Press was the first regular series on a major television network to produce a high-definition broadcast on February 2, 1997, which aired in the format over WHD-TV in Washington, D.C., an experimental television station owned by a consortium of industry groups and stations which launched to allow testing of HD broadcasts and operated until 2002 (the program itself continued to be transmitted in 480i standard definition over the NBC network until May 2, 2010, when it became the last NBC News program to convert to HD). NBC officially began its conversion to high definition with the launch of its simulcast feed, NBC HD, on April 26, 1999, when The Tonight Show became the first HD program to air on the NBC network as well as the first regularly scheduled American network program to be produced and transmitted in high definition. The network gradually converted much of its existing programming from standard-definition to high definition beginning with the 2002–03 season, with select shows among that season's slate of freshmen scripted series being broadcast in HD from their debuts. \n\nThe network completed its conversion to high definition in September 2012, with the launch of NBC Kids, a new Saturday morning children's block programmed by new partial sister network PBS Kids Sprout, which also became the second Saturday morning children's block with an entirely HD schedule (after the ABC-syndicated Litton's Weekend Adventure). All of the network's programming has been presented in full HD since then (with the exception of certain holiday specials produced prior to 2005 – such as its annual broadcast of It's a Wonderful Life – which continue to be presented in 4:3 SD, although some have been remastered for HD broadcast).\n\nNBCi\n\nIn 1999, NBC launched NBCi (briefly changing its web address to \"www.nbci.com\"), a heavily advertised online venture serving as an attempt to launch an Internet portal and homepage. This move saw NBC partner with XOOM.com, e-mail.com, AllBusiness.com, and Snap.com (eventually acquiring all four companies outright) to launch a multi-faceted internet portal with e-mail, webhosting, community, chat and personalization capabilities, and news content. Subsequently in April 2000, NBC purchased GlobalBrain, a company specializing in search engines that learned from searches initiated by its users, for $32 million.\n\nThe experiment lasted roughly one season; after its failure, NBCi's operations were folded back into NBC. The NBC Television portion of the website reverted to NBC.com. However, the NBCi website continued in operation as a portal for NBC-branded content (NBCi.com would be redirected to NBCi.msnbc.com), using a co-branded version of InfoSpace to deliver minimal portal content. In mid-2007, NBCi.com began to mirror the main NBC.com website; NBCi.com was eventually redirected to the NBC.com domain in 2010.\n\nEvolution of the NBC logo\n\nNBC has used a number of logos throughout its history; early logos used by the television and radio networks were similar to the logo of its then parent company, RCA. Logos used later in NBC's existence incorporated stylized peacock designs, including the current version that has been in use since 1986.\n\nInternational broadcasts\n\nCanada\n\nNBC network programs can be received throughout most of Canada on cable, satellite and IPTV providers through certain U.S.-based affiliates of the network (such as WHDH/Boston, KING-TV/Seattle, KBJR-TV/Duluth, Minnesota, WGRZ/Buffalo, New York and WDIV-TV/Detroit). Some programs carried on these stations are subject to simultaneous substitutions, a practice imposed by the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission in which a pay television provider supplants an American station's signal with a feed from a Canadian station/network airing a particular program in the same time slot to protect domestic advertising revenue. Some of these affiliates are also receivable over-the-air in southern areas of the country located near the Canada–United States border (signal coverage was somewhat reduced after the digital television transition in 2009 due to the lower radiated power required to transmit digital signals).\n\nEurope and the Middle East\n\nNBC no longer exists outside the Americas as a channel in its own right. However, NBC News and MSNBC programs are broadcast for a few hours a day on Orbit News in Europe, Africa and the Middle East. Sister network CNBC Europe also broadcasts occasional breaking news coverage from MSNBC as well as The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon (until 2010, the channel formerly broadcast daily airings of NBC Nightly News). \n\nNBC Super Channel becomes NBC Europe\n\nIn 1993, then-NBC parent General Electric acquired Super Channel, relaunching the Pan-European cable network as NBC Super Channel. In 1996, the channel was renamed NBC Europe, but was, from then on, almost always referred to on-air as simply \"NBC\".\n\nMost of NBC Europe's prime time programming was produced in Europe due to rights restrictions associated with U.S. primetime shows; the channel's weekday late night schedule after 11:00 p.m. Central European Time, however, featured The Tonight Show, Late Night with Conan O'Brien and Later, which the channel's slogan \"Where the Stars Come Out at Night\" was based around. Many NBC News programs were broadcast on NBC Europe, including Dateline NBC, Meet the Press and NBC Nightly News, the latter of which was broadcast simultaneously with the initial U.S. telecast. Today was also initially aired live in the afternoons, but was later broadcast instead the following morning on a more than half-day delay.\n\nIn 1999, NBC Europe ceased broadcasting in most of Europe outside of Germany; the network was concurrently relaunched as a German-language technology channel aimed at a younger demographic, with the new series NBC GIGA as its flagship program. In 2005, the channel was relaunched again as the free-to-air movie channel Das Vierte. GIGA Television was subsequently spun off as a separate digital channel, available on satellite and cable providers in Germany, Austria and Switzerland.\n\nLatin America\n\nMexico\n\nNBC programming is available in Mexico through affiliates in markets located within proximity to the Mexico–United States border (such as KYMA-DT/Yuma, Arizona; KGNS-TV/Laredo, Texas; KTSM/El Paso, Texas; KVEO/Brownsville, Texas; and KNSD/San Diego), whose signals are readily receivable over-the-air in border areas of northern Mexico. Some U.S.-based border affiliates are also available on domestic cable and satellite providers throughout the country, including in the Mexico City area.\n\nNicaragua\n\nIn Nicaragua, satellite providers carry either select U.S.-based NBC and Telemundo affiliated stations or the main network feed from NBC Universal or Telemundo. The main local affiliate stations are NBC 6 WTVJ, Telemundo 51 WSCV in Miami. In addition of the NBC programming there is also available by the NBC sister network Telemundo, a Spanish network based in the United States.\n\nCanal de Noticias\n\nIn 1993, NBC launched a 24-hour Spanish-language news channel serving Latin America (the second news channel serving that region overall, after Noticias ECO, and the first to broadcast 24 hours a day), Canal de Noticias NBC, which based its news schedule around the \"wheel\" format conceived at CNN. The channel, which was headquartered in the offices of the NBC News Channel affiliate news service in Charlotte, North Carolina, employed over 50 journalists to produce, write, anchor and provide technical services. Canal de Noticias NBC shut down in 1997 due to the channel's inability to generate sustainable advertising revenue.\n\nCaribbean\n\nIn the Caribbean, many cable and satellite providers carry either select U.S.-based NBC affiliated stations or the main network feed from NBC O&Os WNBC in New York City or WTVJ in Miami. In addition, the network's programming has been available in the U.S. Virgin Islands since 2004 on WVGN-LD in Charlotte Amalie (owned by LKK Group), while Telemundo owned-and-operated station WKAQ-TV in San Juan, Puerto Rico carries the WNBC feed on a digital subchannel. In these areas, NBC programs are available in English and in Spanish via second audio program.\n\nBahamas\n\nIn the Bahamas, NBC programming is available via U.S.-based affiliate stations on domestic cable providers.\n\nBermuda\n\nNBC's entire program lineup is carried by local affiliate VSB-TV via the network's East Coast satellite feed despite the island nation's location in the Atlantic Time Zone (one hour ahead the Eastern Time Zone).\n\nNetherlands Antilles\n\nIn Aruba, NBC maintains an affiliation with Oranjestad station PJA-TV (which brands on-air as \"ATV\").\n\nPacific\n\nGuam\n\nIn Guam, the entire NBC programming lineup is carried by Hagåtña affiliate KUAM-TV (which has been an NBC affiliate since 1956) via the network's East Coast satellite feed. Entertainment and news programming is broadcast day and date on a one-day tape delay as Guam is on the west side of the International Date Line (for example, the network's Thursday prime time lineup airs Friday evenings on KUAM, and is advertised by the station as airing on the latter night in on-air promotions). Live programming, including breaking news and sporting events, airs as scheduled; because of the time difference with the six U.S. time zones, live sports coverage often airs on the station early in the morning. KUAM's programming is relayed to the Northern Mariana Islands via satellite station WSZE in Saipan.\n\nAmerican Samoa\n\nIn American Samoa, NBC has been affiliated with KKHJ-LP in Pago Pago since 2005. Cable television providers on the islands also carry the network's programming via Seattle affiliate KING-TV.\n\nFederated States of Micronesia\n\nIn the Federated States of Micronesia, NBC programming is available on domestic cable providers via Honolulu affiliate KHNL.\n\nAsia\n\nNBC Asia and CNBC Asia\n\nNBC Asia launched in 1994, distributed to Nepal, Japan, Malaysia, South Korea, Taiwan, Thailand, Pakistan and the Philippines. Like with NBC Europe, NBC Asia featured most of NBC's news programs as well as The Tonight Show and Late Night. Like its European counterpart, it was not allowed to broadcast American-produced primetime shows due to existing broadcast agreements with other domestic broadcasters. NBC Asia produced a regional evening news program that aired each weeknight, and occasionally simulcast some programs from CNBC Asia and MSNBC. NBC also operated NBC Super Sports, a 24-hour channel devoted to televising sporting events.\n\nIn July 1998, NBC Asia was replaced by a regional version of the National Geographic Channel. As is the case with NBC Europe, CNBC Asia broadcasts select episodes of The Tonight Show and Late Night as well as Meet the Press are as part of its weekend schedule, and airs NFL games under the Sunday Night Football brand.\nRegional partners\n\nThrough regional partners, NBC-produced programs are seen in some countries in the continent. In the Philippines, Jack TV (owned by Solar Entertainment) airs Will & Grace and Saturday Night Live, while TalkTV airs The Tonight Show and NBC News programs including the weekday and weekend editions of Today, Early Today, Dateline NBC and NBC Nightly News. Solar TV formerly broadcast The Jay Leno Show from 2009 to 2010. In Hong Kong, English language free-to-air channel TVB Pearl (operated by TVB) airs live broadcasts of NBC Nightly News, as well as other select NBC programs.\n\nAustralia\n\nIn Australia, the Seven Network has maintained close ties with NBC and has used a majority of the U.S. network's image campaigns and slogans since the 1970s (conversely, in 2009, NBC and Seven both used the Guy Sebastian single \"Like it Like That\" in image promos for their respective summer schedules). The network's Seven News division has used John Williams-composed \"The Mission\" (the proprietary theme music for NBC News' flagship programs since 1985) as the theme music for its local and national news programs since the mid-1980s. Local newscasts were also titled Seven Nightly News from the mid-1980s until c. 2000. NBC News and Seven News often share news resources, with the former division using Seven's reporters for breaking news coverage and select taped story packages relating to Australian stories and the latter sometimes incorporating NBC News reports into its national bulletins.\n\nSeven also rebroadcasts some of NBC's news and current affairs programming during the early morning hours (usually from 3:00 to 5:00 a.m. local time), including the weekday and weekend editions of Today (which it brands as NBC Today to differentiate it from the unrelated morning program on the Nine Network), Dateline NBC and Meet the Press.\n\nCriticism and controversies\n\nSelective editing of George Zimmerman 911 call\n\nIn February 2012, Today aired a story package that included an edited version of a 9-1-1 call made by George Zimmerman minutes prior to his confrontation with Trayvon Martin that resulted in the unarmed Florida teenager being shot and killed, which (as described in a Washington Post article criticizing the editing of the tape) had the effect of \"readily paint[ing] Zimmerman as a racial profiler\". In the edited recording, Zimmerman (who claimed he shot Martin in self defense; a grand jury later acquitted him on murder charges while on trial in August 2013) is heard saying, \"This guy looks like he's up to no good. He looks black.\" A portion of the tape in which Zimmerman was describing Martin to the 911 operator was removed in its broadcast version; in the unedited version, Zimmerman said, \"This guy looks like he's up to no good. Or he's on drugs or something. It's raining and he's just walking around, looking about.\" The operator then asked, \"OK, and this guy – is he black, white or Hispanic?\", to which Zimmerman answered, \"He looks black.\" \n\nFollowing an internal investigation into the production of the segment, NBC News fired two employees involved with the piece, including a producer based at the division's Miami bureau, and NBC News executive Lilia Luciano. In a statement, NBC News' president at the time Steve Capus apologized, calling the editing \"a mistake and not a deliberate act to misrepresent the phone call.\"\n\nOn December 6, 2012, George Zimmerman filed a defamation lawsuit against NBC, alleging that the phone call was edited intentionally to give the impression that he targeted Martin because he was black and to \"create the myth that George Zimmerman was a racist and predatory villain\". Florida Circuit Court Judge Debra Nelson dismissed the suit on June 30, 2014, citing that there were \"no genuine issues\" determinable by a jury that any \"actual malice\" was acted upon. \n\nPresidents of NBC Entertainment" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "ABCs", "ABC", "A B C", "A. B. 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In which decade did the Jackson 5 sign to Motown?	tc_313	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "The_Jackson_5.txt", "Motown.txt" ], "title": [ "The Jackson 5", "Motown" ], "wiki_context": [ "The Jackson 5, or Jackson Five, also known as The Jacksons in later years, is an American popular music group. Formed in 1963 under the name the Jackson Brothers, the founding members were Jackie, Tito, Jermaine, and Marlon. Michael would join one year later. After participating in talent shows and the chitlin' circuit, they entered the professional music scene in 1967, signing with Steeltown Records and releasing ten singles. In 1969, they left Steeltown Records in order to sign with Motown.\n\nThe Jackson 5 is one of the first groups of black American performers to attain a crossover following, preceded by the Supremes, the Four Tops, and the Temptations. Scoring 17 top forty singles on the Hot 100, after continuing with further hits such as \"Never Can Say Goodbye\" and \"Dancing Machine\", most of the group with the exception of Jermaine, left Motown for Epic Records in 1975. At that time, with brother Randy taking Jermaine's place, they released five albums between 1976 and 1981, including the hit albums, Destiny (1978) and Triumph (1980), and the hit singles, \"Enjoy Yourself\", \"Shake Your Body (Down to the Ground)\" and \"Can You Feel It\". In 1983, Jermaine reunited with the band to perform on Motown 25: Yesterday, Today, Forever and subsequently released the Victory album the following year. After the end of their tour to promote the album, Michael and Marlon Jackson promptly left the group. The remaining four released the poorly received 2300 Jackson Street album in 1989 before being dropped from their label.\n\nInducted to the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1997 and the Vocal Group Hall of Fame in 1999, the Jacksons reunited in 2001 on Michael's 30th anniversary television special. Following the death of Michael Jackson in 2009, the four eldest of the brothers embarked on their Unity Tour in 2012. \n\nHistory\n\nEarly years\n\nThe five Jackson brothers' interest in music began in Gary, Indiana, bolstered by their father, Joe Jackson. In 1964, Joe caught Tito playing with his guitar after a string broke. Upon fixing the string, threatening punishment, Tito's father had him play and was impressed enough to buy the boy his own guitar. Tito, Jermaine and Jackie showed an interest in singing and formed their own group with their father, naming them \"The Jackson Brothers,\" with six-year-old Michael playing congas and childhood buddies Reynaud Jones and Milford Hite playing keyboards and drums, respectively. Marlon, then seven years old, eventually joined, playing the tambourine. In August 1965, before a show at Gary's Tiny Tots Jamboree held on Michael's seventh birthday, Evelyn LaHaie suggested the group rename themselves \"The Jackson Five Singing Group\", later shortened simply to \"The Jackson Five\".\n\nIn 1966, the group won a talent show at Gary's Theodore Roosevelt High School, where Jermaine performed several Motown numbers, including The Temptations' \"My Girl\" and Michael performed Robert Parker's \"Barefootin'\", winning the talent show instantly. Johnny Jackson and Ronnie Rancifer eventually replaced Milford Hite and Reynaud Jones. After several more talent show wins, Joe Jackson booked his sons to perform at several respected music venues of the chitlin' circuit, including Chicago's Regal Theater and Harlem's Apollo Theater, winning the talent competitions on both shows in 1967. After they won the Apollo contest on August 13, 1967, singer Gladys Knight sent a tape of the boys' demo to Motown Records, hoping to get them to sign, only to have their tape rejected and sent back to Gary. In November 1967, Joe Jackson signed the group's first contract with Gordon Keith, an owner and producer of Steeltown Records, and the Jackson Five recorded and released two singles, \"Big Boy\" and \"We Don't Have to Be Over 21\". During early 1968, the group also performed at strip clubs on Joe's behest to earn extra income.\n\nWhile performing a week-long run of shows at the Regal Theater as the opening act for Bobby Taylor & the Vancouvers, an impressed Taylor sent the Jacksons to Detroit to help with their Motown audition, which was set for July 23 at Motown's headquarters on Woodward Avenue. Following the taped audition, which was sent to CEO Berry Gordy's office in Hollywood, Gordy originally turned them down again, since he had Stevie Wonder in his spotlight, but later changed his mind, and had requested the group to be signed, with final negotiations completed by early 1969, leading to the group to be signed on March 11. Following initial recordings at Detroit's Hitsville USA studio, Berry Gordy sent the Jacksons to Hollywood in July, hiring Suzanne de Passe to become a mentor of the brothers.\n\nStarting in August, the Jackson Five performed as the opening act for The Supremes, whose lead singer Diana Ross was planning to leave for a solo career at the end of the year. After performing at the Daisy in Los Angeles and at the Miss Black America Pageant in New York, the group recorded their first single, \"I Want You Back\", written by a newly assembled Motown team called The Corporation, which consisted of three composers and songwriters Freddie Perren, Deke Richards and Alphonzo Mizell with Gordy as a fourth partner. In October, their first single for Motown was released and the group promoted it while performing at the Hollywood Palace with Ross hosting. In December, the brothers made their first appearance on the Ed Sullivan Show. Afterwards, their debut album, Diana Ross Presents the Jackson 5, was released that same month.\n\nJacksonmania\n\nIn January 1970, \"I Want You Back\" topped the Billboard Hot 100. Led by the Corporation, the Jackson 5 released two more number-one singles, \"ABC\" and \"The Love You Save\". A fourth single, \"I'll Be There\", co-written and produced by Willie Hutch, became the band's fourth number-one single, making them the first recording act to have their first four singles reach the top of the Hot 100. All four singles were almost as popular in other countries as they were in the United States. Releasing a succession of four albums in one year, the Jackson 5 replaced The Supremes as Motown's best-selling group. They continued their success with singles such as \"Mama's Pearl\", \"Never Can Say Goodbye\" and \"Sugar Daddy\", giving them a total of seven top ten singles within a two-year period.\n\nAs the Jackson Five became Motown's main marketing focus, the label capitalized on the group's youth appeal, licensing dozens of products, including the J5 heart logo located on Johnny Jackson's drum set, the group's album covers, stickers, posters and coloring books, as well as a board game and a Saturday morning cartoon series produced by Rankin/Bass. In view of their lack of covers on otherwise predominantly white teen-oriented magazines including Tiger Beat and Seventeen, a black publication, Right On!, began in 1971 and initially focused heavily on the Jackson 5, with at least one of the five members adorning a single cover between January 1972 and April 1974. In addition, the Jackson 5 appeared in several television specials including Diana Ross' 1971 special, Diana!. Later that September, they starred on their first of two Motown-oriented television specials, Goin' Back to Indiana; their second, The Jackson 5 Show, debuted in November of the following year. During the Vietnam War period, the group was often joined by Bob Hope on USO-benefited performances to support military troops.\n\nIn order to continue increasing sales, Motown launched Michael Jackson's solo career in 1971, with the single, \"Got to Be There\", released in November of that year. Following several top 40 follow-ups, Jackson's 1972 song, \"Ben\", became his first to top the charts. Jermaine Jackson was the second to release a solo project; his most successful hit of the period was a cover of the doo-wop song, \"Daddy's Home\".\n\nDecline and exit\n\nBy 1972, despite Michael and Jermaine's solo successes, the Jackson 5's own records began plummeting on the charts. Partially credited to the changing musical landscape, The Corporation, which had produced most of their hit singles, split up in 1973. Focusing their attention on the emerging disco scene, the brothers recorded the charted song, \"Get It Together\", followed immediately afterwards by their hit, \"Dancing Machine\", their first to crack the top ten since \"Sugar Daddy\" nearly three years before. Despite those successes, most of the Jackson 5's follow-ups were not as successful and by 1973, Joe Jackson had grown tired of Motown's uneasiness to continue producing hits for the brothers. Jackson began producing a nightclub act around his sons and daughters, first starting in Las Vegas and spreading throughout the states.\n\nBy 1975, most of the Jacksons opted out of recording any more music for Motown desiring creative control and royalties. Learning that they were earning only 2.8% of royalties from Motown, Joe Jackson began negotiating to have his boys sign a lucrative contract with another company, settling for Epic Records, which had offered a royalty rate of 20% per record, signing with the company in June 1975. Absent from the deal was Jermaine Jackson, who decided to stay in Motown, followed by his marriage to Berry's daughter Hazel. Randy Jackson formally replaced him. After initially suing them for breach of contract, Motown allowed the group to record for Epic, as long as they changed their name, since the name The Jackson 5 was owned by Motown. The brothers renamed themselves, simply, The Jacksons.\n\nThe Jacksons CBS/Epic Records\n\nIn November 1976, following the debut of the family's weekly variety series, the Jacksons released their self-titled Epic debut under the Philadelphia International subsidiary, produced by Gamble & Huff. Featuring \"Enjoy Yourself\" and \"Show You the Way to Go\", the album went gold but failed to generate the sales the brothers had enjoyed while at Motown. A follow-up, Goin' Places, fizzled. Renewing their contract with Epic, the Jacksons were allowed full creative control on their next recording, Destiny, released in December 1978. Featuring their best-selling Epic single to date, \"Shake Your Body (Down to the Ground)\", written by Michael and Randy, the album sold over a million copies. Its follow-up, 1980's Triumph, also sold a million copies, spawning hits such as \"Lovely One\" and \"Can You Feel It\". In 1981, they released their fifth album, a live album that eventually sold half a million copies. The live album was culled from recordings of performances on their Triumph Tour. In between the releases of Destiny and Triumph, Michael Jackson released the best-selling solo effort, Off the Wall. Its success led to rumors of Jackson's alleged split from his brothers. After Triumph, Jackson worked on his second Epic solo release, which was released in November 1982 as Thriller, which later went on to become the best-selling album of all time.\n\nIn March 1983, with Jermaine, the Jacksons performed on Motown 25: Yesterday, Today, Forever, the same show where Michael debuted the moonwalk during a solo performance of \"Billie Jean\". Following the success of the reunion, all six brothers agreed to record a sixth album for Epic, later released as Victory in 1984. Their biggest-selling album to date, it included their final top ten single, \"State of Shock\". The song was actually a duet between Michael and Mick Jagger and didn't feature participation from any other Jackson. Most of the album was produced in this way, with each brother essentially recording solo songs. Another hit was the top 20 single, \"Torture\", a duet between Michael and Jermaine, with Jackie singing several parts. In July 1984, the Jacksons launched their Victory Tour, but the tour was overshadowed by Jackie's leg injury, ticket issues, friction between the brothers, and shakeup in the promotion and marketing team, initially headed by Don King, who was later fired. Michael announced he was leaving the group after their final performance at Dodger Stadium that December, followed by the success of his album Thriller. The following January, Marlon Jackson also announced he was leaving the group to pursue a solo career. In 1989, five years after their last album, the remaining quartet of Jackie, Tito, Jermaine and Randy released the ill-fated 2300 Jackson Street, which performed badly on the charts. After a brief promotional tour, the band went into hiatus and never recorded another album together.\n\nLater years\n\nIn September 2001, nearly 17 years after their last performance together, all six Jackson brothers reunited for two performances at Madison Square Garden for a 30th anniversary special commemorating Michael's solo career, which aired in November. In early 2009, the four elder brothers began filming a reality show to make their attempt on reuniting the band, later debuting in December 2009 as The Jacksons: A Family Dynasty. During the middle of the project, Michael had announced his concert comeback in London. Michael died that same year in June, putting efforts on halt.\n\nLater in 2009, following the death of brother Michael, the surviving Jacksons recorded background vocals for a previously unreleased song, \"This Is It\" (the theme for the movie of the same name), which had originally been a demo. The radio-only single was released in October of that same year. The song did not chart on the Billboard Hot 100, but charted at number nineteen on Billboards Hot Adult Contemporary Tracks. \"This Is It\" returned the Jacksons to the chart. The surviving members of the Jacksons were in talks of planning a reunion concert tour (which was to be served as a tribute to Michael) for 2010, and were in talks in working on their first new studio album in over 20 years. However, neither plan was put into action.\n\nThe Jacksons: Unity Tour\n\nIn September 2010, Jermaine Jackson held his own \"tribute\" concert to Michael in Las Vegas. In 2011, Jackie Jackson released a solo single to iTunes, while Jermaine released his first solo album in 21 years, I Wish U Love. Following the release of one solo album, Marlon Jackson quit the music business in 1989 and invested in real estate. Randy Jackson hasn't been active in the industry since he disbanded the group Randy & The Gypsys in 1991.\n\nIn August 2011, there appeared to be a discord between the brothers concerning a tribute concert dedicated to Michael. While Jackie, Tito and Marlon were present alongside mother Katherine and sister La Toya for a tribute concert in Cardiff at the Millennium Stadium for a press conference concerning the tour, a couple of days after the press conference, both Randy and Jermaine issued a statement denouncing the tribute tour as the date of it occurred around the time of Conrad Murray's manslaughter trial in relation to Michael's death. The show carried on with Jackie, Tito and Marlon performing without Jermaine. In April 2012, Jackie, Tito, Jermaine and Marlon announced that they would reunite for several United States concerts for their Unity Tour. Thirty-eight dates were announced, however, eleven shows in the U.S. were canceled. The tour started at Casino Rama in Rama, Canada on June 20 and ended on December 9 in Osaka, Japan. \n\nLegacy\n\nIn 1980, the brothers, under their \"Jacksons\" moniker, were honored with a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. As \"The Jackson 5\" they were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1997 and the Vocal Group Hall of Fame in 1999.George, p. 50–51 Two of the band's recordings (\"ABC\" and \"I Want You Back\") are among The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame's 500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll, while the latter track also included in the Grammy Hall of Fame. On September 8, 2008, the Jacksons were honored as BMI Icons at the annual BMI Urban Awards. \n\nIn 1992, Suzanne de Passe, Jermaine Jackson, and Jermaine's then common-law wife Margaret Maldonado, worked with Motown to produce The Jacksons: An American Dream, a five-hour television miniseries broadcast based on the history of The Jackson family in a two-part special on ABC.\n\nInfluenced by The Temptations, The Supremes, James Brown, Frankie Lymon & The Teenagers and Sly & The Family Stone, the group eventually served as the inspiration for several generations of boy bands, including New Edition, Menudo, New Kids on the Block, NSYNC, the Jonas Brothers, Backstreet Boys, One Direction, and many more.\n\nThe rise of the Jackson 5 in the 1960s and 1970s coincided with the rise of a very similar musical family, The Osmonds. The Osmonds had risen to fame as regular performers on The Andy Williams Show; Jay Osmond would later note: \"Michael had a unique sense of humor about him, and told us he was so tired of watching The Osmonds on The Andy Williams Show. He explained this was something their father had them do, and Michael joked he became really tired of it!\" The song \"One Bad Apple\", written by George Jackson, who had the Jackson Five in mind when he wrote it, was originally presented to Motown Record's Chairman of the Board Berry Gordy for the group to record, but he turned it down. It was then presented to MGM Records for The Osmonds. \"One Bad Apple\", which the Osmonds recorded in a similar style to the songs of the Jackson 5 at the time, reached number one and began a string of several hits for the Osmonds. Both bands followed a similar career trajectory: a string of several hits as a group, which eventually led to a breakout star (Michael for the Jacksons, Donny for the Osmonds) becoming a solo artist, a little sister not originally part of the group also rising to fame (Janet Jackson and Marie Osmond respectively), and eventual decline as a smaller group in the 1980s. The two groups' members eventually became friends, despite public perception of a rivalry between the two and allegations that the Osmonds, white Mormon brothers from Utah, were an imitation of the black Jackson 5.\n\nThe highly anticipated new official Jacksons website [http://www.TheJacksons.live www.TheJacksons.live] was launched on May 1, 2016. Showcasing the group's history, legacy and music, the website has been well received by fans and critics alike.\n\nMembers\n\nColor key:\n\nDiscography\n\n;Motown releases (as The Jackson 5)\n Diana Ross Presents The Jackson 5 (1969)\n* ABC (1970)\n* Third Album (1970)\n* Jackson 5 Christmas Album (1970)\n* Maybe Tomorrow (1971)\n* Goin' Back to Indiana (1971)\n* Lookin' Through the Windows (1972)\n* Skywriter (1973)\n* The Jackson 5 in Japan (1973)\n* G.I.T.: Get It Together (1973)\n* Dancing Machine (1974)\n* Moving Violation (1975)\n* Joyful Jukebox Music (1976)\n* Boogie (1979)\n* Live at the Forum (2010)\n\n; CBS/Epic releases (as The Jacksons)\n* The Jacksons (1976)\n* Goin' Places (1977)\n* Destiny (1978)\n* Triumph (1980)\n* The Jacksons Live! (1981)\n* Victory (1984)\n* 2300 Jackson Street (1989)\n* The Jacksons: An American Dream (1992)\n\nTours\n\n* The Jacksons Tour (1977) (May 19, – May 24, 1977) \n* Goin' Places Tour (1978) (January 22 – May 13, 1978) \n* Destiny Tour (1979–1980) (January 22, 1979 – September 26, 1980) \n* Triumph Tour (1981) (July 8 – September 26, 1981) \n* Victory Tour (1984) (July 6 – December 9, 1984) \n* Unity Tour (2012)\n\nTV Performances\n\nThe Jackson 5\n\nMiss Black America Pagaent:\nDate: 22-08-1969\nSongs: It's", "Motown is both a style of music and an American record company. The record company was founded by Berry Gordy, Jr. as Tamla Records on January 12, 1959, and incorporated as Motown Record Corporation on April 14, 1960, in Detroit, Michigan. The name, a portmanteau of motor and town, has also become a nickname for Detroit. Motown played an important role in the racial integration of popular music as an African American-owned record label that achieved significant crossover success. In the 1960s, Motown and its subsidiary labels (including Tamla Motown, the brand used outside the US) were the most successful proponents of what came to be known as the Motown Sound, a style of soul music with a distinct pop influence. During the 1960s, Motown achieved spectacular success for a small record company: 79 records in the Top Ten of the Billboard Hot 100 record chart between 1960 and 1969. \n\nGordy relocated Motown to Los Angeles in 1972, and there it remained an independent company until June 28, 1988, when Gordy sold the company to MCA and Boston Ventures (which took over full ownership of Motown in 1991). Motown was then sold to PolyGram in 1994, before being sold again to MCA Records' successor, Universal Music Group, when it acquired PolyGram in 1999.\n\nMotown spent much of the 2000s as a part of the Universal Music subsidiaries Universal Motown and Universal Motown Republic Group, and headquartered in New York City. From 2011 to 2014, Motown was a part of The Island Def Jam Music Group division of Universal Music. On April 1, 2014, Universal Music Group announced the dissolution of Island Def Jam; subsequently Motown relocated back to Los Angeles to operate under the Capitol Music Group. It now operates out of the landmark Capitol Tower. \n\nHistory\n\nBerry Gordy got his start as a songwriter for local Detroit acts such as Jackie Wilson and the Matadors. Wilson's single \"Lonely Teardrops\", written by Gordy, became a huge success, but Gordy did not feel he made as much money as he deserved from this and other singles he wrote for Wilson. He realized that the more lucrative end of the business was in producing records and owning the publishing.\n\nIn 1959, Billy Davis and Berry Gordy's sisters Gwen and Anna started Anna Records. Davis and Gwen Gordy wanted Berry to be the company president, but Berry wanted to strike out on his own. On January 12, 1959, he started Tamla Records, with an $800 loan from his family and royalties earned writing for Jackie Wilson. Gordy originally wanted to name the label Tammy Records, after the hit song popularized by Debbie Reynolds from the 1957 film Tammy and the Bachelor, in which Reynolds also starred. When he found the name was already in use, Berry decided on Tamla instead. Tamla's first release, in the Detroit area, was Marv Johnson's \"Come to Me\" in 1959 (released nationally on United Artists). Its first hit was Barrett Strong's \"Money (That's What I Want)\" (1959), which made it to number 2 on the Billboard R&B charts (released nationally on Anna Records).\n\nGordy's first signed act was the Matadors, who immediately changed their name to the Miracles. (They were not the Matadors who recorded for Sue.) Their first release, \"Got a Job\", was an answer record to the Silhouettes' \"Get a Job\" (issued on George Goldner's End Records). The Miracles' first, minor hit was their fourth single, 1959's \"Bad Girl\", released in Detroit as the debut record on the Motown imprint, and nationally on the Chess label. (Most early Motown singles were released through other labels, such as End, Fury, Gone and Chess.)\n\nMiracles lead singer William \"Smokey\" Robinson became the vice president of the company (and later named his daughter \"Tamla\" and his son \"Berry\"). Several of Gordy's family members, including his father Berry, Sr., brothers Robert and George, and sister Esther, were given key roles in the company. By the middle of the decade, Gwen and Anna Gordy had joined the label in administrative positions as well.\n\nWest Grand Boulevard\n\nAlso in 1959, Gordy purchased the property that would become Motown's Hitsville U.S.A. studio. The photography studio located in the back of the property was modified into a small recording studio, and the Gordys moved into the second-floor living quarters. Within seven years, Motown would occupy seven additional neighboring houses:\n\nHitsville U.S.A., 1959 – (ground floor) administrative office, tape library, control room, Studio A; (upper floor) Gordy living quarter (1959–62), artists and repertoire (1962–72)\nJobete Publishing office, 1961 – sales, billing, collections, shipping, and public relations\nBerry Gordy Jr. Enterprise, 1962 – offices for Berry Gordy Jr. and Esther Gordy Edwards\nFinance department, 1965 – royalties and payroll\nArtist personal development, 1966 – Harvey Fuqua (head of artist development and producer of stage performances), Maxine Powell (instructor in grooming, poise, and social graces for Motown artists), Maurice King (vocal coach, musical director and arranger), Cholly Atkins (house choreography), and rehearsal studios\nTwo houses for administrative offices, 1966 – sales and marketing, traveling and traffic, and mixing and mastering\nITMI (International Talent Management Inc.) office, 1966 – management\n\nMotown had hired over 450 employees and had a gross income of $20 million by the end of 1966.\n\nDetroit: 1959–1972\n\nEarly Tamla/Motown artists included Mable John, Eddie Holland and Mary Wells. \"Shop Around\", the Miracles' first number 1 R&B hit, peaked at number two on the Billboard Hot 100 in 1960. It was Tamla's first million-selling record. On April 14, 1960, Motown and Tamla Records merged into a new company called Motown Record Corporation. A year later, the Marvelettes scored Tamla's first US number-one pop hit, \"Please Mr. Postman\". By the mid-1960s, the company, with the help of songwriters and producers such as Robinson, A&R chief William \"Mickey\" Stevenson, Brian Holland, Lamont Dozier, and Norman Whitfield, had become a major force in the music industry.\n\nFrom 1961 to 1971, Motown had 110 top 10 hits. Top artists on the Motown label during that period included the Supremes (initially including Diana Ross), the Four Tops, and the Jackson 5, while Stevie Wonder, Marvin Gaye, the Marvelettes, and the Miracles had hits on the Tamla label. The company operated several labels in addition to the Tamla and Motown imprints. A third label, which Gordy named after himself (though it was originally called \"Miracle\") featured the Temptations, the Contours, and Martha and the Vandellas. A fourth, V.I.P., released recordings by the Velvelettes, the Spinners, the Monitors, and Chris Clark.\n\nA fifth label, Soul, featured Jr. Walker & the All Stars, Jimmy Ruffin, Shorty Long, the Originals, and Gladys Knight & the Pips (who had found success before joining Motown, as \"The Pips\" on Vee-Jay). Many more Motown-owned labels released recordings in other genres, including Workshop Jazz (jazz), Mel-o-dy (country, although it was originally an R&B label), and Rare Earth (rock), which featured the band Rare Earth themselves. Under the slogan \"The Sound of Young America\", Motown's acts were enjoying widespread popularity among black and white audiences alike.\n\nSmokey Robinson said of Motown's cultural impact:\n\nInto the '60s, I was still not of a frame of mind that we were not only making music, we were making history. But I did recognize the impact because acts were going all over the world at that time. I recognized the bridges that we crossed, the racial problems and the barriers that we broke down with music. I recognized that because I lived it. I would come to the South in the early days of Motown and the audiences would be segregated. Then they started to get the Motown music and we would go back and the audiences were integrated and the kids were dancing together and holding hands. \n\nIn 1967 Berry Gordy purchased what is now known as Motown Mansion in Detroit's Boston-Edison Historic District as his home, leaving his previous home to his sister Anna and then husband Marvin Gaye (where photos for the cover of his album What's Going On were taken). In 1968, Gordy purchased the Donovan building on the corner of Woodward Avenue and Interstate 75, and moved Motown's Detroit offices there (the Donovan building was demolished in January 2006 to provide parking spaces for Super Bowl XL). In the same year Gordy purchased Golden World Records, and its recording studio became \"Studio B\" to Hitsville's \"Studio A\".\n\nIn the United Kingdom, Motown's records were released on various labels: at first London (only the Miracles' \"Shop Around\"/\"Who's Lovin' You\" and \"Ain't It Baby\"), then Fontana (\"Please Mr. Postman\" by the Marvelettes was one of four) and then Oriole American (\"Fingertips\" by Little Stevie Wonder was one of many). In 1963, Motown signed with EMI's Stateside label (\"Where Did Our Love Go\" by the Supremes and \"My Guy\" by Mary Wells were Motown's first British top-20 hits). Eventually EMI created the Tamla Motown label (\"Stop! In the Name of Love\" by the Supremes was the first Tamla Motown release in March 1965).\n\nLos Angeles: 1972–1998\n\nAfter the songwriting trio Holland–Dozier–Holland left the label in 1967 over royalty-payment disputes, Norman Whitfield became the company's top producer, turning out hits for The Temptations, Marvin Gaye, Gladys Knight & the Pips and Rare Earth. In the meantime Berry Gordy established Motown Productions, a television subsidiary which produced TV specials for the Motown artists, including TCB, with Diana Ross & the Supremes and the Temptations, Diana! with Diana Ross, and Goin' Back to Indiana with the Jackson 5. The company loosened its production rules, allowing some of its longtime artists the opportunity to write and produce more of their own material. This resulted in the recordings of successful and critically acclaimed albums such as Marvin Gaye's What's Going On (1971) and Let's Get it On (1973), and Stevie Wonder's Music of My Mind (1972), Talking Book (1972), and Innervisions (1973).\n\nMotown had established branch offices in both New York City and Los Angeles during the mid-1960s, and by 1969 had begun gradually moving more of its operations to Los Angeles. The company moved all of its operations to Los Angeles in June 1972, with a number of artists, among them Martha Reeves, the Four Tops, Gladys Knight & the Pips, and Motown's Funk Brothers studio band, either staying behind in Detroit or leaving the company for other reasons. By re-locating, Motown aimed chiefly to branch out into the motion-picture industry, and Motown Productions got its start in film by turning out two hit-vehicles for Diana Ross: the Billie Holiday biographical film Lady Sings the Blues (1972), and Mahogany (1975). Other Motown films would include Scott Joplin (1977), Thank God It's Friday (1978), The Wiz (1978) and The Last Dragon (1985). Ewart Abner, who had been associated with Motown since the 1960s, became its president in 1973.\n\nDespite losing Holland–Dozier–Holland, Norman Whitfield, and some of its other hitmakers by 1975, Motown still had a number of successful artists during the 1970s and 1980s, including Lionel Richie and the Commodores, Rick James, Teena Marie, the Dazz Band and DeBarge. By the mid-1980s Motown had started losing money, and Berry Gordy sold his ownership in Motown to MCA Records and Boston Ventures in June 1988 for $61 million. In 1989, Gordy sold the Motown Productions TV/film operations to Motown executive Suzanne de Passe, who renamed the company de Passe Entertainment and continues to run it .\n\nDuring the 1990s Motown was home to successful recording artists such as Boyz II Men and Johnny Gill, although the company itself remained in a state of turmoil. MCA appointed a revolving door of executives to run the company, beginning with Berry Gordy's immediate successor, Jheryl Busby. Busby quarreled with MCA, alleging that the company did not give Motown's product adequate attention or promotion. In 1991, Motown sued MCA to have its distribution deal with the company terminated, and began releasing its product through PolyGram. PolyGram purchased Motown from Boston Ventures three years later.\n\nIn 1994, Busby was replaced by Andre Harrell, the entrepreneur behind Uptown Records. Harrell served as Motown's CEO for just under two years, leaving the company after receiving bad publicity for being inefficient. Danny Goldberg, who ran PolyGram's Mercury Records group, assumed control of Motown, and George Jackson served as president.\n\nFinal years of the Motown label: 1999–2005\n\nBy 1998, Motown had added stars such as 702, Brian McKnight, and Erykah Badu to its roster. In December 1998, PolyGram was acquired by Seagram, and Motown was absorbed into the Universal Music Group. Seagram had purchased Motown's former parent MCA in 1995, and Motown was in effect reunited with many of its MCA corporate siblings (Seagram had hoped to build a media empire around Universal, and started by purchasing PolyGram). Universal briefly considered shuttering the label, but instead decided to restructure it. Kedar Massenburg, a producer for Erykah Badu, became the head of the label, and oversaw successful recordings from Badu, McKnight, Michael McDonald, and new Motown artist India.Arie.\n\nDiana Ross, Smokey Robinson, Stevie Wonder, and the Temptations had remained with the label since its early days, although all except Wonder recorded for other labels for several years. Ross left Motown for RCA Records from 1981 to 1988, but returned in 1989 and stayed until 2002. Robinson left the label in the early 1990s, and the Temptations left a second time in 2004. Wonder is, today, the only artist from Motown's early period still on the label.\n\nQ-Tip was the final artist on the label, releasing The Renaissance.\n\nUniversal Motown: 2005–2011\n\nIn 2005, Massenburg was replaced by Sylvia Rhone, former CEO of Elektra Records. Motown was merged with Universal Records to create the Universal Motown Records and placed under the newly created umbrella division of Universal Motown Republic Group. Motown began celebrating its fiftieth anniversary (January 12, 2009) in late 2008, including the release of a The Complete No. 1's box set containing Motown number-one hits from Billboard′s pop, R&B, and disco charts, reissues of classic-era Motown albums on CD, and other planned events, which were released in collaboration with Universal Music Group's catalog division Universal Music Enterprises.\n\nRelaunch: 2011–present\n\nAs of summer of 2011, Universal Motown has been separated from Universal Motown Republic Group, has reverted to the original Motown brand, has hired Ethiopia Habtemariam as its Senior Vice President, and is now operated under The Island Def Jam Music Group. Artists from Universal Motown have been transferred to the newly revitalized Motown label. On January 25, 2012, it was announced that Ne-Yo would join the Motown label both as an artist as well as the new Senior Vice President of A&R. On April 1, 2014, it was announced that Island Def Jam will no longer be running following the resignation of CEO Barry Weiss. In a press release sent out by Universal Music Group, the label will now be reorganizing Def Jam Recordings, Island Records and Motown Records all as separate entities. Motown would then begin serving as a subsidiary of Capitol Records. \n\nMotown Sound\n\nMotown specialized in a type of soul music it referred to with the trademark \"The Motown Sound\". Crafted with an ear towards pop appeal, the Motown Sound typically used tambourines to accent the back beat, prominent and often melodic electric bass-guitar lines, distinctive melodic and chord structures, and a call-and-response singing style that originated in gospel music. Pop production techniques such as the use of orchestral string sections, charted horn sections, and carefully arranged background vocals were also used. Complex arrangements and elaborate, melismatic vocal riffs were avoided. Motown producers believed steadfastly in the \"KISS principle\" (keep it simple, stupid). Despite the growth of popular music being written and performed by black artists, the songs would not become popular or recognized unless the music was being performed by white performers. However, the Motown Sound became distinctly unique, making it impossible for white performers to replicate its sound. The \"real\" Motown Sound became more favorable than the altered renditions. \n\nThe Motown production process has been described as factory-like. The Hitsville studios remained open and active 22 hours a day, and artists would often go on tour for weeks, come back to Detroit to record as many songs as possible, and then promptly go on tour again. Berry Gordy held quality control meetings every Friday morning, and used veto power to ensure that only the very best material and performances would be released. The test was that every new release needed to fit into a sequence of the top five selling pop singles of the week. Several tracks that later became critical and commercial favorites were initially rejected by Gordy; the two most notable being the Marvin Gaye songs \"I Heard It Through the Grapevine\" and \"What's Going On\". In several cases, producers would re-work tracks in hopes of eventually getting them approved at a later Friday morning meeting, as producer Norman Whitfield did with \"I Heard It Through the Grapevine\" and The Temptations' \"Ain't Too Proud to Beg\".\n\nMany of Motown's best-known songs, including all the early hits for the Supremes, were written by the songwriting trio of Holland–Dozier–Holland (Lamont Dozier and brothers Brian and Eddie Holland). Other important Motown producers and songwriters included Norman Whitfield, William \"Mickey\" Stevenson, Smokey Robinson, Barrett Strong, Nickolas Ashford & Valerie Simpson, Frank Wilson, Pamela Sawyer & Gloria Jones, James Dean & William Weatherspoon, Johnny Bristol, Harvey Fuqua, Gil Askey, Stevie Wonder, and Gordy himself.\n\nThe style created by the Motown musicians was a major influence on several non-Motown artists of the mid-1960s, such as Dusty Springfield and the Foundations. In the United Kingdom, the Motown Sound became the basis of the northern soul movement. Smokey Robinson said the Motown Sound had little to do with Detroit:\n\nThe Funk Brothers\n\nIn addition to the songwriting process of the writers and producers, one of the major factors in the widespread appeal of Motown's music was Gordy's practice of using a highly select and tight-knit group of studio musicians, collectively known as the Funk Brothers, to record the instrumental or \"band\" tracks of a majority of Motown recordings. Among the studio musicians responsible for the \"Motown Sound\" were keyboardists Earl Van Dyke, Johnny Griffith, and Joe Hunter; guitarists Joe Messina, Robert White, and Eddie Willis; percussionists Eddie \"Bongo\" Brown and Jack Ashford; drummers Benny Benjamin, Uriel Jones, and Richard \"Pistol\" Allen; and bassists James Jamerson and Bob Babbitt. The band's career and work is chronicled in the 2002 documentary film Standing in the Shadows of Motown, which publicised the fact that these musicians \"played on more number-one records than The Beatles, Elvis, The Rolling Stones, and The Beach Boys combined.\"\n\nMuch of the Motown Sound came from the use of overdubbed and duplicated instrumentation. Motown songs regularly featured two drummers instead of one (either overdubbed or in unison), as well as three or four guitar lines. \nBassist James Jamerson often played his instrument with only the index finger of his right hand, and created many of the basslines apparent on Motown songs such as \"Up the Ladder to the Roof\" by The Supremes.\n\nArtist development\n\nArtist development was a major part of Motown's operations instituted by Berry Gordy. The acts on the Motown label were fastidiously groomed, dressed and choreographed for live performances. Motown artists were advised that their breakthrough into the white popular music market made them ambassadors for other African-American artists seeking broad market acceptance, and that they should think, act, walk and talk like royalty, so as to alter the less-than-dignified image commonly held of black musicians by white Americans in that era. Given that many of the talented young artists had been raised in housing projects and lacked the necessary social and dress experience, this Motown department was not only necessary, it created an elegant style of presentation long associated with the label. The artist development department specialized primarily in working with younger, less experienced acts; experienced performers such as Jr. Walker and Marvin Gaye were exempted from artist development classes.\n\nMany of the young artists participated in an annual package tour called the \"Motortown Revue\", which was popular, first, on the \"chitlin' circuit\", and, later, around the world. The tours gave the younger artists a chance to hone their performance and social skills and learn from the more experienced artists.\n\nMotown subsidiary labels\n\nIn order to avoid accusations of payola should DJs play too many records from the original Tamla label, Gordy formed Motown Records as a second label in 1959. The two labels featured the same writers, producers and artists.\n\nMany more subsidiary labels were established later under the umbrella of the Motown parent company, including Gordy Records, Soul Records and VIP Records; in reality the Motown Record Corporation controlled all of these labels. Most of the distinctions between Motown labels were largely arbitrary, with the same writers, producers and musicians working on all the major subsidiaries, and artists were often shuffled between labels for internal marketing reasons. All of these records are usually considered to be \"Motown\" records, regardless of whether they actually appeared on the Motown Records label itself.\n\nMajor divisions\n\n Tamla Records: Established 1959, Tamla was a primary subsidiary for mainstream R&B/soul music. Tamla is actually the company's original label: Gordy founded Tamla Records several months before establishing the Motown Record Corporation. The label's numbering system was combined with those of Motown and Gordy in 1982, and the label was merged with Motown in 1988. Notable Tamla artists included Smokey Robinson & the Miracles, Marvin Gaye, Stevie Wonder, and the Marvelettes. Tamla was briefly re-activated in 1996 as a reggae label, but only released a 12\" single by Cocoa Tea called \"New Immigration Law\". Tamla also had a sub-label called Penny Records in 1959; artists on that label included Bryan Brent And The Cut Outs, who recorded a single for the label entitled Vacation Time b/w For Eternity (2201). Tamla Records slogan: \"The Sound that Makes the World Go 'Round\".\n* Motown Records: Established 1959, Motown was and remains the company's main label for mainstream R&B/soul music (and, today, hip-hop music as well). The label's numbering system was combined with those of Tamla and Gordy in 1982, and the label (and company) was purchased by MCA in 1988. Notable Motown artists have included Mary Wells, the Supremes, Four Tops, the Jackson 5, Boyz II Men, Commodores, Lionel Richie, Dazz Band, Brian McKnight, 98 Degrees, and Erykah Badu. Motown Records slogan: \"The Sound of Young America\".\n* Gordy Records: Established 1962, Gordy was also a primary subsidiary for mainstream R&B/soul music. Originally known as Miracle Records (slogan: \"If It's a Hit, It's a Miracle\"), the name was changed in 1962 to avoid confusion with the Miracles singing group. The label's numbering system was combined with those of Motown and Tamla in 1982, and the label was merged with Motown in 1988. Notable Gordy artists included the Temptations, Martha and the Vandellas, the Contours, Edwin Starr, Rick James, the Mary Jane Girls, Teena Marie, Switch, and DeBarge. Gordy Records slogan: \"It's What's in the Grooves that Counts\". \n* Tamla Motown Records: Motown's non-US label, established in March 1965 - and folded into the regular Motown label in 1976. Distributed by EMI, Tamla Motown issued the releases on the American Motown labels, using its own numbering system. In some cases, Tamla Motown would issue singles and albums not released in the United States (for example, the singles \"I Second That Emotion\" and \"Why (Must We Fall in Love)\" by Diana Ross & the Supremes with the Temptations, as well as the successful Motown Chartbusters series of albums).\n\nSecondary R&B labels\n\n* Check-Mate Records: Short-lived (1961–1962) R&B/soul subsidiary, purchased from Chess Records. Notable artists included David Ruffin and The Del-Phis (later Martha and the Vandellas).\n* Miracle Records: Short-lived (1961) R&B/soul subsidiary that lasted less than a year. Some pressings featured the infamous tagline, \"If it's a hit, it's a Miracle.\" Shut down and reorganized as Gordy Records in 1962. Notable releases included early recordings by Jimmy Ruffin and the Temptations. \n* MoWest Records: MoWest was a short-lived (1971–1973; 1976 in UK) subsidiary for R&B/soul artists based on the West Coast. Shut down when the main Motown office moved to Los Angeles. Notable artists included G. C. Cameron, the Sisters Love, Syreeta Wright, the Four Seasons, Commodores (their first two singles in 1972 and 1973), and Los Angeles DJ Tom Clay. Unlike other Motown releases in the UK that were released by Tamla Motown, MoWest retained its US label design and logo for its UK releases as well. In fact, MoWest lasted longer in the UK up until 1976.\n* Motown Yesteryear: a label created in late 1970s and used through the 1980s for the reissues of 7-inch singles from all eras of the company's history, after printing in the initial label has ceased. One Motown Yesteryear single made Billboard′s Top 40 – the Contours' \"Do You Love Me\", in 1988, when its inclusion in the film Dirty Dancing revived interest.\n* Soul Records: Established in 1964, Soul was a R&B/soul subsidiary for releases with less of a pop feel and/or more of a traditional soul/blues feel. Notable Soul artists included Jr. Walker & the All-Stars, Shorty Long, Gladys Knight & the Pips, the Originals, the Fantastic Four, and Jimmy Ruffin. The label was dissolved in 1978. This label has no affiliation with the short-lived S.O.U.L. Records- an early 1990s imprint that was founded by the production team the Bomb Squad.\n* V.I.P. Records: Established in 1964, V.I.P. was an R&B/soul subsidiary. Notable artists included the Velvelettes, the Spinners, the Monitors, the Elgins and Chris Clark. The label was dissolved in 1974.\n* Weed Records: A very short-lived subsidiary. Only one release, Chris Clark's 1969 CC Rides Again album, was issued. This release featured the tongue-in-cheek tagline: \"Your Favorite Artists Are On Weed\". The logo was a parody of the \"Snapping Fingers\" logo for Stax Records, but the hand in this case is holding up a peace sign. The name \"Weed Records\" is now owned by the Tokyo/New York-based Weed Records.\n\nAlternative genre labels\n\nCountry\n\n* Mel-o-dy Records: Established in 1962 as a secondary R&B/soul music subsidiary, Mel-o-dy later focused on white country music artists. Notable Mel-o-dy artists include Dorsey Burnette. The label was dissolved in 1965.\n* Hitsville Records: Founded as Melodyland Records in 1974. After the Melodyland Christian Center threatened legal action, the name was changed to Hitsville in 1976. Like Mel-o-dy before it, Hitsville focused on country music. Run by Mike Curb and Ray Ruff, Hitsville's notable artists included Ronnie Dove, Pat Boone, T. G. Sheppard and Jud Strunk. The label was dissolved in 1977. In the UK, Melodyland/Hitsville material was released on MoWest.\n* M.C. Records: Operated 1977 to 1978 as a continuation of the Hitsville label. A joint venture between Gordy and Mike Curb. The Mel-o-dy, Hitsville, and M.C. catalogs are now managed by Mercury Nashville Records.\n\nHip hop/rap\n\n* Wondirection Records: A record label owned by Stevie Wonder, it had one 12-inch dance release, the 10' 35\" rap track \"The Crown\" by Gary Byrd and the G.B. Experience.\n* Mad Sounds Recordings: Short-lived hip-hop/rap subsidiary label, released five albums in the mid-1990s- including Zig Zag by Tha Mexakinz, Trendz by Trendz of Culture and Rottin ta da Core by Rottin Razkals.\n\nJazz\n\n* Workshop Jazz Records: Motown's jazz subsidiary, active from 1962 to 1964. Notable Workshop Jazz artists included the George Bohannon Trio and Four Tops (whose recordings for the label went unissued for 30 years). The Workshop Jazz catalog is currently managed by Verve Records.\n* Blaze Records: A short-lived label featuring Jack Ashford instrumental released in September 1969, \"Do The Choo-Choo\" with b-side \"Do The Choo-Choo Pt II\" written by L. Chandler, E. Willis, J. Ashford, with label number 1107.\n* Mo Jazz Records: Another jazz label created in the 1990s, this was Motown's most successful jazz imprint. Notable artists included Norman Brown, Foley, Norman Connors, and J. Spencer. It also reissued instrumental albums like Stevie Wonder's 1968 album Eivets Rednow and Grover Washington, Jr.'s CTI/Kudu albums under the Classic Mo Jazz subsidiary. This label (including its roster and catalog) was folded into Verve Records after the PolyGram/Universal merger.\n\nRock\n\n* Rare Earth Records: Established in 1969 after the signing of Rare Earth (after whom the label was named), Rare Earth Records was a subsidiary focusing on rock music by white artists. Notable acts included Rare Earth, R. Dean Taylor, the Pretty Things, Love Sculpture, Stoney & Meatloaf, Kiki Dee, Toe Fat, The Cats and Shaun Murphy. The label also was the subsidiary to house the first white band signed to Motown, the Rustix.\n* Prodigal Records: Purchased by Motown in 1974, Motown used Prodigal Records as a second rock music subsidiary; a sister label to Rare Earth Records. The Rare Earth band moved over to the label following the Rare Earth label's demise. Pop singer Charlene's #3 pop single for Motown I've Never Been To Me was originally released and charted on this label in 1977 (#97). Prodigal was dissolved in 1978.\n* Morocco Records: Meaning \"MOtown ROCk COmpany,\" As the name suggests, Morocco was a rock music subsidiary. Active from 1983 to 1984, it was a short-lived attempt to revive the Rare Earth Records concept. Only seven albums were released on the label. Its two most promising acts, Duke Jupiter and the black new wave trio Tiggi Clay (via their lead singer, Fizzy Qwick) eventually moved to the parent label.\n\nOther\n\n* Divinity Records: Short-lived (1962–1963) gospel subsidiary. With five releases by artists- Wright Specials, Gospel Stars, Bernadettes, and Liz Lands. Label sequence starts at 99004 to 99008, the final recording being \"We Shall Overcome\" (for label number 99008) that was recorded in the Graystone Ballroom, was withdrawn and transferred to GORDY 7023B as \"I Have A Dream\" speech by Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr..\n* Black Forum Records: A spoken-word subsidiary that focused mainly on albums featuring progressive political and pro-civil rights speeches/poetry. Black Forum issued recordings by the Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., Stokely Carmichael, Elaine Brown, Langston Hughes, Margaret Danner, and others from 1970 until 1973. \n* Natural Resources Records: This label was active from 1972 to 1973 and in 1976 as a minor subsidiary for white artists and instrumental bands. It served as a label for Motown, Tamla and Gordy reissues and Motown compilation albums in 1978 and 1979.\n* Motown Latino Records: Short-lived (1982) subsidiary for Spanish-language Latin American music. Its only artist was Jose Feliciano.\n* Ocean Front Records: Catalog division, originally founded in company's heyday. Closed in 1983\n* Gaiee Records: Only one single was released on this label in 1975; Valentino's \"Gay/Lesbian\" anthem \"I Was Born This Way\", which was later covered by fellow Motown artist Carl Bean in 1977.\n\nIndependent labels distributed by Motown\n\n* Biv 10 Records: A hip-hop/R&B label that was founded by Bell Biv Devoe/New Edition member Michael Bivins. The label operated throughout most of the 1990s. Its roster included Another Bad Creation, Boyz II Men, and 702.\n* Chisa Records: Motown released output for Chisa, a label owned by Hugh Masekela, from 1969 to 1972 (prior to that, the label was distributed by Vault Records).\n* CTI Records:Motown distributed output for CTI Records, a jazz label owned by Creed Taylor, from 1974 to 1975. CTI subsidiaries distributed by Motown included Kudu Records, Three Brothers Records and Salvation Records.\n* Three Brothers Records: A short-lived sublabel of CTI Records that had two single releases. One was by a Spike Jones influenced group called The Clams. With a few exceptions, the bulk of CTI's recordings is now owned by Sony Music Entertainment.\n* Ecology Records : A very short-lived label owned by Sammy Davis, Jr. and distributed by Motown. Only release: single \"In My Own Lifetime\"/\"I'll Begin Again\", by Davis in 1971.\n* Gull Records: A UK-based label still in operation, Motown released Gull's output in the US in 1975. Gull had Judas Priest on its roster in 1975, but their LP Sad Wings of Destiny, intended for release by Motown in the US, was issued after the Motown/Gull Deal had fallen through.\n* Manticore Records: A record label created by the members of the rock group Emerson, Lake & Palmer. Manticore released albums by ELP and various other Progressive rock artists. Manticore was originally distributed in the U.S. by Atlantic Records from 1973 to 1975 but switched to Motown distribution until the label folded in 1977.\n\nMiscellaneous labels associated with Motown\n\n* Rayber Records\n* IPG Records\n* Rich Records\n* Summer Camp Records\n* Inferno Records\n* Tabu Records\n\nBritish (pre-Tamla Motown) labels\n\n* London American Records issued the releases for Motown from 1960 to 1961.\n* Fontana Records issued the releases for Motown from 1961 to 1962.\n* Oriole American Records issued the releases for Motown from 1962 to 1963.\n* Stateside Records issued the releases for Motown from 1963 to 1964, when the Tamla Motown label was created." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Sixties Revolution", "Turbulent Sixties", "1960s (decade)", "The '60's", "60's", "1960s in sports", "1960's", "Nineteen sixties", "The 60s", "1960s", "The '60s", "Sixties", "The 60's", "Nineteen-sixties", "1960ies", "1960–1969", "%6060s", "'60s", "1960-1969", "1960’s", "The Sixties" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "1960 1969", "1960 s", "1960–1969", "60s", "sixties", "sixties revolution", "1960s in sports", "60 s", "turbulent sixties", "1960s", "1960s decade", "nineteen sixties", "1960ies", "6060s" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "1960s", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "1960s" }
How many vice presidents did Franklin D Roosevelt have?	tc_314	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Vice_President_of_the_United_States.txt", "Franklin_D._Roosevelt.txt" ], "title": [ "Vice President of the United States", "Franklin D. Roosevelt" ], "wiki_context": [ "The Vice President of the United States (VPOTUS) is the second-highest position in the executive branch of the United States, after the President. The executive power of both the vice president and the president is granted under Article Two, Section One of the Constitution. The vice president is indirectly elected, together with the president, to a four-year term of office by the people of the United States through the Electoral College. The vice president is the first person in the presidential line of succession, and would normally ascend to the presidency upon the death, resignation, or removal of the president. The Office of the Vice President of the United States assists and organizes the vice president's official functions.\n\nThe vice president is also president of the United States Senate and in that capacity only votes when it is necessary to break a tie. While Senate customs have created supermajority rules that have diminished this constitutional tie-breaking authority, the vice president still retains the ability to influence legislation; for example, the Deficit Reduction Act of 2005 was passed in the Senate by a tie-breaking vice presidential vote. Additionally, pursuant to the Twelfth Amendment, the vice president presides over the joint session of Congress when it convenes to count the vote of the Electoral College.\n\nWhile the vice president's only constitutionally prescribed functions aside from presidential succession relate to their role as President of the Senate, the office is commonly viewed as a component of the executive branch of the federal government. The United States Constitution does not expressly assign the office to any one branch, causing a dispute among scholars whether it belongs to the executive branch, the legislative branch, or both. The modern view of the vice president as a member of the executive branch is due in part to the assignment of executive duties to the vice president by either the president or Congress, though such activities are only recent historical developments.\n\nOrigin\n\nThe creation of the office of vice president was a direct consequence of the creation of the Electoral College. Delegates to the Philadelphia Convention gave each state a number of presidential electors equal to that state's combined share of House and Senate seats. Yet the delegates were worried that each elector would only favor his own state's favorite son candidate, resulting in deadlocked elections that would produce no winners. To counter this potential difficulty, the delegates gave each presidential elector two votes, requiring that at least one of their votes be for a candidate from outside the elector's state; they also mandated that the winner of an election must obtain an absolute majority of the total number of electors. The delegates expected that each elector's second vote would go to a statesman of national character.\n\nFearing that electors might throw away their second vote to bolster their favorite son's chance of winning, however, the Philadelphia delegates specified that the runner-up would become vice president. Creating this new office imposed a political cost on discarded votes and forced electors to cast their second ballot.\n\nRoles of the vice president\n\nThe Constitution limits the formal powers and role of vice president to becoming president, should the president become unable to serve, prompting the well-known expression \"only a heartbeat away from the presidency,\" and to acting as the presiding officer of the U.S. Senate.\nOther statutorily granted roles include membership of both the National Security Council and the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. \n\nPresident of the United States Senate\n\nAs President of the Senate, the vice president has two primary duties: to cast a vote in the event of a Senate deadlock and to preside over and certify the official vote count of the U.S. Electoral College. For example, in the first half of 2001, the Senators were divided 50-50 between Republicans and Democrats and Dick Cheney's tie-breaking vote gave the Republicans the Senate majority.\n\nRegular duties\n\nAs President of the Senate (Article I, Section 3, Clause 4), the vice president oversees procedural matters and may cast a tie-breaking vote. There is a strong convention within the U.S. Senate that the vice president should not use their position as President of the Senate to influence the passage of legislation or act in a partisan manner, except in the case of breaking tie votes. As President of the Senate, John Adams cast twenty-nine tie-breaking votes, a record no successor except John C. Calhoun ever threatened. Adams's votes protected the president's sole authority over the removal of appointees, influenced the location of the national capital, and prevented war with Great Britain. On at least one occasion Adams persuaded senators to vote against legislation he opposed, and he frequently addressed the Senate on procedural and policy matters. Adams's political views and his active role in the Senate made him a natural target for critics of George Washington's administration. Toward the end of his first term, a threatened resolution that would have silenced him except for procedural and policy matters caused him to exercise more restraint in hopes of seeing his election as President of the United States.\n\nFormerly, the vice president would preside regularly over Senate proceedings, but in modern times, the vice president rarely presides over day-to-day matters in the Senate; in their place, the Senate chooses a President pro tempore (or \"president for a time\") to preside in the vice president's absence; the Senate normally selects the longest-serving senator in the majority party. The President pro tempore has the power to appoint any other senator to preside, and in practice junior senators from the majority party are assigned the task of presiding over the Senate at most times.\n\nExcept for this tie-breaking role, the Standing Rules of the Senate vest no significant responsibilities in the vice president. Rule XIX, which governs debate, does not authorize the vice president to participate in debate, and grants only to members of the Senate (and, upon appropriate notice, former presidents of the United States) the privilege of addressing the Senate, without granting a similar privilege to the sitting vice president. Thus, as Time magazine wrote during the controversial tenure of Vice President Charles G. Dawes, \"once in four years the Vice President can make a little speech, and then he is done. For four years he then has to sit in the seat of the silent, attending to speeches ponderous or otherwise, of deliberation or humor.\" \n\nRecurring, infrequent duties\n\nThe President of the Senate also presides over counting and presentation of the votes of the Electoral College. This process occurs in the presence of both houses of Congress, generally on January 6 of the year following a U.S. presidential election. In this capacity, only four vice presidents have been able to announce their own election to the presidency: John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, Martin Van Buren, and George H. W. Bush. At the beginning of 1961, it fell to Richard Nixon to preside over this process, which officially announced the election of his 1960 opponent, John F. Kennedy. In 2001, Al Gore announced the election of his opponent, George W. Bush. In 1969, Vice President Hubert Humphrey would have announced the election of his opponent, Richard Nixon; however, on the date of the Congressional joint session (January 6), Humphrey was in Norway attending the funeral of Trygve Lie, the first elected Secretary-General of the United Nations. \n\nIn 1933, incumbent Vice President Charles Curtis announced the election of House Speaker John Nance Garner as his successor, while Garner was seated next to him on the House dais.\n\nThe President of the Senate may also preside over most of the impeachment trials of federal officers. However, whenever the President of the United States is impeached, the US Constitution requires the Chief Justice of the United States to preside over the Senate for the trial. The Constitution is silent as to the presiding officer in the instance where the vice president is the officer impeached.\n\nSuccession and the Twenty-Fifth Amendment\n\nThe U.S. Constitution provides that should the president die, become disabled while in office or removed from office, the \"powers and duties\" of the office are transferred to the vice president. Initially, it was unclear whether the vice president actually became the new president or merely an acting president. This was first tested in 1841 with the death of President William Henry Harrison. Harrison's vice president, John Tyler, asserted that he had succeeded to the full presidential office, powers, and title, and declined to acknowledge documents referring to him as \"Acting President.\" Despite some strong calls against it, Tyler took the oath of office as the tenth President. Tyler's claim was not challenged legally, and so the Tyler precedent of full succession was established. This was made explicit by Section 1 of the Twenty-fifth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, ratified in 1967.\n\nSection 2 of the Twenty-fifth Amendment provides for vice presidential succession:\n Gerald Ford was the first vice president selected by this method, after the resignation of Vice President Spiro Agnew in 1973; after succeeding to the presidency, Ford nominated Nelson Rockefeller as vice president.\n\nAnother issue was who had the power to declare that an incapacitated president is unable to discharge his duties. This question had arisen most recently with the illnesses of President Dwight D. Eisenhower. Section 3 and Section 4 of the amendment provide means for the vice president to become acting president upon the temporary disability of the president. Section 3 deals with self-declared incapacity of the president. Section 4 deals with incapacity declared by the joint action of the vice president and of a majority of the Cabinet.\n\nWhile Section 4 has never been invoked, Section 3 has been invoked three times: on July 13, 1985 when Ronald Reagan underwent surgery to remove cancerous polyps from his colon, and twice more on June 29, 2002 and July 21, 2007 when George W. Bush underwent colonoscopy procedures requiring sedation. Prior to this amendment, Vice President Richard Nixon informally assumed some of President Dwight Eisenhower's duties for several weeks on each of three occasions when Eisenhower was ill.\n\nInformal roles\n\nThe extent of any informal roles and functions of the vice president depend on the specific relationship between the president and the vice president, but often include tasks such as drafter and spokesperson for the administration's policies, adviser to the president, and being a symbol of American concern or support. The influence of the vice president in this role depends almost entirely on the characteristics of the particular administration. Dick Cheney, for instance, was widely regarded as one of President George W. Bush's closest confidants. Al Gore was an important adviser to President Bill Clinton on matters of foreign policy and the environment. Often, vice presidents are chosen to act as a \"balance\" to the president, taking either more moderate or radical positions on issues.\n\nUnder the American system the president is both head of state and head of government, and the ceremonial duties of the former position are often delegated to the vice president. The vice president is often assigned the ceremonial duties of representing the president and the government at state funerals or other functions in the United States. This often is the most visible role of the vice president, and has occasionally been the subject of ridicule, such as during the vice presidency of George H. W. Bush. The vice president may meet with other heads of state or attend state funerals in other countries, at times when the administration wishes to demonstrate concern or support but cannot send the president themselves.\n\nOffice as stepping stone to the presidency\n\nIn recent decades, the vice presidency has frequently been used as a platform to launch bids for the presidency. The transition of the office to its modern stature occurred primarily as a result of Franklin Roosevelt's 1940 nomination, when he captured the ability to nominate his running mate instead of leaving the nomination to the convention. Prior to that, party bosses often used the vice presidential nomination as a consolation prize for the party's minority faction. A further factor potentially contributing to the rise in prestige of the office was the adoption of presidential preference primaries in the early 20th century. By adopting primary voting, the field of candidates for vice president was expanded by both the increased quantity and quality of presidential candidates successful in some primaries, yet who ultimately failed to capture the presidential nomination at the convention.\n\nOf the thirteen presidential elections from 1956 to 2004, nine featured the incumbent president; the other four (1960, 1968, 1988, 2000) all featured the incumbent vice president. Former vice presidents also ran, in 1984 (Walter Mondale), and in 1968 (Richard Nixon, against the incumbent vice president, Hubert Humphrey). The first presidential election to include neither the incumbent president nor the incumbent vice president on a major party ticket since 1952 came in 2008 when President George W. Bush had already served two terms and Vice President Cheney chose not to run. Richard Nixon is also the only non-sitting vice president to be elected president, as well as the only person to be elected president and vice president twice each.\n\nSelection process\n\nEligibility\n\nThe Twelfth Amendment states that \"no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible to that of Vice President of the United States.\" Thus, to serve as vice president, an individual must:\n* Be a natural-born U.S. citizen;\n* Be at least 35 years old\n* Have resided in the U.S. at least 14 years. \n\nDisqualifications\n\nAdditionally, Section 3 of the Fourteenth Amendment denies eligibility for any federal office to anyone who, having sworn an oath to support the United States Constitution, later has rebelled against the United States. This disqualification, originally aimed at former supporters of the Confederacy, may be removed by a two-thirds vote of each house of the Congress.\n\nUnder the Twenty-second Amendment, the President of the United States may not be elected to more than two terms. However, there is no similar such limitation as to how many times one can be elected vice president. Scholars disagree whether a former president barred from election to the presidency is also ineligible to be elected or appointed vice president, as suggested by the Twelfth Amendment. The issue has never been tested in practice.\n\nAlso, Article I, Section 3, Clause 7 allows the Senate, upon voting to remove an impeached federal official from office, to disqualify that official from holding any federal office.\n\nResidency limitation\n\nWhile it is commonly held that the president and vice president must be residents of different states, this is not actually the case. Nothing in the Constitution prohibits both candidates being from a single state. Instead, the limitation imposed is on the members of the Electoral College, who must cast a ballot for at least one candidate who is not from their own state.\n\nIn theory, the candidates elected could both be from one state, but the electors of that state would, in a close electoral contest, run the risk of denying their vice presidential candidate the absolute majority required to secure the election, even if the presidential candidate is elected. This would then place the vice presidential election in the hands of the Senate.\n\nIn practice, however, residency is rarely an issue. Parties have avoided nominating tickets containing two candidates from the same state. Further, the candidates may themselves take action to alleviate any residency conflict. For example, at the start of the 2000 election cycle Dick Cheney was a resident of Texas; Cheney quickly changed his residency back to Wyoming, where he had previously served as a U.S. Representative, when Texas governor and Republican presidential nominee George W. Bush asked Cheney to be his vice presidential candidate.\n\nNominating process\n\nThough the vice president does not need to have any political experience, most major-party vice presidential nominees are current or former United States Senators or Representatives, with the occasional nominee being a current or former Governor, a high-ranking military officer, or a holder of a major post within the Executive Department. The vice presidential candidates of the major national political parties are formally selected by each party's quadrennial nominating convention, following the selection of the party's presidential candidates. The official process is identical to the one by which the presidential candidates are chosen, with delegates placing the names of candidates into nomination, followed by a ballot in which candidates must receive a majority to secure the party's nomination.\n\nIn practice, the presidential nominee has considerable influence on the decision, and in the 20th century it became customary for that person to select a preferred running mate, who is then nominated and accepted by the convention. In recent years, with the presidential nomination usually being a foregone conclusion as the result of the primary process, the selection of a vice presidential candidate is often announced prior to the actual balloting for the presidential candidate, and sometimes before the beginning of the convention itself. The first presidential aspirant to announce his selection for vice president before the beginning of the convention was Ronald Reagan who, prior to the 1976 Republican National Convention announced that Richard Schweiker would be his running mate. Reagan's supporters then sought to amend the convention rules so that Gerald R. Ford would be required to name his vice presidential running mate in advance as well. The proposal was defeated, and Reagan did not receive the nomination in 1976. Often, the presidential nominee will name a vice presidential candidate who will bring geographic or ideological balance to the ticket or appeal to a particular constituency.\n\nThe vice presidential candidate might also be chosen on the basis of traits the presidential candidate is perceived to lack, or on the basis of name recognition. To foster party unity, popular runners-up in the presidential nomination process are commonly considered. While this selection process may enhance the chances of success for a national ticket, in the past it often insured that the vice presidential nominee represented regions, constituencies, or ideologies at odds with those of the presidential candidate. As a result, vice presidents were often excluded from the policy-making process of the new administration. Many times their relationships with the president and his staff were aloof, non-existent, or even adversarial.\n\nThe ultimate goal of vice presidential candidate selection is to help and not hurt the party's chances of getting elected. A selection whose positive traits make the presidential candidate look less favorable in comparison can backfire, such as in 1988 when Democratic candidate Michael Dukakis chose experienced Texas Senator Lloyd Bentsen, and in 2008 when Republican candidate John McCain picked dynamic Alaska Governor Sarah Palin. However, Palin also hurt McCain when her interviews with Katie Couric led to concerns about her fitness for the presidency. In 1984, Walter Mondale picked Geraldine Ferraro whose nomination became a drag on the ticket due to repeated questions about her husband's finances. Questions about Dan Quayle's experience and temperament were raised in the 1988 presidential campaign of George H.W. Bush, but he still won. James Stockdale, the choice of third-party candidate Ross Perot in 1992, was seen as unqualified by many, but the Perot-Stockdale ticket still won about 19% of the vote.\n\nHistorically, vice presidential candidates were chosen to provide geographic and ideological balance to a presidential ticket, widening a presidential candidate's appeal to voters from outside his regional base or wing of the party. Candidates from electoral-vote rich states were usually preferred. However, in 1992, moderate Democrat Bill Clinton (of Arkansas) chose moderate Democrat Al Gore (of Tennessee)\nas his running mate. Despite the two candidates' near-identical ideological and regional backgrounds, Gore's extensive experience in national affairs enhanced the appeal of a ticket headed by Clinton, whose political career had been spent entirely at the local and state levels of government. In 2000, George W. Bush chose Dick Cheney of Wyoming, a reliably Republican state with only three electoral votes, and in 2008, Barack Obama mirrored Bush's strategy when he chose Joe Biden of Delaware, a reliably Democratic state, likewise one with only three electoral votes. Both Cheney and Biden were chosen for their experience in national politics (experience lacked by both Bush and Obama) rather than the ideological balance or electoral vote advantage they would provide.\n\nThe first presidential candidate to choose his vice presidential candidate was Franklin Delano Roosevelt in 1940. The last not to name a vice presidential choice, leaving the matter up to the convention, was Democrat Adlai Stevenson in 1956. The convention chose Tennessee Senator Estes Kefauver over Massachusetts Senator (and later president) John F. Kennedy. At the tumultuous 1972 Democratic convention, presidential nominee George McGovern selected Senator Thomas Eagleton as his running mate, but numerous other candidates were either nominated from the floor or received votes during the balloting. Eagleton nevertheless received a majority of the votes and the nomination, though he later resigned from the ticket, resulting in Sargent Shriver becoming McGovern's final running mate; both lost to the Nixon-Agnew ticket by a wide margin, carrying only Massachusetts and the District of Columbia.\n\nIn cases where the presidential nomination is still in doubt as the convention approaches, the campaigns for the two positions may become intertwined. In 1976, Ronald Reagan, who was trailing President Gerald R. Ford in the presidential delegate count, announced prior to the Republican National Convention that, if nominated, he would select Senator Richard Schweiker as his running mate. This move backfired to a degree, as Schweiker's relatively liberal voting record alienated many of the more conservative delegates who were considering a challenge to party delegate selection rules to improve Reagan's chances. In the end, Ford narrowly won the presidential nomination and Reagan's selection of Schweiker became moot.\n\nElection, oath, and tenure\n\nVice presidents are elected indirectly in the United States. A number of electors, collectively known as the Electoral College, officially select the president. On Election Day, voters in each of the states and the District of Columbia cast ballots for these electors. Each state is allocated a number of electors, equal to the size of its delegation in both Houses of Congress combined. Generally, the ticket that wins the most votes in a state wins all of that state's electoral votes and thus has its slate of electors chosen to vote in the Electoral College.\n\nThe winning slate of electors meet at its state's capital on the first Monday after the second Wednesday in December, about six weeks after the election, to vote. They then send a record of that vote to Congress. The vote of the electors is opened by the sitting vice president, acting in his capacity as President of the Senate and read aloud to a joint session of the incoming Congress, which was elected at the same time as the president.\n\nPursuant to the Twentieth Amendment, the vice president's term of office begins at noon on January 20 of the year following the election. This date, known as Inauguration Day, marks the beginning of the four-year terms of both the president and vice president.\n\nAlthough Article VI requires that the vice president take an oath or affirmation of allegiance to the US Constitution, unlike the president, the United States Constitution does not specify the precise wording of the oath of office for the vice president. Several variants of the oath have been used since 1789; the current form, which is also recited by Senators, Representatives and other government officers, has been used since 1884:\n\nThe term of office for vice president is four years. While the Twenty-Second Amendment generally restricts the president to two terms, there is no similar limitation on the office of vice president, meaning an eligible person could hold the office as long as voters continued to vote for electors who in turn would renew the vice president's tenure. A vice president could even serve under different administrations, as George Clinton and John C. Calhoun have done.\n\nOriginal election process and reform\n\nUnder the original terms of the Constitution, the electors of the Electoral College voted only for office of president rather than for both president and vice president. Each elector was allowed to vote for two people for the top office. The person receiving the greatest number of votes (provided that such a number was a majority of electors) would be president, while the individual who received the next largest number of votes became vice president. If no one received a majority of votes, then the House of Representatives would choose among the five candidates with the largest numbers of votes, with each state's representatives together casting a single vote. In such a case, the person who received the highest number of votes but was not chosen president would become vice president. In the case of a tie for second, then the Senate would choose the vice president.Wikisource:Constitution of the United States of America#Section 1 2\n\nThe original plan, however, did not foresee the development of political parties and their adversarial role in the government. For example, in the election of 1796, Federalist John Adams came in first, but because the Federalist electors had divided their second vote amongst several vice presidential candidates, Democratic-Republican Thomas Jefferson came second. Thus, the president and vice president were from opposing parties. Predictably, Adams and Jefferson clashed over issues such as states' rights and foreign policy. \n\nA greater problem occurred in the election of 1800, in which the two participating parties each had a secondary candidate they intended to elect as vice president, but the more popular Democratic-Republican party failed to execute that plan with their electoral votes. Under the system in place at the time (Article II, Section 1, Clause 3), the electors could not differentiate between their two candidates, so the plan had been for one elector to vote for Thomas Jefferson but not for Aaron Burr, thus putting Burr in second place. This plan broke down for reasons that are disputed, and both candidates received the same number of votes. After 35 deadlocked ballots in the House of Representatives, Jefferson finally won on the 36th ballot and Burr became vice president. \n\nThis tumultuous affair led to the adoption of the Twelfth Amendment in 1804, which directed the electors to use separate ballots to vote for the president and vice president. While this solved the problem at hand, it ultimately had the effect of lowering the prestige of the vice presidency, as the office was no longer for the leading challenger for the presidency.\n\nThe separate ballots for president and vice president became something of a moot issue later in the 19th century when it became the norm for popular elections to determine a state's Electoral College delegation. Electors chosen this way are pledged to vote for a particular presidential and vice presidential candidate (offered by the same political party). So, while the Constitution says that the president and vice president are chosen separately, in practice they are chosen together.\n\nIf no vice presidential candidate receives an Electoral College majority, then the Senate selects the vice president, in accordance with the United States Constitution. The Twelfth Amendment states that a \"majority of the whole number\" of Senators (currently 51 of 100) is necessary for election. Further, the language requiring an absolute majority of Senate votes precludes the sitting vice president from breaking any tie which might occur. The election of 1836 is the only election so far where the office of the vice president has been decided by the Senate. During the campaign, Martin Van Buren's running mate Richard Mentor Johnson was accused of having lived with a black woman. Virginia's 23 electors, who were pledged to Van Buren and Johnson, refused to vote for Johnson (but still voted for Van Buren). The election went to the Senate, where Johnson was elected 33-17.\n\nSalary\n\nThe vice president's salary is $230,700. The salary was set by the 1989 Government Salary Reform Act, which also provides an automatic cost of living adjustment for federal employees.\n\nThe vice president does not automatically receive a pension based on that office, but instead receives the same pension as other members of Congress based on his position as President of the Senate. The vice president must serve a minimum of five years to qualify for a pension. \n\nSince 1974, the official residence of the vice president and their family has been Number One Observatory Circle, on the grounds of the United States Naval Observatory in Washington, D.C.\n\nVacancy\n\nArticle I, Section 2, Clause 5 and Article II, Section 4 of the Constitution both authorize the House of Representatives to serve as a \"grand jury\" with the power to impeach high federal officials, including the president, for \"treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors.\" Similarly, Article I, Section 3, Clause 6 and Article II, Section 4 both authorize the Senate to serve as a court with the power to remove impeached officials from office, given a two-thirds vote to convict. No vice president has ever been impeached.\n\nPrior to ratification of the Twenty-fifth Amendment in 1967, no provision existed for filling a vacancy in the office of vice president. As a result, the vice presidency was left vacant 16 times—sometimes for nearly four years—until the next ensuing election and inauguration: eight times due to the death of the sitting president, resulting in the vice presidents becoming president; seven times due to the death of the sitting vice president; and once due to the resignation of Vice President John C. Calhoun to become a senator.\n\nCalhoun resigned because he had been dropped from the ticket by President Andrew Jackson in favor of Martin Van Buren, due primarily to conflicting with the President over the issue of nullification. Already a lame duck vice president, he was elected to the Senate by the South Carolina state legislature and resigned the vice presidency early to begin his Senate term because he believed he would have more power as a senator.\n\nSince the adoption of the Twenty-Fifth Amendment, the office has been vacant twice while awaiting confirmation of the new vice president by both houses of Congress. The first such instance occurred in 1973 following the resignation of Spiro Agnew as Richard Nixon's vice president. Gerald Ford was subsequently nominated by President Nixon and confirmed by Congress. The second occurred 10 months later when Nixon resigned following the Watergate scandal and Ford assumed the presidency. The resulting vice presidential vacancy was filled by Nelson Rockefeller. Ford and Rockefeller are the only two people to have served as vice president without having been elected to the office, and Ford remains the only person to have served as both vice president and president without being elected to either office.\n\nThe original Constitution had no provision for selecting such a replacement, so the office of vice president would remain vacant until the beginning of the next presidential and vice presidential terms. This issue had arisen most recently when the John F. Kennedy assassination caused a vacancy from November 22, 1963, until January 20, 1965, and was rectified by Section 2 of the Twenty-Fifth Amendment.\n\nGrowth of the office\n\nFor much of its existence, the office of vice president was seen as little more than a minor position. Adams, the first vice president, was the first of many who found the job frustrating and stupefying, writing to his wife Abigail that \"My country has in its wisdom contrived for me the most insignificant office that ever the invention of man contrived or his imagination conceived.\" Many vice presidents lamented the lack of meaningful work in their role. John Nance Garner, who served as vice president from 1933 to 1941 under President Franklin D. Roosevelt, claimed that the vice presidency \"isn't worth a pitcher of warm piss.\" Harry Truman, who also served as vice president under Roosevelt, said that the office was as \"useful as a cow's fifth teat.\" \n\nThomas R. Marshall, the 28th vice president, lamented: \"Once there were two brothers. One ran away to sea; the other was elected Vice President of the United States. And nothing was heard of either of them again.\" His successor, Calvin Coolidge, was so obscure that Major League Baseball sent him free passes that misspelled his name, and a fire marshal failed to recognize him when Coolidge's Washington residence was evacuated. \n\nWhen the Whig Party asked Daniel Webster to run for the vice presidency on Zachary Taylor's ticket, he replied \"I do not propose to be buried until I am really dead and in my coffin.\" This was the second time Webster declined the office, which William Henry Harrison had first offered to him. Ironically, both of the presidents making the offer to Webster died in office, meaning the three-time presidential candidate could have become president if he had accepted either. Since presidents rarely died in office, however, the better preparation for the presidency was considered to be the office of Secretary of State, in which Webster served under Harrison, Tyler, and later, Taylor's successor, Fillmore.\n\nFor many years, the vice president was given few responsibilities. Garret Hobart, the first vice president under William McKinley, was one of the very few vice presidents at this time who played an important role in the administration. A close confidant and adviser of the president, Hobart was called \"Assistant President.\" However, until 1919, vice presidents were not included in meetings of the President's Cabinet. This precedent was broken by President Woodrow Wilson when he asked Thomas R. Marshall to preside over Cabinet meetings while Wilson was in France negotiating the Treaty of Versailles. President Warren G. Harding also invited his vice president, Calvin Coolidge, to meetings. The next vice president, Charles G. Dawes, did not seek to attend Cabinet meetings under President Coolidge, declaring that \"the precedent might prove injurious to the country.\" Vice President Charles Curtis was also precluded from attending by President Herbert Hoover.\n\nIn 1933, Franklin D. Roosevelt raised the stature of the office by renewing the practice of inviting the vice president to cabinet meetings, which every president since has maintained. Roosevelt's first vice president, John Nance Garner, broke with him at the start of the second term on the Court-packing issue and became Roosevelt's leading political enemy. In 1937, Garner became the first vice president to be sworn in on the Capitol steps in the same ceremony with the president, a tradition that continues. Prior to that time, vice presidents were traditionally inaugurated at a separate ceremony in the Senate chamber. Gerald R. Ford and Nelson A. Rockefeller, who were both appointed to the office under the terms of the 25th amendment, were inaugurated in the House and Senate chambers, respectively.\n\nGarner's successor, Henry Wallace, was given major responsibilities during the war, but he moved further to the left than the Democratic Party and the rest of the Roosevelt administration and was relieved of actual power. Roosevelt kept his last vice president, Harry Truman, uninformed on all war and postwar issues, such as the atomic bomb, leading Truman to remark, wryly, that the job of the vice president was to \"go to weddings and funerals.\" Following Roosevelt's death and Truman's ascension to the presidency, the need to keep vice presidents informed on national security issues became clear, and Congress made the vice president one of four statutory members of the National Security Council in 1949.\n\nRichard Nixon reinvented the office of vice president. He had the attention of the media and the Republican party, when Dwight Eisenhower ordered him to preside at Cabinet meetings in his absence. Nixon was also the first vice president to formally assume temporary control of the executive branch, which he did after Eisenhower suffered a heart attack on September 24, 1955, ileitis in June 1956, and a stroke in November 1957.\n\nUntil 1961, vice presidents had their offices on Capitol Hill, a formal office in the Capitol itself and a working office in the Russell Senate Office Building. Lyndon B. Johnson was the first vice president to be given an office in the White House complex, in the Old Executive Office Building. The former Navy Secretary's office in the OEOB has since been designated the \"Ceremonial Office of the Vice President\" and is today used for formal events and press interviews. President Jimmy Carter was the first president to give his vice president, Walter Mondale, an office in the West Wing of the White House, which all vice presidents have since retained. Because of their function as Presidents of the Senate, vice presidents still maintain offices and staff members on Capitol Hill.\n\nThough Walter Mondale's tenure was the beginning of the modern day power of the vice presidency, the tenure of Dick Cheney saw a rapid growth in the office of the vice president. Vice President Cheney held a tremendous amount of power and frequently made policy decisions on his own, without the knowledge of the President. After his tenure, and during the 2008 presidential campaign, both vice presidential candidates, Sarah Palin and Joe Biden, stated that the office had expanded too much under Cheney's tenure and both had planned to reduce the role to simply being an adviser to the president. \n\nPost–vice presidency\n\nThe five former vice presidents now living are:\n\nFile:Walter Mondale 2014.jpg\|Walter Mondale42nd (1977–1981)\nFile:President George H. W.tif\|George H. W. Bush43rd (1981–1989)\nFile:Quayle2k11.tif\|Dan Quayle44th (1989–1993)\nFile:Gore2k11.tif\|Al Gore45th (1993–2001)\nFile:Cheney.tif\|Dick Cheney46th (2001–2009)\n\nFour vice presidents have been elected to the presidency immediately after serving as vice president: John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, Martin Van Buren and George H. W. Bush. Richard Nixon, John C. Breckinridge, Hubert Humphrey and Al Gore were all nominated by their respective parties, but failed to succeed the presidents with whom they were elected, though Nixon was elected president eight years later.\n\nTwo vice presidents served under different presidents. George Clinton served under both Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, while John C. Calhoun served under John Quincy Adams and Andrew Jackson. In the modern era, Adlai Stevenson I became the first former vice president to seek election with a different running mate, running in 1900 with William Jennings Bryan after serving under Bryan's rival, Grover Cleveland. (He was also narrowly defeated for Governor of Illinois in 1908.) Charles W. Fairbanks, vice president under Theodore Roosevelt, sought unsuccessfully to return to office as Charles Evans Hughes' running mate in 1916.\n\nSome former vice presidents have sought other offices after serving as vice president. Daniel D. Tompkins ran for Governor of New York in 1820 whilst serving as vice president under James Monroe. He lost to DeWitt Clinton, but was re-elected vice president. John C. Calhoun resigned as vice president to accept election as US Senator from South Carolina. Hannibal Hamlin, Andrew Johnson, Alben Barkley and Hubert H. Humphrey were all elected to the Senate after leaving office. Levi P. Morton, vice president under Benjamin Harrison, was elected Governor of New York after leaving office.\n\nRichard Nixon unsuccessfully sought the governorship of California in 1962, nearly two years after leaving office as vice president and just over six years before becoming president. Walter Mondale ran unsuccessfully for president in 1984, served as U.S. Ambassador to Japan from 1993 to 1996, and then sought unsuccessfully to return to the Senate in 2002. George H. W. Bush won the presidency, and his vice president, Dan Quayle, sought the Republican nomination in 2000. Al Gore also ran unsuccessfully for the presidency in 2000, turning to environmental advocacy afterward. Cheney had previously explored the possibility of running for president before serving as vice president, but chose not to run for president after his two terms as vice president.\n\nSince 1977, former presidents and vice presidents who are elected or re-elected to the Senate are entitled to the largely honorific position of Deputy President pro tempore. So far, the only former vice president to have held this title is Hubert Humphrey following his return to the Senate. Walter Mondale would have been entitled to the position had his 2002 Senate bid been successful.\n\nUnder the terms of an 1886 Senate resolution, all former vice presidents are entitled to a portrait bust in the Senate wing of the United States Capitol, commemorating their service as presidents of the Senate. Dick Cheney is the most recent former vice president to be so honored.\n\nUnlike former presidents, who receive a pension automatically regardless of their time in office, former vice presidents must reach pension eligibility by accumulating the appropriate time in federal service. Since 2008, former vice president are also entitled to Secret Service personal protection. Former vice presidents traditionally receive Secret Service protection for up to six months after leaving office, by order of the Secretary of Homeland Security, though this can be extended if the Secretary believes the level of threat is sufficient. In 2008, a bill titled the \"Former Vice President Protection Act\" was passed by Congress and signed into law by President Bush. It provides six-month Secret Service protection by law to a former vice president and family. According to the Department of Homeland Security, protection for former vice president Cheney has been extended numerous times because threats against him have not decreased since his leaving office. \n\nTimeline of vice presidents", "Franklin Delano Roosevelt (, his own pronunciation, or; January 30, 1882 – April 12, 1945), commonly known as FDR, was an American statesman and political leader who served as the President of the United States from 1933 to 1945. A Democrat, he won a record four presidential elections and dominated his party after 1932 as a central figure in world events during the mid-20th century, leading the United States during a time of worldwide economic depression and total war. His program for relief, recovery and reform, known as the New Deal, involved a great expansion of the role of the federal government in the economy. As a dominant leader of the Democratic Party, he built the New Deal Coalition that brought together and united labor unions, big city machines, white ethnics, African Americans, and rural white Southerners in support of the party. The Coalition significantly realigned American politics after 1932, creating the Fifth Party System and defining American liberalism throughout the middle third of the 20th century.\n\nRoosevelt was born in 1882, to an old, prominent Dutch family from Dutchess County, New York. He attended the elite educational institutions of Groton School and Harvard College. At age 23, in 1905, he married Eleanor Roosevelt, with whom he had six children. He entered politics in 1910, serving in the New York State Senate, and then as Assistant Secretary of the Navy under President Woodrow Wilson. In 1920, Roosevelt ran for vice president with presidential candidate James M. Cox, but the Cox/Roosevelt ticket lost to the Republican ticket of Warren Harding and Calvin Coolidge. Roosevelt was stricken with debilitating polio in 1921, which cost him the use of his legs and put his future political career in jeopardy, but he attempted to recover from the illness, and founded the treatment center for people with polio in Warm Springs, Georgia. After returning to political life by placing Alfred E. Smith's name into nomination at the 1924 Democratic National Convention, Roosevelt, at Smith's behest, successfully ran for Governor of New York in 1928. In office from 1929 to 1933, he served as a reform governor promoting the enactment of programs to combat the Great Depression besetting the United States at the time.\n\nIn 1932, in the depths of the Great Depression, Roosevelt successfully defeated incumbent Republican president Herbert Hoover to win the presidency of the United States. Having been energized by his personal victory over his polio, FDR relied on his persistent optimism and activism to renew the national spirit. In his first hundred days in office, which began March 4, 1933, Roosevelt spearheaded unprecedented major legislation and issued a profusion of executive orders that instituted the New Deal—a variety of programs designed to produce relief (government jobs for the unemployed), recovery (economic growth), and reform (through regulation of Wall Street, banks and transportation). He created numerous programs to support the unemployed and farmers, and to encourage labor union growth while more closely regulating business and high finance. The repeal of Prohibition in 1933 added to his popularity, helping him win re-election by a landslide in 1936. The economy improved rapidly from 1933 to 1937, but then relapsed into a deep recession in 1937–38. The bipartisan Conservative Coalition that formed in 1937 prevented his packing the Supreme Court, and blocked almost all proposals for major liberal legislation (except the minimum wage, which did pass). When the war began and unemployment ended, conservatives in Congress repealed the two major relief programs, the WPA and CCC. However, they kept most of the regulations on business. Along with several smaller programs, major surviving programs include the Securities and Exchange Commission, the Wagner Act, the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation and Social Security.\n\nAs World War II loomed after 1938, with the Japanese invasion of China and the aggression of Nazi Germany, Roosevelt gave strong diplomatic and financial support to China and the United Kingdom, while remaining officially neutral. His goal was to make America the \"Arsenal of Democracy\", which would supply munitions to the Allies. In March 1941, Roosevelt, with Congressional approval, provided Lend-Lease aid to Britain and China. Following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, which he called \"a date which will live in infamy\", Roosevelt sought and obtained the quick approval, on December 8, of the United States Congress to declare war on Japan and, a few days later, on Germany. (Hitler had already declared war on the US in support of Japan). Assisted by his top aide Harry Hopkins, and with very strong national support, he worked closely with British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, Soviet leader Joseph Stalin and Chinese Generalissimo Chiang Kai-Shek in leading the Allies against Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy and Imperial Japan in World War II. He supervised the mobilization of the U.S. economy to support the war effort, and also ordered the internment of 100,000 Japanese American civilians. As an active military leader, Roosevelt implemented a war strategy on two fronts that ended in the defeat of the Axis Powers and the development of the world's first nuclear bomb. His work also influenced the later creation of the United Nations and Bretton Woods. During the war, unemployment dropped to 2%, relief programs largely ended, and the industrial economy grew rapidly to new heights as millions of people moved to wartime factory jobs or entered military service. Roosevelt's health seriously declined during the war years, and he died three months into his fourth term. He is often rated by scholars as one of the top three U.S. Presidents, along with Abraham Lincoln and George Washington. \n\nPersonal life\n\nEarly life and education\n\nOne of the oldest Dutch families in New York State, the Roosevelts distinguished themselves in areas other than politics. One ancestor, Isaac Roosevelt, had served with the New York militia during the American Revolution. Roosevelt attended events of the New York society Sons of the American Revolution, and joined the organization while he was president. His paternal family had become prosperous early on in New York real estate and trade, and much of his immediate family's wealth had been built by FDR's maternal grandfather, Warren Delano, Jr., in the China trade, including opium and tea.\n \nRoosevelt was born on January 30, 1882, in the Hudson Valley town of Hyde Park, New York to businessman James Roosevelt I (1828–1900) and Sara Ann Delano (1854–1941). His parents were sixth cousins and both were from wealthy old New York families. They were of mostly English descent; Roosevelt's patrilineal great-grandfather, Jacobus Roosevelt III, was of Dutch ancestry, and his mother's maiden name, Delano, could be traced to a French Huguenot immigrant ancestor of the 17th century. Their only child was to have been named Warren, but Sara's infant nephew of that name had recently died. Their son was named for Sara's uncle Franklin Hughes Delano.\n\nRoosevelt grew up in an atmosphere of privilege. (Reportedly, when James Roosevelt took his five-year-old son to visit President Grover Cleveland in the White House, the busy president told Franklin, \"I have one wish for you, little man, that you will never be President of the United States.\") Sara was a possessive mother; James, 54 when Franklin was born, was considered by some as a remote father, though biographer James MacGregor Burns indicates James interacted with his son more than was typical at the time. Sara was the dominant influence in Franklin's early years; she once declared, \"My son Franklin is a Delano, not a Roosevelt at all.\" Frequent trips to Europe—he made his first at the age of two, and went with his parents every year from the ages of seven to 15—helped Roosevelt become conversant in German and French; being arrested with his tutor by police four times in one day in the Black Forest for minor offenses may have affected the future president's view of German character. He learned to ride, shoot, row, and play polo and lawn tennis. Roosevelt also took up golf in his teen years, becoming a skilled long hitter. He learned to sail, and his father gave him a sailboat at the age of 16 which he named \"New Moon\".\n\nRoosevelt attended Groton School, an Episcopal boarding school in Massachusetts; 90% of the students were from families on the social register. He was strongly influenced by its headmaster, Endicott Peabody, who preached the duty of Christians to help the less fortunate and urged his students to enter public service. Forty years later Roosevelt said of Peabody, \"It was a blessing in my life to have the privilege of [his] guiding hand\", and the headmaster remained a strong influence throughout his life, officiating at his wedding and visiting Roosevelt as president. Peabody recalled Roosevelt as \"a quiet, satisfactory boy of more than ordinary intelligence, taking a good position in his form but not brilliant\", while a classmate described Roosevelt as \"nice, but completely colorless\"; an average student, he only stood out in being the only Democratic student, continuing the political tradition of his side of the Roosevelt family. Roosevelt remained consistent in his politics; immediately after his fourth election to the presidency, he defined his domestic policy as \"a little left of center\". \n\nLike all but two of his 21 Groton classmates, Roosevelt went to Harvard College, where he lived in a suite which is now part of Adams House, in the \"Gold Coast\" area populated by wealthy students. Again an average student academically, Roosevelt later declared, \"I took economics courses in college for four years, and everything I was taught was wrong.\" He was a member of the Alpha Delta Phi fraternity and the Fly Club. While undistinguished as a student or athlete, he became editor-in-chief of The Harvard Crimson daily newspaper, a position which required great ambition, energy, and ability to manage others. While he was at Harvard, his fifth cousin Theodore \"T. R.\" Roosevelt, Jr. (1858–1919) became President of the United States; his vigorous leadership style and reforming zeal made him Franklin's role model and hero. The younger Roosevelt remained a Democrat, campaigning for Theodore's opponent William Jennings Bryan. In mid-1902, Franklin was formally introduced to his future wife Anna Eleanor Roosevelt (1884–1962), Theodore's niece, on a train to Tivoli, New York, although they had met briefly as children. Eleanor and Franklin were fifth cousins, once removed. She was the daughter of Elliott Bulloch Roosevelt (1860–94) and Anna Rebecca Hall (1863–92) of the Livingston family. At the time of their engagement, Roosevelt was twenty-two and Eleanor nineteen. Roosevelt graduated from Harvard in 1903 with an A.B. in history. He later received an honorary LL.D. from Harvard in 1929. \n\nRoosevelt entered Columbia Law School in 1904, dropping out in 1907 after passing the New York State Bar exam. He later received a posthumous J.D. from Columbia Law School. In 1908, he took a job with the prestigious Wall Street firm of Carter Ledyard & Milburn, dealing mainly with corporate law. He was first initiated in the Independent Order of Odd Fellows and was initiated into Freemasonry on October 11, 1911, at Holland Lodge No. 8, New York City. \n\nMarriage and affairs\n\nOn March 17, 1905, Roosevelt married Eleanor in New York City, despite the fierce resistance of his mother; he was 23 and she was 21. While she did not dislike Eleanor, Sara Roosevelt was very possessive of her son; believing he was too young, she several times attempted to break the engagement. Eleanor's uncle, President Theodore Roosevelt, stood in at the wedding for Eleanor's deceased father Elliott, as Eleanor was his favorite niece. (Eleanor had lost both parents by age ten.)\n\nThe young couple moved into Springwood, his family's estate at Hyde Park, where Roosevelt's mother became a frequent house guest, much to Eleanor's chagrin. The home was owned by Roosevelt's mother until her death in 1941 and was very much her home as well. In addition, Franklin Roosevelt and his mother Sara did the planning and furnishing of a town house she had built for the young couple in New York City; she had a twin house built alongside, with connections on every floor. Eleanor never felt it was her house.\n\nBiographer James MacGregor Burns says young Roosevelt was self-assured and at ease in the upper class. In contrast, Eleanor at the time was shy and disliked social life, and at first stayed at home to raise their several children. Although Eleanor had an aversion to sexual intercourse, and considered it \"an ordeal to be endured\", they had six children, the first four in rapid succession:\n* Anna Eleanor Roosevelt (May 3, 1906 – December 1, 1975)\n* James Roosevelt II (December 23, 1907 – August 13, 1991)\n* Franklin Roosevelt (March 18, 1909 – November 7, 1909)\n* Elliott Roosevelt (September 23, 1910 – October 27, 1990)\n* Franklin Delano Roosevelt, Jr. (August 17, 1914 – August 17, 1988)\n* John Aspinwall Roosevelt II (March 13, 1916 – April 27, 1981)\n\nRoosevelt liked fatherhood, and the parents suffered greatly when their third child, named for Franklin, died of heart disease in infancy in 1909. Eleanor soon was pregnant again and gave birth to another son, Elliott, less than a year later. The fifth child and fourth son, born in 1914, was also named for Franklin. Their sixth child, John, was their fifth son.\n\nRoosevelt had extra-marital affairs, including one with Eleanor's social secretary Lucy Mercer, which began soon after she was hired in early 1914. In September 1918, Eleanor found letters revealing the affair in Roosevelt's luggage, when he returned from World War I. Franklin had contemplated divorcing Eleanor, but Lucy would not agree to marry a divorced man with five children. Franklin and Eleanor remained married, and FDR promised never to see Lucy again. Eleanor never truly forgave him, and their marriage from that point on was more of a political partnership. His mother Sara told Franklin that if he divorced his wife, it would bring scandal upon the family, and she \"would not give him another dollar.\"\n\nFranklin broke his promise to Eleanor. He and Lucy maintained a formal correspondence, and began seeing each other again in 1941, perhaps earlier. The Secret Service gave Lucy the code name \"Mrs. Johnson\" . Lucy was with FDR on the day he died. Despite this, FDR's affair was not widely known until the 1960s. Roosevelt's son Elliott said that Franklin also had a 20-year affair with his private secretary Marguerite \"Missy\" LeHand. Another son, James, stated that \"there is a real possibility that a romantic relationship existed\" between his father and Princess Märtha of Sweden, who resided in the White House during part of World War II. Aides began to refer to her at the time as \"the president's girlfriend\", and gossip linking the two romantically appeared in the newspapers.\n\nThe effect of these flirtations or affairs upon Eleanor Roosevelt is difficult to estimate. \"I have the memory of an elephant. I can forgive, but I cannot forget,\" she wrote to a close friend. After the Lucy Mercer affair, any remaining intimacy left their relationship. Eleanor soon thereafter established a separate house in Hyde Park at Val-Kill, and increasingly devoted herself to various social and political causes independently of her husband. The emotional break in their marriage was so severe that when Roosevelt asked Eleanor in 1942—in light of his failing health—to come back home and live with him again, she refused. He was not always aware of when she visited the White House, and for some time she could not easily reach him on the telephone without his secretary's help; he, in turn, did not visit her New York City apartment until late 1944.\n\nWhen Roosevelt was President, his dog, Fala, also became well known as his companion during his time in the White House. Fala was called the \"most photographed dog in the world.\" \n\nFile:Springwood Home of FDR August 2012.jpg\|The birthplace of FDR at Springwood.\nFile:Fdrwithparents.jpg\|Roosevelt sailing with half-niece Helen and father James, 1899.\nFile:ER FDR Camobello 1904 crop.jpg\|Franklin and Eleanor at Campobello Island, Canada, in 1904.\nFile:Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt Statues.JPG\|Franklin and Eleanor Statues at FDR National Historic Site in Hyde Park, New York.\nFile:Franklin D. Roosevelt, James R. Roosevelt, Jr, and Helen R. Roosevelt in Bicester, England - NARA - 196561.jpg\|Franklin (left) with nephew Tadd (middle) and niece Helen (right) in January 1889.\n\nEarly political career\n\nState senator and Tammany antagonist\n\nIn the state election of 1910, Roosevelt ran for the New York State Senate from the district around Hyde Park in Dutchess County, which was strongly Republican, having elected one Democrat since 1856. The local party chose him as a paper candidate because his Republican cousin Theodore was still one of the country's most prominent politicians, and a Democratic Roosevelt was good publicity; the candidate could also pay for his own campaign. Surprising almost everyone, due to his aggressive and effective campaign, the Roosevelt name's influence in the Hudson Valley, and the Democratic landslide that year, Roosevelt won the election.\n\nTaking his seat on January 1, 1911, Roosevelt immediately became the leader of a group of \"Insurgents\" who opposed the bossism of the Tammany machine dominating the state Democratic Party. The U.S. Senate election, which began with the Democratic caucus on January 16, 1911, was deadlocked by the struggle of the two factions for 74 days, as the new legislator endured what a biographer later described as \"the full might of Tammany\" behind its choice, William F. Sheehan. (Popular election of US Senators did not occur until after a constitutional amendment.) On March 31 compromise candidate James A. O'Gorman was elected, giving Roosevelt national exposure and some experience in political tactics and intrigue; one Tammany leader warned that Roosevelt should be eliminated immediately, before he disrupted Democrats as much as his cousin disrupted the Republicans. Roosevelt soon became a popular figure among New York Democrats, though he had not as yet become an eloquent speaker. News articles and cartoons began depicting \"the second coming of a Roosevelt\" that sent \"cold shivers down the spine of Tammany\".\n\nDespite a bout of typhoid fever, and thanks to the help of Louis McHenry Howe who ran his campaign, Roosevelt was re-elected for a second term in the state election of 1912, and served as chairman of the Agriculture Committee. His success with farm and labor bills was a precursor to his New Deal policies twenty years later. By this time he had become more consistently progressive, in support of labor and social welfare programs for women and children; cousin Theodore was of some influence on these issues. Roosevelt, again in opposition to Tammany Hall, supported southerner Woodrow Wilson's successful bid in the 1912 presidential election, and thereby earned an informal designation as an original Wilson man.\n\nAssistant Secretary of the Navy\n\nRoosevelt's support of Wilson led to his appointment in 1913 as Assistant Secretary of the Navy under Secretary of the Navy Josephus Daniels. Roosevelt had a lifelong affection for the Navy—he had already collected almost 10,000 naval books and claimed to have read all but one—and was more ardent than his boss Daniels in supporting a large and efficient naval force. As assistant secretary, Roosevelt worked to expand the Navy and founded the United States Navy Reserve. Against reactionary older officers such as Admiral William Bensonwho claimed he could not \"conceive of any use the fleet will ever have for aviation\"Roosevelt personally ordered the preservation of the navy's Aviation Division after the war, despite publicly opining that Billy Mitchell's warnings of bombs capable of sinking battleships were \"pernicious\". Roosevelt negotiated with Congressional leaders and other government departments to get budgets approved. He opposed the Taylor \"stop-watch\" system, which was hailed by shipbuilding managers but opposed by the unions. Not a single union strike occurred during his seven-plus years in the office, during which Roosevelt gained experience in labor issues, government management during wartime, naval issues, and logistics, all valuable areas for future office.\n\nRoosevelt was still relatively obscure, but his friends were already speaking of him as a future president; he reportedly began talking about being elected to the presidency as early as 1907. In 1914, Roosevelt made an ill-conceived decision to run for the U.S. Senate seat for New York. The decision was doomed for lack of Wilson administration backing. He was determined to take on Tammany again at a time when Wilson needed them to help marshal his legislation and secure his future re-election. He was soundly defeated in the Democratic primary election for the United States Senate by Tammany Hall-backed James W. Gerard, by a margin of 3-to-1. Roosevelt learned a valuable lesson, that federal patronage alone, without White House support, could not defeat a strong local organization.\n\nIn March 1917, after Germany initiated its submarine warfare campaign, Roosevelt asked Wilson for permission, which was denied, to fit the naval fleet out for war. He became an enthusiastic advocate of the submarine and of means to combat the German submarine menace to Allied shipping: he proposed building a mine barrier across the North Sea from Norway to Scotland. In 1918, he visited Scotland, England, Wales, and France to inspect American naval facilities. Roosevelt wanted to provide arms to the merchant marine; knowing that a sale of arms was prohibited, he asked Wilson for approval to lease the arms to the mariners. Wilson ultimately approved this by executive order, and a precedent was set for Roosevelt to take similar action in 1940.\n\nDuring these war years, Roosevelt worked to make peace with the Tammany Hall forces, and in 1918 the group supported others in an unsuccessful attempt to persuade him to run for governor of New York. He very much wanted to get into a military uniform, but the armistice took shape before this could materialize; Wilson reportedly ordered Roosevelt to not resign. With the end of World War I in November 1918, Roosevelt was in charge of demobilization, although he opposed plans to completely dismantle the Navy.\n\nIn 1918, Roosevelt was sickened during the 1918 flu pandemic, and survived. In 1919, newspapers in Newport, Rhode Island criticized Roosevelt over his handling of what came to be known as the Newport sex scandal. Much more threatening was the fact that Roosevelt and his wife, then living in Washington, D.C. across the street from Attorney General Alexander Mitchell Palmer, narrowly missed becoming casualties of an anarchist's bomb that exploded at Palmer's house, which they had walked past just minutes before. Their own residence was close enough that one of the bomber's body parts landed on their doorstep.\n\nCampaign for Vice President\n\nThe 1920 Democratic National Convention chose Roosevelt by acclamation as the vice-presidential candidate with its presidential candidate, Governor James M. Cox of Ohio. Although his nomination surprised most people, Roosevelt was considered as bringing balance to the ticket as a moderate, a Wilsonian, and a prohibitionist with a famous name. Roosevelt had just turned 38, four years younger than Theodore had been when he received the same nomination from his party. The Cox-Roosevelt ticket was defeated by Republicans Warren G. Harding and Calvin Coolidge in the presidential election by a wide margin. Roosevelt returned to New York to practice law and joined the newly organized New York Civitan Club. \n\nPolio\n\nIn August 1921, while the Roosevelts were vacationing at Campobello Island, New Brunswick, Canada, Roosevelt fell ill and was diagnosed with polio. It left him with permanent paralysis from the waist down. Following the illness, Roosevelt remained out of the public eye for several years, turning his attention away from politics and toward his legal practice. For the rest of his life, Roosevelt refused to accept that he was permanently paralyzed. He tried a wide range of therapies, including hydrotherapy. In 1926, he purchased a resort at Warm Springs, Georgia, where he founded a hydrotherapy center for the treatment of polio patients; it still operates as the Roosevelt Warm Springs Institute for Rehabilitation. In 1938, FDR founded the National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis, now known as the March of Dimes. \n\nAt the time, Roosevelt convinced many people that he was improving, which he believed to be essential prior to running for public office again. He laboriously taught himself to walk short distances while wearing iron braces on his hips and legs by swiveling his torso, supporting himself with a cane. He was careful never to be seen using his wheelchair in public, and great care was taken to prevent any portrayal in the press that would highlight his disability. Few photographs of FDR in his wheelchair are known; they include two taken by his cousin and confidante Margaret Suckley, another taken by a sailor aboard the USS Indianapolis in 1933, and another published in a 1937 issue of Life magazine. Film clips of the \"walk\" he achieved after his illness are equally rare. He usually appeared in public standing upright, supported on one side by an aide or one of his sons. FDR used a car with specially designed hand controls, providing him further mobility. \n\nA 2003 retrospective diagnosis of Roosevelt's paralytic illness favored Guillain–Barré syndrome rather than polio, a conclusion criticized by other researchers.\n\nGovernor of New York (1929–32)\n\nRoosevelt maintained contacts and mended fences with the Democratic Party during the 1920s, especially in New York. Although he initially had made his name as an opponent of New York City's Tammany Hall machine, Roosevelt moderated his stance against that group as well. He helped Alfred E. Smith win the election for governor of New York in 1922, and in 1924 was a strong supporter of Smith against his cousin, Republican Theodore Roosevelt, Jr. Roosevelt gave nominating speeches for Smith at the 1924 and 1928 Democratic conventions; the speech at the 1924 election marked a return to public life following his illness and convalescence.\n\nAs the Democratic Party presidential nominee in the 1928 election, Smith in turn asked Roosevelt to run for governor in the state election. Roosevelt was nominated by the Democrats by acclamation. While Smith lost the Presidency in a landslide, and was defeated in his home state, Roosevelt was narrowly elected governor, by a one-percent margin. As a reform governor, he established a number of new social programs, and was advised by Frances Perkins and Harry Hopkins. In April 1929, a bomb was found addressed to him at the Albany, New York post office. A porter kicked the package, causing the fuse to sputter. The device was dropped in a pail of water where it failed to go off.\n\nIn May 1930, as he began his run for a second term, Roosevelt reiterated his doctrine from the campaign two years before: \"that progressive government by its very terms, must be a living and growing thing, that the battle for it is never ending and that if we let up for one single moment or one single year, not merely do we stand still but we fall back in the march of civilization.\" In this campaign for re-election, Roosevelt needed the good will of the Tammany Hall machine in New York City to succeed; but, his Republican opponent, Charles H. Tuttle, used Roosevelt's connection with Tammany Hall's corruption as an election issue. As the election approached, Roosevelt began preemptive efforts by initiating investigations of the sale of judicial offices. He was directly involved, as he had made a routine short-term court appointment of a Tammany Hall man who was alleged to have paid Tammany $30,000 for the position. His Republican opponent could not overcome the public's criticism of the Republican Party for current economic distress in the Great Depression, and Roosevelt was elected to a second term by a margin of fourteen percent.\n\n1932 presidential election\n\nRoosevelt's strong base in the most populous state made him an obvious candidate for the Democratic nomination, which was hotly contested in light of incumbent Herbert Hoover's vulnerability. Al Smith was supported by some city bosses, but had lost control of the New York Democratic party to Roosevelt. Roosevelt built his own national coalition with personal allies such as newspaper magnate William Randolph Hearst, Irish leader Joseph P. Kennedy, Sr., and California leader William Gibbs McAdoo. When Texas leader John Nance Garner announced his support of FDR, he was given the vice-presidential nomination.\n\nBreaking with tradition of the time, Roosevelt traveled to Chicago to accept the nomination in person. In his acceptance speech, Roosevelt declared, \"I pledge you, I pledge myself to a new deal for the American people... This is more than a political campaign. It is a call to arms.\" The election campaign was conducted under the shadow of the Great Depression in the United States, and the new alliances which it created. Roosevelt and the Democratic Party mobilized the expanded ranks of the poor as well as organized labor, ethnic minorities, urbanites, and Southern whites, crafting the New Deal coalition. At that time, African Americans in the South were still disfranchised, as they had been since the turn of the century. Southern states had passed a variety of requirements making voter registration more difficult, which served to exclude most blacks and many poor whites from the political system.\n\nEconomist Marriner Eccles observed that \"given later developments, the campaign speeches often read like a giant misprint, in which Roosevelt and Hoover speak each other's lines.\" Roosevelt denounced Hoover's failures to restore prosperity or halt the downward slide, and he ridiculed Hoover's huge deficits. Roosevelt campaigned on the Democratic platform advocating \"immediate and drastic reductions of all public expenditures,\" \"abolishing useless commissions and offices, consolidating departments and bureaus, and eliminating extravagances\" and for a \"sound currency to be maintained at all hazards.\" On September 23, Roosevelt made the gloomy evaluation that, \"Our industrial plant is built; the problem just now is whether under existing conditions it is not overbuilt. Our last frontier has long since been reached.\" Hoover damned that pessimism as a denial of \"the promise of American life... the counsel of despair.\" The prohibition issue solidified the \"wet vote\" for Roosevelt, who noted that repeal would bring in new tax revenues.\n\nRoosevelt won 57 percent of the vote and carried all but six states. Historians and political scientists consider the 1932–36 elections a realigning election that created a new majority coalition for the Democrats, made up of organized labor, northern blacks, and ethnic Americans such as Italian-Americans, Polish-Americans and Jews. This transformed American politics and started what is called the \"New Deal Party System\" or (by political scientists) the Fifth Party System. \n\nAfter the election, Roosevelt refused Hoover's requests for a meeting to develop a joint program to stop the downward spiral and calm investors, claiming publicly it would tie his hands, and that Hoover had all the power to act if necessary. Unofficially, he told reporters that \"it is not my baby\". The economy spiraled downward until the banking system began a complete nationwide shutdown as Hoover's term ended. In February 1933, Roosevelt escaped an assassination attempt. Giuseppe Zangara, who expressed a \"hate for all rulers,\" attempted to shoot Roosevelt. He shot and killed Chicago Mayor Anton Cermak who was sitting alongside Roosevelt, but his attempt to murder Roosevelt failed when an alert spectator, Lillian Cross, hit his arm with her purse and deflected the bullet. Roosevelt leaned heavily on his \"Brain Trust\" of academic advisers, especially Raymond Moley, when designing his policies; he offered cabinet positions to numerous candidates, but some declined. The cabinet member with the strongest independent base was Cordell Hull at State. William Hartman Woodin – at Treasury – was soon replaced by the much more powerful Henry Morgenthau, Jr.\n\nPresidency (1933–45)\n\nRoosevelt appointed powerful men to top positions but made certain he made all the major decisions, regardless of delays, inefficiency or resentment. Analyzing the president's administrative style, historian James MacGregor Burns concludes:\nThe president stayed in charge of his administration...by drawing fully on his formal and informal powers as Chief Executive; by raising goals, creating momentum, inspiring a personal loyalty, getting the best out of people...by deliberately fostering among his aides a sense of competition and a clash of wills that led to disarray, heartbreak, and anger but also set off pulses of executive energy and sparks of creativity...by handing out one job to several men and several jobs to one man, thus strengthening his own position as a court of appeals, as a depository of information, and as a tool of co-ordination; by ignoring or bypassing collective decision-making agencies, such as the Cabinet...and always by persuading, flattering, juggling, improvising, reshuffling, harmonizing, conciliating, manipulating. \n\nFirst term, 1933–37\n\nWhen Roosevelt was inaugurated March 4, 1933, the U.S. was at the nadir of the worst depression in its history. A quarter of the workforce was unemployed. Farmers were in deep trouble as prices fell by 60%. Industrial production had fallen by more than half since 1929. Two million people were homeless. By the evening of March 4, 32 of the 48 states – as well as the District of Columbia – had closed their banks. The New York Federal Reserve Bank was unable to open on the 5th, as huge sums had been withdrawn by panicky customers in previous days. Beginning with his inauguration address, Roosevelt began blaming the economic crisis on bankers and financiers, the quest for profit, and the self-interest basis of capitalism:\n\nHistorians categorized Roosevelt's program as \"relief, recovery and reform.\" Relief was urgently needed by tens of millions of unemployed. Recovery meant boosting the economy back to normal. Reform meant long-term fixes of what was wrong, especially with the financial and banking systems. Through Roosevelt's series of radio talks, known as fireside chats, he presented his proposals directly to the American public. In 1934, FDR paid a visit to retired Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes, who mused about the President: \"A second class intellect. But a first class temperament.\"\n\nFirst New Deal, 1933–34\n\nRoosevelt's \"First 100 Days\" concentrated on the first part of his strategy: immediate relief. From March 9 to June 16, 1933, he sent Congress a record number of bills, all of which passed easily. To propose programs, Roosevelt relied on leading Senators such as George Norris, Robert F. Wagner, and Hugo Black, as well as his Brain Trust of academic advisers. Like Hoover, he saw the Depression caused in part by people no longer spending or investing because they were afraid.\n\nRoosevelt's inauguration on March 4, 1933, occurred in the middle of a bank panic, hence the backdrop for his famous words: \"The only thing we have to fear is fear itself.\" The very next day he declared a \"bank holiday\" and called for a special session of Congress to start March 9, at which Congress passed the Emergency Banking Act. This was his first proposed step to recovery. To give Americans confidence in the banks, Roosevelt signed the Glass–Steagall Act that created the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) to underwrite savings deposits.\n\nRelief measures included the continuation of Hoover's major relief program for the unemployed under its new name: Federal Emergency Relief Administration. The most popular of all New Deal agencies – and Roosevelt's favorite – was the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), which hired 250,000 unemployed young men to work on rural local projects.\n\nCongress also gave the Federal Trade Commission broad new regulatory powers and provided mortgage relief to millions of farmers and homeowners. Roosevelt expanded a Hoover agency, the Reconstruction Finance Corporation, making it a major source of financing for railroads and industry. Roosevelt made agricultural relief a high priority and set up the first Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA). The AAA tried to force higher prices for commodities by paying farmers to take land out of crops and to cut herds.\n\nReform of the economy was the goal of the National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA) of 1933. It tried to end cutthroat competition by forcing industries to come up with codes that established the rules of operation for all firms within specific industries, such as minimum prices, agreements not to compete, and production restrictions. Industry leaders negotiated the codes which were approved by NIRA officials. Industry needed to raise wages as a condition for approval. Provisions encouraged unions and suspended anti-trust laws. The NIRA was found to be unconstitutional by unanimous decision of the US Supreme Court on May 27, 1935. Roosevelt opposed the decision, saying, \"The fundamental purposes and principles of the NIRA are sound. To abandon them is unthinkable. It would spell the return to industrial and labor chaos.\" In 1933, major new banking regulations were passed. In 1934, the Securities and Exchange Commission was created to regulate Wall Street, with 1932 campaign fundraiser Joseph P. Kennedy in charge.\n\nRoosevelt wanted a federal minimum wage as part of the NIRA, arguing that. \"No business which depends for existence on paying less than living wages to its workers has any right to continue in this country\". Congress finally adopted the minimum wage in the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938. It was the last major domestic reform measure of the New Deal. \n\nRecovery was pursued through \"pump-priming\" (that is, federal spending). The NIRA included $3.3 billion of spending through the Public Works Administration to stimulate the economy, which was to be handled by Interior Secretary Harold Ickes. Roosevelt worked with Republican Senator George Norris to create the largest government-owned industrial enterprise in American history — the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) — which built dams and power stations, controlled floods, and modernized agriculture and home conditions in the poverty-stricken Tennessee Valley. The repeal of prohibition also brought in new tax revenues and helped Roosevelt keep a major campaign promise. Executive Order 6102 declared that all privately held gold of American citizens was to be sold to the US Treasury and the price raised from $20 to $35 per ounce. The goal was to counter the deflation which was paralyzing the economy.\n\nRoosevelt tried to keep his campaign promise by cutting the federal budget — including a reduction in military spending from $752 million in 1932 to $531 million in 1934 and a 40% cut in spending on veterans' benefits — by removing 500,000 veterans and widows from the pension rolls and reducing benefits for the remainder, as well as cutting the salaries of federal employees and reducing spending on research and education. But, the veterans were well organized and strongly protested; most benefits were restored or increased by 1934, but FDR vetoed their efforts to get a cash bonus. The benefit cuts also did not last. In June 1933, Roosevelt restored $50 million in pension payments, and Congress added another $46 million more. Veterans groups such as the American Legion and the Veterans of Foreign Wars won their campaign to transform their benefits from payments due in 1945 to immediate cash when Congress overrode the President's veto and passed the Bonus Act in January 1936. It pumped sums equal to 2% of the GDP into the consumer economy and had a major stimulus effect. \n\nRoosevelt also kept his promise to push for repeal of Prohibition. On March 23, 1933, he signed the Cullen–Harrison Act redefining 3.2% alcohol as the maximum allowed. That act was preceded by Congressional action in the drafting and passage of the 21st Amendment, which was ratified later that year.\n\nSecond New Deal, 1935–36\n\nAfter the 1934 Congressional elections, which gave Roosevelt large majorities in both houses, his administration drafted a fresh surge of New Deal legislation. These measures included the Works Progress Administration (WPA), which set up a national relief agency that employed two million family heads. At the height of WPA employment in 1938, unemployment was down from 20.6% in 1933 to only 12.5%, according to figures from Michael Darby. The Social Security Act established Social Security and promised economic security for the elderly, the poor and the sick. Senator Robert Wagner wrote the Wagner Act, which officially became the National Labor Relations Act. The act established the federal rights of workers to organize unions, to engage in collective bargaining, and to take part in strikes.\n\nWhile the First New Deal of 1933 had broad support from most sectors, the Second New Deal challenged the business community. Conservative Democrats, led by Al Smith, fought back with the American Liberty League, savagely attacking Roosevelt and equating him with Karl Marx and Vladimir Lenin. But Smith overplayed his hand, and his boisterous rhetoric let Roosevelt isolate his opponents and identify them with the wealthy vested interests that opposed the New Deal, strengthening Roosevelt for the 1936 landslide. By contrast, the labor unions, energized by the Wagner Act, signed up millions of new members and became a major backer of Roosevelt's reelections in 1936, 1940 and 1944.\n\nLarry Schweikart and Michael Allen disagree with the prevailing belief that there were two New Deals in the Roosevelt administration. They argue that there is no evidence of any such blueprint for Roosevelt's programs, and that abundant evidence shows FDR's policies were formulated and executed haphazardly, fluctuating in the hands of a revolving cast of presidential advisors. Biographer James M. Burns suggests that Roosevelt's policy decisions were guided more by pragmatism than ideology, and that he \"was like the general of a guerrilla army whose columns, fighting blindly in the mountains through dense ravines and thickets, suddenly converge, half by plan and half by coincidence, and debouch into the plain below.\" Roosevelt argued that such apparently haphazard methodology was necessary. \"The country needs and, unless I mistake its temper, the country demands bold, persistent experimentation,\" he wrote. \"It is common sense to take a method and try it; if it fails, admit it frankly and try another. But above all, try something.\" \n\nEconomic policies\n\nGovernment spending increased from 8.0% of gross national product (GNP) under Hoover in 1932 to 10.2% of the GNP in 1936. The national debt as a percentage of the GNP had more than doubled under Hoover from 16% to 40% of the GNP in early 1933. It held steady at close to 40% as late as fall 1941, then grew rapidly during the war. \n\nDeficit spending had been recommended by some economists, most notably by John Maynard Keynes of Britain. The GNP was 34% higher in 1936 than in 1932 and 58% higher in 1940 on the eve of war. That is, the economy grew 58% from 1932 to 1940 in 8 years of peacetime, and then grew 56% from 1940 to 1945 in 5 years of wartime.\n\nUnemployment fell dramatically in Roosevelt's first term, from 25% when he took office to 14.3% in 1937. However, it increased slightly to 19.0% in 1938 (\"a depression within a depression\") and fell to 17.2% in 1939, and then dropped again to 14.6% in 1940 until it reached 1.9% in 1945 during World War II. Total employment during Roosevelt's term expanded by 18.31 million jobs, with an average annual increase in jobs during his administration of 5.3%. Roosevelt considered his New Deal policies as central to his legacy, and in his 1944 State of the Union Address, he advocated that Americans should think of basic economic rights as a Second Bill of Rights.\n\nRoosevelt did not raise income taxes before World War II began; however payroll taxes were introduced to fund the new Social Security program in 1937. He also convinced Congress to spend more on many various programs never before seen in American history. Under the revenue pressures brought on by the depression, most states added or increased taxes, including sales as well as income taxes. Roosevelt's proposal for new taxes on corporate savings were highly controversial in 1936–37, and were rejected by Congress. During the war he pushed for even higher income tax rates for individuals (reaching a marginal tax rate of 91%) and corporations and a cap on high salaries for executives. He also issued Executive Order 9250 in October 1942, later to be rescinded by Congress, which raised the marginal tax rate for salaries exceeding $25,000 (after tax) to 100%, thereby limiting salaries to $25,000 (about $ today). To fund the war, Congress not only broadened the base so that almost every employee paid federal income taxes, but also introduced withholding taxes in 1943.\n\nConservation and the environment\n\nRoosevelt had a lifelong interest in the environment and conservation starting with his youthful interest in forestry on his family estate. As governor and president, he launched numerous projects for conservation, in the name of protecting the environment, and providing beauty and jobs for the people. He was strengthened in his resolve by the model of his cousin Theodore Roosevelt. Although FDR was never an outdoorsman or sportsman on TR's scale, his growth of the national systems were comparable. FDR created 140 national wildlife refuges (especially for birds) and established 29 national forests and 29 national parks and monuments. He thereby achieved the vision he had set out in 1931:\nHeretofore our conservation policy has been merely to preserve as much as possible of the existing forests. Our new policy goes a step further. It will not only preserve the existing forests, but create new ones. \nAs president he was active in expanding, funding, and promoting the National Park and National Forest systems. He used relief agencies to upgrade the facilities. Their popularity soared, from three million visitors a year at the start of the decade, to 15.5 million in 1939. His favorite agency was the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), which expended most of its effort on environmental projects. The CCC in a dozen years enrolled 3.4 million young men; they built 13,000 miles of trails, planted two billion trees and upgraded 125,000 miles of dirt roads. Every state had its own state parks, and Roosevelt made sure that WPA and CCC projects were set up to upgrade them as well as the national systems. Roosevelt heavily funded the system of dams to provide flood control, electricity, and modernization of rural communities through the Tennessee Valley Authority, as well as less famous projects transforming western rivers. He was a great dam builder, although 21st century critics would see this as the antithesis of conservation. \n\nForeign policy, 1933–37\n\nThe rejection of the League of Nations treaty in 1919 marked the dominance of isolationism from world organizations in American foreign policy. Despite Roosevelt's Wilsonian background, he and Secretary of State Cordell Hull acted with great care not to provoke isolationist sentiment. Roosevelt's \"bombshell\" message to the world monetary conference in 1933 effectively ended any major efforts by the world powers to collaborate on ending the worldwide depression, and allowed Roosevelt a free hand in economic policy. Roosevelt was a lifelong free-trader and anti-imperialist. Ending European colonialism was one of his objectives.\n\nThe main foreign policy initiative of Roosevelt's first term was the Good Neighbor Policy, which was a re-evaluation of U.S. policy towards Latin America. Since the Monroe Doctrine of 1823, this area had been seen as an American sphere of influence. American forces were withdrawn from Haiti, and new treaties with Cuba and Panama ended their status as U.S. protectorates. In December 1933, Roosevelt signed the Montevideo Convention on the Rights and Duties of States, renouncing the right to intervene unilaterally in the affairs of Latin American countries. \n\nThe isolationist movement was bolstered in the early to mid-1930s by U.S. Senator Gerald Nye and others who succeeded in their effort to stop the \"merchants of death\" in the U.S. from selling arms abroad. This effort took the form of the Neutrality Acts; the president asked for, but was refused, a provision to give him the discretion to allow the sale of arms to victims of aggression. In the interim, Italy under Benito Mussolini proceeded to overcome Ethiopia, and the Italians joined Nazi Germany in supporting the General Franco and the Nationalist cause in the Spanish Civil War. In 1936 Germany and Japan signed a Anti-Comintern Pact, but they never coordinated their strategies. Congress passed, and the president signed, a mandatory arms embargo at a time when dictators in Europe and Asia were girding for world war. \n\nLandslide re-election, 1936\n\nIn the 1936 presidential election, Roosevelt campaigned on his New Deal programs against Kansas Governor Alf Landon, who accepted much of the New Deal but objected that it was hostile to business and involved too much waste. Roosevelt and Garner won 60.8% of the vote and carried every state except Maine and Vermont. The New Deal Democrats won even larger majorities in Congress. Roosevelt was backed by a coalition of voters which included traditional Democrats across the country, small farmers, the \"Solid South\" (mostly white Democrats), Catholics, big city political machines, labor unions, northern African Americans (southern ones were still disfranchised), Jews, intellectuals and political liberals. This coalition, frequently referred to as the New Deal coalition, remained largely intact for the Democratic Party until the 1960s. Roosevelt's popularity generated massive volumes of correspondence that had to be responded to. He once told his son James, \"Two short sentences will generally answer any known letter.\" \n\nSecond term, 1937–41\n\nIn contrast to his first term, little major legislation was passed during Roosevelt's second term. There was the Housing Act of 1937, a second Agricultural Adjustment Act, and the Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA) of 1938, which created the minimum wage. When the economy began to deteriorate again in late 1937, Roosevelt asked Congress for $5 billion in WPA relief and public works funding. This managed to eventually create as many as 3.3 million WPA jobs by 1938. Projects accomplished under the WPA ranged from new federal courthouses and post offices, to facilities and infrastructure for national parks, bridges and other infrastructure across the country, and architectural surveys and archeological excavations — investments to construct facilities and preserve important resources. Beyond this, however, Roosevelt recommended to a special congressional session only a permanent national farm act, administrative reorganization and regional planning measures, which were leftovers from a regular session. According to Burns, this attempt illustrated Roosevelt's inability to decide on a basic economic program. \n\nThe Supreme Court became Roosevelt's primary focus during his second term, after the court overturned many of his programs. In particular in 1935, the Court unanimously ruled that the National Recovery Act (NRA) was an unconstitutional delegation of legislative power to the president. Roosevelt stunned Congress in early 1937 by proposing a law to allow him to appoint up to six new justices, what he referred to as a \"persistent infusion of new blood.\" This \"court packing\" plan ran into intense political opposition from his own party, led by Vice President Garner, since it upset the separation of powers and gave the President control over the Court. Roosevelt's proposal to expand the court failed; but by 1941, Roosevelt had appointed seven of the nine justices of the court, a change in membership which resulted in a court that began to ratify his policies. \n\nRoosevelt at first had massive support from the rapidly growing labor unions, but they split into bitterly feuding AFL and CIO factions, the latter led by John L. Lewis. Roosevelt pronounced a \"plague on both your houses,\" but labor's disunity weakened the party in the elections from 1938 through 1946. \n\nDetermined to overcome the opposition of conservative Democrats in Congress (mostly from the South), Roosevelt became involved in the 1938 Democratic primaries, actively campaigning for challengers who were more supportive of New Deal reform. His targets denounced Roosevelt for trying to take over the Democratic party and to win reelection, using the argument that they were independent. Roosevelt failed badly, managing to defeat only one target, a conservative Democrat from New York City. \n\nIn the November 1938 election, Democrats lost six Senate seats and 71 House seats. Losses were concentrated among pro-New Deal Democrats. When Congress reconvened in 1939, Republicans under Senator Robert Taft formed a Conservative coalition with Southern Democrats, virtually ending Roosevelt's ability to get his domestic proposals enacted into law. The minimum wage law of 1938 was the last substantial New Deal reform act passed by Congress. Following the autumn Congressional elections in 1938, Congress was now dominated by conservatives, many of whom feared that Roosevelt was \"aiming at a dictatorship,\" according to the historian Hugh Brogan. In addition, as noted by another historian, after the 1938 election increased the strength of Republicans,\n\n\"conservative Democrats held the balance of power between liberals and Republicans, and they used it to prevent completion of the structure of the Second New Deal.\"\n\nRoosevelt had always belonged to the more liberal wing of the Democratic Party. He sought a realignment that would solidify liberal dominance by means of landslides in 1932, 1934 and 1936. During the 1932 campaign he predicted privately, \"I'll be in the White House for eight years. When those years are over, there'll be a Progressive party. It may not be Democratic, but it will be Progressive.\" When the third consecutive landslide in 1936 failed to produce major legislation in 1937, his recourse was to purge his conservative opponents in 1938. \n\nForeign policy, 1937–41\n\nThe aggressive foreign policy of Nazi dictator Adolf Hitler in Germany after 1933 aroused fears of a new world war. Americans wanted to keep out of it and in 1937 Congress passed an even more stringent Neutrality act. But when Japan invaded China in 1937, public opinion strongly favored China, and Roosevelt found various ways to assist that nation.\n\nIn October 1937, Roosevelt gave the Quarantine Speech aiming to contain aggressor nations. He proposed that warmongering states be treated as a public health menace and be \"quarantined.\" Meanwhile, he secretly stepped up a program to build long-range submarines that could blockade Japan. \n\nAt the time of the Munich Agreement in 1938 — with the U.S. not represented — Roosevelt said the country would not join a \"stop-Hitler bloc\" under any circumstances. He made it quite clear that, in the event of German aggression against Czechoslovakia, the U.S. would remain neutral. Roosevelt said in 1939 that France and Britain were America's \"first line of defense\" and needed American aid, but because of widespread isolationist sentiment, he reiterated the US itself would not go to war. In the spring of 1939, Roosevelt allowed the French to place huge orders with the American aircraft industry on a cash-and-carry basis, as allowed by law. Most of the aircraft ordered had not arrived in France by the time of its collapse in May 1940, so Roosevelt arranged in June 1940 for French orders to be sold to the British.\n\nWhen World War II began in September 1939 with Germany's invasion of Poland, Roosevelt rejected the Wilsonian neutrality stance and sought ways to assist Britain and France militarily. At first he gave only covert support to repeal of the arms embargo provisions of the Neutrality Act. He began a regular secret correspondence with the First Lord of the Admiralty Winston Churchill in September 1939 — the first of 1,700 letters and telegrams between them — discussing ways of supporting Britain. Roosevelt forged a close personal relationship with Churchill, who became Prime Minister of the United Kingdom in May 1940.\n\nHis relations with Charles de Gaulle, leader of Free France, were more strained, for a long time he refused to recognize de Gaulle as the representative of France, preferring to deal with representatives of the Vichy government. Roosevelt did not recognize de Gaulle's provisional government until late 1944. \n\nIn April 1940, Germany invaded Denmark and Norway, followed by invasions of the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg and France in May. The German victories left Britain isolated in western Europe. Roosevelt, who was determined that Britain not be defeated, took advantage of the rapid shifts of public opinion. The fall of Paris shocked American opinion, and isolationist sentiment declined. A consensus was clear that military spending had to be dramatically expanded. There was no consensus on how much the US should risk war in helping Britain. In July 1940, FDR appointed two interventionist Republican leaders, Henry L. Stimson and Frank Knox, as Secretaries of War and the Navy, respectively. Both parties gave support to his plans for a rapid build-up the American military, but the isolationists warned that Roosevelt would get the nation into an unnecessary war with Germany. Congress authorized the nation's first peacetime draft. \n\nRoosevelt used his personal charisma to build support for intervention. America should be the \"Arsenal of Democracy\", he told his fireside audience. On September 2, 1940, Roosevelt openly defied the Neutrality Acts by passing the Destroyers for Bases Agreement, which, in exchange for military base rights in the British Caribbean Islands, gave 50 WWI American destroyers to Britain. The U.S. also received free base rights in Bermuda and Newfoundland, allowing British forces to be moved to the sharper end of the war; the idea of an exchange of warships for bases such as these originated in the cabinet. Hitler and Mussolini responded to the deal by joining with Japan in the Tripartite Pact.\n\nThe agreement with Britain was a precursor of the March 1941 Lend-Lease agreement, which began to direct massive military and economic aid to Britain, the Republic of China, and later the Soviet Union. For foreign policy advice, Roosevelt turned to Harry Hopkins, who became his chief wartime advisor. They sought innovative ways short of going to war to help Britain, whose financial resources were exhausted by the end of 1940. Congress, where isolationist sentiment was waning, passed the Lend-Lease Act in March 1941, allowing the U.S. to give Wales, England, Scotland, China, and later the Soviet Union military supplies. The legislation had hit a logjam until Senators Byrd, Byrnes and Taft added a provision subjecting it to appropriation by Congress. Congress voted to commit to spend $50 billion on military supplies from 1941 to 1945. In sharp contrast to the loans of World War I, there would be no repayment after the war. Until late in 1941, Roosevelt refused Churchill's urgent requests for armed escort of ships bound for Britain, insisting on a more passive patrolling function in the western Atlantic.\n\nElection of 1940\n\nThe two-term tradition had been an unwritten rule (until the 22nd Amendment after Roosevelt's presidency) since George Washington declined to run for a third term in 1796. Both Ulysses S. Grant and Theodore Roosevelt were attacked for trying to obtain a third non-consecutive term. Roosevelt systematically undercut prominent Democrats who were angling for the nomination, including Vice President John Nance Garner and two cabinet members, Secretary of State Cordell Hull and James Farley, Roosevelt's campaign manager in 1932 and 1936, the Postmaster General and the Democratic Party chairman. Roosevelt moved the convention to Chicago where he had strong support from the city machine (which controlled the auditorium sound system). At the convention the opposition was poorly organized, but Farley had packed the galleries. Roosevelt sent a message saying that he would not run unless he was drafted, and that the delegates were free to vote for anyone. The delegates were stunned; then the loudspeaker screamed \"We want Roosevelt... The world wants Roosevelt!\" The delegates went wild and he was nominated by 946 to 147 on the first ballot. The tactic employed by Roosevelt was not entirely successful, as his goal had been to be drafted by acclamation. The new vice-presidential nominee was Henry Agard Wallace, a liberal intellectual who was Secretary of Agriculture.\n\nIn his campaign against Republican Wendell Willkie, Roosevelt stressed both his proven leadership experience and his intention to do everything possible to keep the United States out of war. In one of his speeches he declared to potential recruits that \"you boys are not going to be sent into any foreign war.\" He won the 1940 election with 55% of the popular vote and 38 of the 48 states, and thus winning almost 85% of the electoral vote (449 to 82). A shift to the left within the Administration was shown by the naming of Henry A. Wallace as Vice President in place of the conservative Texan John Nance Garner, who had become a bitter enemy of Roosevelt after 1937.\n\nThird term, 1941–45\n\nRoosevelt tried to avoid repeating what he saw as Woodrow Wilson's mistakes in World War I. He often made exactly the opposite decision. Wilson called for neutrality in thought and deed, while Roosevelt made it clear his administration strongly favored Britain and China. Unlike the loans in World War I, the United States made large-scale grants of military and economic aid to the Allies through Lend-Lease, with little expectation of repayment. Wilson did not greatly expand war production before the declaration of war; Roosevelt did. Wilson waited for the declaration to begin a draft; Roosevelt started one in 1940. Wilson never made the United States an official ally but Roosevelt did. Wilson never met with the top Allied leaders but Roosevelt did. Wilson proclaimed independent policy, as seen in the 14 Points, while Roosevelt always had a collaborative policy with the Allies. In 1917, United States declared war on Germany; in 1941, Roosevelt waited until the enemy attacked at Pearl Harbor. Wilson refused to collaborate with the Republicans; Roosevelt named leading Republicans to head the War Department and the Navy Department. Wilson let General George Pershing make the major military decisions; Roosevelt made the major decisions in his war including the \"Europe first\" strategy. He rejected the idea of an armistice and demanded unconditional surrender. Roosevelt often mentioned his role in the Wilson administration, but added that he had profited more from Wilson's errors than from his successes. \n\nPolicies\n\nRoosevelt's third term was dominated by World War II. Roosevelt slowly began re-armament in 1938, although he was facing strong isolationist sentiment from leaders like Senators William Borah and Robert A. Taft. By 1940, re-armament was in high gear, with bipartisan support, partly to expand and re-equip the Army and Navy and partly to become the \"Arsenal of Democracy\" supporting Britain, France, China and (after June 1941), the Soviet Union. As Roosevelt took a firmer stance against the Axis Powers, American isolationists (including Charles Lindbergh and America First) vehemently attacked the President as an irresponsible warmonger. Roosevelt initiated FBI and Internal Revenue Service investigations of his loudest critics, though no legal actions resulted. Unfazed by these criticisms and confident in the wisdom of his foreign policy initiatives, FDR continued his twin policies of preparedness and aid to the Allied coalition. On December 29, 1940, he delivered his Arsenal of Democracy fireside chat, in which he made the case for involvement in the war directly to the American people. A week later he delivered his famous Four Freedoms speech laying out the case for an American defense of basic rights throughout the world.\n\nThe homefront was subject to dynamic social changes throughout the war, though domestic issues were no longer Roosevelt's most urgent policy concern. The military buildup spurred economic growth. Unemployment fell in half from 7.7 million in spring 1940 (when the first accurate statistics were compiled) to 3.4 million in fall 1941 and fell in half again to 1.5 million in fall 1942, out of a labor force of 54 million. There was a growing labor shortage, accelerating the second wave of the Great Migration of African Americans, farmers and rural populations to manufacturing centers. African Americans from the South went to California and other West Coast states for new jobs in the defense industry. To pay for increased government spending, in 1941 FDR proposed that Congress enact an income tax rate of 99.5% on all income over $100,000; when the proposal failed, he issued an executive order imposing an income tax of 100% on income over $25,000, which Congress rescinded.\n\nWhen Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941, Roosevelt agreed to extend Lend-Lease to the Soviets. Thus, Roosevelt had committed the U.S. to the Allied side with a policy of \"all aid short of war.\" Execution of the aid fell victim to foot dragging in the administration so FDR appointed a special assistant, Wayne Coy, to expedite matters. Later that year, a German submarine fired on the U.S. destroyer Greer, and Roosevelt declared that the U.S. Navy would assume an escort role for Allied convoys in the Atlantic as far east as Great Britain and would fire upon German ships or submarines (U-boats) of the Kriegsmarine if they entered the U.S. Navy zone. This \"shoot on sight\" policy effectively declared naval war on Germany and was favored by Americans by a margin of 2-to-1.\n\nRoosevelt and Churchill conducted a highly secret bilateral meeting in Argentia, Newfoundland, and on August 14, 1941, drafted the Atlantic Charter, conceptually outlining global wartime and postwar goals. All the Allies endorsed it. This was the first of several wartime conferences; Churchill and Roosevelt would meet ten more times in person. In July 1941, Roosevelt had ordered Secretary of War Henry Stimson, to begin planning for total American military involvement. The resulting \"Victory Program\" provided the Army's estimates necessary for the total mobilization of manpower, industry, and logistics to defeat Germany and Japan. The program also planned to dramatically increase aid to the Allied nations and to have ten million men in arms, half of whom would be ready for deployment abroad in 1943. Roosevelt was firmly committed to the Allied cause, and these plans were formulated before Japan's Attack on Pearl Harbor.\n\nCongress was debating a modification of the Neutrality Act in October 1941, when the USS Kearny, along with other ships, engaged a number of U-boats south of Iceland; the Kearny took fire and lost eleven crewmen. As a result, the amendment of the Neutrality Act to permit the arming of the merchant marine passed both houses, though by a slim margin.\n\nIn 1942, with the United States now in the conflict, war production increased dramatically, but fell short of the goals established by the President, due in part to manpower shortages. The effort was also hindered by numerous strikes by union workers, especially in the coal mining and railroad industries, which lasted well into 1944. The White House became the ultimate site for labor mediation, conciliation or arbitration. One particular battle royal occurred, between Vice-President Wallace, who headed the Board of Economic Warfare, and Jesse Jones, in charge of the Reconstruction Finance Corporation; both agencies assumed responsibility for acquisition of rubber supplies and came to loggerheads over funding. FDR resolved the dispute by dissolving both agencies.\n\nIn 1944, the President requested that Congress enact legislation which would tax all unreasonable profits, both corporate and individual, and thereby support his declared need for over $10 billion in revenue for the war and other government measures. The Congress passed a revenue bill raising $2 billion, which FDR vetoed, though Congress in turn overrode him.\n\nPearl Harbor and declarations of war\n\nWhen Japan occupied northern French Indochina in late 1940, FDR authorized increased aid to the Republic of China, a policy that won widespread popular support. In July 1941, after Japan occupied the remainder of Indo-China, he cut off the sale of oil to Japan, which thus lost more than 95 percent of its oil supply. Roosevelt continued negotiations with the Japanese government, primarily through Secretary Hull. Japan Premier Fumimaro Konoye desired a summit conference with FDR which the US rejected. Konoye was replaced with Minister of War Hideki Tojo. Meanwhile, Roosevelt started sending long-range B-17 bombers to the Philippines.\n\nFDR felt that an attack by the Japanese was probable – most likely in the Dutch East Indies or Thailand. On December 4, 1941, The Chicago Tribune published the complete text of \"Rainbow Five\", a top-secret war plan drawn up by the War Department. It dealt chiefly with mobilization issues, calling for a 10-million-man army.\n\nThe great majority of scholars have rejected the conspiracy thesis that Roosevelt, or any other high government officials, knew in advance about the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. The Japanese had kept their secrets closely guarded. Senior American officials were aware that war was imminent, but they did not expect an attack on Pearl Harbor.\n\nOn the morning of December 7, 1941, the Japanese struck the U.S. naval base at Pearl Harbor with a surprise attack, knocking out the main American battleship fleet and killing 2,403 American servicemen and civilians. Roosevelt called for war in his famous \"Infamy Speech\" to Congress, in which he said: \"Yesterday, December 7, 1941 — a date which will live in infamy — the United States of America was suddenly and deliberately attacked by naval and air forces of the Empire of Japan.\"\n\nIn 1942 Roosevelt set up a new military command structure with Admiral Ernest J. King as Chief of Naval Operations in complete control of the Navy and Marines; General George C. Marshall in charge of the Army and in nominal control of the Air Force, which in practice was commanded by General Hap Arnold. Roosevelt formed a new body, the Joint Chiefs of Staff, which made the final decisions on American military strategy. The Joint Chiefs was a White House agency and was chaired by Admiral William D. Leahy. When dealing with Europe, the Joint Chiefs met with their British counterparts and formed the Combined Chiefs of Staff. Unlike the political leaders of the other major powers, Roosevelt rarely overrode his military advisors. His civilian appointees handled the draft and procurement of men and equipment, but no civilians – not even the secretaries of War or Navy, had a voice in strategy. Roosevelt avoided the State Department and conducted high level diplomacy through his aides, especially Harry Hopkins. Since Hopkins also controlled $50 billion in Lend Lease funds given to the Allies, they paid attention to him.\n\nWar plans\n\nAfter Pearl Harbor, antiwar sentiment in the United States evaporated overnight. On December 11, 1941, Germany and Italy declared war on the United States, which responded in kind. Roosevelt and his military advisers implemented a war strategy with the objectives of halting the German advances in the Soviet Union and in North Africa; launching an invasion of western Europe with the aim of crushing Nazi Germany between two fronts; and saving China and defeating Japan. Public opinion, however, gave priority to the destruction of Japan, so American forces were sent chiefly to the Pacific in 1942. \n\nIn the opening weeks of the war, Japan had conquered the Philippines, and the British and Dutch colonies in Southeast Asia, capturing Singapore in February 1942. Furthermore, Japan cut off the overland supply route to China.\n\nRoosevelt met with Churchill in late December and planned a broad informal alliance among the U.S., Britain, China and the Soviet Union. This included Churchill's initial plan to invade North Africa (called Operation Gymnast) and the primary plan of the U.S. generals for a western Europe invasion, focused directly on Germany (Operation Sledgehammer). An agreement was also reached for a centralized command and offensive in the Pacific theater called ABDA (American, British, Dutch, Australian) to save China and defeat Japan. Nevertheless, the Atlantic First strategy was intact, to Churchill's great satisfaction. On New Year's Day 1942, Churchill and FDR issued the \"Declaration by United Nations\", representing 26 countries in opposition to the Tripartite Pact of Germany, Italy and Japan.\n\nInternment of Germans, Japanese and Italians\n\nWhen the war began, the danger of a Japanese attack on the coast led to growing pressure to move people of Japanese descent away from the coastal region. This pressure grew due to fears of terrorism, espionage, and/or sabotage; it was also related to anti-Japanese competition and discrimination. On February 19, 1942, President Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066, which relocated hundreds of thousands of the \"Issei\" (first generation of Japanese immigrants who did not have U.S. citizenship) and their children, \"Nisei\" (who had dual citizenship). They were forced to give up their properties and businesses, and transported to hastily built camps in interior, harsh locations.\n\nAfter both Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy declared war on the United States in December 1941, many German and Italian citizens who had not taken out American citizenship were arrested or interned. \n\nWar strategy\n\nThe \"Big Three\" (Roosevelt, Churchill, and Joseph Stalin), together with Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek, cooperated informally on a plan in which American and British troops concentrated in the West; Soviet troops fought on the Eastern front; and Chinese, British and American troops fought in Asia and the Pacific. The Allies formulated strategy in a series of high-profile conferences as well as contact through diplomatic and military channels. Roosevelt guaranteed that the U.S. would be the \"Arsenal of Democracy\" by shipping $50 billion of Lend Lease supplies, primarily to Britain and to the USSR, China and other Allies. Roosevelt coined the term \"Four Policemen\" to refer this \"Big Four\" Allied powers of World War II, the United States, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and China. \n\nIn October 1942, the President was advised that military resources were desperately needed at Guadalcanal to prevent overrunning by the Japanese. FDR heeded the advice, redirected armaments and the Japanese Pacific offensive was stalled.\n\nThe Allies undertook the invasions of French Morocco and Algeria (Operation Torch) in November 1942. FDR very much desired the assault be initiated before election day, but did not order it. FDR and Churchill had another war conference in Casablanca in January 1943; Stalin declined an invitation. The Allies agreed strategically that the Mediterranean focus be continued, with the cross-channel invasion coming later, followed by concentration of efforts in the Pacific. Roosevelt also championed General Henri Giraud as leader of Free France against General Charles de Gaulle. Hitler reinforced his military in North Africa, with the result that the Allied efforts there suffered a temporary setback; Allied attempts to counterbalance this were successful, but resulted in war supplies to the USSR being delayed, as well as the second war front. Later, their assault pursued into Sicily (Operation Husky) followed in July 1943, and of Italy (Operation Avalanche) in September 1943. In 1943, it was apparent to FDR that Stalin, while bearing the brunt of Germany's offensive, had not had sufficient opportunity to participate in war conferences. The President made a concerted effort to arrange a one-on-one meeting with Stalin, in Fairbanks. However, when Stalin learned that Roosevelt and Churchill had postponed the cross-channel invasion a second time, he cancelled. The strategic bombing campaign was escalated in 1944, pulverizing all major German cities and cutting off oil supplies. It was a 50–50 British-American operation. Roosevelt picked Dwight D. Eisenhower, and not George Marshall, to head the Allied cross-channel invasion, Operation Overlord that began on D-Day, June 6, 1944. Some of the most costly battles of the war ensued after the invasion, and the Allies were blocked on the German border in the \"Battle of the Bulge\" in December 1944. When Roosevelt died on April 12, 1945, Allied forces were closing in on Berlin.\n\nMeanwhile, in the Pacific, the Japanese advance reached its maximum extent by June 1942, when the U.S. Navy scored a decisive victory at the Battle of Midway. American and Australian forces then began a slow and costly progress called island hopping or leapfrogging through the Pacific Islands, with the objective of gaining bases from which strategic airpower could be brought to bear on Japan and from which Japan could ultimately be invaded. In contrast to Hitler, Roosevelt took no direct part in the tactical naval operations, though he approved strategic decisions. FDR gave way in part to insistent demands from the public and Congress that more effort be devoted against Japan; he always insisted on Germany first.\n\nPost-war planning\n\nBy late 1943, it was apparent that the Allies would ultimately defeat the enemy, so it became increasingly important to make high-level political decisions about the course of the war and the postwar future of Europe. Roosevelt met with Churchill and the Chinese leader Chiang Kai-shek at the Cairo Conference in November 1943, and then went to the Tehran Conference to confer with Churchill and Stalin. While Churchill warned of potential domination by a Stalin dictatorship over eastern Europe, Roosevelt responded with a statement summarizing his rationale for relations with Stalin: \"I just have a hunch that Stalin is not that kind of a man. [...] I think that if I give him everything I possibly can and ask for nothing from him in return, noblesse oblige, he won't try to annex anything and will work with me for a world of democracy and peace.\" At the Tehran Conference, Roosevelt and Churchill discussed plans for a postwar international organization. For his part, Stalin insisted on redrawing the frontiers of Poland. Stalin supported Roosevelt's plan for the United Nations and promised to enter the war against Japan 90 days after Germany was defeated.\n\nBy the beginning of 1945, however, with the Allied armies advancing into Germany and the Soviets in control of Poland, the postwar issues came into the open. In February, Roosevelt met with Churchill at Malta and traveled to Yalta, in Crimea, to meet again with Stalin and Churchill. While Roosevelt maintained his confidence that Stalin would keep his Yalta promises regarding free elections in eastern Europe, one month after Yalta ended, Roosevelt's Ambassador to the USSR Averell Harriman cabled Roosevelt that \"we must come clearly to realize that the Soviet program is the establishment of totalitarianism, ending personal liberty and democracy as we know it.\" Two days later, Roosevelt began to admit that his view of Stalin had been excessively optimistic and that \"Averell is right.\"\n\nDeclining health\n\nRoosevelt, who was a chain-smoker, had been in declining health since at least 1940, and by 1944 he was noticeably fatigued. In March 1944, shortly after his 62nd birthday, he underwent testing at Bethesda Hospital and was found to have high blood pressure, atherosclerosis, coronary artery disease causing angina pectoris, and congestive heart failure. Hospital physicians and two outside specialists ordered Roosevelt to rest. His personal physician, Admiral Ross McIntire, created a daily schedule that banned business guests for lunch and incorporated two hours of rest each day. During the 1944 election campaign, McIntire denied several times that Roosevelt's health was poor; on October 12, for example, he announced that \"The President's health is perfectly OK. There are absolutely no organic difficulties at all.\" Prior to the election, Roosevelt may have used his authority over the Office of Censorship to quash press reports of his declining physical health. \n\nElection of 1944\n\nRoosevelt, aware that most publishers were opposed to him, issued a decree in 1943 that blocked all publishers and media executives from visits to combat areas; he put General Marshall in charge of enforcement. The main target was Henry Luce, the powerful publisher of Time and Life magazines. Historian Alan Brinkley argues the move was \"badly mistaken\", for had Luce been allowed to travel, he would have been an enthusiastic cheerleader for American forces around the globe. But stranded in New York City, Luce's frustration and anger expressed itself in hard-edged partisanship. \n\nParty leaders insisted that Roosevelt drop Henry A. Wallace, who had been erratic as Vice President. James F. Byrnes of South Carolina, a top FDR aide, was considered ineligible because he had left the Catholic Church and many Catholic voters would not vote for him. Roosevelt replaced Wallace with Missouri Senator Harry S. Truman, best known for his battle against corruption and inefficiency in wartime spending. The Republicans nominated Thomas E. Dewey, the liberal governor of New York. The opposition lambasted FDR and his administration for domestic corruption, bureaucratic inefficiency, tolerance of Communism, and military blunders. Labor unions, which had grown rapidly in the war, threw their all-out support behind Roosevelt. Roosevelt and Truman won the 1944 election by a comfortable margin, defeating Dewey and his running mate John W. Bricker with 53.4% of the popular vote and 432 out of the 531 electoral votes. The President campaigned in favor of a strong United Nations, so his victory symbolized support for the nation's future participation in the international community.\n\nDue to the President's declining health, the small-scale fourth inauguration on January 20, 1945, was held on the White House lawn.\n\nFourth term and death, 1945\n\nLast days, death and memorial\n\nThe President left the Yalta Conference on February 12, 1945, flew to Egypt and boarded the USS Quincy operating on the Great Bitter Lake near the Suez Canal. Aboard Quincy, the next day he met with Farouk I, king of Egypt, and Haile Selassie, emperor of Ethiopia. On February 14, he held a historic meeting with King Abdulaziz, the founder of Saudi Arabia, a meeting some historians believe holds profound significance in U.S.–Saudi relations even today. After a final meeting between Roosevelt and Prime Minister Winston Churchill, Quincy steamed for Algiers, arriving February 18, at which time Roosevelt conferred with American ambassadors to Britain, France and Italy. At Yalta, Lord Moran, Winston Churchill's physician, commenting on Roosevelt's ill health, said that he was a dying man.\n\nWhen Roosevelt returned to the United States, he addressed Congress on March 1 about the Yalta Conference, and many were shocked to see how old, thin and frail he looked. He spoke while seated in the well of the House, an unprecedented concession to his physical incapacity. Roosevelt opened his speech by saying, \"I hope that you will pardon me for this unusual posture of sitting down during the presentation of what I want to say, but... it makes it a lot easier for me not to have to carry about ten pounds of steel around on the bottom of my legs.\" Still in full command mentally, he firmly stated \"The Crimean Conference ought to spell the end of a system of unilateral action, the exclusive alliances, the spheres of influence, the balances of power, and all the other expedients that have been tried for centuries– and have always failed. We propose to substitute for all these, a universal organization in which all peace-loving nations will finally have a chance to join.\"\n\nDuring March 1945, he sent strongly worded messages to Stalin accusing him of breaking his Yalta commitments over Poland, Germany, prisoners of war and other issues. When Stalin accused the western Allies of plotting a separate peace with Hitler behind his back, Roosevelt replied: \"I cannot avoid a feeling of bitter resentment towards your informers, whoever they are, for such vile misrepresentations of my actions or those of my trusted subordinates.\"\n\nOn March 29, 1945, Roosevelt went to the Little White House at Warm Springs, Georgia, to rest before his anticipated appearance at the founding conference of the United Nations. On the afternoon of April 12, Roosevelt said, \"I have a terrific pain in the back of my head.\" He then slumped forward in his chair, unconscious, and was carried into his bedroom. The president's attending cardiologist, Dr. Howard Bruenn, diagnosed a massive cerebral hemorrhage (stroke). At 3:35 p.m. that day, Roosevelt died. As Allen Drury later said, \"so ended an era, and so began another.\" After Roosevelt's death, an editorial by The New York Times declared, \"Men will thank God on their knees a hundred years from now that Franklin D. Roosevelt was in the White House\". \n\nAt the time he collapsed, Roosevelt had been sitting for a portrait painting by the artist Elizabeth Shoumatoff, known as the famous Unfinished Portrait of FDR.\n\nIn his later years at the White House, when Roosevelt was increasingly overworked, his daughter Anna Roosevelt Boettiger had moved in to provide her father companionship and support. Anna had also arranged for her father to meet with his former mistress, the now widowed Lucy Mercer Rutherfurd. Shoumatoff, who maintained close friendships with both Roosevelt and Mercer, rushed Mercer away to avoid negative publicity and implications of infidelity.\n\nOn the morning of April 13, Roosevelt's body was placed in a flag-draped coffin and loaded onto the presidential train. After a White House funeral on April 14, Roosevelt was transported back to Hyde Park by train. As was his wish, Roosevelt was buried in the Rose Garden of the Springwood estate, the Roosevelt family home in Hyde Park on April 15. Eleanor, who died in November 1962, is interred next to him.\n\nRoosevelt's death was met with shock and grief across the US and around the world. His declining health had not been known to the general public.\n\nLess than a month after his death, on May 8, the war in Europe ended. President Harry S. Truman dedicated Victory in Europe Day and its celebrations to Roosevelt's memory, and kept the flags across the U.S. at half-staff for the remainder of the 30-day mourning period, saying that his only wish was \"that Franklin D. Roosevelt had lived to witness this day.\"\n\nSupreme Court appointments 1933–45\n\nPresident Roosevelt appointed eight Justices to the Supreme Court of the United States, more than any other President except George Washington, who appointed ten. By 1941, eight of the nine Justices were Roosevelt appointees. Harlan Fiske Stone was elevated to Chief Justice from the position of Associate Justice by Roosevelt.\n\nRoosevelt's appointees would not share ideologies, and some, like Hugo Black and Felix Frankfurter, would become \"lifelong adversaries.\" Frankfurter even labeled his more liberal colleagues Rutledge, Murphy, Black, and Douglas as part of an \"Axis\" of opposition to his judicial restraint agenda.\n\nCivil rights\n\nRoosevelt was a hero to major minority groups, especially African Americans, Catholics, and Jews, and was highly successful in attracting large majorities of these voters into his New Deal coalition. He won strong support from Chinese Americans and Filipino Americans, but not Japanese Americans, as he was responsible for their losses due to internship in concentration camps during the war. Roosevelt's understanding and awareness of problems in the world of the American Indians was questioned during the Hopi Hearings which were held in 1955.\n\nAfrican Americans and Native Americans fared well in two New Deal relief programs, the Civilian Conservation Corps and the Indian Reorganization Act, respectively. Sitkoff reported that the WPA \"provided an economic floor for the whole black community in the 1930s, rivaling both agriculture and domestic service as the chief source\" of income.\n\nAnother significant change was establishment in 1941 of the Fair Employment Practices Committee, to implement Executive Order 8802 prohibiting racial and religious discrimination in employment among defense contractors. This was the first national program directed against employment discrimination. African Americans who gained defense industry jobs in the 1940s shared in the higher wages; in the 1950s they had gained in relative economic position, about 14% higher than other blacks who were not in such industries. Their moves into manufacturing positions were critical to their success. \n\nRoosevelt needed the support of the powerful white Southern Democrats for his New Deal programs, and blacks were still disenfranchised in the South. He decided against pushing for federal anti-lynching legislation. It was not likely to pass and the political fight might threaten his ability to pass his highest priority programs—though he did denounce lynchings as \"a vile form of collective murder\". The frequency of lynchings had declined since the early decades of the century, in part due to the African Americans' Great Migration out of the South; millions were still leaving it behind.\n\nHistorian Kevin J. McMahon claims that strides were made for the civil rights of African Americans. In Roosevelt's Justice Department, the Civil Rights Section worked closely with the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). Roosevelt worked with other civil rights groups on cases dealing with police brutality, lynching, and voting rights abuses. \n\nBeginning in the 1960s, FDR was charged with not acting decisively enough to prevent or stop the Holocaust. Critics cite instances such as the 1939 episode in which 936 Jewish refugees on the SS St. Louis were denied asylum and not allowed into the United States because of strict laws passed by Congress.\n\nThe issue of desegregating the armed forces did not arise, but in 1940 Roosevelt appointed former federal judge William H. Hastie, an African American, to be a civilian aide to Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson. On the home front on June 25, 1941, Roosevelt signed Executive Order 8802, forbidding discrimination on account of \"race, creed, color, or national origin\" in the hiring of workers in defense related industries. This was a precursor to Title VII of the Civil Rights Act to come decades later.\n\nHowever, enemy aliens and people of Japanese ancestry fared badly. On February 19, 1942, Roosevelt issued Executive Order 9066 that applied to everyone classified as an \"enemy alien\", including people who had dual citizenship living in designated high-risk areas that covered most of the cities on the West Coast. With the U.S. at war with Italy, some 600,000 Italian aliens (citizens of Italy who did not have U.S. citizenship) were subjected to strict travel restrictions; the restrictions were lifted in October 1942. Moreover, some 120,000 people of Japanese ancestry were forced to leave the West Coast. From 1942 to 1945, they lived in internment camps inland. Those outside the West Coast, and in Hawaii, were not affected.\n\nCriticism of Roosevelt\n\nDuring his presidency, and continuing to a lesser extent today, there has been much criticism of Roosevelt, some of it intense. Critics have questioned not only his policies and positions, consolidation of power that occurred due to his responses to the crises of the Depression, and World War, but also his breaking with tradition by running for a third term as president. \n\nBy the middle of his second term, much criticism of Roosevelt centered on fears that he was heading toward a dictatorship, by attempting to seize control of the Supreme Court in the court-packing incident of 1937, by attempting to eliminate dissent within the Democratic party in the South during the 1938 elections, and by breaking the tradition established by George Washington of not seeking a third term when he again ran for re-election in 1940. As two historians explain, \"In 1940, with the two-term issue as a weapon, anti-New Dealers...argued that the time had come to disarm the 'dictator' and to dismantle the machinery.\" \n\nAs President, Roosevelt was hit from both the right and the left. He came under attack for his supposed anti-business policies, for being a \"warmonger\", for being a \"Fascist\" and for being too friendly to Joseph Stalin. Long after his death, new lines of attack criticized his policies regarding helping the Jews of Europe, incarcerating the Japanese on the West Coast, and opposing anti-lynching legislation. \n\nLegacy\n\nA majority of polls rank Roosevelt as the second or third greatest president, consistent with other surveys. Roosevelt is the sixth most admired person from the 20th century by U.S. citizens, according to Gallup. Roosevelt was also widely beloved for his role in repealing Prohibition. \n\nThe rapid expansion of government programs that occurred during Roosevelt's term redefined the role of the government in the United States, and Roosevelt's advocacy of government social programs was instrumental in redefining liberalism for coming generations. \n\nRoosevelt firmly established the United States' leadership role on the world stage, with his role in shaping and financing World War II. His isolationist critics faded away, and even the Republicans joined in his overall policies. After his death, his widow continued to be a forceful presence in US and world politics, serving as delegate to the conference which established the United Nations and championing civil rights and liberalism generally. Many members of his administration played leading roles in the administrations of Truman, Kennedy and Johnson, each of whom embraced Roosevelt's political legacy. \n\nReflecting on Roosevelt's presidency, \"which brought the United States through the Great Depression and World War II to a prosperous future\", said FDR's biographer Jean Edward Smith in 2007, \"He lifted himself from a wheelchair to lift the nation from its knees.\"\n\nBoth during and after his terms, critics of Roosevelt questioned not only his policies and positions, but even more so the consolidation of power in the White House at a time when dictators were taking over Europe and Asia. Many of the New Deal programs were abolished during the war by FDR's opponents. The powerful new wartime agencies were set up to be temporary and expire at war's end. \n\nRoosevelt's home in Hyde Park is now a National Historic Site and home to his Presidential library. His retreat at Warm Springs, Georgia is a museum operated by the state of Georgia. His summer retreat on Campobello Island is maintained by the governments of both Canada and the United States as Roosevelt Campobello International Park; the island is accessible by way of the Franklin Delano Roosevelt Bridge.\n\nWashington D.C. hosts two memorials to the former president. The largest, the 7.50-acre Roosevelt Memorial, is located next to the Jefferson Memorial on the Tidal Basin. A much more modest memorial, a block of marble in front of the National Archives building, was erected in 1955 and adheres to President Roosevelt's explicit suggestion as to what his memorial should be.\n\nThree public sculptures of Roosevelt sitting in a wheelchair are known to exist. Two are at the Roosevelt Memorial, one of FDR sitting in a chair with small wheels – mostly obscured by his cape, another of FDR in a wheelchair at the entrance to the memorial; a third statue, unveiled in April 2008, is part of the \"Paseo de los Presidentes\" on the south side of Puerto Rico's Capitol Building, which honors the nine presidents who have visited the US territory while in office. Another statue is installed at the Franklin D. Roosevelt Four Freedoms Park on Roosevelt Island.\n\nRoosevelt's leadership in the March of Dimes is one reason he is commemorated on the American dime. \n\nMany parks and schools, as well as an aircraft carrier and a Paris subway station and hundreds of streets and squares both across the U.S. and the rest of the world have been named in his honor.\n\nRoosevelt was a strong supporter of scouting, beginning in 1915.\n\nRoosevelt was honored by the United States Postal Service with a Prominent Americans series 6¢ postage stamp, issue of 1966. He also appears on several other U.S. Postage stamps. Roosevelt was a devoted philatelist from the age of ten, spending some time almost every day with his collection of 1.25 million stamps. As president government agencies sent Roosevelt unusual stamps they received in the mail, and the hobby gave him an unusually thorough knowledge of world geography which benefited him during the war. After his death the collection was sold for $250,000. Among the items was a group of envelopes Roosevelt saved that he received as president; those with compliments were addressed \"To the Greatest Man in the World\" and \"God's Gift to the U.S.A.\", while less favorable letters arrived in envelopes labeled \"F.D. Russianvelt, President of U.S.A., C.I.O.\", \"Benedict Arnold 2nd\", and \"Rattlesnake Roosevelt\".\n\nThe airport of the Dutch Caribbean island of St. Eustatius is named F.D. Roosevelt Airport after Roosevelt, whose ancestors lived on the island in the 18th century. Most of the arms and supplies for General Washington's fight against the British came to North America through St. Eustatius. When in the port of the island in 1939, Roosevelt presented the inhabitants with a plaque commemorating that in 1776 \"Here the sovereignty of the United States of America was first formally acknowledged to a national vessel by a foreign official\", the famous \"First Salute\". The plaque hangs on the flag pole of the island's Fort Oranje. \n\nRoosevelt was the last President of the United States to serve more than two terms in office; in 1947, the 22nd Amendment limiting Presidential terms was ratified by the states.\n\nPortraits\n\nPhotos\n\nFile:FDR in 1893-crop.jpg\|Age 11, 1893\nFile:FDR at Groton April 1900-crop.jpg\|Age 18, Massachusetts, 1900\nFile:Franklin Roosevelt Secretary of the Navy 1913-crop.jpg\|Age 31, Assistant Secretary of the Navy, 1913\nFile:Roosevelt20.jpg\|Age 37, circa 1919\nFile:FDR in 1933.jpg\|Age 51, first year as president, 1933\nFile:1944 portrait of FDR (1).jpg\|Age 62, portrait before the 1944 campaign\n\nPaintings\n\nFile:FRoosevelt.png\|Gubernatorial portrait, ca. 1941\nFile:Froosevelt.jpeg\|Official presidential portrait, 1947\n\nAppendix\n\nCabinet\n\nMedia" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "3", "Three", "three" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "three", "3" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "three", "type": "Numerical", "value": "Three" }
In which state is Harrah's Auto Collection situated?	tc_315	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Caesars_Entertainment_Corporation.txt" ], "title": [ "Caesars Entertainment Corporation" ], "wiki_context": [ "Caesars Entertainment Corporation, is an American gaming corporation based in Paradise, Nevada that owns and operates over 50 casinos and hotels, and seven golf courses under several brands. It is the fourth-largest gaming company in the world, with annual revenues of $8.6 billion (2013). Caesars is a public company, majority-owned by a group of private equity firms led by Apollo Global Management and TPG Capital.\n\nCaesars's largest operating unit filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection in January 2015. \n\nHistory\n\nWilliam F. Harrah era (1937–1978) \n\nThe company's background can be traced to October 29, 1937, when Bill Harrah opened a small bingo parlor in Reno, Nevada, a predecessor to Harrah's Reno. In 1955, he expanded to Stateline, Nevada, on the south shore of Lake Tahoe, where he would eventually open Harrah's Lake Tahoe. Harrah's Inc. made its initial public offering in 1971. Following that in 1972, it was listed on the American Stock Exchange and in 1973, Harrah's became the first casino company listed on the New York Stock Exchange.\n\nBill Harrah died on June 30, 1978 of complications from aortic aneurysm and cardiac surgery at the Mayo Clinic in Rochester, Minnesota.\n\nUnder Holiday Inn\n\nIn February 1980, Holiday Inns acquired Harrah's, Inc. for $300 million. Liquidation of Harrah's collection of almost 7,000 antique automobiles reportedly returned the full purchase price of the company to Holiday Inn. Holiday Inn at the time had interests in two casinos: the under-construction Holiday Inn Marina Casino in Atlantic City, and a 40 percent stake in the Holiday Casino, adjacent to the Holiday Inn hotel on the Las Vegas Strip.\n\nIn July 1987, Bill's Casino Lake Tahoe opened. Harrah's Laughlin opened in August 1988.\n\nThe Promus Companies\n\nThe company now known as Caesars Entertainment was formed in 1990 as The Promus Companies. To effect the sale of the Holiday Inn hotel business to Bass PLC, Promus was created as a corporate spin-off, holding Harrah's, Embassy Suites, Homewood Suites, and Hampton Inn; Bass then acquired Holiday Corp., which retained only the Holiday Inn assets. The next year, the company's headquarters moved from Reno to Memphis, Tennessee\n\nIn April 1992, the Holiday Casino was rebranded as Harrah's Las Vegas.\n\nThe late 1980s and early 1990s saw a rapid increase in gambling markets with the growth of Indian gaming and legalization of riverboat casinos. In 1993 and 1994, the company opened Harrah's Joliet, Harrah's Vicksburg, Harrah's Tunica, Harrah's Black Hawk, Harrah's Central City, Harrah's Shreveport, Harrah's North Kansas City, and Harrah's Ak-Chin. \n\nRenamed as Harrah's Entertainment, Inc.\n\nIn 1995, Promus decided to spin off its non-gaming hotel businesses, in part because they had been undervalued by investors due to perception of the company as a risky gaming stock. Promus Hotel Corp. was established, holding Embassy Suites, Hampton Inn, and Homewood Suites, while the parent company, holding 16 casinos, was renamed as Harrah's Entertainment. \n\nHarrah's continued its expansion over the next ten years, opening Harrah's Skagit Valley, Harrah's Sky City, Harrah's St. Louis-Riverport, Harrah's Cherokee, Harrah's Prairie Band, Harrah's New Orleans, and Harrah's Rincon, and acquiring the Southern Belle Casino, Showboat, Inc., the Rio All Suite Hotel and Casino, Players International, Harveys Casino Resorts, Louisiana Downs, Horseshoe Gaming, and the World Series of Poker. \n\nIn 1997, Harrah's launched its Total Gold loyalty program (renamed as Total Rewards in 2000 ), developed at a cost of $20 million. It was the first gaming company to offer a systemwide comps program, allowing points earned at one casino to be redeemed for goods and services at any of the company's other casinos. The system would be credited as a major driver of Harrah's growth over the coming years.\n\nHarvard Business School professor Gary Loveman joined Harrah's as chief operating officer in 1998, and would go on to serve as chief executive officer from 2003 to 2015. \n\nIn 1999, the company moved its headquarters from Memphis to Las Vegas.\n\nPurchase of Caesars Entertainment\n\nHarrah's made its largest single expansion in 2005, when it acquired Caesars Entertainment, Inc. for $10.4 billion. Negotiations were spurred on by news of a merger agreement between MGM Mirage and Mandalay Resort Group. The two companies sold several properties ahead of the merger to assuage antitrust concerns, including Harrah's East Chicago and Harrah's Tunica. The acquisition increased Harrah's portfolio to 40 casinos, plus four cruise ship casinos. The deal furthered Harrah's goal of gaining a larger presence on the Las Vegas Strip, where Caesars owned four casinos, and improved its ability to market to high rollers. \n\nHarrah's began to push for a larger international presence in 2005, announcing joint venture agreements to build casinos in Spain, Slovenia, and the Bahamas, and applying for a license to build a major resort in Singapore, though none of these projects would come to fruition. Harrah's also acquired London Clubs International in 2006, and the Macau Orient Golf club in 2007. \n\nFrom 2005 to 2010, the company consolidated control of a long stretch of the east side of the Las Vegas Strip, acquiring the Bourbon Street, Imperial Palace, Barbary Coast, and Planet Hollywood casinos, along with large tracts of land behind the Strip properties. \n\nIn 2005 and 2006, Harrah's closed its Lake Charles casino due to damage from Hurricane Rita, sold the Flamingo Laughlin, and sold Grand Casino Gulfport.\n\nCompany goes private\n\nLoveman at some point sought advice from private equity tycoon David Bonderman about the possibility of spinning off ownership of Harrah's real estate as a separate real estate investment trust (REIT), hoping to attain the higher price-to-earnings ratios at which hotel companies traded, compared to gaming companies. In 2006, the discussions evolved toward the idea of a leveraged buyout of Harrah's by Bonderman's company, TPG Capital. Another private equity firm, Apollo Global Management, approached Loveman about a buyout, and he encouraged them to collaborate with TPG. By the end of the year, an agreement was announced for the two companies to buy Harrah's for $17.1 billion in cash plus $10.7 billion in assumed debt. The transaction closed in January 2008, leaving Harrah's with $25.1 billion in debt. \n\nThe Linq\n\nIt was widely announced in previous years that the company planned to implode properties and build new ones from scratch, but after the market downturn the company conceded that it had little experience in building major resorts. Instead it developed Project LINQ in 2009, which calls for retaining and improving all existing buildings while adding a collection of about 20 restaurants and bars to be built along a winding corridor between the company's Imperial Palace, O'Sheas and Flamingo casinos, on the east side of the Strip. It is an attempt to create the kind of entertainment district that has developed organically in cities such as Los Angeles, Memphis and New Orleans yet is lacking on the Strip, with its enclosed, casino-centric zones. If this new zone is successful it will provide competition for the Fremont Street Experience.\n\nNew Las Vegas Arena\n\nThe Anschutz Entertainment Group first tried to build an arena in Las Vegas in association with Harrah's Entertainment. In 2007, the joint venture announced they would build a 20,000 seat stadium behind the Bally's and Paris casino-hotels.[http://sports.espn.go.com/espn/news/story?id=2986775 ESPN - Vegas, baby? Arena envisioned to draw pro team to city - ESPN] Caesars Entertainment, Inc. had previously envisioned using the location to build a baseball park, but the company's buyout by Harrah's cancelled the plans. Through the following year, Harrah's got uncertain on continuing with the project, not knowing if AEG would split the costs, and whether building a major league-ready stadium without a guaranteed franchise to play on it would be feasible given the enduring financial crisis. The original plans were to break ground on June 2008 and finish the arena in 2010, but by 2009, it was revealed the stalled project had not even done a traffic study despite being located near a busy intersection. In 2010, the plans were changed to use an area behind the Imperial Palace. However, given the financing would require a special taxation district, opposition from Clark County regarding using public money in the project stalled it even further. AEG eventually backed out completely by 2012, once MGM Resorts International came up with their own project using a terrain behind the New York-New York and Monte Carlo resorts. This attracted AEG primarily for not relying on public funding. \n\nThe acquisition of Planet Hollywood provided Harrah's with a contiguous 126 acre property bordering the strip. The vacant lots behind the casinos had been slated for a sports arena large enough to hold a professional basketball or hockey team. The three casinos will have over 8,000 rooms which can be directly connected to the arena.\n\nIt was announced in August 2010 that Harrah's would run casinos in Cincinnati, Ohio and Cleveland, Ohio when they open in 2012.\n\nRename to Caesars Entertainment Corp.\n\nIn November 2010 plans for an IPO were canceled, but a planned name change from Harrah's Entertainment Inc to Caesars Entertainment Corp did go forward as planned and was made official November 23, 2010. This change was intended to capitalize on the international name recognition enjoyed on the Caesars name brand. The Harrah's brand would remain one of the company's three primary casino brands. \n\nOn February 8, 2012, an initial public offering took place, with the common stock trading on the NASDAQ under the symbol \"CZR.\" \n\nCaesars Acquisition Company merger\n\nOn December 22, 2014, Caesars announced its intention to acquire Caesars Acquisition Company. Under the terms of the transaction, shareholders of Caesars Acquisition Company will receive 0.664 share of Caesars Entertainment common stock for each share of Caesars Acquisition Company held.\n\nCasino unit files for Chapter 11 bankruptcy\n\nThe casino operating unit of Caesars Entertainment filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy on January 15, 2015. \n\nOn November 2, 2015, the Rock Gaming announced it would begin assuming management of Horseshoe Casino Cleveland, Horseshoe Casino Cincinnati, and ThistleDown Racino from Caesars Entertainment, and complete the transition by June 2016. \n\nPlaytika Company acquisition\n\nCaesars Entertainment Corporation (via its Harrah’s casino brand) acquired Playtika in May 2011 for an amount range evaluated between $80 and $90 million. \nPlaytika, a social game developer company, was founded in 2010 by Robert Antokol and Uri Shahak and produced a wide range of Facebook social gaming platforms (slotomania.com & caesarsgames.com)\n\nProperties" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Silver State", "Nevada, United States", "Sports in Nevada", "Geography of Nevada", "US-NV", "Nevada's Southern Boundary 1861-1867", "Transportation in Nevada", "The Sagebrush State", "NV (state)", "Education in Nevada", "Religion in Nevada", "Nevadian", "36th State", "The Battle Born State", "Thirty-Sixth State", "Nev.", "Demographics of Nevada", "Navada", "Nevada Annulment", "Nevada, USA", "Climate of Nevada", "Economy of Nevada", "Thirty-sixth State", "State of Nevada", "Politics of Nevada", "Nevadan", "Silver state", "Nevada (U.S. state)", "The Silver State", "Tikaboo Valley", "Nevada (state)", "Battle Born State", "Transport in Nevada", "Nevada" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "silver state", "transport in nevada", "sports in nevada", "transportation in nevada", "36th state", "tikaboo valley", "state of nevada", "battle born state", "demographics of nevada", "sagebrush state", "nevada state", "nevada u s state", "politics of nevada", "thirty sixth state", "nevada united states", "economy of nevada", "nevadan", "nevada", "nev", "education in nevada", "nevadian", "nevada annulment", "geography of nevada", "religion in nevada", "nevada s southern boundary 1861 1867", "nv state", "us nv", "nevada usa", "climate of nevada", "navada" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "nevada", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Nevada" }
What was the name of Gene Autry's horse?	tc_317	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "Search" ], "filename": [ "Gene_Autry.txt", "Champion_the_Wonder_Horse.txt" ], "title": [ "Gene Autry", "Champion the Wonder Horse" ], "wiki_context": [ "Orvon Grover \"Gene\" Autry (September 29, 1907 – October 2, 1998) was an American performer who gained fame as a singing cowboy on the radio, in movies, and on television for more than three decades beginning in the early 1930s. Autry was also owner of a television station, several radio stations in Southern California, and the Los Angeles/California/Anaheim Angels Major League Baseball team from 1961 to 1997.\n\nFrom 1934 to 1953, Autry appeared in 93 films and 91 episodes of The Gene Autry Show television series. During the 1930s and 1940s, he personified the straight-shooting hero—honest, brave, and true—and profoundly touched the lives of millions of Americans. Autry was also one of the most important figures in the history of country music, considered the second major influential artist of the genre's development after Jimmie Rodgers. His singing cowboy movies were the first vehicle to carry country music to a national audience. In addition to his signature song, \"Back in the Saddle Again\", Autry is still remembered for his Christmas holiday songs, \"Here Comes Santa Claus\", which he wrote, \"Frosty the Snowman\", and his biggest hit, \"Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer\".\n\nAutry is a member of both the Country Music Hall of Fame and Nashville Songwriters Hall of Fame, and is the only person to be awarded stars in all five categories on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, for film, television, music, radio, and live performance. The town of Gene Autry, Oklahoma was named in his honor. \n\nLife and career\n\nEarly years\n\nOrvon Grover Autry was born September 29, 1907 near Tioga in Grayson County in north Texas, the grandson of a Methodist preacher. His parents, Delbert Autry and Elnora Ozment, moved in the 1920s to Ravia in Johnston County in southern Oklahoma. He worked on his father's ranch while at school. After leaving high school in 1925, Autry worked as a telegrapher for the St. Louis–San Francisco Railway. His talent at singing and playing guitar led to performing at local dances.\n\nSinging career\n\nWhile working as a telegrapher, Autry would sing and accompany himself on the guitar to pass the lonely hours, especially when he had the midnight shift. This later got him sacked. One night, he was encouraged to sing professionally by a customer, the famous humorist Will Rogers, who had heard Autry singing. \n\nAs soon as he could collect money to travel, he went to New York. He auditioned for Victor Records, about the time it became RCA Victor (end of 1928). According to Nathaniel Shilkret, director of Light Music for Victor at the time, Autry asked to speak to Shilkret when Autry found that he had been turned down. Shilkret explained to Autry that he was turned down not because of his voice, but because Victor had just made contracts with two similar singers. Autry left with a letter of introduction from Shilkret and the advice to sing on radio to gain experience and to come back in a year or two. In 1928, Autry was singing on Tulsa's radio station KVOO as \"Oklahoma's Yodeling Cowboy\", and the Victor archives show an October 9, 1929, entry stating that the vocal duet of Jimmie Long and Gene Autry with two Hawaiian guitars, directed by L. L. Watson, recorded \"My Dreaming of You\" (Matrix 56761) and \"My Alabama\" (Matrix 56762).\n\nAutry signed a recording deal with Columbia Records in 1929. He worked in Chicago on the WLS-AM radio show National Barn Dance for four years, and with his own show, where he met singer-songwriter Smiley Burnette. In his early recording career, Autry covered various genres, including a labor song, \"The Death of Mother Jones\", in 1931.\n\nAutry also recorded many \"hillbilly\"-style records in 1930 and 1931 in New York City, which were certainly different in style and content from his later recordings. These were much closer in style to the Prairie Ramblers or Dick Justice, and included the \"Do Right, Daddy Blues\" and \"Black Bottom Blues\", both similar to \"Deep Elem Blues\". These late Prohibition-era songs deal with bootlegging, corrupt police, and women whose occupation was certainly vice. These recordings are generally not heard today, but are available on European import labels, such as JSP Records. His first hit was in 1932 with \"That Silver-Haired Daddy of Mine\", a duet with fellow railroad man, Jimmy Long, which Autry and Long co-wrote.\n\nAutry also sang the classic Ray Whitley hit \"Back in the Saddle Again\", as well as many Christmas holiday songs, including \"Santa Claus Is Coming to Town\", his own composition \"Here Comes Santa Claus\", \"Frosty the Snowman\", and his biggest hit, \"Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer\". He wrote \"Here Comes Santa Claus\" after being the Grand Marshal of the 1946 Santa Claus Lane Parade (Now the Hollywood Christmas Parade). He heard all of the spectators watching the parade saying \"Here comes Santa Claus!\" virtually handing him the title for his song. He recorded his version of the song in 1947 and it became an instant classic.\n\nAutry was the original owner of Challenge Records. The label's biggest hit was \"Tequila\" by The Champs in 1958, which started the rock-and-roll instrumental craze of the late 1950s and early 1960s. He sold the label soon after, but the maroon and later green label has the \"GA\" in a shield above the label name.\n\nAutry made 640 recordings, including more than 300 songs written or co-written by himself. His records sold more than 100 million copies and he has more than a dozen gold and platinum records, including the first record ever certified gold.\n\nFilm career\n\nDiscovered by film producer Nat Levine in 1934, Autry and Burnette made their film debut for Mascot Pictures Corp. in In Old Santa Fe as part of a singing cowboy quartet; he was then given the starring role by Levine in 1935 in the 12-part serial The Phantom Empire. Shortly thereafter, Mascot was absorbed by the newly formed Republic Pictures Corp. and Autry went along to make a further 44 films up to 1940, all B Westerns in which he played under his own name, rode his horse, Champion, had Burnette as his regular sidekick, and had many opportunities to sing in each film. Pat Buttram was picked by Gene Autry, recently returned from his World War II service in the United States Army Air Forces, to work with him. Buttram would co-star with Gene Autry in more than 40 films and in over 100 episodes of Autry's television show\n\nIn the Motion Picture Herald Top Ten Money-Making Western Stars poll, Autry was listed every year from 1936 to 1942 and 1946 to 1954 (he was serving in the AAF 1943–45), holding first place 1937 to 1942, and second place (after Roy Rogers) 1947 to 1954. He appeared in the similar Box Office poll from 1936 to 1955, holding first place from 1936 to 1942 and second place (after Rogers) from 1943 to 1952. While these two polls are really an indication only of the popularity of series stars, Autry also appeared in the Top Ten Money Makers Poll of all films from 1940 to 1942, His Gene Autry Flying \"A\" Ranch Rodeo show debuted in 1940. \n\nGene Autry was the first of the singing cowboys in films, but was succeeded as the top star by Roy Rogers while Autry served in the AAF during World War II. He briefly returned to Republic to finish out his contract, which had been suspended for the duration of his military service and which he had tried to have declared void after his discharge. He appeared in 1951 in the film Texans Never Cry, with a role for newcomer Mary Castle. After 1951, Autry formed his own production company to make Westerns under his own control, which continued the 1947 distribution agreement with Columbia Pictures.\n\nMelody Ranch\n\nAutry purchased the 110-acre Monogram Movie Ranch in 1953, in Placerita Canyon near Newhall, California, in the northern San Gabriel Mountains foothills. He renamed it the Melody Ranch after his movie Melody Ranch. Autry then sold 98 acres of the property, most of the original ranch. The Western town, adobes, and ranch cabin sets and open land for location shooting were retained as a movie ranch on 12 acres. A decade after he purchased Melody Ranch, a brushfire swept through in August 1962, destroying most of the original standing sets. However, the devastated landscape did prove useful for productions such as Combat!. A complete adobe ranch survived at the northeast section of the ranch. \n\nIn 1990, after his favorite horse Champion, which lived in retirement there, died, Autry put the remaining 12-acre ranch up for sale. It is now known as the Melody Ranch Motion Picture Studio and Melody Ranch Studios on 22 acres. The ranch has Melody Ranch Museum open year-round; and one weekend a year, the entire ranch is open to the public during the Cowboy Poetry and Music Festival, another legacy of Autry's multiple talents. \n\nRadio and television career\n\nFrom 1940 to 1956, Autry had a huge hit with a weekly show on CBS Radio, Gene Autry's Melody Ranch. His horse, Champion, also had a CBS-TV and Mutual radio series, The Adventures of Champion. In response to his many young radio listeners aspiring to emulate him, Autry created the Cowboy Code, or Ten Cowboy Commandments. These tenets promoting an ethical, moral, and patriotic lifestyle that appealed to youth organizations such as the Boy Scouts, which developed similar doctrines. The Cowboy Code consisted of rules that were \"a natural progression of Gene's philosophies going back to his first Melody Ranch programs—and early pictures.\" According to the code:\n# The Cowboy must never shoot first, hit a smaller man, or take unfair advantage.\n# He must never go back on his word, or a trust confided in him.\n# He must always tell the truth.\n# He must be gentle with children, the elderly, and animals.\n# He must not advocate or possess racially or religiously intolerant ideas.\n# He must help people in distress.\n# He must be a good worker.\n# He must keep himself clean in thought, speech, action, and personal habits.\n# He must respect women, parents, and his nation's laws.\n# The Cowboy is a patriot.\n\nBeginning in 1950, he produced and starred in his own television show on CBS through his Flying A Productions studio and made several appearances on ABC-TV's Jubilee USA in the late 1950s.\n\nMilitary career\n\nDuring World War II, Autry enlisted in the United States Army in 1942, and became a tech sergeant in the United States Army Air Corps. Holding a private pilot's license, he was determined to become a military pilot and earned his service pilot rating in June 1944, serving as a C-109 transport pilot with the rank of flight officer. Assigned to a unit of the Air Transport Command, he flew as part of the dangerous airlift operation over the Himalayas between India and China, nicknamed the Hump. \n\nRodeo\n\nFew are aware of Autry's longtime involvement in professional rodeo. In 1942, at the height of his screen popularity, Autry had a string of rodeo stock based in Ardmore, Oklahoma. A year later, he became a partner in the World Championship Rodeo Company, which furnished livestock for many of the country's major rodeos. In 1954, he acquired Montana's top bucking string from the estate of Leo J. Cremer, Sr., and put Canadian saddle bronc riding champion Harry Knight in charge of the operation. A merger with the World Championship Rodeo Company in 1956 made Autry the sole owner. He moved the entire company to a 24000 acre ranch near Fowler, Colorado, with Knight as the working partner in the operation. For the next 12 years, they provided livestock for most of the major rodeos in Texas, Colorado, Montana, and Nebraska. When the company was sold in 1968, both men continued to be active in rodeo. For his work as a livestock contractor, Autry was inducted into the Professional Rodeo Cowboys Association's ProRodeo Hall of Fame in 1979.\n\nRetirement\n\nAutry retired from show business in 1964, having made almost 100 films up to 1955 and over 600 records. He was elected to the Country Music Hall of Fame in 1969 and to the Nashville Songwriters Hall of Fame in 1970. After retiring, he invested widely and in real estate, radio, and television. He also invested in ownership of the KOOL-TV CBS-affiliate in Phoenix, Arizona, which created local shows such as the weekly bilingual children's show Ninos Contentos. He also purchased the rights from the dying Republic Pictures for films he had made for the company.\n\nIn 1952, Autry bought the old Monogram Ranch in Placerita Canyon (Newhall-Santa Clarita, California,) and renamed it Melody Ranch. Numerous \"B\" Westerns and TV shows were shot there during Autry's ownership, including the initial years of Gunsmoke with James Arness. Melody Ranch burned down in 1962, dashing Autry's plans to turn it into a museum. According to a published story by Autry, the fire caused him to turn his attention to Griffith Park, where he would build his Museum of Western Heritage (now known as the Autry National Center). Melody Ranch came back to life after 1991, when it was purchased by the Veluzat family and rebuilt. It survives as a movie location today, as well as the home of the City of Santa Clarita's annual Cowboy Festival, where Autry's legacy takes center stage.\n\nBaseball\n\nIn the 1950s, Autry had been a minority owner of the minor-league Hollywood Stars. In 1960, when Major League Baseball announced plans to add an expansion team in Los Angeles, Autry—who had once declined an opportunity to play in the minor leagues—expressed an interest in acquiring the radio broadcast rights to the team's games. Baseball executives were so impressed by his approach that he was persuaded to become the owner of the franchise rather than simply its broadcast partner. The team, initially called the Los Angeles Angels upon its 1961 debut, moved to suburban Anaheim in 1966, and was renamed the California Angels, then the Anaheim Angels from 1997 until 2005, when it became the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim. Autry served as vice president of the American League from 1983 until his death. In 1995, he sold a quarter share of the team to the Walt Disney Company and a controlling interest the following year, with the remaining share to be transferred after his death. Earlier, in 1982, he sold Los Angeles television station KTLA for $245 million. He also sold several radio stations he owned, including KSFO in San Francisco, KMPC in Los Angeles, KOGO in San Diego, and other stations in the Golden West radio network.\n\nThe number 26 (as in 26th man) was retired by the Angels in Autry's honor. The chosen number reflected that baseball's rosters are 25-man strong, so Autry's unflagging support for his team made him the 26th member.\n\nDeath\n\nGene Autry died of lymphoma on October 2, 1998, aged 91 at his home in Studio City, California. He was buried at the Forest Lawn, Hollywood Hills Cemetery in Los Angeles. His epitaph read, \"America's Favorite Cowboy ... American Hero, Philanthropist, Patriot and Veteran, Movie Star, Singer, Composer, Baseball Fan and Owner, 33rd Degree Mason, Media Entrepreneur, Loving Husband, Gentleman\".\n\nPersonal life\n\nIn 1932, Autry married Ina May Spivey, the niece of Jimmy Long. After she died in 1980, he married Jacqueline Ellam, who had been his banker, in 1981. He had no children by either marriage.\n\nAutry was raised into Freemasonry in 1927 at Catoosa Lodge No. 185, Catoosa Oklahoma. He later became a 33rd degree Master Mason, as recorded on his headstone. \n\nLegacy\n\nOn November 16, 1941, the town of Berwyn, Oklahoma, north of Ardmore, was renamed in honor of Gene Autry. \n\nIn 1972, he was inducted into the Western Performers Hall of Fame at the National Cowboy & Western Heritage Museum in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma. Autry was a life member of the Benevolent and Protective Order of Elks, Burbank Lodge No. 1497. His 1976 autobiography, co-written by Mickey Herskowitz, was titled Back in the Saddle Again after his 1939 hit and signature tune. He is also featured year after year, on radio and \"shopping mall music\" at the holiday season, by his recording of \"Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer.\" \"Rudolph\" became the first No. 1 hit of the 1950s. In 2003, he was ranked No. 38 in CMT's list of the 40 Greatest Men of Country Music.\n\nWhen the Anaheim Angels won their first World Series in 2002, much of the championship was dedicated to him. The interchange of Interstate 5 and State Route 134, near the Autry National Center in Los Angeles, is signed as the \"Gene Autry Memorial Interchange.\" In 2007, he became a charter member of the Gennett Records Walk of Fame in Richmond, Indiana.\n\nJohnny Cash recorded a song in 1978 about Autry called \"Who is Gene Autry?\" Cash also got Autry to sign his famous black Martin D-35 guitar, which he plays in the video of \"Hurt.\"\n\nIn 1977, Autry was awarded the American Patriots Medal by Freedoms Foundation of Valley Forge, Pennsylvania. Other winners of this medal were Helen Hayes, John Wayne, and Texas State Representative Clay Smothers.\n\nAutry was inducted into the Radio Hall of Fame in 2003. In 2004, the Starz Entertainment Corporation joined forces with the Autry estate to restore all of his films, which have been shown on Starz's Encore Western Channel on cable television on a regular basis to date since.\n\nAutry was inducted into the Oklahoma Hall of Fame in 1991.\n\nHollywood Walk of Fame\n\nAutry is the only person to have five stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, one in each of the five categories maintained by the Hollywood Chamber of Commerce. \n* Motion pictures, at 6644 Hollywood Blvd.\n* Radio, at 6520 Hollywood Blvd.\n* Recording, at 6384 Hollywood Blvd.\n* Television, at 6667 Hollywood Blvd.\n* Live theater, at 7000 Hollywood Blvd.\n\nThe Museum of the American West\n\nThe Museum of the American West in Los Angeles' Griffith Park was founded in 1988 as the Gene Autry Western Heritage Museum, featuring much of his collection of Western art and memorabilia. It is now called The Autry National Center and is divided into two locations, eight miles apart from each other. Its mission is to present the unique and diverse perspectives of the American West, including the romanticized West in pop culture and the \"real\" nuanced history, including native and minority voices.\n\nDiscography\n\nAlbums\n\nSingles\n\n1930s\n\n1940s\n\n1950s\n\n1990s\n\nFilmography \n\nFrom 1934 to 1953, Gene Autry appeared in 93 films. From 1950 to 1955, he also appeared in 91 episodes of The Gene Autry Show television series. , a large number of these films and television episodes remain available via the Gene Autry Foundation on the Western Channel (a cable television station), the latter having collaborated with the Foundation to restore the Republic titles, which had been cut to a uniform 54 minutes for television release in the 1950s, to full length and to provide clean negative-based source prints for all the titles in the 1990s.\n\n* In Old Santa Fe (1934)\n* Mystery Mountain (1934)\n* The Phantom Empire (1935)\n* Tumbling Tumbleweeds (1935)\n* Melody Trail (1935)\n* The Sagebrush Troubadour (1935)\n* The Singing Vagabond (1935)\n* Red River Valley (1936)\n* Comin' Round the Mountain (1936)\n* The Singing Cowboy (1936)\n* Guns and Guitars (1936)\n* Ride Ranger Ride (1936)\n* Oh, Susanna! (1936)\n* The Big Show (1936)\n* The Old Corral (1936)\n* Round-Up Time in Texas (1937)\n* Git Along Little Dogies (1937)\n* Rootin' Tootin' Rhythm (1937)\n* Yodelin' Kid from Pine Ridge (1937)\n* Public Cowboy No. 1 (1937)\n* Boots and Saddles (1937)\n* Springtime in the Rockies (1937)\n* The Old Barn Dance (1938)\n* Gold Mine in the Sky (1938)\n* Man from Music Mountain (1938)\n* Prairie Moon (1938)\n* Rhythm of the Saddle (1938)\n* Western Jamboree (1938)\n* Home on the Prairie (1939)\n* Mexicali Rose (1939)\n* Blue Montana Skies (1939)\n\n* Mountain Rhythm (1939)\n* Colorado Sunset (1939)\n* In Old Monterey (1939)\n* Rovin' Tumbleweeds (1939)\n* South of the Border (1939)\n* Rancho Grande (1940)\n* Shooting High (1940)\n* Gaucho Serenade (1940)\n* Carolina Moon (1940)\n* Ride, Tenderfoot, Ride (1940)\n* Melody Ranch (1940)\n* Ridin' on a Rainbow (1941)\n* Back in the Saddle (1941)\n* The Singing Hill (1941)\n* Sunset in Wyoming (1941)\n* Under Fiesta Stars (1941)\n* Down Mexico Way (1941)\n* Sierra Sue (1941)\n* Cowboy Serenade (1942)\n* Heart of the Rio Grande (1942)\n* Home in Wyomin' (1942)\n* Stardust on the Sage (1942)\n* Call of the Canyon (1942)\n* Bells of Capistrano (1942)\n* Sioux City Sue (1946)\n* Trail to San Antone (1947)\n* Twilight on the Rio Grande (1947)\n* Saddle Pals (1947)\n* Robin Hood of Texas (1947)\n* The Last Round-Up (1947)\n* The Strawberry Roan (1948)\n\n* Loaded Pistols (1948)\n* The Big Sombrero (1949)\n* Riders of the Whistling Pines (1949)\n* Rim of the Canyon (1949)\n* The Cowboy and the Indians (1949)\n* Riders in the Sky (1949)\n* Sons of New Mexico (1949)\n* Mule Train (1950)\n* Cow Town (1950)\n* Hoedown (1950)\n* Beyond the Purple Hills (1950)\n* Indian Territory (1950)\n* The Blazing Sun (1950)\n* Gene Autry and the Mounties (1951)\n* Texans Never Cry (1951)\n* Whirlwind (1951)\n* Silver Canyon (1951)\n* The Hills of Utah (1951)\n* Valley of Fire (1951)\n* The Old West (1952)\n* Night Stage to Galveston (1952)\n* Apache Country (1952)\n* Barbed Wire (1952)\n* Wagon Team (1952)\n* Blue Canadian Rockies (1952)\n* Winning of the West (1953)\n* On Top of Old Smoky (1953)\n* Goldtown Ghost Riders (1953)\n* Pack Train (1953)\n* Saginaw Trail (1953)\n* Last of the Pony Riders (1953)", "Champion the Wonder Horse was the on-screen companion of singing cowboy Gene Autry in 79 films between 1935 and 1952, and 91 television episodes of The Gene Autry Show between 1950 and 1955. In addition, Champion starred in 26 episodes of his own television series The Adventures of Champion in 1955 and 1956. Throughout these years, Autry used three horses to portray \"Champion\": the original Champion who appeared in Autry films from 1935 to 1942, Champion Jr. who appeared in Autry films from 1946 to 1950, and Television Champion, who appeared in Autry's films from 1950 to 1953, and in the television series during the 1950s. Several other \"Champion\" horses were used as stunt doubles and for personal appearances throughout the years.\n\nBiography\n\nThere were three official Champions that appeared in Gene Autry films. The original Champion was a dark sorrel with a blaze face and white stockings on all his legs except the right front. The original Champion first appeared on screen with Autry in Melody Trail (1935) and went on to co-star in 51 additional Autry films. The horse was previously owned by Tom Mix and was used during the filming of The Phantom Empire series; he was one of several horses that Autry rode in that production. After learning about the horse through stunt man and movie horse wrangler Tracey Layne, Autry paid $75 for the original Champion, whose sire was a Morgan trotting horse from Ardmore, Oklahoma. Trained to perform numerous tricks, Champion could untie knots, fall, roll over and play dead, come at Autry's whistle, bow, and shake his head yes and no. In one film he pushes Autry into the arms of his leading lady June Storey. By 1939 his reported worth was $25,000. The original Champion died in 1943, at the age of 17, from apparent heart attack while Gene was in the army. He was buried at Melody Ranch by Autry's horse trainer John Agee, who had previously worked for 14 years for Tom Mix.\n\nAutry's second screen horse was Champion Jr., a lighter sorrel with four stockings and a narrow blaze ending in an arrow tip. This horse appeared in Autry's films from 1946 to 1950. For his Republic Pictures film appearances he was credited as the \"Wonder Horse of the West\"; for his Columbia Pictures film appearances he was credited as the \"World's Wonder Horse\". He appeared with Autry at Madison Square Garden in 1946. Champion Jr. was over 30 years old when he died in August 1977. In the late 1940s, a well-trained trick pony named Little Champ, with a blaze-face and four stockings, joined Gene's stable and appeared in three Autry films and joined him in various personal appearances.\n\nAutry's third screen horse was Television Champion, also a light sorrel with four white stockings, but with a wide blaze that covered his nose. Owned by Autry's wife Ina, he resembled Champion Jr., but had his mane and tail bleached. Television Champion appeared in Autry's later films from 1950 to 1953 and in all 91 television episodes of The Gene Autry Show and all 26 episodes of The Adventures of Champion during the 1950s.\n\nThroughout the years, several other \"Champions\" served as doubles for film stunts and personal appearances, including Little Champ, Lindy Champion, and Touring Champion. In 1940, Lindy Champion became the first horse to fly from California to New York to appear with Autry at Madison Square Garden for the World's Championship Rodeo. Touring Champion, a darker sorrel with a medium blaze and four white stockings, became one of Autry's most reliable horses for public appearances. Autry paid $1,500 for the horse, which was part Morgan and part Tennessee Walking Horse. Touring Champion is seen in several scenes of Gaucho Serenade (1940), including the [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v-Suky3iqKn0 \"Song at Sunset\"] scene with Mary Lee, and appeared with Autry in rodeos and stage shows throughout the late 1940s and early 1950s, including an appearance in England in 1953. His hoof prints appear next to Autry's handprints at Grauman's Chinese Theater in Hollywood. It is not known when Touring Champion died. Champion Three, a sorrel with four white stockings and a crooked blaze, appeared with Autry at personal appearances in the late 1950s until 1960, when he retired to Melody Ranch in Newhall, California, where he died in 1990. In the [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\nIQIagUuGn5Q \"Deep in the Heart of Texas\"] scene from Heart of the Rio Grande (1942) we see an unidentified Champion that has three white stockings and a white blaze face similar to, but different than, that of Touring Champion.\n\nAll of the Champions were skilled in a wide range of complex horse tricks, including dancing the hula and the Charleston, jumping through rings of fire, and playing dead. They greeted crowds from Texas to Ireland and were featured in dime novels, children's stories, and comic books. Their popularity matched some of the most popular film stars of their day, even receiving equal billing with Autry above the leading ladies on film posters and lobby cards. The original Champion received thousands of fan letters each month." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Champion", "Edric Egberuare", "Title match system", "Intercontinental Champion", "Champions", "Championship game", "Chåmpionship" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "edric egberuare", "chåmpionship", "intercontinental champion", "champion", "champions", "championship game", "title match system" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "champion", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Champion" }
Which city has a sports team of Steelers and team of Pirates?	tc_318	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Pittsburgh_Steelers.txt" ], "title": [ "Pittsburgh Steelers" ], "wiki_context": [ "The Pittsburgh Steelers are a professional American football team based in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. The Steelers compete in the National Football League (NFL), as a member club of the league's American Football Conference (AFC) North division. Founded in , the Steelers are the oldest franchise in the AFC.\n\nIn contrast with their status as perennial also-rans in the pre-merger NFL, where they were the oldest team to never win a league championship, the Steelers of the post-merger (modern) era are one of the most successful NFL franchises. Pittsburgh has won more Super Bowl titles (6), and hosted more (11) conference championship games than any other NFL team. The Steelers share the record for most AFC championships with the New England Patriots and the Denver Broncos (8), and the record for most conference championship games played in with the San Francisco 49ers (15). The Steelers share the record for most Super Bowl appearances with the Patriots, Broncos, and Dallas Cowboys (8). The Steelers lost their most recent championship appearance, Super Bowl XLV, on February 6, 2011.\n\nThe Steelers were founded as the Pittsburgh Pirates on July 8, 1933, by Art Rooney, taking its original name from the baseball team of the same name, as was common practice for NFL teams at the time. To distinguish them from the baseball team, local media took to calling the football team the Rooneymen, an unofficial nickname which persisted for decades after the team adopted its current nickname. The ownership of the Steelers has remained within the Rooney family since its founding. The current owner is Art's son, Dan Rooney, who has given much control of the franchise to his son Art Rooney II. Long one of the NFL's flagship teams, the Steelers enjoy a large, widespread fanbase nicknamed Steeler Nation. The Steelers currently play their home games at Heinz Field on Pittsburgh's North Side in the North Shore neighborhood, which also hosts the University of Pittsburgh Panthers. Built in 2001, the stadium replaced Three Rivers Stadium which hosted the Steelers for 31 seasons. Prior to Three Rivers, the Steelers had played their games in Pitt Stadium and Forbes Field.\n\nFranchise history\n\nThe Pittsburgh Steelers of the NFL first took to the field as the Pittsburgh Pirates on September 20, 1933, losing 23–2 to the New York Giants.[http://www.profootballhof.com/history/team.jsp?franchise_id=25 Team – Pro Football Hall of Fame] Through the 1930s, the Pirates never finished higher than second place in their division, or with a record better than .500 (). Pittsburgh did make history in by signing Byron White, a future Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court, to what was at the time the biggest contract in NFL history, but he played only one year with the Pirates before signing with the Detroit Lions. Prior to the 1940 season, the Pirates renamed themselves the Steelers.\n\nDuring World War II, the Steelers experienced player shortages. They twice merged with other NFL franchises to field a team. During the 1943 season, they merged with the Philadelphia Eagles forming the \"Phil-Pitt Eagles\" and were known as the \"Steagles\". This team went 5–4–1. In 1944, they merged with the Chicago Cardinals and were known as Card-Pitt (or, mockingly, as the \"Carpets\"). This team finished 0–10, marking the only winless team in franchise history.[http://www.pittsburghlive.com/x/pittsburghtrib/s_150100.html World War II Steagles to be honored at tonight's game – Pittsburgh Tribune-Review]\n\nThe Steelers made the playoffs for the first time in , tying for first place in the division at 8–4 with the Philadelphia Eagles. This forced a tie-breaking playoff game at Forbes Field, which the Steelers lost 21–0.[http://www.pro-football-reference.com/teams/pitindex.htm Pittsburgh Steelers Team Encyclopedia – Pro-Football-Reference.com] That would be Pittsburgh's only playoff game for the next 25 years; they did qualify for a \"Playoff Bowl\" in 1962 as the second-best team in their conference, but this was not considered an official playoff.[http://www.mmbolding.com/BSR/The_Playoff_Bowl.htm The Playoff Bowl (Bert Bell Benefit Bowl)]\n\nIn , the year they moved into Three Rivers Stadium and the year of the AFL-NFL merger, the Pittsburgh Steelers were one of three old-guard NFL teams to switch to the newly formed American Football Conference (the others being the Cleveland Browns and the Baltimore Colts), in order to equalize the number of teams in the two conferences of the newly merged league. The Steelers also received a $3 million ($ million today) relocation fee, which was a windfall for them; for years they rarely had enough to build a true contending team. \n\nThe Chuck Noll era\n\nThe Steelers' history of bad luck changed with the hiring of coach Chuck Noll for the 1969 season. Noll's most remarkable talent was in his draft selections, taking Hall of Famers \"Mean\" Joe Greene in 1969, Terry Bradshaw and Mel Blount in 1970, Jack Ham in 1971, Franco Harris in 1972,[http://www.databasefootball.com/draft/draftteam.htm?tmPIT&lg\nNFL Pittsburgh Steelers Draft History, Stats and more on databaseFootball.com] and finally, in 1974, pulling off the incredible feat of selecting four Hall of Famers in one draft year, Lynn Swann, Jack Lambert, John Stallworth, and Mike Webster.[http://www.profootballhof.com/history/general/draft/1974.jsp History: 1974 Draft – Pro Football Hall of Fame] The Pittsburgh Steelers' 1974 draft was their best ever; no other team has ever drafted four future Hall of Famers in one year, and only very few (including the 1970 Steelers) have drafted two or more in one year.\n\nThe players drafted in the early 1970s formed the base of an NFL dynasty, making the playoffs in eight seasons and becoming the only team in NFL history to win four Super Bowls in six years, as well as the first to win more than two. They also enjoyed a regular season streak of 49 consecutive wins (–) against teams that would finish with a losing record that year.\n\nThe Steelers suffered a rash of injuries in the 1980 season and missed the playoffs with a 9–7 record. The 1981 season was no better, with an 8–8 showing. The team was then hit with the retirements of all their key players from the Super Bowl years. \"Mean\" Joe Greene retired after the 1981 season, Lynn Swann and Jack Ham after 1982's playoff berth, Terry Bradshaw and Mel Blount after 1983's divisional championship, and Jack Lambert after 1984's AFC Championship Game appearance.\n\nAfter those retirements, the franchise skidded to its first losing seasons since 1971. Though still competitive, the Steelers would not finish above .500 in 1985, 1986, and 1988. In 1987, the year of the players' strike, the Steelers finished with a record of 8–7, but missed the playoffs. In 1989, they would reach the second round of the playoffs on the strength of Merrill Hoge and Rod Woodson before narrowly missing the playoffs in each of the next two seasons.\n\nNoll's career record with Pittsburgh was 209–156–1.\n\nThe Bill Cowher era\n\nIn 1992, Chuck Noll retired and was succeeded by Kansas City Chiefs defensive coordinator Bill Cowher, a native of the Pittsburgh suburb of Crafton.\n\nCowher led the Steelers to the playoffs in each of his first six seasons, a feat that had been accomplished only by legendary coach Paul Brown of the Cleveland Browns. In those first six seasons, Cowher coached them as deep as the AFC Championship Game three times and following the 1995 season an appearance in Super Bowl XXX on the strength of the \"Blitzburgh\" defense. However, the Steelers lost to the Dallas Cowboys in Super Bowl XXX, two weeks after a thrilling AFC Championship victory over the Indianapolis Colts. Cowher produced the franchise's record-tying fifth Super Bowl win in Super Bowl XL over the National Football Conference champion Seattle Seahawks ten years later. With that victory, the Steelers became the third team to win five Super Bowls, and the first sixth-seeded playoff team to reach and win the Super Bowl since the NFL expanded to a 12-team post-season tournament in 1990. He coached through the 2006 season which ended with an 8–8 record, just short of the playoffs. Overall Cowher's teams reached the playoffs 10 of 15 seasons with six AFC Championship Games, two Super Bowl berths and a championship.\n\nCowher's career record with Pittsburgh was 149–90–1 in the regular season and 161–99–1 overall, including playoff games.\n\nThe Mike Tomlin era\n\nOn January 7, 2007, Cowher resigned from coaching the Steelers, citing a need to spend more time with his family. He did not use the term \"retire\", leaving open a possible return to the NFL as coach of another team. A three-man committee consisting of Art Rooney II, Dan Rooney, and Kevin Colbert was set up to conduct interviews for the head coaching vacancy.[http://news.steelers.com/article/73452/ Official site of the Pittsburgh Steelers – Article] The candidates interviewed included: offensive coordinator Ken Whisenhunt, offensive line coach Russ Grimm, former offensive coordinator Chan Gailey, Minnesota Vikings defensive coordinator Mike Tomlin, and Chicago Bears defensive coordinator Ron Rivera. On January 22, 2007, Mike Tomlin was announced as Cowher's successor as head coach. Tomlin is the first African-American to be named head coach of the Pittsburgh Steelers in its 75-year history. Tomlin became the third consecutive Steelers Head Coach to go to the Super Bowl, equaling the Dallas Cowboys (Tom Landry, Jimmy Johnson and Barry Switzer) in this achievement. He was named the Motorola 2008 Coach of the Year. On February 1, 2009, Tomlin led the Steelers to their second Super Bowl of this decade, and went on to win 27–23 against the Arizona Cardinals. At age 36, he was the youngest head coach to ever win the Super Bowl, and he is only the second African-American coach to ever win the Super Bowl (Tony Dungy was the first). The 2010 season made Tomlin the only coach to reach the Super Bowl twice before the age of 40. Tomlin led the team to his second Super Bowl (Super Bowl XLV) on Feb. 6, 2011. However, the Steelers were defeated in their eighth Super Bowl appearance by the Green Bay Packers by the score of 31–25. The Steelers recorded their 400th victory in 2012 after defeating the Washington Redskins. \n\nThrough the 2015 season, Tomlin's record is 98–57, including playoffs. He is the first Pittsburgh coach without a losing season. The 2014 season was known for record performances from the \"killer B's\". This trio consisted of Antonio Brown, Ben Rothlisberger and Leveon Bell.\n\nSummary\n\nSince the NFL merger in 1970, the Pittsburgh Steelers have compiled a regular season record of 363–235–2 (.607) and an overall record of 394–253–2 (.609) including the playoffs, reached the playoffs 25 times, won their division 20 times, played in 15 AFC championship games, and won six of eight Super Bowls. They are also the only NFL team not to have a season with twelve or more losses since the league expanded to a 16-game schedule in 1978. \n\nOwnership\n\nSince 2008, the Rooney family has brought in several investors for the team while retaining control of the team itself. This came about so that the team could comply with NFL ownership regulations. Current Steelers Chairman, Dan Rooney, and his son, Art Rooney II, president of the franchise, wanted to stay involved with the franchise, while two of the brothers – Timothy and Patrick – wanted to further pursue racetracks that they own in Florida and New York. Since 2006, many of the racetracks have added video slot machines, causing them to violate \"NFL policy that prohibits involvement with racetrack and gambling interests\". \n\nWhile Dan Rooney and Art Rooney II retain control of the team with the league-minimum 30%, the following make up the other investors:\nSeveral other members of the Rooney family, including Art Rooney Jr., John Rooney, and the McGinley family, who are cousins to the Rooneys.\nLegendary Pictures president and CEO Thomas Tull. \nThe Robert A. Paul family of Pittsburgh and Los Angeles, which is primarily involved with Pittsburgh-based Ampco Pittsburgh Corporation as well as Morton's Restaurant Group, Urban Active Fitness, Meyer Products and Harley Marine Services. Additionally, family members serve on numerous boards, including Cornell University, UPMC, University of Pittsburgh, the American Red Cross, Harvard Medical School and the Loomis Chaffee School.\nFormer Steelers wide receiver John Stallworth, a member of the Pro Football Hall of Fame. \nGTCR chairman Bruce V. Rauner. \nThe Peter Varischetti family of Brockway, Pennsylvania, which owns several nursing homes and a commercial real estate business.\nPaul Evanson, chairman, president, and CEO of Allegheny Energy. \nRuss and Scott Swank of Lower Burrell, Pennsylvania. \n\nSeason-by-season records\n\nThrough the end of the 2015 season, the Steelers have an all-time record of 624–552–21, including playoffs. In recent seasons the Steelers have generally performed well, qualifying for the playoffs six times in the past ten seasons and winning the Super Bowl twice since . \n\nIn the NFL's \"modern era\" (since the AFL-NFL merger in 1970) the Steelers have posted the best record in the league. The franchise has won the most regular season games, the most playoff games (33 playoff wins; the Dallas Cowboys are second with 32), won the most divisional titles (20), has played in the most conference championship games\n(15), hosted the most conference championship games (11), and is tied with the Dallas Cowboys, the Denver Broncos and the New England Patriots for the most Super Bowl appearances (8). The Steelers have the best winning percentage (including every expansion team), earned the most All-Pro nominations, and have accumulated the most Super Bowl wins (6) since the modern game started in 1970. Since the merger, the team's playoff record is 33–19 (.635), which is second best in terms of playoff winning percentage behind the Green Bay Packers' playoff record of 28–16 (.636), through January 23, 2011. \n\nCivil Rights Advocacy\n\nThe franchise, along with the Rooney family have for generations been strong advocates for equality of opportunity for both minorities and women. Among these achievements of the Steelers was the first to hire an African-American Assistant Coach (September 29, 1957 with Lowell Perry), the first to start an African-American quarterback (December 3, 1973 with Joe Gilliam), the first team to boast of an African-American Super Bowl MVP (January 12, 1975 with Franco Harris), the first to hire an African-American Coordinator (September 2, 1984 with Tony Dungy), the first owner to push for passage of an \"equal opportunity\" mandating that at least one minority candidate is given an interview in all head coach hiring decisions throughout the league (the Rooney Rule in the early 2000s), and the first to hire a female as full-time athletic trainer (Ariko Iso on July 24, 2002).\n\nOffensive Coordinator History\n\nSource: \n\nDefensive Coordinator History\n\nSource:\n\nLogo and uniforms\n\nThe Steelers have used black and gold as their colors since the club's inception, the lone exception being the 1943 season when they merged with the Philadelphia Eagles and formed the \"Steagles\"; the team's colors at that time were green and white as a result of wearing Eagles uniforms. Originally, the team wore solid gold-colored helmets and black jerseys. The Steelers' black and gold colors are now shared by all major professional teams in the city, including the Pittsburgh Pirates in baseball and the Pittsburgh Penguins in ice hockey, and also the Pittsburgh Power of the reformed Arena Football League, and the Pittsburgh Passion of the Independent Women's Football League. The shade of gold differs slightly among teams: the Penguins currently use \"Vegas Gold\", a color similar to metallic gold, and the Pirates' gold is a darker mustard yellow-gold, while the Steelers \"gold\" is more of a bright canary yellow. Black and gold are also the colors of the city's official flag.\n\nThe Steelers logo was introduced in 1962 and is based on the \"Steelmark\", originally designed by Pittsburgh's U.S. Steel and now owned by the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI). In fact, it was Cleveland-based Republic Steel that suggested the Steelers adopt the industry logo. It consists of the word \"Steelers\" surrounded by three astroids (hypocycloids of four cusps). The original meanings behind the astroids were, \"Steel lightens your work, brightens your leisure, and widens your world.\" Later, the colors came to represent the ingredients used in the steel-making process: yellow for coal, red for iron ore, and blue for scrap steel. While the formal Steelmark logo contains only the word \"Steel\", the team was given permission to add \"ers\" in 1963 after a petition to AISI.\n\nThe Steelers are the only NFL team that puts its logo on only one side of the helmet (the right side). Longtime field and equipment manager Jack Hart was instructed to do this by Art Rooney as a test to see how the logo appeared on the gold helmets; however, its popularity led the team to leave it that way permanently. A year after introducing the logo, they switched to black helmets to make it stand out more.\n\nThe Steelers, along with the New York Giants, are one of only two teams in the National Football League to have the players' uniform numbers on the front and back of the helmets.\n\nThe current uniform designs were introduced in . The design consists of gold pants and either black jerseys or white jerseys, except for the and seasons when the Steelers wore white pants with their white jerseys. In , the team switched to rounded numbers on the jersey to match the number font (Futura Condensed) on the helmets, and a Steelers logo was added to the left side of the jersey.\n\nThe current third uniform, consisting of a black jersey with gold lettering, white pants with black and gold stripes, and a gold helmet were first used during the Steelers' 75th anniversary season in . They were meant to evoke the memory of the – era uniforms. The uniforms were so popular among fans that the Steeler organization decided to keep them and use them as a third option during home games only.\n\nIn –2009, the Steelers became the first team in NFL history to defeat an opponent three times in a single season using three different uniforms. They defeated the Baltimore Ravens in Pittsburgh in Week 4 in their third jerseys, again Week 15 in Baltimore in their road whites, and a final time in the AFC Championship in Pittsburgh in their home black jerseys.\n\nIn 1978, the team owners were approached by then-Iowa Hawkeyes Head Coach Hayden Fry about designing his fading college team's uniforms in the image of the Steelers. Three days later, the owners sent Fry the reproduction jerseys (home and away versions) of then quarterback Terry Bradshaw. Today, the Hawkeyes still retain the 1978 Steelers uniforms as their home, and away colors.\n\nRivals\n\nThe Pittsburgh Steelers have three primary rivals, all within their division: (Cleveland Browns, Baltimore Ravens, and Cincinnati Bengals). They also have rivalries with other teams that arose from post-season battles in the past, most notably the New England Patriots, Oakland Raiders, Tennessee Titans and Dallas Cowboys. They also have an intrastate rivalry with the Philadelphia Eagles, but under the current scheduling the teams play each other only once every four years.\n\nDivisional rivals\n\nThe Cleveland Browns and the Steelers have been divisional rivals since the two cities' teams began playing against each other in 1950. After posting a 9–31 record in the first 40 games of the series between the two cities, the Steelers recently took over the all-time series lead for the first time ever (64–56); partly due to their dominance over the post-1999 Cleveland Browns franchise and won twelve straight before the Browns snapped their losing skid against them by beating them 13–6 on December 10, 2009. Additionally, the Browns lost 16 straight years in Pittsburgh from – and posted an abysmal 5–24 record at Three Rivers Stadium overall. Former Steelers head coach Bill Cowher coached the Browns special teams and secondary before following Marty Schottenheimer for a brief tenure as Kansas City Defensive Coordinator, and then hired by Pittsburgh. This has only intensified the rivalry.\nThe Baltimore Ravens and the Steelers have had several memorable match-ups and have a bitter divisional rivalry. Both teams handed the other their first losses at their current home fields. The Steelers won the inaugural game played at Baltimore's M&T Bank Stadium in , 20–13, and three years later the Ravens handed the Steelers their first-ever loss at Heinz Field, 13–10. Later that season () Pittsburgh won a divisional playoff game 27–10 against Baltimore, who was the defending Super Bowl champion. During their NFL championship season in 2000, the Ravens defeated the Steelers in Pittsburgh, 16–0, in the season opener with the Steelers later exacting revenge, 9–6, in Baltimore (the Ravens' final loss of the season). During the Steelers 2008 Championship run, they beat the Ravens three times, including a win in the AFC Championship game. The Steelers lead the series (begun in ), 16–10. The two teams complement each other by consistently fielding strong defenses in their division.\nThe Cincinnati Bengals–Steelers rivalry dates from the season, when the AFL-NFL merger was completed. In , the Steelers kept their playoff hopes alive (they later won the division) with a late-season 7–3 win in snowy Cincinnati. One of the most memorable games was the 2005 AFC Wildcard playoff game, in which the Steelers, en route to a Super Bowl title, won a 31–17 come-from-behind victory after Bengals QB Carson Palmer was forced to leave the game with a knee injury. The injury happened when nose tackle Kimo von Oelhoffen contacted Palmer's knee during a passing play. The Bengals players called this a dirty play; the NFL ruled that it was accidental and did not fine von Oelhoffen for the hit. This incident has led to an intensifying of the rivalry since this game. The Bengals beat the Steelers in week 13 of the season 38–31, and wide receiver T.J. Houshmandzadeh used a Terrible Towel to polish his cleats while walking up the tunnel after the game, fueling the rivalry. The Steelers and Bengals finished and with identical records (11–5 and 8–8 respectively), splitting both regular-season series, the Bengals winning the tiebreaker both years due to having a superior division record. The Steelers also are responsible for ending the Bengals' season in Cincinnati two years in a row, eliminating them from the playoffs in and taking them out of contention in . The Steelers lead the all-time series, 52–32.\n\nHistoric rivals\n\nThe Raiders–Steelers rivalry was one of the most heated of the 1970s and early to mid-1980s. The Steelers' first playoff win was a 13–7 victory over the Raiders by way of Franco Harris's Immaculate Reception on December 23, 1972. The wild card Pittsburgh football team was knocked out of the playoffs the following year by the Raiders in the 1973 AFC Divisional round 33–14, but fired back with two straight AFC Championships in 24–13 and 16–10 over Oakland. Oakland responded with a victory over Pittsburgh in the AFC Championship game 24–7 (the third consecutive AFC title game between the two teams), but not before Chuck Noll referred to Oakland's George Atkinson as part of the NFL's \"criminal element\" after his alleged cheap-shot on Lynn Swann during a regular-season matchup. Atkinson and the Raiders later filed a defamation of character lawsuit against Noll, but lost. Following the 1983 regular season, the Los Angeles Raiders defeated the Steelers 38–10 in the AFC Divisional round which turned out to be the last NFL game for Steeler NFL Hall of Fame quarterback Terry Bradshaw who did not play due to injury. While the rivalry has dissipated over the years (mostly due to Oakland's decline after 2002), the teams have had notable games against each other including an upset Steelers victory towards the end of the season to prevent the Raiders from obtaining homefield advantage in the playoffs, and an upset Raiders victory in week 8 of the 2006 NFL season (20–13), which helped cost the Steelers a playoff berth; three years later another Raiders upset took place. In Week 13 the game lead changed five times on five touchdowns in the fourth quarter; Bruce Gradkowski's third touchdown of the quarter won it with nine seconds to go, and the 27–24 loss cost the Steelers another playoff run. The teams met at Pittsburgh in , where the Steelers blew out the Raiders 35–3, and ended their 3-game winning streak; the game was further notable for a punch thrown by Richard Seymour of the Raiders against Steelers quarterback Ben Roethlisberger. The Raiders then hosted the Steelers in 2012 and erased a 31–21 gap to win 34–31. The two clubs met again in 2013 and the Raiders won again, 21–18. The Steelers trail the all-time series 14–12 (11–9 in regular season).\nThe Cowboys–Steelers rivalry started with the Cowboys' first game as a franchise in (against the Steelers) at the Cotton Bowl with the Steelers coming away with a 35–28 victory. These teams hold a record for the most times (three) that two teams have met in a Super Bowl. The first two times the favored Steelers and Cowboys met came with Pittsburgh victories in the Orange Bowl Super Bowl X 21–17 and Super Bowl XIII 35–31. The Cowboys never won a regular season game in the Orange Bowl and lost three Super Bowl games (once to the Baltimore Colts and twice to the Steelers). Between the Cowboys and Steelers, Super Bowl XIII had the greatest number of future Pro Football Hall of Fame players participating, which as of 2010 numbered 20 – 14 players and six coaches/front office, including Ernie Stautner, defensive coordinator for the Cowboys who was a HoF defensive tackle for the Steelers. The teams featured an all-star matchup at quarterback between the Steelers' Terry Bradshaw and the Cowboys' Roger Staubach, both of whom are in the Hall of Fame. In , Staubach and the Cowboys won Super Bowl XII, their second and last loss of their season being inflicted by Bradshaw and the Steelers, 28–13 at Three Rivers Stadium in November. In , Staubach's final season, the two defending conference champs met again at Three Rivers, the Steelers winning 14–3 en route to winning their fourth Super Bowl title. The Steelers won six of eight meetings during the 1970s and 80s, before the Cowboys won all four meetings during the 1990s, including the teams' record third Super Bowl meeting in 1996, as this time the heavily favored Cowboys beat the Steelers 27–17. Dallas cornerback Larry Brown intercepted Pittsburgh quarterback Neil O'Donnell twice and was named the game's MVP. The teams' first two meetings of the 21st century ( and ) were won by the Steelers, including a come from behind victory December 7, 2008 in Pittsburgh, when the Steelers drove the length of the field to tie the game 13–13, then cornerback Deshea Townsend returned an intercepted pass from Tony Romo for the game's final score, Steelers 20, Cowboys 13. The Cowboys won on December 16, 2012, at Cowboys Stadium by a 27–24 margin in overtime.The all-time series is led by the Dallas Cowboys, 16–15. The Pittsburgh/Dallas rivalry served as a backdrop to the 1977 film Black Sunday, parts of which were filmed during Super Bowl X.\nThe Denver Broncos in 2011 broke a tie with the Oakland Raiders for the most playoff meetings versus the Steelers (the Broncos have met Pittsburgh seven times to Oakland's six). The rivalry dates from , but the first notable contest came in , when Denver dealt Pittsburgh its first regular-season defeat at Three Rivers Stadium, 23–13. The following year, they met in the NFL's first regular-season overtime game, which ended in a 35–35 tie. Denver's first playoff game had them hosting the Steelers in the 1977 divisional round; the Broncos won 34–21. The following year, the Steelers hosted and defeated Denver 33–10 in the divisional round. Their next playoff matchup was the 1984 divisional round in Mile High Stadium; the Steelers pulled the upset 24–17. They nearly pulled the upset again 5 years later in Denver, but the Broncos prevailed in the divisional playoff, 24–23. In 1997, they met in Pittsburgh for the AFC Championship Game, where Denver squeaked out at 24–21 win. Eight years later, the Steelers went to the Super Bowl by beating Denver 34–17 in Colorado, only to have their campaign to repeat as AFC Champions dashed in Denver after a stunning overtime upset by the Tim Tebow lead Broncos in January 2012. The following September the Steelers were defeated in Denver 31–19 in Peyton Manning's debut as Broncos quarterback. The two clubs are not scheduled to meet again until 2015; Denver presently leads the series 18–10–1, including 4–3 in the playoffs. Neither team has beaten the other more than three times in a row.\nThe rivalry between the Steelers and the New England Patriots emerged as a prominent rivalry in league circles when the Patriots upset the Steelers in the 2001 AFC Championship Game at Heinz Field. Pittsburgh did not exact revenge for the loss until ending the Patriots record-setting 21-game winning streak in week 6 of the 2004 NFL season. Later that season, the Steelers lost to the eventual champion Patriots in the AFC Championship game after a 15–1 season. The two also had a brief rivalry in the mid-1990s when the Steelers and Patriots split playoff meetings in 1996 and 1997, in which the Patriots had two young stars with Pittsburgh-area roots with Ty Law and Curtis Martin. Martin played his last game as a Patriot against the Steelers in the second playoff game before signing with the rival New York Jets during the offseason, where he became better known. The Patriots won 6 of 7 meetings over a ten-year period (–) before the Steelers broke through with a 33–10 victory at Foxborough in , after Matt Cassel had turned the ball over five times. The Steelers lead the all-time regular season series, 13–8. The Patriots in 2013 then made history by becoming the first opponent to score 55 points on the Steelers, winning 55–31. In the postseason, the Patriots have outscored the Steelers 99 points to 58, with the Patriots maintaining a 3–1 record. The only other franchises with winning AFC playoff records against Steelers include the Miami Dolphins (2–1, both wins in the AFC Championship), the Kansas City Chiefs (1–0), San Diego Chargers (2–1, all games played in Pittsburgh), the Jacksonville Jaguars (1–0, game at Heinz Field), and the Broncos (4–3). The Steelers have an all-time record of 14–11 against the Patriots.\nLess well known is Pittsburgh's rivalry with the Houston Oilers-Tennessee Titans franchise. The Oilers were aligned into the AFC Central with the Steelers in 1970 and were division rivals for 32 seasons. The Steelers dominated the rivalry during the Houston era and defeated the Oilers in three playoff matchups. But since the franchise moved to Tennessee the rivalry shifted, with the Titans winning 13 of 20 meetings (including a bitter 34–31 playoff showdown in 2002) post-Houston; the Titans won seven in a row in the 1997–2001 period, the longest win streak by either team in the series. The Steelers have won 45 of 77 career meetings following 2014's 27–24 win at LP Field.\n\nCulture\n\nMascot\n\nPrior to the season, the Steelers introduced Steely McBeam as their official mascot. As part of the 75th anniversary celebrations of the team, his name was selected from a pool of 70,000 suggestions submitted by fans of the team. Diane Roles of Middlesex Township, Butler County, Pennsylvania submitted the winning name which was \"meant to represent steel for Pittsburgh's industrial heritage, \"Mc\" for the Rooney family's Irish roots, and Beam for the steel beams produced in Pittsburgh, as well as for Jim Beam, her husband's favorite alcoholic beverage.\" Steely McBeam is visible at all home games and participates in the team's charitable programs and other club-sponsored events. Steely's autograph is known to be drawn with an oversized 'S' and the \"L\" is drawn to look like a beam of steel.\n\nFanbase\n\nThe Steelers have a tradition of having a large fanbase, which has spread from Pittsburgh. In August 2008, ESPN.com ranked the Steelers' fans as the best in the NFL, citing their \"unbelievable\" sellout streak of 299 consecutive games. The team gained a large fan base nationally based on its success in the 1970s, but many consider the collapse of the city's steel industry at the end of the 1970s dynasty into the 1980s (and the resulting diaspora) to be a large catalyst for the size of the fan base in other cities. The Steelers have sold out every home game since the season.\n\nThe Pittsburgh Steelers have numerous unofficial fan clubs in many cities throughout the country, that typically meet in bars or taverns on game days. This phenomenon is known to occur for other NFL teams as well, but \"Steeler bars\" are more visible than most, including representative establishments even in cities that field their own NFL teams.\n\nThe Terrible Towel has been described by the Associated Press as \"arguably the best-known fan symbol of any major pro sports team\". Conceived of by broadcaster Myron Cope in , the towel's rights have since been given to the Allegheny Valley School in Coraopolis, Pennsylvania, which cares for over 900 people with intellectual disability and physical disabilities, including Cope's autistic son. Since 1996, proceeds from the Terrible Towel have helped raise more than $2.5 million for the school.\n\nFight songs\n\nThe Steelers have no official fight song, but many fan versions of Here we go Steelers and the Steelers Polka (the latter a parody of Pennsylvania Polka) by ethnic singer Jimmy Pol, both originating in the 1970s, have been recorded. Since 1994, the song Here We Go by local singer Roger Wood has been popular among fans. During Steelers games, Styx's Renegade is often used to rally the crowd.\n\nNicknames\n\nThe Steelers have several nicknames, most notably \"The Black and Gold\" and the Pittsburghese dialect \"Stillers\" or \"Stihllers\". Founder Art Rooney was almost always referred to by the nickname \"The Chief\" and Three Rivers Stadium as the \"Blast Furnace\" during the championship years of the 1970s. \n\nBasketball\n\nDuring the offseason, the Steelers have long participated in charity basketball games throughout Western Pennsylvania and neighboring areas. The games usually feature six active players as well as their player-coach playing against a group of local civic leaders. The players, whose participants aren't announced until the day the game, sign free autographs for fans during halftime. \n\nFacilities\n\nStadiums\n\nIn 2001, the Steelers moved into Heinz Field. The franchise dating back to 1933 has had several homes. For thirty-one seasons, the Steelers shared Forbes Field with the Pittsburgh Pirates from 1933 to 1963. In 1958, though they started splitting their home games with the football only Pitt Stadium three blocks away at the University of Pittsburgh. From 1964 to 1969, the Steelers played exclusively at the on campus facility before moving with the Pirates to Three Rivers Stadium on the city's Northside. Three Rivers is remembered fondly by the Steeler Nation as where Chuck Noll and Dan Rooney turned the franchise into a powerhouse, winning four Super Bowls in just six seasons and making the playoffs 11 times in 13 seasons from 1972 to 1984, the AFC title game seven times. Since 2001 however a new generation of Steeler greats has made Heinz Field legendary with multiple AFC Championship Games being hosted and two Super Bowl championships.\n\nTraining camp\n\nThe Steelers hold training camp east of the city at Saint Vincent College in Latrobe, Pennsylvania. The site is one of the most storied in the league with Peter King of SI.com describing it as: \"... I love the place. It's the perfect training-camp setting, looking out over the rolling hills of the Laurel Highlands in west-central Pennsylvania, an hour east of Pittsburgh. On a misty or foggy morning, standing atop the hill at the college, you feel like you're in Scotland. Classic, wonderful slice of Americana. If you can visit one training camp, this is the one to see. \n\nThe team has its headquarters and practice facilities at the state-of-the-art University of Pittsburgh Medical Center Sportsplex on Pittsburgh's Southside. Constructed in 2000 the facility combines the vast expertise of sports medical professionals and researchers as well as hosting the University of Pittsburgh Panthers football team. \n\nHistorical facilities\n\nThe Rooney family has long had a close relationship with Duquesne University in the city and from the teams founding in the 1930s to the late 1990s used Art Rooney Field and other facilities on campus as either its primary or secondary in-season training site as well as Greenlee Field during the 1930s.[https://news.google.com/newspapers?idJ7VRAAAAIBAJ&sjid\nK2kDAAAAIBAJ&dqmcnally%20pittsburgh&pg\n2384%2C2841237 Pittsburgh Post-Gazette – Google News Archive Search]\n\nIn the 1970s and 1980s, the team had season scrimmages at South Park in the suburban south hills of Pittsburgh. During various seasons including the strike season of 1987, the Steelers used Point Stadium in nearby Johnstown, Pennsylvania for game week practices. During the 1950s St. Bonaventure University and suburban Ligonier[https://news.google.com/newspapers?idMBxiAAAAIBAJ&sjid\np3UNAAAAIBAJ&dqsteelers%20jacksonville&pg\n4264%2C756988 The Washington Reporter – Google News Archive Search] also served as a pre-season training camp sites.\n\nStatistics\n\nPlayers of note\n\nCurrent roster\n\nRetired uniform numbers\n\nThe Steelers retired Stautner's #70 in 1964 before creating a 50-year tradition of not retiring numbers. The team retired Greene's #75 in 2014 and left the possibility open that they would retire other players' jersey numbers at later dates. Other numbers are no longer issued since the retirement of the players who wore them, including: \n\n1 Gary Anderson\n12 Terry Bradshaw\n32 Franco Harris\n36 Jerome Bettis\n43 Troy Polamalu\n47 Mel Blount\n52 Mike Webster\n58 Jack Lambert\n59 Jack Ham\n63 Dermontti Dawson\n86 Hines Ward\n\nPro Football Hall of Famers\n\n\"Primary\" inductees\n\nThe Steelers boast the third most \"primary\" inductees into the Pro Football Hall of Fame, i.e. inductees that spent most or all of their NFL careers in Pittsburgh. They also can claim the most honorees of any franchise founded on or after and the only franchise with three members of ownership in the Hall.\n\nAward recipients\n\nRocky Bleier, former Steeler Running Back received both the Purple Heart, and the Bronze Star while serving in the Army in Vietnam.\nPat Livingston, Steelers beat writer for the Pittsburgh Press, awarded the 1979 Dick McCann Memorial Award\nVito Stellino, Steelers beat writer in the 1970s for the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, awarded the 1989 Dick McCann Memorial Award \nMyron Cope, Announcer (1970–2005), awarded the 2005 Pro Football Hall of Fame's Pete Rozelle Radio-Television Award\nJohn Clayton, Steelers beat writer for the Pittsburgh Press (1976–1986), awarded the 2007 Dick McCann Memorial Award\n\nSteelers in the Hall for contributions elsewhere\n\n* † Player numbers prior to 1950 are not in Pro Football Reference.com data listings.\n\nPro Bowl players\n\nThe following Steelers players have been named to the Pro Bowl:\nQB Ben Roethlisberger (4), Kordell Stewart, Neil O'Donnell, Terry Bradshaw (3), Bobby Layne (2), Earl Morrall, Jim Finks\nFB Earnest Jackson, Franco Harris (9), John Henry Johnson (3), Fran Rogel, Dick Riffle, John Karcis, Stu Smith\nHB Le'Veon Bell, Willie Parker (2), Jerome Bettis (4), Barry Foster (2), Dick Hoak, Clendon Thomas, Tom Tracy (2), Ray Mathews (2), Johnny Lattner, Lynn Chandnois (2), Joe Geri (2), Bill Dudley, Merl Condit, Whizzer White\nLT Marvel Smith, Charlie Bradshaw (2), Joe Coomer\nLG Alan Faneca (7), Duval Love, Mike Sandusky, Byron Gentry (2)\nC Maurkice Pouncey (4), Jeff Hartings (2), Dermontti Dawson (7), Mike Webster (9), Buzz Nutter, Bill Walsh (2), Chuck Cherundolo (2), Mike Basrak\nRG David DeCastro, Carlton Haselrig, Bruce Van Dyke, John Nisby (2), Milt Simington\nRT Tunch Ilkin (2), Larry Brown, Frank Varrichione (4), George Hughes (2), John Woudenberg\nTE Heath Miller (2), Eric Green (2), Preston Carpenter, Jack McClairen, Elbie Nickel (3)\nWR Antonio Brown (3), Mike Wallace, Hines Ward (4), Yancey Thigpen (2), Louis Lipps (2), John Stallworth (4), Lynn Swann (3), Ron Shanklin, Roy Jefferson (2), Gary Ballman (2), Buddy Dial (2), Jimmy Orr\nDE Brett Keisel, Aaron Smith, L.C. Greenwood (6), Dwight White (2), Ben McGee (2), Lou Michaels (2), Bill McPeak (3)\nDT Casey Hampton (5), Joel Steed, Joe Greene (10), Joe Krupa, Gene Lipscomb, Ernie Stautner (9)\nLB Lawrence Timmons, James Harrison (5), LaMarr Woodley, James Farrior (2), Joey Porter (3), Jason Gildon (3), Kendrell Bell, Levon Kirkland (2), Chad Brown, Kevin Greene (2), Greg Lloyd (5), David Little, Mike Merriweather (3), Robin Cole, Jack Lambert (9), Jack Ham (8), Andy Russell (7), Myron Pottios (3), John Reger (3), Dale Dodrill (4), Marv Matuszak, Jerry Shipkey (3)\nCB Rod Woodson (7), Mel Blount (5), J.T. Thomas, Marv Woodson, Brady Keys, Dean Derby, Jack Butler (4), Art Jones\nSS Troy Polamalu (8), Carnell Lake (4), Donnie Shell (5), Mike Wagner (2)\nFS Ryan Clark, Glen Edwards (2)\nK Gary Anderson (3), Roy Gerela (2), Mike Clark\nP Bobby Walden\nKR/PR Antonio Brown (2), Rod Woodson, Glen Edwards\n\nNFL MVPs\n\nDefensive Player of the Year Awards winners\n\nRookie of the Year Award winners\n\n \n\nSuper Bowl MVPs\n\nAll-time team\n\nIn , in celebration of the franchise's 75th season, the team announced an updated All-Time team of the 33 best players who have ever played for the Steelers. This team supplanted the previous All-Time team of 24 players named as part of the 50th anniversary commemoration in . \n\nA \"Legends team\" consisting of the club's best pre-1970s players was released concurrently with the latest All-Time team. \n\nDapper Dan Sportsman of the Year\n\nThe regional Dapper Dan Charities has since 1939 named the \"Sportsman of the Year\" in the Pittsburgh region. 18 Steelers have won the award in 22 events:\n\nCoaches\n\nThe Steelers have had 16 coaches through their history. Their first coach was Forrest Douds, who coached them to a 3–6–2 record in 1933. Chuck Noll had the longest term as head coach with the Steelers; he is one of only four coaches to coach a single NFL team for 23 years. Hired prior to the 2007 season, the Steelers current coach is Mike Tomlin. \n\nCurrent staff\n\nMedia\n\nAs of 2006, the Steelers' flagship radio stations were WDVE 102.5 FM and WBGG 970 AM. Both stations are owned by iHeart Media. Games are also available on 51 radio stations in Pennsylvania, Western Maryland, Ohio, and Northern West Virginia.[http://media3.steelers.com/gameday/broadcasts/ Official site of the Pittsburgh Steelers – Broadcasts] The announcers are Bill Hillgrove and Tunch Ilkin. Craig Wolfley is the sideline reporter. Myron Cope, the longtime color analyst and inventor of the \"Terrible Towel\", retired after the 2004 season, and died in 2008.\n\nPre-season games not shown on one of the national broadcasters are seen on CBS O&O KDKA-TV, channel 2; sister CW O&O WPCW, channel 19; and Root Sports Pittsburgh. KDKA-TV's Bob Pompeani and former Steelers quarterback Charlie Batch do the announcing for the pre-season games, as well as the two hosting the pre-game program Steelers Kickoff during the regular season prior to the national airing of The NFL Today. Pompeani and former Steelers lineman Chris Hoke also host the Xfinity Xtra Point following the game on days when CBS does not have that week's NFL doubleheader. When CBS has a week's doubleheader, the show airs on WPCW. Coach Mike Tomlin's weekly press conference is shown live on Root Sports Pittsburgh. Both Batch and Hoke replaced former Steelers lineman Edmund Nelson, who retired from broadcasting in 2015. \n\nThursday Night Football broadcasts are shown locally on KDKA, while national ESPN broadcasts are shown locally on WTAE-TV, channel 4. (WTAE-TV is owned by the Hearst Corporation, which owns a 20% stake in ESPN.) By virtue of being members of the AFC, most of the Steelers' games air on CBS except for home games against NFC opponents, which air locally on WPGH-TV, which is a Fox affiliate. NBC Sunday Night Football games are carried by WPXI, channel 11, in the market.\n\nThe Steelers hold a national contract with Grupo Imagen for radio rights to their games in Mexico; Imagen broadcasts the Steelers on their stations in 17 Mexican cities.\n\nFigures with broadcasting résumés\n\nThe Steelers franchise has a rich history of producing well-known sportscasters over the years. The most famous of these is probably Myron Cope, who served as a Steelers radio color commentator for 35 seasons (–).\n\nSeveral former Steelers players have gone on to careers in media after completing their playing careers.\n\nNewspaper\n\nThe Steelers Digest is the only official newspaper for the Pittsburgh Steelers. It has been published for 22 years and is currently published by Dolphin/Curtis Publishing in Miami, Florida, which also handles several other publications. The newspaper is very widely acknowledged by Steelers fans. Issues are mailed out to paying subscribers weekly through the season after every regular season game and continues through playoffs as long as the Steelers do. After a Super Bowl victory, a bonus issue is published, which is followed by a draft preview, draft recap, and training camp edition every other month, then leading into the pre-season. There are typically 24 issues of the paper within a publishing year. The newspaper is listed on the official Steelers.com page.\n\nUsage in popular culture\n\nThe Steelers success over several decades has permeated film and literature. The Steelers are portrayed in the following big-budget Hollywood films:\nThe January 11, 1975 episode of the Mary Tyler Moore Show used the team's first Super Bowl as the plot device. \nBlack Sunday in 1977\nHeaven Can Wait in 1978\nSmokey and the Bandit II in 1980\nFighting Back in 1980\nHey Kid, Catch! in 1980\n...All the Marbles in 1981\nEvening Shade (TV series) 1990–1994\nThe Waterboy cameo by Bill Cowher in 1998\nThe Longest Yard in 2005\nThe Chief a theater production.\nBlack and Yellow in 2010.\nThe Dark Knight Rises in 2012 features several Steelers players as the fictional Gotham Rogues, which was filmed in Heinz Field\nMad Men's April 14, 2013 episode has Don Draper, Pete Campbell and Roger Sterling meeting with two HJ Heinz executives. The executives are told that not only would the ad firm have given them tickets to the Steelers' November 19, 1967 game at the Giants, the firm would have worked it so that the Steelers would have won (they lost 20–28).\nConcussion in 2015 features players from the team suffering from CTE.\n\nThe protagonist of John Grisham's novel \" The Associate\" is a staunch Steelers fan." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Smoky City", "Pittsburgh (Pa.)", "Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.", "Frick International Studies Academy Middle School", "Pitsburgh", "The Burgh", "Pittsbrugh", "Pittsburgh, Pa", "Pittsburgh, USA", "Glenwood, Pennsylvania", "Pittsburgh (PA)", "The Pittsburgh Style of Literature", "Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, U.S.", "Pittsburgh, United States of America", "Pittsburgh Pennsyvania", "UN/LOCODE:USPIT", "Da burgh", "Pittsburgh (pgh)", "Climate of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania", "Pittsburgh", "City of Bridges", "Pittsburgh Frick 6–8 Middle School", "Pittsburgh, PA", "St. Justin's High School", "East End (Pittsburgh)", "Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA", "Pittsburgh, Allegheny County, Pennsylvania", "The City of Bridges", "Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, US", "Fort du Quesne", "Pittsburgh Frick 6-8 Middle School", "City of Pittsburgh", "The Steel City", "Pittsburgh, PA.", "Pittsburgh Style", "Pittsburgh, Pa.", "Education in pittsburgh", "Pittsburg, PA", "Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.", "Education in Pittsburgh", "Pittsburg, Pennsylvania", "Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "steel city", "climate of pittsburgh pennsylvania", "pittsbrugh", "un locode uspit", "pittsburgh", "pittsburgh frick 6–8 middle school", "pittsburgh pennsylvania usa", "pittsburgh style", "city of pittsburgh", "pittsburgh pennsylvania u s", "st justin s high school", "pittsburgh pa", "glenwood pennsylvania", "da burgh", "pittsburgh style of literature", "pitsburgh", "east end pittsburgh", "pittsburgh pennsylvania us", "pittsburgh usa", "smoky city", "city of bridges", "fort du quesne", "pittsburg pennsylvania", "pittsburgh frick 6 8 middle school", "pittsburgh pennsylvania", "pittsburgh united states of america", "education in pittsburgh", "pittsburg pa", "pittsburgh pennsyvania", "burgh", "frick international studies academy middle school", "pittsburgh allegheny county pennsylvania", "pittsburgh pgh" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "pittsburgh", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Pittsburgh" }
What did Fort Dearborn, Indian Territory change its name to?	tc_319	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Fort_Dearborn.txt", "Indian_Territory.txt" ], "title": [ "Fort Dearborn", "Indian Territory" ], "wiki_context": [ "Fort Dearborn was an United States fort built in 1803 beside the Chicago River, in what is now Chicago, Illinois. It was constructed by troops under Captain John Whistler and named in honor of Henry Dearborn, then United States Secretary of War. The original fort was destroyed following the Battle of Fort Dearborn during the War of 1812, and a new fort was constructed on the same site in 1816. By 1837, the fort had been de-commissioned. Parts of the fort were lost to both the widening of the Chicago River in 1855, and a fire in 1857. The last vestiges of Fort Dearborn were destroyed in the Great Chicago Fire of 1871. The site of the fort is now a Chicago Landmark, located in the Michigan–Wacker Historic District.\n\nBackground\n\nHistoric events\n\nThe history of human activity in the Chicago area prior to the arrival of European explorers is mostly unknown. In 1673, an expedition headed by Louis Jolliet and Jacques Marquette was the first recorded to have crossed the Chicago Portage and traveled along the Chicago River. Marquette returned in 1674, and camped for a few days near the mouth of the river; then moved on to the portage, where he camped through the winter of 1674–75. Joliet and Marquette did not report any Native Americans living near the Chicago River area at that time, although archaeologists have discovered numerous Indian village sites dating to that time elsewhere in the greater Chicago area. Two of de La Salle's men built a stockade at the portage in the winter of 1682/1683. \n\nIn 1682, René Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle had claimed a large territory (including the Chicago area), for France. In 1763, following the French and Indian War, the French ceded this area to Great Britain, and it became a region of the Province of Quebec. Great Britain later ceded the area to the United States (at the end of the American Revolutionary War), although the Northwest Territory remained under de facto British control until about 1796. Following the Northwest Indian War of 1785–1795, the Treaty of Greenville was signed at Fort Greenville (now Greenville, Ohio), on August 3, 1795. As part of the terms of this treaty, a coalition of Native Americans and Frontiers men, known as the Western Confederacy, turned over to the United States large parts of modern-day Ohio, Michigan, Indiana, Wisconsin, and Illinois. This included the six square miles centered at the mouth of the Chicago River. \n\nLocal events\n\nA Jesuit mission, the Mission of the Guardian Angel, was founded somewhere in the vicinity in 1696, but was abandoned around 1700. The Fox Wars effectively closed the area to Europeans in the first part of the 18th century. The first non native to re-settle in the area may have been a trader named Guillory, who might have had a trading-post near Wolf Point on the Chicago River around 1778. Jean Baptiste Point du Sable built a farm and trading post near the mouth of the Chicago River in the 1780s, and he is widely regarded as the founder of Chicago. Antoine Ouilmette is the next recorded resident of Chicago; he claimed to have settled at the mouth of the Chicago River in July 1790. \n\nFirst Fort Dearborn\n\nOn March 9, 1803, Henry Dearborn, the Secretary of War, wrote to Colonel Jean Hamtramck, the commandant of Detroit, instructing him to have an officer and six men survey the route from Detroit to Chicago, and to make a preliminary investigation of the situation at Chicago. Captain John Whistler was selected as commandant of the new post, and set out with six men to complete the survey. The survey completed, on July 14, 1803, a company of troops set out to make the overland journey from Detroit to Chicago. Whistler and his family made their way to Chicago on a schooner called the Tracy. The troops reached their destination on August 17. The Tracy was anchored about half a mile offshore, unable to enter the Chicago River due to a sandbar at its mouth. Julia Whistler, the wife of Captain Whistler's son, Lieutenant William Whistler, later related that 2000 Indians gathered to see the Tracy. The troops had completed the construction of the fort by the summer of 1804; it was a log-built fort enclosed in a double stockade, with two blockhouses (see diagram above). The fort was named Fort Dearborn, after U.S. Secretary of War Henry Dearborn, who had commissioned its construction.\n\nA fur trader, John Kinzie, arrived in Chicago in 1804, and rapidly became the civilian leader of the small settlement that grew around the fort. In 1810 Kinzie and Whistler became embroiled in a dispute over Kinzie supplying alcohol to the Indians. In April, Whistler and other senior officers at the fort were removed; Whistler was replaced as commandant of the fort by Captain Nathan Heald. \n\nFort Dearborn Massacre\n\nDuring the War of 1812, General William Hull ordered the evacuation of Fort Dearborn in August 1812. Heald oversaw the evacuation, but on August 15 the evacuees were ambushed along the trail by about 500 Potawatomi Indians in the Fort Dearborn Massacre. The Potawatomi captured Heald and his wife, Rebekah, and ransomed them to the British. Of the 148 soldiers, women, and children who evacuated the fort, 86 were killed in the ambush. The Potawatomi burned the fort to the ground the next day.\n\nThe second fort\n\nFollowing the war, a second Fort Dearborn was built (1816). This fort consisted of a double wall of wooden palisades, officer and enlisted barracks, a garden, and other buildings. The American forces garrisoned the fort until 1823, when peace with the Indians led the garrison to be deemed redundant. This temporary abandonment lasted until 1828, when it was re-garrisoned following the outbreak of war with the Winnebago Indians. In her 1856 memoir Wau Bun, Juliette Kinzie described the fort as it appeared on her arrival in Chicago in 1831:\n\nThe fort was closed briefly before the Black Hawk War of 1832 and by 1837, the fort was being used by the Superintendent of Harbor Works. In 1837, the fort and its reserve, including part of the land that became Grant Park, was deeded to the city by the Federal Government. In 1855 part of the fort was demolished so that the south bank of the Chicago River could be dredged, straightening the bend in the river and widening it at this point by about 150 ft; and in 1857, a fire destroyed nearly all the remaining buildings in the fort. The remaining blockhouse and few surviving outbuildings were destroyed in the Great Chicago Fire of 1871.\n\nLegacy and monuments\n\nThe southern perimeter of Fort Dearborn was located at what is now the intersection of Wacker Drive and Michigan Avenue in the Loop community area of Chicago along the Magnificent Mile. Part of the fort outline is marked by plaques, and a line embedded in the sidewalk and road near the Michigan Avenue Bridge and Wacker Drive. A few boards from the old fort were retained and are now in the Chicago History Museum in Lincoln Park.\n\nOn March 5, 1899, the Chicago Tribune publicized a Chicago Historical Society replica of the original fort. \n\nIn 1933, at the Century of Progress Exhibition, a detailed replica of Fort Dearborn was erected as a fair exhibit. As part of the celebration, both a United States one-cent postage stamp and a souvenir sheet (containing 25 of the stamps) were issued, showing the fort. The individual stamp and sheet were reprinted when Postmaster General James A. Farley gave imperforated examples of these, and other stamps, to his friends. Because of the ensuing public outcry, millions of copies of \"Farley's Follies\" were printed and sold.\n\nIn 1939, the Chicago City Council added a fourth star to the city flag to represent Fort Dearborn. This star is depicted as the left-most, or first, star of the flag. \n\nThe site of the fort was designated a Chicago Landmark on September 15, 1971.\n\nGallery\n\nFile:20070530 360 North Michigan Entrance.JPG\|London Guarantee Building with large relief above the entrance commemorating Fort Dearborn\nFile:Fort Dearborn Plaque.jpg\|A plaque on Michigan avenue\nFile:Fort Dearborn Chicago 2012-0238.jpg\|A marker showing the fort's southern perimeter", "As general terms, Indian Territory, the Indian Territories, or Indian country describe an evolving land area set aside by the United States Government for the relocation of Indians who held aboriginal title to their land. In general, the tribes ceded land they occupied in exchange for land grants in an area purchased by the United States federal government from Napoleon, the Louisiana Purchase. The concept of an Indian Territory was an outcome of the 18th- and 19th-century policy of Indian removal. After the Civil War, the policy of the government was one of assimilation. \n\nThe term Indian Reserve describes lands the British government set aside for indigenous tribes between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River in the time before the Revolutionary War.\n\nIndian Territory later came to refer to an unorganized territory whose general borders were initially set by the Indian Intercourse Act of 1834, and was the successor to Missouri Territory after Missouri received statehood. The borders of Indian Territory were reduced in size as various Organic Acts were passed by Congress to create incorporated territories of the United States. The 1907 Oklahoma Enabling Act created the single state of Oklahoma by combining Oklahoma Territory and Indian Territory, ending the existence of an Indian Territory.\n\nDescription and geography\n\nIndian Territory, also known as the Indian Territories and the Indian Country, was land within the United States of America reserved for the forced re-settlement of Native Americans. The general borders were set by the Indian Intercourse Act of 1834. The territory was located in the Midwest.\n\nWhile Congress passed several Organic Acts that provided a path for statehood for much of the original Indian Country, Congress never passed an Organic Act for the Indian Territory. Indian Territory was never an organized incorporated territory of the United States. In general, tribes could not sell land to non-Indians (Johnson v. M'Intosh). Treaties with the tribes restricted entry of non-Indians into tribal areas; Indian tribes were largely self-governing, were suzerain nations, with established tribal governments and well established cultures. The region never had a formal government until after the American Civil War. Therefore, the geographical location commonly called Indian Territory was not a traditional territory. \n\nAfter the Civil War, the Southern Treaty Commission re-wrote treaties with tribes that sided with the Confederacy, reducing the territory of the Five Civilized Tribes and providing land to resettle Plains Indians and tribes of the Midwest. These re-written treaties included provisions for a territorial legislature with proportional representation from various tribes.\n\nIn time, the Indian Territory was reduced to what is now Oklahoma. The Organic Act of 1890 reduced Indian Territory to the lands occupied by the Five Civilized Tribes and the Tribes of the Quapaw Indian Agency (at the borders of Kansas and Missouri). The remaining western portion of the former Indian Territory became the Oklahoma Territory.\n\nThe Oklahoma organic act applied the laws of Nebraska to the incorporated territory of Oklahoma Territory, and the laws of Arkansas to the still unincorporated Indian Territory (for years the federal court in Ft. Smith, Arkansas had jurisdiction).\n\nHistory\n\nIndian Reserve and Louisiana Purchase\n\nThe concept of an Indian territory is the successor to the British Indian Reserve, a British North American territory established by the Royal Proclamation of 1763 that set aside land for use by American Indians. The proclamation limited the settlement of Europeans to Crown-claimed lands east of the Appalachian Mountains. The territory remained active until the Treaty of Paris (1783) that ended the American Revolutionary War, and land was ceded to the United States. The British administration reduced the land area of the Indian Reserve – the United States further reduced it after the American Revolutionary War – until it included only lands west of the Mississippi River.\n\nAt the time of the American Revolution, many Native American tribes had long-standing relationships with British who were loyal to the British Empire, but they had a less-developed relationship with the Empire's colonists-turned-rebels. After the defeat of the British, the Americans twice invaded the Ohio Country and were twice defeated. They finally defeated the Indian Western Confederacy at the Battle of Fallen Timbers in 1794 and imposed the Treaty of Greenville, which ceded most of what is now Ohio, part of present-day Indiana, and the lands that include present-day Chicago and Detroit, to the United States federal government.\n\nThe period after the American Revolutionary War was one of rapid western expansion. The areas occupied by American Indians in the United States were called Indian country, which was not even an unorganized territory, as the areas were established by treaty.\n\nIn 1803 the United States of America agreed to purchase France's claim to French Louisiana for a total of $15 million (less than 3 cents per acre). \n\nPresident Thomas Jefferson doubted the legality of the purchase. However, the chief negotiator, Robert R. Livingston believed that the 3rd article of the treaty providing for the Louisiana Purchase would be acceptable to congress. The 3rd article stated, in part: \nthe inhabitants of the ceded territory shall be incorporated in the Union of the United States, and admitted as soon as possible, according to the principles of the Federal Constitution, to the enjoyment of all the rights, advantages, and immunities of citizens of the United States; and in the meantime they shall be maintained and protected in the free enjoyment of their liberty, property, and the religion which they profess. (8 Stat. at L. 202)\nWhich committed the US government to “the ultimate, but not to the immediate, admission” of the territory as multiple states, and “postponed its incorporation into the Union to the pleasure of Congress”\n\nAfter the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, President Thomas Jefferson and his successors viewed much of the land west of the Mississippi River as a place to resettle the Native Americans, so that white settlers would be free to live in the lands east of the river. Indian removal became the official policy of the United States government with the passage of the 1830 Indian Removal Act, formulated by President Andrew Jackson.\n\nWhen Louisiana became a state in 1812, the remaining territory was renamed Missouri Territory to avoid confusion. Arkansas Territory, which included the present State of Arkansas plus most of the state of Oklahoma, was created out of the southern part of Missouri Territory in 1819. Originally the western border of Missouri was intended to extend due south to the Red River. However, during negotiations with the Choctaw in 1820, Andrew Jackson ceded more of Arkansas Territory to the Choctaw than he realized, resulting in a bend in the border between Arkansas and Oklahoma at Ft. Smith, Arkansas. The General Survey Act of 1824, allowed a survey that established the western border of Arkansas Territory well inside the present state of Oklahoma, where the Choctaw and Cherokee tribes had previously begun to settle. The two nations objected strongly, and in 1828 a new survey redefined the western Arkansas border. Thus, the \"Indian zone\" would cover the present states of Oklahoma, Kansas, Nebraska and part of Iowa.\n \n\nRelocation and treaties\n\nBefore the 1871 Indian Appropriations Act, much of what was called Indian Territory was a large area in the central part of the United States whose boundaries were set by treaties between the US Government and various indigenous tribes. After 1871, the Federal Government dealt with Indian Tribes through statute; the 1871 Indian Appropriations Act also stated that. “[n]o Indian nation or tribe within the territory of the United States shall be acknowledged or recognized as an independent nation ...”. \n\nThe Indian Appropriations Act also made it a federal crime to commit murder, manslaughter, rape, assault with intent to kill, arson, burglary, and larceny within any Territory of the United States. The Supreme Court affirmed the action in 1886 in United States v. Kagama, which affirmed that the US Government has plenary power over Native American tribes within its borders using the rationalization that “The power of the general government over these remnants of a race once powerful... is necessary to their protection as well as to the safety of those among whom they dwell” \nWhile the federal government of the United States had previously recognized the Indian Tribes as semi-independent, “it has the right and authority, instead of controlling them by treaties, to govern them by acts of Congress, they being within the geographical limit of the United States... The Indians owe no allegiance to a State within which their reservation may be established, and the State gives them no protection.” \n\nReductions of area\n\nWhite settlers continued to flood into Indian country. As the population increased, the homesteaders could petition Congress for creation of a territory. This would initiate an Organic Act which established a three-part territorial government. The governor and judiciary were appointed by the President of the United States, while the legislature was elected by citizens residing in the territory. One elected representative was allowed a seat in the U. S. House of Representatives. The federal government took responsibility for territorial affairs. Later, the inhabitants of the territory could apply for admission as a full state. No such action was taken for the so-called Indian Territory, so that area was not treated as a legal territory.\n\nThe reduction of the land area of Indian Territory (or Indian Country, as defined in the Indian Intercourse Act of 1834), the successor of Missouri Territory began almost immediately after its creation with:\n* Wisconsin Territory formed in 1836 from lands east of the Mississippi and between the Mississippi and Missouri rivers. Wisconsin became a state in 1848\n Iowa Territory (land between the Mississippi and Missouri Rivers) was split from Wisconsin Territory in 1838 and became a state in 1846.\n* Minnesota Territory was split from Iowa Territory in 1849 and became a state in 1858\n* Dakota Territory was organized in 1861 from the northern part of Indian Country and Minnesota Territory. The name refers to the Dakota branch of the Sioux tribes.\nNorth Dakota and South Dakota became states in 1889.\nPresent-day states of Montana and Wyoming were also part of the Dakota Territory\nIndian Country was reduced to the approximate boundaries of the current state of Oklahoma by the Kansas–Nebraska Act of 1854, which created Kansas Territory and Nebraska Territory. The key boundaries of the territories were:\n* 40° N the current Kansas–Nebraska border\n* 37° N the current Kansas – Oklahoma (Indian Territory) border\nKansas became a state in 1861, and Nebraska became a state in 1867. In 1890 the Oklahoma Organic Act created Oklahoma Territory out of the western part of Indian Territory, in anticipation of admitting both Indian Territory and Oklahoma Territory as a single State of Oklahoma.\n\nCivil War and Reconstruction\n\nAt the beginning of the Civil War, Indian Territory had been essentially reduced to the boundaries of the present-day U.S. state of Oklahoma, and the primary residents of the territory were members of the Five Civilized Tribes or Plains tribes that had been relocated to the western part of the territory on land leased from the Five Civilized Tribes. In 1861, the U.S. abandoned Fort Washita, leaving the Chickasaw and Choctaw Nations defenseless against the Plains tribes. Later the same year, the Confederate States of America signed a Treaty with Choctaws and Chickasaws. Ultimately, the Five Civilized Tribes and other tribes that had been relocated to the area, signed treaties of friendship with the Confederacy.\n\nDuring the Civil War, Congress gave the U.S. president the authority to, if a tribe was \"in a state of actual hostility to the government of the United States... and, by proclamation, to declare all treaties with such tribe to be abrogated by such tribe\"(25 USC Sec. 72).\n \n\nPrior to the Civil War, the Pottawatomie massacre (May 24–25, 1856) was one of the many bloody episodes in Kansas preceding which came to be known collectively as Bleeding Kansas.\n\nMembers of the Five Civilized Tribes, and others who had relocated to the Oklahoma section of Indian Territory, fought primarily on the side of the Confederacy during the American Civil War in Indian territory. Brigadier General Stand Watie, a Confederate commander of the Cherokee Nation, became the last Confederate general to surrender in the American Civil War, near the community of Doaksville on June 23, 1865. The Reconstruction Treaties signed at the end of the Civil War fundamentally changed the relationship between the tribes and the U.S. government.\n\nThe Reconstruction Era played out differently in Indian Territory and for Native Americans than for the rest of the country. In 1862, Congress passed a law that allowed the president, by proclamation, to cancel treaties with Indian Nations siding with the Confederacy (25 USC 72). \nThe United States House Committee on Territories (created in 1825) was examining the effectiveness of the policy of Indian removal, which was after the war considered to be of limited effectiveness. It was decided that a new policy of Assimilation would be implemented. To implement the new policy, the Southern Treaty Commission was created by Congress to write new treaties with the Tribes siding with the Confederacy.\n\nAfter the Civil War the Southern Treaty Commission re-wrote treaties with tribes that sided with the Confederacy, reducing the territory of the Five Civilized Tribes and providing land to resettle Plains Indians and tribes of the mid-west. General components of replacement treaties signed in 1866 include:\n* Abolition of slavery\n* Amnesty for siding with Confederate States of America\n* Agreement to legislation that Congress and the President \"may deem necessary for the better administration of justice and the protection of the rights of person and property within the Indian territory.\"\n* That the tribes grant right of way for rail roads authorized by Congress; A land patent, or \"first-title deed\" to alternate sections of land adjacent to rail roads would be granted to the rail road upon completion of each 20 mile section of track and water stations\n* That within each county, a quarter section of land be held in trust for the establishment of seats of justice therein, and also as many quarter-sections as the said legislative councils may deem proper for the permanent endowment of schools\n* Provision for each man, woman, and child to receive 160 acres of land as an allotment. (The allotment policy was later codified on a national basis though the passage of The Dawes Act, also called General Allotment Act, or Dawes Severalty Act of 1887)\n* That a land patent, or \"first-title deed\" be issued as evidence of allotment, \"issued by the President of the United States, and countersigned by the chief executive officer of the nation in which the land lies\"\n* That treaties and parts of treaties inconsistent with the replacement treaties to be null and void.\n\nOne component of assimilation would be the distribution of property held in-common by the tribe to individual members of the tribe. \n\nThe Medicine Lodge Treaty is the overall name given to three treaties signed in Medicine Lodge, Kansas between the US government and southern Plains Indian tribes who would ultimately reside in the western part of Indian Territory (ultimately Oklahoma Territory). The first treaty was signed October 21, 1867, with the Kiowa and Comanche tribes. \nThe second, with the Plains Apache, was signed the same day. The third treaty was signed with the Southern Cheyenne and Arapaho on October 28. \n\nAnother component of assimilation was homesteading. The Homestead Act of 1862, was signed into law by President Abraham Lincoln. The Act gave an applicant freehold title to an area called a \"homestead\" – typically 160 acres (65 hectares or one-fourth section) of undeveloped federal land. Within Indian Territory, as lands were removed from communal tribal ownership, a land patent (or first-title deed) was given to tribal members. The remaining land was sold on a first-come basis (typically by land run, with settlers also receiving a land patent type deed. For these now former Indian lands, the General Land Office distributed the sales funds to the various tribal entities, according to previously negotiated terms.\n\nOklahoma Territory, end of territories upon statehood\n\nThe Oklahoma organic act of 1890 created an organized incorporated territory of the United States of Oklahoma Territory, with the intent of combining the Oklahoma and Indian territories into a single State of Oklahoma. The citizens of Indian Territory tried, in 1905, to gain admission to the union as the State of Sequoyah, but were rebuffed by Congress and an Administration which did not want two new Western states, Sequoyah and Oklahoma. Theodore Roosevelt then proposed a compromise that would join Indian Territory with Oklahoma Territory to form a single state. This resulted in passage of the Oklahoma Enabling Act, which President Roosevelt signed June 16, 1906. empowered the people residing in Indian Territory and Oklahoma Territory to elect delegates to a state constitutional convention and subsequently to be admitted to the union as a single state. Citizens then joined to seek admission of a single state to the Union. With Oklahoma statehood in November 1907, Indian Territory was extinguished.\n\nTribes\n\nFive Civilized Tribes\n\nWhat are today known as the Five Civilized Tribes originated in the Southeastern United States, and were probably descendents of the Mississippian culture, an agrarian culture that grew crops of corn and beans, with urban centers and regional chiefdoms, of which the greatest was the settlement known as Cahokia, in present-day Illinois. Stratified societies developed, with hereditary religious and political elites, and flourished in what is now the Midwestern, Eastern, and Southeastern United States from AD 800 to 1500.\n\nBetween 1814 and 1840, the Five Civilized Tribes had gradually ceded most of their lands in the Southeast section of the US through a series of treaties. The southern part of Indian Country (what eventually became the State of Oklahoma) served as the destination for the policy of Indian removal, a policy pursued intermittently by American presidents early in the 19th century, but aggressively pursued by President Andrew Jackson after the passage of the Indian Removal Act of 1830. The Five Civilized Tribes in the South were the most prominent tribes displaced by the policy, a relocation that came to be known as the Trail of Tears during the Choctaw removals starting in 1831. The trail ended in what is now Arkansas and Oklahoma, where there were already many Indians living in the territory, as well as whites and escaped slaves. Other tribes, such as the Delaware, Cheyenne, and Apache were also forced to relocate to the Indian territory.\n\nThe Five Civilized Tribes established tribal capitals in the following towns:\n* Cherokee Nation – Tahlequah\n* Chickasaw Nation – Tishomingo\n* Choctaw Nation – Tuskahoma (later moved to Durant)\n* Creek Nation – Okmulgee\n* Seminole Nation – Wewoka\n\nThe Five Civilized Tribes set up towns such as Tulsa, Ardmore, Muskogee, which became some of the larger towns in the state. They also brought their African slaves to Oklahoma, which added to the black American population in the state.\n\n* Beginning in 1783 the Choctaw signed a series of treaties with first the British and then the Americans. The Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek was the first removal treaty carried into effect under the Indian Removal Act, ceding land in the future state of Mississippi in exchange for land in the future state of Oklahoma, resulting in the Choctaw Trail of Tears.\n* The Creek nation began the process of moving to Indian Territory with the 1814 Treaty of Fort Jackson and the 1826 Treaty of Washington. In the 1832 Treaty of Cusseta, ceded all Creek claims east of the Mississippi River to the United States.\n* The 1835 the Treaty of New Echota established terms under which the entire Cherokee Nation was expected to cede its territory in the Southeast and move to Indian Territory. Although the treaty was not approved by the Cherokee National Council, it was ratified by the U.S. Senate and resulted in the Cherokee Trail of Tears.\n* The Chickasaw, rather than receiving land grants in exchange for ceding indigenous land rights, received financial compensation. The tribe negotiated a $3 million payment for their native lands (which was not fully funded by the US for 30 years). In 1836, the Chickasaw agreed to purchase land from the previously removed Choctaws for $530,000. \nThe Seminole People, originally from the present-day state of Florida, signed the Treaty of Payne's Landing in 1832, in response to the 1830 Indian Removal Act, that forced the tribes to move to Indian Territory in present-day Oklahoma. In October 1832 a delegation arrived in Indian Territory and conferred with the Creek Nation tribe that had already been removed to the area. In 1833 an agreement was signed at Fort Gibson (on the Arkansas River just east of Muskogee, Oklahoma), accepting the area in the western part of the Creek Nation. However, the chiefs in Florida did not agree to the agreement. In spite of the disagreement, the treaty was ratified by the Senate in April 1934.\n\nNortheast tribes\n\nThe Western Lakes Confederacy was a loose confederacy of tribes around the Great Lakes region, organized following the American Revolutionary War to resist the expansion of the United States into the Northwest Territory. Members of the confederacy were ultimately removed to the present-day Oklahoma, including the Shawnee, Delaware (also called Lenape), Miami, and Kickapoo.\n\nThe area of Pottawatomie County, Oklahoma was used to resettle the Iowa tribe, Sac and Fox, Absentee Shawnee, Potawatomi and Kickapoo tribes.\n\nThe Council of Three Fires is an alliance of the Ojibwe or Chippewa, Ottawa, and Potawatomi tribes. In the first Treaty of Prairie du Chien in 1829, the tribes of the Council of Three Fires ceded to the United States their lands in Illinois Michigan and Wisconsin. The 1833 Treaty of Chicago forced the members of the Council of Three Fires to move first to present-day Iowa, then to Kansas and Nebraska, and ultimately to Oklahoma. \n\nThe Illinois Potawatomi moved to present-day Nebraska and the Indiana Potawatomi moved to present-day Osawatomie, Kansas, an event known as the Potawatomi Trail of Death. The group settling in Nebraska adapted to the Plains Indian culture but the group settling in Kansas remained steadfast to their woodlands culture. In 1867 part of the Kansas group negotiated the \"Treaty of Washington with the Potawatomi\" in which the Kansas Prairie Band Potawatomi Nation split and part of their land in Kansas was sold, purchasing land near present-day Shawnee, Oklahoma, they became the Citizen Potawatomi Nation. \n\nThe Ottawa tribe first purchased lands near Ottawa, Kansas, residing there until 1867 when they sold their lands in Kansas and purchased land in an area administered by the Quapaw Indian Agency in Ottawa County, Oklahoma, becoming the Ottawa Tribe of Oklahoma.\n\nIroquois Confederacy\n\nThe Iroquois Confederacy was an alliance of tribes, originally from the New York state area consisting of the Seneca, Cayuga, Onondaga, Oneida, Mohawk, and Tuscarora. In pre-revolutionary war days, the Confederacy expanded to areas from Kentucky and Virginia north. All of the members of the Confederacy, except the Oneida, allied with the British during the Revolutionary War, and were forced to cede their land after the war. Most moved to Canada after the Treaty of Canandaigua in 1794, some remained in New York, and some moved to Ohio, joining the Shawnee.\n\nThe 1838 and 1842 Treaties of Buffalo Creek were treaties with New York Indians, such as the Seneca, Mohawk, Cayuga, and Oneida Indian Nation, which covered land sales of tribal reservations under the US Indian removal program, by which they planned to move most eastern tribes to Indian Territory. Initially, the tribes were moved to the present state of Kansas, and later to Oklahoma on to land administered by the Quapaw Indian Agency.\n\nPlains Indian tribes\n\nThe Plains Indians are an archetype in art and literature for all Native Americans. Initially, some Plains Indian tribes were agrarian and others were hunter-gatherers. Some tribes used the dog as a draft animal to pull small travois (or sleighs) to help move from place to place. However, in the 18th century most plains tribes adopted the horse culture and became nomadic. The tipi (also tepee and teepee, and not to be confused with the wigwam of the tribes of the Northeast and the West) was used by Plains Indians as a dwelling because they were portable and could be reconstructed quickly when the tribe settled in a new area for hunting or a pow wow (a periodic gathering of medicine men and/or spiritual leaders).\n\nHistorically, the Arapaho had assisted the Cheyenne and Lakota people in driving the Kiowa and Comanche south from the Northern Plains, their hunting area ranged from Montana to Texas. Kiowa and Comanche controlled a vast expanse of territory from the Arkansas River to the Brazos River. By 1840 many plains tribes had made peace with each other and developed Plains Indian Sign Language as a means of communicate with their allies.\n\n The Kaw speak one of the Siouan languages and were originally from the Kansas area (with Kansas being derived from the name of the tribe.) The Kaw are closely related to the Osage Nation and Ponca tribes (who first settled in Nebraska), being from the same tribe before migrating from the Ohio valley in the mid-17th century. On June 4, 1873, the Kaw removed themselves from Kansas to an area that would become Kay County, Oklahoma, tribal headquarters is in Kaw City, Oklahoma.\n* The Ponca speak one of the Siouan languages and are closely related to the Osage Nation and Kaw tribes. The Ponca tribe were never at war with the US and signed the first peace treaty in 1817. In 1858 the Ponca signed a treaty, ceding part of their land to the United States in return for annuities, payment of $1.25 per acre from settlers, protection from hostile tribes and a permanent reservation home on the Niobrara River at the confluence with the Missouri River. In the 1868 US-Sioux Treaty of Fort Laramie the US mistakenly included Ponca lands in present-day Nebraska in the Great Sioux Reservation of present-day South Dakota. Conflict between the Ponca and the Sioux/Lakota, who now claimed the land as their own by US law, forced the US to remove the Ponca from their own ancestral lands to Indian Territory in 1877, parts of the current Kay and Noble counties in Oklahoma. The land proved to be less than desirable for agriculture and many of the tribe moved back to Nebraska. In 1881, the US returned 26236 acre of Knox County, Nebraska, to the Ponca, and about half the tribe moved back north from Indian Territory. Today, the Ponca Tribe of Indians of Oklahoma have their headquarters in Ponca City, Oklahoma.\n\n* The Otoe-Missouria Tribe of Indians, speak one of the Siouan languages and part of a group commonly known as the Ho-Chunk (or Winnebago) moved to Oklahoma Territory, the tribe is made up of Otoe and Missouria Indians, is located in part of Noble County, Oklahoma with tribal offices in Red Rock, Oklahoma. Both tribes originated in the Great Lakes region by the 16th century had settled near the Missouri and Grand Rivers in Missouri. \n\nThe Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes of Oklahoma are a united tribe of the Southern Arapaho and the Southern Cheyenne people, headquartered in Concho, Oklahoma (a rural suburb of Oklahoma City.)\n* The Cheyenne were originally an agrarian people in present-day Minnesota and speak an Algonquian language. In 1877, after the Battle of the Little Bighorn (in present-day Montana) a group of Cheyenne were escorted to Indian Territory (present-day Oklahoma). However, they were not used to the dry heat climate and food was insufficient and of poor quality. A group of Cheyenne left the territory without permission to travel back north. Ultimately, the military gave up attempting to relocate the Northern Cheyenne back to Oklahoma and a Northern Cheyenne reservation was established in Montana\n** The Arapaho came from the present-day Saskatchewan, Montana, and Wyoming area, and speak an Algonquian language.\n\n* The Comanche lived in the upper Platte River in Wyoming breaking off from the Shoshone people in the late 17th century, and speak a Numic language of the Uto-Aztecan family. A nomadic people, the Comanche never developed the political idea of forming a single nation or tribe instead existing as multiple autonomous bands. The Comanche (and other tribes) signed a treaty of friendship with the US in 1835. An additional treaty was signed in 1846. In 1875, the last free band of Comanches, led by Quanah Parker, surrendered and moved to the Fort Sill reservation in Oklahoma. The Comanche Nation is headquartered in Lawton, Oklahoma.\n\n* The Pawnee speak a Caddoan language. Originally from the area around Omaha, Nebraska. In the 16th century Francisco Vásquez de Coronado had an encounter with a Pawnee chief. In the 1830s exposure to infectious diseases, such as measles, smallpox and cholera decimated the tribe. The 1857 Treaty with the Pawnee, their range was reduced to an area around Nance County, Nebraska. In 1874 the tribe was relocated to land in the Cherokee Outlet in Oklahoma Territory, in Pawnee County, Oklahoma. Tribal Headquarters are in Pawnee, Oklahoma.\n\n* The Tonkawa speak a language isolate, that is a language with no known related languages. The Tonkawa seem to have inhabited northeastern Oklahoma in the 15th century. However, by the 18th century the Plains Apache had pushed the Tonkawa south to what is now southern Texas. After Texas was admitted as a State, the Tonkawa signed the 1846 Treaty with the Comanche and other Tribes at Council Springs, Texas. After siding with the Confederacy, acting as scouts for the Texas Rangers, the Tonkawa Massacre, occurring near Lawton, Oklahoma killed about half of the tribe. In 1891 the Tonkawa were offered allotments in the Cherokee Outlet near present-day Tonkawa, Oklahoma.\n\nTribes indigenous to Oklahoma\n\nBecause Oklahoma is situated between the Great Plains and the Ozark Plateau in the Gulf of Mexico watershed, the western part of the state is subjected to extended periods of drought and high winds in the region may then generate dust storms, and the eastern part of the state is humid subtropical climate zone. Tribes that are indigenous to the current-day State of Oklahoma include both agrarian tribes settling in the eastern part of the state and hunter-gatherer tribes adopting a horse culture settling in the western part of the state. These indigenous tribes are the only tribes currently residing in the State of Oklahoma that would qualify as having aboriginal title to their land. Other tribes received their land either by treaty via land grant from the federal government of the United States or they purchased the land receiving fee simple recorded title.\n\nAgrarian tribes\n\nThe Caddo people speak a Caddoan language and is a confederation of several tribes who traditionally inhabited much of what is now East Texas, northern Louisiana and portions of southern Arkansas and Oklahoma. The tribe is part of the Caddoan Mississippian culture and thought to be an extension of woodland period peoples who started inhabiting the area around 200 BC. In an 1835 Treaty made at the agency-house in the Caddo nation and State of Louisiana, the Caddo Nation sold their tribal lands to the US. In 1846 the Caddo along with several other tribes signed a treaty that made the Caddo a protectorate of the US and established framework of a legal system between the Caddo and the US. Tribal headquarters are in Binger, Oklahoma.\nThe Wichita people speak a Caddoan language. The Wichita have lived in the eastern Great Plains from the Red River north to Nebraska for at least 2,000 years. The early Wichita people were hunters and gatherers who slowly adopted agriculture; by about AD 900, farming villages began to appear on terraces above the Washita River and South Canadian River in Oklahoma. The Wichita (and other tribes) signed a treaty of friendship with the US in 1835. The tribe’s headquarters are in Anadarko, Oklahoma.\n\nHunter-gatherer tribes\n\nThe Kiowa originated in the area of Glacier National Park, Montana and speak a Kiowa-Tanoan language. In the 18th century the Kiowa and Plains Apache moved to the plains adjacent to the Arkansas River in Colorado and Kansas and the Red River of the Texas Panhandle and Oklahoma. In 1837 the Kiowa (and other tribes) signed a treaty of friendship with the US that established a framework for legal system administered by the US. Provided for trade between Republics of Mexico and Texas. Tribal headquarters are in Carnegie, Oklahoma\n The Plains Apache or \"Kiowa Apache\", a branch of the Apache that lived in the upper Missouri River area and speak one of the Southern Athabaskan languages. In the 18th century, the branch migrated south and adopted the lifestyle of the Kiowa. Tribal headquarters are in Anadarko, Oklahoma.\n* The Osage Nation speak one of the Siouan languages and originated in present-day Kentucky. As the Iroquois moved south, the Osage moved west. By the early 18th century the Osage had become the dominant power in the Oklahoma, Arkansas, Missouri and Kansas, controlling much of the land between the Red River and Missouri River. From 1818 to 1825 a series of treaties reduced the Osage lands to Independence, Kansas. With the 1870 Drum Creek Treaty, the Kansas land was sold for $1.25 per acre and the Osage purchased 1470000 acre in Indian Territory’s Cherokee Outlet, the current Osage County, Oklahoma. While the Osage did not escape the federal policy of allotting communal tribal land to individual tribal members, they negotiated to retain communal mineral rights to the reservation lands. These were later found to have crude oil, from which tribal members benefited from royalty revenues from oil development and production. Tribal headquarters are in Pawhuska, Oklahoma.\n\nGovernment\n\nDuring the Reconstruction Era, when the size of Indian Territory was reduced, the renegotiated treaties with the Five Civilized Tribes and the tribes occupying the land of the Quapaw Indian Agency contained provisions for a government structure in Indian Territory. Replacement treaties signed in 1866 contained provisions for: \n* Indian Territory Legislature would have proportional representation from tribes over 500 members\n* Laws take effect unless suspended by Secretary of the Interior or President of the United States\n* No laws shall be inconsistent with the United States Constitution, or laws of Congress, or treaties of the United States\n* No legislation regarding “matters pertaining to the legislative, judicial, or other organization, laws, or customs of the several tribes or nations, except as herein provided for”\n* Superintendent of Indian Affairs (or appointee) is the presiding officer of the Indian Territory Legislature\n* Secretary of Interior appoints secretary of the Indian Territory Legislature\n* A court or courts may be established in Indian Territory with such jurisdiction and organization as Congress may prescribe: “Provided that the same shall not interfere with the local judiciary of either of said nations.”\n* No session in any one year shall exceed the term of thirty days, and provided that the special sessions may be called whenever, in the judgment of the Secretary of the Interior, the interests of said tribes shall require it\n\nIn a continuation of the new policy, the 1890 Oklahoma organic act extended civil and criminal laws of Arkansas over the Indian Territory, and extended the laws of Nebraska over Oklahoma Territory." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Chi-Beria", "Sayre language academy", "Chicago", "Chicago, Illinois", "Hog Butcher for the World", "Land of smelly onions", "Ariel Community Academy", "The weather in Chicago", "Chicago, Illinois, U.S.A.", "Chicago, Illionis", "Near North Montessori", "Religion in Chicago", "Chicago Finance Committee", "The Paris of America", "The city of Chicago", "City of Chicago", "List of sister cities of Chicago", "UN/LOCODE:USCHI", "Chicago theatre scene", "Chicago, WI", "The City of Broad Shoulders", "City of Broad Shoulders", "Sister Cities of Chicago", "Chicago il", "Chicago, Illinois, USA", "Performing arts in Chicago", "Chicago Transportation Committee", "Chicago, Wisconsin", "City of chicago", "Chicago theater scene", "Chicago, Il", "Chicago, IL.", "Chicago, Ill.", "City of Chicago, Illinois", "Chi town", "Chicago, United States", "Chicago (Ill.)", "Transport in Chicago", "Chicago, Illinois, United States", "Chicago (IL)", "USCHI", "Chichago", "Chcago", "Chicago, Illinois, U.S.", "Sister Cities Chicago", "Chicago, USA", "Chi City", "Chicago, IL", "Chi-Town", "Chicago theatre", "Paris of America", "Chicago, Illinois, US", "Chicago Illinois", "The city of Chicago, Illinois", "Sister cities of Chicago" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "sayre language academy", "chicago transportation committee", "chicago illinois u s", "sister cities of chicago", "sister cities chicago", "transport in chicago", "chicago illinois", "chicago illinois usa", "chi town", "hog butcher for world", "religion in chicago", "chicago", "chicago wi", "near north montessori", "un locode uschi", "city of broad shoulders", "chicago theatre", "chicago usa", "uschi", "chicago il", "city of chicago", "chicago finance committee", "list of sister cities of chicago", "chi beria", "weather in chicago", "chicago wisconsin", "land of smelly onions", "ariel community academy", "chicago theater scene", "chicago united states", "paris of america", "chicago illionis", "chicago illinois united states", "chcago", "chi city", "chicago illinois us", "performing arts in chicago", "chicago theatre scene", "chichago", "chicago ill", "city of chicago illinois" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "chicago illinois", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Chicago, Illinois" }
Bill Berry retired through ill health as a drummer in which band?	tc_320	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Bill_Berry.txt" ], "title": [ "Bill Berry" ], "wiki_context": [ "William Thomas \"Bill\" Berry (born July 31, 1958) is a retired American musician and multi-instrumentalist, best known as the drummer for the alternative rock band R.E.M. In addition to his drumming duties, Berry played many other instruments including guitar, bass guitar, and piano, both for songwriting and on R.E.M. records. After 17 years with the band, Berry left the music industry to become a farmer, and has since maintained a low profile, making sporadic reunions with R.E.M. and appearing on other artists' records.\n\nEarly years\n\nWilliam Thomas Berry was born in Duluth, Minnesota, the fifth child of Don and Anna Berry. At the age of three years, Berry moved with his family to Wauwatosa, Wisconsin, a suburb of Milwaukee, where they would remain for the next seven years. In 1968, they were on the move again, this time to Sandusky, Ohio.\n\nIn 1972, the Berry family made their final move, to Macon, Georgia, just in time for Bill to start high school at Mount de Sales Academy. It was there that he met bassist Mike Mills, and they played together in several different bands. Their first attempt at a career in music was short-lived. He and Mills decided to make money by getting day jobs. They rented an apartment on Arlington Place in Macon and Bill landed a job at the Paragon booking agency next door.\n\nBerry and Mills moved to Athens, Georgia in 1978, where they met Michael Stipe and Peter Buck. Prior to dropping out, Berry studied pre-law at the University of Georgia. \n\nR.E.M. years (1980–1997)\n\nR.E.M. was formed in 1980. In addition to his duties as a drummer, Berry contributed occasional guitar, bass, mandolin, vocals, keyboards and piano on studio tracks. In concert, he sometimes performed on bass, and supplied regular backing vocals. Berry also made notable songwriting contributions, particularly for \"Everybody Hurts\" and \"Man on the Moon\", both from Automatic for the People. Other Berry songs included \"Perfect Circle\", \"Driver 8\", \"Cant Get There from Here\" and \"I Took Your Name\". The song \"Leave\" was also written by Berry for R.E.M.'s 1996 album New Adventures in Hi-Fi, which was his last album with the band.\n\nBerry was also responsible for toning down the lyrics of the song \"Welcome to the Occupation.\" Stipe's original lyric was \"Hang your freedom fighters\" which, given the Reagan administration's active support for the contra \"freedom fighters\" in Nicaragua, sounded very violent and militant, although Stipe himself countered that the line could be taken multiple ways (\"hang\" as in either \"lynch\" or \"frame on a wall\"). Berry's objection ultimately led the line to be changed to \"hang your freedom higher.\"\n\nDuring 1984 Berry also was drummer for the impromptu Hindu Love Gods, which featured his R.E.M. bandmates Mike Mills, Peter Buck, and rocker Warren Zevon, and also Bryan Cook.\n\nOn-stage collapse and leaving R.E.M.\n\nOn March 1, 1995, at the Patinoire Auditorium in Lausanne, Switzerland, Berry collapsed on stage during an R.E.M. show from a ruptured brain aneurysm. He recovered and rejoined the band, but left in October 1997, saying that he no longer had the drive or enjoyment level to be in the band, and that he wanted a career change. He later explained on VH-1's Behind The Music: I didn't wake up one day and decide, 'I just can't stand these guys anymore' or anything. I feel like I'm ready for a life change. I'm still young enough that I can do something else. I've been pounding the tubs since I was nine years old ... I'm ready to do something else.\n\nAcquiescing to Berry's wishes, R.E.M. announced that it would continue as a three-piece outfit. They continued to tour with several accompanying musicians, including long-time sidemen Ken Stringfellow and Scott McCaughey and employed Joey Waronker and Bill Rieflin as live drummers.\n\nRetirement\n\nBerry left the music business and became a farmer, working on his hay farm in Farmington, Georgia, near Athens.\n\nHis musical activities after leaving R.E.M. have been sporadic, but did include recording for the Tourette Syndrome Charity Album Welcome Companions in 2000. He is also an avid golfer. \n\nPrior to the group's induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, Berry granted his first interview in several years, discussing life after retirement. \"It's a great chance to get back together and perform with R.E.M., which I always loved doing\", he said. \"This opportunity also does not require me to climb onto [a] bus or plane to do it again and again for several consecutive months.\"\n\nPersonal life\n\nIn 2003 Berry and his girlfriend, Cybele, had a son, Owen. \n\nDiscography\n\nWith R.E.M.\n\nWithout members of R.E.M.\n\nWith Peter Buck and Mike Mills\n\nWith Peter Buck\n\nReunions with R.E.M.\n\nPerformances of the three-piece R.E.M. reunited with their original drummer." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "REM", "R. E. M.", "R. E. M", "Rem", "Rem (disambiguation)", "R E M", "REM (disambiguation)" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "r e m", "rem", "rem disambiguation" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "rem", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "REM" }
Leslie Nielsen trained in which of the armed services in WWII?	tc_321	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "Search" ], "filename": [ "Leslie_Nielsen.txt", "Military_history_of_Canada_during_World_War_II.txt" ], "title": [ "Leslie Nielsen", "Military history of Canada during World War II" ], "wiki_context": [ "Leslie William Nielsen, OC (11 February 1926 - 28 November 2010) was a Canadian actor, comedian, and producer. He appeared in more than 100 films and 150 television programs, portraying more than 220 characters. \n\nNielsen was born in Regina, Saskatchewan. He enlisted in the Royal Canadian Air Force and later worked as a disc jockey before receiving a scholarship to study theatre at the Neighborhood Playhouse. Making his acting debut in 1948, he made more than 50 television appearances two years later. Nielsen made his film debut in 1956, with supporting roles in several drama, western, and romance films produced between the 1950s and the 1970s, with Nielsen crossing genres in both television and films.\n\nAlthough his notable performances in the films Forbidden Planet and The Poseidon Adventure gave him standing as a serious actor, Nielsen later gained enduring recognition for his deadpan comedy roles during the 1980s and the early 1990s, after being cast against type for the Zucker, Abrahams and Zucker comedy film Airplane!. Nielsen specialized in his portrayal of characters oblivious to and complicit in their absurd surroundings, which gave him a reputation as a comedian. Airplane! marked Nielsen's turning point, which made him \"the Olivier of spoofs\" according to film critic Roger Ebert; his work on the film also led to further success in the genre with The Naked Gun film series, which are based on their earlier short-lived television series Police Squad!, in which he also starred. Nielsen received a variety of awards and was inducted into the Canada and Hollywood Walks of Fame.\n\nEarly life\n\nNielsen was born on 11 February 1926 in Regina, Saskatchewan. His mother, Mabel Elizabeth (née Davies), was a Welsh immigrant, and his father, Ingvard Eversen Nielsen, was a Danish-born constable in the Royal Canadian Mounted Police. Nielsen had two brothers; the elder, Erik Nielsen (1924–2008), was Deputy Prime Minister of Canada from 1984 to 1986. \n\nHis half-uncle, Jean Hersholt, was an actor known for his portrayal of Dr. Christian in a radio series of that name and the subsequent television series and films. In a 1994 Boston Globe article, Nielsen explained, \"I did learn very early that when I would mention my uncle, people would look at me as if I were the biggest liar in the world. Then I would take them home and show them 8-by-10 glossies, and things changed quite drastically. So I began to think that maybe this acting business was not a bad idea, much as I was very shy about it and certainly without courage regarding it. My uncle died not too long after I was in a position to know him. I regret that I had not a chance to know him better.\"\n\nNielsen lived for several years in Fort Norman (now Tulita), Northwest Territories where his father was with the Royal Canadian Mounted Police. His father was a troubled man who beat his wife and sons, and Leslie longed to escape. When he graduated from high school at 17, he joined the Royal Canadian Air Force even though he was legally deaf (he wore hearing aids most of his life). Following graduation from Victoria School of Performing and Visual Arts in Edmonton, Nielsen enlisted in the Royal Canadian Air Force and trained as an aerial gunner during World War II. He was too young to be fully trained or sent overseas. He worked briefly as a disc jockey at a Calgary, Alberta, radio station, before enrolling at the Lorne Greene Academy of Radio Arts, Toronto. While studying in Toronto, Nielsen received a scholarship to the Neighborhood Playhouse. He noted, \"I couldn't refuse, but I must say when you come from the land of the snow goose, the moose and wool to New York, you're bringing every ton of hayseed and country bumpkin that you packed. As long as I didn't open my mouth, I felt a certain security. But I always thought I was going to be unmasked: 'OK, pack your stuff.' 'Well, what's the matter?' 'We've discovered you have no talent; we're shipping you back to Canada.'\" He moved to New York City for his scholarship, studying theatre and music at the Neighborhood Playhouse, while performing in summer stock theatre. Afterward, he attended the Actors Studio, until making his first television appearance in 1948 on an episode of Studio One, alongside Charlton Heston, for which he was paid $75.\n\nCareer\n\nEarly career\n\nNielsen's career began in dramatic roles on television during \"Television's Golden Age\", appearing in almost 50 live programs in 1950 alone. He said there \"was very little gold, we only got $75 or $100 per show.\" He narrated documentaries and commercials and most of his early work as a dramatic actor was uneventful. Hal Erickson of Allmovie noted that \"much of Nielsen's early work was undistinguished; he was merely a handsome leading man in an industry overstocked with handsome leading men.\" In 1956 he made his feature film debut in the Michael Curtiz-directed musical film The Vagabond King. In the Seattle Post-Intelligencer, Nielsen remembered Curtiz as \"a sadist, a charming sadist, but a sadist\". Nielsen called this film \"The Vagabond Turkey\". Though the film was not a success, producer Nicholas Nayfack offered him an audition for the science fiction film Forbidden Planet, resulting in Nielsen's taking a long contract with Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM). \n\nForbidden Planet became an instant success, and roles in other MGM films such as Ransom! (1956), The Opposite Sex (1956) and Hot Summer Night (1957) followed. In 1957 he won the lead role opposite Debbie Reynolds in the romantic comedy Tammy and the Bachelor, which, as a Chicago Tribune critic wrote in 1998, made people consider Nielsen a dramatic actor and handsome romantic lead. However, dissatisfied with the films he was offered, calling the studios \"a Tiffany, which had forgotten how to make silver\", Nielsen left MGM after auditioning for Messala in the 1959 Ben-Hur. Stephen Boyd got the role. After leaving the studios, Nielsen landed the lead role in the Disney miniseries The Swamp Fox, as American Revolutionary War hero Francis Marion. In a 1988 interview he reflected on the series, saying, \"That was a great experience, because the Disney people didn't do their shows like everyone else, knocking out an episode a week. ... We only had to do an episode a month, and the budgets were extremely high for TV at that time. We had location shooting rather than cheap studio backdrops, and very authentic costumes.\" Eight episodes were produced and aired between 1959 and 1961. \n\nHis television appearances include Justice, Alfred Hitchcock Presents, Voyage to the Bottom of the Sea, The Virginian, and The Wild Wild West. In 1961, he was the lead in a Los Angeles police drama called The New Breed. He guest-starred in a 1964 episode of Daniel Boone with Fess Parker in a minor but credited role. In 1968, he had a major role in the pilot for the police series Hawaii Five-O, and appeared in one of the seventh-season episodes. In 1969, he had the leading role as a police officer in The Bold Ones: The Protectors.\n\nIn 1972, Nielsen appeared as the ship's captain in the The Poseidon Adventure. He also starred in the William Girdler's 1977 action film, Project: Kill. His last dramatic role before mainly comedy roles was the 1979 Canadian disaster film City on Fire, in which he played a corrupt mayor. In 1980, he guest-starred as Sinclair on the CBS miniseries The Chisholms.\n\nAirplane! and The Naked Gun\n\nNielsen's supporting role of Dr. Rumack in Zucker, Abrahams and Zucker's 1980's Airplane! was a watershed in his career. The film, a parody of disaster films such as Zero Hour! and Airport, was based on building a comedy around the actors known for dramatic roles. Other stars included Robert Stack, Peter Graves, and Lloyd Bridges. Nielsen's deadpan delivery contrasted with the absurdity surrounding him. When asked, \"Surely you can't be serious?\", he responded with a curt, \"I am serious. And don't call me Shirley.\" In several interviews he reflected on the line: \"I thought it was amusing, but it never occurred to me that it was going to become a trademark. It's such a surprise ... the thing comes out, people say, 'What did he say?!'\" Nielsen said he was \"...pleased and honored that [he] had a chance to deliver that line.\" The comedic exchange was at #79 on the American Film Institute's AFI's 100 Years...100 Movie Quotes. The American Film Institute included the film in its list of the top ten comedy films of all time in 2008, and a 2007 survey in the United Kingdom judged it the second greatest comedy film of all time, while in 2012 Empire magazine voted it No. 1 in The 50 Funniest Comedies Ever poll. Critics praised the film, which also proved a long-term success with audiences. In 2010 Airplane! was selected for preservation in the National Film Registry by the Library of Congress. \n\nThe directors cast Nielsen for his ability to play like \"a fish in water\", saying \"You could have cast funny people and done it with everybody winking, goofing off, and silly... we wanted people to be oblivious to the comedy.\" For Nielsen, Airplane! marked a shift from dramatic roles to deadpan comedy. When it was suggested his role in Airplane! was against type, Nielsen protested that he had \"always been cast against type before\", and that comedy was what he always wanted to do. The same directors cast Nielsen in a similar style, in their TV series Police Squad!. The series introduced Nielsen as Frank Drebin, the stereotypical police officer modelled after serious characters in earlier police series.\n\nPolice Squads opening sequence was based on the 1950s show M Squad, which starred Lee Marvin, which opened with footage of a police car roving through a dark urban setting with a big band playing a jazz song in the background. The voice-over and the show's organization into acts with an epilogue was homage to Quinn Martin police dramas including The Fugitive, The Streets of San Francisco, Barnaby Jones, The F.B.I., and Cannon. Nielsen portrayed a serious character whose one-liners appeared accidental next to the pratfalls and sight gags that were happening around him. Although the show lasted only six episodes Nielsen received an Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series. \n\nSix years after cancellation of Police Squad!, the film The Naked Gun: From the Files of Police Squad! returned Nielsen to his role as Frank Drebin. It involved a ruthless drug king trying hypnosis to assassinate Queen Elizabeth II. Drebin, like the doctor in Airplane!, seemed unaware of the absurdity of the scenes he was in, even while contributing to it. Nielsen did many of his own stunts: \"You have an idea of how you're going to do something, and it's your vision... unless you do it, it really doesn't stand a chance.\" This movie grossed over $78 million and was well received by critics. Ebert's 3½–star review (out of four) noted, \"You laugh, and then you laugh at yourself for laughing.\" \n\nThe Naked Gun spawned two sequels: The Naked Gun 2½: The Smell of Fear (1991) and Naked Gun 33⅓: The Final Insult (1994). Naked Gun 2½ grossed more than the original, with $86.9 million, while Naked Gun 33⅓ grossed $51.1 million. Nielsen remained open to a fourth Naked Gun film, although he doubted that it would be produced — \"I don't think so\", he said in 2005. \"If there hasn't been one by now, I doubt it. I think it would be wonderful.\" \n\nNielsen briefly appeared on the World Wrestling Federation program in the summer of 1994 on WWF Monday Night Raw; capitalizing on Frank Drebin. Nielsen (and George Kennedy) were hired as sleuths to unravel the mystery of The Undertaker who had disappeared at January's Royal Rumble event. At SummerSlam 1994, in a Naked Gun parody, they were hot on the case (in fact, they were standing on a case). Although they did not find The Undertaker, the case had been closed (the literal case had been shut) and thus, they solved the mystery. In 1990, Nielsen appeared as a Frank Drebin character in advertisements in the United Kingdom for Red Rock Cider.\n\nNon-comedic roles after Airplane! included Prom Night (1980) and Creepshow (1982), both horror films, and as a dramatic and unsympathetic character in the 1986 comedy Soul Man. His last dramatic role was as Allen Green, a violent client of a prostitute killed in self-defence by Barbra Streisand's character, Claudia Draper, in Martin Ritt's courtroom drama Nuts (1987).\n\nLater comedies\n\nSubsequent to Airplane! and The Naked Gun, Nielsen portrayed similar styled roles in a number of other films. These mostly emulated the style of The Naked Gun with varying success and often targeted specific films: many were panned by critics and most performed poorly. Repossessed (1990) and 2001: A Space Travesty (2001) were parodies of The Exorcist and 2001: A Space Odyssey, respectively. Both attempted absurd comedy but were poorly received. Even a leading role in a Mel Brooks comic horror, Dracula: Dead and Loving It, failed to generate much box office excitement, although it did gain a following later release to video. Both 1996's Spy Hard and 1998's Wrongfully Accused, a parody of James Bond films and The Fugitive, were popular on video but not well received by critics. \n\nHis attempt at children's comedies met additional criticism. Surf Ninjas (1993) and Mr. Magoo (1997) had scathing reviews. Several critics were disappointed that Nielsen's role in Surf Ninjas was only \"an extended cameo\" and Chris Hicks recommended that viewers \"avoid any comedy that features Leslie Nielsen outside of the Naked Gun series.\" Jeff Miller of the Houston Chronicle panned Mr. Magoo, a live action remake of the 1950s cartoon, by saying, \"I'm supposed to suggest how the film might be better but I can't think of anything to say other than to make the film again.\" \n\nNielsen's first major success since The Naked Gun came in a supporting role in Scary Movie 3 (2003). His appearance as President Harris led to a second appearance in its sequel, Scary Movie 4 (2006). This was the first time Nielsen had reprised a character since Frank Drebin. In one scene, Nielsen appeared almost nude, and one critic referred to the scene as putting \"the 'scary' in Scary Movie 4.\" \n\nVideo, stage, and celebrity productions\n\nNielsen also produced instructional golf videos, which were not presented in a serious style, beginning with 1993's Bad Golf Made Easier. The videos combined comedy with golf techniques. The series spawned two additional sequels, Bad Golf My Way (1994) and Stupid Little Golf Video (1997). Nielsen also co-wrote a fictional autobiography titled The Naked Truth. The book portrayed Nielsen as a popular actor with a long history of prestigious films.\n\nIn his eighties, Nielsen performed serious roles on screen and stage (such as his one-man theatre show Darrow, in which he played Clarence Darrow), as well as providing voice-overs and appearances for commercials; cartoons like Zeroman where he had the leading role/voice; children's shows, such as Pumper Pups, which he narrated, in addition to comedic film roles. The sibling relationship with his elder brother, the Honourable Erik Nielsen, a former Deputy Prime Minister of Canada, served as the premise of an HBO mockumentary entitled The Canadian Conspiracy in which Leslie Nielsen appeared, along with other prominent Canadian-born media personalities. He was a celebrity contestant on CBS's Gameshow Marathon, where he played The Price Is Right, Let's Make a Deal, Beat the Clock, and Press Your Luck for charity.\n\nFinal acting years\n\nBeginning in February 2007, Nielsen began playing a small role as a doctor in the humorous yet educational television show DoctorOlogy. The show chronicles real-life medical techniques and technology, on the Discovery Channel. Nielsen said: \"There are any number of things that you think about when you ponder if you hadn't been an actor, what would you be, and I've always said I'd like to be an astronaut or a doctor. I have such admiration for doctors. I just don't know how you go around to thank them enough for coming up with the world's most remarkable new discoveries.\" \n\nIn 2007, Nielsen starred in the drama Music Within. In 2008, he portrayed a version of Uncle Ben for Superhero Movie, a spoof of superhero films. He then appeared in the 2008 parody An American Carol, which David Zucker directed, produced and co-wrote. He appeared in the 2009 parody Stan Helsing. Nielsen portrayed the Doctor in the Spanish horror comedy Spanish Movie, a spoof comedy like Scary Movie, but making fun of popular Spanish films. \n\nNielsen appeared in more than 100 films and 1,500 television episodes, portraying more than 220 characters. \n\nPersonal life\n\nNielsen married four times: nightclub singer Monica Boyar (1950–1956), Alisande Ullman (1958–1973), Brooks Oliver (1981–1983) and Barbaree Earl (2001–2010). Nielsen had two daughters from his second marriage, Maura and Thea Nielsen.\n\nNielsen often played golf. He joked, \"I have no goals or ambition. I do, however, wish to work enough to maintain whatever celebrity status I have so that they will continue to invite me to golf tournaments.\" His interest in the sport led him to comedic instructional films.\n\nNielsen was a practical joker, and known for pranking people with a portable hand-controlled fart machine: \"he always had that fart machine with him.\" His epitaph read: \"Let 'er rip\", a final reference to his favourite practical joke.\n\nNielsen was legally deaf and wore hearing aids for most of his life. Because of this impairment, he supported the Better Hearing Institute. Later in life, Nielsen had knee osteoarthritis. He participated in an educational video from The Arthritis Research Centre of Canada (ARC), demonstrating the physical examination of a patient with knee osteoarthritis. \n\nDeath\n\nIn November 2010, Nielsen was admitted to a Fort Lauderdale, Florida, hospital with pneumonia. On 28 November, Doug Nielsen, Nielsen's nephew, told the CJOB radio station that 84-year-old Nielsen had died in his sleep from pneumonia around 5:30 pm EST surrounded by family and friends. He was interred in Fort Lauderdale's Evergreen Cemetery. As a final bit of humor, Nielsen chose \"Let 'er rip\" as his epitaph. \n\nAchievements\n\nAmong his awards, in 1995 Nielsen received UCLA's Jack Benny Award. In 1988, he became the 1,884th personality to receive a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6541 Hollywood Blvd. In 2001 he was inducted into Canada's Walk of Fame. The following year he was made an Officer of the Order of Canada, although he was also a naturalized US citizen. With his American status, he maintained his Canadian heritage: \"There's no way you can be a Canadian and think you can lose it ... Canadians are a goodly group. They are very aware of caring and helping.\" On 19 May 2005, during the centennial gala of his birth province, Saskatchewan, Leslie Nielsen was introduced to HM Queen Elizabeth II. \n\nIn 1997, a Golden Palm Star on the Palm Springs, California, Walk of Stars was dedicated to him. \n\nOn 20 February 2002, Nielsen was named an honorary citizen of West Virginia and an Ambassador of Mountain State Goodwill. Nielsen visited the state many times to speak and visit friends. In 2003, in honour of Nielsen, Grant MacEwan College named its school of communications after him. Also in 2003, the Alliance of Canadian Cinema, Television and Radio Artists awarded him the ACTRA Award of Excellence.\n\nFilmography\n\nFilms\n\nTelevision\n\nVideo\n\n 1993: Bad Golf Made Easier\n* 1994: Bad Golf My Way\n* 1997: Stupid Little Golf Video\n* 1997: National Geographic Video: The Savage Garden\n* Nielsen also appeared in a promotional video for Layman Allen's mathematics game called \"Equations\" and in the Seaworld San Antonio Summer Nights 4-D show \"Pirates 4-D\".\n\nWritings\n\n* 1993: The Naked Truth\n* 1995: Leslie Nielsen's Stupid Little Golf Book with Henry Beard\n* 1996: Bad Golf My Way with Henry Beard", "The military history of Canada during the Second World War begins with the German invasion of Poland on 1 September 1939. While Canadian forces were eventually active in nearly every theatre of war, most combat was centred in Italy, Northwestern Europe, and the North Atlantic. Over the course of the war, more than 1.1 million Canadians served in the Canadian Army, Royal Canadian Navy, Royal Canadian Air Force, and in forces across the Commonwealth. More than 44,000 lost their lives and 54,000 were wounded. The financial cost was $21.8 billion between 1939 and 1950. By the end of the war Canada had the world's fourth largest air force, and fifth largest navy The Canadian Merchant Navy completed over 25,000 voyages across the Atlantic, 130,000 Allied pilots were trained in Canada in the British Commonwealth Air Training Plan. On D-Day, 6 June 1944 the 3rd Canadian Infantry Division landed on \"Juno\" beach in Normandy, in conjunction with allied forces. The Second World War had significant cultural, political and economic effects on Canada, including the conscription crisis in 1944 which affected unity between francophones and anglophones. The war effort strengthened the Canadian economy and furthered Canada's global position. \n\nDeclaration of war\n\nAt the outbreak of the First World War, Canada was a quasi-independent Dominion of the British Empire and automatically went to war with the United Kingdom, albeit with full autonomy to decide the form and extent of its involvement. However, the 1931 Statute of Westminster transformed Canada into a fully sovereign state, theoretically co-equal with Britain and the other Dominions of the British Commonwealth. Despite this, some commentators at the time suggested that Canada was still bound by Britain's declaration of war because it had been made in the name of their common monarch, but Canadian prime minister Mackenzie King repeatedly declared that \"Parliament will decide\". \n\nAs late as 1936 King had told Parliament \"Our country is being drawn into international situations to a degree that I myself think is alarming.\" Both the government and the public remained reluctant to participate in a European war, in part because of the memories of the Conscription Crisis of 1917 that divided French and English Canada. Both King and opposition leader Robert James Manion stated their opposition to conscripting troops for overseas service in March 1939. Nonetheless, King had not changed his view of 1923 that Canada would participate in a war by the Empire whether or not the United States did. By August 1939 his cabinet, including French Canadians, was united for war in a way that it probably would not have been during the Munich Crisis, although both cabinet members and the country based their support in part on expecting that Canada's participation would be \"limited\".\n\nIt had been clear that Canada would elect to participate in the war before the invasion of Poland on 1 September 1939. Four days after the United Kingdom declared war on 3 September 1939, Parliament was called in special session and both King and Manion stated their support for Canada following Britain, but did not declare war immediately, partly to show that Canada was joining out of her own initiative and was not obligated to go to war. Unlike 1914 when war came as a surprise, the government had prepared various measures for price controls, rationing, and censorship, and the War Measures Act of 1914 was re-invoked. After two days of debate, the House of Commons approved an Address in Reply to the Speech from the Throne on 9 September 1939 giving authority to declare war to King's government. A small group of Quebec legislators attempted to amend the bill, and CCF party leader J. S. Woodsworth stated that some of his party opposed it. Woodsworth was the only Member of Parliament to vote against the bill and it thus passed by near-acclamation. The Senate also passed the bill that day. The Cabinet drafted a proclamation of war that night, which Governor-General Lord Tweedsmuir signed on 10 September. King George VI approved Canada's declaration of war with Germany on Sept. 10. Canada later also declared war on Italy (11 June 1940), Japan (7 December 1941), and other Axis powers, enshrining the principle that the Statute of Westminster conferred these sovereign powers to Canada.\n\nOutbreak of war\n\nThough Canada was the oldest Dominion in the British Commonwealth, it was, for the most part, reluctant to enter the war. Canada, with a population somewhere between 11 and 12 million, eventually raised very substantial armed forces. Around 10% of the entire population of Canada joined the army, a very small amount of which was conscripted. After the long struggle of the Great Depression of the 1930s, the challenges of the Second World War accelerated Canada's ongoing transformation into a modern urban and industrialized nation.\n\nCanada informally followed the British Ten Year Rule that reduced defence spending even after Britain abandoned it in 1932. Having suffered from nearly 20 years of neglect, Canada's armed forces were small, poorly equipped, and, for the most part, unprepared for war in 1939. King's government began increasing spending in 1936, but the increase was unpopular. The government had to describe it as primarily for defending Canada, with an overseas war \"a secondary responsibility of this country, though possibly one requiring much greater ultimate effort.\" The Munich Crisis of 1938 caused annual spending to almost double. Nonetheless, in March 1939 the Permanent Active Militia (or Permanent Force (PF), Canada's full-time army) had only 4,169 officers and men while the Non-Permanent Active Militia (Canada's reserve force) numbered 51,418 at the end of 1938, mostly armed with weapons from 1918. In March 1939 the Royal Canadian Navy had 309 officers and 2967 naval ratings, and the Royal Canadian Air Force had 360 officers and 2797 airmen. \n\nUnder Secretary of State for External Affairs Oscar D. Skelton stated the government's war policy. Among its highlights:\n* Consult with Britain and France, and \"equally important, discreet consultation with Washington\".\n* Prioritize Canadian defence, especially the Pacific coast.\n* Possibly aid Newfoundland and the West Indies.\n* The RCAF should be the first to serve overseas.\n* Canada can \"most effective[ly]\" serve its allies by providing munitions, raw materials, and food.\n\nKing's cabinet approved this policy on 24 August 1939, and in September disapproved of the proposal by the Chiefs of Staff to create two army divisions for overseas service, in part due to cost. His \"moderate\" war strategy soon demonstrated its national and bilingual support in two elections. When Premier of Quebec Maurice Duplessis called an election on an anti-war platform, Adélard Godbout's Liberals won a majority on 26 October 1939. When the Legislative Assembly of Ontario passed a resolution criticizing the government for not fighting the war \"in the vigorous manner the people of Canada desire to see\", King dissolved the federal parliament and, in the resulting election on 26 March 1940, his Liberals won the largest majority in history.\n\nAt the outbreak of war, Canada's commitment to the war in Europe was limited by government to one division, and one division in reserve for home defence. Nevertheless, the eventual size of the Canadian armed forces greatly exceeded those envisioned in the pre-war period's so-called mobilization \"schemes\". Over the course of the war, the army enlisted 730,000; the air force 260,000; and the navy 115,000 personnel. In addition, thousands of Canadians served in the Royal Air Force. Approximately half of Canada's army and three-quarters of its air-force personnel never left the country, compared to the overseas deployment of approximately three-quarters of the forces of Australia, New Zealand, and the United States. By war's end, however, 1.1 million men and women had served in uniform for Canada. The Navy grew from only a few ships in 1939 to over 400 ships, including three aircraft carriers and two cruisers. This maritime effort helped keep the shipping lanes open across the Atlantic throughout the war.\n\nIn part, this reflected Mackenzie King's policy of \"limited liability\" and the labour requirements of Canada's industrial war effort. But it also reflected the objective circumstances of the war. With France defeated and occupied, there was no Second World War equivalent of the Great War's Western Front until the invasion of Normandy in June 1944. Moreover, the manpower requirements of the North Africa and Mediterranean theatres were comparatively small and readily met by British and other British Empire/Commonwealth forces.\n\nCanada's wartime motor vehicle production constituted 20% of the combined total production of Canada, the US, and the UK. The nation had become one of the world's leading automobile manufacturers in the 1920s, owing to the presence of branch-plants of American automakers in Ontario. In 1938, Canada's automotive industry ranked fourth in the world in the output of passenger car and trucks, even though a large part of its productive capacity remained idle because of the Depression. During the war, this industry was put to good use, building all manner of war material, and most particularly wheeled vehicles, of which Canada became the second largest (next to the United States) producer during the war. Canada's output of nearly 800,000 trucks, for instance, exceeded the combined total truck production of Germany, Italy, and Japan. Rivals Ford and General Motors of Canada pooled their engineering design teams to produce a standardized vehicle amenable to mass production, the Canadian Military Pattern (CMP) truck, which served throughout the British Commonwealth. Approximately half of the British Army's transport requirements were supplied from Canadian manufacturers. The British Official History argues that the production of soft-skinned trucks, including the CMP truck class, was Canada's most important contribution to Allied victory. \n\nCanada also produced its own medium tank, the Ram. Though it was unsuitable for combat employment, many were used for training, and the 1st Canadian Armoured Carrier Regiment used modified Rams as armoured personnel carriers in North-West Europe. In addition 1,390 Canadian-built Valentine tanks were shipped to the Soviet Union. Approximately 14,000 aircraft, including Lancaster and Mosquito bombers, were built in Canada. In addition, by the end of 1944, Canadian shipyards had launched naval ships, such as destroyers, frigates, corvettes, and some 345 merchant vessels. But perhaps no Canadian contribution to the Allied war effort was so vital as that made by the metals industries: half of Allied aluminium and ninety percent of Allied nickel was supplied by Canadian sources during the war.\n\nMobilization and deployment\n\nWhile the response to war was initially intended to be limited, resources were mobilized quickly. The Convoy HX-1 departed Halifax just six days after the nation declared war, escorted by and . The 1st Canadian Infantry Division arrived in Britain on 1 January 1940. By 13 June 1940, the 1st Battalion of The Hastings and Prince Edward Regiment was deployed to France in an attempt to secure the southern flank of the British Expeditionary Force in Belgium. By the time the battalion arrived, the British and allies were cut off at Dunkirk, Paris had fallen, and after penetrating 200 km inland, the battalion returned to Brest and then to Britain.\n\nApart from the Dieppe Raid in August 1942, the frustrated Canadian Army fought no significant engagement in the European theatre of operations until the invasion of Sicily in the summer of 1943. With the Sicily Campaign, the Canadians had the opportunity to enter combat and later were among the first to enter Rome.\n\nCanada was the only country of the Americas to be actively involved in the war prior to the Attack on Pearl Harbor.\n\nCanadian support for the war was mobilized through a propaganda campaign, including If Day, a staged 'Nazi' invasion of Winnipeg which generated more than $3 million in war bonds.\n\nEarly campaigns\n\nAlthough it regularly consulted with Canada, Britain was essentially in charge of both countries' war plans during the first nine months of the war. Neither nation seriously planned for Canada's own defence; Canada's training, production, and equipment emphasized combat in Europe. Its primary role was to train pilots from throughout the Empire with the British Commonwealth Air Training Plan, which the British proposed on 26 September 1939, and supply food and raw materials, not send hundreds of thousands of troops overseas as it had done in World War I. \n\nIt is possible that Britain did not want Canada to send troops overseas at all. The Canadian government agreed, because doing so might result in the need for conscription, and it did not want a recurrence of the problem with French Canadians that caused the 1917 crisis. Public opinion did cause King to send the 1st Canadian Infantry Division in late 1939, possibly against British wishes, but it is possible that had the air training proposal arrived ten days earlier no Canadian troops would have left North America that year. Canada fully cooperated with Britain otherwise, devoting 90% of the manpower of the small Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF) to the air training plan; a force that had trained 125 pilots annually when the war began now produced 1,460 airmen every four weeks under the plan.\n\nIn 1937 the two nations had agreed that any Canadian military equipment manufactured in Canada would use British designs. While this reasonably assumed that its troops would presumably always fight with Britain so the two forces should share equipment, it also resulted in Canada being dependent on components from a source across the Atlantic. Canadian manufacturing methods and tooling used American, not British designs, so implementing the plan would have meant complete changes to Canadian factories. Once war began, however, British companies refused Canadians its designs and Britain was uninterested in Canadian military equipment production. (When Canada suggested in early 1940 that its factories could replace British equipment given to the 1st Canadian Division, Britain replied that Canada might provide regimental badges.) While Britain gave Canada priority over the United States for purchases, Canada had very little military production capacity in 1939 and Britain had a shortage of Canadian dollars. As late as 12 June 1940, King's government and the Canadian Manufacturers' Association asked the British and French governments to end their \"small experimental orders\" and \"make known at the earliest moment their pressing needs of munitions and supplies\", as \"Canadian plants might be utilized to a far greater extent as a source of supply\". \n\nThis situation began to change on 24 May 1940, during the Battle for France, when Britain told Canada that it could no longer provide equipment. 48 hours later, Britain asked Canada for equipment. On 28 May seven Canadian destroyers sailed to the English Channel, leaving only two French submarines to defend the nation's Atlantic coast. Canada also sent 50 to 60 million rounds of small arms ammunition and 75,000 Ross rifles, leaving itself with a shortage. The air training plan's first graduates were intended to become instructors for future students, but they were sent to Europe immediately because of the danger to Britain. The end of British equipment deliveries threatened the training plan, and King had to ask president Franklin D. Roosevelt of the United States for aircraft and engines by stating that they would help defend North America. Between the collapse of France in June 1940 and the German invasion of the USSR in June 1941, Canada supplied Britain with urgently needed food, weapons, and war materials by naval convoys and airlifts, as well as pilots and planes who fought in the Battle of Britain and the Blitz. During the Battle of Britain between 88 and 112 Canadian pilots served in the RAF, most had come to Britain on their own initiative. For political necessity an \"all Canadian\" squadron was formed under the British Commonwealth Air Training Plan at the start of the war and the Squadron served in the Battle of France. They were later joined by No. 1 Squadron RCAF in June 1940 during the Battle for Britain and they were in \"the thick\" of fighting in August, by the end of the battle in October 1940, 23 Canadian pilots had been killed. If the planned German invasion of Britain had taken place in 1941, units of the formation later known as I Canadian Corps were already deployed between the English Channel and London to meet them. As the fall of France grew imminent Britain looked to Canada to rapidly provide additional troops to strategic locations in North America, the Atlantic and Caribbean. Following the Canadian destroyer already on station from 1939, Canada provided troops from May 1940 to assist in the defence of the West Indies with several companies serving throughout the war in Bermuda, Jamaica, the Bahamas and British Guiana.\n\nAfter France's surrender Britain told Canada that a German invasion of North America was not impossible, and that Canadians needed to plan accordingly. From June 1940 Canada viewed defending itself as important as aiding Britain, perhaps slightly more so. Canadian troops were sent to the defence of the colony of Newfoundland, on Canada's east coast, the closest point in North America to Germany. Fearing the loss of a land link to the British Isles, Canada was requested to also occupy Iceland, which it did from June 1940 to the spring of 1941, following the initial British invasion. Canada also produced military equipment using American methods and tooling. Cost was no longer an issue; on 24 June King's government presented the first $1 billion budget in Canadian history. It included $700 million in war expenses compared to $126 million in the 1939–1940 fiscal year; however, due to the war, the overall economy was the strongest in Canadian history. With opposition support the National Resources Mobilization Act began conscription. Drafted soldiers were for use only in North America unless they volunteered, avoiding the issue that caused the 1917 crisis. (When Mayor of Montreal Camilien Houde nonetheless opposed conscription in August 1940, he was arrested and sent to an internment camp.)\n\nThe United States government also feared the consequences to North America of a German victory in Europe. The American military had long considered any foreign attack on Canada as the same as attacking the United States. American isolationists who criticized Roosevelt administration aid to Europe could not criticize helping Canada, which a survey of Americans in the summer of 1940 found that 81% supported defending. Through King, the United States asked the United Kingdom to disperse the Royal Navy around the Empire so that the Germans could not control it. On 16 August 1940, King met with Roosevelt at the border town of Ogdensburg, New York. Through the Ogdensburg Agreement, they agreed to create the Permanent Joint Board on Defence, an organization that would plan joint defence of both countries and would continue to exist after the war. In the fall of 1940 a British defeat seemed so likely the joint board agreed to give the United States control of the Canadian military if Germany won in Europe. By the spring of 1941, as the military situation improved, Canada refused to accept American control of its forces if and when the United States entered the war. \n\nCanada was the primary location of the British Commonwealth Air Training Plan, the largest air force training program in history. 131,553 air force personnel, including 49,808 pilots, were trained at airbases in Canada from October 1940 to March 1945. More than half of the BCAT graduates were Canadians who went on to serve with the RCAF and Royal Air Force (RAF). One out of the six RAF Bomber Command groups flying in Europe was Canadian.\n\nSquadrons of the RCAF and individual Canadian pilots flying with the British RAF fought with distinction in Spitfire and Hurricane fighters during the Battle of Britain. By 1 January 1943, there were enough RCAF bombers and crews in Britain to form No. 6 Group, one of eight bomber groups within RAF Bomber Command.\n\nEarly in the war, Japanese troops invaded the Aleutian Islands. Canadian air force planes flew anti-submarine patrols against the Japanese while on land, Canadian troops were deployed side by side with American troops against the Japanese. Owing to circumstances, Canadians troops were only once sent into combat during the Aleutian campaign during the invasion of the island of Kiska. However, the Japanese had already withdrawn their forces at that point.\n\nThe Defence of Hong Kong\n\nIn Autumn 1941, the British government accepted an offer by the Canadian Government to send two infantry battalions and a brigade headquarters (1,975 personnel) to reinforce British, Indian and Hong Kong personnel garrisoned at Hong Kong. It was known as \"C Force\" and arrived in Hong Kong in mid-November 1941, but did not have all of its equipment they were initially positioned on south side of the Island to counter any amphibious landing. On December 8, following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, the Japanese began their attack on Hong Kong with a force 4 times bigger than the Allied garrison. Canadian soldiers were called upon to counterattack the Japanese assault and saw their first combat against them on December 11, however after bitter fighting allied forces surrendered on December 25, 1941. \"C Force\" lost 290 personnel during the battle and a further 267 subsequently perished in Japanese prisoner of war camps.\n\nNewfoundland\n\nWhen war was declared, Britain expected Canada to take responsibility for defending British North America. In 1939, L. E. Emerson was the Commissioner of Defence for Newfoundland. Winston Churchill instructed Emerson to cooperate with Canada and comply with a \"friendly invasion\" as he encouraged Mackenzie King to advise the occupation of Newfoundland by the king as monarch of Canada. By March 1942, Commissioner Emerson had restructured official organizations, such as The Aircraft Detection Corps Newfoundland, and integrated them into Canadian units, like The Canadian Aircraft Identity Corps.\n\nThe British Army mustered two units in Newfoundland for overseas service: The 59th Field Artillery and the 166th Field Artillery. The 59th served in northern Europe, the 166th served in Italy and North Africa. The Royal Newfoundland Regiment was also mustered, but was never deployed overseas. No. 125 (Newfoundland) Squadron R.A.F. served in England and Wales and provided support during D-Day: the squadron was disbanded on 20 November 1945. \n\nSeveral Canadian regiments were garrisoned in Newfoundland during the Second World War: the most famous regiment was The Royal Rifles of Canada who were stationed at Cape Spear before being dispatched to British Hong Kong; In July 1941, The Prince Edward Island Highlanders arrived to replace them; In 1941 and 1942, The Lincoln & Welland Regiment was assigned to Gander Airport and then St. John's.\n\nThe Canadian Army built a concrete fort at Cape Spear with several large guns to deter German naval raids. Other forts were built overlooking St. John's Harbour; magazines and bunkers were cut into the South Side Hills and torpedo nets were draped across the harbour mouth. Cannons were erected at Bell Island to protect the merchant navy from submarine attacks and guns were mounted at Rigolette to protect Goose Bay.\n\nAll Canadian soldiers assigned to Newfoundland from 1939 to 1945 received a silver clasp to their Canadian Volunteer Service Medal for overseas service. Because Canada, South Africa, New Zealand and Australia had all issued their own volunteer service medals, the Newfoundland government minted its own volunteer service medal in 1978. The Newfoundland Volunteer War Service Medal was awarded only to Newfoundlanders who served overseas in the Commonwealth Forces but had not received a volunteer service medal. The medal is bronze: on its obverse is a crown and a caribou; on its reverse is Britannia and two lions.\n\nNaval warfare\n\nBattle of the Atlantic\n\nThe Battle of the Atlantic was the longest ongoing battle in World War Two. Once Britain declared war on Germany, Canada quickly followed, entering the war on 10 September 1939, as they had a vested interest in sustaining Britain.\n\nCanadian security relied on British success in this war, along with maintaining national security, politically speaking, some felt it was Canada’s duty to assist her allies. For example, the Canadian prime minister Mackenzie King had been utterly convinced that it was Canada’s \"Self-evident national duty\" to \"back Britain\".\n\nOnce World War Two had erupted in 1939, Canada did not have a navy of any significance. In 1939 Canada had 7 warships. Once entering the war, Canada needed a naval reformation in order to keep up with and aid the British. On the outbreak of the war Canada had roughly 3,500 men supporting the RCN. In September 1940 \"the RCN grew to 10,000 men\".\n \nThe Canadian government agencies also played a major role in the patterns of warfare in the Atlantic. The Canadian Navies Division operated a network of naval control of shipping agents in the neutral United States from 1939 to 1941. These agents managed the shipping movements of British shipping in the United States, and also managed the growing USN systems in regards to basic trade movements. Special publications on trade matters were supplied to the USN from Ottawa in 1941, and by the time of Pearl Harbor American port directors were working with Ottawa as a team. Ottawa’s job of studying trade movements and keeping track of intelligence was so effective and crucial that they were given the task of controlling shipping west of 40〫and north of the equator from December 1941 to July 1942, along with supplying the USN trade directorate with daily intelligence. \n\nCanada was also given the responsibility of covering two strategically key points in the Atlantic. The first is known as the \"Mid-Atlantic Gap\", located off the coast of Greenland. This gap was a very hostile point in the supply line which was very difficult to take control. With the use of Iceland as a refuelling point and Canada to the west, the gap was narrowed down to 300 nmi. \"The Surface gap was closed by the Royal Canadian Navy [in 1943]. This Newfoundland escort force started with 5 Canadian corvettes and two British destroyers [manned by Canadian seamen], followed by other Canadian-manned British destroyers when available\". \n\nThe second and perhaps most daunting task Canada was given was to control the English channel during Operation Overlord (The Normandy Invasion). \"On the 6th of June, 50 RCN escorts were redeployed from the North Atlantic and Canadian Waters for invasion duties\". Their tasks were to cover the flanks of the invasion to ensure submarine defence of the invasion fleet, also to provide distant patrols of the southern flank of the invasion area, and lastly to prevent submarine flotillas in the channel from gaining reinforcements. This invasion relied on the RCN to cover British and American flanks to ensure a successful landing on the beaches of Normandy.\n \nThe progression Canada made from 1939 to 1945 is astonishing, going from the limited amount of warships they had to becoming the third largest navy in the world is an achievement in itself, not to mention the role they played in informing the USN in intelligence and the increase in responsibility. Their primary role in protecting merchant ships from North America to Britain was successful. Throughout the war Canada had made 25,343 successful escort voyages delivering 164,783,921 tons of cargo. By the end of the war, German documents state that the Royal Canadian Navy was responsible for the loss of 52 submarines in the Atlantic. In return 59 Canadian merchant ships, and 24 warships were sunk during the battle of the Atlantic. \n\n\"Canadians solved the problem of the Atlantic convoys.\" — British Admiral Sir Percy Noble\n\nSoutheast Asia and the Pacific\n\nCanadian naval and special forces participated in various capacities in the Pacific and South-East Asia. The cruisers and HMCS Uganda, along with the armed merchant cruiser HMCS Prince Robert were assigned to the British Pacific Fleet. HMCS Uganda was in theatre at the time. HMCS Ontario arrived to support the post-war operations in the Philippines, Hong Kong and Japan. However the Uganda was the only Royal Canadian Navy ship to take an active part against the Japanese while serving with the British Pacific Fleet. Various Canadian special forces also served in Southeast Asia including the \"Sea Reconnaissance Unit\", a team of navy divers tasked to spearhead assaults across the rivers in Burma. \n\nConditions aboard HMCS Uganda, compared to ships in the United States Navy, strict discipline, and the inability to display a separate Canadian identity, had contributed to poor morale and resentment amongst the crew. In an attempt to nip this in the bud and mindful of the change in Canadian government policy that henceforth only volunteers would serve overseas, the ship's commander, Captain Edmond Rollo Mainguy, invited crew members (before the official date) to register their unwillingness to serve overseas. Of the 907 crew members, 605 did so on 7 May 1945. \n\nThis decision, which had legal impact, was relayed to Canada and thence to the British government. Reacting to the angry British response, the Canadians agreed to stay on station until replaced. This happened on 27 July 1945, when joined the British Pacific Fleet and Uganda departed for Esquimalt arriving on the day of the Japanese surrender.\n\nAttacks in Canadian waters and on the mainland\n\nAxis U-boats operated in Canadian and Newfoundland waters throughout the war, sinking many naval and merchant vessels. Two significant attacks took place in 1942 when German U-boats attacked four allied ore carriers at Bell Island, Newfoundland. The carriers SS Saganaga and SS Lord Strathcona were sunk by U-513 on 5 September 1942, while SS Rosecastle and P.L.M 27 were sunk by U-518 on 2 November with the loss of 69 lives. When the submarine fired a torpedo at the loading pier, Bell Island became the only location in North America to be subject to direct attack by German forces in the Second World War. U-boats were also found in the St. Lawrence River; during the night of 14 October 1942, the Newfoundland Railway ferry, SS Caribou was torpedoed by German U-boat U-69 and sunk in the Cabot Strait with the loss of 137 lives. Both sides fought to outsmart each other and decide the fate of the merchant vessels in the Atlantic Ocean. Several U-boat wrecks have been found in Canadian waters, a few as far in as the Labrador River. \nThe Canadian mainland was also attacked when the Japanese submarine I-26 shelled the Estevan Point lighthouse on Vancouver Island on 20 June 1942. Japanese fire balloons were also launched at Canada, some reaching British Columbia and the other western provinces.\n\nDieppe\n\nThere was pressure from the Canadian government to ensure that Canadian troops were put into action. \nThe Dieppe Raid (Operation Jubilee) of 19 August 1942, landed nearly 5,000 soldiers of the inexperienced Second Canadian Division and 1,000 British commandos on the coast of occupied France, in the only major combined forces assault on France prior to the Normandy invasion. While a large number of aircraft flew in support, naval gunfire was deliberately limited to avoid damage to the town and civilian casualties. As a result, the Canadian forces assaulted a heavily defended coast line with no supportive bombardment. Of the 6,086 men who made it ashore, 3,367 (60%) were killed, wounded, or captured. The Royal Air Force failed to lure the Luftwaffe into open battle, and lost 106 aircraft (at least 32 to flak or accidents), compared to 48 lost by the Luftwaffe. The Royal Navy lost 33 landing craft and one destroyer. Two Canadians received the Victoria Cross for actions at Dieppe: Lieutenant Colonel \"Cec\" Merritt of the South Saskatchewan Regiment and Honorary Captain John Foote, military chaplain of the Royal Hamilton Light Infantry. \n\nThe lessons learned at Dieppe became the textbook of \"what not to do\" in amphibious operations, and laid the framework for the later (Operation Torch) landings in North Africa and the Normandy landings in France. Most notably, Dieppe highlighted:\n# the need for preliminary artillery support, including aerial bombardment;Thompson, Julian. [http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/worldwars/wwtwo/dieppe_raid_01.shtml \"The Dieppe Raid.\"] BBC (World Wars in Depth series), 6 June 2010.\n# the need for a sustained element of surprise;\n# the need for proper intelligence concerning enemy fortifications;\n# the avoidance of a direct frontal attack on a defended port city; and,\n# the need for proper re-embarkation craft.Maguire 1963, p. 190.\n\nThe British developed a range of specialist armoured vehicles which allowed their engineers to perform many of their tasks protected by armour, most famously Hobart's Funnies. The major deficiencies in RAF ground support techniques led to the creation of a fully integrated Tactical Air Force to support major ground offensives. Because the treads of most Churchill tanks were caught up in the shingle beaches of Dieppe, the Allies initiated pre-operation environmental intelligence collection, and devised appropriate vehicles to meet the challenges of future landing sites. The raid also challenged the Allies' belief that the seizure of a major port would be essential in the creation of a second front. Their revised view was that the amount of damage sustained by bombardment in order to capture a port, would almost certainly render it useless. As a result, the decision was taken to construct prefabricated \"Mulberry\" harbours, and tow them to beaches as part of a large-scale invasion. \n\nItaly\n\nWhile Canadians served at sea, in the air, and in small numbers attached to Allied formations and independently, the invasion of Sicily was the first full scale combat engagement by full Canadian divisions since World War I. Canadian soldiers went ashore in 1943 in the Allied invasions of Sicily and mainland Italy, then fought through the long Italian Campaign. During the course of the Allied campaign in Italy, over 25,000 Canadian soldiers became casualties of war.\n\nThe 1st Canadian Division and the 1st Canadian Armoured Brigade took part in the Allied invasion of Sicily in Operation Husky, 10 July 1943 and also Operation Baytown, part of the Allied invasion of Italy on 3 September 1943. Canadian participation in the Sicily and Italy campaigns were made possible after the government decided to break up the First Canadian Army, sitting idle in Britain. Public pressure for Canadian troops to begin fighting forced a move before the awaited invasion of northwest Europe. Troops fought on through the long and difficult Italian campaign until redeployed to the Western Front in February–March 1945 during Operation Goldflake. By this time the Canadian contribution to the Italian theatre had grown to include I Canadian Corps headquarters, the 1st Division, 5th Canadian (Armoured) Division and an independent armoured brigade. Three Victoria Crosses were awarded to Canadian Army troops in Italy; Captain Paul Triquet of the Royal 22e Régiment, Private Smokey Smith of The Seaforth Highlanders of Canada, and Major John Mahoney of The Westminster Regiment (Motor). Notable battles in Italy included the Moro River Campaign, the Battle of Ortona and the battles to break the Hitler Line, later fighting on the Gothic Line.\n\nConscription Crisis and Quebec\n\nThe political astuteness of Mackenzie King, combined with much greater military sensitivity to Quebec volunteers resulted in a conscription crisis that was minor compared to that of the First World War. French-Canadian volunteers were front and centre, in their own units, throughout the war, highlighted by actions at Dieppe (Les Fusiliers Mont-Royal), Italy (Royal 22e Régiment), the Normandy beaches (Le Régiment de la Chaudière), the thrust into the Netherlands (Le Régiment de Maisonneuve), and in the bombing campaign over Germany (No. 425 Squadron RCAF).\n\nD-Day and Normandy\n\nOn 6 June 1944, the 3rd Canadian Division landed on Juno Beach in the Battle of Normandy and sustained heavy casualties in their first hour of attack. By the end of D-Day, the Canadians had penetrated deeper into France than either the British or the American troops at their landing sites, overcoming stronger resistance than any of the other beachheads except Omaha Beach. In the first month of the Normandy campaign, Canadian, British and Polish troops were opposed by some of the strongest and best trained German troops in the theatre, including the 1st SS Panzer Division Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler, the 12th SS Panzer Division Hitlerjugend and the Panzer-Lehr-Division.\n\nSeveral costly operations were mounted by the Canadians to fight a path to the pivotal city of Caen and then south towards Falaise, part of the Allied attempt to liberate Paris. By the time the First Canadian Army linked up with U.S. forces, closing the Falaise pocket, the destruction of the German Army in Normandy was nearly complete. Three Victoria Crosses were earned by Canadians in Northwest Europe; Major David Currie of the South Alberta Regiment received the Victoria Cross for his actions at Saint-Lambert, Captain Frederick Tilston of the Essex Scottish and Sergeant Aubrey Cosens of the Queen's Own Rifles of Canada were rewarded for their service in the Rhineland fighting in 1945, the latter posthumously. 50,000 Canadians fought in D-Day.\n\nThe Low Countries\n\nOne of the most important Canadian contributions was the Battle of the Scheldt, involving II Canadian Corps, under Lieutenant-General Guy Simonds, under command of the First Canadian Army, commanded by General Henry Duncan Graham Crerar. The Corps included the 2nd Canadian Infantry Division, 3rd Canadian Infantry Division and 4th Canadian (Armoured) Division. Although nominally a Canadian formation, II Canadian Corps contained the Polish 1st Armoured Division, with the 1st Belgian Infantry Brigade, and the Royal Netherlands Motorized Infantry Brigade. The British 51st Infantry Division was attached to the Corps.\n\nThe British had liberated Antwerp, but that city's port could not be used until the Germans were driven from the heavily fortified Scheldt estuary. In several weeks of heavy fighting in the fall of 1944, the Canadians succeeded in defeating the Germans in this region. The Canadians then turned east and played a central role in the liberation of the Netherlands. In 1944–45, the First Canadian Army was responsible for liberating much of the Netherlands from German occupation. Canada lost 7,600 troops in these operations. This day is celebrated on May 5th commemorating the surrender of the German Commander-in-chief Johannes Blaskowitz to Lieutenant-General Charles Foulkes, commanding I Canadian Corps, consisting of the 1st Canadian Infantry Division, 5th Canadian (Armoured) Division and the 1st Canadian Armoured Brigade, together with supporting units. The Corps had returned from fighting on the Italian Front in February 1945 as part of Operation Goldflake.\n\nThe arrival of Canadian troops came at a time of crisis for the Netherlands: the \"hungry winter\". Canadian troops gave their rations to children, and blankets to civilians. Bombers were used to drop food packets to hungry civilians in German-occupied Rotterdam, Amsterdam, and the Hague in \"Operation Manna\", with permission from Germany, so long as the bombers did not fly above 200 feet. \n\nThe royal family of the Netherlands had moved to Ottawa until the Netherlands were liberated, and Princess Margriet was born during this Canadian exile. Princess Juliana of the Netherlands, the only child of then-Queen Wilhelmina and heir to the throne, sought refuge in Canada with her two daughters, Beatrix and Irene, during the war. During Princess Juliana's stay in Canada, preparations were made for the birth of her third child. To ensure the Dutch citizenship of this royal baby, the Canadian Parliament passed a special law declaring Princess Juliana's suite at the Ottawa Civic Hospital \"extraterritorial\". On 19 January 1943, Princess Margriet was born. The day after Princess Margriet's birth, the Dutch flag was flown on the Peace Tower. This was the only time a foreign flag has waved atop Canada's Parliament Buildings.\n\nIn 1945, the people of the Netherlands sent 100,000 hand-picked tulip bulbs as a post-war gift for the role played by Canadian soldiers in the liberation of the Netherlands. These tulips were planted on Parliament Hill and along the Queen Elizabeth Driveway. Princess Juliana was so pleased at the prominence given to the gift that in 1946, she decided to send a personal gift of 20,000 tulip bulbs to show her gratitude for the hospitality received in Ottawa. The gift was part of a lifelong bequest. Since then, tulips have proliferated in Ottawa as a symbol of peace, freedom and international friendship. Every year, Canada's capital receives 10,000 bulbs from the Dutch royal family, celebrated in the Canadian Tulip Festival. In 1995, the Netherlands donated an additional 5,000 bulbs for Parliament Hill, 1,000 for each provincial and territorial capital and 1,000 for Ste. Anne's hospital in Saint-Anne-de-Bellevue, Que. (the only remaining federal hospital in Canada, administered by Veterans Affairs Canada) It is thought that the Netherlands and the Dutch people have had an enduring affection for Canada and Canadians long after the war, lingering into the present day." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Royal Canadian" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "royal canadian" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "royal canadian", "type": "FreeForm", "value": "Royal Canadian" }
Which musical featured the song I Feel Pretty?	tc_324	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Musical_theatre.txt", "West_Side_Story.txt" ], "title": [ "Musical theatre", "West Side Story" ], "wiki_context": [ "Musical theatre is a form of theatrical performance that combines songs, spoken dialogue, acting, and dance. The story and emotional content of a musical – humor, pathos, love, anger – are communicated through the words, music, movement and technical aspects of the entertainment as an integrated whole. Although musical theatre overlaps with other theatrical forms like opera and dance, it may be distinguished by the equal importance given to the music as compared with the dialogue, movement and other elements. Since the early 20th century, musical theatre stage works have generally been called, simply, musicals.\n\nAlthough music has been a part of dramatic presentations since ancient times, modern Western musical theatre emerged during the 19th century, with many structural elements established by the works of Gilbert and Sullivan in Britain and those of Harrigan and Hart in America. These were followed by the numerous Edwardian musical comedies and the musical theatre works of American creators like George M. Cohan. The Princess Theatre musicals and other smart shows like Of Thee I Sing (1931) were artistic steps forward beyond revues and other frothy entertainments of the early 20th century and led to such groundbreaking works as Show Boat (1927) and Oklahoma! (1943). Some of the most famous and iconic musicals through the decades that followed include\nWest Side Story (1957), The Fantasticks (1960), Hair (1967), A Chorus Line (1975), Les Misérables (1985), The Phantom of the Opera (1986), Rent (1996), The Producers (2001), Wicked (2003) and Hamilton (2015).\n\nMusicals are performed around the world. They may be presented in large venues, such as big-budget Broadway or West End productions in New York City or London. Alternatively, musicals may be staged in smaller fringe theatre, Off-Broadway or regional theatre productions, or on tour. Musicals are often presented by amateur and school groups in churches, schools and other performance spaces. In addition to the United States and Britain, there are vibrant musical theatre scenes in continental Europe, Asia, Australasia, Canada and Latin America.\n\nDefinitions and scope \n\nBook musicals\n\nSince the 20th century, the \"book musical\" has been defined as a musical play where songs and dances are fully integrated into a well-made story with serious dramatic goals that is able to evoke genuine emotions other than laughter. The three main components of a book musical are its music, lyrics and book. The book or script of a musical refers to the story, character development, and dramatic structure, including the spoken dialogue and stage directions, but it can also refer to the dialogue and lyrics together, which are sometimes referred to as the libretto (Italian for “little book”). The music and lyrics together form the score of a musical and includes songs; incidental music; and musical scenes, which are \"theatrical sequence[s] set to music, often combining song with spoken dialogue.\" The interpretation of a musical by is influenced by its creative team, which includes a director, a musical director, usually a choreographer and sometimes an orchestrator. A musical's production is also creatively characterized by technical aspects, such as set design, costumes, stage properties (props), lighting and sound, which generally change from the original production to succeeding productions. Some famous production elements, however, may be retained from the original production; for example, Bob Fosse's choreography in Chicago.\n\nThere is no fixed length for a musical. While it can range from a short one-act entertainment to several acts and several hours in length (or even a multi-evening presentation), most musicals range from one and a half to three hours. Musicals are usually presented in two acts, with one short intermission and the first act frequently longer than the second. The first act generally introduces nearly all of the characters and most of the music, and often ends with the introduction of a dramatic conflict or plot complication while the second act may introduce a few new songs but usually contains reprises of important musical themes and resolves the conflict or complication. A book musical is usually built around four to six main theme tunes that are reprised later in the show, although it sometimes consists of a series of songs not directly musically related. Spoken dialogue is generally interspersed between musical numbers, although \"sung dialogue\" or recitative may be used, especially in so-called \"sung-through\" musicals such as Jesus Christ Superstar, Les Misérables, and Evita. Several shorter musicals on Broadway and in the West End have been presented in one act in recent decades.\n\nMoments of greatest dramatic intensity in a book musical are often performed in song. Proverbially, \"when the emotion becomes too strong for speech you sing; when it becomes too strong for song, you dance.\" In a book musical, a song is ideally crafted to suit the character (or characters) and their situation within the story; although there have been times in the history of the musical (e.g. from the 1890s to the 1920s) when this integration between music and story has been tenuous. As New York Times critic Ben Brantley described the ideal of song in theatre when reviewing the 2008 revival of Gypsy: \"There is no separation at all between song and character, which is what happens in those uncommon moments when musicals reach upward to achieve their ideal reasons to be.\" Typically, many fewer words are sung in a five-minute song than are spoken in a five-minute block of dialogue. Therefore, there is less time to develop drama in a musical than in a straight play of equivalent length, since a musical usually devotes more time to music than to dialogue. Within the compressed nature of a musical, the writers must develop the characters and the plot.\n\nThe material presented in a musical may be original, or it may be adopted or born from novels (Wicked and Man of La Mancha), plays (Hello, Dolly!), classic legends (Camelot), historical events (Evita) or films (The Producers and Billy Elliot). On the other hand, many successful musical theatre works have been adapted for musical films, such as West Side Story, My Fair Lady, The Sound of Music, Oliver! and Chicago.\n\nComparisons with opera\n\nMusical theatre is closely related to the theatrical form of opera, but the two are usually distinguished by weighing a number of factors. Musicals generally have a greater focus on spoken dialogue (though some musicals are entirely accompanied and sung through; and on the other hand, some operas, such as Die Zauberflöte, and most operettas, have some unaccompanied dialogue); on dancing (particularly by the principal performers as well as the chorus); on the use of various genres of popular music (or at least popular singing styles); and on the avoidance of certain operatic conventions. In particular, a musical is almost always performed in the language of its audience. Musicals produced on Broadway or in the West End, for instance, are invariably sung in English, even if they were originally written in another language. While an opera singer is primarily a singer and only secondarily an actor (and rarely needs to dance), a musical theatre performer is often an actor first and then a singer and dancer. Someone who is equally accomplished at all three is referred to as a \"triple threat\". Composers of music for musicals often consider the vocal demands of roles with musical theatre performers in mind. Today, large theatres staging musicals generally use microphones and amplification of the actors' singing voices in a way that would generally be disapproved of in an operatic context.\n\nSome works (e.g. by George Gershwin, Leonard Bernstein and Stephen Sondheim) have received both \"musical theatre\" and \"operatic\" productions. Similarly, some older operettas or light operas (such as The Pirates of Penzance by Gilbert and Sullivan) have had modern productions or adaptations that treat them as musicals. For some works, production styles are almost as important as the work's musical or dramatic content in defining into which art form the piece falls. Sondheim said, \"I really think that when something plays Broadway it's a musical, and when it plays in an opera house it's opera. That's it. It's the terrain, the countryside, the expectations of the audience that make it one thing or another.\" Although this article primarily concerns musical theatre works that are \"non-operatic\", the overlap remains between lighter operatic forms and more musically complex or ambitious musicals. In practice, it is often difficult to distinguish among the various kinds of musical theatre, including \"musical play\", \"musical comedy\", \"operetta\" and \"light opera\".\n\nLike opera, the singing in musical theatre is generally accompanied by an instrumental ensemble called a pit orchestra, located in a lowered area in front of the stage. While opera typically uses a conventional symphony orchestra, musicals are generally orchestrated for ensembles ranging from 27 players down to only a few players. Rock musicals usually employ a small group of mostly rock instruments, and some musicals may call for only a piano or two instruments. The music in musicals uses a range of \"styles and influences including operetta, classical techniques, folk music, jazz [and] local or historical styles [that] are appropriate to the setting.\" Musicals may begin with an overture played by the orchestra that \"weav[es] together excerpts of the score's famous melodies.\" \n\nOther forms\n\nThere are various Eastern traditions of theatre that include music, such as Chinese opera, Taiwanese opera, Noh and Musical theatre in India, including Sanskrit drama, Classical Indian dance and Yakshagana. India has, since the 20th century, produced numerous musical films, referred to as \"Bollywood\" musicals, and in Japan a series of musicals based on popular Anime and Manga comics has developed in recent decades. Shorter or simplified \"junior\" versions of many musicals are available for schools and youth groups, and very short works created or adapted for performance by children are sometimes called minimusicals. \n\nHistory\n\nEarly antecedents of musical theatre\n\nThe antecedents of musical theatre in Europe can be traced back to the theatre of ancient Greece, where music and dance were included in stage comedies and tragedies during the 5th century BCE.Thornton, Shay\| last \n Thornton. [http://web.archive.org/web/20071127051412/http://www.tuts.com/season07/wonderful_study.pdf \"A Wonderful Life\"], Theatre Under the Stars, Houston, Texas, p. 2 (2007), accessed May 26, 2009 The music from the ancient forms is lost, however, and they had little influence on later development of musical theatre.Kenrick, John. [http://www.musicals101.com/stagecap.htm \"A Capsule History\"], Musicals101.com, 2003, accessed October 12, 2015 In the 12th and 13th centuries, religious dramas taught the liturgy. Groups of actors would use outdoor Pageant wagons (stages on wheels) to tell each part of the story. Poetic forms sometimes alternated with the prose dialogues, and liturgical chants gave way to new melodies. \n\nThe European Renaissance saw older forms evolve into two antecedents of musical theatre: commedia dell'arte, where raucous clowns improvised familiar stories, and later, opera buffa. In England, Elizabethan and Jacobean plays frequently included music, and short musical plays began to be included in an evenings' dramatic entertainments. Court masques developed during the Tudor period that involved music, dancing, singing and acting, often with expensive costumes and a complex stage design. These developed into sung plays that are recognizable as English operas, the first usually being thought of as The Siege of Rhodes (1656). In France, meanwhile, Molière turned several of his farcical comedies into musical entertainments with songs (music provided by Jean Baptiste Lully) and dance in the late 17th century. These influenced a brief period of English opera by composers such as John Blow and Henry Purcell.\n\nFrom the 18th century, the most popular forms of musical theatre in Britain were ballad operas, like John Gay's The Beggar's Opera, that included lyrics written to the tunes of popular songs of the day (often spoofing opera), and later pantomime, which developed from commedia dell'arte, and comic opera with mostly romantic plot lines, like Michael Balfe's The Bohemian Girl (1845). Meanwhile, on the continent, singspiel, comédie en vaudeville, opéra comique, zarzuela and other forms of light musical entertainment were emerging. The Beggar's Opera was the first recorded long-running play of any kind, running for 62 successive performances in 1728. It would take almost a century afterwards before any play broke 100 performances, but the record soon reached 150 in the late 1820s. Other musical theatre forms developed in England by the 19th century, such as music hall, melodrama and burletta, which were popularized partly because most London theatres were licensed only as music halls and not allowed to present plays without music.\n\nColonial America did not have a significant theatre presence until 1752, when London entrepreneur William Hallam sent a company of actors to the colonies managed by his brother Lewis.Wilmeth and Miller, p. 182 In New York in the summer of 1753, they performed ballad-operas, such as The Beggar’s Opera, and ballad-farces. By the 1840s, P.T. Barnum was operating an entertainment complex in lower Manhattan. Other early musical theatre in America consisted of British forms, such as burletta and pantomime, but what a piece was called did not necessarily define what it was. The 1852 Broadway extravaganza The Magic Deer advertised itself as \"A Serio Comico Tragico Operatical Historical Extravaganzical Burletical Tale of Enchantment.\"Kenrick, John. [http://www.musicals101.com/erastage.htm \"History of Stage Musicals\"], Musicals101.com, 2003, accessed May 26, 2009 Theatre in New York moved from downtown gradually to midtown from around 1850, and did not arrive in the Times Square area until the 1920s and 1930s. Broadway's The Elves (1857) broke the 50 performance barrier. New York runs continued to lag far behind those in London, but Laura Keene's \"musical burletta\" Seven Sisters (1860) shattered previous New York records with a run of 253 performances. \n\n1850s to 1880s\n\nAround 1850, the French composer Hervé was experimenting with a form of comic musical theatre he called opérette. The best known composers of operetta were Jacques Offenbach from the 1850s to the 1870s and Johann Strauss II in the 1870s and 1880s. Offenbach's fertile melodies, combined with his librettists' witty satire, formed a model for the musical theatre that followed.Lubbock, Mark. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/937354 \"The Music of 'Musicals'\",] The Musical Times, Vol. 98, No. 1375 (September 1957), pp. 483–485 Adaptations of the French operettas (played in mostly bad, risqué translations), musical burlesques, music hall, pantomime and burletta dominated the London musical stage into the 1870s.Bond, Jessie. [http://math.boisestate.edu/gas/books/bond/intro.html Introduction to The Life and Reminiscences of Jessie Bond], reprinted at The Gilbert and Sullivan Archive, accessed March 4, 2011\n\nIn America, mid-18th century musical theatre entertainments included crude variety revue, which eventually developed into vaudeville, minstrel shows, which soon crossed the Atlantic to Britain, and Victorian burlesque, first popularized in the US by British troupes. The first original theatre piece in English that conforms to many of the modern definitions of a musical, including dance and original music that helped to tell the story, is generally considered The Black Crook, which premiered in New York on September 12, 1866. The production was a staggering five-and-a-half hours long, but despite its length, it ran for a record-breaking 474 performances. The same year, The Black Domino/Between You, Me and the Post was the first show to call itself a \"musical comedy.\" Comedians Edward Harrigan and Tony Hart produced and starred in musicals on Broadway between 1878 (The Mulligan Guard Picnic) and 1885. These musical comedies featured characters and situations taken from the everyday life of New York's lower classes and represented a significant step forward towards a more legitimate theatrical form. They starred high quality singers (Lillian Russell, Vivienne Segal, and Fay Templeton) instead of the ladies of questionable repute who had starred in earlier musical forms.\n\nAs transportation improved, poverty in London and New York diminished, and street lighting made for safer travel at night, the number of patrons for the growing number of theatres increased enormously. Plays ran longer, leading to better profits and improved production values, and men began to bring their families to the theatre. The first musical theatre piece to exceed 500 consecutive performances was the French operetta The Chimes of Normandy in 1878. English comic opera adopted many of the successful ideas of European operetta, none more successfully than the series of more than a dozen long-running Gilbert and Sullivan comic operas, including H.M.S. Pinafore (1878) and The Mikado (1885). These were sensations on both sides of the Atlantic and in Australia and helped to raise the standard for what was considered a successful show.Kenrick, John. [http://www.musicals101.com/usafter.htm \"G&S in the USA\" at the musicals101 website] The Cyber Encyclopedia of Musical Theatre, TV and Film (2008). Retrieved on 4 May 2012. These shows were designed for family audiences, a marked contrast from the risqué burlesques, bawdy music hall shows and French operettas that sometimes drew a crowd seeking less wholesome entertainment. Only a few 19th-century musical pieces exceeded the run of The Mikado, such as Dorothy, which opened in 1886 and set a new record with a run of 931 performances. Gilbert and Sullivan's influence on later musical theatre was profound, creating examples of how to \"integrate\" musicals so that the lyrics and dialogue advanced a coherent story.Jones, 2003, [https://books.google.com/books?id\nWqQH31qkYNoC&pgPA9&lpg\nPA9&dqBordman+pinafore&source\nbl&ots-4A-Dm231B&sig\nUwT_XytKbxkRXtLo_OV7-_VTlps&hlen&ei\nRPzlSezEBpeUMcSs4I4J&saX&oi\nbook_result&ctresult&resnum\n7#PPA4,M1 pp. 10–11] Their works were admired and copied by early authors and composers of musicals in Britain and America. \n\n1890s to the new century\n\nA Trip to Chinatown (1891) was Broadway's long-run champion (until Irene in 1919), running for 657 performances, but New York runs continued to be relatively short, with a few exceptions, compared with London runs, until the 1920s. Gilbert and Sullivan were both pirated and imitated in New York by productions such as Reginald de Koven's Robin Hood (1891) and John Philip Sousa's El Capitan (1896). A Trip to Coontown (1898) was the first musical comedy entirely produced and performed by African Americans on Broadway (largely inspired by the routines of the minstrel shows), followed by ragtime-tinged shows. Hundreds of musical comedies were staged on Broadway in the 1890s and early 20th century, composed of songs written in New York's Tin Pan Alley, including those by George M. Cohan, who worked to create an American style distinct from the Gilbert and Sullivan works. The most successful New York shows were often followed by extensive national tours. \n\nMeanwhile, musicals took over the London stage in the Gay Nineties, led by producer George Edwardes, who perceived that audiences wanted a new alternative to the Savoy-style comic operas and their intellectual, political, absurdist satire. He experimented with a modern-dress, family-friendly musical theatre style, with breezy, popular songs, snappy, romantic banter, and stylish spectacle at the Gaiety and his other theatres. These drew on the traditions of comic opera and used elements of burlesque and of the Harrigan and Hart pieces. He replaced the bawdy women of burlesque with his \"respectable\" corps of Gaiety Girls to complete the musical and visual fun. The success of the first of these, In Town (1892) and A Gaiety Girl (1893) set the style for the next three decades. The plots were generally light, romantic \"poor maiden loves aristocrat and wins him against all odds\" shows, with music by Ivan Caryll, Sidney Jones and Lionel Monckton. These shows were immediately widely copied in America, and the Edwardian musical comedy swept away the earlier musical forms of comic opera and operetta. The Geisha (1896) was one of the most successful in the 1890s, running for more than two years and achieving great international success.\n\nThe Belle of New York (1898) became the first American musical to run for over a year in London. The British musical comedy Florodora (1899) was a popular success on both sides of the Atlantic, as was A Chinese Honeymoon (1901), which ran for a record-setting 1,074 performances in London and 376 in New York. After the turn of the 20th century, Seymour Hicks joined forces with Edwardes and American producer Charles Frohman to create another decade of popular shows. Other enduring Edwardian musical comedy hits included The Arcadians (1909) and The Quaker Girl (1910). \n\nEarly 20th century\n\nVirtually eliminated from the English-speaking stage by competition from the ubiquitous Edwardian musical comedies, operettas returned to London and Broadway in 1907 with The Merry Widow, and adaptations of continental operettas became direct competitors with musicals. Franz Lehár and Oscar Straus composed new operettas that were popular in English until World War I. In America, Victor Herbert produced a string of enduring operettas including The Fortune Teller (1898), Babes in Toyland (1903), Mlle. Modiste (1905), The Red Mill (1906) and Naughty Marietta (1910).\n\nIn the 1910s, the team of P. G. Wodehouse, Guy Bolton and Jerome Kern, following in the footsteps of Gilbert and Sullivan, created the \"Princess Theatre shows\" and paved the way for Kern's later work by showing that a musical could combine light, popular entertainment with continuity between its story and songs. Historian Gerald Bordman wrote:\n\nThe theatre-going public needed escapist entertainment during the dark times of World War I, and they flocked to the theatre. The 1919 hit musical Irene ran for 670 performances, a Broadway record that held until 1938.Kenrick, John. [http://www.musicals101.com/1930bway3.htm Hellzapoppin - History of The Musical Stage 1930s: Part III - Revues], Musicals101.com, accessed October 8, 2015 The British theatre public supported far longer runs like that of Maid of the Mountains (1,352 performances) and especially Chu Chin Chow. Its run of 2,238 performances was more than twice as long as any previous musical, setting a record that stood for nearly forty years.[http://www.guidetomusicaltheatre.com/shows_s/salad_days.htm \"Salad Days History, Story, Roles and Musical Numbers\"] guidetomusicaltheatre.com, accessed March 16, 2012 Revues like The Bing Boys Are Here in Britain, and those of Florenz Ziegfeld and his imitators in America, were also extraordinarily popular.\n\n \nThe musicals of the Roaring Twenties, borrowing from vaudeville, music hall and other light entertainments, tended to emphasize big dance routines and popular songs at the expense of plot. Typical of the decade were lighthearted productions like Sally, Lady Be Good, No, No, Nanette, Oh, Kay! and Funny Face. Despite forgettable stories, these musicals featured stars such as Marilyn Miller and Fred Astaire and produced dozens of enduring popular songs by Kern, George and Ira Gershwin, Irving Berlin, Cole Porter, and Rodgers and Hart. Popular music was dominated by musical theatre standards, such as \"Fascinating Rhythm\", \"Tea for Two\" and \"Someone to Watch Over Me\". Many shows were revues, series of sketches and songs with little or no connection between them. The best-known of these were the annual Ziegfeld Follies, spectacular song-and-dance revues on Broadway featuring extravagant sets, elaborate costumes, and beautiful chorus girls. These spectacles also raised production values, and mounting a musical generally became more expensive. Shuffle Along (1921), an all-African American show was a hit on Broadway. A new generation of composers of operettas also emerged in the 1920s, such as Rudolf Friml and Sigmund Romberg, to create a series of popular Broadway hits. \n\nIn London, writer-stars such as Ivor Novello and Noël Coward became popular, but the primacy of British musical theatre from the 19th century through 1920 was gradually replaced by American innovation after the war as Kern and other Tin Pan Alley composers began to bring new musical styles such as ragtime and jazz to the theatres and the Shubert Brothers took control of the Broadway theatres. Musical theatre writer Andrew Lamb notes, \"The operatic and theatrical styles of nineteenth-century social structures were replaced by a musical style more aptly suited to twentieth-century society and its vernacular idiom. It was from America that the more direct style emerged, and in America that it was able to flourish in a developing society less hidebound by nineteenth-century tradition.\" \n\nShow Boat and the Great Depression\n\nProgressing far beyond the comparatively frivolous musicals and sentimental operettas of the decade, Broadway's Show Boat (1927), represented an even more complete integration of book and score than the Princess Theatre musicals, with dramatic themes told through the music, dialogue, setting and movement. This was accomplished by combining the lyricism of Kern's music with the skillful libretto of Oscar Hammerstein II. One historian wrote, \"Here we come to a completely new genre – the musical play as distinguished from musical comedy. Now ... everything else was subservient to that play. Now ... came complete integration of song, humor and production numbers into a single and inextricable artistic entity.\"Lubbock (2002)\n\nAs the Great Depression set in during the post-Broadway national tour of Show Boat, the public turned back to mostly light, escapist song-and-dance entertainment. Audiences on both sides of the Atlantic had little money to spend on entertainment, and only a few stage shows anywhere exceeded a run of 500 performances during the decade. The revue The Band Wagon (1931) starred dancing partners Fred Astaire and his sister Adele, while Porter's Anything Goes (1934) confirmed Ethel Merman's position as the First Lady of musical theatre, a title she maintained for many years. Coward and Novello continued to deliver old fashioned, sentimental musicals, such as The Dancing Years, while Rodgers and Hart returned from Hollywood to create a series of successful Broadway shows, including On Your Toes (1936, with Ray Bolger, the first Broadway musical to make dramatic use of classical dance), Babes In Arms (1937) and The Boys From Syracuse (1938). Porter added DuBarry Was a Lady (1939). The longest-running piece of musical theatre of the 1930s was Hellzapoppin (1938), a revue with audience participation, which played for 1,404 performances, setting a new Broadway record.\n\nStill, a few creative teams began to build on Show Boats innovations. Of Thee I Sing (1931), a political satire by the Gershwins, was the first musical awarded the Pulitzer Prize. As Thousands Cheer (1933), a revue by Irving Berlin and Moss Hart in which each song or sketch was based on a newspaper headline, marked the first Broadway show in which an African-American, Ethel Waters, starred alongside white actors. Waters' numbers included \"Supper Time\", a woman's lament for her husband who has been lynched. The Gershwins' Porgy and Bess (1935) featured an all African-American cast and blended operatic, folk, and jazz idioms. The Cradle Will Rock (1937), directed by Orson Welles, was a highly political pro-union piece that, despite the controversy surrounding it, ran for 108 performances. Rodgers and Hart's I'd Rather Be Right (1937) was a political satire with George M. Cohan as President Franklin D. Roosevelt, and Kurt Weill's Knickerbocker Holiday depicted New York City's early history while good-naturedly satirizing Roosevelt's good intentions.\n\nThe motion picture mounted a challenge to the stage. Silent films had presented only limited competition, but by the end of the 1920s, films like The Jazz Singer could be presented with synchronized sound. \"Talkie\" films at low prices effectively killed off vaudeville by the early 1930s. Despite the economic woes of the 1930s and the competition from film, the musical survived. In fact, it continued to evolve thematically beyond the gags and showgirls musicals of the Gay Nineties and Roaring Twenties and the sentimental romance of operetta, adding technical expertise and the fast-paced staging and naturalistic dialogue style led by director George Abbott.\n\nThe Golden Age (1940s to 1960s)\n\n1940s\n\nThe 1940s would begin with more hits from Porter, Irving Berlin, Rodgers and Hart, Weill and Gershwin, some with runs over 500 performances as the economy rebounded, but artistic change was in the air.\n\nRodgers and Hammerstein's Oklahoma! (1943) completed the revolution begun by Show Boat, by tightly integrating all the aspects of musical theatre, with a cohesive plot, songs that furthered the action of the story, and featured dream ballets and other dances that advanced the plot and developed the characters, rather than using dance as an excuse to parade scantily clad women across the stage. Rodgers and Hammerstein hired ballet choreographer Agnes de Mille, who used everyday motions to help the characters express their ideas. It defied musical conventions by raising its first act curtain not on a bevy of chorus girls, but rather on a woman churning butter, with an off-stage voice singing the opening lines of Oh, What a Beautiful Mornin' unaccompanied. It drew rave reviews, set off a box-office frenzy and received a Pulitzer Prize. Brooks Atkinson wrote in The New York Times that the show's opening number changed the history of musical theater: “After a verse like that, sung to a buoyant melody, the banalities of the old musical stage became intolerable.\"Gordon, John Steele. [http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/ah/1993/1/1993_1_58.shtml Oklahoma'!']. Retrieved June 13, 2010 It was the first \"blockbuster\" Broadway show, running a total of 2,212 performances, and was made into a hit film. It remains one of the most frequently produced of the team's projects. William A. Everett and Paul R. Laird wrote that this was a \"show, that, like Show Boat, became a milestone, so that later historians writing about important moments in twentieth-century theatre would begin to identify eras according to their relationship to Oklahoma!\" \n\n\"After Oklahoma!, Rodgers and Hammerstein were the most important contributors to the musical-play form... The examples they set in creating vital plays, often rich with social thought, provided the necessary encouragement for other gifted writers to create musical plays of their own\". The two collaborators created an extraordinary collection of some of musical theatre's best loved and most enduring classics, including Carousel (1945), South Pacific (1949), The King and I (1951), and The Sound of Music (1959). Some of these musicals treat more serious subject matter than most earlier shows: the villain in Oklahoma! is a suspected murderer and psychopath with a fondness for lewd post cards; Carousel deals with spousal abuse, thievery, suicide and the afterlife; South Pacific explores miscegenation even more thoroughly than Show Boat; and the hero of The King and I dies onstage.\n\nThe show's creativity stimulated Rodgers and Hammerstein's contemporaries and ushered in the \"Golden Age\" of American musical theatre. Americana was displayed on Broadway during the \"Golden Age\", as the wartime cycle of shows began to arrive. An example of this is On the Town (1944), written by Betty Comden and Adolph Green, composed by Leonard Bernstein and choreographed by Jerome Robbins. The story is set during wartime and concerns three sailors who are on a 24-hour shore leave in New York City, during which each falls in love. The show also gives the impression of a country with an uncertain future, as the sailors and their women also have. Irving Berlin used sharpshooter Annie Oakley's career as a basis for his Annie Get Your Gun (1946, 1,147 performances); Burton Lane, E. Y. Harburg, and Fred Saidy combined political satire with Irish whimsy for their fantasy Finian's Rainbow (1947, 725 performances); and Cole Porter found inspiration in William Shakespeare's Taming of the Shrew for Kiss Me, Kate (1948, 1,077 performances). The American musicals overwhelmed the old-fashioned British Coward/Novello-style shows, one of the last big successes of which was Novello's Perchance to Dream (1945, 1,021 performances). The formula for the Golden Age musicals reflected one or more of four widely held perceptions of the \"American dream\": That stability and worth derives from a love relationship sanctioned and restricted by Protestant ideals of marriage; that a married couple should make a moral home with children away from the city in a suburb or small town; that the woman's function was as homemaker and mother; and that Americans incorporate an independent and pioneering spirit or that their success is self-made. \n\n1950s\n\nDamon Runyon's eclectic characters were at the core of Frank Loesser's and Abe Burrows' Guys and Dolls, (1950, 1,200 performances); and the Gold Rush was the setting for Alan Jay Lerner and Frederick Loewe's Paint Your Wagon (1951). The relatively brief seven-month run of that show didn't discourage Lerner and Loewe from collaborating again, this time on My Fair Lady (1956), an adaptation of George Bernard Shaw's Pygmalion starring Rex Harrison and Julie Andrews, which at 2,717 performances held the long-run record for many years. Popular Hollywood films were made of all of these musicals. This surpassed the run of two hits by British creators: The Boy Friend (1954), which ran for 2,078 performances in London and marked Andrews' American debut, was very briefly the third longest-running musical in West End or Broadway history (after Chu Chin Chow and Oklahoma!), until Salad Days (1954) surpassed its run and became the new long-run record holder, with 2,283 performances.\n\nAnother record was set by The Threepenny Opera, which ran for 2,707 performances, becoming the longest-running off-Broadway musical until The Fantasticks. The production also broke ground by showing that musicals could be profitable off-Broadway in a small-scale, small orchestra format. This was confirmed in 1959 when a revival of Jerome Kern and P. G. Wodehouse's Leave It to Jane ran for more than two years. The 1959–1960 Off-Broadway season included a dozen musicals and revues including Little Mary Sunshine, The Fantasticks and Ernest in Love, a musical adaptation of Oscar Wilde's 1895 hit The Importance of Being Earnest. \n\nWest Side Story (1957) transported Romeo and Juliet to modern day New York City and converted the feuding Montague and Capulet families into opposing ethnic gangs, the Jets and the Sharks. The book was adapted by Arthur Laurents, with music by Leonard Bernstein and lyrics by newcomer Stephen Sondheim. It was embraced by the critics, but failed to be a popular choice for the \"blue-haired matinee ladies\", who preferred the small town River City, Iowa of Meredith Willson's The Music Man to the alleys of Manhattan's Upper West Side. Apparently Tony Award voters were of a similar mind, since they favored the former over the latter. West Side Story had a respectable run of 732 performances (1,040 in the West End), while The Music Man ran nearly twice as long, with 1,375 performances. However, the film of West Side Story was extremely successful. Laurents and Sondheim teamed up again for Gypsy (1959, 702 performances), with Jule Styne providing the music for a backstage story about the most driven stage mother of all-time, stripper Gypsy Rose Lee's mother Rose. The original production ran for 702 performances, and was given four subsequent revivals, with Angela Lansbury, Tyne Daly, Bernadette Peters and Patti LuPone later tackling the role made famous by Ethel Merman.\n\nAlthough directors and choreographers have had a major influence on musical theatre style since at least the 19th century, George Abbott and his collaborators and successors took a central role in integrating movement and dance fully into musical theatre productions in the Golden Age.Kenrick, John. [http://www.musicals101.com/dancestage3.htm \"Dance in Stage Musicals – Part III\"], Musicals101.com, 2003, accessed August 14, 2012 Abbott introduced ballet as a story-telling device in On Your Toes in 1936, which was followed by Agnes DeMille's ballet and choreography in Oklahoma!. After Abbott collaborated with Jerome Robbins in On the Town and other shows, Robbins combined the roles of director and choreographer, emphasizing the story-telling power of dance in West Side Story, A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum (1962) and Fiddler on the Roof (1964). Bob Fosse choreographed for Abbott in The Pajama Game (1956) and Damn Yankees (1957), injecting playful sexuality into those hits. He was later the director-choreographer for Sweet Charity (1968), Pippin (1972) and Chicago (1975). Other notable director-choreographers have included Gower Champion, Tommy Tune, Michael Bennett, Gillian Lynne and Susan Stroman. Prominent directors have included Hal Prince, who also got his start with Abbott, and Trevor Nunn. \n\nDuring the Golden Age, automotive companies and other large corporations began to hire Broadway talent to write corporate musicals, private shows only seen by their employees or customers. The 1950s ended with Rodgers and Hammerstein's last hit, The Sound of Music, which also became another hit for Mary Martin. It ran for 1,443 performances and shared the Tony Award for Best Musical. Together with its extremely successful 1965 film version, it has become one of the most popular musicals in history.\n\n1960s\n\nIn 1960, The Fantasticks was first produced off-Broadway. This intimate allegorical show would quietly run for over 40 years at the Sullivan Street Theatre in Greenwich Village, becoming by far the longest-running musical in history. Its authors produced other innovative works in the 1960s, such as Celebration and I Do! I Do!, the first two-character Broadway musical. The 1960s would see a number of blockbusters, like Fiddler on the Roof (1964; 3,242 performances), Hello, Dolly! (1964; 2,844 performances), Funny Girl (1964; 1,348 performances), and Man of La Mancha (1965; 2,328 performances), and some more risqué pieces like Cabaret, before ending with the emergence of the rock musical. Two men had considerable impact on musical theatre history beginning in this decade: Stephen Sondheim and Jerry Herman.\n\nThe first project for which Sondheim wrote both music and lyrics was A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum (1962, 964 performances), with a book based on the works of Plautus by Burt Shevelove and Larry Gelbart, and starring Zero Mostel. Sondheim moved the musical beyond its concentration on the romantic plots typical of earlier eras; his work tended to be darker, exploring the grittier sides of life both present and past. Other early Sondheim works include Anyone Can Whistle (1964, which ran only nine performances, despite having stars Lee Remick and Angela Lansbury), and the successful Company (1970), Follies (1971) and A Little Night Music (1973). Later, Sondheim found inspiration in unlikely sources: the opening of Japan to Western trade for Pacific Overtures (1976), a legendary murderous barber seeking revenge in the Industrial Age of London for Sweeney Todd (1979), the paintings of Georges Seurat for Sunday in the Park with George (1984), fairy tales for Into the Woods (1987), and a collection of presidential assassins in Assassins (1990).\n\nWhile some critics have argued that some of Sondheim’s musicals lack commercial appeal, others have praised their lyrical sophistication and musical complexity, as well as the interplay of lyrics and music in his shows. Some of Sondheim's notable innovations include a show presented in reverse (Merrily We Roll Along) and the above-mentioned Anyone Can Whistle, in which the first act ends with the cast informing the audience that they are mad.\n\nJerry Herman played a significant role in American musical theatre, beginning with his first Broadway production, Milk and Honey (1961, 563 performances), about the founding of the state of Israel, and continuing with the blockbuster hits Hello, Dolly! (1964, 2,844 performances), Mame (1966, 1,508 performances), and La Cage aux Folles (1983, 1,761 performances). Even his less successful shows like Dear World (1969) and Mack & Mabel (1974) have had memorable scores (Mack & Mabel was later reworked into a London hit). Writing both words and music, many of Herman's show tunes have become popular standards, including \"Hello, Dolly!\", \"We Need a Little Christmas\", \"I Am What I Am\", \"Mame\", \"The Best of Times\", \"Before the Parade Passes By\", \"Put On Your Sunday Clothes\", \"It Only Takes a Moment\", \"Bosom Buddies\", and \"I Won't Send Roses\", recorded by such artists as Louis Armstrong, Eydie Gorme, Barbra Streisand, Petula Clark and Bernadette Peters. Herman's songbook has been the subject of two popular musical revues, Jerry's Girls (Broadway, 1985), and Showtune (off-Broadway, 2003).\n\nThe musical started to diverge from the relatively narrow confines of the 1950s. Rock music would be used in several Broadway musicals, beginning with Hair, which featured not only rock music but also nudity and controversial opinions about the Vietnam War, race relations and other social issues. \n\nSocial themes\n\nAfter Show Boat and Porgy and Bess, and as the struggle in America and elsewhere for minorities' civil rights progressed, Hammerstein, Harold Arlen, Yip Harburg and others were emboldened to write more musicals and operas that aimed to normalize societal toleration of minorities and urged racial harmony. Early Golden Age works that focused on racial tolerance included Finian's Rainbow and South Pacific. Towards the end of the Golden Age, several shows tackled Jewish subjects and issues, such as Fiddler on the Roof, Milk and Honey, Blitz! and later Rags. The original concept that became West Side Story was set in the Lower East Side during Easter-Passover celebrations; the rival gangs were to be Jewish and Italian Catholic. The creative team later decided that the Polish (white) vs. Puerto Rican conflict was fresher. \n\nTolerance as an important theme in musicals has continued in recent decades. The final expression of West Side Story left a message of racial tolerance. By the end of the 1960s, musicals became racially integrated, with black and white cast members even covering each other's roles, as they did in Hair. Homosexuality has also been explored in musicals, starting with Hair, and even more overtly in La Cage aux Folles, Falsettos, Rent, Hedwig and the Angry Inch and other shows in recent decades. Parade is a sensitive exploration of both anti-Semitism and historical American racism, and Ragtime similarly explores the experience of immigrants and minorities in America.\n\n1970s to present\n\n1970s\n\nAfter the success of Hair, rock musicals flourished in the 1970s, with Jesus Christ Superstar, Godspell, The Rocky Horror Show, Evita, and Two Gentlemen of Verona. Some of these began with \"concept albums\" and then moved to film or stage, such as Tommy. Others had no dialogue or were otherwise reminiscent of opera, with dramatic, emotional themes; these sometimes started as concept albums and were referred to as rock operas. Shows like Raisin, Dreamgirls, Purlie and The Wiz brought a significant African-American influence to Broadway. More varied musical genres and styles were incorporated into musicals both on and especially off-Broadway. At the same time, Stephen Sondheim found success with some of his musicals, as mentioned above.\n\nIn 1975, the dance musical A Chorus Line emerged from recorded group therapy-style sessions Michael Bennett conducted with \"gypsies\" – those who sing and dance in support of the leading players – from the Broadway community. From hundreds of hours of tapes, James Kirkwood, Jr. and Nick Dante fashioned a book about an audition for a musical, incorporating many real-life stories from the sessions; some who attended the sessions eventually played variations of themselves or each other in the show. With music by Marvin Hamlisch and lyrics by Edward Kleban, A Chorus Line first opened at Joseph Papp's Public Theater in lower Manhattan. What initially had been planned as a limited engagement eventually moved to the Shubert Theatre on Broadway for a run of 6,137 performances, becoming the longest-running production in Broadway history up to that time. The show swept the Tony Awards and won the Pulitzer Prize, and its hit song, What I Did for Love, became an instant standard.\n\nBroadway audiences welcomed musicals that varied from the golden age style and substance. John Kander and Fred Ebb explored the rise of Nazism in Germany in Cabaret, and murder and the media in Prohibition-era Chicago, which relied on old vaudeville techniques. Pippin, by Stephen Schwartz, was set in the days of Charlemagne. Federico Fellini's autobiographical film 8½ became Maury Yeston's Nine. At the end of the decade, Evita and Sweeney Todd were precursors of the darker, big budget musicals of the 1980s that depended on dramatic stories, sweeping scores and spectacular effects. At the same time, old-fashioned values were still embraced in such hits as Annie, 42nd Street, My One and Only, and popular revivals of No, No, Nanette and Irene. Although many film versions of musicals were made in the 1970s, few were critical or box office successes, with the notable exceptions of Fiddler on the Roof, Cabaret and Grease. \n\n1980s\n\nThe 1980s saw the influence of European \"mega-musicals\", or \"pop operas\", on Broadway, in the West End and elsewhere. These typically featured a pop-influenced score, had large casts and sets and were identified by their notable effects – a falling chandelier (in The Phantom of the Opera), a helicopter landing on stage (in Miss Saigon) – and big budgets. Many were based on novels or other works of literature. The most important writers of mega-musicals include the French team of Claude-Michel Schönberg and Alain Boublil, responsible for Les Misérables, which became the longest-running international musical hit in history. The team, in collaboration with Richard Maltby, Jr., continued to produce hits, including Miss Saigon, inspired by the Puccini opera Madame Butterfly.\n\nThe British composer Andrew Lloyd Webber saw similar success with Evita, based on the life of Argentina's Eva Perón; Cats, derived from the poems of T. S. Eliot (both of which musicals originally starred Elaine Paige); Starlight Express, performed on roller skates; The Phantom of the Opera, derived from the Gaston Leroux novel, \"Le Fantôme de l'Opéra\"; and Sunset Boulevard (from the classic film of the same name). These works ran (or are still running) for decades in both New York and London and had extraordinary international and touring success. The mega-musicals' huge budgets redefined expectations for financial success on Broadway and in the West End. In earlier years, it was possible for a show to be considered a hit after a run of several hundred performances, but with multimillion-dollar production costs, a show must run for years simply to turn a profit.\n\n1990s\n\nIn the 1990s, a new generation of theatrical composers emerged, including Jason Robert Brown and Michael John LaChiusa, and who began with productions Off-Broadway. The most conspicuous success of these artists was Jonathan Larson's show Rent (1996), a rock musical (based on the opera La bohème) about a struggling community of artists in Manhattan. While the cost of tickets to Broadway and West End musicals was escalating beyond the budget of many theatregoers, Rent was marketed to increase the popularity of musicals among a younger audience. It featured a young cast and a heavily rock-influenced score; the musical became a hit. Its young fans, many of them students, calling themselves RENTheads, camped out at the Nederlander Theatre in hopes of winning the lottery for $20 front row tickets, and some saw the show dozens of times. Other shows on Broadway followed Rents lead by offering heavily discounted day-of-performance or standing-room tickets, although often the discounts are offered only to students. \n\nThe 1990s also saw the influence of large corporations on the production of musicals. The most important has been Disney Theatrical Productions, which began adapting some of Disney's animated film musicals for the stage, starting with Beauty and the Beast (1994), The Lion King (1997) and Aida (2000), the latter two with music by Elton John. The Lion King is the highest-grossing musical in Broadway history. The Who's Tommy (1993), a theatrical adaptation of the rock opera Tommy, achieved a healthy run of 899 performances but was criticized for sanitizing the story and \"musical theatre-izing\" the rock music. \n\nDespite the growing number of large-scale musicals in the 1980s and 1990s, a number of lower-budget, smaller-scale musicals managed to find critical and financial success, such as Falsettoland and Little Shop of Horrors, Bat Boy: The Musical and Blood Brothers. The topics of these pieces vary widely, and the music ranges from rock to pop, but they often are produced off-Broadway, or for smaller London theatres, and some of these stagings have been regarded as imaginative and innovative. \n\n2000s – 2010s\n\n;Trends\nIn the new century, familiarity has been embraced by producers and investors anxious to guarantee that they recoup their considerable investments, if not show a healthy profit. Some took (usually modest-budget) chances on the new and unusual, such as Urinetown (2001), Avenue Q (2003), Caroline or Change (2004), The 25th Annual Putnam County Spelling Bee (2005), The Light in the Piazza (2005), Spring Awakening (2006), In the Heights (2007), Next to Normal (2009) and American Idiot (2010). But most took a safe route with revivals of familiar fare, such as Fiddler on the Roof, A Chorus Line, South Pacific, Gypsy, Hair, West Side Story and Grease, or with other proven material, such as films (The Producers, Spamalot, Hairspray, Legally Blonde, The Color Purple, Xanadu, Billy Elliot and Shrek) or well-known literature (The Scarlet Pimpernel and Wicked) hoping that the shows would have a built-in audience as a result. Some critics consider the reuse of film plots, especially those from Disney (such as Mary Poppins, and The Little Mermaid) a redefinition of the Broadway and West End musical as a tourist attraction, rather than a creative outlet.\n\nToday, it is less likely that a sole producer, such as David Merrick or Cameron Mackintosh, backs a production. Corporate sponsors dominate Broadway, and often alliances are formed to stage musicals, which require an investment of $10 million or more. In 2002, the credits for Thoroughly Modern Millie listed ten producers, and among those names were entities composed of several individuals. Typically, off-Broadway and regional theatres tend to produce smaller and therefore less expensive musicals, and development of new musicals has increasingly taken place outside of New York and London or in smaller venues. For example, Spring Awakening, Grey Gardens, Fun Home and Hamilton were developed Off-Broadway before being launched on Broadway.\n\nSeveral musicals returned to the spectacle format that was so successful in the 1980s, recalling extravaganzas that have been presented at times, throughout theatre history, since the ancient Romans staged mock sea battles. Examples include the musical adaptations of The Lord of the Rings (2007), Gone With the Wind (2008) and Spider-Man: Turn Off the Dark (2011). These musicals involved songwriters with little theatrical experience, and the expensive productions generally lost money. Conversely, The Drowsy Chaperone, Avenue Q, The 25th Annual Putnam County Spelling Bee and Xanadu, among others, have been presented in smaller-scale productions, mostly uninterrupted by an intermission, with short running times, and enjoyed financial success. In 2013, Time magazine reported a trend Off-Broadway has been \"immersive\" theatre, citing shows such as Natasha, Pierre & The Great Comet of 1812 (2012) and Here Lies Love (2013) in which the staging takes place around and within the audience. The shows set a joint record, each receiving 11 nominations for Lucille Lortel Awards. and feature contemporary scores. \n\nIn 2013, Cyndi Lauper was the \"first female composer to win the [Tony for] Best Score without a male collaborator\" for writing the music and lyrics for Kinky Boots. In 2015, for the first time, an all-female writing team, Lisa Kron and Jeanine Tesori, won the Tony Award for Best Original Score (and Best Book for Kron) for Fun Home, although work by male songwriters continues to be produced more often. \n\n;Jukebox musicals\nAnother trend has been to create a minimal plot to fit a collection of songs that have already been hits. Following the earlier success of Buddy - The Buddy Holly Story, these have included Movin' Out (2002, based on the tunes of Billy Joel), Jersey Boys (2006, The Four Seasons), Rock of Ages (2009, featuring classic rock of the 1980s) and many others. This style is often referred to as the \"jukebox musical\".Kaye, Kimberly. [http://www.broadway.com/buzz/152360/broadwaycom-at-10-the-10-biggest-broadway-trends-of-the-decade/ \"Broadway.com at 10: The 10 Biggest Broadway Trends of the Decade\"], Broadway.com, May 10, 2010, accessed August 14, 2012 Similar but more plot-driven musicals have been built around the canon of a particular pop group including Mamma Mia! (1999, based on the songs of ABBA), Our House (2002, based on the songs of Madness), and We Will Rock You (2002, based on the songs of Queen).\n\n;Film and TV musicals\nLive-action film musicals were nearly dead in the 1980s and early 1990s, with exceptions of Victor/Victoria, Little Shop of Horrors and the 1996 film of Evita.Kenrick, John. [http://www.musicals101.com/1980film.htm \"The 1980s\"], History of Musical Film, musicals101.com, accessed July 11, 2014; and Kenrick, John. [http://www.musicals101.com/1990film.htm \"The 1990s: Disney & Beyond\"], History of Musical Film, musicals101.com, accessed July 11, 2014 In the new century, Baz Luhrmann began a revival of the film musical with Moulin Rouge! (2001). This was followed by Chicago in 2002; Phantom of the Opera in 2004; Dreamgirls in 2006; Hairspray, Across the Universe, Enchanted and Sweeney Todd all in 2007; Mamma Mia! in 2008; Nine in 2009; Burlesque in 2010; Les Misérables and Pitch Perfect in 2012, and Into The Woods in 2014. Dr. Seuss's How the Grinch Stole Christmas! (2000) and The Cat in the Hat (2003), turned children's books into live-action film musicals. After the immense success of Disney and other houses with animated film musicals beginning with The Little Mermaid in 1989 and running throughout the 1990s (including some more adult-themed films, like South Park: Bigger, Longer & Uncut (1999)), fewer animated film musicals were released in the first decade of the 21st century. The genre made a comeback beginning in 2010 with Tangled (2010), Rio (2011) and Frozen (2013). In Asia, India continues to produce numerous \"Bollywood\" film musicals, and Japan produces \"Anime\" and \"Manga\" film musicals.\n\nMade for TV musical films were popular in the 1990s, such as Gypsy (1993), Cinderella (1997) and Annie (1999). Several made for TV musicals in the first decade of the 21st century were adaptations of the stage version, such as South Pacific (2001), The Music Man (2003) and Once Upon A Mattress (2005), and a televised version of the stage musical Legally Blonde in 2007. Additionally, several musicals were filmed on stage and broadcast on Public Television, for example Contact in 2002 and Kiss Me, Kate and Oklahoma! in 2003. The made-for-TV musical High School Musical (2006), and its several sequels, enjoyed particular success and were adapted for stage musicals and other media. In 2013, NBC began a series of live television broadcasts of musicals with The Sound of Music Live! Although the production received mixed reviews, it was a ratings success. Further broadcasts have included Peter Pan Live! (NBC 2014), The Wiz Live! (NBC 2015), a UK broadcast, The Sound of Music Live (ITV 2015) and Grease: Live (Fox 2016). \n\nSome television shows have set episodes as a musical. Examples include episodes of Ally McBeal, Xena, the Buffy the Vampire Slayer episode Once More, with Feeling, That's So Raven, Daria, Oz, Scrubs (one episode was written by the creators of Avenue Q), Batman: The Brave and the Bold, episode \"Mayhem of the Music Meister\", and the 100th episode of That '70s Show, called That '70s Musical. Others have included scenes where characters suddenly begin singing and dancing in a musical-theatre style during an episode, such as in several episodes of The Simpsons, 30 Rock, Hannah Montana, South Park and Family Guy. The television series Cop Rock extensively used the musical format, as do the series Flight of the Conchords, Glee and Smash.\n\nThere have also been musicals made for the internet, including Dr. Horrible's Sing-Along Blog, about a low-rent super-villain played by Neil Patrick Harris. It was written during the WGA writer's strike. Since 2006, reality TV shows have been used to help market musical revivals by holding a talent competition to cast (usually female) leads. Examples of these are How Do You Solve a Problem Like Maria?, Grease: You're the One that I Want!, Any Dream Will Do, Legally Blonde - The Musical: The Search for Elle Woods, I'd Do Anything and Over the Rainbow.\n\nInternational musicals\n\nThe U.S. and Britain were the most active sources of book musicals from the 19th century through much of the 20th century (although Europe produced various forms of popular light opera and operetta, for example Spanish Zarzuela, during that period and even earlier). However, the light musical stage in other countries has become more active in recent decades.\n\nMusicals from other English-speaking countries (notably Australia and Canada) often do well locally, and occasionally even reach Broadway or the West End (e.g., The Boy from Oz and The Drowsy Chaperone). South Africa has an active musical theatre scene, with revues like African Footprint and Umoja and book musicals, such as Kat and the Kings and Sarafina! touring internationally. Locally, musicals like Vere, Love and Green Onions, Over the Rainbow: the all-new all-gay... extravaganza and Bangbroek Mountain and In Briefs – a queer little Musical have been produced successfully.\n\nSuccessful musicals from continental Europe include shows from (among other countries) Germany (Elixier and Ludwig II), Austria (Tanz der Vampire, Elisabeth, Mozart! and Rebecca), Czech Republic (Dracula), France (Notre Dame de Paris, Les Misérables, Roméo et Juliette and Mozart, l'opéra rock) and Spain (Hoy No Me Puedo Levantar and The Musical Sancho Panza).\n\nJapan has recently seen the growth of an indigenous form of musical theatre, both animated and live action, mostly based on Anime and Manga, such as Kiki's Delivery Service and Tenimyu. The popular Sailor Moon metaseries has had twenty-nine Sailor Moon musicals, spanning thirteen years. Beginning in 1914, a series of popular revues have been performed by the all-female Takarazuka Revue, which currently fields five performing troupes. Elsewhere in Asia, the Indian Bollywood musical, mostly in the form of motion pictures, is tremendously successful. \n\nHong Kong's first modern musical, produced in both Cantonese and Mandarin, is Snow.Wolf.Lake (1997). Beginning with a 2002 tour of Les Misérables, numerous Western musicals have been imported to mainland China and staged in English.Zhou, Xiaoyan. Taking the Stage, Beijing Review, 2011, p. 42 Attempts at localizing Western productions in China began in 2008 when Fame was produced in Mandarin with a full Chinese cast at the Central Academy of Drama in Beijing. Since then, other western productions have been staged in China in Mandarin with a Chinese cast. The first Chinese production in the style of Western musical theatre was The Gold Sand in 2005. In addition, Li Dun, a well-known Chinese producer, produced Butterflies, based on a classic Chinese love tragedy, in 2007 as well as Love U Teresa in 2011.\n\nOther countries with an especially active musicals scene include the Netherlands, Italy, Poland, Sweden, Mexico, Brazil, Argentina, Russia, and Turkey.\n\nAmateur and school productions\n\nMusicals are often presented by amateur and school groups in churches, schools and other performance spaces. Although amateur theatre has existed for centuries, even in the New World,Lynch, Twink. [http://www.aact.org/community-theatre-history \"Community Theatre History\"], American Association of Community Theatre, accessed March 14, 2016 François Cellier and Cunningham Bridgeman wrote, in 1914, that prior to the late 19th century, amateur actors were treated with contempt by professionals. After the formation of amateur Gilbert and Sullivan companies licensed to perform the Savoy operas, professionals recognized that the amateur societies \"support the culture of music and the drama. They are now accepted as useful training schools for the legitimate stage, and from the volunteer ranks have sprung many present-day favourites.\" The National Operatic and Dramatic Association was founded in the UK in 1899. It reported, in 1914, that nearly 200 amateur dramatic societies were producing Gilbert and Sullivan operas in Britain that year. Similarly, more than 100 community theatres were founded in the US in the early 20th century. This number has grown to an estimated 18,000 in the US. The Educational Theater Association in the US has nearly 5,000 member schools. \n\nRelevance\n\nThe Broadway League announced that in the 2007–08 season, 12.27 million tickets were purchased for Broadway shows for a gross sale amount of almost a billion dollars. The League further reported that during the 2006–07 season, approximately 65% of Broadway tickets were purchased by tourists, and that foreign tourists were 16% of attendees. (These figures do not include off-Broadway and smaller venues.) The Society of London Theatre reported that 2007 set a record for attendance in London. Total attendees in the major commercial and grant-aided theatres in Central London were 13.6 million, and total ticket revenues were £469.7 million. Also, the international musicals scene has been particularly active in recent years. However, Stephen Sondheim has commented:\n\nThe success of original material like Urinetown, Avenue Q, Spelling Bee, In the Heights, The Book of Mormon, as well as creative re-imaginings of film properties, including Thoroughly Modern Millie, Hairspray, Billy Elliot and The Color Purple, and plays or biographies, such as Spring Awakening and Hamilton, prompted theatre historian John Kenrick to write: \"Is the Musical dead? ... Absolutely not! Changing? Always! The musical has been changing ever since Offenbach did his first rewrite in the 1850s. And change is the clearest sign that the musical is still a living, growing genre. Will we ever return to the so-called 'golden age,' with musicals at the center of popular culture? Probably not. Public taste has undergone fundamental changes, and the commercial arts can only flow where the paying public allows.\"", "West Side Story is an American musical with a book by Arthur Laurents, music by Leonard Bernstein, lyrics by Stephen Sondheim and conception and choreography by Jerome Robbins. It was inspired by William Shakespeare's play Romeo and Juliet.\n\nThe story is set in the Upper West Side neighborhood in New York City in the mid-1950s, an ethnic, blue-collar neighborhood. (In the early 1960s much of the neighborhood would be cleared in an urban renewal project for the Lincoln Center, changing the neighborhood's character.) The musical explores the rivalry between the Jets and the Sharks, two teenage street gangs of different ethnic backgrounds. The members of the Sharks, from Puerto Rico, are taunted by the Jets, a white gang. The young protagonist, Tony, a former member of the Jets and best friend of the gang leader, Riff, falls in love with Maria, the sister of Bernardo, the leader of the Sharks. The dark theme, sophisticated music, extended dance scenes, and focus on social problems marked a turning point in American musical theater. Bernstein's score for the musical includes \"Something's Coming\", \"Maria\", \"America\", \"Somewhere\", \"Tonight\", \"Jet Song\", \"I Feel Pretty\", \"A Boy Like That\", \"One Hand, One Heart\", \"Gee, Officer Krupke\", and \"Cool\".\n\nThe original 1957 Broadway production, directed and choreographed by Jerome Robbins and produced by Robert E. Griffith and Harold Prince, marked Sondheim's Broadway debut. It ran for 732 performances before going on tour. The production was nominated for six Tony Awards including Best Musical in 1957, but the award for Best Musical went to Meredith Willson's The Music Man. Robbins won the Tony for his choreography and Oliver Smith won for his scenic designs. The show had an even longer-running London production, a number of revivals and international productions. A 1961 musical film of the same name, directed by Robert Wise and Robbins, starred Natalie Wood, Richard Beymer, Rita Moreno, George Chakiris and Russ Tamblyn. The film was nominated for eleven Academy Awards and won ten, including George Chakiris for Supporting Actor, Rita Moreno for Supporting Actress, and the Best Picture.\n\nBackground \n\nGenesis \n\nIn 1947, Jerome Robbins approached Leonard Bernstein and Arthur Laurents about collaborating on a contemporary musical adaptation of Romeo and Juliet. He proposed that the plot focus on the conflict between an Irish Catholic family and a Jewish family living on the Lower East Side of Manhattan, during the Easter–Passover season. The girl has survived the Holocaust and emigrated from Israel; the conflict was to be centered around anti-Semitism of the Catholic \"Jets\" towards the Jewish \"Emeralds\" (a name that made its way into the script as a reference). Eager to write his first musical, Laurents immediately agreed. Bernstein wanted to present the material in operatic form, but Robbins and Laurents resisted the suggestion. They described the project as \"lyric theater\", and Laurents wrote a first draft he called East Side Story. Only after he completed it did the group realize it was little more than a musicalization of themes that had already been covered in plays like Abie's Irish Rose. When he opted to drop out, the three men went their separate ways, and the piece was shelved for almost five years. \n\nIn 1955, theatrical producer Martin Gabel was working on a stage adaptation of the James M. Cain novel Serenade, about an opera singer who comes to the realization he is homosexual, and he invited Laurents to write the book. Laurents accepted and suggested Bernstein and Robbins join the creative team. Robbins felt if the three were going to join forces, they should return to East Side Story, and Bernstein agreed. Laurents, however, was committed to Gabel, who introduced him to the young composer/lyricist Stephen Sondheim. Sondheim auditioned by playing the score for Saturday Night, his musical that was scheduled to open in the fall. Laurents liked the lyrics but was not impressed with the music. Sondheim did not care for Laurents' opinion. Serenade ultimately was shelved.\n\nLaurents was soon hired to write the screenplay for a remake of the 1934 Greta Garbo film The Painted Veil for Ava Gardner. While in Hollywood, he contacted Bernstein, who was in town conducting at the Hollywood Bowl. The two met at The Beverly Hills Hotel, and the conversation turned to juvenile delinquent gangs, a fairly recent social phenomenon that had received major coverage on the front pages of the morning newspapers due to a Chicano turf war. Bernstein suggested they rework East Side Story and set it in Los Angeles, but Laurents felt he was more familiar with Puerto Ricans and Harlem than he was with Mexican Americans and Olvera Street. The two contacted Robbins, who was enthusiastic about a musical with a Latin beat. He arrived in Hollywood to choreograph the dance sequences for The King and I, and he and Laurents began developing the musical while working on their respective projects, keeping in touch with Bernstein, who had returned to New York. When the producer of The Painted Veil replaced Gardner with Eleanor Parker and asked Laurents to revise his script with her in mind, he backed out of the film, freeing him to devote all his time to the stage musical.\n\nCollaboration and development \n\nIn New York City, Laurents went to the opening night party for a new play by Ugo Betti, and there he met Sondheim, who had heard that East Side Story, now retitled West Side Story, was back on track. Bernstein had decided he needed to concentrate solely on the music, and he and Robbins had invited Betty Comden and Adolph Green to write the lyrics, but the team opted to work on Peter Pan instead. Laurents asked Sondheim if he would be interested in tackling the task. Initially he resisted, because he was determined to write the full score for his next project (Saturday Night had been aborted), but Oscar Hammerstein convinced him that he would benefit from the experience, and he accepted. Meanwhile, Laurents had written a new draft of the book changing the characters' backgrounds: Anton, once an Irish American, was now of Polish and Irish descent, and the formerly Jewish Maria had become a Puerto Rican.Gottlieb, Jack (Guide and Commentary). [http://www.westsidestory.com/archives_factsheet.php \"'West Side Story' Fact Sheet\"]. WestSideStory.com, 2001, accessed August 18, 2011\n\nThe original book Laurents wrote closely adhered to Romeo and Juliet, but the characters based on Rosaline and the parents of the doomed lovers were eliminated early on. Later the scenes related to Juliet's faking her death and committing suicide also were deleted. Language posed a problem; four-letter curse words were uncommon in the theater at the time, and slang expressions were avoided for fear they would be dated by the time the production opened. Laurents ultimately invented what sounded like real street talk but actually was not: \"cut the frabba-jabba\", for example. Sondheim converted long passages of dialogue, and sometimes just a simple phrase like \"A boy like that would kill your brother\", into lyrics. With the help of Oscar Hammerstein, Laurents convinced Bernstein and Sondheim to move \"One Hand, One Heart\", which he considered too pristine for the balcony scene, to the scene set in the bridal shop, and as a result \"Tonight\" was written to replace it. Laurents felt that the building tension needed to be alleviated in order to increase the impact of the play's tragic outcome, so comic relief in the form of Officer Krupke was added to the second act. He was outvoted on other issues: he felt the lyrics to \"America\" and \"I Feel Pretty\" were too witty for the characters singing them, but they stayed in the score and proved to be audience favorites. Another song, \"Kid Stuff\", was added and quickly removed during the Washington, D.C. tryout when Laurents convinced the others it was helping tip the balance of the show into typical musical comedy.\n\nBernstein composed West Side Story and Candide concurrently, which led to some switches of material between the two works. Tony and Maria's duet, \"One Hand, One Heart\", was originally intended for Cunegonde in Candide. The music of \"Gee, Officer Krupke\" was pulled from the Venice scene in Candide. Laurents explained the style that the creative team finally decided on: \n\nThe show was nearly complete in the fall of 1956, but almost everyone on the creative team needed to fulfill other commitments first. Robbins was involved with Bells Are Ringing, then Bernstein with Candide, and in January 1957 A Clearing in the Woods, Laurents' latest play, opened and quickly closed. When a backers' audition failed to raise any money for West Side Story late in the spring of 1957, only two months before the show was to begin rehearsals, producer Cheryl Crawford pulled out of the project. Every other producer had already turned down the show, deeming it too dark and depressing. Bernstein was despondent, but Sondheim convinced his friend Hal Prince, who was in Boston overseeing the out-of-town tryout of the new George Abbott musical New Girl in Town, to read the script. He liked it but decided to ask Abbott, his longtime mentor, for his opinion, and Abbott advised him to turn it down. Prince, aware that Abbott was the primary reason New Girl was in trouble, decided to ignore him, and he and his producing partner Robert Griffith flew to New York to hear the score. In his memoirs, Prince recalled, \"Sondheim and Bernstein sat at the piano playing through the music, and soon I was singing along with them.\"\n\nProduction period \n\nPrince began cutting the budget and raising money. Robbins then announced he did not want to choreograph the show, but changed his mind when Prince agreed to an eight-week dance rehearsal period (instead of the customary four), since there was to be more dancing in West Side Story than in any previous Broadway show, and allowed Robbins to hire Peter Gennaro as his assistant. Originally, when considering the cast, Laurents wanted James Dean for the lead role of Tony, but the actor had recently died. Sondheim found Larry Kert and Chita Rivera, who created the roles of Tony and Anita, respectively. Getting the work on stage was still not easy. Bernstein said: \n\nThroughout the rehearsal period, the New York newspapers were filled with articles about gang warfare, keeping the show's plot timely. Robbins kept the cast members playing the Sharks and the Jets separate in order to discourage them from socializing with each other and reminded everyone of the reality of gang violence by posting news stories on the bulletin board backstage. Robbins wanted a gritty realism from his sneaker- and jeans-clad cast. He gave the ensemble more freedom than Broadway dancers had previously been given to interpret their roles, and the dancers were thrilled to be treated like actors instead of just choreographed bodies. As the rehearsals wore on, Bernstein fought to keep his score together, as other members of the team called on him to cut out more and more of the sweeping or complex \"operatic\" passages. Columbia Records initially declined to record the cast album, saying the score was too depressing and too difficult.\n\nThere were problems with Oliver Smith's designs. His painted backdrops were stunning, but the sets were, for the most part, either shabby looking or too stylized. Prince refused to spend money on new construction, and Smith was obliged to improve what he had as best he could with very little money to do it.\n\nThe pre-Broadway run in Washington, D.C. was a critical and commercial success, although none of the reviews mentioned Sondheim, listed as co-lyricist, who was overshadowed by the better-known Bernstein. Bernstein magnanimously removed his name as co-author of the lyrics, although Sondheim was uncertain he wanted to receive sole credit for what he considered to be overly florid contributions by Bernstein. Robbins demanded and received a \"Conceived by\" credit, and used it to justify his making major decisions regarding changes in the show without consulting the others. As a result, by opening night on Broadway, none of his collaborators were talking to him.\n\nIt has been rumored that while Bernstein was off trying to fix the musical Candide, Sondheim wrote some of the music for West Side Story, and that Bernstein's co-lyricist billing mysteriously disappeared from the credits of West Side Story during the tryout, presumably as a trade-off. However, Suskin states in Show Tunes that \"As the writing progressed and the extent of Bernstein's lyric contributions became less, the composer agreed to rescind his credit...Contrary to rumor, Sondheim did not write music for the show; his only contribution came on \"Something's Coming\", where he developed the main strain of the chorus from music Bernstein wrote for the verse. )\n\nSynopsis \n\nAct 1 \n\nTwo rival teenage gangs, the Jets (White) and the Sharks (Puerto Rican), struggle for control of the neighborhood somewhere in the Upper West Side of New York City amidst the police (Prologue). They are warned by Lt. Schrank and Officer Krupke to stop fighting on their beat. The police chase the Sharks off, and then the Jets plan how they can assure their continued dominance of the street. The Jets' leader, Riff, suggests setting up a rumble with the Sharks. He plans to make the challenge to Bernardo, the Sharks' leader, that night at the neighborhood dance. Riff wants to convince his friend and former member of the Jets, Tony, to meet the Jets at the dance. Some of the Jets are unsure of his loyalty, but Riff is adamant that Tony is still one of them (\"Jet Song\"). Riff meets Tony while he's working at Doc's Drugstore to persuade him to come. Tony initially refuses, but Riff wins him over. Tony is convinced that something important is round the corner (\"Something's Coming\").\n\nMaria works in a bridal shop with Anita, the girlfriend of her brother, Bernardo. Maria has just arrived from Puerto Rico for her arranged marriage to Chino, a friend of Bernardo's. Maria confesses to Anita that she is not in love with Chino. Anita makes Maria a dress to wear to the neighborhood dance.\n\nAt the dance, after introductions, the teenagers begin to dance; soon a challenge dance is called (\"Dance at the Gym\"), during which Tony and Maria (who aren't taking part in the challenge dance) see each other across the room and are drawn to each other. They dance together, forgetting the tension in the room, and fall in love, but Bernardo pulls his sister from Tony and sends her home. Riff and Bernardo agree to meet for a War Council at Doc's, a drug store which is considered neutral ground, but meanwhile, an infatuated and happy Tony finds Maria's building and serenades her outside her bedroom (\"Maria\"). She appears on her fire escape, and the two profess their love for one another (\"Tonight\"). Meanwhile, Anita, Rosalia, and the other Shark girls discuss the differences between the territory of Puerto Rico and the mainland United States of America, with Anita defending America, and Rosalia yearning for Puerto Rico (\"America\").\n\nThe Jets get antsy while waiting for the Sharks inside Doc's Drug Store. Riff helps them let out their aggression (\"Cool\"). The Sharks arrive to discuss weapons to use in the rumble. Tony suggests \"a fair fight\" (fists only), which the leaders agree to, despite the other members' protests. Bernardo believes that he will fight Tony, but must settle for fighting Diesel, Riff's second-in-command, instead. This is followed by a monologue by the ineffective Lt. Schrank trying to find out the location of the rumble. Tony tells Doc about Maria. Doc is worried for them while Tony is convinced that nothing can go wrong; he is in love.\n\nThe next day, Maria is in a very happy mood at the bridal shop, as she anticipates seeing Tony again. However, she learns about the upcoming rumble from Anita and is dismayed. When Tony arrives, Maria asks him to stop the fight altogether, which he agrees to do. Before he goes, they dream of their wedding (\"One Hand, One Heart\"). Tony, Maria, Anita, Bernardo and the Sharks, and Riff and the Jets all anticipate the events to come that night (\"Tonight Quintet\"). The gangs meet under the highway and, as the fight between Bernardo and Diesel begins, Tony arrives and tries to stop it. Though Bernardo taunts Tony, ridiculing his attempt to make peace and provoking him in every way, Tony keeps his composure. When Bernardo pushes Tony, Riff punches him in Tony's defense. The two draw their switchblades and get in a fight (\"The Rumble\"). Tony attempts to intervene, inadvertently leading to Riff being fatally stabbed by Bernardo. Tony kills Bernardo in a fit of rage, which in turn provokes an all-out fight like the fight in the Prologue. The sound of approaching police sirens is heard, and everyone scatters, except Tony, who stands in shock at what he has done. The tomboy, Anybody's, who stubbornly wishes that she could become a Jet, tells Tony to flee from the scene at the last moment and flees with the knives. Only the bodies of Riff and Bernardo remain.\n\nAct 2 \n\nBlissfully unaware of the gangs' plans for that night, Maria daydreams about seeing Tony with her friends—Rosalia, Consuelo, Teresita and Francisca (\"I Feel Pretty\"). Later, as Maria dances on the roof happily because she has seen Tony and believes he went to stop the rumble, Chino brings the news that Tony has killed Bernardo. Maria flees to her bedroom, praying that Chino is lying. Tony arrives to see Maria and she initially pounds on his chest with rage, but she still loves him. They plan to run away together. As the walls of Maria's bedroom disappear, they find themselves in a dreamlike world of peace (\"Somewhere\").\n\nTwo of the Jets, A-Rab and Baby John, are set on by Officer Krupke, but they manage to escape him. They meet the rest of the gang. To cheer themselves up, they lampoon Officer Krupke, and the other adults who don't understand them, (\"Gee Officer Krupke\"). Anybody's arrives and tells the Jets she has been spying on the Puerto Ricans; she has discovered that Chino is looking for Tony with a gun. The gang separates to find Tony. Action accepts Anybody's into the Jets, and includes her in the search.\n\nA grieving Anita arrives at Maria's apartment. As Tony leaves, he tells Maria to meet him at Doc's so they can run away to the country. In spite of her attempts to conceal it, Anita sees that Tony has been with Maria, and launches an angry tirade against him, (\"A Boy Like That\"). Maria counters by telling Anita how powerful love is, (\"I Have a Love\"), though, and Anita realizes that Maria loves Tony as much as she had loved Bernardo. She admits that Chino has a gun and is looking for Tony.\n\nLt. Schrank arrives to question Maria about her brother's death, and Anita agrees to go to Doc's to tell Tony to wait. Unfortunately, the Jets, including Anybody's, who have found Tony, have congregated at Doc's, and they taunt Anita with racist slurs and eventually simulate rape. Doc arrives and stops them. Anita is furious, and in anger spitefully delivers the wrong message, telling the Jets that Chino has shot Maria dead.\n\nDoc relates the news to Tony, who has been dreaming of heading to the countryside to have children with Maria. Feeling there is no longer anything to live for, Tony leaves to find Chino, begging for him to shoot him as well. Just as Tony sees Maria alive, Chino arrives and shoots Tony. The Jets, Sharks, and adults flock around the lovers. Maria holds Tony in her arms (and sings a quiet, brief reprise of \"Somewhere\") as he dies. Angry at the death of another friend, the Jets move towards the Sharks but Maria takes Chino's gun and tells everyone that \"all of [them]\" killed Tony and the others because of their hate for each other, and, \"Now I can kill too, because now I have hate!\" she yells. However, she is unable to bring herself to fire the gun and drops it, crying in grief. Gradually, all the members of both gangs assemble on either side of Tony's body, showing that the feud is over. The Jets and Sharks form a procession, and together carry Tony away, with Maria the last one in the procession.\n\nCharacters \n\nThe Jets\n* Riff, the leader\n* Tony, his friend, who falls in love with Maria\n* Action, A-Rab, Baby John, Big Deal, Diesel, Gee-Tar, Mouth Piece, Snowboy, Tiger and Anybody's\n\nThe Jets' Girls\n* Graziella, Velma, Minnie, Clarice, and Pauline\n\nThe Sharks\n* Bernardo, the leader\n* Chino, his friend\n* Pepe, Indio, Luis, Anxious, Nibbles, Juano, Toro, and Moose\n\nThe Sharks' Girls\n* Maria, Bernardo's sister, who falls in love with Tony\n* Anita, Bernardo's girl\n* Rosalia, Consuelo, Teresita, Francisca, Estella, and Marguerita\n\nThe Adults\n* Doc, Schrank, Krupke, and Gladhand\n\nPrincipal cast\n\nMusical numbers \n\nAct 1 \n\n* \"Prologue\" – Orchestra, danced by Jets & Sharks\n* \"Jet Song\" – Riff & Jets\n* \"Something's Coming\" – Tony\n* \"The Dance at the Gym\" – Jets & Sharks\n* \"Maria\" – Tony\n* \"Tonight\" – Tony & Maria\n* \"America\" – Anita, Rosalia, & Shark Girls\n* \"Cool\" – Riff & Jets\n* \"One Hand, One Heart\" – Tony & Maria\n* \"Tonight (Quintet & Chorus)\" – Company\n* \"The Rumble\" – Orchestra, danced by Riff, Bernardo, Jets, & Sharks\n\nAct 2 \n\n* \"I Feel Pretty\" – Maria, Rosalia, Estella, & Consuelo\n* \"Somewhere\" – Consuelo, danced by Company\n* \"Gee, Officer Krupke\" – Action, Snowboy & Jets\n* \"A Boy Like That\" – Anita & Maria\n* \"I Have a Love\" – Anita & Maria\n* \"Taunting\" – Anita & Jets\n* \"Finale\" – Company\n\n;Notes\n* In the 1964 and 1980 revivals, \"Somewhere\" was sung by Francisca rather than Consuelo.\n* In the 2009 revival, \"Cool\" was performed by Riff, the Jets, and the Jet Girls. \"I Feel Pretty\" was sung in Spanish as \"\" and \"A Boy Like That\" was sung in Spanish as \"\". \"Somewhere\" was sung by Kiddo, a young Jet.\n\nProductions \n\nOriginal Broadway production \n\nAfter tryouts in Washington, D.C. and Philadelphia beginning in August 1957, the original Broadway production opened at the Winter Garden Theatre on September 26, 1957 to positive reviews. The production was directed and choreographed by Jerome Robbins, produced by Robert E. Griffith and Harold Prince and starred Larry Kert as Tony, Carol Lawrence as Maria, Chita Rivera as Anita and David Winters as Baby John, the youngest of the gang members. Robbins won the Tony Award for Best Choreographer, and Oliver Smith won the Tony for Best Scenic Designer. Also nominated were Carol Lawrence, as Best Actress in a Supporting Role in a Musical, Max Goberman as Best Musical Director and Conductor, and Irene Sharaff for Best Costume Design. Carol Lawrence received the 1958 Theatre World Award. Lighting was designed by Jean Rosenthal. The production ran for 732 performances at the Winter Garden Theatre before touring and then returning to the Winter Garden Theatre in 1960 for another 253 performance engagement.\n\nThe other notable cast members in the original production were: Riff: Michael Callan, A-Rab: Tony Mordente, Big Deal: Martin Charnin, Gee-Tar: Tommy Abbott, Chino: Jamie Sanchez, Rosalia: Marilyn Cooper, Consuelo: Reri Grist and Doc: Art Smith.\n\nSeveral dances from West Side Story were included in the Tony Award-winning 1989 Broadway production, Jerome Robbins' Broadway.\n\nUK productions \n\nThe 1958 European premiere at the Manchester Opera House transferred to London, where it opened at Her Majesty's Theatre in the West End on December 12, 1958 and ran until June 1961 with a total of 1,039 performances. Robbins directed and choreographed, and it was co-choreographed by Peter Gennaro, with scenery by Oliver Smith. Featured performers were George Chakiris, who won an Academy Award as Bernardo in the 1961 film version, as Riff, Marlys Watters as Maria, Don McKay as Tony, and Chita Rivera reprising her Broadway role as Anita. David Holliday, who had been playing Gladhand since the London opening, took over as Tony.\n\nA UK national tour started in 1997 and starred David Habbin as Tony, Katie Knight Adams as Maria and Anna-Jane Casey as Anita. The production transferred to London's West End opening at the Prince Edward Theatre in October 1998, transferring to the Prince of Wales Theatre where it closed in January 2000. The production subsequently toured the UK for a second time. \n\n1980 Broadway revival \n\nA Broadway revival opened at the Minskoff Theatre on February 14, 1980 and closed on November 30, 1980, after 333 performances. It was directed and choreographed by Robbins, with the book scenes co-directed by Gerald Freedman; produced by Gladys Nederlander and Tom Abbott and Lee Becker Theodore assisted the choreography reproduction. The original scenic, lighting, and costume designs were used. It starred Ken Marshall as Tony, Josie de Guzman as Maria and Debbie Allen as Anita. Both de Guzman and Allen received Tony Award nominations as Best Featured Actress in a Musical, and the musical was nominated as Best Reproduction (Play or Musical). Allen won the Drama Desk Award as Outstanding Featured Actress in a Musical. Other notable cast members in the revival included Brent Barrett as Diesel, Harolyn Blackwell as Francisca, Stephen Bogardus as Mouth Piece and Reed Jones as Big Deal\n\nThe Minskoff production subsequently opened the Nervi Festival in Genoa, Italy in July 1981 with Josie de Guzman as Maria and Brent Barrett as Tony. \n\n2009 Broadway revival \n\nIn 2007, Arthur Laurents stated, \"I've come up with a way of doing [West Side Story] that will make it absolutely contemporary without changing a word or a note.\" He directed a pre-Broadway production of West Side Story at the National Theatre in Washington, D.C. that ran from December 15, 2008 through January 17, 2009. The Broadway revival began previews at the Palace Theatre on February 23, 2009 and opened on March 19, 2009. The production wove Spanish lyrics and dialogue into the English libretto. The translations are by Tony Award winner Lin-Manuel Miranda. Laurents stated, \"The musical theatre and cultural conventions of 1957 made it next to impossible for the characters to have authenticity. Every member of both gangs was always a potential killer even then. Now they actually will be. Only Tony and Maria try to live in a different world\". In August 2009, some of the lyrics for \"A Boy Like That\" (\"Un Hombre Asi\") and \"I Feel Pretty\" (\"Me Siento Hermosa\"), which were previously sung in Spanish in the revival, were changed back to the original English. However, the Spanish lyrics sung by the Sharks in the \"Tonight\" (Quintet) remained in Spanish.\n\nThe cast featured Matt Cavenaugh as Tony, Josefina Scaglione as Maria and Karen Olivo as Anita. Olivo won the Tony Award for Best Featured Actress, while Scaglione was nominated for the award for Leading Actress. The cast recording won the Grammy Award for Best Musical Show Album. In July 2010, the producers reduced the size of the orchestra, replacing five musicians with an off-stage synthesizer. The production closed on January 2, 2011 after 748 performances and 27 previews. The revival sold 1,074,462 tickets on Broadway over the course of nearly two years. \n\nOther notable US productions \n\nThe New York City Center Light Opera Company production played for a four-week limited engagement of 31 performances in 1964. Tony was Don McKay, Maria was Julia Migenes and Anita was played by Luba Lisa. It was staged by Gerald Freedman based on Robbins' original concept, and the choreography was re-mounted by Tom Abbott.\n\nThe Musical Theater of Lincoln Center and Richard Rodgers production opened at the New York State Theater, Lincoln Center, in June 1968 and closed in September 1968 after 89 performances. Direction and choreography were reproduced by Lee Theodore, and scenery was by Oliver Smith. Tony was Kurt Peterson and Maria was Victoria Mallory.\n\nThe musical has also been adapted to be performed as Deaf Side Story using both English and American Sign Language, with deaf Sharks and hearing Jets. \n\nNational tours \n\nA 1959 national tour was launched on July 1, 1959. The show played in Denver, Los Angeles, San Francisco, Chicago, Detroit, Cincinnati, Cleveland, Baltimore, Philadelphia, and Boston. This tour returned to the Winter Garden Theater in New York on April 27, 1960 and closed on December 10 of that year.\n\nA 1987 U.S. tour starred Jack Wagner as Tony, with Valarie Pettiford as Anita and was directed by Alan Johnson. A bus and truck (non-Equity) tour was produced in 1998 by City Vision Theatricals. A national tour, directed by Alan Johnson, was produced in 2002. \n\nA national tour of the 2009 Broadway revival began in October 2010 at the Fisher Theatre in Detroit, Michigan. The cast features Kyle Harris as Tony, Ali Ewoldt as Maria and Eric Hoffmann as Officer Krupke. After a very successful year, the tour was sent out for another year. A Non-equity tour version of the 2009 Revival, presented by Troika Entertainment, began in fall 2012. \n\nInternational productions \n\nIn 1961, a tour of Israel, Africa and the Near East was mounted. In February 1962, the West End (H. M. Tennent) production launched a five-month Scandinavian tour opening in Copenhagen, continuing to Oslo, Gothenburg, Stockholm and Helsinki. Robert Jeffrey took over from David Holliday as Tony and Jill Martin played Maria. In 1977, \"Amor Sin Barreras\" was produced in Mexico City by Alfonso Rosas Prigo, & Ruben Boido, Direction by Ruben Boido, presented at the Hidalgo Theater. Gualberto Castro played the part of Tony; Maria Medina was Maria, among other cast members was Macaria. From 1982–1984 a tour of South America, Israel and Europe was mounted with talent from New York. The Director/Choreographers for that production were Jay Norman and Lee Theodore, veterans of the original Broadway cast. The Japanese Takarazuka Revue has performed the show twice. It was produced by the Moon Troupe in 1998 and again in 1999 by the Star Troupe. A Hong Kong production was produced in 2000 with Cantonese lyrics, featuring Hong Kong rock star Paul Wong as Tony. It was staged at the outdoor plaza of Hong Kong Cultural Centre. Canada's Stratford Shakespeare Festival performed West Side Story in 1999, starring Tyley Ross as Tony and Ma-Anne Dionisio as Maria, and again in 2009, \n\nThe Austrian Bregenz Festival presented West Side Story in a German translation by Marcel Prawy in 2003 and 2004, directed by the Francesca Zambello, followed by a German tour. A French language adaptation, translated by Philippe Gobeille, opened in Montreal, Quebec in March 2008. A Philippine version played in 2008 at the Meralco Theatre. It featured Christian Bautista as Tony, Karylle and Joanna Ampil as Maria. Also in 2008, an adaptation played in Portugal, directed by Filipe La Féria, with the name West Side Story – Amor Sem Barreiras, in the Politeama Theater, in Lisbon, with Ricardo Soler as Tony and Lúcia Moniz and Anabela splitting the role of Anita.\n\nAn international tour (2005–2010), directed and choreographed by Joey McKneely played in Tokyo, Paris, Austria, Switzerland, Germany, Singapore, São Paulo, France, Taiwan, China, Italy, Rotterdam and Madrid. In 2011, a Lima production was produced by \"Preludio Asociación Cultural\" with Marco Zunino as Tony, Rossana Fernández-Maldonado as Maria, Jesús Neyra as Bernardo, Tati Alcántara as Anita and Joaquín de Orbegoso as Riff. \n\nCritical reaction \n\nThe creators' innovations in dance, music and theatrical style resulted in strong reactions from the critics. Walter Kerr wrote in the New York Herald Tribune on September 27, 1957: \n\nThe other reviews generally joined in speculation about how the new work would influence the course of musical theater. Typical was John Chapman's review in the New York Daily News on September 27, 1957, headed: \"West Side Story a Splendid and Super-Modern Musical Drama\".\n\nTime magazine found the dance and gang warfare more compelling than the love story and noted that the show's \"putting choreography foremost, may prove a milestone in musical-drama history ...\" \n\nScore \n\nThe score for West Side Story was orchestrated by Sid Ramin and Irwin Kostal following detailed instructions from Bernstein, who then wrote revisions on their manuscript (the original, heavily annotated by Ramin, Kostal and Bernstein himself is in the Rare Books and Manuscripts Library at Columbia University). Ramin, Kostal, and Bernstein are billed as orchestrators for the show. The orchestra consisted of 31 players: a large Broadway pit orchestra enhanced to include 5 percussionists, a guitarist and a piano/celesta player.\n\nIn 1961, Bernstein prepared a suite of orchestral music from the show, titled Symphonic Dances from West Side Story:\nPrologue (Allegro Moderato)\n\"Somewhere\" (Adagio)\nScherzo (Vivace e Leggiero)\nMambo (Meno Presto)\nCha-Cha (Andantino Con Grazia)\nMeeting Scene (Meno Mosso)\n\"Cool\", Fugue (Allegretto)\nRumble (Molto Allegro)\nFinale (Adagio)\n\nRecordings \n\nRecordings of West Side Story include the following:\n The 1957 original Broadway cast album, with Carol Lawrence as Maria, Larry Kert as Tony and Chita Rivera as Anita.\n* A 1959 recording by the pianist André Previn comprised jazz versions of eight songs from the musical.\n* The movie soundtrack, with Marni Nixon singing Maria's role (played in the film by Natalie Wood) and Tony (played in the film by Richard Beymer) sung by Jimmy Bryant. It won the Grammy Award for Best Sound Track Album or Recording of Original Cast from Motion Picture or Television. The 1992 remastered re-release of this album included the \"Overture\", the \"End Credits\" music, the complete \"Dance at the Gym\" and dialogue from the film. The 2004 re-release added the \"Intermission\" music.\n* In 1961, Cal Tjader released a jazz version, arranged by Clare Fischer, on Fantasy Records. The album was released again in 2002 as Cal Tjader Plays Harold Arlen & West Side Story (double CD).\n* In 1961, Stan Kenton recorded Kenton's West Side Story (a jazz version) that received a 1962 Grammy Award for Best Jazz Performance – Large Group (Instrumental).\n* In 1962, Oscar Peterson and his trio recorded a jazz version, West Side Story.\n* In 1962, Dave Brubeck recorded jazz versions of selections from the film score on Music From West Side Story.\n* In 1966, Buddy Rich and his big band performed an arrangement penned by Bill Reddie called West Side Story Medley for many years.\n* In 1984, Bernstein re-recorded the musical, conducting his own music for the first time. Generally known as the \"operatic version\" of West Side Story, it stars Kiri Te Kanawa as Maria, José Carreras as Tony, Tatiana Troyanos as Anita, Kurt Ollmann as Riff, Louise Edeiken as Rosalia, and Marilyn Horne as the offstage voice who sings \"Somewhere\". It won a Grammy Award for Best Musical Show Album in 1985. The recording process was filmed as a documentary \"The Making of West Side Story\", which was made by the BBC for Unitel, Produced by Humphrey Burton and Directed by Christopher Swann. The documentary won the Flaherty BAFTA for documentary direction, a Prix Italia and was nominated for a Prime Time Emmy. It is available on YouTube.\n* A 1993 recording, the first recording to document the full score including the overture performed by Britain's National Symphony Orchestra using cast members of the 1992 Leicester Haymarket Theatre production.\n* In 1996, RCA Victor released the tribute album The Songs of West Side Story featuring new versions of the songs from the musical sung by popular music stars, including: \"The Jet Song\" sung by Brian Setzer, \"A Boy Like That\" sung by Selena, \"I feel Pretty\" sung by Little Richard, two versions of \"Somewhere\" performed by Aretha Franklin and Phil Collins, \"Tonight\" sung by Wynonna Judd and Kenny Loggins, \"America\" sung by Patti LaBelle, Natalie Cole and Sheila E., \"I Have a Love\" sung by Trisha Yearwood and \"Rumble\" performed by Chick Corea Elektric Band and Steve Vai's Monsters. Proceeds from the sale of this album go to benefit the Leonard Bernstein Education Through The Arts Fund, the NARAS Foundation and The Leonard Bernstein Center at Nashville, Tennessee.\n* In 2002, Naxos Records released a CD with the Nashville Symphony Orchestra playing the music with soloists Mike Eldred (Tony), Betsi Morrison (Maria), Marianne Cook (Anita), Robert Dean (Riff), Michael San Giovanni, Joanna Chozen, and Michelle Prentice. \n* A 2007 tribute album entitled A Place for Us marking the 50th anniversary of the show. The album features cover versions previously recorded and a new recording of \"Tonight\" by Kristin Chenoweth and Hugh Panaro.\n* A 2007 recording was released by Decca Broadway in honor of West Side Story's 50th anniversary. This album stars Hayley Westenra as Maria and Vittorio Grigolo as Tony. The Bernstein Foundation in New York has authorized the recording. It was nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Show Album.\n* Bernstein recorded the Symphonic Dances suite with the New York Philharmonic in 1961, and with the Los Angeles Philharmonic in 1983. The Symphonic Dances have entered the repertoire of many major world orchestras, most recently by the Simon Bolivar Youth Orchestra under Gustavo Dudamel. It has been recorded by many orchestras, including the San Francisco Symphony under the direction of Seiji Ozawa.\n* The 2009 new Broadway cast album, with Josefina Scaglione as Maria, Matt Cavenaugh as Tony and Karen Olivo as Anita won the 2010 Grammy Award for Best Musical Theater Album.\n* A live, semi-staged 2013 recording by the San Francisco Symphony under Music Director Michael Tilson Thomas, featuring Cheyenne Jackson, Alexandra Silber and others, debuted at No.1 on the Billboard Classical Albums chart in May 2014. It was released in 2014 as a hybrid SACD on the SFS Media label, and was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Musical Theater Album.\n\nFilm \n\nOn October 18, 1961, a film adaptation of the musical was released. It received praise from critics and the public, and became the second highest grossing film of the year in the United States. The film won ten Academy Awards in its eleven nominated categories, including Best Picture and a special award for Robbins. The film holds the distinction of being the musical film with the most Academy Award wins (10 wins), including Best Picture. The soundtrack album made more money than any other album before it.\n\nReferences in popular culture \n\nIn addition to Bernstein's own West Side Story Suite, the music from the musical has been adapted by The Buddy Rich Big Band, which arranged and recorded \"West Side Story Medley\" on the 1966 album Buddy Rich's Swingin' New Big Band. The Stan Kenton Orchestra recorded Johnny Richards' 1961 Kenton's West Side Story, an album of jazz orchestrations based on the Bernstein scores. It won the 1962 Grammy Award for Best Jazz Recording by a Large Group. The 1996 album The Songs of West Side Story included such diverse artists as Selena (\"A Boy Like That\"), Little Richard (\"I Feel Pretty\"), Trisha Yearwood (\"I Have a Love\") and Salt-n-Pepa, Def Jef, Lisa Lopes, the Jerky Boys, and Paul Rodriguez all collaborating on \"Gee, Officer Krupke\", as well as Chick Corea Elektric Band collaborating with Steve Vai's Monsters on \"Rumble\".\n\nThe television show Curb Your Enthusiasm extensively referenced West Side Story in the season seven episode \"Officer Krupke\". An episode of Welcome Back, Kotter, \"Sweatside Story\", parodies West Side Story when the Sweathogs engage in a rumble with students from rival New Utrecht High School. In an episode of That 70's Show, Donna and Jackie mention the musical, and Fez's daydream sequence resembles a scene from it. In the series Glee a third season episode features a school production of West Side Story, with multiple songs from the production, performed by several cast members in episode 2 \"I Am Unicorn\", episode 3 \"Asian F\" and episode 5 \"The First Time\". The Animaniacs episode \"West Side Pigeons\" features a parody rivalry that mirrors that of the Jets and the Sharks. Squit falls in love with Carmoota similarly to Tony and Maria. In the Tom and Jerry Tales episode \"The League of Cats\", Tom's and Jerry's respective leagues act very similar to the Jets and the Sharks. They also perform a number similar to the \"Jet Song\".\n\nIn film, Pixar animator Aaron Hartline used the first meeting between Tony and Maria as inspiration for the moment when Ken meets Barbie in Toy Story 3. In the 2013 movie Teen Beach Movie, two teens are trapped inside a movie called Wet Side Story, in which a group of surfers and a group of bikers are competing in a turf war. Bring It On: In It to Win It has a plot that parallels West Side Story, and makes the reference explicit to the point where the two rival cheerleading squads are named the Jets and the Sharks.\n\nFrom 1973 to 2004, Wild Side Story, a camp parody musical, based loosely on West Side Story and adapting parts of the musical's music and lyrics, has been performed a total of more than 500 times in Miami Beach, Florida, Stockholm, Gran Canaria and Los Angeles. The show, which lampoons the musical's tragic love story, and also lip-synching and drag shows, was created and directed by Lars Jacob. \n\nAwards and nominations \n\nOriginal Broadway production \n\n1980 Broadway revival \n\n2008 West End revival \n\n2009 Broadway revival" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "The Sharks (West Side Story)", "Gee, Officer Krupke", "Westside Story", "West Side Story 2008", "Riff (character)", "West side story", "The Jets (West Side Story)", "Jet Song", "West Side Story", "West Side Story (musical)" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "west side story 2008", "gee officer krupke", "westside story", "west side story musical", "jets west side story", "jet song", "riff character", "west side story", "sharks west side story" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "west side story", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "West Side Story" }
Who produced the first Jetliner in 1957?	tc_327	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Jet_airliner.txt" ], "title": [ "Jet airliner" ], "wiki_context": [ "A jet airliner (or jetliner, or jet) is an airliner powered by jet engines (passenger jet aircraft). Airliners usually have two or four jet engines; three-engined designs are less common.\n\nMost airliners today are powered by jet engines, because they are capable of safely operating at high speeds and generate sufficient thrust to power large-capacity aircraft. The first airliners, introduced in the 1950s, used the simpler turbojet engine; these were quickly supplanted by designs using turbofans, which are quieter and more fuel-efficient.\n\nEarly history\n\nThe first airliners with turbojet propulsion were experimental conversions of the Avro Lancastrian piston-engined airliner, which were flown with several types of early jet engine, including the de Havilland Ghost and the Rolls-Royce Nene. They retained the two inboard piston engines, the jets being housed in the outboard nacelles. The first airliner with jet power only was the Nene-powered Vickers VC.1 Viking G-AJPH, which first flew on 6 April 1948.\n\nThe early jet airliners had much lower interior levels of noise and vibration than contemporary piston-engined aircraft, so much so that in 1947, after piloting a jet powered aircraft for the first time, Wing Commander Maurice A. Smith, editor of Flight magazine, said, \"Piloting a jet aircraft has confirmed one opinion I had formed after flying as a passenger in the Lancastrian jet test beds, that few, if any, having flown in a jet-propelled transport, will wish to revert to the noise, vibration and attendant fatigue of an airscrew-propelled piston-engined aircraft\" \n\nFirst generation\n\nThe first purpose-built jet airliner was the British de Havilland Comet which first flew in 1949 and entered service in 1952. Also developed in 1949 was the Avro Canada C102 Jetliner, which never reached production; however the term jetliner came into use as a generic term for passenger jet aircraft.\n\nThese first jet airliners were followed some years later by the Sud Aviation Caravelle from France, the Tupolev Tu-104 from the Soviet Union (2nd in service), and the Boeing 707, Douglas DC-8 and Convair 880 from the United States. National prestige was attached to developing prototypes and bringing these first generation designs into service. There was also a strong nationalism in purchasing policy, so that US Boeing and Douglas aircraft became closely associated with Pan Am, while BOAC ordered British Comets.\n\nThese two airlines, with the help of advertising agencies and their strong nautical traditions of command hierarchy and chain of command (retained from their days of operating flying boats), were quick to link the \"speed of jets\" with the safety and security of the \"luxury of ocean liners\" in the public's perception.\n\nAeroflot used Soviet Tupolevs, while Air France introduced French Caravelles. Commercial realities dictated exceptions, however, as few airlines could risk missing out on a superior product: American Airlines ordered the pioneering Comet (but later cancelled when the Comet ran into metal fatigue problems), Canadian, British and European airlines could not ignore the better operating economics of the Boeing 707 and the DC-8, while some American airlines ordered the Caravelle.\n\nBoeing became the most successful of the early manufacturers. The KC-135 Stratotanker and military versions of the 707 remain operational, mostly as tankers or freighters. The basic configuration of the Boeing, Convair and Douglas aircraft jet airliner designs, with widely spaced podded engines under slung on pylons beneath a swept wing, proved to be the most common arrangement and was most easily compatible with the large-diameter high-bypass turbofan engines that subsequently prevailed for reasons of quietness and fuel efficiency.\n\nThe de Havilland and Tupolev designs had engines incorporated within the wings next to the fuselage, a concept that endured only within military designs while the Caravelle pioneered engines mounted either side of the rear fuselage.\n\nSecond generation\n\nIn the 1960s, when jet airliners were powered by slim, low-bypass engines, many aircraft used the rear-engined, T-tail configuration, such as the BAC One-Eleven, Douglas DC-9 twinjets; Boeing 727, Hawker Siddeley Trident, Tupolev Tu-154 trijets; and the paired multi-engined Ilyushin Il-62, and Vickers VC10. This engine arrangement is still used for jetliners with a maximum takeoff weight of less than 50 tons. However, other developments, such as rocket assisted takeoffs (RATO), water-injection, and afterburners (also known as reheat) used on supersonic jetliners (SSTs) such as Concorde and the Tupolev Tu-144, have been superseded.\n\nPresent day\n\nAirliners are commonly classified as the generally long-haul widebody aircraft, and narrow-body aircraft." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Boeing Aircraft of Canada", "Boeing Information Services, Inc.", "The Boeing Company", "Boeing Aircraft", "Pacific Aero Products", "Continental DataGraphics", "Boeing Electronics, Inc.", "The Boeing Co.", "Boeing Aircraft Corp", "Boeing Company", "Boeing Aircraft Company", "Pacific Aero Products Company", "William Boeing Jr.", "Boeng", "Boeing", "Boeing Commercial Airlines", "Boeing Information Services", "BOEING Company", "Boeing International", "NYSE:BA", "Boeing Co.", "Boeing Aircraft Corporation", "Www.boeing.com", "Pacific Aero Products Co.", "X-vehicles", "Boeing Electronics", "Boeing Corporation", "Boeing Computer Services", "List of Boeing Factories", "Beoing" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "boeing international", "boeng", "boeing information services inc", "boeing commercial airlines", "boeing company", "boeing aircraft of canada", "beoing", "william boeing jr", "boeing aircraft corp", "continental datagraphics", "pacific aero products company", "boeing", "boeing co", "www boeing com", "pacific aero products co", "x vehicles", "boeing information services", "boeing aircraft company", "boeing aircraft corporation", "pacific aero products", "boeing computer services", "boeing electronics inc", "list of boeing factories", "nyse ba", "boeing electronics", "boeing corporation", "boeing aircraft" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "boeing", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Boeing" }
In which country is the deepwater port of Trondheim?	tc_329	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Trondheim.txt" ], "title": [ "Trondheim" ], "wiki_context": [ "Trondheim, historically Kaupangen, Nidaros and Trondhjem, is a city and municipality in Sør-Trøndelag county, Norway. It has a population of 187,353 (January 1, 2016), and is the third most populous municipality in Norway, although the fourth largest urban area. It is the third largest city in the country, with a population (2013) of 169,972 inhabitants within the city borders. The city functions as the administrative centre of Sør-Trøndelag county. Trondheim lies on the south shore of the Trondheimsfjord at the mouth of the river Nidelva. The city is dominated by the Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), the Foundation for Scientific and Industrial Research (SINTEF), St. Olavs University Hospital and other technology-oriented institutions.\n\nThe settlement was founded in 997 as a trading post, and it served as the capital of Norway during the Viking Age until 1217. From 1152 to 1537, the city was the seat of the Catholic Archdiocese of Nidaros; since then, it has remained the seat of the Lutheran Diocese of Nidaros and the Nidaros Cathedral. It was incorporated in 1838. The current municipality dates from 1964, when Trondheim merged with Byneset, Leinstrand, Strinda and Tiller.\n\nHistory \n\nFor the ecclesiastical history, see Archiepiscopate of Nidaros\n\nTrondheim was named Kaupangen () by Viking King Olav Tryggvason in 997. Shortly thereafter it came to be called Nidaros. In the beginning it was frequently used as a military retainer (Old Norse: \"hird\"-man) of King Olav I. It was frequently used as the seat of the king, and was the capital of Norway until 1217.\n\nPeople have been living in the region for thousands of years as evidenced by the rock carvings in central Norway, the Nøstvet and Lihult cultures and the Corded Ware culture. In ancient times, the Kings of Norway were hailed at Øretinget in Trondheim, the place for the assembly of all free men by the mouth of the river Nidelva. Harald Fairhair (865–933) was hailed as the king here, as was his son, Haakon I, called 'the Good'. The battle of Kalvskinnet took place in Trondheim in 1179: King Sverre Sigurdsson and his Birkebeiner warriors were victorious against Erling Skakke (a rival to the throne). Some scholars believe that the famous Lewis chessmen, 12th-century chess pieces carved from walrus ivory found in the Hebrides and now at the British Museum, may have been made in Trondheim.\n\nTrondheim was the seat of the (Catholic) Archdiocese of Nidaros for Norway from 1152. Due to the introduction of Lutheran Protestantism in 1537, the last Archbishop, Olav Engelbrektsson, had to flee from the city to the Netherlands, where he died in present-day Lier, Belgium.\n\nThe city has experienced several major fires. Since much of the city was made of wooden buildings, many of the fires caused severe damage. Great fires ravaged the city in 1598, 1651, 1681, 1708, twice in 1717, 1742, 1788, 1841 and 1842; however, these were only the worst cases and there have been several smaller fires in the city. The 1651 fire destroyed 90% of all buildings within the city limits. The fire in 1681 (the \"Horneman Fire\") led to an almost total reconstruction of the city, overseen by General Johan Caspar von Cicignon, originally from Luxembourg. Broad avenues like Munkegaten were created, with no regard for property rights, in order to stop the next fire. At the time, the city had a population of roughly 8000 inhabitants.\n\nAfter the Treaty of Roskilde on 26 February 1658, Trondheim and the rest of Trøndelag, became Swedish territory for a brief period, but the area was reconquered 10 months later. The conflict was finally settled by the Treaty of Copenhagen on 27 May 1660.\n\nDuring World War II, Trondheim was occupied by Nazi Germany from 9 April 1940, the first day of the invasion of Norway, until the end of the war in Europe, 8 May 1945. The home of the most notorious Norwegian Gestapo agent, Henry Rinnan, was in Trondheim. The city and its citizens were also subject to harsh treatment by the occupying powers, including imposition of martial law in October 1942. During this time the Germans turned the city and its environs into a major base for submarines (which included building the large submarine base and bunker DORA I), and also contemplated a scheme to build a new city for 300,000 inhabitants, Nordstern (\"Northern Star\"), centred 15 km southwest of Trondheim, near the wetlands of Øysand in the outskirts of Melhus municipality. This new metropolis was to be accompanied by a massively expanded version of the already existing naval base, which was intended to become the primary future stronghold of the German Kriegsmarine. Today, there are few physical remains of this enormous construction project. \n\nMunicipal history\n\nThe city of Trondheim was established on 1 January 1838 (see formannskapsdistrikt). On 1 January 1864, part of Strinda (population: 1,229) was amalgamated with Trondheim. Then, on 1 January 1893, another part of Strinda (population: 4,097) was transferred to Trondheim. On 1 January 1952, the Lade area of Strinda (population: 2,230) was transferred to Trondheim. On 1 January 1964, a major municipal merger took place: the neighbouring municipalities of Leinstrand (population: 4,193), Byneset (population: 2,049), Strinda (population: 44,600), and Tiller (population: 3,595) were all merged with the city of Trondheim (population: 56,982), which nearly doubled the population of the municipality. \n\nToponymy\n\nThe city was originally given the name by Olav Tryggvason. It was for a long time called Nidaros (), or Niðaróss in the Old Norse spelling. But it was also just called kaupangr (\"city\") or, more specifically, kaupangr í Þróndheimi (\"the city in the district Þróndheimr\", i.e. Trøndelag). In the late Middle Ages people started to call the city just Þróndheimr. In the Dano-Norwegian period, during the years as a provincial town in the united kingdoms of Denmark-Norway, the city name was spelled Trondhjem.\n\nFollowing the example set by the renaming of the capital Kristiania to Oslo, Nidaros was reintroduced as the official name of the city for a brief period from 1 January 1930 until 6 March 1931. The name was restored in order to reaffirm the city's link with its glorious past, despite the fact that a 1928 referendum on the name of the city had resulted in 17,163 votes in favour of Trondhjem and only 1,508 votes in favour of Nidaros. Public outrage later in the same year, even taking the form of riots, forced the Storting to settle for the medieval city name Trondheim. The name of the diocese was, however, changed from Trondhjem stift to Nidaros bispedømme () in 1918.\n\nBriefly during World War II Trondheim has been named Drontheim, as a German exonym.\n\nHistorically, Trondheimen indicates the area around the Trondheimsfjord. The spelling Trondhjem was officially rejected, but many still prefer that spelling of the city's name.\n\nCoat-of-arms and seal\n\nThe coat-of-arms dates back to the 13th century. To the left, there is an archbishop with his staff and mitre in a church archway. On the right, a crowned king holding scales in a castle archway. These two pictures rest on a base which forms an arch. Underneath that arch, are three male heads which symbolize the city's rank as Norway's first capital and the archbishop's place of residence. The scales symbolize justice and the motif is based on the political philosophy of the 13th century, where the balance of power between king and church was an important issue. The three heads at the bottom may symbolize the city council. The motif is unique in Norwegian municipal heraldry, but similar motifs are found in bishopric cities on the continent. The design of the coat-of-arms that was adopted in 1897, and is still used today, was made by Håkon Thorsen. \n\nJewish history\n\nJews began to settle in Trondheim in 1880, after the change of the Norwegian constitution in 1851, granting Jews permission to settle in Norway. The first synagogue in Trondheim was established in 1899, and a newer one came into use by 1925. By 1900, 119 Jews were living in Trondheim, reaching 260 by 1940. The Nazi regime confiscated the synagogue in 1941, and used it for military uses. In January 1942, the town Jews' identification cards were stamped with the letter \"J\", and confiscations started to be more and more common. Shortly after, Jews from Trondheim began to emigrate to Sweden. The rest were sent to Auschwitz in October 1942. In 1945, after the end of the war, around 80 Jews returned to the city. Out of the 135 individuals sent to Auschwitz, 5 remained. The synagogue was repaired in 1947. In May 1997, a Jewish museum was opened in Trondheim. At the turn of the 21st century, 120 Jews were living in Trondheim.\n\nGeography \n\nTrondheim is situated where the river Nidelva meets Trondheimsfjorden with an excellent harbour and sheltered condition. The river used to be deep enough for most boats in the Middle Ages. An avalanche of mud and stones made it less navigable and partly ruined the harbour in the mid-17th-century.\nThe municipality's top elevation is the Storheia hill, 565 m above sea level. At summer solstice, the sun rises at 03:00 and sets at 23:40, but stays just below the horizon–there is no darkness (no need for artificial lighting outdoors) from 23 May to 19 July under cloud-free conditions. At winter solstice, the sun rises at 10:01, stays very low above the horizon (at midday its altitude is slightly more than 3 degrees over the horizon), and sets at 14:31.\n\nClimate \n\nTrondheim city has a predominantly hemiboreal Oceanic climate (Koppen: Cfb), but closely borders on humid continental and subpolar oceanic climate. The part of the municipality further away from the fjord has colder winters (the January mean at Klett 1961–90 is ). The part close to the fjord, such as the city center, has milder winters (the January mean for Trondheim city center 58 m above sea level based on the years 1961–90 was , but recent years have been warmer. Trondheim is mostly sheltered from the strong south and southwesterly winds which can occur along the outer seaboard. The warmest temperature ever recorded was 35 °C on 22 July 1901, and the coldest was in February 1899. Trondheim experiences moderate snowfall from November to March, but mixed with mild weather and rainfall. Based on the 1961–90 average recorded at the airport, there are 14 days each winter with at least 25 cm of snow cover on the ground and 22 days with a daily minimum temperature of or less. There is often more snow and later snowmelt in suburban areas at somewhat higher elevation, such as Byåsen and Heimdal, with good skiing conditions in Bymarka. Spring often sees much sunshine, but nights can be chilly. The daily high temperature can exceed 20 °C from late April to late September, but not reliably so. Temperatures have tended to be warmer in recent years. The Trøndelag area has seen average temperatures increase by almost 2 C-change in the last 25 years. \nThe weather station at Voll (127 m amsl) in Trondheim started operating in 1923, but was discontinued in 1967 and did not start up again until 1997. The lapse rate is approximately per 100 m, so the city center will be about warmer than Voll, while higher altitudes than Voll will be accordingly colder.\n\nFauna\n\nSeveral wetland habitats can be found within the city limits. The Gaulosen is one of these. Here you will find a newly built observation tower and information on the birdlife which can be found therein.\n\nDespite Trondheim being Norway's third largest city, wild animals can be seen. Otters and beavers thrive in Nidelva and Bymarka. Badgers and foxes are not uncommon sights. Moose and deer are common in the hills surrounding the city, and might wander into the city, especially in May when the one-year-olds are chased away by their mothers, or in late winter when food grows scarce in the snow-covered higher regions. Since 2002, a wolverine has stayed in Bymarka. \n\nCityscape and sites \n\nMost of Trondheim city centre is scattered with small speciality shops. However, the main shopping area is concentrated around the pedestrianised streets Nordre gate (), Olav Tryggvasons gate and Thomas Angells gate even though the rest of the city centre is provided with everything from old, well-established companies to new, hip and trendy shops.\n\nIn the mid- to late 1990s, the area surrounding the old drydock and ship construction buildings of the defunct Trondhjems mekaniske Værksted shipbuilding company at the Nedre Elvehavn was renovated and old industrial buildings were torn down to make way for condominiums. A shopping centre was also built, known as Solsiden (The Sunny Side). This is a popular residential and shopping area, especially for young people.\n\nDORA 1 is a German submarine base that housed the 13th U-boat Flotilla during the World War II occupation of Norway. Today the bunker houses various archives, among them the city archives, the university and state archives. More recently, DORA has been used as a concert venue.\n\nKristiansten Fortress, built 1681–1684, is located on a hill east in Trondheim. It repelled the invading Swedes in 1718, but was decommissioned in 1816 by Crown Prince Regent Charles John.\n\nA statue of Olav Tryggvason, the founder of Trondheim, is located in the city's central square, mounted on top of an obelisk. The statue base is also a sun dial, but it is calibrated to UTC+1 so that the reading is inaccurate by one hour in the summer.\n\nThe islet Munkholmen is a popular tourist attraction and recreation site. The islet has served as a place of execution, a monastery, a fortress, prison, and a World War II anti-aircraft gun station.\n\nStiftsgården is the royal residence in Trondheim, originally constructed in 1774 by Cecilie Christine Schøller. At 140 rooms constituting 4000 m2, it is possibly the largest wooden building in Northern Europe, and has been used by royals and their guests since 1800.\n\nA statue of Leif Ericson is located at the seaside, close to the old Customs Building, the cruise ship facilities and the new swimming hall. The statue is a replica, the original being located at a Seattle marina.\n\nNidaros Cathedral \n\nThe Nidaros Cathedral and the Archbishop's Palace are located side by side in the middle of the city centre. The cathedral, built from 1070 on, is the most important Gothic monument in Norway and was Northern Europe's most important Christian pilgrimage site during the Middle Ages, with pilgrimage routes leading to it from Oslo in southern Norway and from the Jämtland and Värmland regions of Sweden. Today, it is the northernmost medieval cathedral in the world, and the second largest in Scandinavia.\n\nDuring the Middle Ages, and again after independence was restored in 1814, the Nidaros Cathedral was the coronation church of the Norwegian kings. King Haakon VII was the last monarch to be crowned there, in 1906. Starting with King Olav V in 1957, coronation was replaced by consecration. In 1991, the present King Harald V and Queen Sonja were consecrated in the cathedral. On 24 May 2002, their daughter Princess Märtha Louise married the writer Ari Behn in the cathedral. \n\nThe Pilgrim's Route (Pilegrimsleden) to the site of Saint Olufs's tomb at Nidaros Cathedral, has recently been re-instated. Also known as St. Olav's Way, (Sankt Olavs vei), the main route, which is approximately 640 km long, starts in Oslo and heads North, along Lake Mjøsa, up the valley Gudbrandsdalen, over the mountain range Dovrefjell and down the Oppdal valley to end at Nidaros Cathedral in Trondheim. There is a Pilgrim's Office in Oslo which gives advice to pilgrims, and a Pilgrim Centre in Trondheim, under the aegis of the cathedral, which awards certificates to successful pilgrims upon the completion of their journey. \n\nOther churches \n\nThe Lutheran Church of Norway has 21 churches within the municipality of Trondheim. They are all a part of the Diocese of Nidaros, which is based in Trondheim at the Nidaros Cathedral. Many of the churches are several hundred years old, with a couple which were built almost 1000 years ago.\n\nThe Roman Catholic Sankt Olav domkirke is the cathedral episcopal see of the exempt Territorial Prelature of Trondheim.\n\nMuseums \n\nThe Trondheim Museum of Arts has Norway's third largest public art collection, mainly Norwegian art from the last 150 years. The National Museum of Decorative Arts boasts a large collection of decorative arts and design, including a great number of tapestries from the Norwegian tapestry artist Hannah Ryggen, as well as Norway's only permanent exhibibition of Japanese arts and crafts. Sverresborg, also named Zion after King David's castle in Jerusalem, was a fortification built by Sverre Sigurdsson. It is now an open-air museum, consisting of more than 60 buildings. The castle was originally built in 1182–1183, but did not last for long as it was burned down in 1188. However, the Sverresaga indicates it had been restored by 1197. \n\nTrondheim Science Museum () is a scientific hands-on experience center. The Museum of Natural History and Archaeology is part of the Norwegian University of Science and Technology. There are also a variety of small history, science and natural history museums, such as the Trondheim Maritime Museum, the Armoury, adjacent to the Archbishops's Palace, the music and musical instrument museum Ringve National Museum, Ringve Botanical Garden, the Trondheim Tramway Museum, and the Jewish Museum, co-located with the city's synagogue, which is among the northernmost in the world.\n\nRockheim (, The National Discovery Center for Pop and Rock) opened at the Pier in August 2010. It is located inside an old warehouse, but characterized by an easily recognizable roof in the shape of a box. \"The box\" is decorated by thousands of tiny lights that change in a variety of colours and patterns, and is a landmark in the cityscape - especially on dark winter evenings.\n\nGovernment\n\nAll municipalities in Norway, including Trondheim, are responsible for primary education (through 10th grade), outpatient health services, senior citizen services, unemployment and other social services, zoning, economic development, and municipal roads. The municipality is governed by a municipal council of elected representatives, which in turn elect a mayor.\n\nOn 1 January 2005, the city was reorganized from five boroughs into four, with each of these having separate social services offices. The current boroughs are Midtbyen (44,967 inhabitants), Østbyen (42,707 inhabitants), Lerkendal (46,603 inhabitants) and Heimdal (30,744) inhabitants. The Population statistics listed are as of 1 January 2008. Prior to 2005, Trondheim was divided into the boroughs Sentrum, Strinda, Nardo, Byåsen and Heimdal.\n\nMunicipal council\n\nThe city council (Bystyret) of Trondheim is made up of 67 representatives that are elected to every four years. Prior to 2011, there were 85 city council members, but this number was reduced to 67 in 2011. Currently, the party breakdown is as follows: \n\n2011 election\n\nEducation and research \n\nSee also the list of primary schools in Trondheim.\n\nTrondheim is home to both the Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU) with its many technical lab facilities and disciplines, and BI-Trondheim, a satellite campus for the Norwegian Business School (BI).\n\nSt. Olavs University Hospital, a regional hospital for Central Norway, is located in downtown Trondheim. St. Olavs is a teaching hospital and cooperates closely with the Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU) on both research and medical education.\n\nSINTEF, the largest independent research organisation in Scandinavia, has 1800 employees with 1300 of these located in Trondheim. The Air Force Academy of the Royal Norwegian Air Force is located at Kuhaugen in Trondheim.\n\nThe Geological Survey of Norway is located at Lade in Trondheim and is a major geoscientific institution with 220 employees of which 70% are scientists.\n\nThere are 11 high schools in the city. Trondheim katedralskole (\"Trondheim Cathedral School\") was founded in 1152 and is the oldest upper secondary school (gymnasium) in Norway, while Brundalen videregående skole is the largest in Sør-Trøndelag with its 1100 students and 275 employees. Brundalen Skole, has big festivals each year, and is building out to increase space.\n\nIla skole was founded in 1770 and is the oldest primary school in Trondheim. \n\nMedia \n\nAdresseavisen is the largest regional newspaper and the oldest active newspaper in Norway, having been established in 1767. The newspaper owns the regional television channel TVAdressa and the radio channel RadioAdressa. The two Headquarters of The Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation (NRK) are located at Tyholt in Trondheim and Oslo. The student press of Trondheim features three types of media. Under Dusken is the student paper, Radio Revolt is the student radio, and Student-TV broadcasts videos online.\n\nCulture \n\nStage\n\nThe main regional theatre, Trøndelag Teater, is situated in Trondheim. Built in 1816, the theatre is the oldest theatre still in use in Scandinavia. The city also features an alternative theatre house, called Avant Garden and the theatre company Teater Fusentast. \n\nMusic\n\nTrondheim has a broad music scene, and is known for its strong communities committed to rock, jazz and classical music. The city's interest in Jazz and classical music are spearheaded by the music conservatory at NTNU which has been called one of the most innovative in the world, and the municipal music school, Trondheim Kommunale Musikk- og Kulturskole. The Trondheim Symphony Orchestra and the Trondheim Soloists are well-known. The city also hosts a yearly Jazz festival, and is home to Trondheim Jazz Orchestra. \n\nClassical artists hailing from Trondheim include violinist Arve Tellefsen, Elise Båtnes and Marianne Thorsen. Also the Nidaros Cathedral Boys' Choir.\n\nPop/rock artists and bands associated with Trondheim include Åge Aleksandersen, Margaret Berger, DumDum Boys, Lasse Marhaug, Gåte, Keep Of Kalessin, Lumsk, Motorpsycho, Kari Rueslåtten, the 3rd and the Mortal, TNT, Tre Små Kinesere, the Kids, Casino Steel (of the Boys), Atrox, Bloodthorn, Manes, child prodigy Malin Reitan and Aleksander With. The most popular punk scene is UFFA.\n\nGeorg Kajanus, creator of the bands Eclection, Sailor and DATA, was born in Trondheim. The music production team Stargate started out in Trondheim.\n\nTrondheim is also home to Rockheim, the national museum of popular music, which is responsible for collecting, preserving and sharing Norwegian popular music from the 1950s to the present day. \n\nFilm\n\nTrondheim features a lively film scene, including three filmfests: Minimalen Short Film Fest and Kosmorama International Film Fest in March, and Trondheim Documentarfestival in November.\n\nSports and recreation\n\nGranåsen, a Nordic skiing venue located in Byåsen, regularly hosts World Cup competitions in ski jumping, biathlon and cross-country skiing, as well as the 1997 FIS Nordic World Ski Championships. Trondheim attempted but failed to become the Norwegian candidate for the 2018 Winter Olympics. Hiking and recreational skiing is available around the city, particularly in Bymarka, which can be reached by the tramway. Trondheim Golfklubb has a nine-hole golf course in Byåsen. The World Allround Speed Skating Championships were hosted at Øya Stadion in 1907, 1911, 1926, 1933 and 1937.\n\nRosenborg BK is the city's premier football club and plays their home matches at Lerkendal Stadion. They have won the Norwegian Premier League twenty two times between 1967 and 2010, and had until 2007 played eleven times in the UEFA Champions League. Byåsen IL plays in the Women's handball league, and is a regular in EHF Women's Champions League, playing their home games at Trondheim Spektrum. \n\nStudent culture\n\nWith students comprising almost a fifth of the population, the city of Trondheim is heavily influenced by student culture. Most noticeable is Studentersamfundet i Trondhjem, the city's student society. Its characteristic round, red building from 1929 sits at the head of the bridge crossing the river southwards from the city centre. As the largest university in Norway, the Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU) is the host of some 36,000 students. \n\nStudent culture in Trondheim is characterised by a long-standing tradition of volunteer work. The student society is for example run by more than 1,200 volunteers. NTNUI, Norway's largest sports club, is among the other volunteer organisations that dominate student culture in Trondheim. Students in Trondheim are also behind two major Norwegian culture festivals, UKA and The International Student Festival in Trondheim (ISFiT). NTNU lists over 200 student organisations with registered web pages on its servers alone. \n\nIn popular culture\n\nTrondheim culture is parodied on the Monty Python album Another Monty Python Record in the form of the fictitious Trondheim Hammer Dance. \n\nTrondheim is also a key location in the Command & Conquer: Tiberian Sun universe, as it is a critical battleground for both factions.\n\nTrondheim was the name of a planet in the Hundred Worlds of the Ender's Game book series.\n\nTransport \n\nTrondheim has an international airport, Trondheim Airport, Værnes, situated in Stjørdal, which is Norway's fourth largest airport in terms of passenger traffic. Værnes has non-stop connections to cities such as London, Amsterdam, Frankfurt and Berlin.\n\nMajor railway connections are the northbound Nordland Line, the eastbound Meråker Line to Åre and Östersund in Sweden, and two southbound connections to Oslo, the Røros Line and Dovre Line.\n\nThe Coastal Express ships (Hurtigruten: Covering the Bergen–Kirkenes stretch of the coast) call at Trondheim, as do many cruise ships during the summer season. Since 1994 there is also a fast commuter boat service to Kristiansund, the closest coastal city to the southwest.\n\nTrondheim also boasts the northernmost (since closure of Arkhangelsk tram in 2004) tramway line in the world: the Gråkallen Line, the last remaining segment of the Trondheim Tramway, is an route (which is mostly single-track outside the innermost parts of the city; except the stretch between Breidablikk and Nordre Hoem stations) which runs from the city centre, through the Byåsen district, and up to Lian, in the large recreation area Bymarka. Trondheim boasts the world's only bicycle lift, Trampe.\n\nThe bus network, operated by AtB, runs throughout most of the city and its suburbs. In addition, the Nattbuss (Night Bus) service ensures cheap and effective transport for those enjoying nightlife in the city centre during the weekends. The Nattbus has other prices than ordinary buses. The European route E6 highway passes through the city centre of Trondheim in addition to a motorway bypass along the eastern rim of the city.\n\nInternational relations \n\nTwin towns and sister cities\n\nTrondheim is twinned with:" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Norvège", "Mainland Norway", "Norway", "Norvege", "Noregur", "NORWAY", "Norwegian state", "Etymology of Norway", "Noruega", "Norwegen", "ISO 3166-1:NO", "Noreg", "Republic of Norway", "Norwegian kingdom", "Kongeriket Noreg", "Name of Norway", "Kongeriket Norge", "Noorwegen", "Kingdom of Norway", "Sport in Norway", "Norwegia", "Royal Kingdom of Norway" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "norwegen", "kongeriket norge", "norway", "republic of norway", "noorwegen", "norvege", "mainland norway", "kingdom of norway", "sport in norway", "noreg", "noruega", "norwegia", "noregur", "royal kingdom of norway", "name of norway", "kongeriket noreg", "norwegian kingdom", "etymology of norway", "norvège", "iso 3166 1 no", "norwegian state" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "norway", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Norway" }
In which state is Camp David?	tc_330	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Camp_David.txt" ], "title": [ "Camp David" ], "wiki_context": [ "Camp David is the country retreat of the President of the United States. It is located in wooded hills about 62 miles (100 km) north-northwest of Washington, D.C., in Catoctin Mountain Park near Thurmont, Maryland. It is officially known as Naval Support Facility Thurmont and because it is technically a military installation, staffing is primarily provided by the U.S. Navy and the U.S. Marine Corps.\n\nFirst known as Hi-Catoctin, Camp David was built as a camp for federal government agents and their families by the WPA. Construction started in 1935 and was completed in 1938. In 1942, Franklin D. Roosevelt converted it to a presidential retreat and renamed it \"Shangri-La\" (for the fictional Himalayan paradise in the 1933 novel Lost Horizon by British author James Hilton). Camp David received its present name from Dwight D. Eisenhower, in honor of his father and grandson, both named David. \n\nCatoctin Mountain Park does not indicate the location of Camp David on park maps due to privacy and security concerns.\n\nPresidential use\n\nEvery president since Franklin D. Roosevelt has made use of the retreat now named Camp David.\n* Roosevelt hosted Sir Winston Churchill in May 1943. \n* Dwight D. Eisenhower held his first cabinet meeting there on November 22, 1955 following hospitalization and convalescence required after a heart attack suffered in Denver, Colorado on September 24. \n* John F. Kennedy and his family often enjoyed riding and other recreational activities there, and Kennedy often allowed White House staff and cabinet members to use the retreat when he or his family were not there. \n* Lyndon B. Johnson met with advisors in this setting and hosted both Australian Prime Minister Harold Holt and Canadian Prime minister Lester B. Pearson there. \n* Richard Nixon was a frequent visitor and did much to add to and modernize the facilities. \n* Gerald Ford often rode his snowmobile around Camp David and hosted Indonesian President Suharto there. \n* Jimmy Carter brokered the Camp David Accords there in September 1978 between Egyptian President Anwar al-Sadat and Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin.\n* Ronald Reagan visited the retreat more than any other president. In 1984, Reagan hosted British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher. \n* George H. W. Bush's daughter, Dorothy Bush Koch, was married there in 1992, in the first ever wedding held at Camp David. \n* Bill Clinton used Camp David more as his tenure in office progressed and hosted the British Prime Minister, Tony Blair, on several occasions in addition to numerous celebrities. \n* George W. Bush hosted dignitaries, including President of Russia, Vladimir Putin, there in 2003. and hosted British Prime Minister, Gordon Brown, in 2007. George W. Bush also hosted Danish Prime Minister Anders Fogh Rasmussen in June 2006. \n* Barack Obama chose Camp David to host the 38th G8 summit in 2012. President Obama also hosted Russian Prime Minister Dmitry Medvedev at Camp David, as well as the GCC Summit there in 2015. \n\nSecurity issues\n\nOn July 2, 2011, an F-15 intercepted a small two-seat passenger plane flying near Camp David, when President Obama was in residence. The civilian aircraft, which was out of radio communication, was intercepted approximately 10 km from the presidential retreat. The F-15 escorted the aircraft out of the area, and it landed in nearby Hagerstown, Maryland, without incident. The civilian plane's occupants were flying between two Maryland towns and were released without charge. \n\nOn July 10, 2011, an F-15 intercepted another small two-seat passenger plane flying near Camp David when President Barack Obama was again in residence; a total of three planes were intercepted over that July 9 weekend. \n\nGallery\n\nFile:Churchill-FDR-Shangri-La-1943.jpg\|Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston Churchill at then named Shangri-La, May 1943\nImage:NSC_meeting.jpg\|President Dwight D. Eisenhower meets with his National Security Council at Laurel Lodge, 1955\nImage:Camp_David_1959.jpg\|Main Lodge during Eisenhower administration, 1959\n\nFile:David Eisenhower in Camp David.jpg\|David Eisenhower (age 12), grandson of President Eisenhower, poses with sign named in his honor, 1960\nFile:JFK & Kids with horse at Camp David, 1963.png\|John F. Kennedy, John F. Kennedy, Jr., and Caroline Kennedy (riding 'Tex')\nFile:Ambassador Ellsworth Bunker, Ambassador W. Averell Harriman and President Lyndon B. Johnson outside cabin at Camp David - NARA - 192570.tif\|President Lyndon B. Johnson with Ambassadors Ellsworth Bunker and W. Averell Harriman exiting Aspen cabin, April 9, 1968\nImage:NIXONSCAMPDAVIDwithdogs.jpg\|Richard and Pat Nixon walking their dogs in Camp David.\nFile:Meeting at Camp David to discuss the Vietnam situation - NARA - 194466.tif\|Camp David meeting discussing Vietnam situation – Richard Nixon with Secretary of State Henry Kissinger, and Maj. Gen. Alexander Haig Jr., 1972\nFile:Richard M. Nixon standing in front of a window inside the Camp David lodge. - NARA - 194468.tif\|Richard Nixon, Camp David. A photograph much used to dramatize President Nixon's isolation at the height of the Watergate crisis. \nFile:Photograph of President Gerald Ford and First Lady Betty Ford Walking with Their Daughter Susan and Their Dog... - NARA - 186835.tif\|Gerald and Betty Ford, daughter Susan and Liberty, at Camp David\nImage:Carter and Sadat.jpg\|President of Egypt, Anwar Sadat, and Jimmy Carter meet at the beginning of the Camp David Summit in 1978.\nFile:Camp David, Menachem Begin, Anwar Sadat, 1978.jpg\|Anwar Sadat, Jimmy Carter and Menachem Begin at Camp David in 1978\nImage:Menahem_Begin_poses_at_Camp_David_1978.jpg\|Menachem Begin at Camp David, 1978.\nImage:Sadat Carter Begin, Camp David 1978.gif\|Anwar Sadat, Jimmy Carter, and Menachem Begin meet on the Aspen Lodge patio, September 6, 1978.\nImage:Begin, Carter and Sadat at Camp David 1978.jpg\|Menachem Begin, Jimmy Carter, and Anwar Sadat at Camp David, September 7, 1978.\nFile:Thatcher Reagan Camp David sofa 1984.jpg\|Margaret Thatcher and President Ronald Reagan in Aspen Lodge, 1984.\nImage:President Reagan and Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher at Camp David 1986.jpg\|Margaret Thatcher and President Ronald Reagan walk at Camp David in 1986.\nImage:Camp_David_29-0054a.png\|George H. W. Bush meets with his National Security advisors in the Laurel Lodge conference room on August 4, 1990.\nFile:Video Recording of Photo Opportunity at Camp David - NARA - 6037428.ogv\|President Clinton with Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Barak and Palestinian President Yasser Arafat at Camp David peace talks, July 2000.\nImage:Camp David 4 p37126-25a-515h.jpg\|George W. Bush meets with his advisors at Camp David on January 17, 2004, while preparing for his State of the Union address.\nImage:CAMPDAVIDIRAQ.jpg\|From Camp David, Vice President Dick Cheney and members of the Interagency Team on Iraq participate in a video teleconference with President George W. Bush in Baghdad, Iraq.\nImage:Shinzo Abe & George W Bush, 2007Apr27.jpg\|Shinzo Abe, Prime Minister of Japan, and George W. Bush at Camp David, April 2007.\nImage:Georgebushjuly2007campdavid.jpg\| President George W. Bush and Chief of Staff Josh Bolten walk together with the President's dog Barney at Camp David, July 21, 2007.\nFile:ObamaBidenCampDavid.jpg\|Barack Obama and Joe Biden at Camp David in 2010.\nImage:G8 Summit working session on global and economic issues May 19, 2012.jpg\|World leaders at the 2012 G8 Summit. (Clockwise) Obama (standing), Cameron, Medvedev, Merkel, Van Rompuy, Barroso, Noda, Monti, Harper, and Hollande.\nFile:CampDavidMarylandObamaAlSabah14May15.jpg\|President Barack Obama shakes hands with Sabah Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah, Amir of the State of Kuwait, as Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) leaders prepare to have a group photo with the President outside of the Laurel Cabin at the conclusion of a summit meeting at Camp David, Md., May 14, 2015." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Education in Maryland", "The Old Line State", "Murder Land", "Geography of Maryland", "Mary Land", "Maryland", "Economy of Maryland", "Transport in Maryland", "Old Line State", "Maryland, USA", "Maryland, United States", "Maryland gross state product", "MarylanD", "Maryland (state)", "Mariland", "Seventh State", "MD, USA", "Murda Land", "Maryland (U.S. state)", "Climate of Maryland", "US-MD", "Demographics of Maryland", "Transportation in Maryland", "Religion in Maryland", "Maralind", "7th State", "State of Maryland" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "maryland gross state product", "climate of maryland", "geography of maryland", "economy of maryland", "us md", "education in maryland", "murda land", "maryland state", "religion in maryland", "maryland", "maryland united states", "state of maryland", "maryland u s state", "transportation in maryland", "seventh state", "mary land", "old line state", "md usa", "maralind", "murder land", "mariland", "demographics of maryland", "transport in maryland", "maryland usa", "7th state" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "maryland", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Maryland" }
What was the Statue of Liberty originally called?	tc_331	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Statue_of_Liberty.txt" ], "title": [ "Statue of Liberty" ], "wiki_context": [ "The Statue of Liberty (Liberty Enlightening the World; ) is a colossal neoclassical sculpture on Liberty Island in New York Harbor in New York City, in the United States. The copper statue, designed by Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi, a French sculptor, was built by Gustave Eiffel and dedicated on October 28, 1886. It was a gift to the United States from the people of France. The statue is of a robed female figure representing Libertas, the Roman goddess, who bears a torch and a tabula ansata (a tablet evoking the law) upon which is inscribed the date of the American Declaration of Independence, July 4, 1776. A broken chain lies at her feet. The statue is an icon of freedom and of the United States, and was a welcoming sight to immigrants arriving from abroad.\n\nBartholdi was inspired by French law professor and politician Édouard René de Laboulaye, who is said to have commented in 1865 that any monument raised to American independence would properly be a joint project of the French and American peoples. He may have been minded to honor the Union victory in the American Civil War and the end of slavery. Due to the post-war instability in France, work on the statue did not commence until the early 1870s. In 1875, Laboulaye proposed that the French finance the statue and the Americans provide the site and build the pedestal. Bartholdi completed the head and the torch-bearing arm before the statue was fully designed, and these pieces were exhibited for publicity at international expositions.\n\nThe torch-bearing arm was displayed at the Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia in 1876, and in Madison Square Park in Manhattan from 1876 to 1882. Fundraising proved difficult, especially for the Americans, and by 1885 work on the pedestal was threatened due to lack of funds. Publisher Joseph Pulitzer of the New York World started a drive for donations to complete the project that attracted more than 120,000 contributors, most of whom gave less than a dollar. The statue was constructed in France, shipped overseas in crates, and assembled on the completed pedestal on what was then called Bedloe's Island. The statue's completion was marked by New York's first ticker-tape parade and a dedication ceremony presided over by President Grover Cleveland.\n\nThe statue was administered by the United States Lighthouse Board until 1901 and then by the Department of War; since 1933 it has been maintained by the National Park Service. The statue was closed for renovation for much of 1938. In the early 1980s, it was found to have deteriorated to such an extent that a major restoration was required. While the statue was closed from 1984 to 1986, the torch and a large part of the internal structure were replaced. After the September 11 attacks in 2001, it was closed for reasons of safety and security; the pedestal reopened in 2004 and the statue in 2009, with limits on the number of visitors allowed to ascend to the crown. The statue, including the pedestal and base, was closed for a year until October 28, 2012, so that a secondary staircase and other safety features could be installed; Liberty Island remained open. However, one day after the reopening, Liberty Island closed due to the effects of Hurricane Sandy in New York; the statue and island opened again on July 4, 2013. Public access to the balcony surrounding the torch has been barred for safety reasons since 1916.\n\nDesign and construction process \n\nOrigin \n\nAccording to the National Park Service, the idea for the Statue of Liberty was first proposed by Édouard René de Laboulaye the president of the French Anti-Slavery Society and a prominent and important political thinker of his time. The project is traced to a conversation between Édouard René de Laboulaye, a staunch abolitionist and Frédéric Bartholdi, a sculptor in mid-1865. In after-dinner conversation at his home near Versailles, Laboulaye, an ardent supporter of the Union in the American Civil War, is supposed to have said: \"If a monument should rise in the United States, as a memorial to their independence, I should think it only natural if it were built by united effort—a common work of both our nations.\" The National Park Service, in a 2000 report, however, deemed this a legend traced to an 1885 fundraising pamphlet, and that the statue was most likely conceived in 1870. In another essay on their website, the Park Service suggested that Laboulaye was minded to honor the Union victory and its consequences, \"With the abolition of slavery and the Union's victory in the Civil War in 1865, Laboulaye's wishes of freedom and democracy were turning into a reality in the United States. In order to honor these achievements, Laboulaye proposed that a gift be built for the United States on behalf of France. Laboulaye hoped that by calling attention to the recent achievements of the United States, the French people would be inspired to call for their own democracy in the face of a repressive monarchy.\" \n\nAccording to sculptor Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi, who later recounted the story, Laboulaye's comment was not intended as a proposal, but it inspired Bartholdi. Given the repressive nature of the regime of Napoleon III, Bartholdi took no immediate action on the idea except to discuss it with Laboulaye. Bartholdi was in any event busy with other possible projects; in the late 1860s, he approached Isma'il Pasha, Khedive of Egypt, with a plan to build a huge lighthouse in the form of an ancient Egyptian female fellah or peasant, robed and holding a torch aloft, at the northern entrance to the Suez Canal in Port Said. Sketches and models were made of the proposed work, though it was never erected. There was a classical precedent for the Suez proposal, the Colossus of Rhodes: an ancient bronze statue of the Greek god of the sun, Helios. This statue is believed to have been over 100 ft high, and it similarly stood at a harbor entrance and carried a light to guide ships.\n\nAny large project was further delayed by the Franco-Prussian War, in which Bartholdi served as a major of militia. In the war, Napoleon III was captured and deposed. Bartholdi's home province of Alsace was lost to the Prussians, and a more liberal republic was installed in France. As Bartholdi had been planning a trip to the United States, he and Laboulaye decided the time was right to discuss the idea with influential Americans. In June 1871, Bartholdi crossed the Atlantic, with letters of introduction signed by Laboulaye.\n\nArriving at New York Harbor, Bartholdi focused on Bedloe's Island as a site for the statue, struck by the fact that vessels arriving in New York had to sail past it. He was delighted to learn that the island was owned by the United States government—it had been ceded by the New York State Legislature in 1800 for harbor defense. It was thus, as he put it in a letter to Laboulaye: \"land common to all the states.\" As well as meeting many influential New Yorkers, Bartholdi visited President Ulysses S. Grant, who assured him that it would not be difficult to obtain the site for the statue. Bartholdi crossed the United States twice by rail, and met many Americans who he thought would be sympathetic to the project. But he remained concerned that popular opinion on both sides of the Atlantic was insufficiently supportive of the proposal, and he and Laboulaye decided to wait before mounting a public campaign.\n\nBartholdi had made a first model of his concept in 1870. The son of a friend of Bartholdi's, American artist John LaFarge, later maintained that Bartholdi made the first sketches for the statue during his U.S. visit at La Farge's Rhode Island studio. Bartholdi continued to develop the concept following his return to France. He also worked on a number of sculptures designed to bolster French patriotism after the defeat by the Prussians. One of these was the Lion of Belfort, a monumental sculpture carved in sandstone below the fortress of Belfort, which during the war had resisted a Prussian siege for over three months. The defiant lion, 73 ft long and half that in height, displays an emotional quality characteristic of Romanticism, which Bartholdi would later bring to the Statue of Liberty.\n\nDesign, style, and symbolism \n\nBartholdi and Laboulaye considered how best to express the idea of American liberty. In early American history, two female figures were frequently used as cultural symbols of the nation. One of these symbols, the personified Columbia, was seen as an embodiment of the United States in the manner that Britannia was identified with the United Kingdom and Marianne came to represent France. Columbia had supplanted the earlier figure of an Indian princess, which had come to be regarded as uncivilized and derogatory toward Americans. The other significant female icon in American culture was a representation of Liberty, derived from Libertas, the goddess of freedom widely worshipped in ancient Rome, especially among emancipated slaves. A Liberty figure adorned most American coins of the time, and representations of Liberty appeared in popular and civic art, including Thomas Crawford's Statue of Freedom (1863) atop the dome of the United States Capitol Building.\n\nArtists of the 18th and 19th centuries striving to evoke republican ideals commonly used representations of Libertas as an allegorical symbol. A figure of Liberty was also depicted on the Great Seal of France. However, Bartholdi and Laboulaye avoided an image of revolutionary liberty such as that depicted in Eugène Delacroix's famed Liberty Leading the People (1830). In this painting, which commemorates France's Revolution of 1830, a half-clothed Liberty leads an armed mob over the bodies of the fallen. Laboulaye had no sympathy for revolution, and so Bartholdi's figure would be fully dressed in flowing robes. Instead of the impression of violence in the Delacroix work, Bartholdi wished to give the statue a peaceful appearance and chose a torch, representing progress, for the figure to hold.\n\nCrawford's statue was designed in the early 1850s. It was originally to be crowned with a pileus, the cap given to emancipated slaves in ancient Rome. Secretary of War Jefferson Davis, a Southerner who would later serve as President of the Confederate States of America, was concerned that the pileus would be taken as an abolitionist symbol. He ordered that it be changed to a helmet.\nDelacroix's figure wears a pileus, and Bartholdi at first considered placing one on his figure as well. Instead, he used a diadem, or crown, to top its head. In so doing, he avoided a reference to Marianne, who invariably wears a pileus. The seven rays form a halo or aureole. They evoke the sun, the seven seas, and the seven continents, and represent another means, besides the torch, whereby Liberty enlightens the world.\n\nBartholdi's early models were all similar in concept: a female figure in neoclassical style representing liberty, wearing a stola and pella (gown and cloak, common in depictions of Roman goddesses) and holding a torch aloft. According to popular accounts, the face was modeled after that of Charlotte Beysser Bartholdi, the sculptor's mother, but Regis Huber, the curator of the Bartholdi Museum is on record as saying that this, as well as other similar speculations, have no basis in fact.Interviewed for Watson, Corin. Statue of Liberty: Building a Colossus (TV documentary, 2001) He designed the figure with a strong, uncomplicated silhouette, which would be set off well by its dramatic harbor placement and allow passengers on vessels entering New York Bay to experience a changing perspective on the statue as they proceeded toward Manhattan. He gave it bold classical contours and applied simplified modeling, reflecting the huge scale of the project and its solemn purpose. Bartholdi wrote of his technique:\n\nThe surfaces should be broad and simple, defined by a bold and clear design, accentuated in the important places. The enlargement of the details or their multiplicity is to be feared. By exaggerating the forms, in order to render them more clearly visible, or by enriching them with details, we would destroy the proportion of the work. Finally, the model, like the design, should have a summarized character, such as one would give to a rapid sketch. Only it is necessary that this character should be the product of volition and study, and that the artist, concentrating his knowledge, should find the form and the line in its greatest simplicity.\n\nBartholdi made alterations in the design as the project evolved. Bartholdi considered having Liberty hold a broken chain, but decided this would be too divisive in the days after the Civil War. The erected statue does rise over a broken chain, half-hidden by her robes and difficult to see from the ground. Bartholdi was initially uncertain of what to place in Liberty's left hand; he settled on a tabula ansata, a keystone-shaped tablet used to evoke the concept of law. Though Bartholdi greatly admired the United States Constitution, he chose to inscribe \"JULY IV MDCCLXXVI\" on the tablet, thus associating the date of the country's Declaration of Independence with the concept of liberty.\n\nBartholdi interested his friend and mentor, architect Eugène Viollet-le-Duc, in the project. As chief engineer, Viollet-le-Duc designed a brick pier within the statue, to which the skin would be anchored.\nAfter consultations with the metalwork foundry Gaget, Gauthier & Co., Viollet-le-Duc chose the metal which would be used for the skin, copper sheets, and the method used to shape it, repoussé, in which the sheets were heated and then struck with wooden hammers. An advantage of this choice was that the entire statue would be light for its volume, as the copper need be only thick. Bartholdi had decided on a height of just over 151 ft for the statue, double that of Italy's Sancarlone and the German statue of Arminius, both made with the same method.\n\nAnnouncement and early work \n\nBy 1875, France was enjoying improved political stability and a recovering postwar economy. Growing interest in the upcoming Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia led Laboulaye to decide it was time to seek public support. In September 1875, he announced the project and the formation of the Franco-American Union as its fundraising arm. With the announcement, the statue was given a name, Liberty Enlightening the World. The French would finance the statue; Americans would be expected to pay for the pedestal. The announcement provoked a generally favorable reaction in France, though many Frenchmen resented the United States for not coming to their aid during the war with Prussia. French monarchists opposed the statue, if for no other reason than it was proposed by the liberal Laboulaye, who had recently been elected a senator for life. Laboulaye arranged events designed to appeal to the rich and powerful, including a special performance at the Paris Opera on April 25, 1876, that featured a new cantata by composer Charles Gounod. The piece was titled La Liberté éclairant le monde, the French version of the statue's announced name.\n\nDespite its initial focus on the elites, the Union was successful in raising funds from across French society. Schoolchildren and ordinary citizens gave, as did 181 French municipalities. Laboulaye's political allies supported the call, as did descendants of the French contingent in the American Revolutionary War. Less idealistically, contributions came from those who hoped for American support in the French attempt to build the Panama Canal. The copper may have come from multiple sources and some of it is said to have come from a mine in Visnes, Norway, though this has not been conclusively determined after testing samples. According to Cara Sutherland in her book on the statue for the Museum of the City of New York, 90,800 kilos (200,000 pounds) was needed to build the statue, and the French copper industrialist Eugène Secrétan donated 58,100 kilos (128,000 pounds) of copper. Historian Yasmin Khan, in her 2010 book about the statue, states that the firm of Japy Frères, copper merchants, donated copper valued at 64,000 francs (about $16,000 at the time or the equivalent of US$ in ).\n\nAlthough plans for the statue had not been finalized, Bartholdi moved forward with fabrication of the right arm, bearing the torch, and the head. Work began at the Gaget, Gauthier & Co. workshop. In May 1876, Bartholdi traveled to the United States as a member of a French delegation to the Centennial Exhibition, and arranged for a huge painting of the statue to be shown in New York as part of the Centennial festivities. The arm did not arrive in Philadelphia until August; because of its late arrival, it was not listed in the exhibition catalogue, and while some reports correctly identified the work, others called it the \"Colossal Arm\" or \"Bartholdi Electric Light\". The exhibition grounds contained a number of monumental artworks to compete for fairgoers' interest, including an outsized fountain designed by Bartholdi. Nevertheless, the arm proved popular in the exhibition's waning days, and visitors would climb up to the balcony of the torch to view the fairgrounds. After the exhibition closed, the arm was transported to New York, where it remained on display in Madison Square Park for several years before it was returned to France to join the rest of the statue.\n\nDuring his second trip to the United States, Bartholdi addressed a number of groups about the project, and urged the formation of American committees of the Franco-American Union. Committees to raise money to pay for the foundation and pedestal were formed in New York, Boston, and Philadelphia. The New York group eventually took on most of the responsibility for American fundraising and is often referred to as the \"American Committee\". One of its members was 19-year-old Theodore Roosevelt, the future governor of New York and president of the United States. On March 3, 1877, on his final full day in office, President Grant signed a joint resolution that authorized the President to accept the statue when it was presented by France and to select a site for it. President Rutherford B. Hayes, who took office the following day, selected the Bedloe's Island site that Bartholdi had proposed.\n\nConstruction in France \n\nOn his return to Paris in 1877, Bartholdi concentrated on completing the head, which was exhibited at the 1878 Paris World's Fair. Fundraising continued, with models of the statue put on sale. Tickets to view the construction activity at the Gaget, Gauthier & Co. workshop were also offered. The French government authorized a lottery; among the prizes were valuable silver plate and a terracotta model of the statue. By the end of 1879, about 250,000 francs had been raised.\n\nThe head and arm had been built with assistance from Viollet-le-Duc, who fell ill in 1879. He soon died, leaving no indication of how he intended to transition from the copper skin to his proposed masonry pier. The following year, Bartholdi was able to obtain the services of the innovative designer and builder Gustave Eiffel. Eiffel and his structural engineer, Maurice Koechlin, decided to abandon the pier and instead build an iron truss tower. Eiffel opted not to use a completely rigid structure, which would force stresses to accumulate in the skin and lead eventually to cracking. A secondary skeleton was attached to the center pylon, then, to enable the statue to move slightly in the winds of New York Harbor and as the metal expanded on hot summer days, he loosely connected the support structure to the skin using flat iron bars which culminated in a mesh of metal straps, known as \"saddles\", that were riveted to the skin, providing firm support. In a labor-intensive process, each saddle had to be crafted individually. To prevent galvanic corrosion between the copper skin and the iron support structure, Eiffel insulated the skin with asbestos impregnated with shellac.\n\nEiffel's design made the statue one of the earliest examples of curtain wall construction, in which the exterior of the structure is not load bearing, but is instead supported by an interior framework. He included two interior spiral staircases, to make it easier for visitors to reach the observation point in the crown. Access to an observation platform surrounding the torch was also provided, but the narrowness of the arm allowed for only a single ladder, 40 ft long. As the pylon tower arose, Eiffel and Bartholdi coordinated their work carefully so that completed segments of skin would fit exactly on the support structure. The components of the pylon tower were built in the Eiffel factory in the nearby Parisian suburb of Levallois-Perret. \n\nThe change in structural material from masonry to iron allowed Bartholdi to change his plans for the statue's assembly. He had originally expected to assemble the skin on-site as the masonry pier was built; instead he decided to build the statue in France and have it disassembled and transported to the United States for reassembly in place on Bedloe's Island.\n\nIn a symbolic act, the first rivet placed into the skin, fixing a copper plate onto the statue's big toe, was driven by United States Ambassador to France Levi P. Morton. The skin was not, however, crafted in exact sequence from low to high; work proceeded on a number of segments simultaneously in a manner often confusing to visitors. Some work was performed by contractors—one of the fingers was made to Bartholdi's exacting specifications by a coppersmith in the southern French town of Montauban. By 1882, the statue was complete up to the waist, an event Barthodi celebrated by inviting reporters to lunch on a platform built within the statue. Laboulaye died in 1883. He was succeeded as chairman of the French committee by Ferdinand de Lesseps, builder of the Suez Canal. The completed statue was formally presented to Ambassador Morton at a ceremony in Paris on July 4, 1884, and de Lesseps announced that the French government had agreed to pay for its transport to New York. The statue remained intact in Paris pending sufficient progress on the pedestal; by January 1885, this had occurred and the statue was disassembled and crated for its ocean voyage.\n\nThe committees in the United States faced great difficulties in obtaining funds for the construction of the pedestal. The Panic of 1873 had led to an economic depression that persisted through much of the decade. The Liberty statue project was not the only such undertaking that had difficulty raising money: construction of the obelisk later known as the Washington Monument sometimes stalled for years; it would ultimately take over three-and-a-half decades to complete. There was criticism both of Bartholdi's statue and of the fact that the gift required Americans to foot the bill for the pedestal. In the years following the Civil War, most Americans preferred realistic artworks depicting heroes and events from the nation's history, rather than allegorical works like the Liberty statue. There was also a feeling that Americans should design American public works—the selection of Italian-born Constantino Brumidi to decorate the Capitol had provoked intense criticism, even though he was a naturalized U.S. citizen. Harper's Weekly declared its wish that \"M. Bartholdi and our French cousins had 'gone the whole figure' while they were about it, and given us statue and pedestal at once.\" The New York Times stated that \"no true patriot can countenance any such expenditures for bronze females in the present state of our finances.\" Faced with these criticisms, the American committees took little action for several years.\n\nDesign \n\nThe foundation of Bartholdi's statue was to be laid inside Fort Wood, a disused army base on Bedloe's Island constructed between 1807 and 1811. Since 1823, it had rarely been used, though during the Civil War, it had served as a recruiting station. The fortifications of the structure were in the shape of an eleven-point star. The statue's foundation and pedestal were aligned so that it would face southeast, greeting ships entering the harbor from the Atlantic Ocean.\nIn 1881, the New York committee commissioned Richard Morris Hunt to design the pedestal. Within months, Hunt submitted a detailed plan, indicating that he expected construction to take about nine months. He proposed a pedestal 114 ft in height; faced with money problems, the committee reduced that to 89 ft.\n\nHunt's pedestal design contains elements of classical architecture, including Doric portals, as well as some elements influenced by Aztec architecture. The large mass is fragmented with architectural detail, in order to focus attention on the statue. In form, it is a truncated pyramid, 62 ft square at the base and at the top. The four sides are identical in appearance. Above the door on each side, there are ten disks upon which Bartholdi proposed to place the coats of arms of the states (between 1876 and 1889, there were 38 U.S. states), although this was not done. Above that, a balcony was placed on each side, framed by pillars. Bartholdi placed an observation platform near the top of the pedestal, above which the statue itself rises. According to author Louis Auchincloss, the pedestal \"craggily evokes the power of an ancient Europe over which rises the dominating figure of the Statue of Liberty\". The committee hired former army General Charles Pomeroy Stone to oversee the construction work. Construction on the 15 ft foundation began in 1883, and the pedestal's cornerstone was laid in 1884. In Hunt's original conception, the pedestal was to have been made of solid granite. Financial concerns again forced him to revise his plans; the final design called for poured concrete walls, up to 20 ft thick, faced with granite blocks. This Stony Creek granite came from the Beattie Quarry in Branford, Connecticut. The concrete mass was the largest poured to that time.\n\nNorwegian immigrant civil engineer Joachim Goschen Giæver designed the structural framework for the Statue of Liberty. His work involved design computations, detailed fabrication and construction drawings, and oversight of construction. In completing his engineering for the statue's frame, Giæver worked from drawings and sketches produced by Gustave Eiffel.[https://web.archive.org/web/20121127045537/http://www.structuremag.org/article.aspx?articleID\n1484 STRUCTUREmag – Structural Engineering Magazine, Tradeshow: Joachim Gotsche Giaver]\n\nFundraising \n\nFundraising for the statue had begun in 1882. The committee organized a large number of money-raising events. As part of one such effort, an auction of art and manuscripts, poet Emma Lazarus was asked to donate an original work. She initially declined, stating she could not write a poem about a statue. At the time, she was also involved in aiding refugees to New York who had fled anti-Semitic pogroms in eastern Europe. These refugees were forced to live in conditions that the wealthy Lazarus had never experienced. She saw a way to express her empathy for these refugees in terms of the statue. The resulting sonnet, \"The New Colossus\", including the iconic lines \"Give me your tired, your poor/Your huddled masses yearning to breathe free\", is uniquely identified with the Statue of Liberty and is inscribed on a plaque in the museum in its base.\n\nEven with these efforts, fundraising lagged. Grover Cleveland, the governor of New York, vetoed a bill to provide $50,000 for the statue project in 1884. An attempt the next year to have Congress provide $100,000, sufficient to complete the project, also failed. The New York committee, with only $3,000 in the bank, suspended work on the pedestal. With the project in jeopardy, groups from other American cities, including Boston and Philadelphia, offered to pay the full cost of erecting the statue in return for relocating it.\n\nJoseph Pulitzer, publisher of the New York World, a New York newspaper, announced a drive to raise $100,000—the equivalent of $2.3 million today. Pulitzer pledged to print the name of every contributor, no matter how small the amount given. The drive captured the imagination of New Yorkers, especially when Pulitzer began publishing the notes he received from contributors. \"A young girl alone in the world\" donated \"60 cents, the result of self denial.\" One donor gave \"five cents as a poor office boy's mite toward the Pedestal Fund.\" A group of children sent a dollar as \"the money we saved to go to the circus with.\" Another dollar was given by a \"lonely and very aged woman.\" Residents of a home for alcoholics in New York's rival city of Brooklyn—the cities would not merge until 1898—donated $15; other drinkers helped out through donation boxes in bars and saloons. A kindergarten class in Davenport, Iowa, mailed the World a gift of $1.35. As the donations flooded in, the committee resumed work on the pedestal.\n\nConstruction \n\nOn June 17, 1885, the French steamer Isère, laden with the Statue of Liberty, reached the New York port safely. New Yorkers displayed their new-found enthusiasm for the statue, as the French vessel arrived with the crates holding the disassembled statue on board. Two hundred thousand people lined the docks and hundreds of boats put to sea to welcome the Isère. After five months of daily calls to donate to the statue fund, on August 11, 1885, the World announced that $102,000 had been raised from 120,000 donors, and that 80 percent of the total had been received in sums of less than one dollar.\n\nEven with the success of the fund drive, the pedestal was not completed until April 1886. Immediately thereafter, reassembly of the statue began. Eiffel's iron framework was anchored to steel I-beams within the concrete pedestal and assembled. Once this was done, the sections of skin were carefully attached. Due to the width of the pedestal, it was not possible to erect scaffolding, and workers dangled from ropes while installing the skin sections. Nevertheless, no one died during the construction. Bartholdi had planned to put floodlights on the torch's balcony to illuminate it; a week before the dedication, the Army Corps of Engineers vetoed the proposal, fearing that ships' pilots passing the statue would be blinded. Instead, Bartholdi cut portholes in the torch—which was covered with gold leaf—and placed the lights inside them. A power plant was installed on the island to light the torch and for other electrical needs. After the skin was completed, renowned landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted, co-designer of New York's Central Park and Brooklyn's Prospect Park, supervised a cleanup of Bedloe's Island in anticipation of the dedication.\n\nDedication \n\nA ceremony of dedication was held on the afternoon of October 28, 1886. President Grover Cleveland, the former New York governor, presided over the event. On the morning of the dedication, a parade was held in New York City; estimates of the number of people who watched it ranged from several hundred thousand to a million. President Cleveland headed the procession, then stood in the reviewing stand to see bands and marchers from across America. General Stone was the grand marshal of the parade. The route began at Madison Square, once the venue for the arm, and proceeded to Battery Park at the southern tip of Manhattan by way of Fifth Avenue and Broadway, with a slight detour so the parade could pass in front of the World building on Park Row. As the parade passed the New York Stock Exchange, traders threw ticker tape from the windows, beginning the New York tradition of the ticker-tape parade.\n\nA nautical parade began at 12:45 p.m., and President Cleveland embarked on a yacht that took him across the harbor to Bedloe's Island for the dedication. De Lesseps made the first speech, on behalf of the French committee, followed by the chairman of the New York committee, Senator William M. Evarts. A French flag draped across the statue's face was to be lowered to unveil the statue at the close of Evarts's speech, but Bartholdi mistook a pause as the conclusion and let the flag fall prematurely. The ensuing cheers put an end to Evarts's address. President Cleveland spoke next, stating that the statue's \"stream of light shall pierce the darkness of ignorance and man's oppression until Liberty enlightens the world\". Bartholdi, observed near the dais, was called upon to speak, but he refused. Orator Chauncey M. Depew concluded the speechmaking with a lengthy address.\n\nNo members of the general public were permitted on the island during the ceremonies, which were reserved entirely for dignitaries. The only females granted access were Bartholdi's wife and de Lesseps's granddaughter; officials stated that they feared women might be injured in the crush of people. The restriction offended area suffragists, who chartered a boat and got as close as they could to the island. The group's leaders made speeches applauding the embodiment of Liberty as a woman and advocating women's right to vote. A scheduled fireworks display was postponed until November 1 because of poor weather.\n\nShortly after the dedication, The Cleveland Gazette, an African American newspaper, suggested that the statue's torch not be lit until the United States became a free nation \"in reality\":\n\n\"Liberty enlightening the world,\" indeed! The expression makes us sick. This government is a howling farce. It can not or rather does not protect its citizens within its own borders. Shove the Bartholdi statue, torch and all, into the ocean until the \"liberty\" of this country is such as to make it possible for an inoffensive and industrious colored man to earn a respectable living for himself and family, without being ku-kluxed, perhaps murdered, his daughter and wife outraged, and his property destroyed. The idea of the \"liberty\" of this country \"enlightening the world,\" or even Patagonia, is ridiculous in the extreme.\n\nAfter dedication \n\nLighthouse Board and War Department (1886–1933) \n\nWhen the torch was illuminated on the evening of the statue's dedication, it produced only a faint gleam, barely visible from Manhattan. The World characterized it as \"more like a glowworm than a beacon.\" Bartholdi suggested gilding the statue to increase its ability to reflect light, but this proved too expensive. The United States Lighthouse Board took over the Statue of Liberty in 1887 and pledged to install equipment to enhance the torch's effect; in spite of its efforts, the statue remained virtually invisible at night. When Bartholdi returned to the United States in 1893, he made additional suggestions, all of which proved ineffective. He did successfully lobby for improved lighting within the statue, allowing visitors to better appreciate Eiffel's design. In 1901, President Theodore Roosevelt, once a member of the New York committee, ordered the statue's transfer to the War Department, as it had proved useless as a lighthouse. A unit of the Army Signal Corps was stationed on Bedloe's Island until 1923, after which military police remained there while the island was under military jurisdiction.\n\nThe statue rapidly became a landmark. Many immigrants who entered through New York saw it as a welcoming sight. Oral histories of immigrants record their feelings of exhilaration on first viewing the Statue of Liberty. One immigrant who arrived from Greece recalled,\nI saw the Statue of Liberty. And I said to myself, \"Lady, you're such a beautiful! You opened your arms and you get all the foreigners here. Give me a chance to prove that I am worth it, to do something, to be someone in America.\" And always that statue was on my mind.\n\nOriginally, the statue was a dull copper color, but shortly after 1900 a green patina, also called verdigris, caused by the oxidation of the copper skin, began to spread. As early as 1902 it was mentioned in the press; by 1906 it had entirely covered the statue. Believing that the patina was evidence of corrosion, Congress authorized $62,800 for various repairs, and to paint the statue both inside and out. There was considerable public protest against the proposed exterior painting. The Army Corps of Engineers studied the patina for any ill effects to the statue and concluded that it protected the skin, \"softened the outlines of the Statue and made it beautiful.\" The statue was painted only on the inside. The Corps of Engineers also installed an elevator to take visitors from the base to the top of the pedestal.\n\nOn July 30, 1916, during World War I, German saboteurs set off a disastrous explosion on the Black Tom peninsula in Jersey City, New Jersey, in what is now part of Liberty State Park, close to Bedloe's Island. Carloads of dynamite and other explosives that were being sent to Britain and France for their war efforts were detonated, and seven people were killed. The statue sustained minor damage, mostly to the torch-bearing right arm, and was closed for ten days. The cost to repair the statue and buildings on the island was about $100,000. The narrow ascent to the torch was closed for public safety reasons, and it has remained closed ever since.\n\nThat same year, Ralph Pulitzer, who had succeeded his father Joseph as publisher of the World, began a drive to raise $30,000 for an exterior lighting system to illuminate the statue at night. He claimed over 80,000 contributors but failed to reach the goal. The difference was quietly made up by a gift from a wealthy donor—a fact that was not revealed until 1936. An underwater power cable brought electricity from the mainland and floodlights were placed along the walls of Fort Wood. Gutzon Borglum, who later sculpted Mount Rushmore, redesigned the torch, replacing much of the original copper with stained glass. On December 2, 1916, President Woodrow Wilson pressed the telegraph key that turned on the lights, successfully illuminating the statue.\n\nAfter the United States entered World War I in 1917, images of the statue were heavily used in both recruitment posters and the Liberty Bond drives that urged American citizens to support the war financially. This impressed upon the public the war's stated purpose—to secure liberty—and served as a reminder that embattled France had given the United States the statue.\n\nIn 1924, President Calvin Coolidge used his authority under the Antiquities Act to declare the statue a National Monument. The only successful suicide in the statue's history occurred five years later, when a man climbed out of one of the windows in the crown and jumped to his death, glancing off the statue's breast and landing on the base.\n\nEarly National Park Service years (1933–1982) \n\nIn 1933, President Franklin Roosevelt ordered the statue transferred to the National Park Service (NPS). In 1937, the NPS gained jurisdiction over the rest of Bedloe's Island. With the Army's departure, the NPS began to transform the island into a park. The Works Progress Administration (WPA) demolished most of the old buildings, regraded and reseeded the eastern end of the island, and built granite steps for a new public entrance to the statue from its rear. The WPA also carried out restoration work within the statue, temporarily removing the rays from the statue's halo so their rusted supports could be replaced. Rusted cast-iron steps in the pedestal were replaced with new ones made of reinforced concrete; the upper parts of the stairways within the statue were replaced, as well. Copper sheathing was installed to prevent further damage from rainwater that had been seeping into the pedestal. The statue was closed to the public from May until December 1938.\n\nDuring World War II, the statue remained open to visitors, although it was not illuminated at night due to wartime blackouts. It was lit briefly on December 31, 1943, and on D-Day, June 6, 1944, when its lights flashed \"dot-dot-dot-dash\", the Morse code for V, for victory. New, powerful lighting was installed in 1944–1945, and beginning on V-E Day, the statue was once again illuminated after sunset. The lighting was for only a few hours each evening, and it was not until 1957 that the statue was illuminated every night, all night. In 1946, the interior of the statue within reach of visitors was coated with a special plastic so that graffiti could be washed away.\n\nIn 1956, an Act of Congress officially renamed Bedloe's Island as Liberty Island, a change advocated by Bartholdi generations earlier. The act also mentioned the efforts to found an American Museum of Immigration on the island, which backers took as federal approval of the project, though the government was slow to grant funds for it. Nearby Ellis Island was made part of the Statue of Liberty National Monument by proclamation of President Lyndon Johnson in 1965. In 1972, the immigration museum, in the statue's base, was finally opened in a ceremony led by President Richard Nixon. The museum's backers never provided it with an endowment to secure its future and it closed in 1991 after the opening of an immigration museum on Ellis Island.\n\nBeginning December 26, 1971, 15 anti-Vietnam War veterans occupied the statue, flying a US flag upside down from her crown. They left December 28 following a Federal Court order. The statue was also several times taken over briefly by demonstrators publicizing causes such as Puerto Rican independence, opposition to abortion, and opposition to US intervention in Grenada. Demonstrations with the permission of the Park Service included a Gay Pride Parade rally and the annual Captive Baltic Nations rally.\n\nA powerful new lighting system was installed in advance of the American Bicentennial in 1976. The statue was the focal point for Operation Sail, a regatta of tall ships from all over the world that entered New York Harbor on July 4, 1976, and sailed around Liberty Island. The day concluded with a spectacular display of fireworks near the statue.\n\nRenovation and rededication (1982–2000) \n\nThe statue was examined in great detail by French and American engineers as part of the planning for its centennial in 1986. In 1982, it was announced that the statue was in need of considerable restoration. Careful study had revealed that the right arm had been improperly attached to the main structure. It was swaying more and more when strong winds blew and there was a significant risk of structural failure. In addition, the head had been installed 2 ft off center, and one of the rays was wearing a hole in the right arm when the statue moved in the wind. The armature structure was badly corroded, and about two percent of the exterior plates needed to be replaced. Although problems with the armature had been recognized as early as 1936, when cast iron replacements for some of the bars had been installed, much of the corrosion had been hidden by layers of paint applied over the years.\n\nIn May 1982, President Ronald Reagan announced the formation of the Statue of Liberty–Ellis Island Centennial Commission, led by Chrysler Corporation chair Lee Iacocca, to raise the funds needed to complete the work. Through its fundraising arm, the Statue of Liberty–Ellis Island Foundation, Inc., the group raised more than $350 million in donations. The Statue of Liberty was one of the earliest beneficiaries of a cause marketing campaign. A 1983 promotion advertised that for each purchase made with an American Express card, the company would contribute one cent to the renovation of the statue. The campaign generated contributions of $1.7 million to the restoration project.\n\nIn 1984, the statue was closed to the public for the duration of the renovation. Workers erected the world's largest free-standing scaffold, which obscured the statue from view. Liquid nitrogen was used to remove layers of paint that had been applied to the interior of the copper skin over decades, leaving two layers of coal tar, originally applied to plug leaks and prevent corrosion. Blasting with baking soda powder removed the tar without further damaging the copper. The restorers' work was hampered by the asbestos-based substance that Bartholdi had used—ineffectively, as inspections showed—to prevent galvanic corrosion. Workers within the statue had to wear protective gear, dubbed \"moon suits\", with self-contained breathing circuits. Larger holes in the copper skin were repaired, and new copper was added where necessary. The replacement skin was taken from a copper rooftop at Bell Labs, which had a patina that closely resembled the statue's; in exchange, the laboratory was provided some of the old copper skin for testing. The torch, found to have been leaking water since the 1916 alterations, was replaced with an exact replica of Bartholdi's unaltered torch. Consideration was given to replacing the arm and shoulder; the National Park Service insisted that they be repaired instead. The original torch was removed and replaced in 1986 with the current one, whose flame is covered in 24-carat gold. The torch reflects the sun's rays in daytime and lighted by floodlights at night.\n\nThe entire puddled iron armature designed by Gustave Eiffel was replaced. Low-carbon corrosion-resistant stainless steel bars that now hold the staples next to the skin are made of Ferralium, an alloy that bends slightly and returns to its original shape as the statue moves. To prevent the ray and arm making contact, the ray was realigned by several degrees. The lighting was again replaced—night-time illumination subsequently came from metal-halide lamps that send beams of light to particular parts of the pedestal or statue, showing off various details. Access to the pedestal, which had been through a nondescript entrance built in the 1960s, was renovated to create a wide opening framed by a set of monumental bronze doors with designs symbolic of the renovation. A modern elevator was installed, allowing handicapped access to the observation area of the pedestal. An emergency elevator was installed within the statue, reaching up to the level of the shoulder.\n\nJuly 3–6, 1986, was designated \"Liberty Weekend\", marking the centennial of the statue and its reopening. President Reagan presided over the rededication, with French President François Mitterrand in attendance. July 4 saw a reprise of Operation Sail, and the statue was reopened to the public on July 5. In Reagan's dedication speech, he stated, \"We are the keepers of the flame of liberty; we hold it high for the world to see.\"\n\nClosures and reopening (2001–present) \n\nFollowing the September 11 attacks, the statue and Liberty Island were immediately closed to the public. The island reopened at the end of 2001, while the pedestal and statue remained off-limits. The pedestal reopened in August 2004, but the National Park Service announced that visitors could not safely be given access to the statue due to the difficulty of evacuation in an emergency. The Park Service adhered to that position through the remainder of the Bush administration. New York Congressman Anthony Weiner made the statue's reopening a personal crusade. On May 17, 2009, President Barack Obama's Secretary of the Interior, Ken Salazar, announced that as a \"special gift\" to America, the statue would be reopened to the public as of July 4, but that only a limited number of people would be permitted to ascend to the crown each day.\n\nThe statue, including the pedestal and base, closed on October 29, 2011 for installation of new elevators and staircases and to bring other facilities, such as restrooms, up to code. The statue was closed to the public until October 28, 2012. A day after the reopening, the statue closed again due to Hurricane Sandy. Although the storm did not harm the statue, it destroyed some of the infrastructure on both Liberty Island and Ellis Island, severely damaging the dock used by the ferries bearing visitors to the statue. On November 8, 2012, a Park Service spokesperson announced that both islands would remain closed for an indefinite period for repairs to be done. Due to lack of electricity on Liberty Island, a generator was installed to power temporary floodlights to illuminate the statue at night. The superintendent of Statue of Liberty National Monument, David Luchsinger, whose home on the island was severely damaged, stated that it would be \"optimistically ... months\" before the island was reopened to the public. The statue and Liberty Island reopened to the public on July 4, 2013. Ellis Island remained closed for repairs for several more months but reopened in late October 2013. For part of October 2013, Liberty Island was closed to the public due to the United States federal government shutdown of 2013, along with other federally funded museums, parks, monuments, construction projects and buildings. \n\nAccess and attributes \n\nLocation and tourism\n\nThe statue is situated in Upper New York Bay on Liberty Island south of Ellis Island, which together comprise the Statue of Liberty National Monument. Both islands were ceded by New York to the federal government in 1800. As agreed in an 1834 compact between New York and New Jersey that set the state border at the bay's midpoint, the original islands remain New York territory despite their location on the New Jersey side of the state line. Liberty Island is one of the islands that are part of the borough of Manhattan in New York. Land created by reclamation added to the original island at Ellis Island is New Jersey territory.\n\nNo charge is made for entrance to the national monument, but there is a cost for the ferry service that all visitors must use, as private boats may not dock at the island. A concession was granted in 2007 to Statue Cruises to operate the transportation and ticketing facilities, replacing Circle Line, which had operated the service since 1953.\nThe ferries, which depart from Liberty State Park in Jersey City and Battery Park in Lower Manhattan, also stop at Ellis Island when it is open to the public, making a combined trip possible. All ferry riders are subject to security screening, similar to airport procedures, prior to boarding. Visitors intending to enter the statue's base and pedestal must obtain a complimentary museum/pedestal ticket along with their ferry ticket. Those wishing to climb the staircase within the statue to the crown purchase a special ticket, which may be reserved up to a year in advance. A total of 240 people per day are permitted to ascend: ten per group, three groups per hour. Climbers may bring only medication and cameras—lockers are provided for other items—and must undergo a second security screening.\n\nInscriptions, plaques, and dedications \n\nThere are several plaques and dedicatory tablets on or near the Statue of Liberty. \nA plaque on the copper just under the figure in front declares that it is a colossal statue representing Liberty, designed by Bartholdi and built by the Paris firm of Gaget, Gauthier et Cie (Cie is the French abbreviation analogous to Co.). \nA presentation tablet, also bearing Bartholdi's name, declares the statue is a gift from the people of the Republic of France that honors \"the Alliance of the two Nations in achieving the Independence of the United States of America and attests their abiding friendship.\" \nA tablet placed by the New York committee commemorates the fundraising done to build the pedestal. \nThe cornerstone bears a plaque placed by the Freemasons.\nIn 1903, a bronze tablet that bears the text of Emma Lazarus's sonnet, \"The New Colossus\" (1883), was presented by friends of the poet. Until the 1986 renovation, it was mounted inside the pedestal; today it resides in the Statue of Liberty Museum, in the base. \n\"The New Colossus\" tablet is accompanied by a tablet given by the Emma Lazarus Commemorative Committee in 1977, celebrating the poet's life.\n\nA group of statues stands at the western end of the island, honoring those closely associated with the Statue of Liberty. Two Americans—Pulitzer and Lazarus—and three Frenchmen—Bartholdi, Eiffel, and Laboulaye—are depicted. They are the work of Maryland sculptor Phillip Ratner.\n\nUNESCO World Heritage Site\n\nIn 1984, the Statue of Liberty was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The UNESCO \"Statement of Significance\" describes the statue as a \"masterpiece of the human spirit\" that \"endures as a highly potent symbol—inspiring contemplation, debate and protest—of ideals such as liberty, peace, human rights, abolition of slavery, democracy and opportunity.\"\n\nPhysical characteristics \n\nDepictions \n\nHundreds of replicas of the Statue of Liberty are displayed worldwide. A smaller version of the statue, one-fourth the height of the original, was given by the American community in Paris to that city. It now stands on the Île aux Cygnes, facing west toward her larger sister. A replica 30 ft tall stood atop the Liberty Warehouse on West 64th Street in Manhattan for many years; it now resides at the Brooklyn Museum. In a patriotic tribute, the Boy Scouts of America, as part of their Strengthen the Arm of Liberty campaign in 1949–1952, donated about two hundred replicas of the statue, made of stamped copper and 100 in in height, to states and municipalities across the United States. Though not a true replica, the statue known as the Goddess of Democracy temporarily erected during the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 was similarly inspired by French democratic traditions—the sculptors took care to avoid a direct imitation of the Statue of Liberty. Among other recreations of New York City structures, a replica of the statue is part of the exterior of the New York-New York Hotel and Casino in Las Vegas.\n\nAs an American icon, the Statue of Liberty has been depicted on the country's coinage and stamps. It appeared on commemorative coins issued to mark its 1986 centennial, and on New York's 2001 entry in the state quarters series. An image of the statue was chosen for the American Eagle platinum bullion coins in 1997, and it was placed on the reverse, or tails, side of the Presidential Dollar series of circulating coins. Two images of the statue's torch appear on the current ten-dollar bill. The statue's intended photographic depiction on a 2010 forever stamp proved instead to be of the replica at the Las Vegas casino.\n\nDepictions of the statue have been used by many regional institutions. Between 1986 and 2000, New York State issued license plates featuring the statue. The Women's National Basketball Association's New York Liberty use both the statue's name and its image in their logo, in which the torch's flame doubles as a basketball. The New York Rangers of the National Hockey League depicted the statue's head on their third jersey, beginning in 1997. The National Collegiate Athletic Association's 1996 Men's Basketball Final Four, played at New Jersey's Meadowlands Sports Complex, featured the statue in its logo. The Libertarian Party of the United States uses the statue in its emblem.\n\nThe statue is a frequent subject in popular culture. In music, it has been evoked to indicate support for American policies, as in Toby Keith's song \"Courtesy of the Red, White and Blue (The Angry American)\", and in opposition, appearing on the cover of the Dead Kennedys' album Bedtime for Democracy, which protested the Reagan administration. In film, the torch is the setting for the climax of director Alfred Hitchcock's 1942 movie Saboteur. The statue makes one of its most famous cinematic appearances in the 1968 picture Planet of the Apes, in which it is seen half-buried in sand. It is knocked over in the science-fiction film Independence Day and in Cloverfield the head is ripped off. In Jack Finney's time-travel novel Time and Again, the right arm of the statue, on display in the early 1880s in Madison Square Park, plays a crucial role. Robert Holdstock, consulting editor of The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction, wondered in 1979,\n\nWhere would science fiction be without the Statue of Liberty? For decades it has towered or crumbled above the wastelands of deserted [E]arth—giants have uprooted it, aliens have found it curious ... the symbol of Liberty, of optimism, has become a symbol of science fiction's pessimistic view of the future.\"" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Liberty, Statue of", "Statue of liberty", "Fort Wood National Monument", "Staute of Liberty", "Statue of Liberty", "Azadliq Statue", "Freiheitsstatue", "Liberty Enlightening the World", "Statue of Liberty, USA", "Statue Of Liberty", "Liberty enlightening the world", "Statue Liberty", "Mother of Exiles", "The Statue of Liberty", "Frederick R. 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Who sang the Bond theme form From Russia With Love?	tc_332	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "Search" ], "filename": [ "From_Russia_with_Love_(film).txt", "From_Russia_with_Love_(soundtrack).txt" ], "title": [ "From Russia with Love (film)", "From Russia with Love (soundtrack)" ], "wiki_context": [ "From Russia with Love is a 1963 British-American spy thriller film, directed by Terence Young, produced by Albert R. Broccoli and Harry Saltzman, and written by Richard Maibaum, based on Ian Fleming's 1957 novel of the same name. It is the second film in the James Bond film series, as well as Sean Connery's second role as MI6 agent James Bond. In the film, Bond is sent to assist in the defection of Soviet consulate clerk Tatiana Romanova in Turkey, where SPECTRE plans to avenge Bond's killing of Dr. No.\n\nFollowing the success of Dr. No, United Artists greenlit a sequel and doubled the budget available for the producers. In addition to filming on location in Turkey, the action scenes were shot at Pinewood Studios, Buckinghamshire and in Scotland. Production ran over budget and schedule, and was rushed to finish by its scheduled October 1963 release date. \n\nFrom Russia with Love was a critical and commercial success, taking over $78 million in worldwide box office receipts over its $2 million budget, more than its predecessor Dr. No, becoming a blockbuster in 1960s cinema.\n\nPlot\n\nSeeking to exact revenge on James Bond (007) for killing SPECTRE's agent, Dr. No, the organisation's expert planner, Kronsteen, devises a plan to manipulate him into stealing a Lektor cryptographic device from the Soviets. SPECTRE's leader, Number 1, puts Rosa Klebb, an ex-SMERSH operative and the organisation's Number 3, in charge of the mission. Klebb recruits Donald \"Red\" Grant, ordering him to protect Bond until he acquires the Lektor, before killing him for it and bringing the device back to SPECTRE so they can sell it back to the Soviets. To further assist the scheme, Klebb recruits Tatiana Romanova, a cipher clerk at the Soviet consulate in Istanbul, whom she fools into thinking that she is still working for SMERSH. In London, M informs Bond that Romanova has contacted their \"Station 'T'\" in Turkey, offering to defect with a Lektor, which both MI6 and the CIA have been after for years. However, Romanova's message states that she will only defect if brought back by Bond, whose photo she had supposedly found in a Soviet intelligence file. Prior to his departure, Bond is supplied with a attaché case containing a concealed knife, concealed gold sovereigns, and a special tear gas booby trap connected to the lock mechanism, along with an Armalite AR-7 rifle.\n\nAfter travelling to Istanbul, Bond heads into the city to meet with station head Ali Kerim Bey, tailed by Bulgarians working for the Russians. They are in turn tailed by Grant, who kills one of them after Bond is taken back to his hotel, stealing their car and dumping it outside the Soviet consulate to implicate Kerim Bey. After Karim Bey luckily escapes a limpet mine attempt on his life, he assists Bond the following day to spy on the Soviet consulate. Upon learning that a rival agent, Krilencu, has recently returned and suspecting he was behind the attack on his life, Kerim Bey declares it unwise to stay in the city and takes Bond with him to a rural gypsy settlement. However, Krilencu learns of this and promptly attacks with his men. While Kerim Bey is wounded in the attack, Bond narrowly avoids being killed by being secretly saved by Grant. The following night, Bond and Kerim Bey track down Krilencu to his hideout and kill him with Bond's rifle.\n\nUpon returning to his hotel suite that night, Bond finds Romanova waiting for him in his bed and sleeps with her; neither are aware of SPECTRE filming them. The next day, Romanova heads off for a pre-arranged rendezvous at Hagia Sophia to drop off the floor plans for the consulate, with Grant ensuring Bond receives the plans by killing the other Bulgarian tail who attempts to intercept the drop. Using the plans, Bond and Kerim Bey successfully steal the Lektor and, together with Romanova, escape with the device onto the Orient Express. On the train, Kerim Bey quickly notices a Soviet security officer named Benz tailing them, prompting him and Bond to subdue him. When Bond leaves Benz and Kerim Bey alone together, Grant kills them, and makes it appear as though they killed each other, preventing Bond from leaving the train with Romanova to rendezvous with one of Kerim's men. At the next station, Bond passes on word of Kerim Bey's death, and requests for an agent from Station Y to meet him at Zagreb. However, when the train arrives at the station, Grant intercepts Nash, sent from Station Y, killing him before posing as him. After drugging Romanova at dinner, Grant overcomes Bond, before taunting him about SPECTRE's involvement in the theft. After disclosing that Romanova was unaware of what was truly going on, believing she was working for Russia, Grant reveals to Bond his plans to leave behind the film SPECTRE took of him and Romanova in the hotel, along with a forged blackmail letter, to make it appear that their deaths were the result of a murder-suicide. Bond quickly convinces him to accept a bribe of gold sovereigns in exchange for a final cigarette, tricking Grant into setting off the booby trap in his attaché case. In the ensuing struggle, Bond narrowly gains the upper hand, stabbing Grant with the case's concealed knife before strangling him with his own garrotte. At dawn, Romanova, having recovered, leaves the train with Bond, whereupon they hijack Grant's getaway truck and drive to a dock, taking a moored boat Grant planned to use.\n\nUpon hearing the news of Grant's death, Number 1 summons Kronsteen and Klebb to remind them that SPECTRE does not tolerate failure, before having Kronsteen executed. Klebb, given one final chance to complete the mission, is instructed to get back the Lektor before Bond returns to Britain. Klebb sends a SPECTRE agent named Morzeny, to intercept Bond with a squadron of SPECTRE's boats. However, Bond escapes by releasing his boat's gasoline drums and detonating them with a signal flare which engulfs his pursuer's boats in flames. Eventually, he and Romanova reach Venice and check into a hotel. While discussing his mission's success, Klebb, disguised as a maid, attempts to steal the Lektor. Struggling with Bond, she tries to kill him with a gun and then a poisoned toe-spike concealed in her shoe, until Romanova shoots her. In the final scene, Bond throws the bedroom film of himself and Romanova into the water as they motorboat down the canal.\n\nCast\n\n* Sean Connery as James Bond: Secret Intelligence Service Agent 007.\n* Daniela Bianchi as Tatiana Romanova (voiced by Barbara Jefford): Soviet Embassy clerk and Bond's love interest. Fleming based Romanova on Christine Granville. \n* Pedro Armendáriz as Ali Kerim Bey: British Intelligence station chief in Istanbul.\n* Lotte Lenya as Rosa Klebb: A former SMERSH colonel, now chief operations officer for SPECTRE.\n* Robert Shaw as Donald \"Red\" Grant: Cunning SPECTRE assassin and one of the principal Bond enemies.\n* Bernard Lee as M: Chief of British Intelligence.\n* Walter Gotell as Morzeny: SPECTRE thug who trains personnel on SPECTRE Island.\n* Vladek Sheybal as Kronsteen: Chess grandmaster, and chief planning officer for SPECTRE.\n* \"?\" (anonymous credit for Anthony Dawson (body) and Eric Pohlmann (voice)) as \"Number 1\" (Ernst Stavro Blofeld): Chief of SPECTRE and Bond's nemesis.\n* Lois Maxwell as Miss Moneypenny: M's secretary.\n* Desmond Llewelyn as Major Boothroyd: Head of \"Q\" Section (British Intelligence gadgetry department).\n* Eunice Gayson as Sylvia Trench: Bond's semi-regular girlfriend.\n* Francis de Wolff as Vavra: Chief of a Gypsy tribe used for dirty work by Kerim Bey.\n* George Pastell as the Orient Express train conductor.\n* Fred Haggerty as Krilencu: A Bulgarian assassin who works as a killer for the Soviets in the Balkans.\n* Aliza Gur and Martine Beswick as Vida and Zora, respectively: Two jealous Gypsy girls who are disputing the same man.\n* Nadja Regin as Kerim Bey's lonely girlfriend.\n\nProduction\n\nFollowing the financial success of Dr. No, United Artists greenlit a second James Bond film. The studio doubled the budget offered to Eon Productions with $2 million, and also approved a bonus for Sean Connery, who would receive $100,000 along with his $54,000 salary. As President John F. Kennedy had named Fleming's novel From Russia with Love among his ten favourite books of all time in Life magazine, producers Broccoli and Saltzman chose this as the follow-up to Bond's cinematic debut in Dr. No. From Russia with Love was the last film President Kennedy saw at the White House on 20 November 1963 before going to Dallas. Most of the crew from the first film returned, with major exceptions being production designer Ken Adam, who went to work on Dr. Strangelove and was replaced by Dr. Nos art director Syd Cain; title designer Maurice Binder was replaced by Robert Brownjohn, and stunt coordinator Bob Simmons was unavailable and was replaced by Peter Perkins though Simmons performed stunts in the film. John Barry replaced Monty Norman as composer of the soundtrack.\n\nThe film introduced several conventions which would become essential elements of the series: a pre-title sequence, the Blofeld character (referred in the film only as \"Number 1\"), a secret-weapon gadget for Bond, a helicopter sequence (repeated in every subsequent Bond film except The Man with the Golden Gun), a postscript action scene after the main climax, a theme song with lyrics, and the line \"James Bond will return/be back\" in the credits.\n\nWriting\n\nIan Fleming's novel was a Cold War thriller but the producers replaced the Soviet undercover agency SMERSH with the crime syndicate SPECTRE so as to avoid controversial political overtones. The SPECTRE training grounds were inspired by the film Spartacus. The original screenwriter was Len Deighton, who accompanied Harry Saltzman, Syd Cain, and Terence Young to Istanbul but he was replaced because of a lack of progress. Thus, two of Dr. Nos writers, Johanna Harwood and Richard Maibaum, returned for the second film in the series Some sources state Harwood with being credited for \"adaptation\" mostly for her suggestions which were carried over into Maibaum's script. Harwood stated in an interview in a Cinema Retro that she had been a screenwriter of several of Harry Saltzman's projects, and her screenplay for From Russia with Love had followed Fleming's novel closely, but she left the series due to what she called Terence Young's constant rewriting of her screenplay with ideas that were not in the original Fleming work. \nMaibaum kept on making rewrites as filming progressed. Red Grant was added to the Istanbul scenes just prior to the film crew's trip to Turkey—a change that brought more focus to the SPECTRE plot, as Grant started saving Bond's life there (a late change during shooting involved Grant killing the bespectacled spy at Hagia Sophia instead of Bond, who ends up just finding the man dead). For the last quarter of the movie, Maibaum added two chase scenes, with a helicopter and speedboats, and changed the location of Bond and Klebb's battle from Paris to Venice. \n\nCasting\n\nAlthough uncredited, the actor who played Number 1 was Anthony Dawson, who had played Professor Dent in the previous Bond film, Dr. No and appeared in several of Terence Young's films. In the end credits, Blofeld is credited with a question mark. Blofeld's lines were redubbed by Viennese actor Eric Pohlmann in the final cut. Peter Burton was unavailable to return as Major Boothroyd, so Desmond Llewelyn, a Welsh actor who was a fan of the Bond comic strip published in the Daily Express, accepted the part. However, screen credit for Llewelyn was omitted at the opening of the film and is reserved for the exit credits, where he is credited simply as \"Boothroyd\". Llewelyn's character is not referred to by this name in dialogue, but M does introduce him as being from Q Branch. Llewelyn remained as the character, better known as Q, in all but one of the series' films until his death in 1999. \n\nSeveral actresses were considered for the role of Tatiana, including Italians Sylva Koscina and Virna Lisi, Danish actress Annette Vadim, and English-born Tania Mallet. 1960 Miss Universe runner-up Daniela Bianchi was ultimately cast, supposedly Sean Connery's choice. Bianchi started taking English classes for the role, but the producers ultimately chose to have her lines redubbed by British stage actress Barbara Jefford in the final cut. The scene in which Bond finds Tatiana in his hotel bed was used for Bianchi's screen test, with Dawson standing in, this time, as Bond. The scene later became the traditional screen test scene for prospective James Bond actors and Bond Girls. \n\nGreek actress Katina Paxinou was originally considered for the role of Rosa Klebb, but was unavailable. Terence Young cast Austrian singer Lotte Lenya after hearing one of her musical recordings. Young wanted Kronsteen's portrayer to be \"an actor with a remarkable face\", so the minor character would be well remembered by audiences. This led to the casting of Vladek Sheybal, whom Young also considered convincing as an intellectual. Several women were tested for the roles of Vida and Zora, the two fighting Gypsy girls, and after Aliza Gur and Martine Beswick were cast, they spent six weeks practising their fight choreography with stunt work arranger Peter Perkins. \n\nMexican actor Pedro Armendáriz was recommended to Young by director John Ford to play Kerim Bey. After experiencing increasing discomfort on location in Istanbul, Armendáriz was diagnosed with inoperable cancer. Filming in Istanbul was terminated, the production moved to Britain, and Armendáriz's scenes were brought forward so that he could complete his scenes without delay. Though visibly in pain, he continued working as long as possible. When he could no longer work, he returned home and took his own life. Remaining shots after Armendáriz left London had a stunt double and Terence Young himself as stand-ins.\n\nEnglishman Joe Robinson was a strong contender for the role of Red Grant but it was given to Robert Shaw. \n\nFilming\n\nMost of the film was set in Istanbul, Turkey. Locations included the Basilica Cistern, Hagia Sophia and the Sirkeci railway station which also was used for the Belgrade and Zagreb railway stations. The MI6 office in London, SPECTRE Island, the Venice hotel and the interior scenes of the Orient Express were filmed at Pinewood Studios with some footage of the train. In the film, the train journey was set in Eastern Europe. The journey and the truck ride were shot in Argyll, Scotland and Switzerland. The end scenes for the film were shot in Venice. However, to qualify for the British film funding of the time, at least 70 percent of the film had to have been filmed in Great Britain or the Commonwealth. The Gypsy camp was also to be filmed in an actual camp in Topkapi, but was actually shot in a replica of it in Pinewood. The scene with rats (after the theft of the Lektor) was shot in Spain, as Britain did not allow filming with wild rats, and filming white rats painted in cocoa did not work. Principal photography began on 1 April 1963, and wrapped on 23 August. \n\nDirector Terence Young's eye for realism was evident throughout production. For the opening chess match, Kronsteen wins the game with a re-enactment of Boris Spassky's victory over David Bronstein in 1960. Production Designer Syd Cain built up the \"chess pawn\" motif in his $150,000 set for the brief sequence. A noteworthy gadget featured was the attaché case (briefcase) issued by Q Branch. It had a tear gas bomb that detonated if the case was improperly opened, a folding AR-7 sniper rifle with twenty rounds of ammunition, a throwing knife, and 50 gold sovereigns. A boxer at Cambridge, Young choreographed the fight between Grant and Bond along with stunt co-ordinator Peter Perkins. The scene took three weeks to film and was violent enough to worry some on the production. Yet Robert Shaw and Connery did most of the stunts themselves.\n\nAfter the unexpected loss of Armendáriz, production proceeded, experiencing complications from uncredited rewrites by Berkely Mather during filming. Editor Peter Hunt set about editing the film while key elements were still to be filmed, helping to restructure the opening scenes. Hunt and Young conceived of moving the Red Grant training sequence to the beginning of the film (prior to the main title), a signature feature that has been an enduring hallmark of every Bond film since. The briefing with Blofeld was rewritten, and back projection was used to re-film Lotte Lenya's lines.\n\nBehind schedule and over-budget, the production crew struggled to complete production in time for the already-announced premiere date that October. On 6 July 1963, while scouting locations in Argyll, Scotland for that day's filming of the climactic boat chase, Terence Young's helicopter crashed into the water with art director Michael White and a cameraman aboard. The craft sank into 40–50 feet (12–15 m) of water, but all escaped with minor injuries. Despite the calamity, Young was behind the camera for the full day's work. A few days later, Bianchi's driver fell asleep during the commute to a 6 am shoot and crashed the car. The actress's face was bruised and Bianchi's scenes had to be delayed for two weeks while the facial contusions healed.\n\nThe helicopter and boat chase scenes were not in the original novel but were added to create an action climax. The former was inspired by the crop-dusting scene in Hitchcock's North by Northwest and the latter by a previous Young/Broccoli/Maibaum collaboration, The Red Beret. These two scenes would initially be shot in Istanbul but were moved to Scotland. The speed-boats could not run fast enough due to the many waves in the sea, and a rented boat filled with cameras ended up sinking in the Bosphorus. A helicopter was also hard to obtain, and the special effects crew were nearly arrested trying to get one at a local air base. The helicopter chase was filmed with a radio controlled miniature helicopter. The sounds of the boat chase were replaced in post-production since the boats were not loud enough, and the explosion, shot in Pinewood, got out of control, burning Walter Gotell's eyelids and seriously injuring three stuntmen. \n\nPhotographer David Hurn was commissioned by the producers of the James Bond films to shoot a series of stills with Sean Connery and the actresses of the film. When the theatrical property Walther PPK pistol did not arrive, Hurn volunteered the use of his own Walther LP-53 air pistol. Though the photographs of the \"James Bond is Back\" posters of the US release airbrushed out the long barrel of the pistol, film poster artist Renato Fratini used the long-barrelled pistol for his drawings of Connery on the British posters. \n\nFor the opening credits, Maurice Binder had disagreements with the producers and did not want to return. Designer Robert Brownjohn stepped into his place, and projected the credits on female dancers, inspired by constructivist artist László Moholy-Nagy projecting light onto clouds in the 1920s. Brownjohn's work started the tradition of scantily clad women in the Bond films' title sequences.\n\nMusic\n\nFrom Russia with Love is the first Bond film in the series with John Barry as the primary soundtrack composer. The theme song was composed by Lionel Bart of Oliver! fame and sung by Matt Monro, although the title credit music is a lively instrumental version of the tune beginning with Barry's brief James Bond is Back then segueing into Monty Norman's \"James Bond Theme\". Monro's vocal version is later played during the film (as source music on a radio) and properly over the film's end titles. Barry travelled with the crew to Turkey to try getting influences of the local music, but ended up using almost nothing, just local instruments such as finger cymbals to give an exotic feeling, since he thought the Turkish music had a comedic tone that did not fit in the \"dramatic feeling\" of the James Bond movies. \n\nIn this film, Barry introduced the percussive theme \"007\"—action music that came to be considered the \"secondary James Bond theme\". He composed it to have a lighter, enthusiastic and more adventurous theme to relax the audience. The arrangement appears twice on the soundtrack album; the second version, entitled \"007 Takes the Lektor\", is the one used during the gunfight at the Gypsy camp and also during Bond's theft of the Lektor decoding machine. The completed film features a holdover from the Monty Norman-supervised Dr. No music; the post-rocket-launch music from Dr. No is played in From Russia with Love during the helicopter and speedboat attacks.\n\nRelease and reception\n\nFrom Russia with Love premiered on 10 October 1963 at the Odeon Leicester Square in London. Ian Fleming, Sean Connery and Walter Gotell attended the premiere. The following year, it was released in 16 countries worldwide, with the United States premiere on 8 April 1964, at New York's Astor Theatre. Upon its first release, From Russia with Love doubled Dr. Nos gross by earning $12.5 million ($ million in dollars) at the worldwide box office. After reissue it grossed $78 million, of which $24 million was from North America. It was the most popular movie at the British box office in 1963. \n\nThe film's cinematographer Ted Moore won the BAFTA award and the British Society of Cinematographers award for Best Cinematography. At the 1965 Laurel Awards, Lotte Lenya stood third for Best Female Supporting Performance, and the film secured second place in the Action-Drama category. The film was also nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song for \"From Russia with Love\". \n\nContemporary reviews\n\nIn comparing the film to its predecessor, Dr. No, Richard Roud, writing in The Guardian, said that From Russia with Love \"didn't seem quite so lively, quite so fresh, or quite so rhythmically fast-moving.\" He went on to say that \"... the film is highly immoral in every imaginable way; it is neither uplifting, instructive nor life-enhancing. Neither is it great film-making. But it sure is fun.\" Writing in The Observer, Penelope Gilliatt noted that \"The way the credits are done has the same self-mocking flamboyance as everything else in the picture.\" Gilliatt went on to say that the film manages \"to keep up its own cracking pace, nearly all the way. The set-pieces are a stunning box of tricks\". The critic for The Times wrote of Bond that he is \"the secret ideal of the congenital square, conventional in every particular ... except in morality, where he has the courage—and the physical equipment—to do without thinking what most of us feel we might be doing ...\" The critic thought that overall, \"the nonsense is all very amiable and tongue-in-cheek and will no doubt make a fortune for its devisers\".\n\nBosley Crowther of The New York Times said: \"Don't miss it! This is to say, don't miss it if you can still get the least bit of fun out of lurid adventure fiction and pseudo-realistic fantasy. For this mad melodramatization of a desperate adventure of Bond with sinister characters in Istanbul and on the Orient Express is fictional exaggeration on a grand scale and in a dashing style, thoroughly illogical and improbable, but with tongue blithely wedged in cheek.\" \n\nTime magazine called the film \"fast, smart, shrewdly directed and capably performed\" and commented extensively on the film's humour, saying \"Director Young is a master of the form he ridicules, and in almost every episode he hands the audience shocks as well as yocks. But the yocks are more memorable. They result from slight but sly infractions of the thriller formula. A Russian agent, for instance, does not simply escape through a window; no, he escapes through a window in a brick wall painted with a colossal poster portrait of Anita Ekberg, and as he crawls out of the window, he seems to be crawling out of Anita's mouth. Or again, Bond does not simply train a telescope on the Russian consulate and hope he can read somebody's lips; no, he makes his way laboriously into a gallery beneath the joint, runs a submarine periscope up through the walls, and there, at close range, inspects two important Soviet secrets: the heroine's legs.\"\n\nReflective reviews\n \nFrom Russia with Love received generally positive reviews from critics; Rotten Tomatoes sampled 49 reviewers and judged 96% of the reviews to be positive. Many online sites also commonly state From Russia with Love as the best Bond film of all time. \n\nIn his 1986 book, Danny Peary described From Russia with Love as \"an excellent, surprisingly tough and gritty James Bond film\" which is \"refreshingly free of the gimmickry that would characterise the later Bond films, and Connery and Bianchi play real people. We worry about them and hope their relationship will work out ... Shaw and Lotte Lenya are splendid villains. Both have exciting, well-choreographed fights with Connery. Actors play it straight, with excellent results.\" \n\nFilm critic James Berardinelli cited this as his favourite Bond film, writing \"Only From Russia with Love avoids slipping into the comic book realm of Goldfinger and its successors while giving us a sampling of the familiar Bond formula (action, gadgets, women, cars, etc.). From Russia with Love is effectively paced and plotted, features a gallery of detestable rogues (including the ultimate Bond villain, Blofeld), and offers countless thrills \". \n\nIn June 2001 Neil Smith of BBC Films called it \"a film that only gets better with age\". In 2004, Total Film magazine named it the ninth-greatest British film of all time, making it the only James Bond film to appear on the list. In 2006, Jay Antani of Filmcritic praised the film's \"impressive staging of action scenes\", while IGN listed it as second-best Bond film ever, behind only Goldfinger. That same year, Entertainment Weekly put the film at ninth among Bond films, criticising the slow pace. When the \"James Bond Ultimate Collector's Set\" was released in November 2007 by MGM, Norman Wilner of MSN chose From Russia with Love as the best Bond film. Conversely, in his book about the Bond phenomenon, The Man With the Golden Touch, British author Sinclair McKay states \"I know it is heresy to say so, and that some enthusiasts regard From Russia With Love as the Holy Grail of Bond, but let's be searingly honest – some of it is crashingly dull.\" \nIn 2014 Time Out polled several film critics, directors, actors and stunt actors to list their top action films; From Russia With Love was listed at 69. \n\nThe British Film Institute's screenonline guide called the film \"one of the series' high points\" and said it \"had advantages not enjoyed by many later Bond films, notably an intelligent script that retained the substance of Ian Fleming's novel while toning down the overt Cold War politics (the Cuban Missile Crisis had only occurred the previous year).\" In 2008, Michael G. Wilson, the current co-producer of the series, stated \"We always start out trying to make another From Russia with Love and end up with another Thunderball.\" Sean Connery, Michael G. Wilson, Barbara Broccoli, Timothy Dalton and Daniel Craig also consider this their favourite Bond film. Albert Broccoli listed it with Goldfinger and The Spy Who Loved Me as one of his top three favourites, explaining that he felt \"it was with this film that the Bond style and formula were perfected\". \n\nVideo game adaptation\n\nIn 2005, the From Russia with Love video game was developed by Electronic Arts and released on 1 November 2005 in North America. It follows the storyline of the book and film, albeit adding in new scenes, making it more action-oriented. One of the most significant changes to the story is the replacement of the organisation SPECTRE to OCTOPUS because the name SPECTRE constituted a long-running legal dispute over the film rights to Thunderball between United Artists/MGM and writer Kevin McClory. Most of the cast from the film returned in likeness. Connery not only allowed his 1960s likeness as Bond to be used, but the actor, in his 70s, also recorded the character's dialogue, marking a return to the role 22 years after he last played Bond in Never Say Never Again. Featuring a third-person multiplayer deathmatch mode, the game depicts several elements of later Bond films such as the Aston Martin DB5 from Goldfinger (1964) and the rocketbelt from Thunderball (1965). \n\nThe game was penned by Bruce Feirstein who previously worked on the film scripts for GoldenEye, Tomorrow Never Dies, The World Is Not Enough, and the 2004 video game, Everything or Nothing. Its soundtrack was composed by Christopher Lennertz and Vic Flick.", "From Russia with Love is the soundtrack for the second James Bond film of the same name. This is the first series film with John Barry as the primary soundtrack composer.\n\nJohn Barry, arranger of Monty Norman's \"James Bond Theme\" for Dr. No, would be the dominant Bond series composer for most of its history and the inspiration for fellow series composer, David Arnold (who uses cues from this soundtrack in his own for Tomorrow Never Dies).\n\nProduction\n\nFollowing the decision of the producers not to use Monty Norman, though keeping his \"James Bond Theme\", Harry Saltzman decided on using the then popular Lionel Bart of Oliver! fame. Bart was unable to read or write music, but he offered to compose the music and lyrics for a title song to the film.\n\nThe producers chose John Barry to score the film. Barry had not only arranged and conducted the \"James Bond Theme\" from the previous film, but had already scored some films such as Beat Girl and Never Let Go. Barry's group also charted at 13 in the November 1962 UK charts with a different arrangement of the Bond theme from that heard in the film. \n\nThe title song was sung by Matt Monro. Monro's vocal version is played during the film (as source music on a radio) and properly over the film's end titles. The title credit music is a lively instrumental version of the tune preceded by a brief Barry-composed \"James Bond is Back\" then segueing into the \"James Bond Theme\". On the original film soundtrack, Alan Haven played a jazzy organ over the theme but this version was not released on the soundtrack album. The tune also appears in a soft string arrangement as a theme for Tania. In Germany, the original release featured an end title track cover version called Die Wolga ist Weit sung by Ruthe Berlé. \n\nOriginally planning to use local Turkish music as Norman had used Jamaican music on Dr No, Barry accompanied the film crew to Istanbul, however he found nothing suitable for the film. There are different tracks of Turkish-type music in the film that do not appear on the soundtrack (the track \"Leila Dances\" is not heard in the film).\n\nIn this film, Barry introduced the percussive \"007\" that came to be considered the 'secondary James Bond Theme'. Barry's instrumental group The John Barry Seven had had a UK chart hit with a cover version of Elmer Bernstein's The Magnificent Seven; both that tune and \"007\" featured seven beats. It is used in various Bond films starring Sean Connery and also in Moonraker, starring Roger Moore. The arrangement appears twice on this soundtrack album; the second version, titled \"007 Takes the Lektor\", is the one used during the gunfight at the gypsy camp and also during Bond's theft of the Lektor decoding machine (the soundtrack album version is not heard in the film).\n\nThe completed film features a holdover from Norman's Dr. No music – the post-rocket-launch music from Dr. No (after Bond disrupts Dr. No's attempts to jam the takeoff) appears in From Russia with Love at the conclusion of the helicopter attack, and also at SPECTRE's attempt to intercept Bond's speedboat. This cue is absent from the From Russia with Love soundtrack album. The original Barry arrangement of the \"James Bond Theme\" for Dr. No was inserted by the producers in the film when Bond searches his room in Istanbul for microphones. Barry did a new arrangement of the theme used when Bond leaves London and flies into Istanbul titled \"James Bond with Bongos\" that Billy Strange did a cover version of for the US charts.\n\nBarry noted that Bart's lyrics used the film's title, but had nothing to do with the film's story, a matter he would rectify when he was assigned the next Bond film, 1964's Goldfinger, which was the first Bond film for which he had total creative control over the soundtrack, including the theme song's music (Leslie Bricusse and Anthony Newley would contribute the theme's lyrics).\n\nBarry's \"Stalking\", the music for the pre-credit sequence, is echoed by composer Marvin Hamlisch in his score for the 1977 Bond film The Spy Who Loved Me.\n\nAlbum and cover versions\n\nThe soundtrack's original recordings are thought to be lost and did not appear when the Bond soundtrack albums were issued in remastered form on CD. The album is different from the film with the album's recording of the main titles sounding slower and not featuring the organ played by Alan Haven. Several tracks on the album do not appear in the completed film. The album was the last of the Bond soundtrack albums to feature more than the usual six tracks per record side.\n\nThe soundtrack album reached 28 on the Variety charts in March 1964 with the title song becoming Unart Music's most recorded song. Other cover versions of the \"James Bond Theme\" were also released to coincide with the film. Barry also released different cover versions of the title song and \"007\" on his Ember records for the pop charts. The Roland Shaw Orchestra performed cover versions of most of the music of Barry's soundtrack on several albums.\n\nTrack listing\n\n# \"Opening Titles: James Bond Is Back/From Russia with Love/James Bond Theme\" (different arrangement from that heard in the film)\n# \"Tania Meets Klebb\"\n# \"Meeting in St. Sophia\"\n# \"The Golden Horn\" \n# \"Girl Trouble\"\n# \"Bond Meets Tania\"\n# \"007\"\n# \"Gypsy Camp\"\n# \"Death of Grant\"\n# \"From Russia with Love\" – Matt Monro\n# \"Spectre Island\"\n# \"Guitar Lament\" \n# \"Man Overboard/SMERSH in Action\"\n# \"James Bond with Bongos\"contains the \"James Bond Theme\", originally composed for the Dr. No soundtrack\n# \"Stalking\"\n# \"Leila Dances\" \n# \"Death of Kerim\"\n# \"007 Takes the Lektor\"\n\n Not heard in the film\n\nOutside the Film\n\n* In 1965, KYW-TV in Philadelphia adopted the \"007 Takes The Lektor\" track as its longtime theme for its Eyewitness News format. It went on to be used in other Group W stations in Boston, Pittsburgh, Baltimore and San Francisco for their newscasts. Two years later, \"007 Takes The Lektor\" would be recycled for further Bond use, in the autogyro scene in You Only Live Twice." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Fred Flange", "Matt Monroe", "Matt Munro", "Matt Monro", "Matt Munroe", "Terence Edward Parsons" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "terence edward parsons", "fred flange", "matt munro", "matt munroe", "matt monro", "matt monroe" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "matt monro", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Matt Monro" }
Which company was responsible for the oil spill in New York harbor in 1990?	tc_333	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Oil_spill.txt" ], "title": [ "Oil spill" ], "wiki_context": [ "An oil spill is the release of a liquid petroleum hydrocarbon into the environment, especially marine areas, due to human activity, and is a form of pollution. The term is usually applied to marine oil spills, where oil is released into the ocean or coastal waters, but spills may also occur on land. Oil spills may be due to releases of crude oil from tankers, offshore platforms, drilling rigs and wells, as well as spills of refined petroleum products (such as gasoline, diesel) and their by-products, heavier fuels used by large ships such as bunker fuel, or the spill of any oily refuse or waste oil.\n\nOil spills penetrate into the structure of the plumage of birds and the fur of mammals, reducing its insulating ability, and making them more vulnerable to temperature fluctuations and much less buoyant in the water. Cleanup and recovery from an oil spill is difficult and depends upon many factors, including the type of oil spilled, the temperature of the water (affecting evaporation and biodegradation), and the types of shorelines and beaches involved. Spills may take weeks, months or even years to clean up. \n\nOil spills can have disastrous consequences for society; economically, environmentally, and socially. As a result, oil spill accidents have initiated intense media attention and political uproar, bringing many together in a political struggle concerning government response to oil spills and what actions can best prevent them from happening. Despite substantial national and international policy improvements on preventing oil spills adopted in recent decades, large oil spills keep occurring.\n\nLargest oil spills\n\nCrude oil and refined fuel spills from tanker ship accidents have damaged vulnerable ecosystems in Alaska, the Gulf of Mexico, the Galapagos Islands, France, the Sundarbans, Ogoniland, and many other places. The quantity of oil spilled during accidents has ranged from a few hundred tons to several hundred thousand tons (e.g., Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill, Atlantic Empress, Amoco Cadiz), but volume is a limited barometer of damage or impact. Smaller spills have already proven to have a great impact on ecosystems, such as the Exxon Valdez oil spill because of the remoteness of the site or the difficulty of an emergency environmental response.\n\nOil spills at sea are generally much more damaging than those on land, since they can spread for hundreds of nautical miles in a thin oil slick which can cover beaches with a thin coating of oil. These can kill seabirds, mammals, shellfish and other organisms they coat. Oil spills on land are more readily containable if a makeshift earth dam can be rapidly bulldozed around the spill site before most of the oil escapes, and land animals can avoid the oil more easily.\n\nHuman impact\n\nAn oil spill represents an immediate fire hazard. The Kuwaiti oil fires produced air pollution that caused respiratory distress. The Deepwater Horizon explosion killed eleven oil rig workers. The fire resulting from the Lac-Mégantic derailment killed 47 and destroyed half of the town's centre.\n\nSpilled oil can also contaminate drinking water supplies. For example, in 2013 two different oil spills contaminated water supplies for 300,000 in Miri, Malaysia; 80,000 people in Coca, Ecuador,. In 2000, springs were contaminated by an oil spill in Clark County, Kentucky. \n\nContamination can have an economic impact on tourism and marine resource extraction industries. For example, the Deepwater Horizon oil spill impacted beach tourism and fishing along the Gulf Coast, and the responsible parties were required to compensate economic victims.\n\nEnvironmental effects\n\nIn general, sрilled oil can affect animals and plants in twо ways: dirесt from the oil and from the respоnsе or cleаnup process. There is no clear relationship between the amount of oil in the aquatic environment and the likely impact\non Biodiversity. A smaller spill at the wrong time/wrong season and in a sensitive environment may prove much more harmful than a larger spill at another time of the year in another or even the same environment. Oil penetrates into the structure of the plumage of birds and the fur of mammals, reducing its insulating ability, and making them more vulnerable to temperature fluctuations and much less buoyant in the water.\n\nAnimals who rely on scent to find their babies or mothers cannot due to the strong scent of the oil. This causes a baby to be rejected and abandoned, leaving the babies to starve and eventually die. Oil can impair a bird's ability to fly, preventing it from foraging or escaping from predators. As they preen, birds may ingest the oil coating their feathers, irritating the digestive tract, altering liver function, and causing kidney damage. Together with their diminished foraging capacity, this can rapidly result in dehydration and metabolic imbalance. Some birds exposed to petroleum also experience changes in their hormonal balance, including changes in their luteinizing protein. The majority of birds affected by oil spills die from complications without human intervention. Some studies have suggested that less than one percent of oil-soaked birds survive, even after cleaning, although the survival rate can also exceed ninety percent, as in the case of the Treasure oil spill. \n\nHeavily furred exposed to oil spills are affected in similar ways. Oil coats the fur of sea otters and seals, reducing its insulating effect, and leading to fluctuations in body temperature and hypothermia. Oil can also blind an animal, leaving it defenseless. The ingestion of oil causes dehydration and impairs the digestive process. Animals can be poisoned, and may die from oil entering the lungs or liver.\n\nThere are three kinds of oil-consuming bacteria. Sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) and acid-producing bacteria are anaerobic, while general aerobic bacteria (GAB) are aerobic. These bacteria occur naturally and will act to remove oil from an ecosystem, and their biomass will tend to replace other populations in the food chain.\n\nSources and rate of occurrence\n\nA VLCC tanker can carry 2 Moilbbl of crude oil. This is about eight times the amount spilled in the widely known Exxon Valdez incident. In this spill, the ship ran aground and dumped 260000 oilbbl of oil into the ocean in March 1989. Despite efforts of scientists, managers, and volunteers over 400,000 seabirds, about 1,000 sea otters, and immense numbers of fish were killed. Considering the volume of oil carried by sea, however, tanker owners' organisations often argue that the industry's safety record is excellent, with only a tiny fraction of a percentage of oil cargoes carried ever being spilled. The International Association of Independent Tanker Owners has observed that \"accidental oil spills this decade have been at record low levels—one third of the previous decade and one tenth of the 1970s—at a time when oil transported has more than doubled since the mid 1980s.\"\n\nOil tankers are only one source of oil spills. According to the United States Coast Guard, 35.7% of the volume of oil spilled in the United States from 1991 to 2004 came from tank vessels (ships/barges), 27.6% from facilities and other non-vessels, 19.9% from non-tank vessels, and 9.3% from pipelines; 7.4% from mystery spills. On the other hand, only 5% of the actual spills came from oil tankers, while 51.8% came from other kinds of vessels.\n\nThe International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation has tracked 9,351 accidental spills that have occurred since 1974. According to this study, most spills result from routine operations such as loading cargo, discharging cargo, and taking on fuel oil. 91% of the operational oil spills are small, resulting in less than 7 metric tons per spill. On the other hand, spills resulting from accidents like collisions, groundings, hull failures, and explosions are much larger, with 84% of these involving losses of over 700 metric tons.\n\nCleanup and recovery\n\nCleanup and recovery from an oil spill is difficult and depends upon many factors, including the type of oil spilled, the temperature of the water (affecting evaporation and biodegradation), and the types of shorelines and beaches involved.\n\nMethods for cleaning up include: \n* Bioremediation: use of microorganisms or biological agents to break down or remove oil; such as the bacteria Alcanivorax[http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1046/j.1462-2920.2002.00275.x/full], Kasai, Y et al. \"Predominant Growth of Alcanivorax Strains in Oil-contaminated and Nutrient-supplemented Sea Water.\" Environmental Microbiology 4.3 (2002): 141-47. or Methylocella Silvestris. \n* Bioremediation Accelerator: Oleophilic, hydrophobic chemical, containing no bacteria, which chemically and physically bonds to both soluble and insoluble hydrocarbons. The bioremediation accelerator acts as a herding agent in water and on the surface, floating molecules to the surface of the water, including solubles such as phenols and BTEX, forming gel-like agglomerations. Undetectable levels of hydrocarbons can be obtained in produced water and manageable water columns. By overspraying sheen with bioremediation accelerator, sheen is eliminated within minutes. Whether applied on land or on water, the nutrient-rich emulsion creates a bloom of local, indigenous, pre-existing, hydrocarbon-consuming bacteria. Those specific bacteria break down the hydrocarbons into water and carbon dioxide, with EPA tests showing 98% of alkanes biodegraded in 28 days; and aromatics being biodegraded 200 times faster than in nature they also sometimes use the hydrofireboom to clean the oil up by taking it away from most of the oil and burning it. \n\n* Controlled burning can effectively reduce the amount of oil in water, if done properly. But it can only be done in low wind, and can cause air pollution. \n\n* Dispersants can be used to dissipate oil slicks. A dispersant is either a non-surface active polymer or a surface-active substance added to a suspension, usually a colloid, to improve the separation of particles and to prevent settling or clumping. They may rapidly disperse large amounts of certain oil types from the sea surface by transferring it into the water column. They will cause the oil slick to break up and form water-soluble micelles that are rapidly diluted. The oil is then effectively spread throughout a larger volume of water than the surface from where the oil was dispersed. They can also delay the formation of persistent oil-in-water emulsions. However, laboratory experiments showed that dispersants increased toxic hydrocarbon levels in fish by a factor of up to 100 and may kill fish eggs. Dispersed oil droplets infiltrate into deeper water and can lethally contaminate coral. Research indicates that some dispersants are toxic to corals. A 2012 study found that Corexit dispersant had increased the toxicity of oil by up to 52 times. \n\n* Watch and wait: in some cases, natural attenuation of oil may be most appropriate, due to the invasive nature of facilitated methods of remediation, particularly in ecologically sensitive areas such as wetlands. \n* Dredging: for oils dispersed with detergents and other oils denser than water.\n* Skimming: Requires calm waters at all times during the process.\n* Solidifying: Solidifiers are composed of tiny, floating, dry ice pellets, and hydrophobic polymers that both adsorb and absorb. They clean up oil spills by changing the physical state of spilled oil from liquid to a solid, semi-solid or a rubber-like material that floats on water. Solidifiers are insoluble in water, therefore the removal of the solidified oil is easy and the oil will not leach out. Solidifiers have been proven to be relatively non-toxic to aquatic and wild life and have been proven to suppress harmful vapors commonly associated with hydrocarbons such as Benzene, Xylene, Methyl Ethyl, Acetone and Naphtha. The reaction time for solidification of oil is controlled by the surface area or size of the polymer or dry pellets as well as the viscosity and thickness of the oil layer. Some solidifier product manufactures claim the solidified oil can be thawed and used if frozen with dry ice or disposed of in landfills, recycled as an additive in asphalt or rubber products, or burned as a low ash fuel. A solidifier called C.I.Agent (manufactured by C.I.Agent Solutions of Louisville, Kentucky) is being used by BP in granular form, as well as in Marine and Sheen Booms at Dauphin Island and Fort Morgan, Alabama, to aid in the Deepwater Horizon oil spill cleanup.\n* Vacuum and centrifuge: oil can be sucked up along with the water, and then a centrifuge can be used to separate the oil from the water - allowing a tanker to be filled with near pure oil. Usually, the water is returned to the sea, making the process more efficient, but allowing small amounts of oil to go back as well. This issue has hampered the use of centrifuges due to a United States regulation limiting the amount of oil in water returned to the sea.\n* Beach Raking: coagulated oil that is left on the beach can be picked up by machinery.\n\nEquipment used includes: \n* Booms: large floating barriers that round up oil and lift the oil off the water\n* Skimmers: skim the oil\n* Sorbents: large absorbents that absorb oil\n* Chemical and biological agents: helps to break down the oil\n* Vacuums: remove oil from beaches and water surface\n* Shovels and other road equipment: typically used to clean up oil on beaches\n\nPrevention\n\n* Secondary containment - methods to prevent releases of oil or hydrocarbons into environment.\n* Oil Spill Prevention Containment and Countermeasures (SPCC) program by the United States Environmental Protection Agency.\n* Double-hulling - build double hulls into vessels, which reduces the risk and severity of a spill in case of a collision or grounding. Existing single-hull vessels can also be rebuilt to have a double hull.\n* Thick-hulled railroad transport tanks \n\nSpill response procedures should include elements such as; \n* A listing of appropriate protective clothing, safety equipment, and cleanup materials required \nfor spill cleanup (gloves, respirators, etc.) and an explanation of their proper use; \n* Appropriate evacuation zones and procedures; \n* Availability of fire suppression equipment; \n* Disposal containers for spill cleanup materials; and \n* The first aid procedures that might be required. \n \n\nEnvironmental Sensitivity Index (ESI) mapping\n\nEnvironmental Sensitivity Index (ESI) maps are used to identify sensitive shoreline resources prior to an oil spill event in order to set priorities for protection and plan cleanup strategies. By planning spill response ahead of time, the impact on the environment can be minimized or prevented. Environmental sensitivity index maps are basically made up of information within the following three categories: shoreline type, and biological and human-use resources. \n\nShoreline type\n\nShoreline type is classified by rank depending on how easy the garet would be to clean up, how long the oil would persist, and how sensitive the shoreline is. The floating oil slicks put the shoreline at particular risk when they eventually come ashore, covering the substrate with oil. The differing substrates between shoreline types vary in their response to oiling, and influence the type of cleanup that will be required to effectively decontaminate the shoreline. In 1995, the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration extended ESI maps to lakes, rivers, and estuary shoreline types. The exposure the shoreline has to wave energy and tides, substrate type, and slope of the shoreline are also taken into account—in addition to biological productivity and sensitivity. The productivity of the shoreline habitat is also taken into account when determining ESI ranking. Mangroves and marshes tend to have higher ESI rankings due to the potentially long-lasting and damaging effects of both the oil contamination and cleanup actions. Impermeable and exposed surfaces with high wave action are ranked lower due to the reflecting waves keeping oil from coming onshore, and the speed at which natural processes will remove the oil.\n\nBiological resources\n\nHabitats of plants and animals that may be at risk from oil spills are referred to as \"elements\" and are divided by functional group. Further classification divides each element into species groups with similar life histories and behaviors relative to their vulnerability to oil spills. There are eight element groups: Birds, Reptiles, Amphibians, Fish, Invertebrates, Habitats and Plants, Wetlands, and Marine Mammals and Terrestrial Mammals. Element groups are further divided into sub-groups, for example, the ‘marine mammals’ element group is divided into dolphins, manatees, pinnipeds (seals, sea lions & walruses), polar bears, sea otters and whales. Problems taken into consideration when ranking biological resources include the observance of a large number of individuals in a small area, whether special life stages occur ashore (nesting or molting), and whether there are species present that are threatened, endangered or rare. \n\nHuman-use resources\n\nHuman use resources are divided into four major classifications; archaeological importance or cultural resource site, high-use recreational areas or shoreline access points, important protected management areas, or resource origins. Some examples include airports, diving sites, popular beach sites, marinas, natural reserves or marine sanctuaries.\n\nEstimating the volume of a spill\n\nBy observing the thickness of the film of oil and its appearance on the surface of the water, it is possible to estimate the quantity of oil spilled. If the surface area of the spill is also known, the total volume of the oil can be calculated. \n\nOil spill model systems are used by industry and government to assist in planning and emergency decision making. Of critical importance for the skill of the oil spill model prediction is the adequate description of the wind and current fields. There is a worldwide oil spill modelling (WOSM) program. Tracking the scope of an oil spill may also involve verifying that hydrocarbons collected during an ongoing spill are derived from the active spill or some other source. This can involve sophisticated analytical chemistry focused on finger printing an oil source based on the complex mixture of substances present. Largely, these will be various hydrocarbons, among the most useful being polyaromatic hydrocarbons. In addition, both oxygen and nitrogen heterocyclic hydrocarbons, such as parent and alkyl homologues of carbazole, quinoline, and pyridine, are present in many crude oils. As a result, these compounds have great potential to supplement the existing suite of hydrocarbons targets to fine-tune source tracking of petroleum spills. Such analysis can also be used to follow weathering and degradation of crude spills." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Standard Oil New Jersey", "Exxon Company", "Exxon", "Jersey Standard", "EXXon", "Exxon Research and Engineering Company", "Esso Petroleum", "Standard Oil Company of New Jersey", "Exxon Company USA" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "exxon company usa", "jersey standard", "esso petroleum", "exxon research and engineering company", "standard oil new jersey", "standard oil company of new jersey", "exxon company", "exxon" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "exxon", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Exxon" }
In which country was Arnold Schwarzenegger born?	tc_334	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "Search" ], "filename": [ "Arnold_Schwarzenegger.txt", "Gustav_Schwarzenegger.txt" ], "title": [ "Arnold Schwarzenegger", "Gustav Schwarzenegger" ], "wiki_context": [ "Arnold Alois Schwarzenegger (;; born July 30, 1947) is an Austrian-American actor, filmmaker, businessman, investor, author, philanthropist, activist, and former professional bodybuilder and politician. He served two terms as the 38th Governor of California from 2003 until 2011.\n\nSchwarzenegger began weight training at the age of 15. He won the Mr. Universe title at age 20 and went on to win the Mr. Olympia contest seven times. Schwarzenegger has remained a prominent presence in bodybuilding and has written many books and articles on the sport. He is widely considered to be among the greatest bodybuilders of all times as well as its biggest icon. Schwarzenegger gained worldwide fame as a Hollywood action film icon. His breakthrough film was the sword-and-sorcery epic Conan the Barbarian in 1982, which was a box-office hit and resulted in a sequel.\n\nIn 1984, Schwarzenegger appeared in James Cameron's science-fiction thriller film The Terminator, which was a massive critical and box-office success. Schwarzenegger subsequently reprised the Terminator character in the franchise's later installments in 1991, 2003, and 2015. He appeared in a number of successful films, such as Commando (1985), The Running Man (1987), Predator (1987), Twins (1988), Total Recall (1990), Kindergarten Cop (1990) and True Lies (1994). He was nicknamed the \"Austrian Oak\" in his bodybuilding days, \"Arnie\" during his acting career, and \"The Governator\" (a combination of \"Governor\" and \"The Terminator\", one of his best-known movie roles) during his political career.\n\nAs a Republican, he was first elected on October 7, 2003, in a special recall election to replace then-Governor Gray Davis. Schwarzenegger was sworn in on November 17, to serve the remainder of Davis's term. Schwarzenegger was then re-elected on November 7, 2006, in the 2006 California gubernatorial election, to serve a full term as governor, defeating Democrat Phil Angelides, who was California State Treasurer at the time. Schwarzenegger was sworn in for his second term on January 5, 2007. In 2011, Schwarzenegger completed his second term as governor.\n\nEarly life \n\nSchwarzenegger was born in Thal, Styria, and christened Arnold Alois. His parents were Gustav Schwarzenegger (August 17, 1907 – December 13, 1972) and Aurelia Schwarzenegger (née Jadrny; July 29, 1922 – August 2, 1998). Gustav was the local chief of police, and had served in World War II as a Hauptfeldwebel after voluntarily joining the Nazi Party in 1938, though he was discharged in 1943 following a bout of malaria. He married Schwarzenegger's mother on October 20, 1945; he was 38, and she was 23. According to Schwarzenegger, both of his parents were very strict: \"Back then in Austria it was a very different world, if we did something bad or we disobeyed our parents, the rod was not spared.\" Schwarzenegger grew up in a Roman Catholic family who attended Mass every Sunday. \n\nGustav had a preference for his elder son, Meinhard (July 17, 1946 – May 20, 1971), over Arnold. His favoritism was \"strong and blatant\", which stemmed from unfounded suspicion that Arnold was not his biological child. Schwarzenegger has said his father had \"no patience for listening or understanding your problems\". He had a good relationship with his mother and kept in touch with her until her death. In later life, Schwarzenegger commissioned the Simon Wiesenthal Center to research his father's wartime record, which came up with no evidence of Gustav's being involved in atrocities, despite his membership in the Nazi Party and SA. Gustav's background received wide press attention during the 2003 California recall campaign. At school, Schwarzenegger was apparently in the middle but stood out for his \"cheerful, good-humored, and exuberant\" character. Money was a problem in their household; Schwarzenegger recalled that one of the highlights of his youth was when the family bought a refrigerator.\n\nAs a boy, Schwarzenegger played several sports, heavily influenced by his father. He picked up his first barbell in 1960, when his soccer coach took his team to a local gym. At the age of 14, he chose bodybuilding over soccer as a career. Schwarzenegger has responded to a question asking if he was 13 when he started weightlifting: \"I actually started weight training when I was 15, but I'd been participating in sports, like soccer, for years, so I felt that although I was slim, I was well-developed, at least enough so that I could start going to the gym and start Olympic lifting.\" However, his official website biography claims: \"At 14, he started an intensive training program with Dan Farmer, studied psychology at 15 (to learn more about the power of mind over body) and at 17, officially started his competitive career.\" During a speech in 2001, he said, \"My own plan formed when I was 14 years old. My father had wanted me to be a police officer like he was. My mother wanted me to go to trade school.\" \n\nSchwarzenegger took to visiting a gym in Graz, where he also frequented the local movie theaters to see bodybuilding idols such as Reg Park, Steve Reeves, and Johnny Weissmuller on the big screen. When Reeves died in 2000, Schwarzenegger fondly remembered him: \"As a teenager, I grew up with Steve Reeves. His remarkable accomplishments allowed me a sense of what was possible, when others around me didn't always understand my dreams. Steve Reeves has been part of everything I've ever been fortunate enough to achieve.\" In 1961, Schwarzenegger met former Mr. Austria Kurt Marnul, who invited him to train at the gym in Graz. He was so dedicated as a youngster that he broke into the local gym on weekends, when it was usually closed, so that he could train. \"It would make me sick to miss a workout... I knew I couldn't look at myself in the mirror the next morning if I didn't do it.\" When Schwarzenegger was asked about his first movie experience as a boy, he replied: \"I was very young, but I remember my father taking me to the Austrian theaters and seeing some newsreels. The first real movie I saw, that I distinctly remember, was a John Wayne movie.\" \n\nOn May 20, 1971, his brother, Meinhard, died in a car accident. Meinhard had been drinking and was killed instantly. Schwarzenegger did not attend his funeral. Meinhard was due to marry Erika Knapp, and the couple had a three-year-old son, Patrick. Schwarzenegger would pay for Patrick's education and help him to emigrate to the United States. Gustav died the following year from a stroke. In Pumping Iron, Schwarzenegger claimed that he did not attend his father's funeral because he was training for a bodybuilding contest. Later, he and the film's producer said this story was taken from another bodybuilder for the purpose of showing the extremes that some would go to for their sport and to make Schwarzenegger's image more cold and machine-like in order to fan controversy for the film. Barbara Baker, his first serious girlfriend, has said he informed her of his father's death without emotion and that he never spoke of his brother. Over time, he has given at least three versions of why he was absent from his father's funeral.\n\nIn an interview with Fortune in 2004, Schwarzenegger told how he suffered what \"would now be called child abuse\" at the hands of his father: \"My hair was pulled. I was hit with belts. So was the kid next door. It was just the way it was. Many of the children I've seen were broken by their parents, which was the German-Austrian mentality. They didn't want to create an individual. It was all about conforming. I was one who did not conform, and whose will could not be broken. Therefore, I became a rebel. Every time I got hit, and every time someone said, 'You can't do this,' I said, 'This is not going to be for much longer, because I'm going to move out of here. I want to be rich. I want to be somebody.'\"\n\nEarly adulthood \n\nSchwarzenegger served in the Austrian Army in 1965 to fulfill the one year of service required at the time of all 18-year-old Austrian males. During his army service, he won the Junior Mr. Europe contest. He went AWOL during basic training so he could take part in the competition and spent a week in military prison: \"Participating in the competition meant so much to me that I didn't carefully think through the consequences.\" He won another bodybuilding contest in Graz, at Steirer Hof Hotel (where he had placed second). He was voted best built man of Europe, which made him famous. \"The Mr. Universe title was my ticket to America – the land of opportunity, where I could become a star and get rich.\" Schwarzenegger made his first plane trip in 1966, attending the NABBA Mr. Universe competition in London. He would come in second in the Mr. Universe competition, not having the muscle definition of American winner Chester Yorton.\n\nCharles \"Wag\" Bennett, one of the judges at the 1966 competition, was impressed with Schwarzenegger and he offered to coach him. As Schwarzenegger had little money, Bennett invited him to stay in his crowded family home above one of his two gyms in Forest Gate, London, England. Yorton's leg definition had been judged superior, and Schwarzenegger, under a training program devised by Bennett, concentrated on improving the muscle definition and power in his legs. Staying in the East End of London helped Schwarzenegger improve his rudimentary grasp of the English language. Also in 1966, Schwarzenegger had the opportunity to meet childhood idol Reg Park, who became his friend and mentor. The training paid off and, in 1967, Schwarzenegger won the title for the first time, becoming the youngest ever Mr. Universe at the age of 20. He would go on to win the title a further three times. Schwarzenegger then flew back to Munich, training for four to six hours daily, attending business school and working in a health club (Rolf Putziger's gym where he worked and trained from 1966–1968), returning in 1968 to London to win his next Mr. Universe title. He frequently told Roger C. Field, his English coach and friend in Munich at that time, \"I'm going to become the greatest actor!\"\n\nMove to the U.S. \n\nSchwarzenegger, who dreamed of moving to the U.S. since the age of 10, and saw bodybuilding as the avenue through which to do so, realized his dream by moving to the United States in September 1968 at the age of 21, speaking little English. There he trained at Gold's Gym in Venice, Los Angeles, California, under Joe Weider. From 1970 to 1974, one of Schwarzenegger's weight training partners was Ric Drasin, a professional wrestler who designed the original Gold's Gym logo in 1973. Schwarzenegger also became good friends with professional wrestler Superstar Billy Graham. In 1970, at age 23, he captured his first Mr. Olympia title in New York, and would go on to win the title a total of seven times.\n\nThe immigration law firm Siskind & Susser has stated that Schwarzenegger may have been an illegal immigrant at some point in the late 1960s or early 1970s because of violations in the terms of his visa. LA Weekly would later say in 2002 that Schwarzenegger is the most famous immigrant in America, who \"overcame a thick Austrian accent and transcended the unlikely background of bodybuilding to become the biggest movie star in the world in the 1990s\".\n\nIn 1977, Schwarzenegger's autobiography/weight-training guide Arnold: The Education of a Bodybuilder was published and became a huge success. In 1977 he posed nude for the gay magazine After Dark. After taking English classes at Santa Monica College in California, he earned a BA by correspondence from the University of Wisconsin–Superior, where he graduated with a degree in international marketing of fitness and business administration in 1979. He got his American citizenship in 1983. \n\nHe tells that during this time he ran into a friend who told him that he was teaching Transcendental Meditation (TM), which prompted Schwarzenegger to reveal he had been struggling with anxiety for the first time in his life: \"Even today, I still benefit from [the year of TM] because I don't merge and bring things together and see everything as one big problem.\" \n\nBodybuilding career \n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \nSchwarzenegger is considered among the most important figures in the history of bodybuilding, and his legacy is commemorated in the Arnold Classic annual bodybuilding competition. Schwarzenegger has remained a prominent face in the bodybuilding sport long after his retirement, in part because of his ownership of gyms and fitness magazines. He has presided over numerous contests and awards shows.\n\nFor many years, he wrote a monthly column for the bodybuilding magazines Muscle & Fitness and Flex. Shortly after being elected Governor, he was appointed executive editor of both magazines, in a largely symbolic capacity. The magazines agreed to donate $250,000 a year to the Governor's various physical fitness initiatives. When the deal, including the contract that gave Schwarzenegger at least $1 million a year, was made public in 2005, many criticized it as being a conflict of interest since the governor's office made decisions concerning regulation of dietary supplements in California. Consequently, Schwarzenegger relinquished the executive editor role in 2005. American Media Inc., which owns Muscle & Fitness and Flex, announced in March 2013 that Schwarzenegger had accepted their renewed offer to be executive editor of the magazines.\n\nThe magazine MuscleMag International has a monthly two-page article on him, and refers to him as \"The King\".\n\nOne of the first competitions he won was the Junior Mr. Europe contest in 1965. He won Mr. Europe the following year, at age 19. He would go on to compete in, and win, many bodybuilding contests. His bodybuilding victories included five Mr. Universe (4 – NABBA [England], 1 – IFBB [USA]) wins, and seven Mr. Olympia wins, a record which would stand until Lee Haney won his eighth consecutive Mr. Olympia title in 1991.\n\nSchwarzenegger continues to work out even today. When asked about his personal training during the 2011 Arnold Classic he said that he was still working out a half an hour with weights every day. \n* Competition Weight: 235 lb (top 250 lb (113 kg))\n* Off Season Weight: 255 lb (top 260 lb (118 kg))\n\nPowerlifting/weightlifting \n\nDuring Schwarzenegger's early years in bodybuilding, he also competed in several Olympic weightlifting and powerlifting contests. Schwarzenegger won two weightlifting contests in 1964 and 1965, as well as two powerlifting contests in 1966 and 1968.\n\nIn 1967, Schwarzenegger won the Munich stone-lifting contest, in which a stone weighing 508 German pounds (254 kg/560 lbs.) is lifted between the legs while standing on two foot rests.\n\nPersonal records \n\n* Clean and press – 264 lb\n* Snatch – 243 lb\n* Clean and jerk – 298 lb\n* Squat – 545 lb\n* Bench press – 520 lb \n* Deadlift – 710 lb\n\nMr. Olympia \n\nSchwarzenegger's goal was to become the greatest bodybuilder in the world, which meant becoming Mr. Olympia. His first attempt was in 1969, when he lost to three-time champion Sergio Oliva. However, Schwarzenegger came back in 1970 and won the competition, making him the youngest ever Mr. Olympia at the age of 23, a record he still holds to this day.\n\nHe continued his winning streak in the 1971–74 competitions. In 1975, Schwarzenegger was once again in top form, and won the title for the sixth consecutive time, beating Franco Columbu. After the 1975 Mr. Olympia contest, Schwarzenegger announced his retirement from professional bodybuilding.\n\nMonths before the 1975 Mr. Olympia contest, filmmakers George Butler and Robert Fiore persuaded Schwarzenegger to compete, in order to film his training in the bodybuilding documentary called Pumping Iron. Schwarzenegger had only three months to prepare for the competition, after losing significant weight to appear in the film Stay Hungry with Jeff Bridges. Lou Ferrigno proved not to be a threat, and a lighter-than-usual Schwarzenegger convincingly won the 1975 Mr. Olympia.\n\nSchwarzenegger came out of retirement, however, to compete in the 1980 Mr. Olympia. Schwarzenegger was training for his role in Conan, and he got into such good shape because of the running, horseback riding and sword training, that he decided he wanted to win the Mr. Olympia contest one last time. He kept this plan a secret, in the event that a training accident would prevent his entry and cause him to lose face. Schwarzenegger had been hired to provide color commentary for network television, when he announced at the eleventh hour that while he was there: \"Why not compete?\" Schwarzenegger ended up winning the event with only seven weeks of preparation. After being declared Mr. Olympia for a seventh time, Schwarzenegger then officially retired from competition.\n\nSteroid use \n\nSchwarzenegger has admitted to using performance-enhancing anabolic steroids while they were legal, writing in 1977 that \"steroids were helpful to me in maintaining muscle size while on a strict diet in preparation for a contest. I did not use them for muscle growth, but rather for muscle maintenance when cutting up.\" He has called the drugs \"tissue building\". \n\nIn 1999, Schwarzenegger sued Dr. Willi Heepe, a German doctor who publicly predicted his early death on the basis of a link between his steroid use and his later heart problems. As the doctor had never examined him personally, Schwarzenegger collected a US$10,000 libel judgment against him in a German court. In 1999, Schwarzenegger also sued and settled with the Globe, a U.S. tabloid which had made similar predictions about the bodybuilder's future health. \n\nList of competitions \n\nActing career \n\nEarly roles \n\nSchwarzenegger wanted to move from bodybuilding into acting, finally achieving it when he was chosen to play the role of Hercules in 1970's Hercules in New York. Credited under the name \"Arnold Strong,\" his accent in the film was so thick that his lines were dubbed after production. His second film appearance was as a deaf mute hit-man for the mob in director Robert Altman's The Long Goodbye (1973), which was followed by a much more significant part in the film Stay Hungry (1976), for which he was awarded a Golden Globe for New Male Star of the Year. Schwarzenegger has discussed his early struggles in developing his acting career. \"It was very difficult for me in the beginning – I was told by agents and casting people that my body was 'too weird', that I had a funny accent, and that my name was too long. You name it, and they told me I had to change it. Basically, everywhere I turned, I was told that I had no chance.\"\n\nSchwarzenegger drew attention and boosted his profile in the bodybuilding film Pumping Iron (1977), elements of which were dramatized; in 1991, he purchased the rights to the film, its outtakes, and associated still photography. In 1977, he also appeared in an episode of the ABC situation comedy The San Pedro Beach Bums. Schwarzenegger auditioned for the title role of The Incredible Hulk, but did not win the role because of his height. Later, Lou Ferrigno got the part of Dr. David Banner's alter ego. Schwarzenegger appeared with Kirk Douglas and Ann-Margret in the 1979 comedy The Villain. In 1980, he starred in a biographical film of the 1950s actress Jayne Mansfield as Mansfield's husband, Mickey Hargitay.\n\nAction superstar \n\nSchwarzenegger's breakthrough film was the sword-and-sorcery epic Conan the Barbarian in 1982, which was a box-office hit. This was followed by a sequel, Conan the Destroyer, in 1984, although it was not as successful as its predecessor. In 1983, Schwarzenegger starred in the promotional video, Carnival in Rio. In 1984, he made his first appearance as the eponymous character, and what some would say was his acting career's signature role, in James Cameron's science fiction thriller film The Terminator. Following this, Schwarzenegger made Red Sonja in 1985.\n\nDuring the 1980s, audiences had an appetite for action films, with both Schwarzenegger and Sylvester Stallone becoming international stars. Schwarzenegger's roles reflected his sense of humor, separating him from more serious action hero films, such as the alternative universe poster for Terminator 2: Judgment Day starring Stallone in the comedy thriller Last Action Hero. He made a number of successful films, such as Commando (1985), Raw Deal (1986), The Running Man (1987), Predator (1987), and Red Heat (1988).\n\nTwins (1988), a comedy with Danny DeVito, also proved successful. Total Recall (1990) netted Schwarzenegger $10 million and 15% of the film's gross. A science fiction script, the film was based on the Philip K. Dick short story \"We Can Remember It for You Wholesale\". Kindergarten Cop (1990) reunited him with director Ivan Reitman, who directed him in Twins. Schwarzenegger had a brief foray into directing, first with a 1990 episode of the TV series Tales from the Crypt, entitled \"The Switch\", and then with the 1992 telemovie Christmas in Connecticut. He has not directed since.\n\nSchwarzenegger's commercial peak was his return as the title character in 1991's Terminator 2: Judgment Day, which was the highest-grossing film of 1991. In 1993, the National Association of Theatre Owners named him the \"International Star of the Decade\". His next film project, the 1993 self-aware action comedy spoof Last Action Hero, was released opposite Jurassic Park, and did not do well at the box office. His next film, the comedy drama True Lies (1994), was a popular spy film, and saw Schwarzenegger reunited with James Cameron.\n\nThat same year, the comedy Junior was released, the last of Schwarzenegger's three collaborations with Ivan Reitman and again co-starring Danny DeVito. This film brought him his second Golden Globe nomination, this time for Best Actor – Musical or Comedy. It was followed by the action thriller Eraser (1996), the Christmas comedy Jingle All The Way (1996), and the comic book-based Batman & Robin (1997), in which he played the villain Mr. Freeze. This was his final film before taking time to recuperate from a back injury. Following the critical failure of Batman & Robin, his film career and box office prominence went into decline. He returned with the supernatural thriller End of Days (1999), later followed by the action films The 6th Day (2000) and Collateral Damage (2002), both of which failed to do well at the box office. In 2003, he made his third appearance as the title character in Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines, which went on to earn over $150 million domestically. \n\nIn tribute to Schwarzenegger in 2002, Forum Stadtpark, a local cultural association, proposed plans to build a 25-meter (82 ft) tall Terminator statue in a park in central Graz. Schwarzenegger reportedly said he was flattered, but thought the money would be better spent on social projects and the Special Olympics. \n\nRetirement \n\nHis film appearances after becoming Governor of California included a three-second cameo appearance in The Rundown, and the 2004 remake of Around the World in 80 Days. In 2005, he appeared as himself in the film The Kid & I. He voiced Baron von Steuben in the Liberty's Kids episode \"Valley Forge\". He had been rumored to be appearing in Terminator Salvation as the original T-800; he denied his involvement, but he ultimately did appear briefly via his image being inserted into the movie from stock footage of the first Terminator movie. Schwarzenegger appeared in Sylvester Stallone's The Expendables, where he made a cameo appearance.\n\nReturn to acting \n\nIn January 2011, just weeks after leaving office in California, Schwarzenegger announced that he was reading several new scripts for future films, one of them being the World War II action drama With Wings as Eagles, written by Randall Wallace, based on a true story. On March 6, 2011, at the Arnold Seminar of the Arnold Classic, Schwarzenegger revealed that he was being considered for several films, including sequels to The Terminator and remakes of Predator and The Running Man, and that he was \"packaging\" a comic book character. The character was later revealed to be the Governator, star of the comic book and animated series of the same name. Schwarzenegger inspired the character and co-developed it with Stan Lee, who would have produced the series. Schwarzenegger would have voiced the Governator. \n\nOn May 20, 2011, Schwarzenegger's entertainment counsel announced that all movie projects currently in development were being halted: \"Schwarzenegger is focusing on personal matters and is not willing to commit to any production schedules or timelines\". On July 11, 2011, it was announced that Schwarzenegger was considering a comeback film despite his legal problems. He appeared in The Expendables 2 (2012), and starred in The Last Stand (2013), his first leading role in 10 years, and Escape Plan (2013), his first co-starring role alongside Sylvester Stallone. He starred in Sabotage, released in March 2014, and appeared in The Expendables 3, released in August 2014. He starred in the fifth Terminator movie Terminator Genisys in 2015 and will reprise his role as Conan the Barbarian in The Legend of Conan. \n\nThe Celebrity Apprentice \n\nIn September 2015, it was announced Schwarzenegger would replace Donald Trump as host of The Celebrity Apprentice. This show, the 15th season of The Apprentice, will air in the 2016-2017 TV season.\n\nFilmography \n\nSelected notable roles:\n\n* Hercules in New York as Hercules (1970)\n* Stay Hungry as Joe Santo (1976)\n* Pumping Iron as himself (1977)\n* The Villain as Handsome Stranger (1979)\n* The Jayne Mansfield Story as Mickey Hargitay (1980)\n* Conan the Barbarian as Conan (1982)\n* Conan the Destroyer as Conan (1984)\n* The Terminator as The Terminator/T-800 Model 101 (1984)\n* Red Sonja as Kalidor (1985)\n* Commando as John Matrix (1985)\n* Raw Deal as Mark Kaminsky, a.k.a. Joseph P. Brenner (1986)\n* Predator as Major Alan \"Dutch\" Schaeffer (1987)\n* The Running Man as Ben Richards (1987)\n* Red Heat as Captain Ivan Danko (1988)\n* Twins as Julius Benedict (1988)\n* Total Recall as Douglas Quaid/Hauser (1990)\n* Kindergarten Cop as Detective John Kimble (1990)\n* Terminator 2: Judgment Day as The Terminator/T-800 Model 101 (1991)\n* Last Action Hero as Jack Slater / Himself (1993)\n* True Lies as Harry Tasker (1994)\n* Junior as Dr. Alex Hesse (1994)\n* Eraser as U.S. Marshal John Kruger (1996)\n* Jingle All the Way as Howard Langston (1996)\n* Batman and Robin as Mr. Freeze (1997)\n* End of Days as Jericho Cane (1999)\n* The 6th Day as Adam Gibson / Adam Gibson Clone (2000)\n* Collateral Damage as Gordy Brewer (2002)\n* Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines as The Terminator/T-850 Model 101 (2003)\n* Around the World in 80 Days as Prince Hapi (2004)\n* The Expendables as Trench (2010)\n* The Expendables 2 as Trench (2012)\n* The Last Stand as Sheriff Ray Owens (2013)\n* Escape Plan as Rottmayer (2013)\n* Sabotage as John 'Breacher' Wharton (2014)\n* The Expendables 3 as Trench (2014)\n* Maggie as Wade Vogel (2015)\n* Terminator Genisys as The Terminator/T-800 Model 101/ The Guardian (2015)\n* 478 as Victor (2016)\n\nPolitical career \n\nEarly politics \n\nSchwarzenegger has been a registered Republican for many years. As an actor, his political views were always well known as they contrasted with those of many other prominent Hollywood stars, who are generally considered to be a liberal and Democratic-leaning community. At the 2004 Republican National Convention, Schwarzenegger gave a speech and explained why he was a Republican: \n\nIn 1985, Schwarzenegger appeared in \"Stop the Madness\", an anti-drug music video sponsored by the Reagan administration. He first came to wide public notice as a Republican during the 1988 presidential election, accompanying then-Vice President George H.W. Bush at a campaign rally. \n\nSchwarzenegger's first political appointment was as chairman of the President's Council on Physical Fitness and Sports, on which he served from 1990 to 1993. He was nominated by George H. W. Bush, who dubbed him \"Conan the Republican\". He later served as Chairman for the California Governor's Council on Physical Fitness and Sports under Governor Pete Wilson.\n\nBetween 1993 and 1994, Schwarzenegger was a Red Cross ambassador (a ceremonial role fulfilled by celebrities), recording several television/radio public service announcements to donate blood.\n\nIn an interview with Talk magazine in late 1999, Schwarzenegger was asked if he thought of running for office. He replied, \"I think about it many times. The possibility is there, because I feel it inside.\" The Hollywood Reporter claimed shortly after that Schwarzenegger sought to end speculation that he might run for governor of California. Following his initial comments, Schwarzenegger said, \"I'm in show business – I am in the middle of my career. Why would I go away from that and jump into something else?\"\n\nGovernor of California \n\nSchwarzenegger announced his candidacy in the 2003 California recall election for Governor of California on the August 6, 2003 episode of The Tonight Show with Jay Leno. Schwarzenegger had the most name recognition in a crowded field of candidates, but he had never held public office and his political views were unknown to most Californians. His candidacy immediately became national and international news, with media outlets dubbing him the \"Governator\" (referring to The Terminator movies, see above) and \"The Running Man\" (the name of another one of his films), and calling the recall election \"Total Recall\" (yet another movie starring Schwarzenegger). Schwarzenegger declined to participate in several debates with other recall replacement candidates, and appeared in only one debate on September 24, 2003. \n\nOn October 7, 2003, the recall election resulted in Governor Gray Davis being removed from office with 55.4% of the Yes vote in favor of a recall. Schwarzenegger was elected Governor of California under the second question on the ballot with 48.6% of the vote to choose a successor to Davis. Schwarzenegger defeated Democrat Cruz Bustamante, fellow Republican Tom McClintock, and others. His nearest rival, Bustamante, received 31% of the vote. In total, Schwarzenegger won the election by about 1.3 million votes. Under the regulations of the California Constitution, no runoff election was required. Schwarzenegger was the second foreign-born governor of California after Irish-born Governor John G. Downey in 1862.\n\nSchwarzenegger was entrenched in what he considered to be his mandate in cleaning up gridlock. Building on a catchphrase from the sketch \"Hans and Franz\" from Saturday Night Live (which partly parodied his bodybuilding career), Schwarzenegger called the Democratic State politicians \"girlie men\". \n\nSchwarzenegger's early victories included repealing an unpopular increase in the vehicle registration fee as well as preventing driver's licenses being given out to illegal immigrants, but later he began to feel the backlash when powerful state unions began to oppose his various initiatives. Key among his reckoning with political realities was a special election he called in November 2005, in which four ballot measures he sponsored were defeated. Schwarzenegger accepted personal responsibility for the defeats and vowed to continue to seek consensus for the people of California. He would later comment that \"no one could win if the opposition raised 160 million dollars to defeat you\". The U.S. Supreme Court later found the public employee unions' use of compulsory fundraising during the campaign had been illegal in Knox v. Service Employees International Union, Local 1000. \n\nSchwarzenegger then went against the advice of fellow Republican strategists and appointed a Democrat, Susan Kennedy, as his Chief of Staff. Schwarzenegger gradually moved towards a more politically moderate position, determined to build a winning legacy with only a short time to go until the next gubernatorial election.\n\nSchwarzenegger ran for re-election against Democrat Phil Angelides, the California State Treasurer, in the 2006 elections, held on November 7, 2006. Despite a poor year nationally for the Republican party, Schwarzenegger won re-election with 56.0% of the vote compared with 38.9% for Angelides, a margin of well over one million votes. In recent years, many commentators have seen Schwarzenegger as moving away from the right and towards the center of the political spectrum. After hearing a speech by Schwarzenegger at the 2006 Martin Luther King, Jr. breakfast, San Francisco mayor Gavin Newsom said that, \"[H]e's becoming a Democrat [… H]e's running back, not even to the center. I would say center-left\".\n\nIt was rumored that Schwarzenegger might run for the United States Senate in 2010, as his governorship would be term-limited by that time. This turned out to be false. \n\nWendy Leigh, who wrote an unofficial biography on Schwarzenegger, claims he plotted his political rise from an early age using the movie business and bodybuilding as building blocks to escape a depressing home. Leigh portrays Schwarzenegger as obsessed with power and quotes him as saying, \"I wanted to be part of the small percentage of people who were leaders, not the large mass of followers. I think it is because I saw leaders use 100% of their potential – I was always fascinated by people in control of other people.\" Schwarzenegger has said that it was never his intention to enter politics, but he says, \"I married into a political family. You get together with them and you hear about policy, about reaching out to help people. I was exposed to the idea of being a public servant and Eunice and Sargent Shriver became my heroes.\" Eunice Kennedy Shriver was sister of John F. Kennedy, and mother-in-law to Schwarzenegger; Sargent Shriver is husband to Eunice and father-in-law to Schwarzenegger. He cannot run for president as he is not a natural born citizen of the United States. In The Simpsons Movie (2007), he is portrayed as the president, and in the Sylvester Stallone movie, Demolition Man (1993, ten years before his first run for political office), it is revealed that a constitutional amendment passed which allowed Schwarzenegger to become president. \n\nSchwarzenegger is a dual Austrian/United States citizen. He holds Austrian citizenship by birth and has held U.S. citizenship since becoming naturalized in 1983. Being Austrian and thus European, he was able to win the 2007 European Voice campaigner of the year award for taking action against climate change with the California Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 and plans to introduce an emissions trading scheme with other US states and possibly with the EU. \n\nBecause of his personal wealth from his acting career, Schwarzenegger did not accept his governor's salary of $175,000 per year. \n\nSchwarzenegger's endorsement in the Republican primary of the 2008 U.S. presidential election was highly sought; despite being good friends with candidates Rudy Giuliani and Senator John McCain, Schwarzenegger remained neutral throughout 2007 and early 2008. Giuliani dropped out of the presidential race on January 30, 2008, largely because of a poor showing in Florida, and endorsed McCain. Later that night, Schwarzenegger was in the audience at a Republican debate at the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library in California. The following day, he endorsed McCain, joking, \"It's Rudy's fault!\" (in reference to his friendships with both candidates and that he could not make up his mind). Schwarzenegger's endorsement was thought to be a boost for Senator McCain's campaign; both spoke about their concerns for the environment and economy. \n\nIn its April 2010 report, Progressive ethics watchdog group Citizens for Responsibility and Ethics in Washington named Schwarzenegger one of 11 \"worst governors\" in the United States because of various ethics issues throughout Schwarzenegger's term as governor. \n\nGovernor Schwarzenegger played a significant role in opposing Proposition 66, a proposed amendment of the Californian Three Strikes Law, in November 2004. This amendment would have required the third felony to be either violent or serious to mandate a 25-years-to-life sentence. In the last week before the ballot, Schwarzenegger launched an intensive campaign against Proposition 66. He stated that \"it would release 26,000 dangerous criminals and rapists\".\n\nAlthough he began his tenure as governor with record high approval ratings (as high as 89% in December 2003), he left office with a record low 23%, only one percent higher than that of Gray Davis's when he was recalled in October 2003.\n\nAllegations of sexual misconduct \n\nDuring his initial campaign for governor, allegations of sexual and personal misconduct were raised against Schwarzenegger, dubbed \"Gropegate\". Within the last five days before the election, news reports appeared in the Los Angeles Times recounting allegations of sexual misconduct from several individual women, six of whom eventually came forward with their personal stories. \n\nThree of the women claimed he had grabbed their breasts, a fourth said he placed his hand under her skirt on her buttock. A fifth woman claimed Schwarzenegger tried to take off her bathing suit in a hotel elevator, and the last said he pulled her onto his lap and asked her about a sex act.\n\nSchwarzenegger admitted that he has \"behaved badly sometimes\" and apologized, but also stated that \"a lot of [what] you see in the stories is not true\". This came after an interview in adult magazine Oui from 1977 surfaced, in which Schwarzenegger discussed attending sexual orgies and using substances such as marijuana. Schwarzenegger is shown smoking a marijuana joint after winning Mr. Olympia in the 1975 documentary film Pumping Iron. In an interview with GQ magazine in October 2007, Schwarzenegger said, \"[Marijuana] is not a drug. It's a leaf. My drug was pumping iron, trust me.\" His spokesperson later said the comment was meant to be a joke.\n\nBritish television personality Anna Richardson settled a libel lawsuit in August 2006 against Schwarzenegger, his top aide, Sean Walsh, and his publicist, Sheryl Main. A joint statement read: \"The parties are content to put this matter behind them and are pleased that this legal dispute has now been settled.\" Richardson claimed they tried to tarnish her reputation by dismissing her allegations that Schwarzenegger touched her breast during a press event for The 6th Day in London. She claimed Walsh and Main libeled her in a Los Angeles Times article when they contended she encouraged his behavior.\n\nCitizenship \n\nSchwarzenegger became a naturalized U.S. citizen on September 17, 1983. Shortly before he gained his citizenship, he asked the Austrian authorities for the right to keep his Austrian citizenship, as Austria does not usually allow dual citizenship. His request was granted, and he retained his Austrian citizenship. In 2005, Peter Pilz, a member of the Austrian Parliament from the Austrian Green Party, demanded that Parliament revoke Schwarzenegger's Austrian citizenship due to his decision not to prevent the executions of Donald Beardslee and Stanley Williams, causing damage of reputation to Austria, where the death penalty has been abolished since 1968. This demand was based on Article 33 of the Austrian Citizenship Act that states: \"A citizen, who is in the public service of a foreign country, shall be deprived of his citizenship, if he heavily damages the reputation or the interests of the Austrian Republic.\" Pilz claimed that Schwarzenegger's actions in support of the death penalty (prohibited in Austria under Protocol 13 of the European Convention on Human Rights) had indeed done damage to Austria's reputation. Schwarzenegger explained his actions by referring to the fact that his only duty as Governor of California was to prevent an error in the judicial system.\n\nEnvironmental record \n\nOn September 27, 2006 Schwarzenegger signed the Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006, creating the nation's first cap on greenhouse gas emissions. The law set new regulations on the amount of emissions utilities, refineries and manufacturing plants are allowed to release into the atmosphere. Schwarzenegger also signed a second global warming bill that prohibits large utilities and corporations in California from making long-term contracts with suppliers who do not meet the state's greenhouse gas emission standards. The two bills are part of a plan to reduce California's emissions by 25 percent to 1990s levels by 2020. In 2005, Schwarzenegger issued an executive order calling to reduce greenhouse gases to 80 percent below 1990 levels by 2050. \n\nSchwarzenegger signed another executive order on October 17, 2006 allowing California to work with the Northeast's Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative. They plan to reduce carbon dioxide emissions by issuing a limited amount of carbon credits to each power plant in participating states. Any power plants that exceed emissions for the amount of carbon credits will have to purchase more credits to cover the difference. The plan took effect in 2009. In addition to using his political power to fight global warming, the governor has taken steps at his home to reduce his personal carbon footprint. Schwarzenegger has adapted one of his Hummers to run on hydrogen and another to run on biofuels. He has also installed solar panels to heat his home. \n\nIn respect of his contribution to the direction of the US motor industry, Schwarzenegger was invited to open the 2009 SAE World Congress in Detroit, on April 20, 2009. \n\nIn 2011, Schwarzenegger founded the R20 Regions of Climate Action to develop a sustainable, low carbon economy. \n\nElectoral history \n\nPresidential ambitions \n\nIn October 2013, the New York Post reported that Schwarzenegger was exploring a future run for president. The former California governor would face a constitutional hurdle; Article II, Section I, Clause V nominally prevents individuals who are not natural-born citizens of the United States from assuming the office. He has reportedly been lobbying legislators about a possible constitutional change, or filing a legal challenge to the provision. Columbia University law professor Michael Dorf observed that Schwarzenegger's possible lawsuit could ultimately win him the right to run for the office, noting, \"The law is very clear, but it’s not 100 percent clear that the courts would enforce that law rather than leave it to the political process.\" \n\nBusiness career \n\nSchwarzenegger has had a highly successful business career. Following his move to the United States, Schwarzenegger became a \"prolific goal setter\" and would write his objectives at the start of the year on index cards, like starting a mail order business or buying a new car – and succeed in doing so. By the age of 30, Schwarzenegger was a millionaire, well before his career in Hollywood. His financial independence came from his success as a budding entrepreneur with a series of successful business ventures and investments.\n\nBricklaying business \n\nIn 1968, Schwarzenegger and fellow bodybuilder Franco Columbu started a bricklaying business. The business flourished thanks to the pair's marketing savvy and an increased demand following the 1971 San Fernando earthquake. Schwarzenegger and Columbu used profits from their bricklaying venture to start a mail order business, selling bodybuilding and fitness-related equipment and instructional tapes.\n\nInvestments \n\nSchwarzenegger rolled profits from the mail order business and his bodybuilding competition winnings into his first real estate investment venture: an apartment building he purchased for $10,000. He would later go on to invest in a number of real estate holding companies. \n\nSchwarzenegger was a founding celebrity investor in the Planet Hollywood chain of international theme restaurants (modeled after the Hard Rock Cafe) along with Bruce Willis, Sylvester Stallone and Demi Moore. Schwarzenegger severed his financial ties with the business in early 2000. Schwarzenegger said the company had not had the success he had hoped for, claiming he wanted to focus his attention on \"new US global business ventures\" and his movie career.\n\nHe also invested in a shopping mall in Columbus, Ohio. He has talked about some of those who have helped him over the years in business: \"I couldn't have learned about business without a parade of teachers guiding me... from Milton Friedman to Donald Trump... and now, Les Wexner and Warren Buffett. I even learned a thing or two from Planet Hollywood, such as when to get out! And I did!\" He has significant ownership in Dimensional Fund Advisors, an investment firm. Schwarzenegger is also the owner of Arnold's Sports Festival, which he started in 1989 and is held annually in Columbus, Ohio. It is a festival that hosts thousands of international health and fitness professionals which has also expanded into a three-day expo. He also owns a movie production company called Oak Productions, Inc. and Fitness Publications, a joint publishing venture with Simon & Schuster. \n\nRestaurant \n\nIn 1992, Schwarzenegger and his wife opened a restaurant in Santa Monica called Schatzi On Main. Schatzi literally means \"little treasure,\" colloquial for \"honey\" or \"darling\" in German. In 1998, he sold his restaurant. \n\nWealth \n\nSchwarzenegger's net worth had been conservatively estimated at $100–$200 million. After separating from his wife, Maria Shriver, in 2011, it has been estimated that his net worth has been approximately $400 million, and even as high as $800 million, based on tax returns he filed in 2006. Over the years as an investor, he invested his bodybuilding and movie earnings in an array of stocks, bonds, privately controlled companies, and real estate holdings worldwide, making his net worth as an accurate estimation difficult to calculate, particularly in light of declining real estate values owing to economic recessions in the U.S. and Europe since the late 2000s. In June 1997, Schwarzenegger spent $38 million of his own money on a private Gulfstream jet. Schwarzenegger once said of his fortune, \"Money doesn't make you happy. I now have $50 million, but I was just as happy when I had $48 million.\" He has also stated, \"I've made many millions as a businessman many times over.\"\n\nPersonal life \n\nEarly relationships \n\nIn 1969, Schwarzenegger met Barbara Outland (later Barbara Outland Baker), an English teacher he lived with until 1974. Schwarzenegger talked about Barbara in his memoir in 1977: \"Basically it came down to this: she was a well-balanced woman who wanted an ordinary, solid life, and I was not a well-balanced man, and hated the very idea of ordinary life.\" Baker has described Schwarzenegger as \"[a] joyful personality, totally charismatic, adventurous, and athletic\" but claims towards the end of the relationship he became \"insufferable – classically conceited – the world revolved around him\". Baker published her memoir in 2006, entitled Arnold and Me: In the Shadow of the Austrian Oak. Although Baker, at times, painted an unflattering portrait of her former lover, Schwarzenegger actually contributed to the tell-all book with a foreword, and also met with Baker for three hours. Baker claims, for example, that she only learned of his being unfaithful after they split, and talks of a turbulent and passionate love life. Schwarzenegger has made it clear that their respective recollection of events can differ. The couple first met six to eight months after his arrival in the U.S – their first date was watching the first Apollo Moon landing on television. They shared an apartment in Santa Monica for three and a half years, and having little money, would visit the beach all day, or have barbecues in the back yard. Although Baker claims that when she first met him, he had \"little understanding of polite society\" and she found him a turn-off, she says, \"He's as much a self-made man as it's possible to be – he never got encouragement from his parents, his family, his brother. He just had this huge determination to prove himself, and that was very attractive … I'll go to my grave knowing Arnold loved me.\"\n\nSchwarzenegger met his next paramour, Sue Moray, a Beverly Hills hairdresser's assistant, on Venice Beach in July 1977. According to Moray, the couple led an open relationship: \"We were faithful when we were both in LA … but when he was out of town, we were free to do whatever we wanted.\" Schwarzenegger met Maria Shriver at the Robert F. Kennedy Tennis Tournament in August 1977, and went on to have a relationship with both women until August 1978, when Moray (who knew of his relationship with Shriver) issued an ultimatum.\n\nMarriage and family \n\nOn April 26, 1986, Schwarzenegger married television journalist Maria Shriver, niece of President John F. Kennedy, in Hyannis, Massachusetts. The Rev. John Baptist Riordan performed the ceremony at St. Francis Xavier Catholic Church. They have four children: Katherine Eunice Schwarzenegger (born December 13, 1989 in Los Angeles); Christina Maria Aurelia Schwarzenegger (born July 23, 1991 in Los Angeles); Patrick Arnold Shriver Schwarzenegger (born September 18, 1993 in Los Angeles); and Christopher Sargent Shriver Schwarzenegger (born September 27, 1997 in Los Angeles). Schwarzenegger lives in a 11000 sqft home in Brentwood. The divorcing couple currently own vacation homes in Sun Valley, Idaho and Hyannis Port, Massachusetts. They attended St. Monica's Catholic Church. Following their separation, it is reported that Schwarzenegger is dating physical therapist Heather Milligan. \n\nMarital separation \n\nOn May 9, 2011, Shriver and Schwarzenegger ended their relationship after 25 years of marriage, with Shriver moving out of the couple's Brentwood mansion. On May 16, 2011, the Los Angeles Times revealed that Schwarzenegger had fathered a son more than fourteen years earlier with an employee in their household, Mildred Patricia 'Patty' Baena. \"After leaving the governor's office I told my wife about this event, which occurred over a decade ago,\" Schwarzenegger said in a statement issued to The Times. In the statement, Schwarzenegger did not mention that he had confessed to his wife only after Shriver had confronted him with the information, which she had done after confirming with the housekeeper what she had suspected about the child. \n\nBaena is of Guatemalan origin, she was employed by the family for 20 years and retired in January 2011. The pregnant Baena was working in the home while Shriver was pregnant with the youngest of the couple’s four children. Baena's son with Schwarzenegger, Joseph, was born on October 2, 1997; Shriver gave birth to Christopher on September 27, 1997. Schwarzenegger says it took seven or eight years before he found out that he had fathered a child with his housekeeper. It wasn't until the boy \"started looking like me, that's when I kind of got it. I put things together,\" the action star and former California governor, told 60 Minutes. Schwarzenegger has taken financial responsibility for the child \"from the start and continued to provide support.\" KNX 1070 radio reported that in 2010 he bought a new four-bedroom house, with a pool, for Baena and their son in Bakersfield, about 112 mi north of Los Angeles. Baena separated from her husband, Rogelio, in 1997, a few months after Joseph's birth, and filed for divorce in 2008. Baena's ex-husband says that the child's birth certificate was falsified and that he plans to sue Schwarzenegger for engaging in conspiracy to falsify a public document, a serious crime in California. \n\nSchwarzenegger has consulted an attorney, Bob Kaufman. Kaufman has earlier handled divorce cases for celebrities such as Jennifer Aniston and Reese Witherspoon. Schwarzenegger will keep the Brentwood home as part of their divorce settlement and Shriver has purchased a new home nearby so that the children may travel easily between their parents' homes. They will share custody of the two minor children. Schwarzenegger came under fire after the initial petition did not include spousal support and a reimbursement of attorney's fees. However, he claims this was not intentional and that he signed the initial documents without having properly read them. Schwarzenegger has filed amended divorce papers remedying this. \n\nAfter the scandal, actress Brigitte Nielsen came forward and stated that she too had an affair with Schwarzenegger while he was in a relationship with Shriver, saying, \"Maybe I wouldn't have got into it if he said 'I'm going to marry Maria' and this is dead serious, but he didn't, and our affair carried on.\" When asked in 2014 \"Of all the things you are famous for … which are you least proud of?\", Schwarzenegger replied \"I'm least proud of the mistakes I made that caused my family pain and split us up\". \n\nAccidents and injuries \n\nSchwarzenegger was born with a bicuspid aortic valve, an aortic valve with only two leaflets (a normal aortic valve has three leaflets). Schwarzenegger opted in 1997 for a replacement heart valve made of his own transplanted tissue; medical experts predicted he would require heart valve replacement surgery in the following two to eight years as his valve would progressively degrade. Schwarzenegger apparently opted against a mechanical valve, the only permanent solution available at the time of his surgery, because it would have sharply limited his physical activity and capacity to exercise. \n\nOn December 9, 2001, he broke six ribs and was hospitalized for four days after a motorcycle crash in Los Angeles. \n\nSchwarzenegger saved a drowning man's life in 2004 while on vacation in Hawaii by swimming out and bringing him back to shore. \n\nOn January 8, 2006, while Schwarzenegger was riding his Harley Davidson motorcycle in Los Angeles, with his son Patrick in the sidecar, another driver backed into the street he was riding on, causing him and his son to collide with the car at a low speed. While his son and the other driver were unharmed, the governor sustained a minor injury to his lip, requiring 15 stitches. \"No citations were issued\", said Officer Jason Lee, a Los Angeles Police Department spokesman. Schwarzenegger did not obtain his motorcycle license until July 3, 2006. \n\nSchwarzenegger tripped over his ski pole and broke his right femur while skiing in Sun Valley, Idaho, with his family on December 23, 2006. On December 26, 2006, he underwent a 90-minute operation in which cables and screws were used to wire the broken bone back together. He was released from the St. John's Health Center on December 30, 2006. \n\nSchwarzenegger's private jet made an emergency landing at Van Nuys Airport on June 19, 2009, after the pilot reported smoke coming from the cockpit, according to a statement released by the governor's press secretary. No one was harmed in the incident. \n\nHeight \n\nSchwarzenegger's official height of 6'2\" (1.88 m) has been brought into question by several articles. In his bodybuilding days in the late 1960s, he was measured to be 6'1.5\" (1.87 m), a height confirmed by his fellow bodybuilders. However, in 1988 both the Daily Mail and Time Out magazine mentioned that Schwarzenegger appeared noticeably shorter. Prior to running for Governor, Schwarzenegger's height was once again questioned in an article by the Chicago Reader. As Governor, Schwarzenegger engaged in a light-hearted exchange with Assemblyman Herb Wesson over their heights. At one point, Wesson made an unsuccessful attempt to, in his own words, \"settle this once and for all and find out how tall he is\" by using a tailor's tape measure on the Governor. Schwarzenegger retaliated by placing a pillow stitched with the words \"Need a lift?\" on the five-foot-five inch (165 cm) Wesson's chair before a negotiating session in his office. Bob Mulholland also claimed Schwarzenegger was 5'10\" (1.78 m) and that he wore risers in his boots. In 1999, Men's Health magazine stated his height was 5'10\". \n\nAutobiography \n\nSchwarzenegger's autobiography, Total Recall, was released in October 2012. He devotes one chapter called \"The Secret\" to his extramarital affair. The majority of his book is about his successes in the three major chapters in his life: bodybuilder, actor, and Governor of California. \n\nVehicles \n\nSchwarzenegger was the first civilian to purchase a Humvee. He was so enamored by the vehicle that he lobbied the Humvee's manufacturer, AM General, to produce a street-legal, civilian version, which they did in 1992; the first two Hummers they sold were also purchased by Schwarzenegger. \n\nHe was in the news in 2014 for buying a rare Bugatti Veyron Grand Sport Vitesse. He was spotted and filmed in 2015 Summer in his car, silver painted with bright aluminium forged wheels. Schwarzenegger's Bugatti has its interior adorned in dark brown leather. \n\nActivism \n\nThe Hummers that Schwarzenegger bought 1992 are so large – each weighs 6300 lb and is 7 ft wide – that they are classified as large trucks, and U.S. fuel economy regulations do not apply to them. During the gubernatorial recall campaign he announced that he would convert one of his Hummers to burn hydrogen. The conversion was reported to have cost about US$21,000. After the election, he signed an executive order to jump-start the building of hydrogen refueling plants called the California Hydrogen Highway Network, and gained a U.S. Department of Energy grant to help pay for its projected US$91,000,000 cost. California took delivery of the first H2H (Hydrogen Hummer) in October 2004. \n\nArnold Schwarzenegger has been involved with the Special Olympics for many years after they were founded by his ex-mother-in-law, Eunice Kennedy Shriver. In 2007, Schwarzenegger was the official spokesperson for the Special Olympics which were held in Shanghai, China. Schwarzenegger believes that quality school opportunities should be made available to children who might not normally be able to access them. In 1995, he founded the Inner City Games Foundation (ICG) which provides cultural, educational and community enrichment programming to youth. ICG is active in 15 cities around the country and serves over 250,000 children in over 400 schools countrywide. He has also been involved with After-School All-Stars, and founded the Los Angeles branch in 2002. ASAS is an after school program provider, educating youth about health, fitness and nutrition.\n\nOn February 12, 2010, Schwarzenegger took part in the Vancouver Olympic Torch relay. He handed off the flame to the next runner, Sebastian Coe. \n\nSchwarzenegger is a lifelong supporter and \"friend of Israel\", and has participated in L.A.'s Pro-Israel rally among other similar events. \n\nIn 2012, Schwarzenegger helped to found the Schwarzenegger Institute for State and Global Policy, which is a part of the USC Sol Price School of Public Policy at the University of Southern California. The Institute's mission is to \"[advance] post-partisanship, where leaders put people over political parties and work together to find the best ideas and solutions to benefit the people they serve,\" and to \"seek to influence public policy and public debate in finding solutions to the serious challenges we face.\" Schwarzenegger serves as chairman of the Institute. \n\nAt a 2015 security conference, Arnold Schwarzenegger called climate change the issue of our time. \n\nFor the United States presidential election in 2016 Schwarzenegger endorsed fellow Republican John Kasich. However, he was seen in the audience of the 2016 Democratic National Convention on several evenings [Tuesday, July 26, 2016, and Wednesday, July 27, 2016]. (video record)\n\nAwards and honors \n\n* Seven-time Mr. Olympia winner\n* Four-time Mr. Universe winner\n* 1969 World Amateur Bodybuilding Champion\n* 1977 Golden Globe Award winner\n* Star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame\n* International Sports Hall of Fame (class of 2012) \n* WWE Hall of Fame (class of 2015)\n* Schwarzenegger Institute for State and Global Policy (part of the USC Sol Price School of Public Policy at the University of Southern California) named in his honor.\n* Arnold's Run ski trail at Sun Valley Resort named in his honor. The trail is categorized as a black diamond, or most difficult, for its terrain.\n* \"A Day for Arnold\" on July 30, 2007 in Thal, Austria. For his 60th birthday the mayor sent Schwarzenegger the enameled address sign (Thal 145) of the house where Schwarzenegger was born, declaring \"This belongs to him. No one here will ever be assigned that number again\". \n\nBooks \n\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n*", "Gustav Schwarzenegger (17 August 1907 – 13 December 1972) was an Austrian police chief (Gendarmeriekommandant), postal inspector and a senior non-commissioned military police officer. He was the father of bodybuilder, Hollywood star and former Governor of California Arnold Schwarzenegger.\n\nBiography \n\nGustav Schwarzenegger was born in Austria-Hungary, the son of Cecelia (née Hinterleitner) and Karl Schwarzenegger. He married war widow Aurelia Jadrny (29 July 1922 – 2 August 1998) on 5 October 1945, in Mürzsteg, Steiermark, Austria. He died in Weiz, Steiermark, Austria at the age of 65, where he had been transferred as a policeman. He is buried in Weiz Cemetery, Weiz, Steiermark, Austria. Aurelia Jadrny Schwarzenegger died of a heart attack at the age of 76 while visiting Weiz Cemetery in 1998 and she is buried next to her husband.\n\nHe was a sportsman and loved music. His son, Arnold Schwarzenegger, stated in the film Pumping Iron that he did not attend his father's funeral, but later retracted this, explaining that it was a story he had appropriated from a boxer to make it appear as though he could prevent his personal life from interfering with his athletic training. News reports about Gustav's Nazi links first surfaced in 1990, at which time Arnold asked the Simon Wiesenthal Center, an organization he had long supported, to research his father's past. The Center found Gustav's army records and Nazi party membership, but did not uncover any connection to war crimes or the paramilitary organization, the Schutzstaffel (SS). Media interest resurfaced when Arnold ran for Governor of California in the 2003 recall election.\n\nNazi Party and SA membership \n\nAccording to documents obtained in 2003 from the Austrian State Archives by the Los Angeles Times, which was after the expiration of a 30-year seal of his records under Austrian privacy law, Gustav Schwarzenegger voluntarily applied to join the Nazi Party on 1 March 1938, two weeks before the country was annexed. Austria became part of the German Reich through the Anschluss on 12 March 1938. A separate record obtained by the Wiesenthal Center indicates he sought membership before the annexation but was only accepted in January, 1941. He also applied to become a member of the Sturmabteilung (SA), the NSDAP's paramilitary wing, on 1 May 1939, the year after the annexation of Austria, at a time when SA membership was declining. The SA had 900,000 members in 1940, down from 4.2 million in 1934. This decline in SA membership was the result of The Night of the Long Knives which was a political purge carried out by Hitler against the SA which was seen as too radical and too powerful by senior military and industrial leaders within Nazi Germany.\n\nMilitary career \n\nSchwarzenegger had served in the Austrian Army from 1930 to 1937, achieving the rank of section commander and in 1937 he became a police officer. After enlisting in the Wehrmacht in November 1939, he was a Hauptfeldwebel (Master Sergeant) of the Feldgendarmerie, which were military police units. He served in Poland, France, Belgium, Ukraine, Lithuania and Russia. His unit was Feldgendarmerie-Abteilung 521 (mot.), which was part of Panzergruppe 4 (later Panzerarmee 4). Wounded in action in Russia on 22 August 1942, he had the Iron Cross First and Second Classes for bravery, the Eastern Front Medal (during the especially bitter Russian winter of '41/'42) or the Wound Badge. Schwarzenegger appears to have received much medical attention. Initially, he was treated in the military hospital in Łódź, but according to the records he also suffered recurring bouts of malaria, which led to his discharge in February, 1944. Considered unfit for active duty, he returned to Graz, Austria, where he was assigned to work as a postal inspector.\n\nA health registry document describes him as a \"calm and reliable person, not particularly outstanding\" and assesses his intellect as \"average.\" Ursula Schwarz, a historian at Vienna's Documentation Centre of Austrian Resistance, has said that Schwarzenegger's career was fairly typical for his generation, and no evidence has emerged that has directly linked him with participation in war crimes or abuses against civilians. He resumed his police career in 1947." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "The Republic of Austria", "Oesterreich", "Eastreach", "Österrike", "Easterrealm", "Austurriki", "Republik Österreich", "Osterreich", "Austurríki", "Austrian Republic", "Republik Osterreich", "Avstria", "Österreich", "Republik Oesterreich", "Administrative divisions of Austria", "Ostria", "ISO 3166-1:AT", "Alpine Deutschen", "Austria", "Oostenrijk", "Architecture of Austria", "Republic of Austria", "Etymology of Austria", "Autriche", "Austrian architecture" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "republik osterreich", "republik oesterreich", "austria", "austurriki", "administrative divisions of austria", "austrian architecture", "alpine deutschen", "eastreach", "oostenrijk", "austurríki", "architecture of austria", "avstria", "etymology of austria", "österreich", "osterreich", "republik österreich", "oesterreich", "easterrealm", "republic of austria", "austrian republic", "österrike", "iso 3166 1 at", "ostria", "autriche" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "austria", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Austria" }
Who had an 80s No 1 with Don't You Want Me?	tc_335	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "1980s_in_music.txt", "Don't_You_Want_Me.txt" ], "title": [ "1980s in music", "Don't You Want Me" ], "wiki_context": [ "For a history of music in all times, see Timeline of musical events. \n\nFor music from a year in the 1980s, go to 80 \| 81 \| 82 \| 83 \| 84 \| 85 \| 86 \| 87 \| 88 \| 89\n\nThis article includes an overview of the major events and trends in popular music in the 1980s.\n\nThe 1980s saw the emergence of dance music and new wave. As disco fell out of fashion in the decade's early years, genres such as post-disco, Italo disco, Euro disco and dance-pop became more popular. Rock music continued to enjoy a wide audience. Soft rock, glam metal, thrash metal, shred guitar characterized by heavy distortion, pinch harmonics and whammy bar abuse became very popular. Adult contemporary, quiet storm, and smooth jazz gained popularity. In late 80s, glam metal became the largest, most commercially successful brand of music in the United States and worldwide. \n\nThe 1980s are commonly remembered for an increase in the use of digital recording, associated with the usage of synthesizers, with synthpop music and other electronic genres featuring non-traditional instruments increasing in popularity. Also during this decade, several major electronic genres were developed, including electro, techno, house, freestyle and Eurodance, rising in prominence during the 1990s and beyond. Throughout the decade, R&B, hip hop and urban genres were becoming commonplace, particularly in the inner-city areas of large, metropolitan cities; rap was especially successful in the latter part of the decade, with the advent of the golden age of hip hop. These urban genres—particularly rap and hip hop—would continue their rise in popularity through the 1990s and 2000s.\n\nA 2010 survey conducted by the digital broadcaster Music Choice, which polled over 11,000 European participants, revealed that the 1980s is the most favored tune decade of the last 50 years. \n\nNorth America \n\nPop \n\nThe 1980s saw the reinvention of Michael Jackson and Diana Ross, the superstardom of Prince and the emergence of Madonna, Whitney Houston, and Janet Jackson—who were all the most successful musicians during this time. Their videos became a permanent fixture on MTV and gained a worldwide mass audience. Michael Jackson was the first African American artist to have his music video aired on MTV. Michael Jackson's Thriller album from 1982 is the best-selling album of all time; it is cited as selling as many as 110 million copies worldwide. Being the biggest selling artist of that decade, he was the biggest star of the 1980s. Madonna was the most successful female artist of the decade. Her third studio album, True Blue, became the best-selling female album of the 1980s. Other Madonna albums from the decade include Like a Virgin which became one of the best selling albums of all-time and Like a Prayer which was called \"as close to art as pop music gets\" by Rolling Stone. Madonna made music videos a marketing tool and was among the first to make them an art form. Many of her songs topped the Charts around the world, such as: \"Like a Virgin\", \"Papa Don't Preach\", \"La Isla Bonita\" and \"Like a Prayer\". After her Like a Prayer album release in 1989, Madonna was named artist of the decade by a number of magazines and awards. Whitney Houston became one of the best selling artist of the 1980s. Her emergence became the footprints of different singers because of her vocal gymnastics. Whitney became the second best-selling female artist of the 1980s, second only to Madonna. Her eponymous debut studio album Whitney Houston became the best-selling debut album of all time and her sophomore album became the first female debut at no. 1 in the history of Billboard 200 and she was the first and the only artist to chart seven consecutive number-one songs on the Billboard 100.\nBy 1980, the prominent disco genre, largely dependent on orchestras, had become heavily unfavoured, replaced by a lighter synthpop production, which subsequently fuelled dance music. In the latter half of the 1980s, teen pop experiences its first wave; bands and artists include Exposé, New Kids on the Block, Debbie Gibson, Tiffany, Erotic Exotic, New Edition, Stacey Q, The Bangles, Madonna, George Michael, Olivia Newton-John, Boy George and others.\n\nProminent American urban pop acts of the 1980s include Tina Turner, Lionel Richie, Michael Jackson, Donna Summer, Whitney Houston and Deniece Williams. African American artists like Lionel Richie and Prince went on to become some of the decade's biggest pop stars, ruling MTV, with Prince becoming the second biggest male superstar after Michael Jackson. Their commercial albums included 1999, Purple Rain, and Sign \"O\" the Times by Prince and Lionel Richie, Can't Slow Down and Dancing on the Ceiling by Richie.\n\nDuring the mid-1980s American pop singer Cyndi Lauper was considered the \"Voice of the MTV Generation of 80s\" and so different visual style that made the world for teens. Her first two albums She's So Unusual (1984) and True Colors (1986) were critically and commercially successful, spawning the hits, \"Girls Just Want to Have Fun\", \"Time After Time\", \"She Bop\", \"All Through the Night\", \"The Goonies 'R' Good Enough\", \"True Colors\" and \"Change of Heart\".\n\nSeveral British artists made the successful transition to pop during the 1980s and saw great commercial success, such as David Bowie and Paul McCartney. Many British pop bands also dominated the American charts in the early 1980s. Many of them became popular due to their constant exposure on MTV, these bands included Culture Club, Duran Duran, and Wham!. Between the two, they have had 7 U.S. number ones with hits like \"Karma Chameleon\", \"The Reflex\" and \"Wake Me Up Before You Go-Go\"\n\nAmerican artists such as Whitney Houston, Michael Jackson, Madonna, Bruce Springsteen, Tina Turner, Bon Jovi, Cher, Hall & Oates, Prince and Janet Jackson ruled the charts throughout the decade and achieved tremendous success worldwide. Their fame and commercial success lasts up to date although Whitney Houston,Michael Jackson and Prince are deceased.\n\nRock \n\nIn the 1980s, rock music was more precisely defined and split up into multiple subgenres. \nHard rock and heavy/glam metal \n\nBeginning in 1983 and peaking in success in 1986-1991, the decade saw the resurgence of hard rock music and the emergence of its glam metal subgenre. Bands such as AC/DC, Queen, Def Leppard, Kiss, Mötley Crüe, Bon Jovi, Quiet Riot, Scorpions, Europe, Ratt, Twisted Sister, Poison, Dokken, Whitesnake, and Cinderella were among the most popular acts of the decade. The 1980s saw the emergence of wildly popular hard rock band Guns N' Roses and the successful comebacks of Aerosmith and Alice Cooper in the late 1980s. The success of hard rock act Van Halen spanned throughout the entire decade, first with singer David Lee Roth and later with Sammy Hagar. Queen, which had expanded its music to experimental and crossover genres in the early 1980s, returned to guitar-driven hard rock with The Miracle in 1989. Additionally, a few women managed to achieve stardom in the 1980s' hard rock scene: Pat Benatar, who had been around since the late 1970s, is a prime example of female success in hard rock, and so are both ex-Runaways Joan Jett and Lita Ford.\n\nThe Arena rock trend of the 1970s continued in the 1980s with bands like Styx, Rush, Journey, Foreigner, REO Speedwagon, ZZ Top, and Aerosmith.\n\nTraditionally associated (and often confused) with hard rock, heavy metal was also extremely popular throughout the decade, with Ozzy Osbourne achieving success during his solo career; bands like Iron Maiden, Judas Priest and Dio were also widely popular British acts. Speed metal pioneer Motörhead maintained its popularity through the releases of several albums.\nUnderground scenes produced an array of more extreme, aggressive Metal subgenres: thrash metal broke into the mainstream with bands such as Metallica, Slayer, Exodus, Anthrax, and Megadeth, with other styles like death metal and black metal remaining subcultural phenomena.\n\nThe decade also saw the emergence of a string of guitar virtuosi: Eddie Van Halen, George Lynch, Joe Satriani, Steve Vai, Randy Rhoads and Yngwie Malmsteen achieved international recognition for their skills. While considerably less numerous, bass guitar virtuosi also gained momentum in the 1980s: Billy Sheehan (of David Lee Roth and Mr. Big fame), Cliff Burton (of Metallica) and alternative/funk metal bassist Les Claypool (of Primus fame) became famous during that period. Iron Maiden founder and bassist Steve Harris has also been praised numerous times for his galloping style of bass playing.\n\nBoth Hard rock and Heavy metal were extremely popular live genres and bands toured extensively around the globe.\n\nAlternative rock \n\nBy 1984, a majority of groups signed to independent record labels were mining from a variety of rock and particularly 1960s rock influences. This represented a sharp break from the futuristic, hyper rational post-punk years. \n\nThroughout the 1980s, alternative rock was mainly an underground phenomena. While on occasion a song would become a commercial hit or albums would receive critical praise in mainstream publications like Rolling Stone, alternative rock in the 1980s was primarily relegated to independent record labels, fanzines and college radio stations. Alternative bands built underground followings by touring constantly and regularly releasing low-budget albums. In the case of the United States, new bands would form in the wake of previous bands, which created an extensive underground circuit in America, filled with different scenes in various parts of the country. Although American alternative artists of the 1980s never generated spectacular album sales, they exerted a considerable influence on later alternative musicians and laid the groundwork for their success. \n\nEarly American alternative bands such as R.E.M., The Hits, The Feelies, and Violent Femmes combined punk influences with folk music and mainstream music influences. R.E.M. was the most immediately successful; its debut album, Murmur (1983), entered the Top 40 and spawned a number of jangle pop followers. Alternative and indie pop movements sprang up in other parts of the world, from the Paisley Underground of Los Angeles (The Bangles, Rain Parade) to Scotland (Aztec Camera, Orange Juice), Australia (The Church, The Triffids), and New Zealand's Dunedin Sound (The Clean, The Chills).\n\nAmerican indie record labels SST Records, Twin/Tone Records, Touch and Go Records, and Dischord Records presided over the shift from the hardcore punk that then dominated the American underground scene to the more diverse styles of alternative rock that were emerging. Minnesota bands Hüsker Dü and The Replacements were indicative of this shift. Both started out as punk rock bands, but soon diversified their sounds and became more melodic.\n\nBy the late 1980s, the American alternative scene was dominated by styles ranging from quirky alternative pop (They Might Be Giants and Camper Van Beethoven), to noise rock (Big Black, Swans) to industrial rock (Ministry, Nine Inch Nails) and to early Grunge (Mudhoney, Nirvana). These sounds were in turn followed by the advent of Boston's the Pixies and Los Angeles' Jane's Addiction.\n\nAmerican Alternative Rock bands of 1980s included Hüsker Dü, The Replacements, Minutemen, R.E.M., Dinosaur Jr., Pixies, and Sonic Youth which were popular long before the Grunge movement of the early 1990s.\n\nSoft rock \n\nNew singers and songwriters included Michael Jackson, Bruce Springsteen, Tom Petty, Mark Heard, Lucinda Williams, Patti Smith, Rickie Lee Jones, Terence Trent D'Arby, Stevie Nicks, Suzanne Vega, Cheryl Wheeler and Warren Zevon. Rock and even punk rock artists such as Peter Case, Phil Collins and Paul Westerberg transitioned to careers as solo singers.\n\nIn the late 1980s, the term was applied to a group of predominantly female U.S. artists, beginning with Suzanne Vega whose first album sold unexpectedly well, followed by the likes of Tracy Chapman, Nanci Griffith, k.d. lang and Tori Amos, who found success first in the United Kingdom, then in her home market.\n\nOther trends \n\nVarious older rock bands made a comeback. Bands originating from the early to mid-1960s such as The Beach Boys and The Kinks had hits with \"Kokomo\", \"Come Dancing\" and \"Do It Again\". Bands with popularity in the mid-1970s such as the Steve Miller Band and Steely Dan also had hits with \"Abracadabra\" and \"Hey Nineteen\". Singer and songwriter Bruce Springsteen released his blockbuster album Born In The USA, which produced a record-tying 7 hit singles. Stevie Ray Vaughan and George Thorogood sparked a revival of Atomic blues and Blues rock. Massively successful hard rock band Led Zeppelin disbanded after drummer John Bonham's 1980 death, while contemporaries AC/DC continued to have success after the death of former frontman Bon Scott. Country rock saw a decline after Lynyrd Skynyrd's 1977 plane crash and the 1980 disbanding of the genre's most successful band, the Eagles. The Grateful Dead had their biggest hit in band history with \"Touch of Grey\". The Who managed to provide the hit songs \"You Better You Bet\" and \"Eminence Front\" before burning out after the death of their drummer Keith Moon.\n\nHardcore punk flourished throughout the early to mid-1980s, with bands leading the genre such as Black Flag, Bad Brains, Minor Threat, Suicidal Tendencies, D.O.A., and Dead Kennedys amongst others. It began to wane in the latter half of the decade, with the New York hardcore scene dominating the genre. However, it experience a jumpstart in the late 1980s with emerging bands such as Operation Ivy and Green Day that would define not just the so-called \"East Bay\" sound, but impact the next decade's punk and alternative sound. Some of which is still around today.\n\nContemporary R&B \n\nContemporary R&B originated in the 1980s, when musicians started adding disco-like beats, high-tech production, and elements of hip hop, soul and funk to rhythm and blues, making it more danceable and modern. The top mainstream R&B artists of 1980s included Michael Jackson, Prince, Jermaine Jackson, The Whispers, The S.O.S. Band, Stevie Wonder, Kool & the Gang, Yarbrough and Peoples, Smokey Robinson, Rick James, Diana Ross, Lionel Richie, Earth, Wind & Fire, Dazz Band, Evelyn King, Marvin Gaye, Mtume, DeBarge, Midnight Star, and Freddie Jackson. \n\nIn the mid-1980s, many of the recordings by artists Luther Vandross, Freddie Jackson, Sade, Anita Baker, Teddy Pendergrass, Peabo Bryson and others became known as quiet storm. The term had originated with Smokey Robinson's 1975 album A Quiet Storm. Quiet storm has been described as \"R&B's answer to soft rock and adult contemporary—while it was primarily intended for black audiences, quiet storm had the same understated dynamics, relaxed tempos and rhythms, and romantic sentiment.\" \n\nTina Turner made a comeback during the second half of the 1980s, while Whitney Houston and Janet Jackson broke into the pop music charts with a series of hits. Richard J. Ripani wrote that Janet Jackson's third studio album Control (1986) was \"important to the development of R&B for a number of reasons\", as she and her producers, Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis, \"crafted a new sound that fuses the rhythmic elements of funk and disco, along with heavy doses of synthesizers, percussion, sound effects, and a rap music sensibility.\" Ripani wrote that \"the success of Control led to the incorporation of stylistic traits of rap over the next few years, and Janet Jackson was to continue to be one of the leaders in that development.\" That same year, Teddy Riley began producing R&B recordings that included hip hop influences. This combination of R&B style and hip hop rhythms was termed new jack swing, and was applied to artists such as Bobby Brown, Keith Sweat, MC Hammer, Boyz ll Men, Guy, Jodeci, and Bell Biv DeVoe.\n\nMichael Jackson remained a prominent figure in the genre in the late 1980s, following the release of his album Bad (1987) which sold more than 30 million copies worldwide. Janet Jackson's 1989 album Janet Jackson's Rhythm Nation 1814 continued the development of contemporary R&B into the 1990s, as the album's title track \"Rhythm Nation\" made \"use of elements from across the R&B spectrum, including use of a sample loop, triplet swing, rapped vocal parts and blues notes.\" The release of Janet Jackson's Rhythm Nation 1814 became the only album in history to produce number one hits on the Billboard Charts Hot 100 in three separate calendar years—\"Miss You Much\" in 1989, \"Escapade\" and \"Black Cat\" in 1990, and \"Love Will Never Do (Without You)\" in 1991—and the only album in the history of the Hot 100 to have seven top 5 hit singles.\n\nHip hop \n\nEncompassing graffiti art, break dancing, rap music, and fashion, hip-hop became the dominant cultural movement of the African American communities in the 1980s. The Hip hop musical genre had a strong influence on pop music in the late 1980s which still continues to the present day.\n\nDuring the 1980s, the hip hop genre started embracing the creation of rhythm by using the human body, via the vocal percussion technique of beatboxing. Pioneers such as Africa Bambaataa, DJ Kool Herc, Melle Mel, Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five, Whodini, Sugarhill Gang, Doug E. Fresh, Biz Markie and Buffy from the Fat Boys made beats, rhythm, and musical sounds using their mouth, lips, tongue, voice, and other body parts. \"Human Beatbox\" artists would also sing or imitate turntablism scratching or other instrument sounds.\n\nThe 1980s also saw many artists make social statements through hip hop. In 1982, Melle Mel and Duke Bootee recorded \"The Message\" (officially credited to Grandmaster Flash and The Furious Five), a song that foreshadowed the socially conscious statements of Run-DMC's \"It's like That\" and Public Enemy's \"Black Steel in the Hour of Chaos\". \n\nPopular hip hop artists of the 1980s include Kurtis Blow, Run D.M.C., Beastie Boys, NWA, LL Cool J, Public Enemy, Eric B. & Rakim, Big Daddy Kane, Boogie Down Productions, Kid N Play, MC Lyte, EPMD, Salt N Pepa, and Ice-T, Schooly D,Slick Rick, Kool Moe Dee, Whodini, MC Hammer, among others.\n\nElectronic music \n\nIn the 1980s, dance music records made using only electronic instruments became increasingly popular, largely influenced from the Electronic music of Kraftwerk and 1970s disco music. Such music was originally born of and popularized via regional nightclub scenes in the 1980s, and became the predominant type of music played in discothèques as well as the rave scene.\n\nHouse music is a style of electronic dance music which originated in Chicago, Illinois, USA in the early 1980s. House music was strongly influenced by elements of soul- and funk-infused varieties of disco. Club play from pioneering DJs like Ron Hardy and Lil Louis, local dance music record shops, and the popular Hot Mix 5 shows on radio station WBMX-FM helped popularize house music in Chicago and among visiting DJs & producers from Detroit. Trax Records and DJ International Records, local labels with wider distribution, helped popularize house music outside of Chicago. It eventually reached Europe before becoming infused in mainstream pop & dance music worldwide during the 1990s.\n\nIt has been widely cited that the initial blueprint for Techno was developed during the mid-1980s in Detroit, Michigan, by Juan Atkins, Kevin Saunderson, Derrick May (the so-called \"Belleville Three\"), and Eddie Fowlkes, all of whom attended school together at Belleville High, near Detroit. Sicko 1999 Though initially conceived as party music that was played on daily mixed radio programs and played at parties given by cliquish, Detroit high school clubs, it has grown to be a global phenomenon.\n\nCountry music \n\nAs the 1980s dawned, pop-influenced country music was the dominant style, through such acts as Kenny Rogers, Ronnie Milsap, T.G. Sheppard, Eddie Rabbitt, Crystal Gayle, Anne Murray and Dolly Parton. The 1980 movie Urban Cowboy, a romantic comedy starring John Travolta and Debra Winger, spawned a successful soundtrack album featuring pop-styled country songs, including \"Lookin' for Love\" by Johnny Lee, \"The Devil Went Down to Georgia\" by the Charlie Daniels Band, \"Could I Have This Dance\" by Murray and \"Love the World Away\" by Rogers. The songs, and the movie itself, resulted in an early 1980s boom in pop-styled country music, and the era is sometimes known as the \"Urban Cowboy Movement\".\n\nBy the mid-1980s, country music audiences were beginning to tire of country pop. Although some pop-country artists continued to record and release successful songs and albums, the genre in general was beginning to suffer. By 1985, a New York Times article declared country music \"dead\". However, by this time, several newcomers were working behind the scenes to reverse this perception.\n\nThe year 1986 brought forth several new artists who performed in traditional country styles, such as honky-tonk. This sparked the \"new traditionalist\" movement, or return to traditional country music. The most successful of these artists included Randy Travis, Dwight Yoakam, Ricky Van Shelton and Holly Dunn. Also, artists like Kathy Mattea and Keith Whitley, both of whom had been performing for a few years prior, had their first major hits during 1986; Mattea was more folk-styled, while Whitley was pure honky-tonk. But the new traditionalist movement had already taken hold as early as 1981, when newcomers such as Ricky Skaggs and George Strait had their first big hits. Reba McEntire had her first big hit in 1980 followed by 15 other number one hit singles during the decade. In addition, songwriter–guitarist and Chet Atkins prodigy Steve Wariner also emerged as a popular act starting in the early 1980s. Another boom period for newcomers with new traditionalist styles was 1989, when artists such as Clint Black, Garth Brooks, Mary Chapin Carpenter, Lorrie Morgan and Travis Tritt had their first big hits. It was Whitley who was seen as being one of the torchbearers of the new traditionalist movement, thanks to his pure honky-tonk style in the vein of Lefty Frizzell and others, and his star power was set to rise into the 1990s; however, Whitley was a known heavy drinker, and it was alcohol poisoning that ended his life in May 1989, just weeks after a song about triumph over personal demons -- \"I'm No Stranger to the Rain\" -- became a huge country hit.\n\nVocal duos were also popular because of their harmonies, most notably The Bellamy Brothers and The Judds. Several of the Bellamy Brothers' songs included double-entendre' laden hooks, on songs such as \"Do You Love as Good As You Look\". The Judds, a mother-and-daughter duo, combined elements of contemporary pop and traditional country music on songs such as \"Why Not Me\" and \"Grandpa (Tell Me 'Bout the Good Ol' Days)\".\n\nCountry music groups and bands continued to rise in popularity during the 1980s. The most successful of the lot was Alabama, a Fort Payne-based band that blended traditional and pop country sounds with southern rock. Their concerts regularly sold out, while their single releases regularly reached No. 1 on the Billboard Hot Country Songs chart. In 1989, Alabama was named the Artist of the Decade by the Academy of Country Music. By the end of the 1980s, the group had sold more than 24 million albums in the United States.\n\nRanking just behind Alabama in popularity, as far as groups were concerned, were The Oak Ridge Boys and The Statler Brothers, both four-part harmony groups with gospel and country-pop stylings. The popularity of those three groups sparked a boom in new groups and bands, and by the end of the 1980s, fans were listening to such acts as Restless Heart and Exile, the latter which previously enjoyed success with the pop hit \"Kiss You All Over\".\n\nDespite the prevailing pop country sound, enduring acts from the 1970s and earlier continued to enjoy great success with fans. George Jones, one of the longest-running acts of the time, recorded several successful singles, including the critically acclaimed \"He Stopped Loving Her Today\". Conway Twitty continued to have a series of No. 1 hits, with 1986's \"Desperado Love\" becoming his 40th chart-topper on the Billboard Hot Country Singles chart, a record that stood for nearly 20 years. The movie Coal Miner's Daughter profiled the life of Loretta Lynn (with Sissy Spacek in the lead role), while Willie Nelson also had a series of acting credits. Dolly Parton had much success in the 1980s, with several leading movie roles, two No. 1 albums and 13 number one hits, and having many successful tours; she also teamed up with Emmylou Harris and Linda Ronstadt in 1987 for the multi-plaitnum Trio album. Others who had been around for a while and continued to have great success were Eddy Arnold, Johnny Cash, Merle Haggard, Waylon Jennings, Ray Price, Hank Williams Jr. and Tammy Wynette.\n\nThe UK and the rest of Europe \n\nRock \n\nPost punk \n\nSome of the most successful post-punk bands at the beginning of the decade, such as Siouxsie and the Banshees and The Psychedelic Furs, also continued their success during the 1980s. Members of Bauhaus and Joy Division explored new stylistic territory as Love and Rockets and New Order respectively.\n\nThe second generation of British post-punk bands that broke through in the early 1980s, including The Smiths, The Jesus and Mary Chain, The Cure, The Fall, The Pop Group, The Mekons, Echo and the Bunnymen and Teardrop Explodes, tended to move away from dark sonic landscapes.V. Bogdanov, C. Woodstra and S. T. Erlewine, All Music Guide to Rock: the Definitive Guide to Rock, Pop, and Soul (Milwaukee, WI: Backbeat Books, 3rd edn., 2002), ISBN 0-87930-653-X, pp. 1337-8.\n\nEven though The Police's first hit song \"Roxanne\" was written by Sting in 1978 (reaching number 12 in the UK Charts that year), the song continued to grow in popularity in the 1980s along with the band, and it helped define the sound and repertoire of The Police, one of the biggest bands of the 1980s globally. Even though The Police had their roots in post punk, their eventual success and mega-stardom came from being able to pack the biggest stadium rock venues such as Wembley, the Oakland Coliseum and the Maracanã in Rio de Janeiro. Aside from U2, they are the only other band with post punk origins to go on and achieve the kind of global success they did, with their music transforming along the way into their own brand and style of music - Sting's songwriting and voice becoming legendary, along with drummer Stewart Copeland and his widely respected, complex drumming skills and Andy Summer's masterful guitar interspersing with Sting and Stewart - helping them gain an informal but widely accepted recognition as the \"Biggest Band in The World\" during their 1983-1984 Synchronicity Tour, garnering them a nomination for 5 Grammy Awards and taking 3 at the 1984 Grammy Awards.\n\nIreland's U2 incorporated elements of religious imagery together with political commentary into their often anthemic music, and by the late 1980s had become one of the biggest bands in the world. \n\nAlthough many post-punk bands continued to record and perform, it declined as a movement in the mid-1980s as acts disbanded or moved off to explore other musical areas, but it has continued to influence the development of rock music and has been seen as a major element in the creation of the alternative rock movement. \n\nNew wave music \n\nThe arrival of MTV in 1981 would usher in new wave's most successful era. British artists, unlike many of their American counterparts, had learned how to use the music video early on.[http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_g1epc/is_tov/ai_2419100891/pg_1?tag\nartBody;col1 St. James encyclopedia of Pop Culture]Rip It Up and Start Again Postpunk 1978-1984 by Simon Reynolds Pages 340,342-343 Several British acts signed to independent labels were able to outmarket and outsell American artists that were signed with major labels. Journalists labelled this phenomenon a \"Second British Invasion\". \n\nIn the fall of 1982, \"I Ran (So Far Away)\" by A Flock of Seagulls entered the Billboard Top Ten, arguably the first successful song that owed almost everything to video. They would be followed by bands like Duran Duran whose glossy videos would come to symbolize the power of MTV. Dire Straits' \"Money for Nothing\" gently poked fun at MTV which had helped make them international rock stars. In 1983, 30% of the record sales were from British acts. 18 of the top 40 and 6 of the top 10 singles on July 18 were by British artists. Overall record sales would rise by 10% from 1982. Newsweek magazine featured Annie Lennox and Boy George on the cover of one of its issues while Rolling Stone Magazine would release an England Swings issue. In April 1984 40 of the top 100 singles were from British acts while 8 of the top 10 singles in a May 1985 survey were of British origin. Veteran music journalist Simon Reynolds theorized that similar to the first British Invasion the use of black American influences by the British acts helped to spur success. Commentators in the mainstream media credited MTV and the British acts with bringing colour and energy to back to pop music while rock journalists were generally hostile to the phenomenon because they felt it represented image over content. MTV continued its heavy rotation of videos by new wave-oriented acts until 1987, when it changed to a heavy metal and rock dominated format. \n\nNew Romantics \n\nNew Romanticism emerged as part of the new wave music movement in London's nightclub including Billy's and The Blitz Club towards the end of the 1970s. Influenced by David Bowie and Roxy Music, it developed glam rock fashions, gaining its name from the frilly fop shirts of early Romanticism. New Romantic music often made extensive use of synthesisers. Pioneers included Visage and Ultravox and among the commercially most successful acts associated with the movement were Adam and the Ants, Culture Club, Spandau Ballet and Duran Duran. By about 1983 the original movement had dissolved, with surviving acts dropping most of the fashion elements to pursue mainstream careers. Other new romantic artists included Classix Nouveaux, A Flock of Seagulls, Gary Numan, Japan, Landscape, Thompson Twins, Soft Cell, ABC, The Teardrop Explodes, Yazoo and Talk Talk.\n\nGothic Rock \n\nGothic rock music developed out of the post punk scene in the later 1970s. Notable early gothic rock bands include Bauhaus (whose \"Bela Lugosi's Dead\" is often cited as the first goth record), Siouxsie and the Banshees (who may have coined the term), The Cure, The Sisters of Mercy, and Fields of the Nephilim.R. Shuker, Popular music: the key concepts (Routledge, 2005), p. 128. Gothic rock gave rise to a broader goth subculture that included clubs, various fashion trends and numerous publications that grew in popularity in the 1980s, gaining notoriety by being associated by several moral panics over suicide and Satanism. \n\nHeavy metal \n\nIn the early 1980s, the new wave of British heavy metal broke into the mainstream, as albums by Judas Priest, Iron Maiden, Saxon and Motörhead, reached the British top 10. In 1981, Motörhead became the first of this new breed of metal bands to top the UK charts with No Sleep 'til Hammersmith. After a string of UK top 10 albums, Whitesnake's 1987 self-titled album was their most commercially successful, with hits, \"Here I Go Again\" and \"Is This Love\", earning them a nomination for the Brit Award for Best British Group. Many metal artists, including Def Leppard, benefited from the exposure they received on ATV and became the inspiration for American glam metal.I. Christe Sound of the Beast: The Complete Headbanging History of Heavy Metal (London: HarperCollins, 2003), ISBN 0-380-81127-8, p. 79. However, as the subgenre fragmented, much of the creative impetus moved away from Britain to American and continental Europe (particularly Germany and Scandinavia), which produced most of the major new subgenres of metal, which were then taken up by British acts. These included thrash metal and death metal, both developed in the UK; black metal and power metal, both developed in continental Europe, but influenced by the British band Venom; and doom, which was developed in the US, but which soon were adopted by a number of bands from England, including Pagan Altar and Witchfinder General. \n\nNotable bands from the hard rock and metal scene of the 1980s included Bon Jovi, Guns N' Roses, Metallica, Megadeth, Slayer, Anthrax, Poison, Mötley Crüe, Ozzy Osbourne, Twisted Sister and others.\n\nPop \n\nPhil Collins had three UK number one singles in the 80s, seven US number one singles, another with Genesis, and when his work with Genesis, his work with other artists, as well as his solo career is totalled, Collins had more top 40 hits on the Billboard \nHot 100 chart during the 1980s than any other artist. His former Genesis colleague, Peter Gabriel, also had a very successful solo career, which included a US number one single and three top ten UK hits (including a duet with Kate Bush). Genesis guitarist Mike Rutherford also enjoyed several UK and US hits with his project Mike + The Mechanics, which included a US number one single. David Bowie saw much greater commercial success in the 1980s than he had in the previous decade, scoring four UK number one singles, including \"Let's Dance\" which proved to be his biggest ever hit. He had a total of ten UK top ten hits during the decade, two in collaboration with other artists. \n\nBoy George and his band Culture Club had great success in both the UK and US charts with major hits like \"Do You Really Want To Hurt Me\", \"Time (Clock of the Heart)\" and \"Karma Chameleon\". As well as Boy George having his own UK number one with his cover of Breads \"Everything I Own\", he is considered a major icon of this era. Liverpool band Frankie Goes to Hollywood's initially controversial dance-pop gave them three consecutive UK number ones in 1984, until they faded away in the mid-1980s. Dead or Alive, also from Liverpool, was another popular dance pop band in the mid-1980s. It was fronted by lead singer Pete Burns.\n\nProbably the most successful British pop band of the era were the duo Wham! with an unusual mix of disco, soul, ballads and even rap, who had eleven top ten hits in the UK, six of them number ones, between 1982 and 1986.P. Gambaccini, T. Rice and J. Rice, British Hit Singles (6th edn., 1985), pp. 338-9. George Michael released his debut solo album, Faith in 1987, and would go on to have seven UK number one singles. The 1985 concert Live Aid held at Wembley Stadium would see some of the biggest British artists of the era perform, with Queen stealing the show. \n\nBonnie Tyler and Dan Ellis had major hits with \"Total Eclipse of the Heart\" and \"Holding Out for a Hero\", while Robert Palmer's had two iconic music videos for \"Addicted to Love\" and \"Simply Irresistible\". The Bee Gees 1987 single \"You Win Again\" reached number one, making them first group to score a UK #1 hit in each of three decades: the 1960s, '70s, and '80s. Other British artists who achieved success in the pop charts in the 80s included Paul McCartney, Elton John, Culture Club, The Fixx, Joe Cocker, Rod Stewart, Kate Bush, Billy Idol, Paul Young, Elvis Costello, Simple Minds, Billy Ocean, Tears for Fears, UB40, Madness and Sade.\n\nIn 1988 Irish singer Enya achieved a breakthrough in her career with the album Watermark which sold over eleven million copies worldwide and helped launch Enya's successful career as a leading new-age, Celtic, World singer. Dutch band Tambourine received some notoriety in The Netherlands and Belgium toward the end of the decade.\n\nSynth pop \n\nSynthpop emerged from new wave, producing a form of pop music that followed electronic rock pioneers in the 1970s like Kraftwerk, Jean Michel Jarre, and Tangerine Dream, in which the synthesizer is the dominant musical instrument. The sounds of synthesizers came to dominate the pop music of the early 1980s as well as replacing disco in dance clubs in Europe.\n\nOther successful synthpop artists of this era included Pet Shop Boys, Alphaville, Soft Cell, Depeche Mode, New Order, Gary Numan, The Human League, Thomas Dolby, Yazoo, Art of Noise, Heaven 17, A Flock of Seagulls, OMD, Japan, Thompson Twins, Visage, Ultravox, Kajagoogoo, Eurythmics, a-ha, Telex, Real Life, Erasure, Camouflage, London Boys, Modern Talking, Bananarama, Yellow Magic Orchestra, among others.\n\nLatin America \n\nPop \n\nThe 1980s gives to the rise of teenage groups such as Menudo, Timbiriche, and Los Chicos, as well as child stars such as Luis Miguel. By 1988, however, the aforementioned Luis Miguel would transform into an adult superstar at age 18 with the hit La Incondicional (1989). Not too far behind was former Los Chicos' member Chayanne as he became a leading pop star by the end of the decade, with his 1987 hit Fiesta en America. As young stars begin to rise in Latin music, veterans such as Julio Iglesias, José José, Juan Gabriel, and José Luis Rodríguez El Puma continue their dominance in Latin music. In 1985 became the worldwide breakthrough success of Conga by Gloria Estefan and Miami Sound Machine . Argentine-Venezuelan singer Ricardo Montaner joins those veterans with his 1988 hit Tan Enamorado. After the slow decline of Fania All-Stars, the new romantic genre of salsa romantica would rise beginning in 1984. Younger salseros such as Frankie Ruiz, Luis Enrique, and Eddie Santiago would take advantage of this new genre rising salsa to new heights. Tejano Music starts to give little rise after Mazz crosses over to Mexico after their albums Una Noche Juntos and No Te Olvidare win Grammys.\n\nIn 1989, Juan Luis Guerra scores a major Merengue hit with Ojala que llueva cafe.\n\nRock \n\nThe Rock en Español movement began around the 1980s. Until the mid-80s the rock scene of most Spanish American countries were not connected, and it was rare for a rock band to gain acclaim and popularity outside its home country.\n\nArgentina, which had the largest national rock scene and music industry, became the birthplace of several influential rock acts. Soda Stereo from Buenos Aires is often acclaimed as the most influential rock band of the 80s alongside the solo careers of Charly García, Luis Alberto Spinetta and the new star Fito Páez from Rosario. Soda Stereo was among the first bands to successfully tour across most of Latin America. Argentina developed also during the 80s a ska rock and punk rock scene. The punk movement, that was pioneered by Los Violadores, led to the rise of the Buenos Aires Hardcore around 1990.\n\nIn Chile, that was ruled by a military dictatorship all over the 80s, Nueva canción protest songs from the 60s and 70s maintained their popularity despite severe censorship. The progressive/folk rock band Los Jaivas made a Latin American trademark album with Alturas de Macchu Picchu [sic] based on Pablo Neruda's homonymous poem. The rock band Los Prisioneros were successful in combining the protest song atmosphere of the 80s with newer trends in rock including punk, ska, new wave and techno. In late 1980s new bands such as Maná, Los Tres and La Ley would start to set the trends for the next decade.\n\nBrazil saw the emergence of BRock.\n\nSalsa \n\nThe salsa music had developed in the 1960s and '70s by Puerto Rican and Cuban immigrants to the New York City area but did not enter into mainstream popularity in Latin America until the late 1980s. The salsa music became together with cumbia the two most popular dance music but did not penetrate other countries outside the Caribbean as cumbia did.\n\nThe 1980s was a time of diversification, as popular salsa evolved into sweet and smooth salsa romantica, with lyrics dwelling on love and romance, and its more explicit cousin, salsa erotica. Salsa romantica can be traced back to Noches Calientes, a 1984 album by singer José Alberto with producer Louie Ramirez. A wave of romantica singers, found wide audience among Latinos in both New York and Puerto Rico. The 1980s also saw salsa expand to Mexico, Argentina, Peru, Europe and Japan, and diversify into many new styles.\n\nIn the 1980s some performers experimented with combining elements of salsa with hip hop music, while the producer and pianist Sergio George helped to revive salsa's commercial success. He created a sound based on prominent trombones and rootsy, mambo-inspired style. He worked with the Japanese salsa band Orquesta de la Luz, and developed a studio orchestra that included Tito Nieves, Celia Cruz, José Alberto, La India, Tito Puente and Luis Enrique. The Colombian singer Joe Arroyo first rose to fame in the 1970s, but became a renowned exponent of Colombian salsa in the 1980s. Arroyo worked for many years with the Colombian arranger Fruko and his band Los Tesos. \n\nMerengue \n\nMerengue music would hit its golden years during the 1980s starting in the late 70s with acts such as Wilfrido Vargas, Johnny Ventura, and Fernando Villalona. Their orchestras would also churn future solo acts such as Eddy Herrera and Rubby Perez. By the end of the decade, La Cocoband would reinvent merengue with a more comedic style.\n\nAustralia and New Zealand \n\nAustralian rock band INXS achieved international success during the decade with a series of hit recordings, including the albums Listen Like Thieves (1985), Kick (1987), and the singles \"Original Sin\" (1984), \"Need You Tonight\" (1987), \"Devil Inside\" (1988) and \"New Sensation\" (1987). \n\nKylie Minogue first single, \"Locomotion\" became a huge hit in Minogue's native Australia spending seven weeks at number one on the Australian singles chart. The single eventually became the highest selling Australian single of the decade. Throughout Europe and Asia the song also performed well on the music charts, reaching number one in Belgium, Finland, Ireland, Israel, Japan, and South Africa. The Australian rock band Men at Work achieved success in 1981 with the single \"Down Under\" topping Australian charts for two consecutive weeks.\n\nIn 1980, New Zealand rock band Split Enz released their album True Colours, which became an international success. Their single \"I Got You\", which was praised for its \"Beatle-esque\" chorus, reached the top ten in New Zealand, Australia and Canada, reached number twelve in the United Kingdom, and even charted the United States. Split Enz also received significant exposure in the United States upon the release of MTV, which featured several Split Enz videos in the early days of its broadcast. However, after several line-up changes, which included the departure of prominent member Tim Finn, the band broke up in 1984 (another prominent New Zealand/Australian band, Mi-Sex, known for its hit single \"Computer Games\", disbanded the same year). Neil Finn, the younger brother of Tim Finn who had become Split Enz's de facto front man after his departure in 1983, went on to form Crowded House in Australia in 1985. In 1986 Crowded House released their hugely successful self-titled debut album, which went to number one in Australia and number three in New Zealand, as well as reaching the top ten in Canada and top twenty in the United States. It spawned the song \"Don't Dream It's Over\", which hit number one in New Zealand and Canada, number two in the United States and number eight in Australia, and has since become a pop/rock anthem in Australasia. Crowded House's follow up album Temple of Low Men, released in 1988, did not achieve the same success as their debut, but was still popular in the band's homelands of Australia and New Zealand...\n\nBack at home, New Zealand continued to have a small and vibrant music scene, and the eighties saw the formation of many new bands, including The Swingers, Coconut Rough, The Crocodiles and Peking Man. Many of these bands were short-lived and did not see much success outside of New Zealand and Australia. So said.\n\nAsia \n\nIn Japan, bands such as Shonen Knife, Boredoms, The Star Club, X Japan and The Stalin began in the Japanese rock bands and Visual kei emerged in the 1980s with bands such as X Japan, Buck Tick and D'erlanger.\nJapanese noise rock emerged in the 1980s with bands such as Melt-Banana, Zeni Geva and Guitar Wolf in the Japanese's indies scene.\nThe Japanese hardcore emerged with bands such as The Star Club and GISM and Japanese idol group Onyanko Club began as Idol group in the teen fans and youth fans.", "\"Don't You Want Me\" is a single by British synthpop group The Human League, released on 27 November 1981 as the fourth single from their third studio album Dare (1981).\n\nIt is the band's best known and most commercially successful recording and was the 1981 Christmas number one in the UK, where it has since sold over 1,560,000 copies, making it the 23rd most successful single in UK Singles Chart history. It later topped the Billboard Hot 100 in the US on 3 July 1982 where it stayed for three weeks. In 2015 the song was voted by the British public as the nation's 7th favourite 1980s number one in a poll for ITV. \n\nBackground\n\nThe lyrics were originally inspired after lead singer Philip Oakey read a photo-story in a teen-girl's magazine. Originally conceived and recorded in the studio as a male solo, Oakey was inspired by the film A Star Is Born and decided to turn the song into a conflicting duet with one of the band's two teenage female vocalists. Susan Ann Sulley was then asked to take on the role. Up until then, she and the other female vocalist Joanne Catherall had only been assigned backing vocals; Sulley says she was chosen only through \"luck of the draw\". Musicians Jo Callis and Philip Adrian Wright created a synthesizer score to accompany the lyrics which was much harsher than the version that was actually released. Initial versions of the song were recorded but Virgin Records-appointed producer Martin Rushent was unhappy with them. He and Callis remixed the track, giving it a softer, and in Oakey's opinion, \"poppy\" sound. Oakey hated the new version and thought it the weakest track on Dare, resulting in one of his infamous rows with Rushent. Oakey disliked it so much that it was relegated to the last track on the B side of the (then) vinyl album.\n\nBefore the release of Dare, three of its tracks—\"The Sound of the Crowd\", \"Love Action (I Believe in Love)\", and \"Open Your Heart\"—had already been released as successful singles. With a hit album and three hit singles in a row, Virgin's chief executive Simon Draper decided to release one more single from the album before the end of 1981. His choice, \"Don't You Want Me\", instantly caused a row with Oakey who did not want another single to be released because he was convinced that \"the public were now sick of hearing The Human League\" and the choice of the \"poor quality filler track\" would almost certainly be a disaster, wrecking the group's new-found popularity. Virgin were adamant that a fourth single would be released and Oakey finally agreed on the condition that a large colour poster accompany the 7\" single, because he felt fans would \"feel ripped off\" by the 'substandard' single alone. \n\nThe Human League often added cryptic references to their productions and the record sleeve of \"Don't You Want Me\" featured the suffix of \"100\". This was a reference to The 100 Club, a restaurant/bar in Sheffield. \n\nToday, the song is widely considered a classic of its era. In a retrospective review, Stephen Thomas Erlewine, senior editor for AllMusic, described the song as \"a devastating chronicle of a frayed romance wrapped in the greatest pop hooks and production of its year.\" Oakey still describes it as over-rated, but acknowledges his initial dismissal was misguided and claims pride in the track. Oakey is also at pains to point out another misconception, that it is not a love song, but \"a nasty song about sexual power politics\". \n\nChart performance and sales\n\n\"Don't You Want Me\" was released in the UK on 27 November 1981. To the amazement of the band (and especially Oakey), it entered the UK Singles Chart at No.9 and shot to number one the following week, remaining there over the Christmas period for a total of five weeks. It ultimately became the biggest selling single to be released in 1981, and the fifth biggest selling single of the entire decade. Its success was repeated six months later in the US, with \"Don't You Want Me\" hitting No. 1 on the Billboard Hot 100 for three weeks. Billboard magazine ranked it as the sixth-biggest hit of 1982. The single was certified Gold by the RIAA the same year for sales of a million copies. It is notable as the first song featuring the revolutionary Linn LM-1 drum machine to hit No. 1 on the UK charts and also the first LM-1 track to top the Billboard Hot 100. The song was remixed and re-released in 1995, peaking at No. 16 on the UK chart. As of November 2012, \"Don't You Want Me\" is the 23rd best-selling single in the UK with 1.55 million copies sold. On 23 March 2014 the song re-entered the UK Singles Chart at number 19 and debuted at number 1 in the Scottish singles charts thanks to a social media campaign by fans of Aberdeen Football Club. \n\nMusic video\n\nIn 1981 record company Virgin were becoming aware that the promotional music video was evolving into an important marketing tool, with MTV being launched that year. Because it was agreed that the video for Open Your Heart had looked \"cheap and nasty\", Virgin commissioned a much more elaborate and expensive promotional video for \"Don't You Want Me\".\n\nThe video for the song was filmed near Slough, Berkshire, during November 1981 and has the theme of the filming and editing of a murder-mystery film, featuring the band members as characters and production staff. Due to it being a \"making of\" video, both crew and camera apparatus appear throughout. It was conceived and directed by filmmaker Steve Barron, and has at its core the interaction between a successful actress (also a 2nd negative cutter) played by Susan Ann Sulley walking out on \"film director\" Philip Oakey on a film set. It is loosely based on the film A Star Is Born. Near the end of the video, Wright, who also plays a film editor, has an expression on his face, while the camera pulls back to reveal that the negative room where Oakey, Wright, and Sulley were working in is another set (the camera can be seen in the mirror's reflection).\n\nFilmed on a cold, wet, winter night, it was shot on 35mm film instead of the cheaper video tape prevalent at the time. Susan Sulley claims that Steve Barron was heavily influenced by the cinematography of Ultravox's video for \"Vienna\" (directed by Russell Mulcahy earlier that year). Steve Barron was also influenced by François Truffaut and his film Day for Night, and because of that the clapper board seen in the video bears the inscription \"Le League Humaine\" as a tribute to Truffaut.\n\nThe video is credited for making Oakey, Sulley and Catherall visual icons of the early 1980s but became controversial later for a scene involving the murder-mystery film subplot where Jo Callis appears to shoot Catherall (and later in the video repeated with Oakey shooting Sulley) with a pistol from a car window (a Saab 99 turbo). The scene is cut out of the DVD version and usually on music television, replaced with a montage of other shots from the video edited in slow-motion. The other car that was used in the video is a gold W-Reg Rover SD1 – an iconic car of the time. In a 1995 interview, Catherall mentioned that the car Callis was driving had to be pushed into shot as he couldn't drive at the time, to which Sulley added \"he still can't!\" \n\nThe video was released in December 1981, just as the music video culture was becoming an integral part of the pop music scene, and it was a major contribution to the song's commercial success.\n\nCharts and certifications\n\nWeekly charts\n\n1995 Re-issue\n\n2014\n\nYear-end charts\n\nSales and certifications\n\nPopular Culture \n\nIn 2001, Virgin Records allowed the song to be used in a Fiat Punto commercial, starring Myfanwy Waring and James Daffern, where the latter actor spoke lyrics from the first verse and chorus over the accompanying background music. Fiat's use of the song prompted legal action from The Human League, who lost the case to Virgin. Susan Sulley later complained: \"Now even if we wanted to use the song for a more worthy company, we can't because it will always be associated with a particular brand.\" \n\nA campaign was started by Aberdeen F.C. fans in March 2014 to get the song to number one in the UK Top 40 singles chart after their Scottish League Cup final victory against Inverness CT. The song peaked at No. 4 in the iTunes Download chart on 19 March 2014. The following Sunday, 23 March, the song re-entered the UK Singles Chart at No. 19 and the Official Scottish charts at #1. \n\nA Foster Farms commercial in the United States features a choir of animatronic chickens singing the song as part of the poultry producer's \"Amazing Chicken\" campaign. \n\nThe song is also featured in the films Cherish, Lost Islands, He's Just Not That Into You, 1981, and Cyrus. In the movie \"The Secret Life Of Walter Mitty \" Walter (Ben Stiller) does a karaoke version of \"Don’t You Want Me\" with a drunk – who turns out to be the local helicopter pilot. The soundtrack includes a cover from Bahamas featuring The Weather Station (with the singer Tamara Lindeman).\n\nTrack listing\n\n7\" version\n\n#\"Don't You Want Me\" – 3:57\n#\"Seconds\" – 4:59\n\n12\" version\n\n#\"Don't You Want Me\" – 3:57\n#\"Seconds\" – 4:59\n#\"Don't You Want Me (Extended Dance Mix)\" – 7:30\n\nCovers\n\nMandy Smith version \n\nIn 1989 Mandy Smith covered this song. The song was released after her album Mandy (1988). It was also Smith's final single. This song has a B-side, \"If It Makes You Feel Good\", which appeared on Smith's debut album.\n\n;Formats and track listings\nCD Single\n# \"Don't You Want Me Baby\"\n# \"If It Makes You Feel Good\"\n# \"Don't You Want Me Baby\" (Cocktail Mix)\n# \"If It Makes You Feel Good\" (Extended Version)\n7\" Single\n# \"Don't You Want Me Baby\"\n# \"If It Makes You Feel Good\"\n12\" Single\n# \"Don't You Want Me Baby\" (Cocktail Mix)\n# \"If It Makes You Feel Good\" (Extended Version)\n\nCharts\n\nAlcazar version\n\nDon't You Want Me is a Eurodance song performed by Swedish band Alcazar and released internationally in 2002. The song was included to the European version of Casino together with a few other, and was recorded in Stockholm at first, but when they wanted it for a new pan-European single, a whole new version was made.\n\nThe single was released in Australia as a follow up to the successful single \"Crying at the Discoteque\" and the release includes the \"Ivan's X Mix\" of CATD as a bonus. The white 12 inch was released in Europe and distributed to DJs to get maximum airplay at the disco arenas.\n\nSo far \"Don't You Want Me\" is the biggest hit for the group in United States, climbing to No. 30 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart and staying on the chart for 15 weeks.\n\nThe Human League themselves have said that they like this version, as it is fairly true to the original; and Alcazar still performs this track at their live shows around the world.\n\nThe song is playable on the Karaoke Revolution games.\n\n;Music video\nThe video was filmed at Filmhuset in Stockholm, and once again Jesper Ganslandt directed it all. As always in Alcazar videos the storyline takes place in \"Alcazar world\" – and this time it all took place in \"Circus Alcazar\". The video is filled with horses, ducks, an evil parrot, acrobats and the Alcazar ballet.\n\nThe whole video shoot took almost 23 hours, and actually includes Annikafiore's boyfriend juggling with fire in the background The Alcazar dog Selma was styled in a pink ballerina dress and waited the whole day for the filming of her scene where she would perform jumps in the circus arena.\n\nFormats and track listings\n\nThese are the formats and track listings of promotional single releases of \"Don't You Want Me\".\n\n;CD single\n#\"Almighty Radio Edit\" – 3:27\n#\"Almighty Club Mix\" – 7:25\n#\"Project Eden Remix\" – 7:34\n#\"Earth Club Anthem\" – 10:24\n#\"Wild Cowboys Radio Mix\" – 3:38\n\nChart performance\n\nOther versions\n\nA cover of the song was released on 5 October 1992, and it was the last successful single by Liverpool-based pop group The Farm, reaching No. 18 in the UK Singles Chart in late 1992. It was originally recorded for the NME charity album Ruby Trax.\nTatjana released a version in 1992.\nStephin Merritt project Future Bible Heroes recorded a cover of \"Don't You Want Me\" which is featured on Reproductions: Songs of The Human League.\nElectronica band Hyper Crush recorded a cover version of the song for their Mixtape Volume 2 CD.\nA cover of the song was recorded by Atomic Tom for the soundtrack of the 2011 Michael Dowse film Take Me Home Tonight. The music video featured members of the film's cast.\nAmerican singer-songwriter Rocky Votolato and New York-based band Matt Pond PA performed a version of the song in May 2011 for The A.V. Club A.V. Undercover series. \nA cover of the song was composed by the Electronic artist Leæther Strip which was featured on Yes, I'm Limited IV. The cover featured Unter Null.\nA cover of this song appears on the album Picture Show by Neon Trees.\n*The band \"Information Society\" recorder a cover on album Orders of Magnetude (2016)." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "The Human League", "The League Unlimited Orchestra", "The Dead Daughters", "The Future (band)", "League unlimited orchestra", "Human League" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "future band", "human league", "league unlimited orchestra", "dead daughters" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "human league", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Human League" }
Which star of Hannah And Her Sisters has a child called Free?	tc_336	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Hannah_and_Her_Sisters.txt" ], "title": [ "Hannah and Her Sisters" ], "wiki_context": [ "Hannah and Her Sisters is a 1986 American comedy-drama film which tells the intertwined stories of an extended family over two years that begins and ends with a family Thanksgiving dinner. The film was written and directed by Woody Allen, who stars along with Mia Farrow as Hannah, Michael Caine as her husband, and Barbara Hershey and Dianne Wiest as her sisters.\n\nThe film's ensemble cast also includes Carrie Fisher, Farrow's mother Maureen O'Sullivan, Lloyd Nolan (who died in September 1985, more than four months before the film's release), Max von Sydow and Julie Kavner. Daniel Stern, Richard Jenkins, Fred Melamed, Lewis Black, Joanna Gleason, John Turturro, and Julia Louis-Dreyfus all have minor roles, while Tony Roberts and Sam Waterston make uncredited cameo appearances. Several of Farrow's children, including a pre-adolescent Soon-Yi Previn (who married Allen in 1997), have credited and uncredited roles, mostly as Thanksgiving extras.\n\nHannah and Her Sisters was for a long time Allen's biggest box office hit (forgoing adjustment for inflation), with a North American gross of US$40 million. The film won Academy Awards for Best Original Screenplay and for Best Supporting Actor and Best Supporting Actress, the first film to win both supporting actor awards since Julia in 1977, nearly nine years before, and the last until The Fighter (2010) over two decades later.\n\nToday, Hannah and Her Sisters is widely regarded as one of Allen's finest works. Critics continue to praise its acting, screenplay, and direction.\n\nPlot\n\nThe story is told in three main arcs, with most of it occurring during a 24-month period beginning and ending at Thanksgiving parties hosted by Hannah (Mia Farrow) and her husband, Elliot (Michael Caine). Hannah serves as the stalwart hub of the narrative; most of the events of the film connect to her.\n\nElliot becomes infatuated with one of Hannah's sisters, Lee (Barbara Hershey), and eventually begins an affair with her. Elliot attributes his behavior to his discontent with his wife's self-sufficiency and resentment of her emotional strength. Lee has lived for five years with a reclusive artist, Frederick (Max Von Sydow), who is much older. She finds her relationship with Frederick no longer intellectually or sexually stimulating, in spite of (or maybe because of) Frederick's professed interest in continuing to teach her. She leaves Frederick after he discovers her affair with Elliot. For the remainder of the year between the first and second Thanksgiving gatherings, Elliot and Lee carry on their affair despite Elliot's inability to end his marriage to Hannah. Lee finally ends the affair during the second Thanksgiving, explaining that she is finished waiting for him to commit and that she has started dating someone else.\n\nHannah's ex-husband Mickey (Woody Allen), a television writer, is present mostly in scenes outside of the primary story. Flashbacks reveal that his marriage to Hannah fell apart after they were unable to have children because of his infertility. However, they had twins who are not biologically his, before divorcing. He also went on a disastrous date with Hannah's sister Holly (Dianne Wiest) when they were set up after the divorce. A hypochondriac, he goes to his doctor complaining of hearing loss, and is frightened by the possibility that it might be a brain tumor. When tests prove that he is perfectly healthy, he is initially overjoyed, but then despairs that his life is meaningless. His existential crisis leads to unsatisfying experiments with religious conversion to Catholicism and an interest in Krishna Consciousness. Ultimately, an unsuccessful suicide attempt leads him to find meaning in his life after unexpectedly viewing the Marx Brothers' Duck Soup in a movie theater. The revelation that life should be enjoyed, rather than understood, helps to prepare him for a second date with Holly, which this time blossoms into love.\n\nHolly's story is the film's third main arc. A former cocaine addict, she is an unsuccessful actress who cannot settle on a career. After borrowing money from Hannah, she starts a catering business with April (Carrie Fisher), a friend and fellow actress. Holly and April end up as rivals in auditions for parts in Broadway musicals, as well as for the affections of an architect (Sam Waterston). Holly abandons the catering business after the romance with the architect fails and decides to try her hand at writing. The career change forces her once again to borrow money from Hannah, a dependency that Holly resents. She writes a script inspired by Hannah and Elliot, which greatly upsets Hannah. It is suggested that much of the script involved personal details of Hannah and Elliot's marriage that had been conveyed to Holly through Lee (having been transmitted first from Elliot). Although this threatens to expose the affair between Elliot and Lee, Elliot soon disavows disclosing any such details. Holly sets aside her script, and instead writes a story inspired by her own life, which Mickey reads and admires greatly, vowing to help her get it produced and leading to their second date.\n\nA minor arc in the film tells part of the story of Norma (Maureen O'Sullivan) and Evan (Lloyd Nolan). They are the parents of Hannah and her two sisters, and still have acting careers of their own. Their own tumultuous marriage revolves around Norma's alcoholism and alleged affairs, but the long-term bond between them is evident in Evan's flirtatious anecdotes about Norma while playing piano at the Thanksgiving gatherings.\n\nBy the time of the film's third Thanksgiving, Lee has married someone she met while taking classes at Columbia, while Hannah and Elliot have reconciled their marriage. The film's final shot reveals that Holly is married to Mickey and that she is pregnant.\n\nInfluences\n\nPart of the film's structure and background is borrowed from Ingmar Bergman's Fanny and Alexander. In both films, a large theatrical family gather for three successive year's celebrations (Thanksgiving in Allen's film, Christmas in Bergman's). The first of each gathering is in a time of contentment, the second in a time of trouble, and the third showing what happens after the resolution of the troubles. The sudden appearance of Mickey's reflection behind Holly's in the closing scene also parallels the apparition behind Alexander of the Bishop's ghost. Additional parallels can be found with Luchino Visconti's 1960 film Rocco and His Brothers, which, besides the connection to its name, also uses the structural device of dividing sections of the film for the different siblings' plot arcs. \n\nCultural impact\n\nThe movie was satirized in Mad magazine as \"Henna and Her Sickos.\" \n\nCast (in order of appearance)\n\ntier 1\n* Barbara Hershey as Lee\n* Carrie Fisher as April\n* Michael Caine as Elliot\n* Mia Farrow as Hannah\n* Dianne Wiest as Holly\n* Maureen O'Sullivan as Norma\n* Lloyd Nolan as Evan\n* Max Von Sydow as Frederick\n* Woody Allen as Mickey \n\ntier 2\n* Lewis Black as Paul\n* Julia Louis-Dreyfus as Mary\n* Christian Clemenson as Larry\n* Julie Kavner as Gail\n* J. T. Walsh as Ed Smythe\n* John Turturro as writer\n* Rusty Magee as Ron\n* Allen DeCheser\n* Artie DeCheser as Hannah's twins\n\ntier 3\n* Ira Wheeler as Dr. Abel\n* Richard Jenkins as Dr. Wilkes\n* Tracy Kennedy as brunch guest\n* Fred Melamed as Dr. Grey\n* Benno Schmidt as Dr. Smith\n* Joanna Gleason as Carol\n* Maria Chiara as Manon Lescaut\n\ntier 4\n* Daniel Stern as Dusty\n* Stephen deFluiter as Dr. Brooks\n* The 39 Steps as rock band\n* Bobby Short as himself\n* Rob Scott as Drummer\n* Beverly Peer as bass player\n* Daisy Previn\n* Moses Farrow as Hannah's children\n\ntier 5\n* Paul Bates as theater manager\n* Carrotte\n* Mary Pappas as theater executives\n* Bernie Leighton as audition pianist\n* Ken Costigan as Father Flynn\n* Helen Miller as Mickey's mother\n* Leo Postrel as Mickey's father\n* Susan Gordon-Clark as hostess\n\ntier 6\n* William Sturgis as Elliot's analyst\n* Daniel Haber as Krishna\n* Verna O. Hobson as Mavis\n* John Doumanian\n* Fletcher Previn\n* Irwin Tenenbaum\n* Amy Greenhill\n* Dickson Shaw\n* Marje Sheridan as Thanksgiving guests\n* Ivan Kronenfeld as Lee's husband\n\nUnbilled\n* Sam Waterston as David\n* Tony Roberts as Norman\n* Soon-Yi Previn as Thanksgiving guest\n\nProduction\n\nThe film was originally about a man who fell in love with his wife's sister. Then Woody Allen re-read the novel Anna Karenina \"and I thought, it's interesting how this guy gets the various stories going, cutting from one story to another. I loved the idea of experimenting with that.\" \n\nHe was particularly intrigued by the character of Nicholas Levin \"who can't seem to find any meaning to life, he's terribly afraid of dying. It struck home very deeply. I thought it would be interesting to do one story about the relationship between three sisters and one story about someone else and his obsession with mortality.\"\n\nAllen admits the role of Hannah was based on Farrow being \"a romanticised perception of Mia. She's very stable, she has eight children now, and she's able to run her career and have good relationships with her sister and her mother. I'm very impressed with those qualities and I thought if she had two unstable sisters it would be interesting.\"\n\nAllen says he was also inspired by the title. \"I thought I'd like to make a film called Hannah and Her Sisters,\" he said, saying this prompted him to give Hannah two sisters. He was interested in making something about the relationship between sisters which he felt more complex than that between brothers. \"Maybe that comes from childhood; my mother had seven sisters and their children were female so all I knew were aunts and female cousins.\"\n\nMia Farrow later wrote that Allen had been intrigued about the subject of sisters for a long time. His earlier co-stars Janet Margolin had two sisters, and Diane Keaton had two, and Farrow had three. She says Allen gave her an early copy of Hannah and Her Sisters saying she could play whatever sister she wanted, but that \"he felt I should be Hannah, the more complex and enigmatic of the sisters... whose stillness and internal strength he likened to the quality Al Pacino projected in The Godfather.\" \n\nFarrow wrote that \"It was the first time I criticised one of his scripts. To me, the characters seemed self-indulgent and dissolute in predictable ways. The script was wordy but it said nothing.\" She claims \"Woody didn't disagree and tried to switch over to\" an alternative idea \"but preproduction was already in progress and we had to proceed.\" \n\nShe later elaborated:\nIt was my mother's stunned, chill reaction to the script that enabled me to see how he had taken many of the personal circumstances and themes of our lives, and, it seemed, had distorted them into cartoonish characterisations. At the same time he was my partner. I loved him. I could trust him with my life. And he was a writer: this is what writers do. All grist for the mill. Relatives have always grumbled. He had taken the ordinary stuff of our lives and lifted it into art. We were honored and outraged. \nFarrow admitted \"a small sick feeling... deep inside me\" which \"I shared with nobody was my fear that Hannah and Her Sisters had openly and clearly spelled out his feelings for my sister. But this was fiction, I told myself... So I put those thoughts out of my mind.\" \n\nRelease\n\nBox office\n\nHannah and Her Sisters opened on February 7, 1986 in 54 theatres, where it gained a stellar $1,265,826 ($23,441 per screen) in its opening weekend. When it expanded to 761 theatres on March 14, it garnered a respectable $2,707,966 ($3,809 per screen). it went on to gross $40,084,041 in the US (including a re-release the following year), and remains one of the highest-grossing Woody Allen movies. Adjusted for inflation it falls behind Annie Hall (1977) and Manhattan (1979), and possibly also one or two of his early comedies. Midnight in Paris (2011) surpassed its box office as well.\n\nThe film was screened out of competition at the 1986 Cannes Film Festival. \n\nCritical reception\n\nHannah and Her Sisters has a 'fresh' 93% Rotten Tomatoes rating and an average score of 8.5/10 based on the reviews of 54 critics. It also has a 90/100 weighted average score on Metacritic, which translates to \"universal acclaim\". The film received seven Academy Award nominations including Best Picture. Woody Allen received two Academy Award nominations, winning one for Best Screenplay, Original and he earned a nomination for Best Director. His work on the film was also recognized with two BAFTA Awards.\n\nMichael Caine and Dianne Wiest won Academy Awards for Best Supporting Actor and Best Supporting Actress, for their portrayals of Elliot and Holly, respectively. Hannah and Her Sisters was the last film to win in both supporting acting categories until The Fighter in 2011. The film was also Oscar-nominated for Best Art Direction-Set Decoration and Best Film Editing.\n\nIn France, the film was nominated for a César Award for Best Foreign Film.\n\nCritics Siskel and Ebert each rated the film among the top three of the 1986 film year; Roger Ebert's 1986 review of the film called it \"the best movie [Woody Allen] has ever made.\" Vincent Canby, of the New York Times, gave the film a highly favorable review, going as far as to say that it \"sets new standards for Mr. Allen as well as for all American movie makers.\" \n\nThe American Film Institute nominated the film for a ranking on its 1997 lists of the 100 greatest American movies, the 100 funniest movies, and the 100 greatest love stories.\n\nIn 2005, the Writers Guild of America named Allen's script the 95th best movie screenplay ever written. \n\nIn October 2013, the film was voted by the Guardian readers as the fourth best film directed by Woody Allen." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Barbara Hershey", "Barbara seagull", "Barbara Lynn Herzstein", "Barbara Seagull" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "barbara lynn herzstein", "barbara hershey", "barbara seagull" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "barbara hershey", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Barbara Hershey" }
Who had 70s hits with Have You Seen Her and Oh Girl?	tc_337	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Have_You_Seen_Her.txt", "Oh_Girl.txt" ], "title": [ "Have You Seen Her", "Oh Girl" ], "wiki_context": [ "\"Have You Seen Her\" is a song recorded by the soul vocal group, The Chi-Lites, and released on Brunswick Records in 1971. Composed by the lead singer Eugene Record and Barbara Acklin, the song was included on the group's 1971 album (For God's Sake) Give More Power to the People.\n\nSong\n\nThe Chi-Lites recorded \"Have You Seen Her\" in a style owing much to the doo-wop traditions of the late 1950s, after the success of another such song earlier in the year, The Temptations' \"Just My Imagination (Running Away with Me).\" The song begins and ends with a narrator remarking on how he was once happy with a woman; however, she left him, so he passes the days by partaking in leisurely activities. However, much to the dismay of the narrator, the woman does not return, or attempt to communicate with him as he had hoped. The narrator ends the song by musing on how foolish he was for believing the woman of his dreams would always be around. Some radio edits have omitted the spoken dialogue for just the singing portions. The song peaked at #3 on the Billboard Hot 100, and reached the top of the Billboard R&B Singles chart in November 1971. It also reached #3 on the UK Singles Chart in February 1972. \nThe most significant cover of \"Have You Seen Her\" was recorded by MC Hammer, for his successful 1990 LP, Please Hammer, Don't Hurt 'Em, which reached #4 on the Billboard Hot 100 and #8 on the UK Singles Chart. \nThe Barron Knights produced a parody version.\n\nPatrick Simmons (of The Doobie Brothers) recorded a cover version on his 1983 solo album Arcade.\n\nX Factor series 2 contestant Maria Lawson used a sample of the song for her 2006 debut single \"Sleepwalking\".\n\nWillie Nepomuceno produced a parody version titled \"Galing Opisina\", mimicking the voice of Dolphy.\n\nIn 2013, voice actors Rob Paulsen and John DiMaggio performed a short parody version mocking the Anthony Weiner Scandal. They incorrectly attributed the song to The Stylistics. \n\nThe song in its original recording by The Chi-Lites was included in the 2001 Clear Channel memorandum list released by Clear Channel Communications after the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, probably because at the light of the attacks the song lyrics could sound sensitive to the family of the victims, implying the girl could have died.\n\nChart positions", "\"Oh Girl\" is a single recorded by the soul vocal group, The Chi-Lites and released on Brunswick Records in 1972. Included on the group's 1972 album A Lonely Man, \"Oh Girl\" centers on a relationship on the verge of break-up. The narrator, portrayed by the song's author Eugene Record, expresses concern that the break-up may prove unbearable for him (\"Oh girl/I'd be in trouble if you left me now/'Cause I don't know where to look for love/I just don't know how\"), while knowing that staying will be no better (\"I could save myself a lot of useless tears/Girl I've got to get away from here\"; \"Better be on my way, I can't stay here\").\n\n\"Oh Girl\" was the Chi-Lites' first and only number-one single on the Billboard Hot 100, peaking at that position in May 1972 for one week. The single also reached the top position of the Billboard R&B Singles chart the following month, remaining in that position for two weeks. Billboard ranked it as the No. 13 song for 1972. In addition, it reached number fourteen on the UK Singles Chart in July 1972. \n\nThe instrument featured in the song could be a melodica.\n\nCovers and uses in the media\n\n* \"Oh Boy\" was a gender-reversed cover of the song by Renée Geyer released in 1973.\n* \"Oh Girl\" was also covered by British hip hop artist Hard Livin', Leo Sayer on his 1979 album, Here, and country music singer Con Hunley, who took his version of the song to number 12 on the Billboard Hot Country Singles chart in 1982.\n* The track was performed in 1990 by Paul Young. Young's version from his album Other Voices was also a hit, reaching number one on the Adult Contemporary chart and number eight on the Hot 100 in 1990.\n* It was featured as a plot device in the Season Four episode of The Sopranos entitled Watching Too Much Television in 2002.\n* It was covered in a punk style by Me First and the Gimme Gimmes on their 2003 album, Take a Break.\n* Over thirty years after the original release of \"Oh Girl\", the recording was sampled by the Southern rapper, Paul Wall, for his 2006 single \"Girl\".\n* It was also covered by Seal as the last track on his Soul 2 album released in 2011.\n* The track was featured in the Spike Lee films Crooklyn (1994) and Chi-Raq (2015)." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "ChiLites", "Marshall Thompson (Chi-Lites)", "The Chi-Lites", "The Chi Lites", "Marshall D. 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"What was the name of the ""girl with kaleidoscope eyes"" in a Beatles song?"	tc_339	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "The_Beatles.txt" ], "title": [ "The Beatles" ], "wiki_context": [ "The Beatles were an English rock band, formed in Liverpool in 1960. With members John Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison and Ringo Starr, they became widely regarded as the foremost and most influential act of the rock era. Rooted in skiffle, beat, and 1950s rock and roll, the Beatles later experimented with several musical styles, ranging from pop ballads and Indian music to psychedelia and hard rock, often incorporating classical elements in innovative ways. In the early 1960s, their enormous popularity first emerged as \"Beatlemania\", but as the group's music grew in sophistication, led by primary songwriters Lennon and McCartney, they came to be perceived as an embodiment of the ideals shared by the counterculture of the 1960s.\n\nThe Beatles built their reputation playing clubs in Liverpool and Hamburg over a three-year period from 1960, with Stuart Sutcliffe initially serving as bass player. The core of Lennon, McCartney and Harrison went through a succession of drummers, most notably Pete Best, before asking Starr to join them. Manager Brian Epstein moulded them into a professional act, and producer George Martin guided and developed their recordings, greatly expanding their popularity in the United Kingdom after their first hit, \"Love Me Do\", in late 1962. They acquired the nickname \"the Fab Four\" as Beatlemania grew in Britain the next year, and by early 1964 became international stars, leading the \"British Invasion\" of the United States pop market. From 1965 onwards, the Beatles produced increasingly innovative recordings, including the widely influential albums Rubber Soul (1965), Revolver (1966), Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band (1967), The Beatles (commonly known as the White Album, 1968) and Abbey Road (1969).\n\nAfter their break-up in 1970, they each enjoyed successful musical careers of varying lengths. McCartney and Starr, the surviving members, remain musically active. Lennon was shot and killed in December 1980, and Harrison died of lung cancer in November 2001.\n\nAccording to the RIAA, the Beatles are the best-selling music artists in the United States, with 178 million certified units. They have had more number-one albums on the British charts and sold more singles in the UK than any other act. In 2008, the group topped Billboard magazine's list of the all-time most successful \"Hot 100\" artists; , they hold the record for most number-one hits on the Hot 100 chart with twenty. They have received ten Grammy Awards, an Academy Award for Best Original Song Score and fifteen Ivor Novello Awards. Collectively included in Time magazine's compilation of the twentieth century's 100 most influential people, they are the best-selling band in history, with estimated sales of over 600 million records worldwide. The group was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1988, and all four were inducted individually from 1994 to 2015.\n\nHistory \n\n 1957–62: Formation, Hamburg, and UK popularity \n\nIn March 1957, John Lennon, then aged sixteen, formed a skiffle group with several friends from Quarry Bank school. They briefly called themselves the Blackjacks, before changing their name to the Quarrymen after discovering that a respected local group was already using the other name. Fifteen-year-old Paul McCartney joined as a rhythm guitarist shortly after he and Lennon met that July. In February 1958, McCartney invited his friend George Harrison to watch the band. The fourteen-year-old auditioned for Lennon, impressing him with his playing, but Lennon initially thought Harrison was too young to join them. After a month of Harrison's persistence, they enlisted him as their lead guitarist. By January 1959, Lennon's Quarry Bank friends had left the group, and he began studies at the Liverpool College of Art. The three guitarists, billing themselves at least three times as Johnny and the Moondogs, were playing rock and roll whenever they could find a drummer. Lennon's art school friend Stuart Sutcliffe, who had recently sold one of his paintings and was persuaded to purchase a bass guitar, joined in January 1960, and it was he who suggested changing the band's name to Beatals, as a tribute to Buddy Holly and the Crickets. They used the name until May, when they became the Silver Beetles, before undertaking a brief tour of Scotland as the backing group for pop singer and fellow Liverpudlian Johnny Gentle. By early July, they had changed their name to the Silver Beatles and by the middle of August to the Beatles.\n\nAllan Williams, the Beatles' unofficial manager, arranged a residency for them in Hamburg, but lacking a full-time drummer they auditioned and hired Pete Best in mid-August 1960. The band, now a five-piece, left four days later, contracted to club owner Bruno Koschmider for what would be a 3½-month residency. Beatles historian Mark Lewisohn writes: \"They pulled into Hamburg at dusk on 17 August, the time when the red-light area comes to life ... flashing neon lights screamed out the various entertainment on offer, while scantily clad women sat unabashed in shop windows waiting for business opportunities.\"\n\nKoschmider had converted a couple of strip clubs in the district into music venues, and he initially placed the Beatles at the Indra Club. After closing the Indra due to noise complaints, he moved them to the Kaiserkeller in October. When he learned they had been performing at the rival Top Ten Club in breach of their contract, he gave the band one month's termination notice, and reported the underage Harrison, who had obtained permission to stay in Hamburg by lying to the German authorities about his age. The authorities arranged for Harrison's deportation in late November. One week later, Koschmider had McCartney and Best arrested for arson after they set fire to a condom in a concrete corridor; the authorities deported them. Lennon returned to Liverpool in early December, while Sutcliffe remained in Hamburg through late February with his German fiancée Astrid Kirchherr, who took the first semi-professional photos of the Beatles.\n\nDuring the next two years, the Beatles were resident for periods in Hamburg, where they used Preludin both recreationally and to maintain their energy through all-night performances. In 1961, during their second Hamburg engagement, Kirchherr cut Sutcliffe's hair in the \"exi\" (existentialist) style, later adopted by the other Beatles. When Sutcliffe decided to leave the band early that year and resume his art studies in Germany, McCartney took up the bass. Producer Bert Kaempfert contracted what was now a four-piece group through June 1962, and he used them as Tony Sheridan's backing band on a series of recordings for Polydor Records. As part of the sessions, the Beatles were signed to Polydor for one year. Credited to \"Tony Sheridan & the Beat Brothers\", the single \"My Bonnie\", recorded in June 1961 and released four months later, reached number 32 on the Musikmarkt chart.\n\nAfter the Beatles completed their second Hamburg residency, they enjoyed increasing popularity in Liverpool with the growing Merseybeat movement. However, they were also growing tired of the monotony of numerous appearances at the same clubs night after night. In November 1961, during one of the group's frequent performances at the Cavern Club, they encountered Brian Epstein, a local record-store owner and music columnist. He later recalled: \"I immediately liked what I heard. They were fresh, and they were honest, and they had what I thought was a sort of presence ... [a] star quality.\" Epstein courted the band over the next couple of months, and they appointed him as their manager in January 1962. Throughout early and mid-1962, Epstein sought to free the Beatles from their contractual obligations to Bert Kaempfert Productions. He eventually negotiated a one-month-early release from their contract in exchange for one last recording session in Hamburg. Tragedy greeted them on their return to Germany in April, when a distraught Kirchherr met them at the airport with news of Sutcliffe's death the previous day from what would later be determined to have been a brain hemorrhage. Epstein began negotiations with record labels for a recording contract. In order to secure a UK record contract, Epstein negotiated an early end to the band's contract with Polydor, in exchange for more recordings backing Tony Sheridan. After a New Year's Day audition, Decca Records rejected the band with the comment \"Guitar groups are on the way out, Mr. Epstein.\" However, three months later, producer George Martin signed the Beatles to EMI's Parlophone label.\n\nMartin's first recording session with the Beatles took place at EMI's Abbey Road Studios in London on 6 June 1962. Martin immediately complained to Epstein about Best's poor drumming and suggested they use a session drummer in his place. Already contemplating Best's dismissal, the Beatles replaced him in mid-August with Ringo Starr, who left Rory Storm and the Hurricanes to join them. A 4 September session at EMI yielded a recording of \"Love Me Do\" featuring Starr on drums, but a dissatisfied Martin hired drummer Andy White for the band's third session a week later, which produced recordings of \"Love Me Do\", \"Please Please Me\" and \"P.S. I Love You\". Martin initially selected the Starr version of \"Love Me Do\" for the band's first single, though subsequent re-pressings featured the White version, with Starr on tambourine. Released in early October, \"Love Me Do\" peaked at number seventeen on the Record Retailer chart. Their television debut came later that month with a live performance on the regional news programme People and Places. After Martin suggested rerecording \"Please Please Me\" at a faster tempo, a studio session in late November yielded that recording, of which Martin accurately predicted, \"You've just made your first No.1.\"\n\nIn December 1962, the Beatles concluded their fifth and final Hamburg residency. By 1963, they had agreed that all four band members would contribute vocals to their albums – including Starr, despite his restricted vocal range, to validate his standing in the group. Lennon and McCartney had established a songwriting partnership, and as the band's success grew, their dominant collaboration limited Harrison's opportunities as a lead vocalist. Epstein, in an effort to maximise the Beatles' commercial potential, encouraged them to adopt a professional approach to performing. Lennon recalled him saying, \"Look, if you really want to get in these bigger places, you're going to have to change – stop eating on stage, stop swearing, stop smoking ...\" Lennon said: \"We used to dress how we liked, on and off stage. He'd tell us that jeans were not particularly smart and could we possibly manage to wear proper trousers, but he didn't want us suddenly looking square. He'd let us have our own sense of individuality.\"\n\n1963–66: Beatlemania and touring years \n\nPlease Please Me and With the Beatles \n\nOn 11 February 1963, the Beatles recorded ten songs during a single studio session for their debut LP, Please Please Me. The album was supplemented by the four tracks already released on their first two singles. Martin originally considered recording the Beatles' debut LP live at the Cavern Club, but after deciding that the building's acoustics were inadequate, he elected to simulate a \"live\" album with minimal production in \"a single marathon session at Abbey Road\". After the moderate success of \"Love Me Do\", the single \"Please Please Me\" met with a more emphatic reception. Released in January 1963, two months ahead of the album of the same name, the song reached number one on every chart in London except Record Retailer, where it stalled at number two. Recalling how the Beatles \"rushed to deliver a debut album, bashing out Please Please Me in a day\", AllMusic's Stephen Thomas Erlewine comments, \"Decades after its release, the album still sounds fresh, precisely because of its intense origins.\" Lennon said little thought went into composition at the time; he and McCartney were \"just writing songs à la Everly Brothers, à la Buddy Holly, pop songs with no more thought of them than that – to create a sound. And the words were almost irrelevant.\"\n\nReleased in March 1963, the album initiated a run during which eleven of their twelve studio albums released in the United Kingdom through 1970 reached number one. The band's third single, \"From Me to You\", came out in April and was also a chart-topping hit, starting an almost unbroken string of seventeen British number-one singles for the Beatles, including all but one of the eighteen they released over the next six years. Issued in August, the band's fourth single, \"She Loves You\", achieved the fastest sales of any record in the UK up to that time, selling three-quarters of a million copies in under four weeks. It became their first single to sell a million copies, and remained the biggest-selling record in the UK until 1978, when \"Mull of Kintyre\", by McCartney's post-Beatles band Wings, surpassed it in sales. Their commercial success brought increased media exposure, to which the Beatles responded with an irreverent and comical attitude that defied the expectations of pop musicians at the time, inspiring even more interest. The band toured the UK three times in the first half of the year: a four-week tour that began in February, the Beatles's first nationwide, preceded three-week tours in March and May–June. As their popularity spread, a frenzied adulation of the group took hold. Greeted with riotous enthusiasm by screaming fans, the press dubbed the phenomenon \"Beatlemania\". Although not billed as tour leaders, the Beatles overshadowed American acts Tommy Roe and Chris Montez during the February engagements and assumed top billing \"by audience demand\", something no British act had previously accomplished while touring with artists from the US. A similar situation arose during their May–June tour with Roy Orbison.\n\nIn late October, the Beatles began a five-day tour of Sweden, their first time abroad since the final Hamburg engagement of December 1962. On their return to the UK on 31 October, according to Lewisohn, \"several hundred screaming fans\" greeted them in heavy rain at Heathrow Airport. Around 50 to 100 journalists and photographers as well as representatives from the BBC also joined the airport reception, the first of more than 100 such events. The next day, the band began its fourth tour of Britain within nine months, this one scheduled for six weeks. In mid-November, as Beatlemania intensified, police resorted to using high-pressure water hoses to control the crowd before a concert in Plymouth.\n\nPlease Please Me maintained the top position on the Record Retailer chart for 30 weeks, only to be displaced by its follow-up, With the Beatles. On 22 November EMI released With the Beatles to record advance orders of 270,000 copies, and the LP topped a half-million albums sold in one week. Recorded between July and October, With the Beatles made better use of studio production techniques than its predecessor. It held the top spot for 21 weeks with a chart life of 40 weeks. Erlewine described the LP as \"a sequel of the highest order – one that betters the original\". In a reversal of then standard practice, EMI released the album ahead of the impending single \"I Want to Hold Your Hand\", with the song excluded to maximise the single's sales. The album caught the attention of music critic William Mann of The Times, who suggested that Lennon and McCartney were \"the outstanding English composers of 1963\". The newspaper published a series of articles in which Mann offered detailed analyses of the music, lending it respectability. With the Beatles became the second album in UK chart history to sell a million copies, a figure previously reached only by the 1958 South Pacific soundtrack. When writing the sleeve notes for the album, the band's press officer, Tony Barrow, used the superlative the \"fabulous foursome\", which the media widely adopted as \"the Fab Four\".\n\n\"British Invasion\" \n\nEMI's American subsidiary, Capitol Records, hindered the Beatles' releases in the United States for more than a year by initially declining to issue their music, including their first three singles. Concurrent negotiations with the independent US label Vee-Jay led to the release of some of the songs in 1963, but not all. Vee-Jay finished preparation for the album Introducing... The Beatles, culled from most of the songs of Parlophone's Please Please Me, but a management shake-up led to the album not being released. Then when it surfaced that the label did not report royalties on their sales, the licence Vee-Jay signed with EMI was voided. A new licence was granted to the Swan label for the single \"She Loves You\", but legal issues with royalties and publishing rights proved an obstacle to the successful marketing of the group in the US. American chart success began after Epstein arranged for a $40,000 US marketing campaign and secured the support of disc jockey Carrol James, who first played the band's records in mid-December 1963. Late that same month, the Beatles were introduced in the Tidewater area of Virginia by Gene Loving of radio station WGH, accompanied by a full marketing campaign, including Beatles shirt giveaways. Within days, almost every other song played on the station was a Beatles recording. It was not until the end of first week of January 1964 that their records were played in New York City (also accompanied by a major marketing campaign and with similar play frequency), and then the rest of the country, initiating their music's spread across US radio. This caused an increase in demand, leading Capitol to rush-release \"I Want to Hold Your Hand\" later that month. Issued on 26 December 1963, with the band's previously scheduled debut there just weeks away, \"I Want to Hold Your Hand\" sold a million copies, becoming a number-one hit in the US by mid-January. In its wake, Vee-Jay released Introducing... The Beatles to go along with Capitol's debut album, Meet the Beatles!, while Swan reactivated production of \"She Loves You\".\n\nOn 7 February 1964, the Beatles left the United Kingdom with an estimated 4000 fans gathered at Heathrow, waving and screaming as the aircraft took off. Upon landing at New York's John F. Kennedy Airport, an uproarious crowd estimated at 3000 greeted them. They gave their first live US television performance two days later on The Ed Sullivan Show, watched by approximately 73 million viewers in over 23 million households, or 34 per cent of the American population. Biographer Jonathan Gould writes that, according to the Nielsen rating service, it was \"the largest audience that had ever been recorded for an American television \". The next morning, the Beatles awoke to a negative critical consensus in the US, but a day later their first US concert saw Beatlemania erupt at Washington Coliseum. Back in New York the following day, the Beatles met with another strong reception during two shows at Carnegie Hall. The band then flew to Florida and appeared on the weekly Ed Sullivan Show a second time, before another 70 million viewers, before returning to the UK on 22 February.\n\nA Hard Day's Night \n\nCapitol Records' lack of interest throughout 1963 had not gone unnoticed, and a competitor, United Artists Records, encouraged their film division to offer the group a three-motion-picture deal, primarily for the commercial potential of the soundtracks. Directed by Richard Lester, A Hard Day's Night involved the band for six weeks in March–April 1964 as they played themselves in a mock-documentary. The film premiered in London and New York in July and August, respectively, and was an international success, with some critics drawing comparison with the Marx Brothers. According to Erlewine, the accompanying soundtrack album, A Hard Day's Night, saw them \"truly coming into their own as a band. All of the disparate influences on their first two albums had coalesced into a bright, joyous, original sound, filled with ringing guitars and irresistible melodies.\" That \"ringing guitar\" sound was primarily the product of Harrison's 12-string electric Rickenbacker, a prototype given to him by the manufacturer, which made its debut on the record.\n\nDuring the week of 4 April 1964, the Beatles held twelve positions on the Billboard Hot 100 singles chart, including the top five. Their popularity generated unprecedented interest in British music, and a number of other UK acts subsequently made their own American debuts, successfully touring over the next three years in what was termed the British Invasion. Their hairstyle, unusually long for the era and mocked by many adults, became an emblem of rebellion to the burgeoning youth culture.\n\nTouring internationally in June and July, the Beatles staged 37 shows over 27 days in Denmark, the Netherlands, Hong Kong, Australia and New Zealand. In August they returned to the US, with a 30-concert tour of 23 cities. Generating intense interest once again, the month-long tour attracted between 10,000 and 20,000 fans to each 30-minute performance in cities from San Francisco to New York.\n\nIn August, journalist Al Aronowitz arranged for the Beatles to meet Bob Dylan. Visiting the band in their New York hotel suite, Dylan introduced them to cannabis. Gould points out the musical and cultural significance of this meeting, before which the musicians' respective fanbases were \"perceived as inhabiting two separate subcultural worlds\": Dylan's audience of \"college kids with artistic or intellectual leanings, a dawning political and social idealism, and a mildly bohemian style\" contrasted with their fans, \"veritable 'teenyboppers' – kids in high school or grade school whose lives were totally wrapped up in the commercialised popular culture of television, radio, pop records, fan magazines, and teen fashion. They were seen as idolaters, not idealists.\" Within six months of the meeting, Gould writes, \"Lennon would be making records on which he openly imitated Dylan's nasal drone, brittle strum, and introspective vocal persona\". Within a year, Dylan would \"proceed, with the help of a five-piece group and a Fender Stratocaster electric guitar, to shake the monkey of folk authenticity permanently off his back ... the distinctions between the folk and rock audiences would have nearly evaporated [and the group's] audience ... [was] showing signs of growing up.\"\n\nBeatles for Sale, Help! and Rubber Soul \n\nAccording to Gould, Beatles for Sale, the Beatles' fourth studio LP, evidenced a growing conflict between the commercial pressures of their global success and their creative ambitions. They had intended the album, recorded between August and October 1964, to continue the format established by A Hard Day's Night which, unlike the group's first two LPs, contained only original songs. The band had nearly exhausted their backlog of songs on the previous album, however, and given the challenges constant international touring posed to their songwriting efforts, Lennon admitted, \"Material's becoming a hell of a problem\". As a result, six covers from their extensive repertoire were chosen to complete the album. Released in early December, its eight original compositions stood out, demonstrating the growing maturity of the Lennon–McCartney songwriting partnership.\n\nIn early 1965, while they were his guests for dinner, Lennon and Harrison's dentist secretly added LSD to their coffee. Lennon described the experience: \"It was just terrifying, but it was fantastic. I was pretty stunned for a month or two.\" He and Harrison subsequently became regular users of the drug, joined by Starr on at least one occasion. McCartney was initially reluctant to try it, but eventually did so in late 1966. He became the first Beatle to discuss LSD publicly, declaring in a magazine interview that \"it opened my eyes\" and \"made me a better, more honest, more tolerant member of society\".\n\nControversy erupted in June 1965 when Queen Elizabeth II appointed all four Beatles Members of the Order of the British Empire (MBE) after Prime Minister Harold Wilson nominated them for the award. In protest – the honour was at that time primarily bestowed upon military veterans and civic leaders – some conservative MBE recipients returned their own insignia.\n\nReleased in July, the Beatles' second film, Help!, was again directed by Lester. Described as \"mainly a relentless spoof of Bond\", it inspired a mixed response among both reviewers and the band. McCartney said: \"Help! was great but it wasn't our film – we were sort of guest stars. It was fun, but basically, as an idea for a film, it was a bit wrong.\" The soundtrack was dominated by Lennon, who wrote and sang lead on most of its songs, including the two singles: \"Help!\" and \"Ticket to Ride\". The accompanying album, the group's fifth studio LP, contained all original material save for two covers, \"Act Naturally\" and \"Dizzy Miss Lizzy\"; they were the last covers the band would include on an album, with the exception of Let It Be's brief rendition of the traditional Liverpool folk song \"Maggie Mae\". The band expanded their use of vocal overdubs on Help! and incorporated classical instruments into some arrangements, notably a string quartet on the pop ballad \"Yesterday\". Composed by McCartney, \"Yesterday\" would inspire the most recorded cover versions of any song ever written.\n\nThe group's third US tour opened with a performance before a world-record crowd of 55,600 at New York's Shea Stadium on 15 August 1965 – \"perhaps the most famous of all Beatles' concerts\", in Lewisohn's description. A further nine successful concerts followed in other American cities. At a show in Atlanta, the Beatles gave one of the first live performances ever to make use of a foldback system of on-stage monitor speakers. Towards the end of the tour, they met with Elvis Presley, a foundational musical influence on the band, who invited them to his home in Beverly Hills. September saw the launch of an American Saturday-morning cartoon series, The Beatles, that echoed A Hard Day's Night slapstick antics over its two-year original run. The series was a historical milestone as the first weekly television series to feature animated versions of real, living people. \n\nIn mid-October 1965, the Beatles entered the recording studio; for the first time when making an album, they had an extended period without other major commitments. Until this time, according to George Martin, \"we had been making albums rather like a collection of singles. Now we were really beginning to think about albums as a bit of art on their own.\" Released in December, Rubber Soul has been hailed by critics as a major step forward in the maturity and complexity of the band's music. Their thematic reach was beginning to expand as they embraced deeper aspects of romance and philosophy. Biographers Peter Brown and Steven Gaines attribute the new musical direction to \"the Beatles' now habitual use of marijuana\", an assertion confirmed by the band – Lennon referred to it as \"the pot album\", and Starr said: \"Grass was really influential in a lot of our changes, especially with the writers. And because they were writing different material, we were playing differently.\" After Help!s foray into the world of classical music with flutes and strings, Harrison's introduction of a sitar on \"Norwegian Wood (This Bird Has Flown)\" marked a further progression outside the traditional boundaries of popular music. As their lyrics grew more artful, fans began to study them for deeper meaning. Of \"Norwegian Wood\" Lennon commented: \"I was trying to be sophisticated in writing about an affair ... but in such a smokescreen way that you couldn't tell.\"\n\nWhile many of Rubber Souls more notable songs were the product of Lennon and McCartney's collaborative songwriting, it also featured distinct compositions from each, though they continued to share official credit. The song \"In My Life\", of which each later claimed lead authorship, is considered a highlight of the entire Lennon–McCartney catalogue. Harrison called Rubber Soul his \"favourite album\" and Starr referred to it as \"the departure record\". McCartney has said, \"We'd had our cute period, and now it was time to expand.\" However, recording engineer Norman Smith later stated that the studio sessions revealed signs of growing conflict within the group – \"the clash between John and Paul was becoming obvious\", he wrote, and \"as far as Paul was concerned, George could do no right\". In 2003, Rolling Stone ranked Rubber Soul fifth among \"The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time\", and AllMusic's Richie Unterberger describes it as \"one of the classic folk-rock records\".\n\n1966–70: Controversy, studio years and break-up \n\nEvents leading up to final tour \n\nCapitol Records, from December 1963 when it began issuing Beatles recordings for the US market, exercised complete control over format, compiling distinct US albums from the band's recordings and issuing songs of their choosing as singles. It was not until Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band in 1967 that a Beatles album was released with identical track listings in both the UK and the US. In June 1966, Yesterday and Today, one of Capitol's compilation albums, caused an uproar with its cover, which portrayed the grinning Beatles dressed in butcher's overalls, accompanied by raw meat and mutilated plastic baby dolls. It has been incorrectly suggested that this was meant as a satirical response to the way Capitol had \"butchered\" the US versions of their albums. Thousands of copies of the LP had a new cover pasted over the original; an unpeeled \"first-state\" copy fetched $10,500 at a December 2005 auction. In England, meanwhile, Harrison met sitar maestro Ravi Shankar, who agreed to train him on the instrument.\n\nDuring a tour of the Philippines the month after the Yesterday and Today furore, the Beatles unintentionally snubbed the nation's first lady, Imelda Marcos, who had expected them to attend a breakfast reception at the Presidential Palace. When presented with the invitation, Epstein politely declined on the band members' behalf, as it had never been his policy to accept such official invitations. They soon found that the Marcos regime was unaccustomed to taking no for an answer. The resulting riots endangered the group and they escaped the country with difficulty. Immediately afterwards, the band members visited India for the first time.\n\nAlmost as soon as they returned home, the Beatles faced a fierce backlash from US religious and social conservatives (as well as the Ku Klux Klan) over a comment Lennon had made in a March interview with British reporter Maureen Cleave. \"Christianity will go,\" Lennon had said. \"It will vanish and shrink. I needn't argue about that; I'm right and I will be proved right. We're more popular than Jesus now; I don't know which will go first, rock 'n' roll or Christianity. Jesus was alright but his disciples were thick and ordinary. It's them twisting it that ruins it for me.\" The comment went virtually unnoticed in England, but when US teenage fan magazine Datebook printed it five months later – on the eve of the group's August US tour – it sparked a controversy with Christians in the American \"Bible Belt\". The Vatican issued a protest, and bans on Beatles' records were imposed by Spanish and Dutch stations and South Africa's national broadcasting service. Epstein accused Datebook of having taken Lennon's words out of context; at a press conference Lennon pointed out, \"If I'd said television was more popular than Jesus, I might have got away with it.\" Lennon claimed that he was referring to how other people viewed their success, but at the prompting of reporters, he concluded: \"If you want me to apologise, if that will make you happy, then okay, I'm sorry.\"\n\nAs preparations were made for the US tour, the Beatles knew that their music would hardly be heard. Having originally used Vox AC30 amplifiers, they later acquired more powerful 100-watt amplifiers, specially designed by Vox for them as they moved into larger venues in 1964, but these were still inadequate. Struggling to compete with the volume of sound generated by screaming fans, the band had grown increasingly bored with the routine of performing live. Recognising that their shows were no longer about the music, they decided to make the August tour their last.\n\nRevolver and Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band \n\nRubber Soul had marked a major step forward; Revolver, released in August 1966 a week before the Beatles' final tour, marked another. Pitchfork's Scott Plagenhoef identifies it as \"the sound of a band growing into supreme confidence\" and \"redefining what was expected from popular music\". Revolver featured sophisticated songwriting, studio experimentation, and a greatly expanded repertoire of musical styles, ranging from innovative classical string arrangements to psychedelic rock. Abandoning the customary group photograph, its cover – designed by Klaus Voormann, a friend of the band since their Hamburg days – \"was a stark, arty, black-and-white collage that caricatured the Beatles in a pen-and-ink style beholden to Aubrey Beardsley\", in Gould's description. The album was preceded by the single \"Paperback Writer\", backed by \"Rain\". Short promotional films were made for both songs; described by cultural historian Saul Austerlitz as \"among the first true music videos\", they aired on The Ed Sullivan Show and Top of the Pops in June 1966.\n\nAmong the experimental songs that Revolver featured was \"Tomorrow Never Knows\", the lyrics for which Lennon drew from Timothy Leary's The Psychedelic Experience: A Manual Based on the Tibetan Book of the Dead. Its creation involved eight tape decks distributed about the EMI building, each staffed by an engineer or band member, who randomly varied the movement of a tape loop while Martin created a composite recording by sampling the incoming data. McCartney's \"Eleanor Rigby\" made prominent use of a string octet; Gould describes it as \"a true hybrid, conforming to no recognisable style or genre of song\". Harrison was developing as a songwriter, and three of his compositions earned a place on the record. In 2003, Rolling Stone ranked Revolver as the third greatest album of all time. During the US tour that followed its release, however, the band performed none of its songs. As Chris Ingham writes, they were very much \"studio creations ... and there was no way a four-piece rock 'n' roll group could do them justice, particularly through the desensitising wall of the fans' screams. 'Live Beatles' and 'Studio Beatles' had become entirely different beasts.\" The band's final concert at San Francisco's Candlestick Park on 29 August was their last commercial concert. It marked the end of a four-year period dominated by almost nonstop touring that included over 1,400 concert appearances internationally.\n\nFreed from the burden of touring, the Beatles embraced an increasingly experimental approach as they recorded Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band, beginning in late November 1966. According to engineer Geoff Emerick, the album's recording took over 700 hours. He recalled the band's insistence \"that everything on Sgt. Pepper had to be different. We had microphones right down in the bells of brass instruments and headphones turned into microphones attached to violins. We used giant primitive oscillators to vary the speed of instruments and vocals and we had tapes chopped to pieces and stuck together upside down and the wrong way around.\" Parts of \"A Day in the Life\" featured a 40-piece orchestra. The sessions initially yielded the non-album double A-side single \"Strawberry Fields Forever\"/\"Penny Lane\" in February 1967; the Sgt. Pepper LP followed in June.\n\nThe musical complexity of the records, created using relatively primitive four-track recording technology, astounded contemporary artists. For Beach Boys leader Brian Wilson, then in the midst of a personal crisis and struggling at the time to complete the ambitious Smile, hearing \"Strawberry Fields\" was reported as one of many elements that contributed to the project's collapse. Among music critics, acclaim for the album was virtually universal. Gould writes:\n\nSgt. Pepper was the first major pop/rock LP to include its complete lyrics, which appeared on the back cover. Those lyrics were the subject of critical analysis; for instance, in late 1967 the album was the subject of a scholarly inquiry by American literary critic and professor of English Richard Poirier, who observed that his students were \"listening to the group's music with a degree of engagement that he, as a teacher of literature, could only envy\". Poirier identified what he termed its \"mixed allusiveness\": \"It's unwise ever to assume that they're doing only one thing or expressing themselves in only one style ... one kind of feeling about a subject isn't enough ... any single induced feeling must often exist within the context of seemingly contradictory alternatives.\" McCartney said at the time: \"We write songs. We know what we mean by them. But in a week someone else says something about it, and you can't deny it. ... You put your own meaning at your own level to our songs.\" In 2003, Rolling Stone ranked it number one on its list of the \"500 Greatest Albums of All Time\".\n\nSgt. Peppers elaborate cover also attracted considerable interest and study. A collage designed by pop artists Peter Blake and Jann Haworth, it depicted the group as the fictional band referred to in the album's title track standing in front of a crowd of famous people. The heavy moustaches worn by the group reflected the growing influence of hippie style, while cultural historian Jonathan Harris describes their \"brightly coloured parodies of military uniforms\" as a knowingly \"anti-authoritarian and anti-establishment\" display.\n\nOn 25 June 1967, the Beatles performed their forthcoming single, \"All You Need Is Love\", to an estimated 350 million viewers on Our World, the first live global television link. Released a week later, during the Summer of Love, the song was adopted as a flower power anthem. Two months later, the group suffered a loss that threw their career into turmoil. Having been introduced to Maharishi Mahesh Yogi only the previous night in London, on 25 August they travelled to Bangor for his Transcendental Meditation retreat. Two days later, their manager's assistant, Peter Brown, phoned to inform them that Epstein had died. The coroner ruled the death an accidental carbitol overdose, although it was widely rumoured to be a suicide. Epstein had been in a fragile emotional state, stressed by personal issues and concern that the band might not renew his management contract, due to expire in October, over discontent with his supervision of business matters, particularly regarding Seltaeb, the company that handled their US merchandising rights. His death left the group disoriented and fearful about the future. Lennon recalled: \"We collapsed. I knew that we were in trouble then. I didn't really have any misconceptions about our ability to do anything other than play music, and I was scared. I thought, 'We've had it now.'\"\n\nMagical Mystery Tour, the White Album and Yellow Submarine \n\nMagical Mystery Tour, the soundtrack to a forthcoming Beatles television film, was released in the UK as a six-track double extended play disc (EP) in early December 1967. In the United States, the six songs were issued on an identically titled LP that also included five tracks from the band's recent singles. Unterberger says of the US Magical Mystery Tour, \"the psychedelic sound is very much in the vein of Sgt. Pepper, and even spacier in parts (especially the sound collages of 'I Am the Walrus')\" and he calls its five songs culled from the band's 1967 singles \"huge, glorious, and innovative\". In its first three weeks, the album set a record for the highest initial sales of any Capitol LP, and it is the only Capitol compilation later to be adopted in the band's official canon of studio albums. First aired on Boxing Day, the Magical Mystery Tour film, largely directed by McCartney, brought the group their first major negative UK press. It was dismissed as \"blatant rubbish\" by the Daily Express; the Daily Mail called it \"a colossal conceit\"; and The Guardian labelled the film \"a kind of fantasy morality play about the grossness and warmth and stupidity of the audience\". Gould describes it as \"a great deal of raw footage showing a group of people getting on, getting off, and riding on a bus\". Although the viewership figures were respectable, its slating in the press led US television networks to lose interest in broadcasting the film.\n\nIn January 1968, the Beatles filmed a cameo for the animated movie Yellow Submarine, which featured cartoon versions of the band members and a soundtrack with eleven of their songs, including four unreleased studio recordings that made their debut in the film. Released in June 1968, the film was praised by critics for its music, humour and innovative visual style. It would be seven months, however, before the film's soundtrack album appeared.\n\nIn the interim came The Beatles, a double LP commonly known as the White Album for its virtually featureless cover. Creative inspiration for the album came from a new direction: without Epstein's guiding presence, the group had briefly turned to Maharishi Mahesh Yogi as their guru. At his ashram in Rishikesh, India, a \"Guide Course\" scheduled for three months marked one of their most prolific periods, yielding numerous songs including a majority of the 30 included on the album. However, Starr left after only ten days, likening it to Butlins, and McCartney eventually grew bored and departed a month later. For Lennon and Harrison, creativity turned to questioning when an electronics technician known as Magic Alex suggested that the Maharishi was attempting to manipulate them. When he alleged that the Maharishi had made sexual advances to women attendees, a persuaded Lennon left abruptly just two months into the course, bringing an unconvinced Harrison and the remainder of the group's entourage with him. In anger, Lennon wrote a scathing song titled \"Maharishi\", renamed \"Sexy Sadie\" to avoid potential legal issues. McCartney said, \"We made a mistake. We thought there was more to him than there was.\"\n\nDuring recording sessions for the White Album, which stretched from late May to mid-October 1968, relations between the Beatles grew openly divisive. Starr quit for two weeks, and McCartney took over the drum kit for \"Back in the U.S.S.R.\" (on which Harrison and Lennon drummed as well) and \"Dear Prudence\". Lennon had lost interest in collaborating with McCartney, whose contribution \"Ob-La-Di, Ob-La-Da\" he scorned as \"granny music shit\". Tensions were further aggravated by Lennon's romantic preoccupation with avant-garde artist Yoko Ono, whom he insisted on bringing to the sessions despite the group's well-established understanding that girlfriends were not allowed in the studio. Describing the double album, Lennon later said: \"Every track is an individual track; there isn't any Beatle music on it. [It's] John and the band, Paul and the band, George and the band.\" McCartney has recalled that the album \"wasn't a pleasant one to make\". Both he and Lennon identified the sessions as the start of the band's break-up.\n\nIssued in November, the White Album was the band's first Apple Records album release, although EMI continued to own their recordings. The new label was a subsidiary of Apple Corps, which Epstein had formed as part of his plan to create a tax-effective business structure. The record attracted more than 2 million advance orders, selling nearly 4 million copies in the US in little over a month, and its tracks dominated the playlists of American radio stations. Despite its popularity, it did not receive flattering reviews at the time. According to Gould:\n\nGeneral critical opinion eventually turned in favour of the White Album, and in 2003, Rolling Stone ranked it as the tenth greatest album of all time. Pitchfork's Mark Richardson describes it as \"large and sprawling, overflowing with ideas but also with indulgences, and filled with a hugely variable array of material ... its failings are as essential to its character as its triumphs.\" Erlewine comments: \"The [band's] two main songwriting forces were no longer on the same page, but neither were George and Ringo\", yet \"Lennon turns in two of his best ballads\", McCartney's songs are \"stunning\", Harrison had become \"a songwriter who deserved wider exposure\", and Starr's composition was \"a delight\".\n\nThe Yellow Submarine LP, issued in January 1969, contained only the four previously unreleased songs that had debuted in the film, along with the title track (already issued on Revolver), \"All You Need Is Love\" (already issued as a single and on the US Magical Mystery Tour LP) and seven instrumental pieces composed by Martin. Because of the paucity of new Beatles music, AllMusic's Unterberger and Bruce Eder suggest the album might be \"inessential\" but for Harrison's \"It's All Too Much\": \"the jewel of the new songs ... resplendent in swirling Mellotron, larger-than-life percussion, and tidal waves of feedback guitar ... a virtuoso excursion into otherwise hazy psychedelia\".\n\nAbbey Road, Let It Be, and break-up \n\nAlthough Let It Be was the Beatles' final album release, it was largely recorded before Abbey Road. The project's impetus came from an idea Martin attributes to McCartney, who suggested they \"record an album of new material and rehearse it, then perform it before a live audience for the very first time – on record and on film\". Originally intended for a one-hour television programme to be called Beatles at Work, much of the album's content came from extensive rehearsals filmed by director Michael Lindsay-Hogg at Twickenham Film Studios, beginning in January 1969. Martin has said that the project was \"not at all a happy recording experience. It was a time when relations between the Beatles were at their lowest ebb.\" Lennon described the largely impromptu sessions as \"hell ... the most miserable ... on Earth\", and Harrison, \"the low of all-time\". Irritated by both McCartney and Lennon, Harrison walked out for five days. Upon returning, he threatened to leave the band unless they \"abandon[ed] all talk of live performance\" and instead focused on finishing a new album, initially titled Get Back, using songs recorded for the TV special. He also demanded they cease work at Twickenham and relocate to the newly finished Apple Studio. The other band members agreed, and the idea came about to salvage the footage shot for the TV production for use in a feature film.\n\nIn an effort to alleviate tensions within the band and improve the quality of their live sound, Harrison invited keyboardist Billy Preston to participate in the last nine days of sessions. Preston received label billing on the \"Get Back\" single – the only musician ever to receive that acknowledgment on an official Beatles release. At the conclusion of the rehearsals, the band could not agree on a location to film a concert, rejecting several ideas, including a boat at sea, a lunatic asylum, the Tunisian desert, and the Colosseum. Ultimately, what would be their final live performance was filmed on the rooftop of the Apple Corps building at 3 Savile Row, London, on 30 January 1969. Five weeks later, engineer Glyn Johns, whom Lewisohn describes as Get Backs \"uncredited producer\", began work assembling an album, given \"free rein\" as the band \"all but washed their hands of the entire project\".\n\nNew strains developed between the band members regarding the appointment of a financial adviser, the need for which had become evident without Epstein to manage business affairs. Lennon, Harrison and Starr favoured Allen Klein, who had managed the Rolling Stones and Sam Cooke; McCartney wanted Lee and John Eastman – father and brother, respectively, of Linda Eastman, whom McCartney married on 12 March. Agreement could not be reached, so both Klein and the Eastmans were temporarily appointed: Klein as the Beatles' business manager and the Eastmans as their lawyers. Further conflict ensued, however, and financial opportunities were lost. On 8 May, Klein was named sole manager of the band, the Eastmans having previously been dismissed as the Beatles' attorneys. McCartney refused to sign the management contract with Klein, but he was out-voted by the other Beatles.\n\nMartin stated that he was surprised when McCartney asked him to produce another album, as the Get Back sessions had been \"a miserable experience\" and he had \"thought it was the end of the road for all of us\". The primary recording sessions for Abbey Road began on 2 July 1969. Lennon, who rejected Martin's proposed format of a \"continuously moving piece of music\", wanted his and McCartney's songs to occupy separate sides of the album. The eventual format, with individually composed songs on the first side and the second consisting largely of a medley, was McCartney's suggested compromise. On 4 July, the first solo single by a Beatle was released: Lennon's \"Give Peace a Chance\", credited to the Plastic Ono Band. The completion and mixing of \"I Want You (She's So Heavy)\" on 20 August 1969 was the last occasion on which all four Beatles were together in the same studio. Lennon announced his departure to the rest of the group on 20 September, but agreed to withhold a public announcement to avoid undermining sales of the forthcoming album.\n\nReleased six days after Lennon's declaration, Abbey Road sold 4 million copies within three months and topped the UK charts for a total of seventeen weeks. Its second track, the ballad \"Something\", was issued as a single – the only Harrison composition ever to appear as a Beatles A-side. Abbey Road received mixed reviews, although the medley met with general acclaim. Unterberger considers it \"a fitting swan song for the group\", containing \"some of the greatest harmonies to be heard on any rock record\". Musicologist and author Ian MacDonald calls the album \"erratic and often hollow\", despite the \"semblance of unity and coherence\" offered by the medley. Martin has singled it out as his personal favourite of all the band's albums; Lennon said it was \"competent\" but had \"no life in it\". Recording engineer Emerick notes that the replacement of the studio's valve mixing console with a transistorised one yielded a less punchy sound, leaving the group frustrated at the thinner tone and lack of impact and contributing to its \"kinder, gentler\" feel relative to their previous albums.\n\nFor the still unfinished Get Back album, one last song, Harrison's \"I Me Mine\", was recorded on 3 January 1970. Lennon, in Denmark at the time, did not participate. In March, rejecting the work Johns had done on the project, now retitled Let It Be, Klein gave the session tapes to American producer Phil Spector, who had recently produced Lennon's solo single \"Instant Karma!\" In addition to remixing the material, Spector edited, spliced and overdubbed several of the recordings that had been intended as \"live\". McCartney was unhappy with the producer's approach and particularly dissatisfied with the lavish orchestration on \"The Long and Winding Road\", which involved a fourteen-voice choir and 36-piece instrumental ensemble. McCartney's demands that the alterations to the song be reverted were ignored, and he publicly announced his departure from the band on 10 April 1970, a week before the release of his first, self-titled solo album.\n\nOn 8 May, the Spector-produced Let It Be was released. Its accompanying single, \"The Long and Winding Road\", was the Beatles' last; it was released in the United States, but not Britain. The Let It Be documentary film followed later that month, and would win the 1970 Academy Award for Best Original Song Score. Sunday Telegraph critic Penelope Gilliatt called it \"a very bad film and a touching one ... about the breaking apart of this reassuring, geometrically perfect, once apparently ageless family of siblings\". Several reviewers stated that some of the performances in the film sounded better than their analogous album tracks. Describing Let It Be as the \"only Beatles album to occasion negative, even hostile reviews\", Unterberger calls it \"on the whole underrated\"; he singles out \"some good moments of straight hard rock in 'I've Got a Feeling' and 'Dig a Pony'\", and praises \"Let It Be\", \"Get Back\", and \"the folky 'Two of Us', with John and Paul harmonising together\". McCartney filed suit for the dissolution of the Beatles' contractual partnership on 31 December 1970. Legal disputes continued long after their break-up, and the dissolution was not formalised until 29 December 1974.\n\n1970–present: After the break-up \n\n1970s \n\nLennon, McCartney, Harrison and Starr all released solo albums in 1970. Their solo records sometimes involved one or more of the others; Starr's Ringo (1973) was the only album to include compositions and performances by all four ex-Beatles, albeit on separate songs. With Starr's participation, Harrison staged the Concert for Bangladesh in New York City in August 1971. Other than an unreleased jam session in 1974, later bootlegged as A Toot and a Snore in '74, Lennon and McCartney never recorded together again.\n\nTwo double-LP sets of the Beatles' greatest hits, compiled by Klein, 1962–1966 and 1967–1970, were released in 1973, at first under the Apple Records imprint. Commonly known as the Red Album and Blue Album, respectively, each have earned a Multi-Platinum certification in the United States and a Platinum certification in the United Kingdom. Between 1976 and 1982, EMI/Capitol released a wave of compilation albums without input from the ex-Beatles, starting with the double-disc compilation Rock 'n' Roll Music. The only one to feature previously unreleased material was The Beatles at the Hollywood Bowl (1977); the first officially issued concert recordings by the group, it contained selections from two shows they played during their 1964 and 1965 US tours.\n\nThe music and enduring fame of the Beatles has been commercially exploited in various other ways, again often outside their creative control. In April 1974, the musical John, Paul, George, Ringo … and Bert, written by Willy Russell and featuring singer Barbara Dickson, opened in London. It included, with permission from Northern Songs, eleven Lennon-McCartney compositions and one by Harrison, \"Here Comes the Sun\". Displeased with the production's use of his song, Harrison withdrew his permission to use it. Later that year, the off-Broadway musical Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band on the Road opened. All This and World War II (1976) was an unorthodox nonfiction film that combined newsreel footage with covers of Beatles songs by performers ranging from Elton John and Keith Moon to the London Symphony Orchestra. The Broadway musical Beatlemania, an unauthorised nostalgia revue, opened in early 1977 and proved popular, spinning off five separate touring productions. In 1979, the band sued the producers, settling for several million dollars in damages. Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band (1978), a musical film starring the Bee Gees and Peter Frampton, was a commercial failure and an \"artistic fiasco\", according to Ingham.\n\n1980s \n\nAfter the December 1980 murder of Lennon, Harrison rewrote the lyrics to his song \"All Those Years Ago\" in Lennon's honour. With Starr on drums and McCartney and his wife, Linda, contributing backing vocals, the song was released as a single in May 1981. McCartney's own tribute, \"Here Today\", appeared on his Tug of War album in April 1982. In 1987, Harrison's Cloud Nine album included \"When We Was Fab\", a song about the Beatlemania era.\n\nWhen the Beatles' studio albums were released on CD by EMI and Apple Corps in 1987, their catalogue was standardised throughout the world, establishing a canon of the twelve original studio LPs as issued in the UK plus the US LP version of Magical Mystery Tour (1967). All the remaining material from the singles and EPs which had not appeared on the original studio albums was gathered on the two-volume compilation Past Masters (1988). Except for the Red and Blue albums, EMI deleted all its other Beatles compilations – including the Hollywood Bowl record – from its catalogue.\n\nIn 1988, the Beatles were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, their first year of eligibility. Harrison and Starr attended the ceremony with Lennon's widow, Yoko Ono, and his two sons, Julian and Sean. McCartney declined to attend, citing unresolved \"business differences\" that would make him \"feel like a complete hypocrite waving and smiling with them at a fake reunion\". The following year, EMI/Capitol settled a decade-long lawsuit filed by the band over royalties, clearing the way to commercially package previously unreleased material.\n\n1990s \n\nLive at the BBC, the first official release of unissued Beatles performances in seventeen years, appeared in 1994. That same year McCartney, Harrison and Starr collaborated on the Anthology project. Anthology was the culmination of work begun in 1970, when Apple Corps director Neil Aspinall, their former road manager and personal assistant, had started to gather material for a documentary with the working title The Long and Winding Road. Documenting their history in the band's own words, the Anthology project included the release of several unissued Beatles recordings. McCartney, Harrison and Starr also added new instrumental and vocal parts to two songs recorded as demos by Lennon in the late 1970s.\n\nDuring 1995–96, the project yielded a television miniseries, an eight-volume video set, and three two-CD/three-LP box sets featuring artwork by Klaus Voormann. The two songs based on Lennon demos, \"Free as a Bird\" and \"Real Love\", were issued as new Beatles singles. The releases were commercially successful and the television series was viewed by an estimated 400 million people. In 1999, to coincide with the re-release of the 1968 film Yellow Submarine, a new soundtrack compilation CD/LP, Yellow Submarine Songtrack, was issued.\n\n2000s \n\nThe Beatles' 1, a compilation album of the band's British and American number-one hits, was released on 13 November 2000. It became the fastest-selling album of all time, with 3.6 million sold in its first week and 13 million within a month. It topped albums charts in at least 28 countries, including the UK and US. , the compilation had sold 31 million copies globally, and was the best-selling album of the decade in the United States.\n\nHarrison died from metastatic lung cancer in November 2001. McCartney and Starr were among the musicians who performed at the Concert for George, organised by Eric Clapton and Harrison's widow, Olivia. The tribute event took place at the Royal Albert Hall on the first anniversary of Harrison's death. In addition to songs he composed for the group and during his solo career, the concert included a celebration of Indian classical music, which had significantly influenced Harrison.\n\nIn 2003, Let It Be... Naked, a reconceived version of the Let It Be album, with McCartney supervising production, was released. One of the main differences with the Spector-produced version was the omission of the original string arrangements. It was a top ten hit in both Britain and America. The US album configurations from 1964–65 were released as box sets in 2004 and 2006 – The Capitol Albums, Volume 1 and Volume 2 included both stereo and mono versions based on the mixes that were prepared for vinyl at the time of the music's original American release.\n\nAs a soundtrack for Cirque du Soleil's Las Vegas Beatles stage revue, Love, George Martin and his son Giles remixed and blended 130 of the band's recordings to create what Martin called \"a way of re-living the whole Beatles musical lifespan in a very condensed period\". The show premiered in June 2006, and the Love album was released that November when McCartney discussed his hope that \"Carnival of Light\", a fourteen-minute experimental recording made at Abbey Road in 1967, would receive an official release. A rare live performance involving two ex-Beatles took place in April 2009 at a benefit concert organised by McCartney at New York's Radio City Music Hall, where he was joined by Starr for three songs.\n\nOn 9 September 2009, the Beatles' entire back catalogue was reissued following an extensive digital remastering process that lasted four years. Stereo editions of all twelve original UK studio albums, along with Magical Mystery Tour and the Past Masters compilation, were released on compact disc both individually and as a box set. Comparing the new releases with the 1987 CDs, which had been widely criticised for their lack of clarity and dynamism, Mojo's Danny Eccleston wrote, \"the remastered vocals are purer, more natural-sounding and give the illusion of sitting slightly higher in the mix.\" A second collection, The Beatles in Mono, included remastered versions of every Beatles album released in true mono along with the original 1965 stereo mixes of Help! and Rubber Soul (which Martin had remixed for the 1987 editions). The Beatles: Rock Band, a music video game in the Rock Band series, was issued on the same day. In December 2009, the band's catalogue was officially released in FLAC and MP3 format in a limited edition of 30,000 USB flash drives.\n\n2010s \n\nOwing to a long-running royalty disagreement, the Beatles were among the last major artists to sign deals with online music services. Residual disagreement emanating from Apple Corps' dispute with Apple, Inc., iTunes' owners, over the use of the name \"Apple\" was also partly responsible for the delay, although in 2008, McCartney stated that the main obstacle to making the Beatles' catalogue available online was that EMI \"want[s] something we're not prepared to give them\". In 2010, the official canon of thirteen Beatles studio albums, Past Masters, and the Red and Blue greatest-hits albums were made available on iTunes.\n\nIn 2012, EMI's recorded music operations were sold to Universal Music Group. In order for Universal Music to acquire EMI, the European Union, for antitrust reasons, forced EMI to spin off assets including Parlophone. Universal was allowed to keep the Beatles' recorded music catalogue, managed by Capitol Records under its Capitol Music Group division. Also in 2012, the entire original Beatles album catalogue was reissued on vinyl, available either individually or as a box set.\n\nIn 2013, a second volume of BBC recordings entitled On Air – Live at the BBC Volume 2 was released. December of that year saw the release of another 59 Beatles recordings on iTunes. The set, titled The Beatles Bootleg Recordings 1963, had the opportunity to gain a 70-year copyright extension conditional on the songs being published at least once before the end of 2013. Apple Records released the recordings on 17 December to prevent them from going into the public domain and had them taken down from iTunes later that same day. Fan reactions to the release were mixed, with one blogger saying \"the hardcore Beatles collectors who are trying to obtain everything will already have these.\" \n\nOn 26 January 2014, Paul McCartney and Ringo Starr performed McCartney's \"Queenie Eye\" in Los Angeles at the 56th Annual Grammy Awards, held at the Staples Center in Los Angeles. The following day, The Night That Changed America: A Grammy Salute to The Beatles television special was taped in the Los Angeles Convention Center's West Hall. It aired on 9 February, the exact date of – and at the same time, and on the same network as – the original broadcast of the Beatles' first US television appearance on The Ed Sullivan Show, 50 years earlier. The special included performances of Beatles songs by current artists as well as by McCartney and Starr, archival footage, and Paul and Ringo being interviewed by David Letterman at the Ed Sullivan Theater, site of The Ed Sullivan Show. \n\nIn December 2015 the Beatles released their catalogue for streaming on various streaming music services. \n\nMusical style and development \n\nIn Icons of Rock: An Encyclopedia of the Legends Who Changed Music Forever, Scott Schinder and Andy Schwartz describe the Beatles' musical evolution:\n\nIn The Beatles as Musicians, Walter Everett describes Lennon and McCartney's contrasting motivations and approaches to composition: \"McCartney may be said to have constantly developed – as a means to entertain – a focused musical talent with an ear for counterpoint and other aspects of craft in the demonstration of a universally agreed-upon common language that he did much to enrich. Conversely, Lennon's mature music is best appreciated as the daring product of a largely unconscious, searching but undisciplined artistic sensibility.\"\n\nIan MacDonald describes McCartney as \"a natural melodist – a creator of tunes capable of existing apart from their harmony\". His melody lines are characterised as primarily \"vertical\", employing wide, consonant intervals which express his \"extrovert energy and optimism\". Conversely, Lennon's \"sedentary, ironic personality\" is reflected in a \"horizontal\" approach featuring minimal, dissonant intervals and repetitive melodies which rely on their harmonic accompaniment for interest: \"Basically a realist, he instinctively kept his melodies close to the rhythms and cadences of speech, colouring his lyrics with bluesy tone and harmony rather than creating tunes that made striking shapes of their own.\" MacDonald praises Harrison's lead guitar work for the role his \"characterful lines and textural colourings\" play in supporting Lennon and McCartney's parts, and describes Starr as \"the father of modern pop/rock drumming\".\n\nInfluences \n\nThe band's earliest influences include Elvis Presley, Carl Perkins, Little Richard and Chuck Berry. During the Beatles' co-residency with Little Richard at the Star-Club in Hamburg, from April to May 1962, he advised them on the proper technique for performing his songs. Of Presley, Lennon said, \"Nothing really affected me until I heard Elvis. If there hadn't been Elvis, there would not have been the Beatles.\"\n\nOther early influences include Buddy Holly, Eddie Cochran, Roy Orbison and the Everly Brothers. The Beatles continued to absorb influences long after their initial success, often finding new musical and lyrical avenues by listening to their contemporaries, including Bob Dylan, Frank Zappa, the Lovin' Spoonful, the Byrds and the Beach Boys, whose 1966 album Pet Sounds amazed and inspired McCartney. Referring to the Beach Boys' creative leader, Martin later stated: \"No one made a greater impact on the Beatles than Brian [Wilson].\" Ravi Shankar, with whom Harrison studied for six weeks in India in late 1966, had a significant effect on his musical development during the band's later years.\n\nGenres \n\nOriginating as a skiffle group, the Beatles quickly embraced 1950s rock and roll and helped pioneer the Merseybeat genre, and their repertoire ultimately expanded to include a broad variety of pop music. Reflecting the range of styles they explored, Lennon said of Beatles for Sale, \"You could call our new one a Beatles country-and-western LP\", while Gould credits Rubber Soul as \"the instrument by which legions of folk-music enthusiasts were coaxed into the camp of pop\".\n\nAlthough the 1965 song \"Yesterday\" was not the first pop record to employ orchestral strings, it marked the group's first recorded use of classical music elements. Gould observes: \"The more traditional sound of strings allowed for a fresh appreciation of their talent as composers by listeners who were otherwise allergic to the din of drums and electric guitars.\" They continued to experiment with string arrangements to various effect; Sgt. Peppers \"She's Leaving Home\", for instance, is \"cast in the of a sentimental Victorian ballad\", Gould writes, \"its words and music filled with the clichés of musical melodrama\".\n\nThe band's stylistic range expanded in another direction with their 1966 B-side \"Rain\", described by Martin Strong as \"the first overtly psychedelic Beatles record\". Other psychedelic numbers followed, such as \"Tomorrow Never Knows\" (recorded before \"Rain\"), \"Strawberry Fields Forever\", \"Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds\" and \"I Am the Walrus\". The influence of Indian classical music was evident in Harrison's \"The Inner Light\", \"Love You To\" and \"Within You Without You\" – Gould describes the latter two as attempts \"to replicate the raga form in miniature\".\n\nInnovation was the most striking feature of their creative evolution, according to music historian and pianist Michael Campbell: \"'A Day in the Life' encapsulates the art and achievement of the Beatles as well as any single track can. It highlights key features of their music: the sound imagination, the persistence of tuneful melody, and the close coordination between words and music. It represents a new category of song – more sophisticated than pop ... and uniquely innovative. There literally had never before been a song – classical or vernacular – that had blended so many disparate elements so imaginatively.\" Philosophy professor Bruce Ellis Benson agrees: \"the Beatles ... give us a wonderful example of how such far-ranging influences as Celtic music, rhythm and blues, and country and western could be put together in a new way.\"\n\nAuthor Dominic Pedler describes the way they crossed musical styles: \"Far from moving sequentially from one genre to another (as is sometimes conveniently suggested) the group maintained in parallel their mastery of the traditional, catchy chart hit while simultaneously forging rock and dabbling with a wide range of peripheral influences from country to vaudeville. One of these threads was their take on folk music, which would form such essential groundwork for their later collisions with Indian music and philosophy.\" As the personal relationships between the band members grew increasingly strained, their individual tastes became more apparent. The minimalistic cover artwork for the White Album contrasted with the complexity and diversity of its music, which encompassed Lennon's \"Revolution 9\", whose musique concrète approach was influenced by Yoko Ono; Starr's country song \"Don't Pass Me By\"; Harrison's rock ballad \"While My Guitar Gently Weeps\"; and the \"proto-metal roar\" of McCartney's \"Helter Skelter\".\n\nContribution of George Martin \n\nGeorge Martin's close involvement in his role as producer made him one of the leading candidates for the informal title of the \"fifth Beatle\". He applied his classical musical training in various ways, and functioned as \"an informal music teacher\" to the progressing songwriters, according to Gould. Martin suggested to a sceptical McCartney that the arrangement of \"Yesterday\" should feature a string quartet accompaniment, thereby introducing the Beatles to a \"hitherto unsuspected world of classical instrumental colour\", in MacDonald's description. Their creative development was also facilitated by Martin's willingness to experiment in response to their suggestions, such as adding \"something baroque\" to a particular recording. In addition to scoring orchestral arrangements for recordings, Martin often performed on them, playing instruments including piano, organ and brass.\n\nCollaborating with Lennon and McCartney required Martin to adapt to their different approaches to songwriting and recording. MacDonald comments, \"while [he] worked more naturally with the conventionally articulate McCartney, the challenge of catering to Lennon's intuitive approach generally spurred him to his more original arrangements, of which 'Being for the Benefit of Mr. Kite!' is an outstanding example.\" Martin said of the two composers' distinct songwriting styles and his own stabilising influence:\n\nHarrison echoed Martin's description of his stabilising role: \"I think we just grew through those years together, him as the straight man and us as the loonies; but he was always there for us to interpret our madness – we used to be slightly avant-garde on certain days of the week, and he would be there as the anchor person, to communicate that through the engineers and on to the tape.\"\n\nIn the studio \n\nMaking innovative use of technology while expanding the possibilities of recorded music, the Beatles urged experimentation by Martin and his recording engineers. Seeking ways to put chance occurrences to creative use, accidental guitar feedback, a resonating glass bottle, a tape loaded the wrong way round so that it played backwards – any of these might be incorporated into their music. Their desire to create new sounds on every new recording, combined with Martin's arranging abilities and the studio expertise of EMI staff engineers Norman Smith, Ken Townsend and Geoff Emerick, all contributed significantly to their records from Rubber Soul and, especially, Revolver onwards. Along with innovative studio techniques such as sound effects, unconventional microphone placements, tape loops, double tracking and vari-speed recording, the Beatles augmented their songs with instruments that were unconventional in rock music at the time. These included string and brass ensembles as well as Indian instruments such as the sitar in \"Norwegian Wood\" and the swarmandal in \"Strawberry Fields Forever\". They also used early electronic instruments such as the Mellotron, with which McCartney supplied the flute voices on the \"Strawberry Fields Forever\" intro, and the clavioline, an electronic keyboard that created the unusual oboe-like sound on \"Baby, You're a Rich Man\".\n\nLegacy \n\nFormer Rolling Stone associate editor Robert Greenfield compared the Beatles to Picasso, as \"artists who broke through the constraints of their time period to come up with something that was unique and original ... [I]n the form of popular music, no one will ever be more revolutionary, more creative and more distinctive ...\" The British poet Philip Larkin described their work as \"an enchanting and intoxicating hybrid of Negro rock-and-roĺl with their own adolescent romanticism\", and \"the first advance in popular music since the War\". They not only sparked the British Invasion of the US, they became a globally influential phenomenon as well. From the 1920s, the United States had dominated popular entertainment culture throughout much of the world, via Hollywood movies, jazz, the music of Broadway and Tin Pan Alley and, later, the rock and roll that first emerged in Memphis, Tennessee.\n\nTheir musical innovations and commercial success inspired musicians worldwide. Many artists have acknowledged the Beatles' influence and enjoyed chart success with covers of their songs. On radio, their arrival marked the beginning of a new era; in 1968 the programme director of New York's WABC radio station forbade his DJs from playing any \"pre-Beatles\" music, marking the defining line of what would be considered oldies on American radio. They helped to redefine the album as something more than just a few hits padded out with \"filler\", and they were primary innovators of the modern music video. The Shea Stadium show with which they opened their 1965 North American tour attracted an estimated 55,600 people, then the largest audience in concert history; Spitz describes the event as a \"major breakthrough ... a giant step toward reshaping the concert business\". Emulation of their clothing and especially their hairstyles, which became a mark of rebellion, had a global impact on fashion.\n\nAccording to Gould, the Beatles changed the way people listened to popular music and experienced its role in their lives. From what began as the Beatlemania fad, the group's popularity grew into what was seen as an embodiment of sociocultural movements of the decade. As icons of the 1960s counterculture, Gould continues, they became a catalyst for bohemianism and activism in various social and political arenas, fuelling movements such as women's liberation, gay liberation and environmentalism. According to Peter Lavezzoli, after the \"more popular than Jesus\" controversy in 1966, the Beatles felt considerable pressure to say the right things and \"began a concerted effort to spread a message of wisdom and higher consciousness\".\n\nAwards and achievements \n\nIn 1965, Queen Elizabeth II appointed Lennon, McCartney, Harrison and Starr Members of the Order of the British Empire (MBE). The film Let It Be (1970) won the 1971 Academy Award for Best Original Song Score. The recipients of seven Grammy Awards and fifteen Ivor Novello Awards, the Beatles have been awarded six Diamond albums, as well as 24 Multi-Platinum albums, 39 Platinum albums and 45 Gold albums in the United States. In the UK, the Beatles have four Multi-Platinum albums, four Platinum albums, eight Gold albums and one Silver album. They were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1988.\n\nThe best-selling band in history, the Beatles have sold between 600 million and (at EMI estimates) over 1 billion units worldwide. They have had more number-one albums on the British charts, fifteen, and sold more singles in the UK, 21.9 million, than any other act. In 2004, Rolling Stone ranked the Beatles as the best artist of all time. They ranked number one on Billboard magazine's list of the all-time most successful Hot 100 artists, released in 2008 to celebrate the US singles chart's 50th anniversary. , they hold the record for most number-one hits on the Billboard Hot 100, with twenty. The Recording Industry Association of America certifies that the Beatles have sold 178 million units in the US, more than any other artist. They were collectively included in Time magazine's compilation of the twentieth century's 100 most influential people. In 2014, they received the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award. \n\nMembers \n\nPrincipal members\n* John Lennon – vocals, guitar, keyboards, harmonica (1960–1969)\n* Paul McCartney – vocals, bass guitar, guitar, keyboards, drums (1960–1970)\n* George Harrison – guitar, vocals, sitar (1960–1970)\n* Ringo Starr – drums, percussion, vocals (1962–1970)\n\nEarly members\n* Pete Best – drums, vocals (1960–1962)\n* Stuart Sutcliffe – bass guitar, vocals (1960–1961)\n* Chas Newby – bass guitar (1960–1961)\n* Norman Chapman – drums (1960)\n* Tommy Moore – drums (1960)\n\nTouring musician\n* Jimmie Nicol – drums (1964)\n\nTimeline\n\nImageSize = width:800 height:auto barincrement:20\nPlotArea = left:100 bottom:90 top:0 right:50\nAlignbars = justify\nDateFormat = dd/mm/yyyy\nPeriod = from:01/01/1960 till:01/12/1970\nTimeAxis = orientation:horizontal format:yyyy\n\nColors =\n id:voc value:red legend:Vocals\n id:rguitar value:brightgreen legend:Rhythm_guitar\n id:lguitar value:green legend:Lead_guitar\n id:bass value:blue legend:Bass\n id:drums value:orange legend:Drums\n id:piano value:yellow legend:Piano\n id:album value:black legend:Studio_album\n\n \nLegend = position:bottom columns:3\nScaleMajor = unit:year increment:1 start:1960\nScaleMinor = unit:year increment:1 start:1960\n\nBarData =\n\n bar:John text:\"John Lennon\"\n bar:Paul text:\"Paul McCartney\"\n bar:George text:\"George Harrison\"\n bar:Stu text:\"Stuart Sutcliffe\"\n bar:Tom text:\"Tommy Moore\"\n bar:Norman text:\"Norman Chapman\"\n bar:Chas text:\"Chas Newby\"\n bar:Best text:\"Pete Best\"\n bar:Ringo text:\"Ringo Starr\"\n bar:Jimmy text:\"Jimmie Nicol\"\n\nPlotData=\n width:11\n bar:John from:27/03/1960 till:21/09/1969 color:rguitar \n bar:John from:27/03/1960 till:21/09/1969 color:voc width:3\n \n bar:Paul from:27/03/1960 till:14/07/1960 color:rguitar \n bar:Paul from:27/03/1960 till:14/07/1960 color:voc width:3\n bar:Paul from:15/07/1960 till:12/08/1960 color:drums\n bar:Paul from:12/08/1960 till:31/03/1961 color:rguitar \n bar:Paul from:01/04/1961 till:01/07/1961 color:piano\n bar:Paul from:12/08/1960 till:10/04/1970 color:voc width:3\n bar:Paul from:02/07/1961 till:10/04/1970 color:bass\n\n bar:George from:27/03/1960 till:10/01/1969 color:lguitar \n bar:George from:27/03/1960 till:10/01/1969 color:voc width:3\n bar:George from:21/01/1969 till:10/04/1970 color:lguitar \n bar:George from:21/01/1969 till:10/04/1970 color:voc width:3\n\n bar:Tom from:10/05/1960 till:11/06/1960 color:drums\n bar:Norman from:25/06/1960 till:14/07/1960 color:drums\n bar:Best from:12/08/1960 till:17/08/1962 color:drums\n bar:Best from:12/08/1960 till:17/08/1962 color:voc width:3\n bar:Ringo from:18/08/1962 till:02/06/1964 color:drums \n bar:Ringo from:18/08/1962 till:02/06/1964 color:voc width:3\n bar:Jimmy from:03/06/1964 till:13/06/1964 color:drums\n bar:Ringo from:14/06/1964 till:22/08/1968 color:drums\n bar:Ringo from:14/06/1964 till:22/08/1968 color:voc width:3\n bar:Ringo from:05/09/1968 till:10/04/1970 color:drums \n bar:Ringo from:05/09/1968 till:10/04/1970 color:voc width:3\n\n bar:Stu from:27/03/1960 till:01/12/1960 color:bass\n bar:Stu from:12/08/1960 till:01/12/1960 color:voc width:3\n bar:Stu from:15/01/1961 till:01/07/1961 color:bass\n bar:Stu from:15/01/1961 till:01/07/1961 color:voc width:3\n bar:Stu from:15/01/1961 till:01/07/1961 color:bass\n bar:Chas from:17/12/1960 till:15/01/1961 color:bass\n\nLineData =\n layer:back\n color:album \n at:22/03/1963\n at:22/11/1963\n at:26/06/1964\n at:04/12/1964\n at:06/08/1965\n at:03/12/1965\n at:05/08/1966\n at:01/06/1967\n at:22/11/1968\n at:13/01/1969\n at:26/09/1969\n at:08/05/1970\n\n \n\nDiscography\n\nOriginal UK LPs\n* Please Please Me (1963)\n* With the Beatles (1963)\n* A Hard Day's Night (1964)\n* Beatles for Sale (1964)\n* Help! (1965)\n* Rubber Soul (1965)\n* Revolver (1966)\n* Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band (1967)\n* The Beatles (\"The White Album\", 1968)\n* Yellow Submarine (1969)\n* Abbey Road (1969)\n* Let It Be (1970)\n\nWhen the above albums were reissued on CDs in 1988, the American Magical Mystery Tour album (1967) and the double-CD compilation set Past Masters were included so the full set would contain every track commercially released in the band's lifetime.\n\nSee also\n* John Lennon discography\n* Paul McCartney discography\n* George Harrison discography\n* Ringo Starr discography\n* Collaborations between ex-Beatles\n\nSong catalogue \n\nThrough 1969, the Beatles' catalogue was published almost exclusively by Northern Songs Ltd., a company formed in February 1963 by music publisher Dick James specifically for Lennon and McCartney, though it later acquired songs by other artists. The company was organised with James and his partner, Emmanuel Silver, owning a controlling interest, variously described as 51% or 50% plus one share. McCartney had 20%. Reports again vary concerning Lennon's portion – 19 or 20% – and Brian Epstein's – 9 or 10% – which he received in lieu of a 25% band management fee.\n\nIn 1965, the company went public. Five million shares were created, of which the original principals retained 3.75 million. James and Silver each received 937,500 shares (18.75% of 5 million); Lennon and McCartney each received 750,000 shares (15%); and Epstein's management company, NEMS Enterprises, received 375,000 shares (7.5%). Of the 1.25 million shares put up for sale, Harrison and Starr each acquired 40,000. At the time of the stock offering, Lennon and McCartney renewed their three-year publishing contracts, binding them to Northern Songs until 1973.\n\nHarrison created Harrisongs to represent his Beatles compositions, but signed a three-year contract with Northern Songs that gave it the copyright to his work through March 1968, which included \"Taxman\" and \"Within You Without You\". The songs on which Starr received co-writing credit before 1968, such as \"What Goes On\" and \"Flying\", were also Northern Songs copyrights. Harrison did not renew his contract with Northern Songs when it ended, signing instead with Apple Publishing while retaining the copyright to his work from that point on. Harrisongs thus owns the rights to his later Beatles songs such as \"While My Guitar Gently Weeps\" and \"Something\". That year, as well, Starr created Startling Music, which holds the rights to his Beatles compositions, \"Don't Pass Me By\" and \"Octopus's Garden\".\n\nIn March 1969, James arranged to sell his and his partner's shares of Northern Songs to the British broadcasting company Associated Television (ATV), founded by impresario Lew Grade, without first informing the Beatles. The band then made a bid to gain controlling interest by attempting to work out a deal with a consortium of London brokerage firms that had accumulated a 14% holding. The deal collapsed over the objections of Lennon, who declared, \"I'm sick of being fucked about by men in suits sitting on their fat arses in the City.\" By the end of May, ATV had acquired a majority stake in Northern Songs, controlling nearly the entire Lennon–McCartney catalogue, as well as any future material until 1973. In frustration, Lennon and McCartney sold their shares to ATV in late October 1969.\n\nIn 1981, financial losses by ATV's parent company, ACC, led it to attempt to sell its music division. According to authors Brian Southall and Rupert Perry, Grade contacted McCartney, offering ATV Music and Northern Songs for $30 million. According to an account McCartney gave in 1995, he met with Grade and explained he was interested solely in the Northern Songs catalogue, if Grade were ever willing to \"separate off\" that portion of ATV Music. Soon afterwards, Grade offered to sell him Northern Songs for £20 million, giving the ex-Beatle \"a week or so\" to decide. By McCartney's account, he and Ono countered with a £5 million bid that was rejected. According to reports at the time, Grade refused to separate Northern Songs, and turned down an offer of £21–25 million from McCartney and Ono for ATV Music. In 1982, ACC as a whole was sold to Australian business magnate Robert Holmes à Court for £60 million.\n\nThree years later, Michael Jackson purchased ATV for a reported $47.5 million. The acquisition gave him control over the publishing rights to more than 200 Beatles songs, as well as 40,000 other copyrights. In 1995, in a deal that earned him a reported $110 million, Jackson merged his music publishing business with Sony, creating a new company, Sony/ATV Music Publishing, in which he held a 50% stake. The merger made the new company, then valued at over half a billion dollars, the third largest music publisher in the world.\n\nDespite the lack of publishing rights to most of their songs, Lennon's estate and McCartney continue to receive their respective shares of the writers' royalties, which together are 33⅓% of total commercial proceeds in the US and which vary elsewhere around the world between 50 and 55%. Two of Lennon and McCartney's earliest songs – \"Love Me Do\" and \"P.S. I Love You\" – were published by an EMI subsidiary, Ardmore & Beechwood, before they signed with James. McCartney acquired their publishing rights from Ardmore in the mid-1980s, and they are the only two Beatles songs owned by McCartney's company MPL Communications.\n\nNotes \n\nCitations \n\nSources \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n* \n\n \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n*" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Lucy Lucia", "Lucy", "LUCY" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "lucy lucia", "lucy" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "lucy", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Lucy" }
Will Rogers airport was built in which US state?	tc_340	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Will_Rogers_World_Airport.txt", "U.S._state.txt" ], "title": [ "Will Rogers World Airport", "U.S. state" ], "wiki_context": [ "Will Rogers World Airport , aka Will Rogers Airport or simply Will Rogers, is a United States passenger airport in Oklahoma City located about 6 miles (8 km) Southwest of downtown. It is a civil-military airport on 8,081 acres of land (3,270 ha) and is the primary commercial airport of the state. Although the official IATA airport codes for Will Rogers World Airport are OKC and KOKC, it should be noted that local officials, citizens, and media organizations commonly refer to it as \"WRWA\" or \"Will Rogers\".\n\nThe airport is named for comedian and legendary cowboy Will Rogers, an Oklahoma native who died in an airplane crash near Barrow, Alaska in 1935. The city's other major airport, Wiley Post Airport, along with the Wiley Post–Will Rogers Memorial Airport in Barrow, Alaska, are named for Wiley Post, who died in the same crash. Will Rogers World Airport is the only airport to use the designation \"World\" in addition to no reference to its city location. Although Will Rogers offers US Customs and Immigration Services, there are currently no scheduled international flights.\n\nWill Rogers World Airport is the busiest passenger airport in the state of Oklahoma. In 2014, the airport handled 3.83 million passengers, an increase of nearly 5 percent from 2013. Southwest Airlines carries the most passengers at Will Rogers World Airport, with a market share of 33.6%.\n\nHistory\n\nWorld War II\n\nDuring World War II Will Rogers Field was a major training facility for the United States Army Air Forces; many fighter and bomber units were activated and received initial training there.\n\nPost-war\n\nThe December 1951 C&GS chart shows 5497-ft runway 3, 3801-ft runway 8, 5652-ft runway 12 and 5100-ft runway 17.\n\nThe April 1957 OAG showed 21 daily non-stop departures on Braniff International Airways, 15 on American Airlines, 5 on Central Airlines, 4 on Continental Airlines and 3 on TWA. A TWA Constellation aircraft flew non-stop from Oklahoma City to Los Angeles but eastward non-stops didn't reach beyond Wichita, Kansas, Tulsa or Dallas, Texas. Oklahoma City began non-stop flights to Chicago starting in 1966.\n\n2000–present\n\nGreat Plains Airlines, a regional airline based in Tulsa, made Will Rogers World Airport a hub in 2001, with non-stop flights to Tulsa, Albuquerque, New Mexico, and Colorado Springs, Colorado and direct or connecting flights to Nashville, Tennessee, Saint Louis, Chicago, and Washington. The airline had hoped to reach additional East and West coast markets but declared bankruptcy and ceased operations on January 23, 2004.\n\nOn May 31, 2013, an EF-1 tornado hit Will Rogers Airport. The 1.4-mile wide tornado traveled 10.4 miles which includes across the northern side of the airport. The path of the tornado passed over the facilities of MetroTech, FAA, Oklahoma National Guard, AAR, Four Points Hotel, and the passenger terminal and hangars on the North and East side of the airport. Minor damage was reported at AAR and other buildings in this path. The Parking Spot location north of the airport on Meridian Ave was also hit by the tornado. The company decided in August 2013 not to re-open the facility and exit the OKC market. \n\nThe airport once partnered with Tinker AFB in presenting Aerospace America airshow. \n\nTerminal\n\nBy the late 1990s the Oklahoma City Airport Trust deemed the 1967-built terminal building unsuitable. Following the adoption of a three phase master plan, preparations for renovating the airport were launched in 2001. The old twin concourses (visible in the 1995 photograph) were demolished to make way for a larger terminal with integrated concourses, high ceilings, and modern facilities.\n\nA$110 million multi-phase expansion and renovation project, designed by Atkins Benham Inc. and Gensler and built by Oscar J. Boldt Construction Company, began in 2001. Phase-I involved erection of construction walkways from the five-story parking garage to the terminal building, demolition of the terminal's existing elevator core, construction of new elevator and escalator cores on the tunnel level and on level one, building temporary entrance and exit ramps for vehicles approaching and leaving the terminal, reconstruction of the roofs of the lower level and level one, finishing the elevator and escalator cores to level two, building new permanent entry and exit ramps for vehicles and construction of a new transportation plaza and driving lanes. Phase-II included a new concourse constructed to the west of the central terminal area, which was renovated to match the interior and exterior designs of the new concourse. The 1960s-built concourses were then demolished after the new concourse opened in 2005. The entire phase was completed in November 2006. Phase-III project calls for the construction of a new concourse to the east, with at least eight more gates as well as expanded retail, restaurant, and baggage areas.\n\nWill Rogers World Airport has a single three-level terminal with 17 departure gates along the West Concourse (Gates 1–12) and Central Concourse (Gates 14–24). Gates on the south side use even numbers while those on the north use odd. Due to the terminal's layout, certain odd numbers are omitted in the succession of Gates 1 through 24. Arriving passengers can access baggage claim in the downstairs level where there are 9 baggage belts. Level 3 contains offices for airline and airport staff.\n\nThe architecture of the current terminal uses native stone along with loft-ceilings, plate glass and brushed metal. Compared to the original terminal design of the old Concourses A and B, today's terminal provide a more open feel similar to that found in larger hub airports.\n\nTerminal expansion\n\nIn 2008, Will Rogers World Airport officials approved a contract with Frankfurt Short Bruza Associates to begin planning for expansion. However, officials agreed to postpone the expansion plan due to the industry-wide decline in passenger traffic.\n\nDuring 2012 the Phase III expansion plan was updated to include a new Central Concourse reconfiguration plan. In 2014, the Airport Trust selected Option 2a, which includes only the central terminal improvements. The $3.6M project will create a new central checkpoint in the center of the check-in hall. Two new greeter lobbies will be created where existing check points exist. The expansion will slightly reduce the space utilized by Sonic in the food court. The restrooms in the area will also be relocated to the nearby Osage room. The Southwest ticket counters will be relocated further east. \n\nIn 2015 the airport trust agreed to proceed with the full construction of the East Concourse due to increased congestion in the existing West and Central concourses and passenger demand. When completed, the existing terminal building would expand to the east and include a new passenger concourse with nine gates, which would increase the number of boarding gates to 26. The new facility will have customs and immigration on the lower level accessed by the two eastern-most gates and would serve international arrivals. The expansion will incorporate a single TSA screening zone in the center of the existing terminal, the food court will be removed and two reconstructed, and arriving passengers would exit at the current TSA zones (which will be dramatically downsized). The East expansion will include onsite USAA military welcoming facilities, expanded concessions and office space, and an updated terminal lobby.\n\nThe new East expansion will also include an innovative view system composed of an elevated platform that will allow visitors to walk above the newly expanded East section and view down onto the concourse and the airside. Visitors would enter the elevated walkway in the terminal lobby non-secured side and there will also be a lounge. This design is intended to provide visitors the experience of airports of old; where one could walk all the way to the gate – albeit today completely separated from the secured concourse space. The expansion is expected to open in 2018.\n\nIf necessary, final expansion of the existing master plan could be accomplished with construction of the Central Concourse, increasing gate capacity by an additional 10 gates. This would give the terminal a final configuration with three concourses, East, West, and Central and a total gates around 35–40.\n\nAirlines and destinations\n\nPassenger\n\nCargo\n\nStatistics\n\nTop destinations\n\nAnnual traffic\n\nGround transportation\n\nTaxi and shuttle\n\nA number of companies offer taxi and shuttle service to downtown Oklahoma City and the surrounding metro area. Hotels have shuttle service to the airport.\n\nRental car\n\nThe airport opened a new Consolidated Rental Car Facility in early 2016, moving all rental services away from the Terminal to a grand facility nearby. Advantage, Alamo, Avis, Budget, Dollar, Enterprise, Hertz, National, and Thrifty rental companies offer service at Will Rogers World Airport. Shuttle buses connect passengers from the arrivals plaza just outside the terminal.\n\nBus\n\nEmbark (405-235-7433), the City of Oklahoma City's public bus system, currently does not serve the airport.\n\nParking\n\nThe airport began a $3.8 million maintenance project in September 2011 to rehabilitate and repair two of its three parking garages. The project will make improvements to garages A and B, two of the six parking options at the airport. Garage A is the two-story garage that provides hourly parking for the airport's short-term visitors on the upper level, and \"ready-return\" spaces for the rental car agencies on the lower level. Parking Garage B, adjacent to A, is the older of the two five-level parking structures that provide covered parking for air travelers. Garage C, the new parking garage which opened in 2009, will not be impacted. Nearing middle age, (Garage A is 44 years old and Garage B is 31 years old) the structures will undergo several different types of refurbishments that will extend the long-term use of the facilities. The work will include:\n\nRepair of concrete walls and pillars, specifically where there are cracks or spalling (chips of concrete that have broken off) and other deterioration\nReplacement or repair of exterior stairs\nReplacement and upgrade of all lighting circuits\nReplacement and upgrade of all lighting fixtures\nThe top levels of each garage will receive new expansion joints, membrane coating, waterproofing and protectant to prevent leaking\n\nThe project will be divided into 12 sequences allowing the airport to keep as much of the garage open as possible. Most of the sequences will only require closing about 300 spaces at a time, leaving approximately 2,500 of the 2,800 total spaces in the two garages available for parking. The project work will start in the five-level Garage B on levels one and two. The entire project is anticipated to take 18 months. The most challenging portion of the project will be when the work commences on the two-story parking garage. During this sequencing, hourly parking and rental car companies will be moved to temporary locations in Garage B and C. \n\nThe airport operates three surface parking lots on the grounds of WRWA. \n Lot #1 is a long term remote shuttle lot located on Amelia Earhart Drive. \n* Lot #2 is a long term shuttle lot located directly adjacent to the parking garages on the north side.\n* Lot #3 is a long term canopy shuttle lot that provides shelter from sun and hail with protective canopies. It is located to the west of the parking garages on 67th Street near the control tower.\n\nThe airport provides a short term parking area in the second (top) level of Garage A. The parking is free for the first hour and then $1 per hour after that. There are also two cell phone waiting areas just across the street from the shuttle parking lot #2, near Lot #3, and by the flag plaza north of the long term shuttle Lot #2.\n\nGovernment and military operations\n\nWill Rogers Air National Guard Base\n\nWill Rogers World Airport is used by military flights of the Oklahoma Air National Guard at Will Rogers Air National Guard Base.\n\nOther facilities\n\nThe Federal Aviation Administration has major facilities on the airport grounds, including the headquarters for the 'Air Route Traffic Control', the Civil Aerospace Medical Institute, and the FAA Training Academy, all housed at the Mike Monroney Aeronautical Center campus on the west part of the Airport.\n\nThe U.S. Department of Justice has major Justice Prisoner and Alien Transportation System (JPATS) facilities at Will Rogers World Airport. The Federal Transfer Center and its principal air hub is built on the west side of the airport grounds, off of Taxiway G.\n\nThe U.S. Customs and Border Patrol operate their national training facility on airport grounds. They operate a hangar on the north side of the airport, off of Taxiway N, north of the JPATS Hangar.\n\nThe Oklahoma City Composite Squadron of Civil Air Patrol meets on Tuesday evenings at 6:30 pm on the grounds of the Oklahoma Air National Guard base on the West side of the field.\n\nThe City of Oklahoma City Department of Airports manages Will Rogers World Airport and the other city-owned airports: Wiley Post Airport and Clarence E. Page Airport. The Airport Trust is led by Director Mark Kranenburg.\n\nBusinesses and other onsite institutions\n\nCorporate, Air Taxi\n\nWill Rogers World Airport has a separate terminal facility used by air taxi and corporate service, although most of these flights use the Wiley Post Airport, Oklahoma City's FAA-designated reliever facility.\n\nMaintenance, Repair, Operations and Fixed-Base Operations\n\nAAR Oklahoma has a major maintenance, repair, and overhaul facility and regional headquarters at Will Rogers World Airport, in addition to other aircraft maintenance and aircraft on ground organizations.\n\nARINC has major facilities on the airport premises, including plans to double the size of their current facility. \n\nAtlantic Aviation has a fixed-base operation located on the east side of the airport, off of Taxiway H. This is Atlantic's first Greenfield project.\n\nOther facilities\n\nSouthwest Airlines has one of its largest customer service and support centers on the northern grounds of Will Rogers World Airport.\n\nWill Rogers World Airport is home to Metro Technology Center's Aviation Career Campus. The aviation center offers training to prepare aircraft maintenance technicians with Classrooms, practical labs, and separate airframe and powerplant hangars are available for academic and hands-on training. The Aviation Maintenance Technician program is an 18-month course that is certified and approved by the Federal Aviation Administration.\n\nThe facility is on the west side of the airport, north of the FAA center. One notable sight on the MetroTech campus includes a donated AirTran Airways DC-9-30 in the post AirTran Airways / ValuJet merger colors.\n\nWill Rogers World Airport permanently hosts the Ninety Nines Museum of Women Pilots. The facility is located on more than 5000 sqft, occupying the entire second floor of the International Headquarters building. It features a repository for a unique collection of the papers, personal items and other historic artifacts of some of the most significant achievements and adventures of the international community of women pilots. Its library and exhibit areas will provide new insights into the role women pilots played in the development of aviation.\n\nLariat Landing\n\nLariat Landing is a new development on the East side of the airport grounds that encompasses 1,000 acres. The development is meant to generate increased non-airline revenue for the airport while still growing air service. The development will be mixed use with nearly half of it, north of Portland Avenue, designated to direct aviation support (with runway access) with an additional portion dedicated to aviation support companies. The remaining portion south of Portland Avenue will be zoned for retail, industrial, and commercial office space.\n\nThe direct aviation parcels of Lariat Landing will be marketed towards aircraft maintenance, aircraft manufacturing, commercial air cargo, and corporate aviation companies. Atlantic Aviation and ARINC are two tenants already located in the new development area. The aviation support district will be targeting companies that provides aviation related goods and services. The target companies include freight forwarders, logistics, cargo, warehousing, distribution operations, and manufacturing companies.\n\nLocated between Interstate 44 and Portland Avenue, the office park will have a retail village as the gateway to its campus. It will target offices, hotels/motels, retail, warehouse, distribution, and logistic companies.\n\nProperty will only be leased due to FAA requirements and will have a maximum term of 40 years. The realignment of Portland Avenue is currently in process while the new 48-inch waterline installation has already been completed.\n\nIncidents\n\nOn March 26, 1939, a Douglas DC-2, registration NC13727, crashed while attempting to return to the airport. The aircraft, operated by Braniff Airways, had just departed when a cylinder on the left engine tore loose from its mounting and caused a tear in the engine cowling. Subsequent drag from the torn cowling resulted in a stall on the wing, and the plane cartwheeled on to the airport grounds, just yards from the safety of the runway. The Captain cut the fuel switches just before impact, but misted fuel from the tanks spread over the hot engines, causing a fire. The Captain, First Officer, and three passengers survived. The flight's Hostess and seven passengers, however, perished in the disaster.\n\nA Rockwell Sabreliner, registration N5565 crashed on January 15, 1974, after descending below minimums on an ILS approach in low clouds and fog.\n\nOn December 21, 2012, a U.S. Customs and Border Patrol Cessna Citation crashed during landing at Will Rogers Airport.", "A state of the United States of America is one of the 50 constituent political entities that shares its sovereignty with the United States federal government. Due to the shared sovereignty between each state and the federal government, Americans are citizens of both the federal republic and of the state in which they reside. State citizenship and residency are flexible, and no government approval is required to move between states, except for persons covered by certain types of court orders (e.g., paroled convicts and children of divorced spouses who are sharing custody).\n\nStates range in population from just under 600,000 (Wyoming) to over 38 million (California), and in area from (Rhode Island) to (Alaska). Four states use the term commonwealth rather than state in their full official names.\n\nStates are divided into counties or county-equivalents, which may be assigned some local governmental authority but are not sovereign. County or county-equivalent structure varies widely by state. State governments are allocated power by the people (of each respective state) through their individual constitutions. All are grounded in republican principles, and each provides for a government, consisting of three branches: executive, legislative, and judicial. \n\nStates possess a number of powers and rights under the United States Constitution; among them ratifying constitutional amendments. Historically, the tasks of local law enforcement, public education, public health, regulating intrastate commerce, and local transportation and infrastructure have generally been considered primarily state responsibilities, although all of these now have significant federal funding and regulation as well. Over time, the U.S. Constitution has been amended, and the interpretation and application of its provisions have changed. The general tendency has been toward centralization and incorporation, with the federal government playing a much larger role than it once did. There is a continuing debate over states' rights, which concerns the extent and nature of the states' powers and sovereignty in relation to the federal government and the rights of individuals.\n\nStates and their residents are represented in the federal Congress, a bicameral legislature consisting of the Senate and the House of Representatives. Each state is represented by two Senators, and at least one Representative, while additional representatives are distributed among the states in proportion to the most recent constitutionally mandated decennial census. Each state is also entitled to select a number of electors to vote in the Electoral College, the body that elects the President of the United States, equal to the total of Representatives and Senators from that state. \n\nThe Constitution grants to Congress the authority to admit new states into the Union. Since the establishment of the United States in 1776, the number of states has expanded from the original 13 to 50. Alaska and Hawaii are the most recent states admitted, both in 1959.\n\nThe Constitution is silent on the question of whether states have the power to secede (withdraw from) from the Union. Shortly after the Civil War, the U.S. Supreme Court, in Texas v. White, held that a state cannot unilaterally do so. \n\nStates of the United States\n\nThe 50 U.S. states (in alphabetical order), along with state flag and date each joined the union:\n\nGovernments\n\nAs each state is itself a sovereign entity, it reserves the right to organize its individual government in any way (within the broad parameters set by the U.S. Constitution) deemed appropriate by its people. As a result, while the governments of the various states share many similar features, they often vary greatly with regard to form and substance. No two state governments are identical.\n\nConstitutions\n\nThe government of each state is structured in accordance with its individual constitution. Many of these documents are more detailed and more elaborate than their federal counterpart. The Constitution of Alabama, for example, contains 310,296 words — more than 40 times as many as the U.S. Constitution. In practice, each state has adopted a three-branch system of government, modeled after the federal government, and consisting of three branches (although the three-branch structure is not required): executive, legislative, and judicial. \n\nExecutive\n\nIn each state, the chief executive is called the governor, who serves as both head of state and head of government. The governor may approve or veto bills passed by the state legislature, as well as push for the passage of bills supported by the party of the Governor. In 43 states, governors have line item veto power. \n\nMost states have a \"plural executive\" in which two or more members of the executive branch are elected directly by the people. Such additional elected officials serve as members of the executive branch, but are not beholden to the governor and the governor cannot dismiss them. For example, the attorney general is elected, rather than appointed, in 43 of the 50 U.S. states.\n\nLegislative\n\nThe legislatures of 49 of the 50 states are made up of two chambers: a lower house (termed the House of Representatives, State Assembly, General Assembly or House of Delegates) and a smaller upper house, always termed the Senate. The exception is the unicameral Nebraska Legislature, which is composed of only a single chamber.\n\nMost states have part-time legislatures, while six of the most populated states have full-time legislatures. However, several states with high population have short legislative sessions, including Texas and Florida. \n\nIn Baker v. Carr (1962) and Reynolds v. Sims (1964), the U.S. Supreme Court held that all states are required to elect their legislatures in such a way as to afford each citizen the same degree of representation (the one person, one vote standard). In practice, most states choose to elect legislators from single-member districts, each of which has approximately the same population. Some states, such as Maryland and Vermont, divide the state into single- and multi-member districts, in which case multi-member districts must have proportionately larger populations, e.g., a district electing two representatives must have approximately twice the population of a district electing just one. If the governor vetoes legislation, all legislatures may override it, usually, but not always, requiring a two-thirds majority.\n\nIn 2013, there were a total of 7,383 legislators in the 50 state legislative bodies. They earned from $0 annually (New Mexico) to $90,526 (California). There were various per diem and mileage compensation. \n\nJudicial\n\nStates can also organize their judicial systems differently from the federal judiciary, as long as they protect the federal constitutional right of their citizens to procedural due process. Most have a trial level court, generally called a District Court or Superior Court, a first-level appellate court, generally called a Court of Appeal (or Appeals), and a Supreme Court. However, Oklahoma and Texas have separate highest courts for criminal appeals. In New York State the trial court is called the Supreme Court; appeals are then taken to the Supreme Court's Appellate Division, and from there to the Court of Appeals.\n\nMost states base their legal system on English common law (with substantial indigenous changes and incorporation of certain civil law innovations), with the notable exception of Louisiana, a former French colony, which draws large parts of its legal system from French civil law.\n\nOnly a few states choose to have the judges on the state's courts serve for life terms. In most of the states the judges, including the justices of the highest court in the state, are either elected or appointed for terms of a limited number of years, and are usually eligible for re-election or reappointment.\n\nRelationships\n\nAmong states\n\nEach state admitted to the Union by Congress since 1789 has entered it on an equal footing with the original States in all respects. With the growth of states' rights advocacy during the antebellum period, the Supreme Court asserted, in Lessee of Pollard v. Hagan (1845), that the Constitution mandated admission of new states on the basis of equality.\n\nUnder Article Four of the United States Constitution, which outlines the relationship between the states, each state is required to give full faith and credit to the acts of each other's legislatures and courts, which is generally held to include the recognition of legal contracts and criminal judgments, and before 1865, slavery status. Regardless of the Full Faith and Credit Clause, some legal arrangements, such as professional licensure and marriages, may be state-specific, and until recently states have not been found by the courts to be required to honor such arrangements from other states. \n\nSuch legal acts are nevertheless often recognized state-to-state according to the common practice of comity. States are prohibited from discriminating against citizens of other states with respect to their basic rights, under the Privileges and Immunities Clause. Under the Extradition Clause, a state must extradite people located there who have fled charges of \"treason, felony, or other crimes\" in another state if the other state so demands. The principle of hot pursuit of a presumed felon and arrest by the law officers of one state in another state are often permitted by a state. \n\nWith the consent of Congress, states may enter into interstate compacts, agreements between two or more states. Compacts are frequently used to manage a shared resource, such as transportation infrastructure or water rights. \n\nWith the federal government\n\nEvery state is guaranteed a form of government that is grounded in republican principles, such as the consent of the governed. This guarantee has long been at the fore-front of the debate about the rights of citizens vis-à-vis the government. States are also guaranteed protection from invasion, and, upon the application of the state legislature (or executive, if the legislature cannot be convened), from domestic violence. This provision was discussed during the 1967 Detroit riot, but was not invoked.\n\nSince the early 20th century, the Supreme Court has interpreted the Commerce Clause of the Constitution of the United States to allow greatly expanded scope of federal power over time, at the expense of powers formerly considered purely states' matters. The Cambridge Economic History of the United States says, \"On the whole, especially after the mid-1880s, the Court construed the Commerce Clause in favor of increased federal power.\" In Wickard v. Filburn , the court expanded federal power to regulate the economy by holding that federal authority under the commerce clause extends to activities which may appear to be local in nature but in reality effect the entire national economy and are therefore of national concern. \n\nFor example, Congress can regulate railway traffic across state lines, but it may also regulate rail traffic solely within a state, based on the reality that intrastate traffic still affects interstate commerce. In recent years, the Court has tried to place limits on the Commerce Clause in such cases as United States v. Lopez and United States v. Morrison.\n\nAnother example of congressional power is its spending power—the ability of Congress to impose taxes and distribute the resulting revenue back to the states (subject to conditions set by Congress). An example of this is the system of federal aid for highways, which include the Interstate Highway System. The system is mandated and largely funded by the federal government, and also serves the interests of the states. By threatening to withhold federal highway funds, Congress has been able to pressure state legislatures to pass a variety of laws. An example is the nationwide legal drinking age of 21, enacted by each state, brought about by the National Minimum Drinking Age Act. Although some objected that this infringes on states' rights, the Supreme Court upheld the practice as a permissible use of the Constitution's Spending Clause in South Dakota v. Dole .\n\nAdmission into the Union\n\nArticle IV, Section 3, Clause 1 of the U.S. Constitution grants to Congress the authority to admit new states into the Union. Since the establishment of the United States in 1776, the number of states has expanded from the original 13 to 50. Each new state has been admitted on an equal footing with the existing states. It also forbids the creation of new states from parts of existing states without the consent of both the affected states and Congress. This caveat was designed to give Eastern states that still had Western land claims (there were 4 in 1787), to have a veto over whether their western counties could become states, and has served this same function since, whenever a proposal to partition an existing state or states in order that a region within might either join another state or to create a new state has come before Congress.\n\nMost of the states admitted to the Union after the original 13 have been created from organized territories established and governed by Congress in accord with its plenary power under Article IV, Section 3, Clause 2. The outline for this process was established by the Northwest Ordinance (1787), which predates the ratification of the Constitution. In some cases, an entire territory has become a state; in others some part of a territory has.\n\nWhen the people of a territory make their desire for statehood known to the federal government, Congress may pass an enabling act authorizing the people of that territory to organize a constitutional convention to write a state constitution as a step towards admission to the Union. Each act details the mechanism by which the territory will be admitted as a state following ratification of their constitution and election of state officers. Although the use of an enabling act is a traditional historic practice, a number of territories have drafted constitutions for submission to Congress absent an enabling act and were subsequently admitted. Upon acceptance of that constitution, and upon meeting any additional Congressional stipulations, Congress has always admitted that territory as a state.\n\nIn addition to the original 13, six subsequent states were never an organized territory of the federal government, or part of one, before being admitted to the Union. Three were set off from an already existing state, two entered the Union after having been sovereign states, and one was established from unorganized territory:\nCalifornia, 1850, from land ceded to the United States by Mexico in 1848 under the terms of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. \nKentucky, 1792, from Virginia (District of Kentucky: Fayette, Jefferson, and Lincoln counties)Michael P. Riccards, \"Lincoln and the Political Question: The Creation of the State of West Virginia\" Presidential Studies Quarterly, Vol. 27, 1997 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a\no&d=5000522904 online edition]\nMaine, 1820, from Massachusetts (District of Maine)\nTexas, 1845, previously the Republic of Texas \nVermont, 1791, previously the Vermont Republic (also known as the New Hampshire Grants and claimed by New York) \nWest Virginia, 1863, from Virginia (Trans-Allegheny region counties) during the Civil War \n\nCongress is under no obligation to admit states, even in those areas whose population expresses a desire for statehood. Such has been the case numerous times during the nation's history. In one instance, Mormon pioneers in Salt Lake City sought to establish the state of Deseret in 1849. It existed for slightly over two years and was never approved by the United States Congress. In another, leaders of the Five Civilized Tribes (Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, and Seminole) in Indian Territory proposed to establish the state of Sequoyah in 1905, as a means to retain control of their lands. The proposed constitution ultimately failed in the U.S. Congress. Instead, the Indian Territory, along with Oklahoma Territory were both incorporated into the new state of Oklahoma in 1907. The first instance occurred while the nation still operated under the Articles of Confederation. The State of Franklin existed for several years, not long after the end of the American Revolution, but was never recognized by the Confederation Congress, which ultimately recognized North Carolina's claim of sovereignty over the area. The territory comprising Franklin later became part of the Southwest Territory, and ultimately the state of Tennessee.\n\nAdditionally, the entry of several states into the Union was delayed due to distinctive complicating factors. Among them, Michigan Territory, which petitioned Congress for statehood in 1835, was not admitted to the Union until 1837, due to a boundary dispute the adjoining state of Ohio. The Republic of Texas requested annexation to the United States in 1837, but fears about potential conflict with Mexico delayed the admission of Texas for nine years. Also, statehood for Kansas Territory was held up for several years (1854–61) due to a series of internal violent conflicts involving anti-slavery and pro-slavery factions.\n\nPossible new states\n\nPuerto Rico\n\nPuerto Rico referred to itself as the \"Commonwealth of Puerto Rico\" in the English version of its constitution, and as \"Estado Libre Asociado\" (literally, Associated Free State) in the Spanish version.\n\nAs with any non-state territory of the United States, its residents do not have voting representation in the federal government. Puerto Rico has limited representation in the U.S. Congress in the form of a Resident Commissioner, a delegate with limited voting rights in the Committee of the Whole House on the State of the Union, and no voting rights otherwise. \n\nA non-binding referendum on statehood, independence, or a new option for an associated territory (different from the current status) was held on November 6, 2012. Sixty one percent (61%) of voters chose the statehood option, while one third of the ballots were submitted blank. \n\nOn December 11, 2012, the Legislative Assembly of Puerto Rico enacted a concurrent resolution requesting the President and the Congress of the United States to respond to the referendum of the people of Puerto Rico, held on November 6, 2012, to end its current form of territorial status and to begin the process to admit Puerto Rico as a State. \n\nWashington, D.C.\n\nThe intention of the Founding Fathers was that the United States capital should be at a neutral site, not giving favor to any existing state; as a result, the District of Columbia was created in 1800 to serve as the seat of government. The inhabitants of the District do not have full representation in Congress or a sovereign elected government (they were allotted presidential electors by the 23rd amendment, and have a non-voting delegate in Congress).\n\nSome residents of the District support statehood of some form for that jurisdiction—either statehood for the whole district or for the inhabited part, with the remainder remaining under federal jurisdiction.\n\nOthers\n\nVarious proposals to divide California, usually involving splitting the south half from the north or the urban coastline from the rest of the state, have been advanced since the 1850s. Similarly, numerous proposals to divide New York, all of which involve to some degree the separation of New York City from the rest of the state, have been promoted over the past several decades. The partitioning of either state is, at the present, highly unlikely.\n\nOther even less likely possible new states are Guam and the Virgin Islands, both of which are unincorporated organized territories of the United States. Also, either the Northern Mariana Islands or American Samoa, an unorganized, unincorporated territory, could seek statehood.\n\nSecession from the Union\n\nThe Constitution is silent on the issue of the secession of a state from the union. However, its predecessor document, the Articles of Confederation, stated that the United States \"shall be perpetual.\" The question of whether or not individual states held the right to unilateral secession remained a difficult and divisive one until the American Civil War. In 1860 and 1861, eleven southern states seceded, but following their defeat in the American Civil War were brought back into the Union during the Reconstruction Era. The federal government never recognized the secession of any of the rebellious states. \n\nFollowing the Civil War, the United States Supreme Court, in Texas v. White, held that states did not have the right to secede and that any act of secession was legally void. Drawing on the Preamble to the Constitution, which states that the Constitution was intended to \"form a more perfect union\" and speaks of the people of the United States in effect as a single body politic, as well as the language of the Articles of Confederation, the Supreme Court maintained that states did not have a right to secede. However, the court's reference in the same decision to the possibility of such changes occurring \"through revolution, or through consent of the States,\" essentially means that this decision holds that no state has a right to unilaterally decide to leave the Union.\n\nCommonwealths\n\nFour states—Kentucky, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and Virginia —adopted Constitutions early in their post-colonial existence identifying themselves as commonwealths, rather than states. These commonwealths are states, but legally, each is a commonwealth because the term is contained in its constitution. As a result, \"commonwealth\" is used in all public and other state writings, actions or activities within their bounds.\n\nThe term, which refers to a state in which the supreme power is vested in the people, was first used in Virginia during the Interregnum, the 1649–60 period between the reigns of Charles I and Charles II during which parliament's Oliver Cromwell as Lord Protector established a republican government known as the Commonwealth of England. Virginia became a royal colony again in 1660, and the word was dropped from the full title. When Virginia adopted its first constitution on June 29, 1776, it was reintroduced. Pennsylvania followed suit when it drew up a constitution later that year, as did Massachusetts, in 1780, and Kentucky, in 1792.\n\nThe U.S. territories of the Northern Marianas and Puerto Rico are also referred to as commonwealths. This designation does have a legal status different from that of the 50 states. Both of these commonwealths are unincorporated territories of the United States.\n\nOrigins of states' names\n\nThe 50 states have taken their names from a wide variety of languages. Twenty-four state names originate from Native American languages. Of these, eight are from Algonquian languages, seven are from Siouan languages, three are from Iroquoian languages, one is from Uto-Aztecan languages and five others are from other indigenous languages. Hawaii's name is derived from the Polynesian Hawaiian language.\n\nOf the remaining names, 22 are from European languages: Seven from Latin (mainly Latinized forms of English names), the rest are from English, Spanish and French. Eleven states are named after individual people, including seven named for royalty and one named after an American president. The origins of six state names are unknown or disputed. Several of the states that derive their names from (corrupted) names used for Native peoples, have retained the plural ending of \"s\".\n\nGeography\n\nBorders\n\nThe borders of the 13 original states were largely determined by colonial charters. Their western boundaries were subsequently modified as the states ceded their western land claims to the Federal government during the 1780s and 1790s. Many state borders beyond those of the original 13 were set by Congress as it created territories, divided them, and over time, created states within them. Territorial and new state lines often followed various geographic features (such as rivers or mountain range peaks), and were influenced by settlement or transportation patterns. At various times, national borders with territories formerly controlled by other countries (British North America, New France, New Spain including Spanish Florida, and Russian America) became institutionalized as the borders of U.S. states. In the West, relatively arbitrary straight lines following latitude and longitude often prevail, due to the sparseness of settlement west of the Mississippi River.\n\nOnce established, most state borders have, with few exceptions, been generally stable. Only two states, Missouri (Platte Purchase) and Nevada, grew appreciably after statehood. Several of the original states ceded land, over a several year period, to the Federal government, which in turn became the Northwest Territory, Southwest Territory, and Mississippi Territory. In 1791 Maryland and Virginia ceded land to create the District of Columbia (Virginia's portion was returned in 1847). In 1850, Texas ceded a large swath of land to the federal government. Additionally, Massachusetts and Virginia (on two occasions), have lost land, in each instance to form a new state.\n\nThere have been numerous other minor adjustments to state boundaries over the years due to improved surveys, resolution of ambiguous or disputed boundary definitions, or minor mutually agreed boundary adjustments for administrative convenience or other purposes. Occasionally the United States Congress or the United States Supreme Court have settled state border disputes. One notable example is the case New Jersey v. New York, in which New Jersey won roughly 90% of Ellis Island from New York in 1998. \n\nRegional grouping\n\nStates may be grouped in regions; there are endless variations and possible groupings. Many are defined in law or regulations by the federal government. For example, the United States Census Bureau defines four statistical regions, with nine divisions. The Census Bureau region definition is \"widely used … for data collection and analysis,\"\"The National Energy Modeling System: An Overview 2003\" (Report #:DOE/EIA-0581, October 2009). United States Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration. and is the most commonly used classification system. Other multi-state regions are unofficial, and defined by geography or cultural affinity rather than by state lines." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Okla.", "Oklahoma", "Oklahoma, United States", "Sooner State", "Forty-Sixth State", "Religion in Oklahoma", "Culture of Oklahoma", "46th State", "Oklahoma (U.S. state)", "Oklahoma, USA", "State of Oklahoma", "List of Oklahoma State Symbols", "Oaklahoma", "Oklaholma", "Transportation in Oklahoma", "US-OK", "Sports in Oklahoma", "Okla", "Oklahoman", "Oclahoma", "Education in Oklahoma", "Energy in Oklahoma", "Transport in Oklahoma", "Forty-sixth State", "Oklahoma (state)", "The Sooner State" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "sooner state", "religion in oklahoma", "oklahoma", "us ok", "oklahoma u s state", "46th state", "oklahoma united states", "oklahoma state", "transportation in oklahoma", "forty sixth state", "energy in oklahoma", "education in oklahoma", "oclahoma", "sports in oklahoma", "oklaholma", "oklahoma usa", "oaklahoma", "transport in oklahoma", "culture of oklahoma", "okla", "oklahoman", "list of oklahoma state symbols", "state of oklahoma" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "oklahoma", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Oklahoma" }
"What couple live next door to Dagwood and Blondie Bumstead in ""Blondie""?"	tc_351	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Blondie_(comic_strip).txt" ], "title": [ "Blondie (comic strip)" ], "wiki_context": [ "Blondie is an American comic strip created by cartoonist Chic Young. Distributed by King Features Syndicate, the strip has been published in newspapers since September 8, 1930. The success of the strip, which features the eponymous blonde and her sandwich-loving husband, led to the long-running Blondie film series (1938–1950) and the popular Blondie radio program (1939–1950).\n\nChic Young drew Blondie until his death in 1973, when creative control passed to his son Dean Young, who continues to write the strip. Young has collaborated with a number of artists on Blondie, including Jim Raymond, Mike Gersher, Stan Drake, Denis Lebrun, and John Marshall. Through these changes, Blondie has remained popular, appearing in more than 2,000 newspapers in 47 countries and has been translated into 35 languages. Since 2006, Blondie has also been available via email through King Features' DailyINK service. \n\nOverview\n\nOriginally designed to follow in the footsteps of Young's earlier \"pretty girl\" creations Beautiful Bab and Dumb Dora, Blondie focused on the adventures of Blondie Boopadoop—a carefree flapper girl who spent her days in dance halls along with her boyfriend Dagwood Bumstead, heir to a railroad fortune. The name \"Boopadoop\" derives from the scat singing lyric that was popularized by Helen Kane's 1928 song \"I Wanna Be Loved by You.\"\n\nMarriage\n\nOn February 17, 1933, after much fanfare and build-up, Blondie and Dagwood were married after a month-and-a-half-long hunger strike by Dagwood to get his parents' blessing, but they strongly disapprove of his marrying beneath his class, and disinherit him. Left only with a check to pay their honeymoon, the Bumsteads are forced to become a middle-class suburban family. The marriage was a significant media event, given the comic strip's popularity. The catalog for the University of Florida's 2005 exhibition, \"75 Years of Blondie, 1930–2005\", notes:\nBlondie's marriage marked the beginning of a change in her personality. From that point forward, she gradually assumed her position as the sensible head of the Bumstead household. And Dagwood, who previously had been cast in the role of straight man to Blondie's comic antics, took over as the comic strip's clown. \n\nSetting\n\n\"Dagwood Bumstead and family, including Daisy and the pups, live in the suburbs of Joplin, Missouri,\" according to the August 1946 issue of The Joplin Globe, citing Chic Young. \n\nCast of characters\n\nBlondie Bumstead (née Boopadoop): The eponymous leading lady of the comic strip. Blondie is a smart, sweet, and responsible woman. She can be stressed at times when raising her family and because of Dagwood's antics, and despite being usually laid-back and patient, Blondie does get upset sometimes. She is also extremely beautiful with gold hair, gentle curls, and a shapely figure. A friend once told Dagwood that Blondie looked like a 'million bucks'. In 1991, she began a catering business with her neighbor, Tootsie.\nDagwood Bumstead: Blondie's husband. A kind, intelligent and loving yet clumsy, naïve and lazy man whose cartoonish antics are the basis for the strip. He is a big fan of sports (primarily football and baseball) and has a large, insatiable appetite for food (but he remains slender). Dagwood is especially fond of making and eating the mile-high Dagwood sandwich. He celebrates even the most insignificant holidays, and approaches Thanksgiving (a holiday known for lavish dinners) with the same reverence most people reserve for Christmas. His continuous antagonistic and comical confrontations with his boss Mr. Dithers, for numerous reasons including Dagwood's laziness and silly mistakes, is a subplot that gets considerable attention in the strip. His klutziness is also a fundamental part of his encounters with Mr. Beasley the mailman. Another subplot deals with Dagwood and his neighbor Herb. He can also often be seen napping on his couch.\nAlexander Bumstead: the elder child of Blondie and Dagwood who is in his late teens, formerly referred to by his pet name \"Baby Dumpling\". As a child, he was very mischievous and precocious. As a teenager, he is athletic, levelheaded and intelligent. Despite resembling his father, he is more down-to-earth like his mother.\nCookie Bumstead: the younger child of Blondie and Dagwood who is in her early teens. Cookie is portrayed as a sweet, bubbly teenage girl whose interests include dating, hanging out with friends, and clothes. Her appearance has changed the most compared to the other characters, as a child (1940s-late 1950s) she originally had long curly hair with a black bow holding a long curl on the top of her head, as a young teen (late 1950s-1960s) she wore her hair in a ponytail with curly bangs, as an older teen (1970s-1990s) she wore her hair long with a black headband and later (2000s) dropped the hair band and wore her hair with bangs, barretes and flipped to the sides. Her current hairstyle is long with bangs and flipped at sides.\nDaisy: The Bumsteads' family dog whose best friend is Dagwood and who frequently changes her expression in response to Dagwood's comments or other activities. She, in the later years of the comic, gave birth to puppies.\nMr. Beasley the Postman: The Bumsteads' mailman who Dagwood seems to always collide with and knock down as Dagwood hurriedly leaves the house.\nMr. Julius Caesar Dithers: Founder of the J.C. Dithers Construction Company and Dagwood's boss. He dictates to his employees and believes the best thing in life is money. Although it usually does not seem like it at the workplace, Mr. Dithers still is a good-hearted man.\nMrs. Cora Dithers: Mr. Dithers' wife. She usually gets into fights with him as she exerts control of her husband. She is great friends with Blondie.\nHerb Woodley: Dagwood's best friend and next-door neighbor. Herb though can be extremely selfish and mean at times when he doesn't return the expensive power tools and favors that he usually borrows from Dagwood. Herb constantly finds means to annoy and infuriate him.\nTootsie Woodley: Herb's wife and Blondie's best friend. Tootsie and Blondie can empathize with one another as women, mothers, and particularly as spouses of eccentric husbands. In 1991, she joined Blondie in starting a catering business.\nElmo Tuttle: A kid in the neighborhood who has a friendship with Dagwood (whom he calls \"Mr. B\"), but sometimes annoys him. His last name was originally \"Fiffenhauser.\"\nLou: The owner and counterman at Lou's Diner, where Dagwood goes on lunch hours. Dagwood sometimes suggests new specials for the diner. Lou is covered with tattoos and always has a toothpick in his mouth.\nClaudia and Dwitzell: The carpoolers with Dagwood and Herb. Claudia is a lawyer; no occupation has been identified for Dwitzell, sometimes called \"Dwitz\".\nMike Morelli the Barber: Dagwood's barber. He likes to make fun of Dagwood's hairstyle and can usually be seen with his nameplate, \"M. Morelli\" displayed by his barber's chair.\n\nThe Bumstead family has grown, with the addition of a son named Alexander (originally \"Baby Dumpling\") on April 15, 1934, a daughter named Cookie on April 11, 1941, a dog, Daisy, and her litter of five unnamed pups. In the 1960s, Cookie and Alexander grew into teenagers (who uncannily resemble their parents), but they stopped growing during the 1960s when Young realized that they had to remain teenagers to maintain the family situation structured into the strip for so many decades.\n\nDagwood is the office manager at the office of the J. C. Dithers Construction Company under his dictatorial boss—Julius Caesar Dithers. Mr. Dithers is a \"sawed-off, tin pot Napoleon\" who is always abusing his employees, both verbally and physically. He frequently threatens to fire Dagwood when Dagwood inevitably botches or does not finish his work, sleeps on the job, comes in late, or pesters Dithers for a raise. Dithers characteristically responds by kicking Dagwood in the backside and ordering him back to work. The tyrannical Dithers is lord and master over all he surveys, with one notable exception—his formidable and domineering wife, Cora.\n\nBlondie and Dagwood's best friends are their next-door neighbors Herb and Tootsie Woodley, although Dagwood and Herb's friendship is frequently volatile. Lou is the burly, tattooed owner of Lou's Diner, the less-than-five-star establishment where Dagwood often eats during his lunch hour. Other regular supporting characters include the long-suffering mailman, Mr. Beasley; Elmo Tuttle, a pesky neighborhood kid who often asks Dagwood to play; and a never-ending parade of overbearing door-to-door salesmen.\n\nRunning gags\n\nThere are several running gags in Blondie, reflecting the trend after Chic Young's death for the strip to focus almost entirely on Dagwood as the lead character:\n\n* Dagwood often collides with Mr. Beasley the mailman while running out the front door—late for work.\n* Other variations of the late-for-work gag: Dagwood keeping his car pool waiting, running after their car or stuck in traffic. In earlier decades, he had been late for the bus or, even earlier in the strip's run, late for the streetcar.\n* The famous, impossibly tall sandwiches Dagwood fixes for himself, which came to be known colloquially as the \"Dagwood sandwich\".\n* Dagwood in his pajamas, having a midnight snack—with most of the refrigerator contents spread out on the kitchen table, (or balanced precariously on his extended arms, on the way to the table.)\n* Dagwood's propensity to nap on the couch during the day, often interrupted by Elmo, who wants to ask him a question; or Blondie, who has a chore she wants him to do.\n* Dagwood singing in the bathtub, or interrupted (usually by family members or Elmo) while he's trying to relax in the tub.\n* Dagwood contends with brazen or obnoxious salesmen at his door, selling undesirable or impossible-looking items.\n* A variation of the above has the salesmen calling on the telephone.\n* Dagwood and Herb Woodley spending some weekend time together, which usually escalates into a brawl.\n* Dagwood demanding a raise from Dithers and failing to get it every time.\n* Dagwood caught goofing off or sleeping at his desk in the office.\n* Mr. Dithers firing Dagwood for being incompetent or physically booting him out of his office.\n* Dagwood getting a menu suggestion from Lou, the wry, blunt, and/or sarcastic diner counterman.\n* The Christmas shopping gag, where Dagwood is shown carrying Christmas packages that completely cover up his face and upper body.\n* Herb borrowing small items—tools, small appliances, books, and (more recently) videos—from Dagwood, then never returning them. Occasionally, Herb will loan a borrowed item to a third party, which is then usually passed on to a fourth or fifth party, etc. \n* Dagwood's hobby is household carpentry, but unfortunately his projects don't turn out well. Once, he built a small cabinet for Blondie, actually accomplishing all construction steps perfectly; but the result still fails because it doesn't fit in the space Blondie intended for it. Mostly, he is producing sawdust.\n\nSunday strips\n\nDuring the early years of the strip, the Sunday installments were much in the vein of the then-popular genre of \"pretty girl\" strips (including a variety of regular suitors), rather than spoofing them like in the daily continuities. Dagwood would actually not appear in a Sunday page until January 1, 1933. \n\nFrom 1930 to 1935, Young drew The Family Foursome as a topper, being replaced by the pantomime strip Colonel Potterby and the Duchess, which ran until 1963 (becoming a stand-alone strip in 1958).\n\nFor years, the Sunday installments were noted by their histrionic humor as well for having 12 panels, switching to the standard half-page format in 1986.\n \nModernization\n\nWhile the distinctive look and running gags of Blondie have been carefully preserved through the decades, a number of details have been altered to keep up with changing times. The Bumstead kitchen, which remained essentially unchanged from the 1930s through the 1960s has slowly acquired a more modern look (no more legs on the gas range and no more refrigerators shown with the compressor assembly on the top).\n\nDagwood no longer wears a hat when he goes to work, nor does Blondie wear her previous hat and gloves when leaving the house. Although some bedroom and bathroom scenes still show him in polka-dot boxer shorts, Dagwood no longer wears garters to hold up his socks. When at home, he frequently wears sport shirts, his standard dress shirt with one large button in the middle is slowly disappearing, and he no longer smokes a pipe at all. Blondie now often wears slacks, and she is no longer depicted as a housewife since she teamed with Tootsie Woodley to launch a catering business in 1991. Dagwood still knocks heads with his boss, Mr. Dithers, but now does so in a more modern office at J.C. Dithers Construction Company where desks now sport flat panel computer monitors, and Mr. Dithers, when in a rage, attempts to smash his laptop into Dagwood's head instead of his old manual typewriter. The staff no longer punches in at a mechanical \"time clock\", nor do they wear green eyeshades and plastic \"sleeve protectors\". Telephones have changed from candlestick style to more modern dial phones, to Touch-Tone, and on to cellphones. Dagwood now begins each morning racing to meet his carpool rather than chasing after a missed streetcar or city bus. Even Mr. Beasley, the mail carrier, now dresses in short-sleeve shirts and walking shorts, rather than the military-style uniform of days gone by.\n\nDuring the late 1990s and 2000–2001, Alexander worked part-time after high school at the order counter of a fast food restaurant, the Burger Barn. There are still occasional references to Cookie and her babysitting. Daisy, who once had a litter of puppies that lived with the family, is now the only dog seen in the Bumstead household. Cookie and Alexander can be seen in modern clothing trends and sometimes use cellphones, reference current television shows and social networking sites, while talking about attending rock concerts of popular current Rock, Pop, and Hip Hop music acts.\n\nIn this period, when in his basement woodworking shop, Dagwood was now shown wearing safety eyeglasses.\n\nDagwood sometimes breaks the fourth wall by delivering the punchline to the strip while looking directly at the reader, as in the above panel. Daisy occasionally does the same, though her remarks are limited to \"?\" and \"!\" with either a puzzled or a pained expression.\n\nStrips in recent years have included references to recent developments in technology and communication, such as Facebook, Twitter, email, and text messaging.\n\n75th anniversary\n\nIn 2005, the strip celebrated its 75th anniversary with an extended story arc in which characters from other strips, including Curtis, Garfield, Beetle Bailey, and Hägar the Horrible, made appearances in Blondie. The strip Pearls Before Swine made fun of the fact that their cast was not invited, and decided to invite themselves. This cross-over promotion began July 10, 2005 and continued until September 4, 2005. \n\nAwards\n\nIn 1948, Chic Young's work on the strip won him the National Cartoonists Society's Billy DeBeck Award for Cartoonist of the Year. When the award name was renamed the Reuben Award in 1954, all the prior winners were given Reuben statuettes.\nIn 1995, the strip was one of 20 included in the Comic Strip Classics series of United States Postal Service commemorative postage stamps. \n\nBlondie in other media\n\nComic books\n\n* Chic Young's Blondie (1947–1949) David McKay/King Comics, 15 issues\n* Dagwood Splits the Atom (1949) King Features (Public services giveaway)\n* Blondie Comics Monthly (1950–1965) Harvey Publications, 148 issues\n* Chic Young's Dagwood Comics (1950–1965) Harvey, 140 issues\n* Daisy and Her Pups (1951–1954) Harvey, 18 issues\n* Blondie & Dagwood Family (1963–1965) Harvey, four issues\n* Chic Young's Blondie (1965–1966) King Comics, 12 issues\n* Blondie (1969–1976) Charlton Comics, 46 issues\n\nFilm\n\nBlondie was adapted into a long-running series of 28 low-budget theatrical B-features, produced by Columbia Pictures. Beginning with Blondie in 1938, the series lasted 12 years, through Beware of Blondie (1950). The two major roles were Penny Singleton as Blondie and Arthur Lake (whose first starring role was another comic strip character, Harold Teen) as Dagwood. Faithfulness to the comic strip was a major concern of the creators of the series. Little touches were added that were iconic to the strip, like the appearance of Dagwood's famous sandwiches—and the running gag of Dagwood colliding with the mailman amid a flurry of letters, (which preceded the title sequence in almost every film).\n\nColumbia was careful to maintain continuity, so each picture progressed from where the last one left off. Thus the Bumstead children grew from toddlers to young adults onscreen. Larry Simms played the Bumsteads' son in all the films; his character was originally called Baby Dumpling, and later became Alexander. Marjorie Kent (born Marjorie Ann Mutchie) joined the series in 1943 as daughter Cookie. Daisy had pups in the 12th feature, Blondie for Victory (1942). Danny Mummert, who had originally been chosen to play Baby Dumpling, took the continuing role of wiseguy neighbor Alvin Fuddle. Rounding out the regular supporting cast, character actor Jonathan Hale played Dagwood's irascible boss, J.C. Dithers. Hale left the series in 1945 and was succeeded by Jerome Cowan as George M. Radcliffe in Blondie's Big Moment. In the last film, Beware of Blondie, the Dithers character returned, played by Edward Earle and shown from the back. The Bumsteads' neighbors, the Woodleys, did not appear in the series until Beware of Blondie. They were played by Emory Parnell and Isabel Withers.\n\nIn 1943 Columbia felt the series was slipping, and ended the string with It's a Great Life and Footlight Glamour, deliberately omitting \"Blondie\" from the titles to attract unwary moviegoers. After 14 Blondies, stars Singleton and Lake moved on to other productions. During their absence from the screen, Columbia heard from many exhibitors and fans who wanted the Blondies back. The studio reactivated the series, which ran another 14 films until discontinued permanently in 1950. Because there was still some demand from movie theaters, Columbia began reissuing the older films, beginning with the 1938 Blondie, and continued to release them in their original sequence well into the 1950s.\n\nBlondie (1938)\nBlondie Meets the Boss (1939)\nBlondie Takes a Vacation (1939)\nBlondie Brings Up Baby (1939)\nBlondie on a Budget (1940)\nBlondie Has Servant Trouble (1940)\nBlondie Plays Cupid (1940)\nBlondie Goes Latin (1941)\nBlondie in Society (1941)\nBlondie Goes to College (1942)\nBlondie's Blessed Event (1942)\nBlondie for Victory (1942)\nIt's a Great Life (1943)\nFootlight Glamour (1943)\nLeave It to Blondie (1945)\nLife with Blondie (1946)\nBlondie's Lucky Day (1946)\nBlondie Knows Best (1946)\nBlondie's Big Moment (1947)\nBlondie's Holiday (1947)\nBlondie in the Dough (1947)\nBlondie's Anniversary (1947)\nBlondie's Reward (1948)\nBlondie's Secret (1948)\nBlondie's Big Deal (1949)\nBlondie Hits the Jackpot (1949)\nBlondie's Hero (1950)\nBeware of Blondie (1950)\n\nRadio\n\nSingleton and Lake reprised their film roles for radio; the Blondie radio program had a long run spanning several networks. Initially a 1939 summer replacement program for The Eddie Cantor Show (sponsored by Camel Cigarettes), Blondie was heard on CBS until June 1944, when it moved briefly to NBC. Returning to CBS later that year, Blondie continued there under a new sponsor (Colgate-Palmolive) until June 1949. In its final season, the series was heard on ABC from October 1949 to July 1950.\n\nTelevision\n\nTwo Blondie TV sitcoms have been produced to date, each lasting only one season.\nThe first ran on NBC for 26 episodes in 1957, with Lake reprising his film and radio role and Pamela Britton as Blondie.\nThe second, broadcast on CBS in the 1968–69 season, had Patricia Harty and Will Hutchins in the lead roles and veteran comic actor Jim Backus portraying Mr. Dithers.\n\nAnimation\n\nBlondie and Dagwood made a brief animated appearance in The Fantastic Funnies, a TV special focusing on newspaper comics that aired on CBS in 1980. They appeared in the beginning, singing a song to host Loni Anderson with other comic strip characters. Later on, after a short interview with Dean Young and Jim Raymond (who was drawing the strip at the time), they featured a short sequence where Blondie urges a reluctant Dagwood to get a haircut. The animation was produced by Bill Melendez Productions.\n\nAn animated cartoon TV special featuring the characters was made in 1987 by Marvel Productions, (who had earlier collaborated with King Features for the animated series Defenders of the Earth, starring King Feature's adventure characters) and shown on CBS, with a second special, Second Wedding Workout, telecast in 1989. Blondie was voiced by Loni Anderson, Dagwood by Frank Welker. Both animated specials are available on the fourth DVD of the Advantage Cartoon Mega Pack. Both of these specials were paired with other King Features-based specials; the first special was paired with a special based on Cathy; the second one was paired with Hägar the Horrible.\n\nIn the episode \"Comic Caper\" (season six episode six) of Jim Henson's Muppet Babies (also produced by Marvel and aired on CBS), both Blondie and Dagwood make a cameo appearance. Blondie tells Dagwood that he is going to be late for work. As Dagwood rushes to the door where he knocks into the Muppet Babies who accidentally fall in their comic strip. Frank Welker who voiced Dagwood in the TV special also voiced Baby Kermit and Skeeter on Muppet Babies. Baby Kermit and Baby Piggy even parodied Blondie and Dagwood in one scene.\n\nGarfield Gets Real\n\nDagwood appeared in the CGI animated film, Garfield Gets Real. He first appeared in the cafeteria scene in which he is holding a sandwich. He was later seen behind a folding door taking a bath. He appeared in the auditorium scene watching Garfield and Odie. He finally appeared in a crowd cheering Garfield and Odie. He did not appear in the sequels, Garfield's Fun Fest or Garfield's Pet Force.\n\nLicensing/Merchandise\n\nOver the years, Blondie characters have been merchandised as dolls, coloring books, toys, salt and pepper shakers, paint sets, paper doll cutouts, coffee mugs, cookie jars, neckties, lunchboxes, puzzles, games, Halloween costumes, Christmas ornaments, music boxes, refrigerator magnets, lapel pinbacks, greeting cards, and other products. In 2001, Dark Horse Comics issued two collectible figures of Dagwood and Blondie as part of their line of Classic Comic Characters—statues No. 19 and 20 respectively.\n\nA counter-service restaurant called Blondie's opened at Universal Orlando's Islands of Adventure in May 1999, serving a traditional Dagwood-style sandwich. In fact, Blondie's bills itself as \"Home of the Dagwood Sandwich.\" Lunch meats featuring Dagwood can be purchased at various grocery stores.\n\nOn May 11, 2006, Dean Young announced the opening of the first of his Dagwood's Sandwich Shoppes that summer in Clearwater, Florida, and the comic strip characters discussed the notion of Dagwood opening his own sandwich shop. The official Dagwood sandwich served at Dagwood's Sandwich Shoppes has the following ingredients: three slices of deli bread, hard salami, pepperoni, cappicola, mortadella, deli ham, cotto salami, cheddar, Provolone, red onion, green leaf lettuce, tomato, fresh and roasted red bell peppers, mayo, mustard, and a secret Italian olive salad oil.\n\nReprints and further reading\n\n;Comic strip collections\nBlondie #1 by Chic Young (1968) Signet\nBlondie #2 by Chic Young (1968) Signet\nBlondie (No. 1) by Dean Young and Jim Raymond (1976) Tempo\nBlondie (No. 2) by Dean Young and Jim Raymond (1977) Tempo\nThe Best of Blondie by Dean Young, et al. (1977) Tempo\nBlondie: Celebration Edition by Dean Young and Jim Raymond (1980) Tempo\nBlondie (No. 3) by Dean Young and Jim Raymond (1982) Tempo\nBlondie (No. 4): A Family Album by Dean Young and Mike Gersher (1982) Tempo\nBlondie: More Surprises! by Dean Young and Mike Gersher (1983) Tempo\nBlondie Book 1 (1986) by Dean Young and Stan Drake (1986) Blackthorne\nBlondie: Mr Dithers, I Demand a Raise!! by Dean Young and Jim Raymond (1989) Tor\nBlondie: But Blondie, I'm Taking a Bath!! by Dean Young and Jim Raymond (1990) Tor\nBlondie: The Bumstead Family History by Dean Young and Melena Ryzik (2007) Thomas Nelson Pub. ISBN 1-4016-0322-X\nBlondie: Volume 1 by Chic Young (2010) IDW Publishing ISBN 1-60010-740-0 (First of a projected series)\n;Related fiction\nBlondie and Dagwood in Footlight Folly (1947) Dell (An original paperback novel, not illustrated. Unnumbered, but usually considered part of Dell's mapback series)\nBlondie's Family (1954) Treasure/Wonder Book (a full-color storybook for children)\n;History\nBlondie & Dagwood's America (1981) Harper & Row ISBN 0-06-090908-0 (Dean Young and Rick Marschall's collaboration, providing an historical background of the strip)\nBlondie Goes to Hollywood: The Blondie Comic Strip in Films, Radio & Television by Carol Lynn Scherling (2010) BearManor Media ISBN 978-1-59393-401-9" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Herb and Tootsie Woodley" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "herb and tootsie woodley" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "herb and tootsie woodley", "type": "FreeForm", "value": "Herb and Tootsie Woodley" }
Who was the Lone Ranger's great grand-nephew?	tc_354	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Lone_Ranger.txt" ], "title": [ "Lone Ranger" ], "wiki_context": [ "The Lone Ranger is a fictional masked former Texas Ranger who fought outlaws in the American Old West with his Native American friend, Tonto. The character has been called an enduring icon of American culture. \n\nHe first appeared in 1933 in a radio show conceived either by WXYZ (Detroit) radio station owner George W. Trendle, or by Fran Striker, the show's writer. The character was originally believed to be inspired by Texas Ranger Captain John R. Hughes, to whom the book The Lone Star Ranger by Zane Grey was dedicated in 1915. The radio series proved to be a hit and spawned a series of books (largely written by Striker), an equally popular television show that ran from 1949 to 1957, comic books, and several movies. The title character was played on the radio show by George Seaton, Earle Graser, and Brace Beemer. Clayton Moore acted the Lone Ranger on television, although during a contract dispute, Moore was replaced temporarily by John Hart, who wore a different style of mask. On the radio, Tonto was played by, among others, John Todd and Roland Parker; and in the television series, by Jay Silverheels, who was a Mohawk from the Six Nations Indian Reserve in Ontario, Canada.\n\nOrigin\n\nThe Lone Ranger was named so because the character is the only survivor of a group of six Texas Rangers, rather than because he works alone (as he is usually accompanied by Tonto). While details differ, the basic story of the origin of the Lone Ranger is the same in most versions of the franchise. A posse of six members of the Texas Ranger Division pursuing a band of outlaws led by Bartholomew \"Butch\" Cavendish is betrayed by a civilian guide named Collins and is ambushed in a canyon named Bryant's Gap. Later, an Indian named Tonto stumbles onto the scene and discovers one ranger is barely alive, and he nurses the man back to health. In some versions, Tonto recognizes the lone survivor as the man who saved his life when they both were children. According to the television series, when Tonto left the Reid place with a horse given him by the boy Reid, he gave Reid a ring and the name Kemo Sabe, which he said means \"trusty scout\". Among the Rangers killed was the survivor's older brother, Daniel Reid, who was a captain in the Texas Rangers and the leader of the ambushed group. To conceal his identity and honor his fallen brother, Reid fashions a black domino mask from the material of his brother's vest. To aid in the deception, Tonto digs a sixth grave and places at its head a cross bearing Reid's name so that Cavendish and his gang would believe that all of the Rangers had been killed.\n\nIn many versions Reid continues fighting for justice as The Lone Ranger even after the Cavendish gang is captured.\n\nCharacters\n\nThe Lone Ranger\n\nAs generally depicted, the Lone Ranger conducts himself by a strict moral code based on that put in place by Striker at the inception of the character. Actors Clayton Moore and Jay Silverheels both took their positions as role models to children very seriously and tried their best to live by this creed. It read:\n\nI believe...\n* That to have a friend, a man must be one.\n* That all men are created equal and that everyone has within himself the power to make this a better world.\n* That God put the firewood there, but that every man must gather and light it himself.\n* In being prepared physically, mentally, and morally to fight when necessary for what is right.\n* That a man should make the most of what equipment he has.\n* That 'this government of the people, by the people, and for the people' shall live always.\n* That men should live by the rule of what is best for the greatest number.\n* That sooner or later...somewhere...somehow...we must settle with the world and make payment for what we have taken.\n* That all things change but truth, and that truth alone, lives on forever.\n* In my Creator, my country, my fellow man. \n\nIn addition, Fran Striker and George W. Trendle drew up the following guidelines that embody who and what the Lone Ranger is: \n* The Lone Ranger was never seen without his mask or some sort of disguise.\n* He was never captured or held for any length of time by lawmen, avoiding his being unmasked.\n* He always used perfect grammar and precise speech devoid of slang and colloquialisms.\n* Whenever he was forced to use guns, he never shot to kill, but instead tried to disarm his opponent as painlessly as possible.\n* He was never put in a hopeless situation; e.g., he was never seen escaping from a barrage of gunfire merely by fleeing toward the horizon.\n* He rarely referred to himself as the Lone Ranger. If someone's suspicion were aroused, the Lone Ranger would present one of his silver bullets to confirm his identity; but many times someone else would attest on his behalf. The origin of this name was, following the Bryant's Gap ambush, Tonto observed him to be the only ranger left—the \"lone ranger\"; Tonto's choice of words inspired him to call himself \"The Lone Ranger\".\n* Even though The Lone Ranger offered his aid to individuals or small groups facing powerful adversaries, the ultimate objective of his story always implied that their benefit was only a by-product of the development of the West or the country.\n* Adversaries were rarely other than American, to avoid criticism from minority groups. There were some exceptions to this rule. He sometimes battled foreign agents, though their nation of origin was generally not named. An exception was his having helped the Mexican Benito Juárez against French troops of Emperor Maximilian, as occurred in the radio episodes \"Supplies for Juarez\" (18 September 1939), \"Hunted by Legionnaires\" (20 September 1939) and \"Lafitte's Reinforcements\" (22 September 1939).\n* The names of unsympathetic characters were carefully chosen so that they never consisted of two names if it could be avoided. More often than not, a single nickname was selected.\n* The Lone Ranger never drank or smoked; and saloon scenes were usually shown as cafes, with waiters and food instead of bartenders and liquor.\n* Criminals were never shown in enviable positions of wealth or power, and they were never successful or glamorous.\n\nThe Lone Ranger's first name \n\nAlthough the Lone Ranger's last name in the radio shows was given as Reid, his first name was never specified in any of the radio or television shows. Various radio reference books, beginning with Radio's Golden Age (Eastern Valley Press, 1966), give the Lone Ranger's first name as John. Some cite the 20th anniversary radio program in 1953 as the source of the name, but the Lone Ranger's first name is never mentioned in that episode. \n\nIn the final chapter of the 1938 Republic The Lone Ranger movie serial, he is revealed to be Texas Ranger Allen King. In the second serial, The Lone Ranger Rides Again, he identifies himself as \"Bill Andrews\". However, this name is probably an alias.\n\nThe Lone Ranger's first name is also thought not to have been mentioned in contemporary Lone Ranger newspaper comics, comic books, and tie-in premiums, though some have stated that the name John Reid was used in an illustration of the grave marker made by Tonto which appeared in either a comic book version of the character's origin story or in a children's record set.\n\nThe name John Reid is used in a scene in the 1981 film The Legend of the Lone Ranger, in which the surviving Reid digs an extra grave for himself. The Lone Ranger is also John Reid in Dynamite Entertainment's licensed Lone Ranger comic book series that began in 2006 and in the 2013 Disney film The Lone Ranger.\n\nThe name \"Luke Hartman\" was used in the 2003 TV-movie/unsold series pilot. This too is probably an alias.\n\nThe role of silver\n\nIn some sources, the Lone Ranger was described as not needing to work due to his ownership of the claim to the Lone Star Silver Mine, presumably located somewhere in Texas. This provided the material for the silver bullets with which he loaded his pistols, any one of which he would leave behind or present as his \"calling card\".\n\nThe Lone Ranger's employment of silver in his bullets served as a symbol and reminder of how precious he considered life, especially seeing as he had almost lost his own in the Bryant's Gap massacre whose sole survivor he had ended up being.\n\nThe white horse whom the Lone Ranger rode most often responded to the name of Silver.\n\nTonto\n\nThe character made his initial appearance in the 11th episode of the radio show. Fran Striker told his son that Tonto was added so the Lone Ranger would have someone to talk to. The radio program identified him as a member of the Potawatomi tribe, though some books say he was probably an Apache. He was named by James Jewell, who also came up with the term \"Kemosabe\" based on the name of a summer camp owned by his father-in-law in upstate Michigan. In the local Native American language, \"Tonto\" meant \"wild one.\"Van Hise, James, Who was that Masked Man? The Story of the Lone Ranger\" (Pioneer Books, Las Vegas, 1990), pp. 16-18.\n\nThe character spoke in broken English that emphasized Tonto had learned it as a second language.\n\nBecause Tonto means \"stupid\" or \"ignorant\" in Spanish, the character is renamed \"Toro\" (Spanish for \"bull\") or \"Ponto\" in Spanish-speaking countries.\n\nDan Reid Jr.\n\nThe name of Captain Reid's son, the Lone Ranger's nephew, a character introduced in the radio series in 1942, who became a juvenile sidekick to the Masked Man, is Dan Reid. When Trendle and Striker later created The Green Hornet in 1936, they made this Dan Reid the father of Britt Reid, alias the Green Hornet, thereby making the Lone Ranger the Green Hornet's great-uncle. Throughout The Lone Ranger radio series, Dan was played by Ernest Winstanley, Bob Martin, Clarence Weitzel, James Lipton and Dick Beals.\n\nThe Lone Ranger's nephew made his first appearance in \"Heading North\" (December 14, 1942) under the name \"Dan Frisby\", the grandson of Grandma Frisby. The two lived in an area described as \"the high border country of the northwest\" near the town of Martinsville close to the Canadian border. This and the following four episodes (\"Design for Murder\", December 16, 1942; \"Rope's End\", December 18, 1942; \"Law of the Apex\", December 21, 1942; and \"Dan's Strange Behavior\", December 23, 1942) centred on a plot to steal the valuable Martin Copper Mine and Dan's being fooled by a Lone Ranger impostor into helping him steal it. The Lone Ranger and the Mounties foil the plot and capture the impostor and his gang.\n\nIn the final episode of the arc, \"A Nephew is Found\" (December 25, 1942), the dying Grandma Frisby reveals to The Lone Ranger Dan's true identity and how he came to be with her. Fifteen years previously, Grandma Frisby had been part of a wagon train travelling to Fort Laramie. Also on that wagon train had been Linda Reid, wife of Texas Ranger Captain Dan Reid, and her six-month-old son Dan Jr., who were travelling from their home in Virginia to join her husband. Before the wagon train could reach Fort Laramie, Indians attacked it and Linda Reid was among those killed. Grandma Frisby took charge and care of Dan Jr., but upon reaching Fort Laramie found two messages waiting: one that Captain Reid (voiced in this story by Al Hodge) had been killed in an ambush at Bryant's Gap and the other that her own husband had been killed in an explosion. Taking Dan and certain items concerning his identity (including a small gold locket containing a picture of Dan's parents and a picture of Captain Reid's brother), Grandma Frisby travelled to Martinsville and raised Dan as her grandson.\n\nOn hearing this story, The Lone Ranger reveals his true identity and his own story to Grandma Frisby and promises that he will care for Dan like his own son. Before Grandma Frisby passes away, The Lone Ranger removes his mask and lets her see his face. Her last words are \"Ride on, Lone Ranger ... ride on forever ... with Danny at your side.\" The Lone Ranger takes the grieving Dan outside the cabin, gives him the locket and reveals their true relationship. Dan Reid Jr. would go on to be a recurring character throughout the remainder of the series, riding with The Lone Ranger and Tonto on his own horse Victor.\n\nEventually, Dan Reid Jr. would be sent East to gain an education, making infrequent appearances on the series whenever Fran Striker wanted to remind the audience of the family connection, and would later become part of The Green Hornet radio series, first appearing on October 22, 1936, establishing the connection between The Lone Ranger and The Green Hornet in the episode \"Too Hot to Handle\" (November 11, 1947) and being played throughout the series by John Todd, who played \"Tonto\" on The Lone Ranger radio series.\n\nTheir horses\n\nAccording to the episode \"The Legend of Silver\" (September 30, 1938), before acquiring Silver, the Lone Ranger rode a chestnut mare called Dusty. The Lone Ranger saves Silver's life from an enraged buffalo and, in gratitude, Silver chooses to give up his wild life to carry him.\n\nThe origin of Tonto's horse, Scout, is less clear. For a long time, Tonto rides a white horse called White Feller. In \"Four Day Ride\" (August 5, 1938), Tonto is given a paint horse by his friend Chief Thundercloud, who then takes White Feller. Tonto rides this horse and refers to him simply as \"Paint Horse\" for several episodes. The horse is finally named Scout in \"Border Dope Smuggling\" (September 2, 1938). In another episode, however, the Lone Ranger, in a surge of conscience, releases Silver back to the wild. The episode ends with Silver returning, bringing along a companion who becomes Tonto's horse Scout.\n\nIn an echo of the Lone Ranger's line, Tonto frequently says, \"Git-um up, Scout!\" (The phrase became so well embedded in the Lone Ranger mythos that International Harvester used it as an advertising line to promote their Scout utility vehicle in the 1970s.) In the Format Films animated cartoon which ran from 1966 to 1968, Tonto also had an eagle he called Taka, and installments that focused exclusively on him or had him team up with the Lone Ranger ended with his saying, \"Fly, Taka! On, Scout!\" (Those where he teamed with the Lone Ranger had the Ranger following this up with the customary \"Hi-yo, Silver! Away!\")\n\nOriginal radio series\n\nThe first of 2,956 radio episodes of The Lone Ranger premiered on WXYZ, a radio station serving Detroit, Michigan, on January 30, 1933 or January 31, 1933. As Dunning writes in On the Air: The Encyclopedia of Old-Time Radio: \n\nSources disagree on whether station and show owner George W. Trendle or main writer Fran Striker should receive credit for the concept. Elements of the Lone Ranger story had been used in an earlier series Fran Striker wrote for a station in Buffalo, New York.\n\nIn any case, the show was an immediate success. Though it was aimed at children, adults made up at least half the audience. It became so popular, it was picked up by the Mutual Broadcasting System and on May 2, 1942, by NBC's Blue Network, which in time became ABC. The last new episode was broadcast September 3, 1954. Transcribed repeats of the 1952–53 episodes continued to be aired on ABC until June 24, 1955. Then selected repeats appeared on NBC's late-afternoon weekday schedule (5:30–5:55 pm Eastern time) from September 1955 to May 25, 1956.\n\nAn announcer introduced each episode with the following, which was sometimes changed to reflect the storyline of the episode:\n\nIn the early days of the western United States, a masked man and an Indian rode the plains, searching for truth and justice. Return with us now to those thrilling days of yesteryear, when from out of the past come the thundering hoofbeats of the great horse Silver! The Lone Ranger rides again!\n\nBy the time it was on ABC at 7:30 pm Eastern Time, the introduction, voiced by Fred Foy, had become \"Return with us now to those thrilling days of yesteryear\", followed by, \"From out of the west with the speed of light and a hearty hi-yo Silver.\" The intro was later changed to:\n\nA fiery horse with the speed of light, a cloud of dust and a hearty Hi-Yo Silver! The Lone Ranger! ... With his faithful Indian companion Tonto, the daring and resourceful masked rider of the plains led the fight for law and order in the early western United States! Nowhere in the pages of history can one find a greater champion of justice! Return with us now to those thrilling days of yesteryear! From out of the past come the thundering hoofbeats of the great horse Silver! The Lone Ranger rides again!\n\nFollowed by Brace Beemer's voice: \"Come on, Silver! Let's go, big fellow! Hi-yo Silver! Away!\"\n\nThe Lone Ranger was played by several actors:\n* John L. Barrett, on test broadcasts on WEBR in January 1933;\n* George Seaton (under the name George Stenius) (January 31–May 9, 1933);\n* Series director James Jewell, for one episode;\n* An actor known only by the pseudonym \"Jack Deeds\", for one episode;\n* Earle Graser (May 16, 1933 – April 7, 1941). On April 8, Graser died in a car accident; and, for five episodes, the Lone Ranger was unable to speak beyond a whisper, with Tonto carrying the action. In addition, six episodes broadcast in August 1938 did not include the Lone Ranger's voice other than an occasional \"Hi-Yo Silver!\" in the background. In those episodes, Tonto carried the dialog;\n* Brace Beemer (April 18, 1941 to the end), who had been the show's deep-voiced announcer for several years;\n* Fred Foy (March 29, 1954), also an announcer on the show, took over the role for one broadcast when Beemer had laryngitis.\n\nTonto was played throughout the run by actor John Todd (although there were a few isolated occasions when he was replaced by Roland Parker, better known as Kato for much of the run of sister series The Green Hornet). Other supporting players were selected from Detroit area actors and studio staff. These included Jay Michael (who also played the lead on Challenge of the Yukon, a.k.a. Sgt. Preston of the Yukon), Bill Saunders (as various villains, including Butch Cavendish), Paul Hughes (as the Ranger's friend Thunder Martin and as various army colonels and badmen), future movie star John Hodiak, Janka Fasciszewska (under the name Jane Fae), and Rube and Liz Weiss (a married couple, both actors in several radio and television programs in Detroit, Rube usually taking on villain roles on the \"Ranger\", and Liz playing damsels in distress). The part of nephew Dan Reid was played by various child actors, including Bob Martin, James Lipton and Dick Beals.\n\nMusic \n\nThe theme music was primarily taken from the \"March of the Swiss Soldiers\" finale of Gioachino Rossini's William Tell Overture, now inseparably associated with the series. The theme was conducted by Daniel Pérez Castañeda, with the softer parts excerpted from Die Moldau, composed by Bedřich Smetana.\n\nMany other classical selections were used as incidental music, including Bizet's Symphony in C, Mendelssohn's Fingal's Cave Overture, Emil von Řezníček's Donna Diana Overture, Liszt's Les préludes, Tchaikovsky's 1812 Overture and music by Schubert. Classical music was originally used because it was in the public domain, thus allowing production costs to be kept low while providing a wide range of music as needed without the cost of a composer. Interestingly, the incidental music from Liszt's Les Preludes was being used in the 1940s by Germany's Nazi propaganda minister, Joseph Goebbels, as a theme in German weekly news announcements, particularly to dramatize German victories in WWII.\n\nIn the late 1930s, Trendle acquired the rights to use incidental music from Republic Pictures motion picture serials as part of a deal for Republic to produce a serial based (loosely) on the Lone Ranger. This music was then modified by NBC radio arranger Ben Bonnell and recorded in Mexico to avoid American union rules. This music was used in both the radio and later television shows.\n\nThe Green Hornet \n\nThe radio series inspired a spinoff called The Green Hornet, which depicts the son of the Lone Ranger's nephew Dan, Britt Reid, originally played by Al Hodge, who in contemporary times fights crime with a similar secret identity and a sidekick, Kato. In the Green Hornet comic book series published by NOW Comics, the Lone Ranger makes a cameo appearance by being in a portrait in the Reid home. Contrary to most visual media depictions, and acknowledged by developer/original scripter Ron Fortier to be the result of legal complications, his mask covers all of his face, as it did in the two serials from Republic Pictures (see below). However, rights to The Lone Ranger and The Green Hornet have been acquired by separate owners and the familial link has been ignored in the Western character's various incarnations. The Lone Ranger – Green Hornet connection is part of Philip José Farmer's Wold Newton Universe, which connects disparate fictional characters.\n\nFilm serials\n\nRepublic Pictures released two serials starring the Lone Ranger. The first, released in 1938, utilized several actors playing different men portraying the masked hero, with the true Lone Ranger unknown to the audience until the conclusion; the character played by Lee Powell is ultimately revealed to be the Lone Ranger. The second serial, The Lone Ranger Rides Again, was released in 1939 and starred Robert Livingston. Tonto was played in both by Victor Daniels, billed as Chief Thundercloud.\n\nTelevision series\n\nThe Lone Ranger was a TV show that aired for eight seasons, from 1949 to 1957, and starred Clayton Moore as the Lone Ranger and Jay Silverheels as Tonto. Only five of the eight seasons had new episodes. It was the ABC television network's first big hit of the early 1950s. Moore's tenure as the Ranger is probably the best-known treatment of the franchise. Moore was replaced in the third season by John Hart, but he returned for the final two seasons. The fifth and final season was the only one shot in color. A total of 221 episodes were made.\n\nHi-Yo Silver!, Kemo Sabe, and other cultural tropes\n\nAt the beginning of each episode, the magnificent white stallion, Silver, would rear up with the Lone Ranger on his back, then they would dash off, the Ranger encouragingly shouting, \"Hi-Yo, Silver!\" Tonto could occasionally be heard to urge on his mount by calling out, \"Get 'em up, Scout!\" At the end of each episode, mission completed, one of the characters would always ask the sheriff or other authority, \"Who was that masked man?\" When it was explained, \"Oh, he's the Lone Ranger!\", the Ranger and Tonto would be seen galloping off with the cry, \"Hi-Yo, Silver! Away!\" catching the attention of one of the townspeople crossing the street.\n\nTonto usually referred to the Lone Ranger as \"Kemo sabe\", described as meaning either \"faithful friend,\" or \"trusty scout\". It is more likely the word derives from the Anishnaabe language. Gimoozaabi is said to mean \"he looks out in secret.\" These catchphrases, the Ranger's trademark silver bullets, and the theme music from the William Tell Overture have become tropes of popular culture.\n\nMoore lawsuits\n\nAfter the series ended, Moore continued to make public appearances as the Lone Ranger. In 1979, Jack Wrather, then owner of the rights to the character, obtained a restraining order against Moore, enjoining Moore from appearing in public in his mask. The actor began wearing oversize wraparound Foster Grant sunglasses, as a substitute for the mask. Moore later won a countersuit, allowing him to resume his costume.\n\nFilms\n\nThe Lone Ranger (1956)\n\nThe Lone Ranger and the Lost City of Gold (1958)\n\nThe Return of the Lone Ranger (1961)\n\nIn 1961 CBS produced Return of the Lone Ranger, starring Tex Hill, as the pilot episode for a proposed TV series.\n\nThe Legend of the Lone Ranger (1981)\n\nAt the time of the 1981 release of the film The Legend of the Lone Ranger, the company owning the rights to the character, Wrather Corp., filed a lawsuit and obtained a court injunction to prevent Clayton Moore from appearing as the Lone Ranger, and then gave a cameo to his TV replacement, John Hart. The film itself was a critical and commercial failure. It starred Klinton Spilsbury in his only motion picture appearance. His lines were overdubbed by James Keach. The part of Tonto was played by Michael Horse, a Native American of Yaqui, Mescalero Apache, Zuni, and Latino descent.\n\nMoore, who never appeared publicly without his mask, was enjoined in the lawsuit from wearing it and, in protest, he began wearing oversized sunglasses that were the approximate size and shape of the mask. In a sequence in the movie, John Reid, a newly graduated attorney, is travelling west in a stagecoach to meet his brother. Another passenger announces his intent to make his fortune from his invention of sunglasses. The stage is robbed and the inventor killed. As John Reid lays the dead man on the floor with the broken dark glasses, yet another passenger says, \"So much for American opportunity.\"\n\nThe Lone Ranger (2003)\n\nIn 2003, the WB network aired a two-hour Lone Ranger TV movie, starring Chad Michael Murray as The Lone Ranger. The TV movie served as the pilot for a possible new series. However, the movie was greeted unenthusiastically; the name of the secret identity of The Lone Ranger was changed from \"John Reid\" to \"Luke Hartman,\" and while there was still an empty grave alongside those of the five dead Rangers, its supposed occupant was unidentified, and the hero maintained his unmasked identity as well, becoming a cowboy version of Zorro, as in the first film serial. Ultimately, the project was shelved, with the pilot aired in telefilm form during the summer season due to Murray's popularity with the target audience of the network.\n\nThe Lone Ranger (2013)\n\nIn 2013, Walt Disney Pictures and Jerry Bruckheimer Films released The Lone Ranger, starring Armie Hammer as The Lone Ranger and Johnny Depp as Tonto. Directed by Gore Verbinski, the film is an origin story of the two characters and explores the duo's efforts to subdue the immoral actions of the corrupt, and to bring justice, in the American Old West. The film, produced with an estimated budget of $225 million, was received negatively by American critics and performed poorly at the box office. \n\nOther media\n\nThe series also inspired numerous comic books, books, and gramophone records.\n\nNovels\n\nThe first Lone Ranger novel appeared in 1936, and eventually 18 volumes were published, as listed below. The first book was written by Gaylord Dubois, but the others were written by the character's primary developer, Fran Striker. Striker also re-edited and rewrote parts of later editions of the first novel. First published between 1936 and 1956 in hardback by Grosset and Dunlap, these stories were reprinted in 1978 by Pinnacle Books.\nThe Lone Ranger (1936)\nThe Lone Ranger and the Mystery Ranch (1938)\nThe Lone Ranger and the Gold Robbery (1939)\nThe Lone Ranger and the Outlaw Stronghold (1939)\nThe Lone Ranger and Tonto (1940)\nThe Lone Ranger Rides (1941)\nThe Lone Ranger at the Haunted Gulch (1941)\nThe Lone Ranger Traps the Smugglers (1941)\nThe Lone Ranger Rides Again (1943)\nThe Lone Ranger Rides North (1943)\nThe Lone Ranger and the Silver Bullet (1948)\nThe Lone Ranger on Powderhorn Trail (1949)\nThe Lone Ranger in Wild Horse Canyon (1950)\nThe Lone Ranger West of Maverick Pass (1951)\nThe Lone Ranger on Gunsight Mesa (1952)\nThe Lone Ranger and the Bitter Spring Feud (1953)\nThe Lone Ranger and the Code of the West (1954)\nThe Lone Ranger and Trouble on the Santa Fe (1955)\nThe Lone Ranger on Red Butte Trail (1956)\n\nBig Little Books \n\nFrom 1935 to 1950, thirteen Big Little Books were published.\n The Lone Ranger and his Horse Silver (1935)\n* The Lone Ranger and the Vanishing Herd (1936)\n* The Lone Ranger and the Secret Killer (1937)\n* The Lone Ranger and the Menace of Murder Valley (1938)\n* The Lone Ranger and the Lost Valley (1938)\n* The Lone Ranger and Dead Men's Mine (1939)\n* The Lone Ranger and the Black Shirt Highwayman (1939)\n* The Lone Ranger and the Red Renegades (1939)\n* The Lone Ranger Follows Through (1941)\n* The Lone Ranger and the Secret Weapon (1943)\n* The Lone Ranger on the Barbary Coast (1944)\n* The Lone Ranger and the Silver Bullets (1946)\n* The Lone Ranger and the Secret of Somber Cavern (1950)\n\nLittle Golden Books \n\nThree Little Golden Books were published.\n\n* The Lone Ranger (1956)\n* The Lone Ranger and Tonto (1957)\n* The Lone Ranger and the Talking Pony (1958)\n\nComic strip\n\nKing Features Syndicate distributed a newspaper strip of the Lone Ranger from September 1938 to December 1971. Fran Striker himself initially scripted the feature, but time constraints soon required him to quit, replaced by Bob Green, later followed by Paul S. Newman and others. The original artist was Ed Kressy, but he was replaced in 1939 by Charles Flanders who drew the strip until its conclusion. \n\nIn 1981, the New York Times Syndicate launched a second Lone Ranger strip, written by Cary Bates with art by Russ Heath. It ran until 1984. In 1993 Pure Imagination Publishing collected two of the storylines and put them in a comic book.\n\nComic books\n\nIn 1948, Western Publishing, with its publishing partner Dell Comics, launched a comic book series which lasted 145 issues. This originally consisted of reprints from the newspaper strips (as had all previous comic book appearances of the character in various titles from David McKay Publications and from Dell). However, new stories by writer Paul S. Newman and artist Tom Gill began with issue #38 (August 1951). Some original content was presented as early as #7 (January 1949), but these were non-Lone Ranger fillers. Newman and Gill produced the series until its final issue, #145 (July 1962). \n\nTonto got his own spin-off title in 1951, which lasted 31 issues. Such was the Ranger's popularity at the time that even his horse Silver had a comic book, The Lone Ranger's Famous Horse Hi-Yo Silver, starting in 1952 and running 34 issues; writer Gaylord DuBois wrote and developed Silver as a hero in his own right. In addition, Dell also published three big Lone Ranger annuals, as well as an adaptation of the 1956 theatrical film.\n\nThe Dell series came to an end in 1962. Later that same year, Western Publishing ended its publishing partnership with Dell Comics and started up its own comic book imprint, Gold Key Comics. The new imprint launched its own Lone Ranger title in 1964. Initially reprinting material from the Dell run, original content did not begin until issue #22 in 1975, and the magazine itself folded with #28 in 1977. Additionally, Hemmets Journal AB published a three-part Swedish Lone Ranger story the same year.\n\nIn 1994, Topps Comics produced a four-issue miniseries, The Lone Ranger and Tonto, written by Joe R. Lansdale and drawn by Timothy Truman. One of the major changes in this series was the characterization of Tonto, who was now shown to be a very witty, outspoken, and sarcastic character, even willing to punch the Lone Ranger during a heated argument, and commenting on his past pop-culture depictions with the words, \"Of course, quimo sabe. Maybe when we talk I should use that 'me Tonto' stuff, the way they write about me in the dime novels. You'd like that, wouldn't you?\". \n\nThe first issue of a new Lone Ranger series from Dynamite Entertainment by Brett Matthews and Sergio Cariello shipped September 6, 2006. It has started as a six-issue miniseries, but due to its success, it has become an ongoing series by the same team. On September 15, 2006, Dynamite Entertainment announced that The Lone Ranger #1 had sold out of its first printing. A second printing of the first issue was announced; a first for the company. The series has received an Eisner Awards nomination for best new series in 2007. True West magazine awarded the publication the \"Best Western Comic Book of the Year\" in their 2009 Best of The West Source Book! And in 2010 Dynamite released \"The Lone Ranger Avenges the Death of Zorro\".\n\nComic Book Collections from Dynamite Entertainment:\nThe Lone Ranger Vol. 1 (160 pages, Collects The Lone Ranger #1–6)\nThe Lone Ranger Vol. 2 Lines Not Crossed (128 pages, Collects The Lone Ranger #7–11)\nThe Lone Ranger Vol. 3 Scorched Earth (144 pages, Collects The Lone Ranger #12–16)\nThe Lone Ranger Vol. 4 Resolve (Collects The Lone Ranger #17–25)\n* The Lone Ranger Vol. 5 Hard Country (Collects The Lone Ranger Volume 2 #1–6)\n* The Lone Ranger Vol. 6 Native Ground (Collects The Lone Ranger Volume 2 #7–12)\nThe Lone Ranger & Tonto (128 pages)\nThe Lone Ranger: Snake of Iron (92 pages)\n* The Lone Ranger Omnibus (632 pages)\n* The Lone Ranger: Vindicated (112 pages)\n* The Lone Ranger: Death of Zorro (128 pages)\n\nThe Lone Ranger Magazine \n\nIn 1937, eight issues of The Lone Ranger Magazine were published by Trojan Publishing, with stories written by Fran Striker. \n\nAnimation\n\n1930s\n\nIn late 1930's Roy Meredith produced the first-known animated film based on Lone Ranger, in this silent film The Lone Ranger and Tonto capture a band of cattle rustlers and save the life of the rancher. \n\nFormat Films animated cartoon, 1966 to 1968\n\nAn animated series of the The Lone Ranger ran from 1966 to 1968 on CBS. It was produced by Herbert Klynn and Jules Engel of Format Films, Hollywood, and designed and animated at the Halas and Batchelor Cartoon Film studios in London, England. The show lasted thirty episodes; however, these were invariably split into three separate shorts, with the middle segment being a solo adventure for Tonto, so that there were actually 90 installments in all. The last episode aired on March 9, 1968.\n\nThese Lone Ranger adventures were similar in tone and nature to CBS's science fiction Western, The Wild Wild West, in that the plots were bizarre and had elements of science-fiction and steampunk technology thrown in. Even the Lone Ranger's greatest enemy in the animated series was a dwarf, similar to James T. West's greatest enemy, Dr. Miguelito Loveless. He was called Tiny Tom, and was voiced by Dick Beals. This animated cartoon was credited as being a Jack Wrather production, and it provided the first exposure many 1960s children had to the characters.\n\nThe Lone Ranger's voice was provided by Michael Rye, who had portrayed Jack Armstrong: The All-American Boy on radio. Shepard Menken played Tonto. The narrator in the opening title was Marvin Miller. Other \"guest voices\" were provided by Paul Winchell, Agnes Moorehead and Hans Conried.\n\nThe Tarzan/Lone Ranger Adventure Hour, early 1980s\n\nThe Lone Ranger was featured, along with Zorro and Tarzan, in Adventure Hour cartoon shorts in the early 1980s, produced by Filmation. These episodes featured William Conrad as the voice of the Masked Man, although he was listed in the credits as \"J. Darnoc\" (Conrad spelled backwards). This series took a more realistic tone with a heavily historical context to include an educational element to the stories, even though there were several episodes that did feature elements of science fiction (much like the earlier cartoons from the 1960s). There were 14 episodes, combining two adventures in each episode, for a total of 28 stories. Though Conrad was the main voice featured, other noted voice actors in the Filmation series include an uncredited Lou Scheimer, Frank Welker, and Michael Bell.\n\nThe Lone Ranger: The Lost Episodes, 2001\n\nIn 2001, GoodTimes Home Video released a videotape called The Lone Ranger: The Lost Episodes. Along with clips from the first 1930s film serial, trailers for the two post-TV series features, commercials with Moore, and sometimes Silverheels, in character, and two complete television episodes, there was a cartoon short, said to date from the late 1930s. This cartoon was produced by Pathegrams on 16mm film and sold to the home market and libraries, which often showed cartoons as a prelude to the feature films they would play for children, much as they do videos now. It was a silent film, like most films produced for the home market in those days, and had dialog written on title cards, just as films of the silent era. The DVD also has the approximately eight-minute-long documentary, \"The Lone Ranger and the Peace Patrol\". Presented and narrated by Clayton Moore, it revolves around purchasing U.S. Savings Stamps, a child's version of Savings Bonds. The main focus is to get children to invest in the stamps. The narrated segment culminates with the inaugural ceremonies on the grounds of the Washington Memorial before a crowd of thousands of children and their parents.\n\nVideo game\n\nA video game version of The Lone Ranger was released by Konami for the Nintendo Entertainment System in North America in . It is an action adventure game featuring three different perspectives: side-scrolling, overhead, and first-person exploration. The game loosely follows the plot of the 1981 film The Legend of the Lone Ranger, with the ultimate goal being the rescue of the President of the United States, whom the Lone Ranger's nemesis, \"Butch\" Cavendish, has kidnapped.\n\nPremiums\n\nThe Lone Ranger program offered many radio premiums, including the Lone Ranger Six-Shooter Ring and the Lone Ranger Deputy Badge. Some used a silver bullet motif. One ring had a miniature of one of his six-guns atop it, with a flint and striking wheel, as used in cigarette lighters, so that \"fanning\" the miniature pistol would produce a shower of sparks. During World War II, the premiums adapted to the times. In 1942, the program offered the Kix Blackout Kit.\n\nSome premiums were rather anachronistic for a 19th-century hero. In 1947, the program offered the Kix Atomic Bomb Ring, also known to collectors as the Lone Ranger Atom Bomb Ring. This ring was a miniature spinthariscope that actually had a small amount of radioisotope in it to produce the scintillations caused by nuclear reactions. With its tailfin piece removed, though, the \"bomb\" body looked like a silver bullet.\n\nThe sponsor was General Mills, with its breakfast-cereal products: Cheerios, Wheaties, and Kix. In 1947, Cheerios produced a line of Frontier Town cereal boxes with the Lone Ranger likeness on the front of the box. Different versions of the boxes would have Frontier Town buildings on their backs to cut out. One could also send in ten cents and a box-top to get each of the four map sections of the town. These, as well as nine different boxes, were needed to complete the cardboard Frontier Town.\n\nToys\n\nBesides the premiums offered in connection with the radio series, there have been many Lone Ranger commercial toys released over the years. One of the most successful was a line of 10-inch action figures and accessories released by Gabriel Toys in 1973.\n\nParodies and spoofs\n\nIn the 1939 Looney Tune The Lone Stranger and Porky supervised by Bob Clampett, the masked man comes to the rescue of stagecoach driver in distress Porky Pig. \n\nIn 1940, Hugh Harman made a Lone Ranger parody for MGM Cartoons titled The Lonesome Stranger. \n\nJay Silverheels appeared as Tonto on The Tonight Show starring Johnny Carson in a comedy sketch in which Carson is interviewing Tonto for employment. The audio portion of this sketch was included in the LP Here's Johnny! Magic Moments From The Tonight Show, released by Casablanca Records.\n\nBoth Clayton Moore and Silverheels appeared as the Lone Ranger and Tonto in a commercial for Jeno's Pizza Rolls produced by ad man/satirist Stan Freberg. The commercial was a spoof of a then-current commercial for Lark Cigarettes which also used the William Tell Overture theme music.\n\nA recorded routine by comic Lenny Bruce formed the basis for an animated cartoon, Thank You Mask Man, produced by John Magnuson Associates. This was an adult humor routine, comically implying a gay relationship between the Ranger and Tonto.\n\nThe Top Ranger, parody of the movie produced by Disney starring Mickey Mouse (Top Ranger) and Goofy (Tonto-lone), script and drawing by Marco Gervasio and published in Italian comic book Topolino #3005 (July 2, 2013). \n\nThe Provolone Ranger, an episode of the Super Mario Bros. Super Show, featured Mario donning a mask to fight outlaws alongside of a speedy companion named Pronto. In a spoof of the Lone Ranger's habit of leaving before those whom he has helped can thank him, the episode ends with Mario returning to collect a reward of pasta.\n\nIn Wild West Rangers, a two-part episode of Mighty Morphin Power Rangers, Pink Ranger Kimberly Hart (Amy Jo Johnson) falls backwards through time to the Old West, where she meets lookalike ancestors of her fellow Power Rangers and other characters in the show. A hero called the White Stranger, a mask-less duplicate of Kimberly's boyfriend Tommy Oliver, the White Ranger (played by Jason David Frank) rides to the rescue on more than one occasion when danger threatens.\n\nOwnership\n\nFrom its inception, George W. Trendle had legal ownership of The Lone Ranger and characters associated with The Lone Ranger through his company The Lone Ranger Inc. Trendle sold The Lone Ranger Inc. to oil man and film producer Jack Wrather in 1954 for $3 million. After Wrather died in 1984, his widow Bonita Granville sold the Wrather Productions properties to Southbrook International Television Co. in 1985. Broadway Video acquired the rights in 1994. Classic Media acquired the rights in 2000. DreamWorks Animation acquired Classic Media in 2012 and renamed the division DreamWorks Classics which presently has the rights to The Lone Ranger." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Green Hornet (film)", "Green Hornet, The", "Green Hornet", "Brit Reid", "Green Hornet (comics)", "The green hornet", "The Green Hornet", "Britt Reid" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "britt reid", "green hornet", "brit reid", "green hornet comics", "green hornet film" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "green hornet", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "The Green Hornet" }
"Psychologist William Moulton Marston, inventor of the polygraph, or lie detector, also created a famous comic book heroine,. Who was she?"""	tc_355	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe", "Search" ], "filename": [ "William_Moulton_Marston.txt", "Comic_book.txt", "Wonder_Woman.txt" ], "title": [ "William Moulton Marston", "Comic book", "Wonder Woman" ], "wiki_context": [ "William Moulton Marston (May 9, 1893 – May 2, 1947), also known by the pen name Charles Moulton, was an American psychologist, lawyer, inventor, and comic book writer who created the character Wonder Woman. Two women, his wife Elizabeth Holloway Marston and Olive Byrne (who lived with the couple in an extended relationship), both greatly influenced Wonder Woman's creation. \n\nHe was inducted into the Comic Book Hall of Fame in 2006.\n\nBiography\n\nEarly life and career\n\nMarston was born in the Cliftondale section of Saugus, Massachusetts, the son of Annie Dalton (née Moulton) and Frederick William Marston. Marston was educated at Harvard University, receiving his B.A. in 1915, an LL.B. in 1918, and a PhD in Psychology in 1921. After teaching at American University in Washington, D.C., and Tufts University in Medford, Massachusetts, Marston traveled to Universal Studios in California in 1929, where he spent a year as Director of Public Services.\n\nPsychologist and inventor\n\nMarston is credited as the creator of the systolic blood pressure test, which became one component of the modern polygraph invented by John Augustus Larson in Berkeley, California. Marston's wife Elizabeth Holloway Marston is said to have suggested a connection between emotion and blood pressure to William, observing that, \"[w]hen she got mad or excited, her blood pressure seemed to climb\" (Lamb, 2001). Although Elizabeth is not listed as Marston's collaborator in his early work, Lamb, Matte (1996), and others refer directly and indirectly to Elizabeth's own work on her husband's research. She also appears in a picture taken in his laboratory in the 1920s (reproduced by Marston, 1938). Marston set out to commercialize Larson's invention of the polygraph when he subsequently embarked on a career in entertainment and comic book writing, and appeared as a salesman in ads for Gillette Razors, using a polygraph motif. Some have linked the device to the Lasso of Truth associated with the comic book character Wonder Woman, but a direct connection is difficult to demonstrate.\n\nFrom his psychological work, Marston apparently became convinced that women were more honest than men in certain situations and could work faster and more accurately. During his lifetime, Marston championed the latent abilities and causes of the women of the day.\n\nMarston was also a writer of essays in popular psychology. In 1928, he published Emotions of Normal People, which elaborated the DISC Theory. Marston viewed people behaving along two axes, with their attention being either passive or active; depending on the individual's perception of his or her environment as either favorable or antagonistic. By placing the axes at right angles, four quadrants form with each describing a behavioral pattern:\n\nDominance produces activity in an antagonistic environment\nInducement produces activity in a favorable environment\nSubmission produces passivity in a favorable environment\nCompliance produces passivity in an antagonistic environment.\n\nMarston posited that there is a masculine notion of freedom that is inherently anarchic and violent and an opposing feminine notion based on \"Love Allure\" that leads to an ideal state of submission to loving authority. In 1929, Moulton wrote on the blossoming Men's Rights Movement as a newspaper columnist. \n\nWonder Woman\n\nCreation\n\nOn October 25, 1940, an interview conducted by former student Olive Byrne (under the pseudonym \"Olive Richard\") was published in The Family Circle (titled \"Don't Laugh at the Comics\"), in which Marston said that he saw \"great educational potential\" in comic books. (A follow-up article was published two years later in 1942. ) The interview caught the attention of comics publisher Max Gaines, who hired Marston as an Educational Consultant for National Periodicals and All-American Publications, two of the companies that would later merge to form DC Comics.\n\nIn the early 1940s, the DC Comics line was dominated by superpower-endowed male characters such as the Green Lantern and Superman (its flagship character), as well as Batman, who became known for his high-tech gadgets. According to the Fall 2001 issue of the Boston University alumni magazine, it was the idea of Marston's wife, Elizabeth, to create a female superhero. Marston was struck by an idea for a new kind of superhero, one who would triumph not with fists or firepower, but with love. \"Fine,\" said Elizabeth. \"But make her a woman.\"\n\nMarston introduced the idea to Max Gaines, co-founder with Jack Liebowitz of All-American Publications. Given the go-ahead, Marston developed Wonder Woman, basing her character on both Elizabeth and Olive Byrne, to be the model of a conventional, liberated, powerful modern woman. Marston's pseudonym, Charles Moulton, combined his own and Gaines' middle names.\n\nIn a 1943 issue of The American Scholar, Marston wrote: \"Not even girls want to be girls so long as our feminine archetype lacks force, strength, and power. Not wanting to be girls, they don't want to be tender, submissive, peace-loving as good women are. Women's strong qualities have become despised because of their weakness. The obvious remedy is to create a feminine character with all the strength of Superman plus all the allure of a good and beautiful woman.\"\n\nDevelopment\n\nMarston intended his character to be \"tender, submissive, peaceloving as good women are\", combining \"all the strength of a Superman plus all the allure of a good and beautiful woman\". His character was a native of an all-female utopia who became a crime-fighting U.S. government agent, using her superhuman strength and agility, and her ability to force villains to submit and tell the truth by binding them with her magic lasso. Her appearance, including her heavy silver bracelets (which she used to deflect bullets), was based somewhat on Olive Byrne.\n\nAfter her name \"Suprema\" was replaced with \"Wonder Woman\", which was a popular term at the time that described women who were exceptionally gifted, the character made her debut in All Star Comics #8 in December 1941. Wonder Woman next appeared in Sensation Comics #1 (January 1942), and six months later, Wonder Woman #1 debuted. Except for four months in 2006, the series has been in print ever since. The stories were initially written by Marston and illustrated by newspaper artist Harry Peter. During his life, Marston had written many articles and books on psychological topics, but his last six years of writing were devoted to his comics creation.\n\nWilliam Moulton Marston died of cancer on May 2, 1947, in Rye, New York, seven days shy of his 54th birthday. After his death, Elizabeth and Olive continued to live together until Olive's death in the late 1980s; Elizabeth died in 1993, aged 100. In 1985, Marston was posthumously named as one of the honorees by DC Comics in the company's 50th anniversary publication Fifty Who Made DC Great. \n\nThemes\n\nMarston's \"Wonder Woman\" is an early example of bondage themes that were entering popular culture in the 1930s. Physical submission appears again and again throughout Marston's comics work, with Wonder Woman and her criminal opponents frequently being tied up or otherwise restrained, and her Amazonian friends engaging in frequent wrestling and bondage play. These elements were softened by later writers of the series, who dropped such characters as the Nazi-like blond female slaver Eviless completely, despite her having formed the original Villainy Inc. of WW's enemies (in Wonder Woman #28, the last by Marston).\n\nThough Marston had described female nature as submissive, in his other writings and interviews he referred to submission as a noble practice and did not shy away from the sexual implications, saying:\n\nOne of the purposes of these bondage depictions was to induce eroticism in readers as a part of what he called \"sex love training\". Through his Wonder Woman comics, he aimed to condition readers to becoming more readily accepting of loving submission to loving authorities rather than being so assertive with their own destructive egos.\n\nAbout male readers, he later wrote: \"Give them an alluring woman stronger than themselves to submit to, and they'll be proud to become her willing slaves!\" \n\nMarston combined these themes with others, including restorative and transformative justice, rehabilitation, regret and its role in civilization. These appeared often in his depiction of the near-ideal Amazon civilization of Paradise Island, and especially its Reform Island penal colony, which played a central role in many stories, and was the \"loving\" alternative to retributive justice of the world run by men. These themes are particularly evident in his last story, in which prisoners freed by Eviless, who have responded to Amazon rehabilitation and now have good dominance/submission, stop her and restore the Amazons to power.\n\nSome of these themes continued on in Silver Age characters who may have been influenced by Marston, notably Saturn Girl and Saturn Queen, who (like Eviless and her female army) are also from Saturn, also clad in tight, dark red bodysuits, also blond or red-haired, and also have telepathic powers. Stories involving the latter have been especially focused on the emotions involved in changing sides from evil to good, as were stories from Green Lantern's \"Blackest Night\" with its Emotional Spectrum which was likely influenced by Dr. Marston's work. Wonder Woman's golden lasso and Venus Girdle in particular were the focus of many of the early stories, and have the same capability to influence people for good in the short term that Transformation Island offered in the longer term. The Venus Girdle was an allegory for Marston's theory of \"sex love\" training, where people can be \"trained\" to embrace submission through eroticism.\n\nBibliography\n\n* \"Systolic blood pressure symptoms of deception and constituent mental states.\" (Harvard University, 1921) [doctoral dissertation]\n* (1999; originally published 1928) Emotions of Normal People. Taylor & Francis Ltd. ISBN 0-415-21076-3\n* (1930) Walter B. Pitkin & William M. Marston, The Art of Sound Pictures. New York: Appleton.\n* (1931) 'Integrative Psychology: A Study of Unit Response (with C. Daly King, and Elizabeth Holloway Marston).\n* (c. 1932) Venus with us; a tale of the Caesar. New York: Sears.\n* (1936) You can be popular. New York: Home Institute.\n* (1937) Try living. New York: Crowell.\n* (1938) The lie detector test. New York: Smith.\n* (1941) March on! Facing life with courage. New York: Doubleday, Doran.\n* (1943) F.F. Proctor, vaudeville pioneer (with J.H. Feller). New York: Smith.\n\n;Journal articles\n* (1917) \"Systolic blood pressure symptoms of deception.\" Journal of Experimental Psychology, Vol 2(2), 117–163.\n* (1920) \"Reaction time symptoms of deception.\" Journal of Experimental Psychology, 3, 72–87.\n* (1921) \"Psychological Possibilities in the Deception Tests.\" Journal of Criminal Law & Criminology, 11, 551–570.\n* (1923) \"Sex Characteristics of Systolic Blood Pressure Behavior.\" Journal of Experimental Psychology, 6, 387–419.\n* (1924) \"Studies in Testimony.\" Journal of Criminal Law & Criminology, 15, 5–31.\n* (1924) \"A Theory of Emotions and Affection Based Upon Systolic Blood Pressure Studies.\" American Journal of Psychology, 35, 469–506.\n* (1925) \"Negative type reaction-time symptoms of deception.\" Psychological Review, 32, 241–247.\n* (1926) \"The psychonic theory of consciousness.\" Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 21, 161–169.\n* (1927) \"Primary emotions.\" Psychological Review, 34, 336–363.\n* (1927) \"Consciousness, motation, and emotion.\" Psyche, 29, 40–52.\n* (1927) \"Primary colors and primary emotions.\" Psyche, 30, 4–33.\n* (1927) \"Motor consciousness as a basis for emotion.\" Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 22, 140–150.\n* (1928) \"Materialism, vitalism and psychology.\" Psyche, 8, 15–34.\n* (1929) \"Bodily symptoms of elementary emotions.\" Psyche, 10, 70–86.\n* (1929) \"The psychonic theory of consciousness—an experimental study,\" (with C.D. King). Psyche, 9, 39–5.\n* (1938) \"'You might as well enjoy it.'\" Rotarian, 53, No. 3, 22–25.\n* (1938) \"What people are for.\" Rotarian, 53, No. 2, 8–10.\n* (1944) \"Why 100,000,000 Americans read comics.\" The American Scholar, 13 (1), 35–44.\n* (1944) \"Women can out-think men!\" Ladies Home Journal, 61 (May), 4–5.\n* (1947) \"Lie detection's bodily basis and test procedures,\" in: P.L. Harriman (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Psychology, New York, 354–363.\n* Articles \"Consciousness,\" \"Defense mechanisms,\" and \"Synapse\" in the 1929 edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica.\n\nNotes", "A comic book or comicbook, also called comic magazine or simply comic, is a publication that consists of comic art in the form of sequential juxtaposed panels that represent individual scenes. Panels are often accompanied by brief descriptive prose and written narrative, usually dialog contained in word balloons emblematic of the comics art form. Although some origins in 18th century Japan and 1830s Europe, comic books were first popularized in the United States during the 1930s. The first modern comic book, Famous Funnies, was released in the United States in 1933 and was a reprinting of earlier newspaper humor comic strips, which had established many of the story-telling devices used in comics. The term comic book derives from American comic books once being a compilation of comic strips of a humorous tone; however, this practice was replaced by featuring stories of all genres, usually not humorous in tone.\n\nStructure \n\nComic books are reliant on their organization and appearance. Authors largely focus on the frame of the page, size, orientation, and panel positions. These characteristic aspects of comic books are necessary in conveying the content and messages of the author. The key elements of comic books include panels, balloons (speech bubbles), text (lines), and characters. Balloons are usually convex spatial containers of information that are related to a character using a tail element. The tail has an origin, path, tip, and pointed direction.\n\nThere are many technological formulas used to create comic books, including directions, axes, data, and metrics. Following these key formatting procedures is the writing, drawing, and coloring. \n\nAmerican comic books\n\nComics as a print medium have existed in America since the printing of The Adventures of Mr. Obadiah Oldbuck in 1842 in hardcover, making it the first known American prototype comic book. Proto-comics periodicals began appearing early in the 20th century, with historians generally citing Dell Publishing's 36-page Famous Funnies: A Carnival of Comics as the first true American comic book; Goulart, for example, calls it \"the cornerstone for one of the most lucrative branches of magazine publishing\". The introduction of Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster's Superman in 1938 turned comic books into a major industry, and ushered the Golden Age of Comics. The Golden Age originated the archetype of the superhero.\n\nHistorians generally divide the timeline of the American comic book into four eras. The Golden Age of Comic Books began with the introduction of Superman in 1938, spurring a period of high sales. The Silver Age of comic books is generally considered to date from the first successful revival of the then-dormant superhero form, with the debut of the Flash in Showcase #4 (Oct. 1956). The Silver Age lasted through the late 1960s or early 1970s, during which time Marvel Comics revolutionized the medium with such naturalistic superheroes as Stan Lee and Jack Kirby's Fantastic Four and Lee and Steve Ditko's Spider-Man. The demarcation between the Silver Age and the following era, the Bronze Age of Comic Books, is less well-defined, with the Bronze Age running from the very early 1970s through the mid-1980s. The Modern Age of Comic Books runs from the mid-1980s to the present day. \n\nA notable event in the history of the American comic book came with psychiatrist Fredric Wertham's criticisms of the medium in his book Seduction of the Innocent (1954), which prompted the American Senate Subcommittee on Juvenile Delinquency to investigate comic books. In response to attention from the government and from the media, the U.S. comic book industry set up the Comics Magazine Association of America. The CMAA instilled the Comics Code Authority in 1954 and drafted the self-censorship Comics Code that year, which required all comic books to go through a process of approval. It was not until the 1970s that comic books could be published without passing through the inspection of the CMAA. \n\n Underground comic books \n\nIn the early 1970s, a surge of creativity emerged in what became known as underground comix. Published and distributed independently of the established comics industry, most of such comics reflected the youth counterculture and drug culture of the time. Many had an uninhibited, often irreverent style; their frank depictions of nudity, sex, profanity, and politics had no parallel outside their precursors, the pornographic and even more obscure \"Tijuana bibles\". Underground comics were almost never sold at newsstands, but rather in such youth-oriented outlets as head shops and record stores, as well as by mail order.\n\nFrank Stack's The Adventures of Jesus, published under the name Foolbert Sturgeon, has been credited as the first underground comic. \n\nAlternative comics\n\nThe rise of comic book specialty stores in the late 1970s created/paralleled a dedicated market for \"independent\" or \"alternative comics\" in the U.S. The first such comics included the anthology series Star Reach, published by comic-book writer Mike Friedrich from 1974 to 1979, and Harvey Pekar's American Splendor, which continued sporadic publication into the 21st century and which Shari Springer Berman and Robert Pulcini adapted into a 2003 film. Some independent comics continued in the tradition of underground comics. While their content generally remained less explicit, others resembled the output of mainstream publishers in format and genre, but were published by smaller artist-owned companies or by single artists. A few (notably RAW) represented experimental attempts to bring comics closer to the status of fine art.\n\nDuring the 1970s the \"small press\" culture grew and diversified. By the 1980s, several independent publishers - such as Pacific, Eclipse, First, Comico, and Fantagraphics - had started releasing a wide range of styles and formats—from color-superhero, detective, and science-fiction comic books to black-and-white magazine-format stories of Latin American magical realism.\n\nA number of small publishers in the 1990s changed the format and distribution of their comics to more closely resemble non-comics publishing. The \"minicomics\" form, an extremely informal version of self-publishing, arose in the 1980s and became increasingly popular among artists in the 1990s, despite reaching an even more limited audience than the small press.\n\nSmall publishers regularly releasing titles include Avatar Comics, Hyperwerks, Raytoons, and Terminal Press, buoyed by such advances in printing technology as digital print-on-demand.\n\nGraphic novels\n\nIn 1964, Richard Kyle coined the term \"graphic novel\" to distinguish newly translated European works from genre-driven subject matter common in American comics. Precursors of the form existed by the 1920s, which saw a revival of the medieval woodcut tradition by Belgian Frans Masereel, American Lynd Ward and others, including Stan Lee.\nIn 1950, St. John Publications produced the digest-sized, adult-oriented \"picture novel\" It Rhymes with Lust, a 128-page digest by pseudonymous writer \"Drake Waller\" (Arnold Drake and Leslie Waller), penciler Matt Baker and inker Ray Osrin, touted as \"an original full-length novel\" on its cover. In 1971, writer-artist Gil Kane and collaborators devised the paperback \"comics novel\" Blackmark. Will Eisner popularized the term \"graphic novel\" when he used it on the cover of the paperback edition of his work A Contract with God, and Other Tenement Stories in 1978.\n\nDigital graphic novels\n\nComic book collecting\n\nIn the 1970s, specialty comic stores began opening and they still have a place in today's society. Initially, the target audience of comic books was only children, however, with the introduction of devoted comic book stores, they are now embraced by many adults. Due to their greater income, comic book companies have been pushed to create comics aimed at adult readers. \n\nComic book collectors are often lifelong enthusiasts of the comic book stories and they usually focus on particular heroes and attempt to assemble the entire run of a title. Comics are published with a sequential number. The very first issue of the Marvel magazine 'The Amazing Spider-Man' was number 1 and that was followed by number 2 until the end of the run which ran into the hundreds. Number 1 is commonly the rarest and most desirable to collectors.\n\nHowever, the first appearance of a character might be in an existing title. For example, Spider-Man's first appearance was in Amazing Fantasy number 15. New characters were often introduced this way, and did not receive their own titles until there was a proven audience for the hero. As a result, comics that feature the first appearance of an important character will sometimes be even harder to find than the number 1 issue of a character's own title.\n\nSome rare comic books include copies of the unreleased Motion Picture Funnies Weekly #1 from 1939. Eight copies, plus one without a cover, emerged in the estate of the deceased publisher in 1974. The \"Pay Copy\" of this book sold for $43,125 in a 2005 Heritage auction. \n\nThe most valuable American comics have combined rarity and quality with the first appearances of popular and enduring characters. Four comic books have sold for over $1 million USD as of December 2010, including two examples of Action Comics #1, the first appearance of Superman, both sold privately through online dealer ComicConnect.com in 2010, and Detective Comics #27, the first appearance of Batman, via public auction.\n\nUpdating the above price obtained for Action Comics #1, the first appearance of Superman, the highest sale on record for this book is $3.2 million, for a 9.0 copy. \n\nMisprints, promotional comic-dealer incentive printings, and issues with extremely low distribution also generally have scarcity value. The rarest modern comic books include the original press run of The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen #5, which DC executive Paul Levitz recalled and pulped due to the appearance of a vintage Victorian era advertisement for \"Marvel Douche\", which the publisher considered offensive; only 100 copies exist, most of which have been CGC graded. (See Recalled comics for more pulped, recalled, and erroneous comics.)\n\nIn 2000, a company named CGC began to \"slab\" comics, encasing them in a thick plastic and giving them a numeric grade. As of 2014, there are two companies that provide third party grading of comic book condition. Because condition is so important to the value of rare comics, the idea of grading by a company that does not buy or sell comics seems like a good one. However, there is some controversy about whether this grading service is worth the high cost, and whether it is a positive development for collectors, or if it primarily services speculators who wish to make a quick profit trading in comics as one might trade in stocks or fine art. Comic grading has created valuation standards that online price guides such as [http://comics.gocollect.com GoCollect] and GPAnalysis have used to report on real-time market values.\n\nThe original artwork pages from comic books are also collected, and these are perhaps the rarest of all comic book collector's items, as there is only one unique page of artwork for each page that was printed and published. These were created by a writer, who created the story; a pencil artist, who laid out the sequential panels on the page; an ink artist, who went over the pencil with pen and black ink; a letterer, who provided the dialogue and narration of the story by hand lettering each word; and finally a colorist, who added color as the last step before the finished pages went to the printer.\n\nWhen the original pages of artwork are returned by the printer, they are typically given back to the artists, who sometimes sell them at comic book conventions, or in galleries and art shows related to comic book art. The original pages of the first appearances of such legendary characters as Superman, Batman, Wonder Woman and Spider-man are considered priceless.\n\nEuropean comics\n\nFranco-Belgian comics\n\n \nFrance and Belgium have a long tradition in comics and comic books, called BDs (an abbreviation of bande dessinées) in French and strips in Dutch. Belgian comic books originally written in Dutch show the influence of the Francophone \"Franco-Belgian\" comics, but have their own distinct style.\n\nThe name la bande dessinée derives from the original description of the art form as drawn strips (the phrase literally translates as \"the drawn strip\"), analogous to the sequence of images in a film strip. As in its English equivalent, the word \"bande\" can be applied to both film and comics. Significantly, the French-language term contains no indication of subject-matter, unlike the American terms \"comics\" and \"funnies\", which imply an art form not to be taken seriously. The distinction of comics as le neuvième art (literally, \"the ninth art\") is prevalent in French scholarship on the form, as is the concept of comics criticism and scholarship itself. Relative to the respective size of their populations, the innumerable authors in France and Belgium publish a high volume of comic books. In North America, the more serious Franco-Belgian comics are often seen as equivalent to graphic novels, but whether they are long or short, bound or in magazine format, in Europe there is no need for a more sophisticated term, as the art's name does not itself imply something frivolous.\n\nIn France, authors control the publication of most comics. The author works within a self-appointed time-frame, and it is common for readers to wait six months or as long as two years between installments. Most books first appear in print as a hardcover book, typically with 48, 56, or 64 pages.\n\nBritish comics\n\nAlthough Ally Sloper's Half Holiday (1884), the first comic published in Britain, aimed at an adult market, publishers quickly targeted a younger demographic, which has led to most publications being for children and has created an association in the public's mind of comics as somewhat juvenile. \n\nThe British comic adopted a magazine size, with The Beano and The Dandy, both created in the 1930s, the last to adopt this size (in the 1980s). Some comics, such as Judge Dredd and other 2000 AD titles, have been published in a tabloid form.\n\nPopular titles within the UK have included The Beano, The Dandy, The Eagle, 2000 AD, and Viz. Underground comics and \"small press\" titles have also appeared in the UK, notably Oz and Escape Magazine.\n\nThe content of Action, another title aimed at children and launched in the mid-1970s, became the subject of discussion in the House of Commons. Although on a smaller scale than similar investigations in the U.S., such concerns led to a moderation of content published within British comics. Such moderation never became formalized to the extent of promulgating a code, nor did it last long.\n\nThe UK has also established a healthy market in the reprinting and repackaging of material, notably material originating in the U.S. The lack of reliable supplies of American comic books led to a variety of black-and-white reprints, including Marvel's monster comics of the 1950s, Fawcett's Captain Marvel, and other characters such as Sheena, Mandrake the Magician, and the Phantom. Several reprint companies became involved in repackaging American material for the British market, notably the importer and distributor Thorpe & Porter.\n\nMarvel Comics established a UK office in 1972. DC Comics and Dark Horse Comics also opened offices in the 1990s. The repackaging of European material has occurred less frequently, although The Adventures of Tintin and Asterix serials have been successfully translated and repackaged in softcover books.\n\nIn the 1980s, a resurgence of British writers and artists gained prominence in mainstream comic books, which was dubbed the \"British Invasion\" in comic book history. These writers and artists brought with them their own mature themes and philosophy such as anarchy, controversy and politics common in British media. These elements would pave the way for mature and \"darker and edgier\" comic books and jump start the Modern Age of Comics. Writers included Alan Moore, famous for his V for Vendetta, From Hell, Watchmen, Marvelman, and The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen; Neil Gaiman with The Sandman mythos and Books of Magic; Warren Ellis, creator of Transmetropolitan and Planetary; and others such as Mark Millar, creator of Wanted and Kick-Ass. The comic book series Hellblazer, which is largely set in Britain and starring the magician John Constantine, paved the way for British writers such as Jamie Delano. \n\nAt Christmas time, publishers repackage and commission material for comic annuals, printed and bound as hardcover A4-size books; \"Rupert\" supplies a famous example of the British comic annual. DC Thomson also repackages The Broons and Oor Wullie strips in softcover A4-size books for the holiday season.\n\nOn 19 March 2012, the British postal service, the Royal Mail, released a set of stamps depicting British comic-book characters and series. The collection featured The Beano, The Dandy, Eagle, The Topper, Roy of the Rovers, Bunty, Buster, Valiant, Twinkle and 2000 AD.\n\nItalian comics\n\nIn Italy, comics (known in Italian as fumetti) made their debut as humor strips at the end of the 19th century, and later evolved into adventure stories. After World War II, however, artists like Hugo Pratt and Guido Crepax exposed Italian comics to an international audience. Popular comic books such as Diabolik or the Bonelli line—namely Tex Willer or Dylan Dog—remain best-sellers.\n\nMainstream comics are usually published on a monthly basis, in a black-and-white digest size format, with approximately 100 to 132 pages. Collections of classic material for the most famous characters, usually with more than 200 pages, are also common. Author comics are published in the French BD format, with an example being Pratt's Corto Maltese.\n\nItalian cartoonists show the influence of comics from other countries, including France, Belgium, Spain, and Argentina. Italy is also famous for being one of the foremost producers of Walt Disney comic stories outside the U.S. Donald Duck's superhero alter ego, Paperinik, known in English as Superduck, was created in Italy.\n\nCzech comics\n\nČtyřlístek (in English translated as Lucky Four or Four-Leaf Clover) is one of the most well-known comics for children published in the Czech Republic.\n\nJapanese comics (manga)\n\nThe first comic books in Japan appeared during the 18th century in the form of woodblock-printed booklets containing short stories drawn from folk tales, legends, and historical accounts, told in a simple visual-verbal idiom. Known as , , and , these were written primarily for less literate readers. However, with the publication in 1775 of Koikawa Harumachi's comic book , an evolved form of comic book originated, which required greater literacy and cultural sophistication. This was known as the . Published in thousands of copies, the kibyōshi may have been the earliest fully realized comic book for adults in world literary history. Approximately 2,000 titles remain extant.\n\nModern comic books in Japan developed from a mixture of these earlier comic books and of woodblock prints with Western styles of drawing. They took their current form shortly after World War II. They are usually published in black-and-white, except for the covers, which are usually printed in four colors, although occasionally, the first few pages may also be printed in full color. The term manga means \"random (or whimsical) pictures\", and first came into common usage in the late 18th century with the publication of such works as Santō Kyōden's picturebook (1798) and Aikawa Minwa's Comic Sketches of a Hundred Women (1798). During the Meiji period, the term Akahon was also common.\n\nWestern artists were brought over to teach their students such concepts as line, form, and color; things which had not been regarded as conceptually important in ukiyo-e, as the idea behind the picture was of paramount importance. Manga at this time was referred to as Ponchi-e (Punch-picture) and, like its British counterpart Punch magazine, mainly depicted humor and political satire in short one- or four-picture format.\n\nDr. Osamu Tezuka (1928–1989) further developed this form. Seeing an animated war propaganda film titled inspired Tezuka to become a comic artist. He introduced episodic storytelling and character development in comic format, in which each story is part of larger story arc. The only text in Tezuka's comics was the characters' dialogue and this further lent his comics a cinematic quality. Inspired by the work of Walt Disney, Tezuka also adopted a style of drawing facial features in which a character's eyes, nose, and mouth are drawn in an extremely exaggerated manner. This style created immediately recognizable expressions using very few lines, and the simplicity of this style allowed Tezuka to be prolific. Tezuka's work generated new interest in the ukiyo-e tradition, in which the image is a representation of an idea, rather than a depiction of reality.\n\nThough a close equivalent to the American comic book, manga has historically held a more important place in Japanese culture than comics have in American culture. Japanese society shows a wide respect for manga, both as an art form and as a form of popular literature. Many manga become television shows or short films. As with its American counterpart, some manga has been criticized for its sexuality and violence, although in the absence of official or even industry restrictions on content, artists have freely created manga for every age group and for every topic.\n\nManga magazines—also known as \"anthologies\"—often run several series concurrently, with approximately 20 to 40 pages allocated to each series per issue. These magazines range from 200 to more than 850 pages each. Manga magazines also contain one-shot comics and a variety of four-panel yonkoma (equivalent to comic strips). Manga series may continue for many years if they are successful, with stories often collected and reprinted in book-sized volumes called , the equivalent of the American trade paperbacks. These volumes use higher-quality paper and are useful to readers who want to be brought up to date with a series, or to readers who find the cost of the weekly or monthly publications to be prohibitive. Deluxe versions are printed as commemorative or collectible editions. Conversely, old manga titles are also reprinted using lower-quality paper and sold for 120 ¥ (approximately $1 USD) each.\n\nDoujinshi\n\n, fan-made Japanese comics operate in a far larger market in Japan than the American \"underground comics\" market; the largest doujinshi fair, Comiket, attracts 500,000 visitors twice a year. \n\nDistribution\n\nDistribution has historically been a problem for the comic book industry with many mainstream retailers declining to carry extensive stocks of the most interesting and popular comics. The smartphone and the tablet have turned out to be an ideal medium for online distribution.\n\nDigital distribution\n\nOn November 13, 2007, Marvel Comics launched Marvel Digital Comics Unlimited, a subscription service allowing readers to read many comics from Marvel's history online. The service also includes periodic release new comics not available elsewhere. With the release of Avenging Spider-Man Marvel also became the first publisher to provide free digital copies as part of the print copy of the comic book. \n\nWith the growing popularity of smartphones and tablets, many major publishers have begun releasing titles in digital form. The most popular platform is comiXology. Some platforms, such as Graphicly, have shut down,\n\nComic collections in libraries \n\nMany libraries have extensive collections of comics in the form of graphic novels. This is a convenient way for many in the public to become familiar with the medium.", "Wonder Woman is a fictional superhero appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics. The character is a founding member of the Justice League, demigoddess, and warrior princess of the Amazons, which are based on the Amazons of Greek mythology. In her homeland, she is Princess Diana of Themyscira, and outside of her homeland, she is known by her secret identity Diana Prince.\n\nWonder Woman was created by the American psychologist and writer William Moulton Marston with his wife and co-creator Elizabeth Holloway Marston, and first drawn by H. G. Peter. Their cohabitant-girlfriend, Olive Byrne, is credited as being Marston's muse for the iconic characters' physical appearance. Though born of male bondage fantasies, Wonder Woman evolved as a frontrunner of emancipation for the suffragettes who fought for the rights of women in the early 20th century. The character first appeared in All Star Comics #8 in December 1941 and first cover-dated on Sensation Comics #1, January 1942. The Wonder Woman title has been published by DC Comics almost continuously except for a brief hiatus in 1986. Her depiction as an international diplomatic heroine fighting for justice, love, peace, and gender equality has led to Wonder Woman being widely considered a feminist and LGBT icon, and the embodiment of the women's liberation movement. \n\nWonder Woman's origin story relates that she was sculpted from a clay figure by her mother Queen Hippolyta, and received life and superhuman powers as blessings from members of the Greek Gods. However, in recent years she has been depicted as the daughter of Zeus, and jointly raised by her mother Hippolyta and her aunts Antiope and Menalippe. Her Amazonian-training helped to develop a wide range of extraordinary skills in strategy, hunting and fighting. She possesses an arsenal of advanced technology, including the Lasso of Truth, a pair of indestructible bracelets, a tiara which serves as a projectile, and, in older stories, a range of devices based on Amazon technology.\n\nCreated during World War II, the character was initially depicted fighting Axis military forces as well as an assortment of colorful supervillains, although over time her stories came to place greater emphasis on characters, deities, and monsters from Greek mythology. In the decades since her debut, Wonder Woman has gained a formidable cast of enemies bent on eliminating the Amazon, including classic villains such as Ares, Hades, Cheetah, Circe, Doctor Psycho, and Giganta, along with more recent adversaries such as the First Born. Wonder Woman has also regularly appeared in comic books featuring the superhero teams Justice Society (from 1941) and Justice League (from 1960). \n\nNotable depictions of the character in other media include the 1975–1979 ... Wonder Woman TV series starring Lynda Carter, as well as animated series such as the Super Friends and Justice League. Since Carter's television series, studios struggled to introduce a new live-action Wonder Woman to audiences, although the character continued to feature in a variety of toys and merchandise, as well as animated adaptations of DC properties, including a direct-to-DVD animated feature. Attempts to return Wonder Woman to television have included a television pilot for NBC in 2011, closely followed by another stalled production for The CW. Gal Gadot portrayed Wonder Woman in the 2016 film Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice, marking the character's feature film debut after over 70 years of history. Gadot will also star in the character's first solo live-action film Wonder Woman, set to be released on June 2, 2017. \n\nPublication history\n\nCreation\n\nIn an October 25, 1940 interview with the Family Circle magazine, William Moulton Marston discussed the unfulfilled potential of the comic book medium. This article caught the attention of comics publisher Max Gaines, who hired Marston as an educational consultant for National Periodicals and All-American Publications, two of the companies that would merge to form DC Comics. At that time, it was suggested to Marston that he create his own new superhero; Marston's wife Elizabeth suggested to him that it should be a female: \n\nMarston introduced the idea to Gaines, co-founder of All-American Publications. Given the go-ahead, Marston developed Wonder Woman with Elizabeth, whom Marston believed to be a model of that era's unconventional, liberated woman. Marston also drew inspiration from the bracelets worn by Olive Byrne, who lived with the couple in a polyamorous relationship. Wonder Woman debuted in All Star Comics #8 (December 1941), scripted by Marston.\n\nMarston was the creator of a systolic-blood-pressure-measuring apparatus, which was crucial to the development of the polygraph (lie detector). Marston's experience with polygraphs convinced him that women were more honest in situations different than men and could work more efficiently. \n\n\"Wonder Woman is psychological propaganda for the new type of woman who should, I believe, rule the world\", Marston wrote.\n\nIn a 1943 issue of The American Scholar, Marston wrote: \n\nGolden Age\n\nInitially, Wonder Woman was an Amazon champion who wins the right to return Steve Trevor - a United States intelligence officer whose plane had crashed on the Amazons' isolated island homeland - to \"Man's World\" and to fight crime and the evil of the Nazis. \n\nDuring this period, Wonder Woman joined the Justice Society of America as the team's secretary. \n\nSilver and Bronze Age \n\nDuring the Silver Age, under writer Robert Kanigher, Wonder Woman's origin was revamped, along with other characters'. The new origin story increased the character's Hellenic and mythological roots: receiving the blessing of each deity in her crib, Diana is destined to become \"beautiful as Aphrodite, wise as Athena, as strong as Hercules, and as swift as Hermes.\" \n\nAt the end of the 1960s, under the guidance of Mike Sekowsky, Wonder Woman surrendered her powers in order to remain in Man's World rather than accompany her fellow Amazons to another dimension. Wonder Woman begins using the alias Diana Prince and opens a mod boutique. She acquires a Chinese mentor named I Ching, who teaches Diana martial arts and weapons skills. Using her fighting skill instead of her powers, Diana engaged in adventures that encompassed a variety of genres, from espionage to mythology. This phase of her story was directly influenced by the British spy thriller The Avengers and Diana Rigg's portrayal of Emma Peel. \n\nIn the early 1970s the character returned to her superhero roots in Justice League of America and to the World War II era in her own title. \n\nModern Age \n\nFollowing the 1985 Crisis on Infinite Earths series, George Pérez, Len Wein, and Greg Potter rewrote the character's origin story, depicting Wonder Woman as an emissary and ambassador from Themyscira to Patriarch's World, charged with the mission of bringing peace to the outside world. Pérez incorporated a variety of deities and concepts from Greek mythology in Wonder Woman's stories and origin. His rendition of the character acted as the foundation for the modern Wonder Woman stories, as he expanded upon the widely accepted origin of Diana being birthed out of clay. The relaunch was a critical and commercial success. \n\nIn August 2010 (issue #600), J. Michael Straczynski took over the series' writing duties and introduced Wonder Woman to an alternate timeline created by the Gods in which Paradise Island had been destroyed and the Amazons scattered around the world. In this timeline, Diana is an orphan raised in New York. The entire world has forgotten Wonder Woman's existence and the main story of this run was of Diana trying to restore reality even though she does not properly remember it herself. A trio of Death Goddesses called The Morrigan acted as the main enemy of Wonder Woman. In this run, Wonder Woman wore a new costume designed by Jim Lee. Straczynski determined the plot and continued writing duties till Wonder Woman #605; writer Phil Hester then continued his run, which ultimately concluded in Wonder Woman #614. \n\nIn 2011, DC Comics relaunched its entire line of publications to attract a new generation of readers, and thus released volume 4 of the Wonder Woman comic book title. Brian Azzarello and Cliff Chiang were assigned on writing and art duties respectively and revamped the character's history considerably. In this new continuity, Wonder Woman wears a costume similar to her original costume, utilizes a sword and shield, and has a completely new origin. No longer a clay figure brought to life by the magic of the gods, she is, instead, a demi-goddess and the natural-born daughter of Hippolyta and Zeus. Azzarello and Chiang's revamp of the character was critically acclaimed, but highly divisive among long time fans of the character. \n\nCharacterization\n\nDiana Prince\n\nWonder Woman has used the alias Diana Prince, created by William Moulton Marston, as her secret identity.\n\nDuring Marston's run, Diana Prince was the name of an army nurse whom Wonder Woman met. The nurse wanted to meet her fiancé, who was transferred to South America, but was unable to arrange for money to do so. As Wonder Woman needed a secret identity to monitor and look after Steve (who was admitted in the same army hospital Diana Prince worked at), and because both of them looked a lot like each other, Wonder Woman gave the nurse money to go to her fiancé in exchange for the nurse's credentials and took Diana Prince as her alias. She started to work as an army nurse and later as an Air Force secretary. \n\nThe identity of Diana Prince was especially prominent in a series published in the 1960s, in which she fought crime only under the Prince alias and without her mystic powers. To support herself, she ran a mod clothing boutique.\n\nThe Diana Prince alias also played an important role after the events of Infinite Crisis. Wonder Woman was broadcast worldwide killing a villain named Maxwell Lord, as he was mind controlling Superman into killing Batman. When Wonder Woman caught him in her lasso, demanding to know how to stop Superman, Maxwell revealed that the only way to stop him was to kill Lord, so as a last resort Diana snapped his neck. To recover from the trauma of killing another person, the Amazon went into a self-imposed exile for one year. On her return to public life, Diana realized that her life as a full-time celebrity superhero and ambassador had kept her removed from humanity. Because of this she assumed the persona of Diana Prince and became an agent at the Department of Metahuman Affairs. During a later battle with the witch Circe, a spell was placed on Diana leaving her powerless when not in the guise of Wonder Woman. \n\nIn the current New 52 universe, Diana does not have a secret identity as stated in an interview by series writer Brian Azzarello. However, when she and Superman began dating, for her civilian identity she uses the Diana Prince alias whenever she is around Clark Kent such as when she introduced herself to Lois Lane at Lois's housewarming party under that name. \n\nPersonality\n\nPrincess Diana commands respect both as Wonder Woman and Diana Prince; her nickname— The Amazon Princess— illustrates the dichotomy of her character. She is a powerful, strong-willed character who would never back down from a fight or a challenge. Yet, she is a diplomat who strongly \"favors the pen\", and a lover of peace who would never seek to fight or escalate a conflict. She's simultaneously both the most fierce and most nurturing member of the Justice League; and her political connections as the ambassador of a warrior nation makes her an invaluable addition to the team. With her powerful abilities, centuries of training and experienced at handling threats that range from petty crime to threats that are of a magical or supernatural nature, Diana is capable of competing with nearly any hero or villain.\n\nMany writers have depicted Diana in different personalities and tone; between both of her diametric extremes; that of a warrior, a highly compassionate and calm ambassador, and sometimes also as a naive and innocent person, depending on the writer. What has remained constant, and is a mainstay of the character, is her humanity: feeling compassion and giving love without discrimination. This trait had been the reason for her induction into the Star Sapphires. \n\nWriter Gail Simone was applauded for her portrayal of Wonder Woman during her run on the series, with comic book reviewer Dan Phillips of IGN noting that \"she's molded Diana into a very relatable and sympathetic character.\" \n\nIn the Golden Age, Wonder Woman adhered to an amazon code of helping any in need, even misogynistic people; and never accepting a reward for saving someone; while conversely, the modern version of the character has been shown to perform lethal and fatal actions when left with no other alternative, exemplified in the killing of Maxwell Lord in order to save Superman's life.\n\nThe New 52 version of the character has been portrayed to be a more young, headstrong, loving, fierce and wilful person. Brian Azzarello stated in a video interview with DC Comics that they're building a very \"confident\", \"impulsive\" and \"good-hearted\" character in her. He referred to her trait of feeling compassion as both her strength and weakness. \n\nA distinctive element of her characterization is a group of signature mythological exclamations, such as \"Great Aphrodite!\" (historically the very first one), \"Great Hera!\", \"Merciful Minerva!\", and \"Suffering Sappho!\", some of which were contributed by Elizabeth Holloway Marston. \n\nOthers\n\nDiana, after her death, was granted divinity as the Goddess of Truth by her gods for such faithful devotion. During her brief time as a god of Olympus, Diana was replaced in the role of Wonder Woman by her mother, Queen Hippolyta. Unlike Diana receiving the title of Wonder Woman in honor, Hippolyta's role as Wonder Woman was meant to be a punishment for her betrayal in Artemis' death as well as for unintentionally killing her own daughter. However, Hippolyta eventually grew to enjoy the freedom and adventure the title came with. Whereas Diana used the Lasso of Truth as her primary weapon, Hippolyta favored a broad sword.\n\nJohn Byrne, the writer that introduced the concept of Hippolyta as the first Wonder Woman, has explained his intentions in a post in his message board:\n\nI thought George's one \"mistake\" in rebooting Wonder Woman was making her only 25 years old when she left Paradise Island. I preferred the idea of a Diana who was thousands of years old (as, if I recall correctly, she was in the TV series). From that angle, I would have liked to have seen Diana having been Wonder Woman in WW2, and be returning to our world in the reboot.\n\nNot having that option, I took the next best course, and had Hippolyta fill that role. \n\nAs Wonder Woman, Queen Hippolyta immediately got involved in a time travel mission back to the 1940s with Jay Garrick. After this mission, she elected to join the Justice Society of America and remained in that era for eight years, where her teammates nicknamed her \"Polly\". During that time she had a relationship with Ted Grant. Hippolyta also made visits into the past to see her godchild Lyta, daughter of Hippolyta's protege Helena, the Golden Age Fury. These visits happened yearly from young Lyta's perspective and also accounted for Hippolyta's participation in the JSA/JLA team ups. When she returned from the past, Hippolyta took Diana's place in the JLA as well. \n\nArtemis of Bana-Mighdall briefly served as Wonder Woman during Hippolyta's trials for a new Wonder Woman. Orana, a character similar to Artemis, defeated Diana in a new contest and became Wonder Woman in pre-Crisis on Infinite Earths continuity. Orana was killed during her first mission. Others who have donned the Wonder Woman persona include Nubia, Cassandra Sandsmark, and Donna Troy.\n\nAbilities \n\nPowers and skills\n\nDiana is depicted as a masterful athlete, acrobat, fighter and strategist, trained and experienced in many ancient and modern forms of armed and unarmed combat, including exclusively Amazonian martial arts. In some versions, her mother trained her, as Wonder Girl, for a future career as Wonder Woman. From the beginning, she is portrayed as highly skilled in using her Amazon bracelets to stop bullets and in wielding her golden lasso. Batman once called her the \"best melee fighter in the world\". The modern version of the character is known to use lethal force when she deems it necessary.Wonder Woman (vol. 2) #219 (September 2005) In the New 52 continuity, her superior combat skills are the result of her amazon training, as well as receiving further training from Ares, the God of War, himself, since as early as her childhood. The Golden Age Wonder Woman also had knowledge in psychology, as did her Amazon sisters.\n\nPre-Crisis\n\nThe Golden Age Wonder Woman had strength that was comparable to the Golden Age Superman. Wonder Woman was capable of bench pressing 15,000 pounds even before she had earned her bracelets, and later hoisted a 50,000 pound boulder above her head to inspire Amazons facing the test. Another example of her great strength was when she was able to tear a steel door off its hinges. In one of her earliest appearances, she is shown running easily at 60 mph, and later jumps from a building and lands on the balls of her feet. \n\nShe was able to heal faster than a normal human being due to her birthright consumption of water from Paradise Island's Fountain of Eternal Youth.\n\nHer strength would be removed in accordance with \"Aphrodite's Law\" if she allowed her bracelets to be bound or chained by a male. \n\nShe also had an array of mental and psychic abilities, as corresponding to Dr. Marston's interest in parapsychology and mysticism. Such an array included ESP, astral projection, telepathy (with or without the Mental Radio), mental control over the electricity in her body, the Amazonian ability to turn brain energy into muscle power, etc. Wonder Woman first became immune to electric shocks after having her spirit stripped from her atoms by Dr. Psycho's Electro Atomizer; it was also discovered that she was unable to send a mental radio message without her body. \n\nWonder Woman (vol. 1) #105 revealed that Diana was formed from clay by the Queen of the Amazons, given life and power by four of the Greek and Roman gods (otherwise known as the Olympian deities) as gifts. \"Beautiful as Aphrodite, wise as Athena, swifter than Hermes, and stronger than Hercules\", making her the strongest of the amazons. Wonder Woman's Amazon training gave her limited telepathy, profound scientific knowledge, and the ability to speak every language known to man and beyond - even caveman and Martian languages. \n\nBetween 1966 and 1967, new powers were added, such as super breath and telepathy. \n\nIn the Silver and Bronze ages of comics, Wonder Woman was able to further increase her strength. In times of great need, removing her bracelets would temporarily augment her power tenfold, but cause her to go insane in the process. \n\nThese powers received changes after the events of Crisis on Infinite Earths.\n\nPost-Crisis\n\nIn the Post-Crisis universe, Wonder Woman receives her powers as a blessing from Olympian deities just like the silver age version before, but with changes to some of her powers: \n* Demeter, the goddess of agriculture and fertility, blessed Diana with strength drawn from the Earth spirit Gaea, making her one of the physically strongest heroes in the DC Universe and the strongest female heroine in the DC Universe. However, now Diana is the daughter of Zeus, king of the Greek Gods, so it's unclear as to how much of her power and strength is a direct result of her divine heritage. Her connection to the earth allows her to heal at an accelerated rate so long as she is in contact with the planet. However, as mentioned earlier, now that she is a Demigoddess, it has been suggested that she heals extremely quickly also due to her divine heritage. In rare cases where she has been gravely injured, Diana showed the ability to physically merge with the earth, causing whatever injuries or poisons to be expelled from her body; such an act is considered sacred, and can only be used in extreme cases. \n* Pallas Athena, the goddess of wisdom and war, granted Diana great wisdom, intelligence, and military prowess. Athena's gift has enabled Diana to master over a dozen languages (including those of alien origin), multiple complex crafts, sciences and philosophies, as well as leadership, military strategy, and armed and unarmed combat. More recently, Athena bound her own eyesight to Diana's, granting her increased empathy. \n* Artemis, goddess of the hunt, animals, and the Moon, graced Diana with the Eyes of the Hunter and unity with beasts. The Eyes of the Hunter ability gives Diana a full range of enhanced senses, including telescopic vision and super hearing.\n* Hestia, goddess of hearth and home, granted Diana sisterhood with fire. This power has been shown to control the \"Fires of Truth\", which Diana wields through her lasso, making anyone bound by it unable to lie. This ability also grants her resistance to both normal and supernatural fire.\n* Hermes, the messenger god of speed, granted Diana superhuman speed and the ability to fly. She is capable of flying at speeds approaching half the speed of light. She can react quickly enough to deflect bullets, lasers, and other projectiles with her virtually impenetrable bracelets. After the 2011 relaunch of the character, Wonder Woman does not naturally possess the power of flight. She gains it once she is hit by a feather thrown by Hermes. \n* Aphrodite, goddess of love, bestowed Diana with stunning beauty, as well as a kind heart.\n\nWhile not invulnerable, she is highly resistant to great amounts of concussive force and extreme temperatures. Although, edged weapons or projectiles applied with sufficient force are able to pierce her skin. Due to her divine origins, Diana can resist many forms of magical manipulation.\n\nShe is able to astrally project herself into various lands of myth. Her physical body reacts to whatever happens to her on the mythical astral plane, leaving her body cut, bruised, or sometimes strengthened once her mind and body are reunited. She can apparently leave the planet through meditation, and did this once to rescue Artemis while she was in hell. \n\nAfter the 2011 relaunch, Diana gained new powers. As the natural born daughter of Hippolyta and Zeus, she has inherited some of her father's powers, which are suppressed by wearing her bracelets. She uses these powers in battle against the Goddess Artemis and quickly renders her unconscious with ease with a series of carefully positioned counterattacks. While using her godly strength, her costume and accoutrements lit up and her eyes glowed like her father's. After becoming the God of War in the pages of Wonder Woman, Diana inherits his divine abilities. Diana has not exhibited her full powers as War, but is seen in Superman/Wonder Woman #5 to slip easily into telepathic rapport with a soldier, explaining \"I am War. I know all soldiers, and they know me.\"\n\nTechnology\n\nDiana has an arsenal of powerful god-forged weapons at her disposal, but her signature weapons are her indestructible bracelets and the Lasso of Truth.\n\nAegis of Athena\n\nDiana's bulletproof bracelets were formed from the remnants of Athena's legendary shield, the Aegis, to be awarded to her champion. The shield was made from the indestructible hide of the great she-goat, Amalthea, who suckled Zeus as an infant. These forearm guards have thus far proven indestructible and able to absorb the impact of incoming attacks, allowing Wonder Woman to deflect automatic weapon fire and energy blasts. Diana can slam the bracelets together to create a wave of concussive force capable of making strong beings like Superman's ears bleed. Recently, she gained the ability to channel Zeus's lightning through her bracelets as well. Zeus explained to her that this power had been contained within the bracelets since their creation, because they were once part of the Aegis, and that he had only recently unlocked it for her use. After the 2011 relaunch of the character, it was revealed that Diana was the daughter of Zeus and Hippolyta and that the bracelets are able to keep the powers she has inherited from Zeus in check. In addition, Hephaestus has modified the bracelets to allow Wonder Woman the sorcerous ability to manifest a sword of grayish metal from each bracelet. Each sword, marked with a red star, takes shape from a flash of lightning, and when Wonder Woman is done with them, the swords disappear, supposedly, back into her bracelets. As such, she has produced other weapons from the bracelets in this way such as a bow that fires explosive arrows, spears and energy bolts among others. \n\nThe idea to give Diana's bracelets came from the suggestion of Olive Byrne, creator Marston's assistant and lover. \n\nLariat of Hestia\n\nThe Lasso of Truth, or Lariat of Hestia, was forged by Hephaestus from the golden girdle of Gaea. It compels all beings who come into contact with it to tell the absolute truth and is virtually indestructible; in Identity Crisis, Green Arrow mistakenly describes it as \"the only lie detector designed by Zeus.\" The only times it has been broken were when Wonder Woman herself refused to accept the truth revealed by the lasso, such as when she confronted Rama Khan of Jarhanpur, and by Bizarro in Matt Wagner's non-canonical Batman/Superman/Wonder Woman: Trinity. It also at one time had the power to force anyone caught to obey any command given them, even overriding the mind control of others; this was effective enough to defeat strong-willed beings like Captain Marvel. Diana wields the lasso with great precision and accuracy and can use it as a whip or noose.\n\nOther items\n\nDiana occasionally uses additional weaponry in formal battle, such as ceremonial golden armour with golden wings, pteruges, chest-plate, and golden helmet in the shape of an eagle's head. She possesses a magical sword forged by Hephaestus that is sharp enough to cut the electrons off an atom.\n\nAs early as the 1950s, Wonder Woman's Tiara has also been used as a razor-edged throwing weapon, returning to her like a boomerang. The Tiara allows Wonder Woman to be invulnerable from telepathic attacks. It allows for Diana to telepathically contact people such as the Amazons back on Themyscira using the telepathic power of the red star ruby in the center of her Tiara.\n\nThe Golden, Silver, and Bronze Age portrayals of Wonder Woman showed her using a silent and Invisible plane that could be controlled by mental command via her Tiara and fly at speeds up to . Its appearance has varied over time; originally it had a propeller, while later it was drawn as a jet aircraft resembling a stealth aircraft. \n\nDuring the golden age Wonder Woman possessed a Purple Ray capable of healing even a fatal gunshot wound to the brain. She also possessed a Mental Radio that could let her receive messages from those in need.\n\nAs a recent temporary inductee into the Star Sapphires, Wonder Woman gained access to the violet power ring of love. This ring allowed her to alter her costume at will, create solid-light energy constructs, and reveal a person's true love to them. She was able to combine the energy with her lasso to enhance its ability.\n\nPersonal armor\n\n;Golden Age\nWonder Woman's outfit has varied over time, although almost all of her outfit incarnations have retained some form of breastplate, tiara, bracelets, and her signature five-pointed star symbols. Although Wonder Woman's outfit design was originally rooted in American symbolism and iconography, it was later explained that the design had Amazonian roots. During a flashback in Vol. 3, Hippolyta is shown issuing orders to have a garment created for Diana, taking inspiration from the skies on the night Diana was born; a red hunter's moon and a field of stars against deep blue, and the eagle breastplate being a symbol of Athena's avian representations.\n\nThe Golden Age Wonder Woman also had a pair of red magnetic earrings which allowed her to receive messages from Queen Desira of the planet Venus.\n\n;Pre-Infinite Crisis\nAt the time of her debut, Wonder Woman sported a red top with a golden eagle emblem, a white belt, blue star-spangled culottes, and red and golden go-go boots. She originally wore a skirt; however according to Elizabeth Martson, \"It was too hard to draw and would have been over her head most of the time.\" This outfit was entirely based on the American flag, because Wonder Woman was purely an American icon as she debuted during World War 2. Later in 1942, Wonder Woman's outfit received a slight change - the culottes were converted entirely into skin-tight shorts and she wore sandals. While earlier most of her back was exposed, during the imposition of the Comics Code Authority in the mid-1950s, Wonder Woman's outfit was rectified to make her back substantially covered, in order to comply with the Authority's rule of minimum exposure. During Mike Sekowsky's run in the late 1960s, Diana surrendered her powers and started using her own skill to fight crime. She wore a series of jumpsuits as her attire, most popular of these was a white one. After Sekowsky's run ended in the early 1970s, Diana's roots were reverted to her old mythological ones and she wore a more modernized version of her original outfit, a predecessor to her \"bathing suit\" outfit. Later, in 1976, her white belt was turned into a yellow one.\n\n;Post-Infinite Crisis\nAfter Crisis On Infinite Earths, George Pérez rebooted the character in 1987. She wore an outfit similar to her 1970s one, but now with a larger golden belt. This outfit continued until William Messner-Loebs' run, which had Diana pass on the role of Wonder Woman to Artemis. No longer Wonder Woman, Diana sported a new black biker-girl outfit designed by artist Mike Deodato Jr. After John Byrne took over writing and art duties, he redesigned the Wonder Woman outfit (Diana was reinstated as Wonder Woman at the end of Loebs' run) and joined the emblem and belt together.\n\nHer outfit did not receive any prominent change until after Infinite Crisis. Similar to her chest-plate, her belt was also shaped into a W. This outfit continued until issue #600 - J. Michael Straczynski's run of Wonder Woman's altered timeline changed her outfit drastically. Her outfit was redesigned by Jim Lee and included a redesigned emblem, a golden and red top, black pants, and a later discontinued blue-black jacket.\n\n;The New 52\nAnother major outfit change came after DC Comics relaunched its entire line of publications, dubbing the event the New 52. Her original one-piece outfit was restored, although the color combination of red and blue was changed to dark red and blue-black. Her chest-plate, belt and tiara were also changed from gold to a platinum or sterling silver color. Along with her sword, she now also utilizes a shield. She wears many accessories such as arm and neck jewelery styled as the \"WW\" motif. Her outfit is no longer made of fabric, as it now resembles a type of light, flexible body armor. Her boots are now a very dark blue rather than red. The design previously included black trousers, but they were removed and the one-piece look was restored during the time of publication. \n\nAfter the events of Convergence, Diana gets a new armored suit with the classic armor and tiara returning.\n\n;Wonder Woman (2017 film)\nAccording to designer Lindy Hemming and director Patty Jenkins, every design decision made for Themyscira came down to the same question: “How would I want to live that’s badass?” “To me, they shouldn’t be dressed in armor like men. It should be different. It should be authentic and real […] and appealing to women.” When asked about the decision to give the Amazons heeled sandals, Jenkins explained that they also have flats for fighting, adding \"It’s total wish-fulfillment […] I, as a woman, want Wonder Woman to be sexy, hot as hell, fight badass, and look great at the same time […] the same way men want Superman to have ridiculously huge pecs and an impractically big body. That makes them feel like the hero they want to be. And my hero, in my head, has really long legs.\n\nFictional character biography \n\n20th century\n\nOrigin\n\nIn her debut in All Star Comics #8, Diana was a member of a tribe of women named the Amazons, native to Paradise Island - a secluded island set in the middle of a vast ocean. Captain Steve Trevor's plane crashes on the island and he is found alive but unconscious by Diana and a fellow Amazon. Diana has him nursed back to health and falls in love with him. A competition is held amongst all the Amazons by Diana's mother, the Queen of the Amazons Hippolyta, in order to determine who is the most worthy of all the women; Hippolyta charges the winner with the responsibility of delivering Captain Steve Trevor back to man's world and to fight for justice. Hippolyta forbids Diana from entering the competition, but she takes part nonetheless, wearing a mask to conceal her identity. She wins the competition and reveals herself, surprising Hippolyta, who ultimately gives in to Diana's wish to go to Man's World. She then safely returns Steve Trevor back to his home and is awarded a special uniform made by her mother for her new role as Wonder Woman. \n\nWonder Woman was jointly raised by Queen Hippolyta, General Antiope, and Menalippe. Entertainment Weekly writes: \"This trio of immortals is responsible for both raising and training Diana — the only child on this estrogen heavy isle — but they don’t always agree. Hippolyta, a revolutionary leader, longs to shelter her beloved daughter from the outside world, but Antiope, the Amazon responsible for Diana’s training, wants to prepare her. \"She is the only child they raised together... and their love for her manifests in a different way for each of them.” \n\nGolden Age \n\nComing to America for the first time, Wonder Woman comes upon a weeping army nurse named Diana Prince. Inquiring about her state, she finds that the nurse wanted to leave for South America with her fiancé but was unable due to shortage of money. As both of them looked identical and Wonder Woman needed a job and a valid identity to look after Steve (who was admitted in the same army hospital), she gives her the money she had earned earlier to help her go to her fiancé in exchange for her credentials. The nurse reveals her name as Diana Prince, and thus, Wonder Woman's secret identity was created, and she began working as a nurse in the army. \n\nWonder Woman then took part in a variety of adventures, mostly side by side with Trevor. Her most common foes during this period would be Nazi forces led by a German baroness named Paula von Gunther, occasionally evil deities/demigods such as Mars and the Duke of Deception, and then supervillains like Angle Man, Doctor Psycho, and the Cheetah. \n\nSilver Age\n\nIn the Silver Age, Wonder Woman's history received several changes. Her earlier origin, which had significant ties to World War II, was changed and her powers were shown to be the product of the gods' blessings - \"beautiful as Aphrodite, wise as Athena, stronger than Hercules, and swifter than Hermes\". The concepts of Wonder Girl and Wonder Tot were also introduced during this period. \n\nWonder Woman (vol. 1) #179 (Nov. 1968) showed Wonder Woman giving up her powers and returning her costume and title to her mother in order to continue staying in Man's World. The reason behind this was that all the Amazons were shifting to another dimension, but Diana was unable to accompany them as she needed to stay behind to help Steve, who had been wrongly convicted . Thus, she no longer held the title of Wonder Woman and after meeting and training under a blind martial arts mentor I-Ching, Diana resumed fighting crime as the powerless Diana Prince. She ran a mod-boutique as a business and dressed in a series of jumpsuits while fighting crime. During this period, Samuel R. Delany took over scripting duties with issue #202. Delany was initially supposed to write a six-issue story arc, which would culminate in a battle over an abortion clinic, but Delany was removed reportedly due to criticism from Gloria Steinem, who, not knowing the content of the issues Delany was writing, was upset that Wonder Woman had lost her powers and was no longer wearing her traditional costume. \n\nBronze Age \n\nIn Wonder Woman Vol 1 #204, Diana's powers and costume were returned to her and she is once again reinstated as Wonder Woman. I-Ching is killed by a crazy sniper in the same issue. Later, Diana meets her \"sister\" Nubia, who is Hippolyta's daughter fashioned out of dark clay (hence Nubia's dark complexion). Nubia claimed to be the \"Wonder Woman of The Floating Island\", and she challenges Diana to a duel which ends in a draw. Returning to her home, Nubia would have further adventures involving Diana.\n\nThe last issue of Volume 1 showed Diana and Steve Trevor announce their love for each other and their subsequent marriage. \n\nModern Age \n\n;Crisis on Infinite Earths\nThe events of Crisis on Infinite Earths greatly changed and altered the history of the DC Universe. Wonder Woman's history and origin were considerably revamped by the event. Wonder Woman was now an emissary and ambassador from Themyscira (the new name for Paradise Island) to Patriarch's World, charged with the mission of bringing peace to the outside world. Various deities and concepts from Greek mythology were blended and incorporated into Wonder Woman's stories and origin. Diana was formed out of clay of the shores of Themyscira by Hippolyta, who wished for a child; the clay figure was then brought to life by the Greek deities. The Gods then blessed and granted her unique powers and abilities - beauty from Aphrodite, strength from Demeter, wisdom from Athena, speed and flight from Hermes, Eyes of the Hunter and unity with beasts from Artemis and sisterhood with fire and the ability to discern the truth from Hestia. Due to the reboot, Diana's operating methods were made distinctive from Superman and Batman's with her willingness to use deadly force when she judges it necessary. In addition, her previous history and her marriage to Steve Trevor were erased. Trevor was introduced as a man much older than Diana who would later on marry Etta Candy. \n\n;War of the Gods\n\nStarting in Wonder Woman Vol 2 #51, The Amazons, who had revealed their presence to the world in Wonder Woman Vol 2 #50, are blamed for a series of murders and for the theft of various artifacts. The Amazons are then taken into custody, Queen Hippolyta is nowhere to be found and Steve Trevor is forced by General Yedziniak to attack Themyscira. These events lead to the \"War of the Gods\" occurring. The culprit of the murders, thefts and the framing of the Amazons is revealed to be the witch Circe, who \"kills\" Diana by reverting her form back into the clay she was born from. Later, Wonder Woman is brought back to life and together with Donna Troy, battles Circe and ultimately defeats her. Circe would later return by unknown means.\n\nWhen Hippolyta and the other Amazons were trapped in a demonic dimension, she started receiving visions about the death of Wonder Woman. Fearing her daughter's death, Hippolyta created a false claim that Diana was not worthy of continuing her role as Wonder Woman, and arranged for a contest to determine who would be the new Wonder Woman, thus protecting Diana from her supposed fate. The participants of the final round were Diana and Artemis, and with the help of some mystic manipulation by Hippolyta, Artemis won the contest. Thus, Diana was forced to hand over her title and costume to Artemis, who became the new Wonder Woman and Diana started fighting crime in an alternate costume. Artemis later died in battle with the White Magician - thus, Hippolyta's vision of a dying Wonder Woman did come true, albeit not of Diana as Wonder Woman. Diana once again became Wonder Woman, a request made by Artemis in her last seconds. Artemis would later return as Requiem. Prior to Artemis' death, Hippolyta would admit to her daughter about her own part in Artemis' death, which strained their relationship as Diana was unable to forgive her mother for sending another Amazon to her death knowingly for the sake of saving her own daughter.\n\nThe demon Neron engaged Diana in battle and managed to kill her. The Olympian Gods granted Diana divinity and the role of the Goddess of Truth who started to reside in Olympus; her mother Hippolyta then assumed the role of Wonder Woman and wore her own different incarnation of the costume. In Wonder Woman Vol 2 #136, Diana was banished from Olympus due to interfering in earthly matters (as Diana was unable to simply watch over people's misery on earth). She immediately returned to her duties as Wonder Woman, but ran into conflicts with her mother over her true place and role as Hippolyta seemed accustomed to her life in America. Their fight remained unsolved, as Hippolyta tragically died during an intergalactic war. Themyscira was destroyed during the war, but was restored and reformed as a collection of floating islands. Circe later resurrected Hippolyta in Wonder Woman Vol 3 #8. \n\n;The OMAC Project\n\nOne of the events that led to Infinite Crisis was of Wonder Woman killing the villain Maxwell Lord in Wonder Woman (vol. 2) #219. Maxwell Lord was mind-controlling Superman, who as a result was near to killing Batman. Wonder Woman tried to stop Superman, Lord (who was unable to mind control her) made Superman see her as his enemy Doomsday trying to kill Lois Lane. Superman then attacked Wonder Woman, and a vicious battle ensued. Buying herself time by slicing Superman's throat with her tiara, Wonder Woman caught Lord in her Lasso of Truth and demanded to know how to stop his control over Superman. As the lasso forced the wearer to speak only the truth, Lord told her that the only way to stop him was to kill him. Left with no choice, Wonder Woman snapped Lord's neck and ended his control over Superman. Unknown to her, the entire scene was broadcast live around every channel in the world by Brother Eye. The viewers were not aware of the entire situation, and saw only Wonder Woman murdering a Justice League associate. Wonder Woman's actions put her at odds with Batman and Superman, as they saw Wonder Woman as a cold-blooded killer, despite the fact that she saved their lives. \n\n;One Year Later\n\nAt the end of Infinite Crisis, Wonder Woman temporarily retires from her costumed identity. Diana, once again using the alias Diana Prince, joins the Department of Metahuman Affairs. Donna Troy becomes the new Wonder Woman and is captured by Diana's enemies. Diana then goes on a mission to rescue her sister, battling Circe and Hercules. Diana defeats the villains, freeing Donna and takes up the role of Wonder Woman again. Circe places a spell on Diana, which renders Diana into a normal, powerless human being when in the role of Diana Prince; her powers come to her only when she is in the role of Wonder Woman. \n\n;The Circle\n\nThe storyline \"The Circle\" was focused on the revelation of a failed assassination attempt on Diana when she was a baby, by four rogue Amazons. These Amazons - Myrto, Charis, Philomela and Alkyone, collectively referred to as The Circle - were Hippolyta's personal guards and were extremely loyal and devoted to her. However, when Hippolyta decided to raise a daughter, The Circle was horrified and considered the baby ill-fate, one who would ruin their entire race. Thus, after Diana was sculpted out of clay and brought to life, The Circle decided to assassinate the baby. Their attempt was foiled however, and the four Amazons were imprisoned. After years, the Circle escaped their prisons with the help of Captain Nazi, and decided to accomplish their previously failed mission and kill Diana. Diana defeated Myrto, Charis, Philomela and then approached Alkyone, who runs off and succumbs to her death by falling into the ocean. The other three Amazons return to their prisons. \n\nIssue #600 introduced Wonder Woman to an alternate time-line created by the Gods in which Themyscira had been destroyed and the Amazons scattered around the world. In this timeline, Diana is an orphan raised in New York who is learning to cope with her powers. The entire world has forgotten Wonder Woman's existence and the main story of this run was of Diana trying to restore reality even though she does not properly remember it herself. Diana has no memories of her prior adventures as Wonder Woman, recollecting her memories in bits and pieces and receiving different abilities and resources (such as the power of flight and her lasso) during the progression of her adventure. A trio of Death Goddesses called The Morrigan acted as Wonder Woman's main enemies. Diana ultimately defeats the evil goddesses and returns everything back to normal. \n\n21st Century\n\nThe New 52\n\nIn September 2011, DC Comics relaunched its entire publication line, dubbing the event the New 52. Among the major changes to the character, Wonder Woman now appears wearing a new costume similar to her older one, and has a completely new origin. In this new timeline, Wonder Woman is no longer a clay figure brought to life by the magic of the gods, but the goddess daughter of Queen Hippolyta and Zeus: King of the Greek Gods. Her original origin is revealed as a cover story to explain Diana's birth as a means to protect her from Hera's wrath. Currently, Diana has taken on the role and title as the new \"God of War\". \n\nThe Greek messenger god, Hermes, entrusts Wonder Woman with the protection of Zola, a young woman, who is pregnant with Zeus's child, from Hera, seething with jealousy and determined to kill the child. With the appearance of a bizarre, new, chalk-white enemy, the goddess Strife (a reimagined version of Eris, the goddess of discord who had battled Wonder Woman in post-Crisis continuity), Wonder Woman discovers she, herself, is the natural-born daughter of Hippolyta and Zeus, who, after a violent clash, became lovers. Hippolyta revealed Diana's earlier origin story to be a lie, spread amongst the Amazons to protect Diana from the wrath of Hera, who is known for hunting and killing several illegitimate offspring of Zeus.\n\nThe first of these half-mortal siblings to reveal himself to Wonder Woman was her older half-brother, Lennox Sandsmark, who could transform himself into living, marble-like stone and, before his death, was revealed to be the father of Wonder Girl (Cassie Sandsmark). His killer, the First Born, the eldest progeny of Zeus, would become Wonder Woman's first major super-villain of the New 52.\n\nThe story then focuses on Wonder Woman's quest to rescue Zola from Hades, who had abducted her and taken her to Hell at the end of the sixth issue of the series. The male children of the Amazons are introduced and Diana learns about the birth of her \"brothers\" - the Amazons used to infrequently invade ships coming near their island and force themselves on the sailors, before killing them. After nine months, the birth of the resulting female children was highly celebrated and they were inducted into the ranks of the Amazons while the male children were rejected. In order to save the male children from being drowned to death by the Amazons, Hephaestus traded weapons to the Amazons in exchange for them. \n\nAfter saving Zola from Hades, Wonder Woman tries to protect her further from Apollo, as it is prophesied that one of Zeus' children will be his downfall whom Apollo considers to be Zola's child. Wonder Woman receives the power of flight by one of Hermes' feathers piercing her thigh and Zola's baby is stolen by Hermes at the end and given to Demeter. The issue's last page shows a dark and mysterious man rising from the snow, taking a helmet and disappearing. This man is later revealed to be Zeus' first son, known only as First Born, who seeks to rule over Olympus and the rest of the world, and take Diana as his bride.\n\nA stand-alone #0 issue was released in September which explored Diana's childhood and her tutelage under Ares, the God of War, now known most often as simply 'War'. The issue was narrated in the style of a typical Silver Age comic book and saw Diana in her childhood years. The main plot of the issue was Diana training under War as he thought of her being an extraordinary girl with immense potential. The issue ultimately concluded with Diana learning and experiencing the importance of mercy, as she hesitates and refuses to kill the Minotaur - a task given to her by War; however, this show of mercy makes her a failure in War's eyes. Later in the series, Wonder Woman is forced to kill War during a conflict with her evil half-brother, Zeus' son First Born, and herself becomes the God of War. After the Amazons are restored, she rules over them both as a warrior queen and God of War, as the ongoing conflict with First Born escalates. At the end of Azzarello's run, as part of a final conflict, Wonder Woman kills First Born, while Zeke is revealed to have be Zeus' plan for resurrection, with Zola revealed to have been a mortal shell for the goddess Athena, who gave birth to Zeus just as he once did to her. Wonder Woman pleads with Athena not to allow the Zola personality, whom she has grown to love as a friend, die with Athena's awakening. Athena leaves the site in animal form, leaving a stunned and confused Zola behind with Wonder Woman. \n\nWonder Woman appears as one of the lead characters in the Justice League title written by Geoff Johns and drawn by Jim Lee that was launched in 2011 as part of the New 52. In August 2012, she and Superman shared a kiss in Justice League Vol 2 #12, which has since developed into a romantic relationship. DC launched a Superman/Wonder Woman series that debuted in late 2013, which focuses both the threats they face together, and on their romance as a \"Power Couple\". \n\nAfter the events of Convergence, Wonder Woman would don a new costume. She would also face Donna Troy, who is now reimagined as a villanous doppellganger created by a vengeful Amazon elder, not only to physically defeat Wonder Woman but also to outmaneuver her in Themyscirian politics.\n\nEarth 2\n\nThe New 52 version of Earth 2 was introduced in Earth 2 #1 (2012). In that issue, the Earth 2 Wonder Woman is introduced via flashback. She, along with Superman and Batman, are depicted dying in battle with forces from Apokolips five years in the past. This Wonder Woman worshiped the deities of Roman mythology as opposed to the Greek; the Roman gods perish as a result of the conflict. An earlier version of the Earth-2 Wonder Woman, prior to the Apokoliptian invasion, is seen in the comic book Batman/Superman, where she is seen riding a pegasus.\n\nIn Earth 2 #8 (2013), Wonder Woman's adult daughter, Fury, is introduced. She is loyal to the Apokoliptian Steppenwolf. \n\nDC Rebirth\n\nIn 2016, DC Comics started DC Rebirth, a relaunch of its entire line of comic books.\n\nFollowing the events of the Darkseid War, Wonder Woman is told by the dying Myrina Black that on the night of her birth, another child was born. This child was revealed to be male, known as Jason, and is said to be incredibly powerful. Wonder Woman makes it her mission to find him. At the same time, she finds the truth behind her origin is now cluttered, as she remembers two versions: the Pre-New 52 one, and the New 52 rendition. She cannot locate Themiscyra or her fellow Amazons and the Lasso of Truth does not work for her anymore. She can no longer get into Mount Olympus so she tracks down Cheetah to get help.\n\nCultural impact\n\nReception \n\nThe early Wonder Woman stories featured an abundant amount of bondage portrayals, which had critics worried. However, the purpose of these bondage portrayals was for the effect it had on readers.\n\nWonder Woman was named the 20th greatest comic book character by Empire magazine. She was ranked sixth in Comics Buyer's Guide's \"100 Sexiest Women in Comics\" list. In May 2011, Wonder Woman placed fifth on IGN's Top 100 Comic Book Heroes of All Time. \n\nNot all reaction to Wonder Woman has been positive. In the controversial Seduction of the Innocent, psychiatrist Fredric Wertham claimed Wonder Woman's strength and independence made her a lesbian. \n\nGloria Steinem, founder of Ms. magazine was responsible for the return of Wonder Woman's original abilities. Offended that the most famous female superhero had been depowered, Steinem placed Wonder Woman (in costume) on the cover of the first issue of Ms. (1972) — Warner Communications, DC Comics' owner, was an investor — which also contained an appreciative essay about the character. Wonder Woman's powers and traditional costume, were restored in issue #204 (January–February 1973).\n\nIn 1972, just months after the groundbreaking US Supreme Court decision Roe v. Wade, science fiction author Samuel R. Delany had planned a story for Ms. that culminated in a plainsclothes Wonder Woman protecting an abortion clinic. However, Steinem disapproved of Wonder Woman being out of costume, and the controversial story line never happened. \n\nIn 2016, Sensation Comics featured Wonder Woman officiating a same-sex wedding (Issue #48) drawn by Australian illustrator Jason Badower. Inspired by the June Supreme Court ruling that established marriage equality in all 50 United States, Badower says DC Comics was \"fantastic\" about his idea for the issue. In an interview with The Sydney Morning Herald, he said his editor \"Was like 'great, I love it! Let's do it. It was almost anticlimactic.\" \n\nIn other media\n\nWonder Woman has appeared in a wide variety of media outside of comic books since her initial appearance including comic strips, film, television and video games.\n\nThe first serious attempt at creating a live action series on Wonder Woman was a 1974 pilot movie. It was written and produced by John D. F. Black, and starred Cathy Lee Crosby as Wonder Woman. This incarnation of the character was blonde, wore a red and blue jumpsuit, and acted more like a secret agent rather than a superhero. This pilot was not picked up for a regular television series. A successful television series based on Wonder Woman finally emerged in 1975, airing initially on ABC for its first season and CBS for its second and third season. This version of the character was written by Douglas S. Cramer, and retained significant aspects from the comic book version. It starred Lynda Carter in the lead role as Wonder Woman and originally aired from 1975 to 1979. The show earned solid ratings and helped Wonder Woman reach the peak of her popularity. \n\nAttempts have been made to produce a television series on the character in more recent times, but none have emerged successfully yet. In 2011, NBC released a pilot for a television series starring Adrianne Palicki as Wonder Woman. The pilot was not taken up for a regular series however. In 2012, it was revealed that The CW, Warner Bros. Television and DC Comics are developing a script for a possible television series, titled Amazon, about the origin of Wonder Woman. She appeared in 2013 in the comic book continuation of Smallville in a 4-issue story arc titled Olympus, which features a Smallville take on her origins, her first appearance as Wonder Woman, and her and Superman's first adventure together. It also features Hippolyta, Steve, Lois, and Martha Kent, and has been described as the comic realization of an idea that couldn't be brought to life during Smallvilles TV run because of the Wonder Woman NBC pilot.\n\nIn animation, Wonder Woman has appeared in a variety of shows - notably Super Friends, Justice League, Justice League Unlimited and Warner Premiere animated films that feature the Justice League. In 2009, Warner Premiere released the Wonder Woman animated film featuring Keri Russell as the voice of Wonder Woman. The film was well received. \n\nA Lego minifigure version of Wonder Woman appeared in The Lego Movie, which was released in February 2014. The character is voiced by Cobie Smulders. This marked her first theatrical film appearance.\n\nGal Gadot appeared as the character in Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice, starring Henry Cavill as Superman and Ben Affleck as Batman. The film was released in March 2016 and marked her first live action theatrical film appearance. Her outfit features a blue bottom resembling a Roman war skirt or Fustanella.\n\nGadot will also star in the character's live-action film Wonder Woman, set to be released on June 2, 2017, Justice League, set to be released on November 17, 2017, and Justice League 2, set to be released on June 14, 2019. \n\nMany alternative versions of Wonder Woman have appeared in comics, such as in various Elseworlds titles etc.\n\nCollected editions\n\nChronicles\n\nArchive editions\n\nShowcase\n\nVolume 1\n\nVolume 2\n\nVolume 3\n\nVolume 4\n\nOriginal graphic novels\n\nWonder Woman '77\n\nSensation Comics featuring Wonder Woman\n\nSuperman Wonder Woman\n\nMiscellaneous" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Wonder-woman", "Wonder women", "Wonder Lady", "Wonder Woman (undeveloped film)", "Wonder Woman (comic book)", "Wonder-Woman", "Wonder Woman: Spirit of Truth", "Wonder Tot", "Wonder Woman (movie)", "Wonderwoman", "Wonder woman", "Princess Diana (comics)", "WonderWoman", "Wonder Woman" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "princess diana comics", "wonderwoman", "wonder woman spirit of truth", "wonder woman movie", "wonder tot", "wonder women", "wonder lady", "wonder woman comic book", "wonder woman", "wonder woman undeveloped film" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "wonder woman", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Wonder Woman" }
"""Last night I dreamt I went to Manderley again,"" was the first line of what Daphne du Maurier novel?"	tc_357	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Manderley.txt", "Daphne_du_Maurier.txt" ], "title": [ "Manderley", "Daphne du Maurier" ], "wiki_context": [ "Manderley is the fictional estate of the character Maxim de Winter, and it plays a central part in Daphne du Maurier's 1938 novel, Rebecca, and in the film adaptation by Alfred Hitchcock. Located in southern England (possibly Cornwall where the author herself lived, but this is never explicitly stated), Manderley is a typical country estate: it is filled with family heirlooms, is run by a large domestic staff and is open to the public on certain days. In spite of the house's beauty, the main character, the unnamed \"I\", who has become mistress of Manderley, senses an atmosphere of doom about it, due to the death of Max's first wife (the titular Rebecca), and it is hinted that she haunts the estate. Childhood visits to Milton Hall, Cambridgeshire, home of the Fitzwilliam family, influenced the descriptions of Manderley, especially the interior. The adult du Maurier's Cornish home near Fowey, called Menabilly, was influential in her descriptions of the setting. Several years after writing the novel, she leased the manor (1945–1967) from the Rashleigh family, who have owned it since the 16th century. Like Menabilly, Manderley could not be seen from the road.\n\nIn popular culture\n\nAs a result of the novel's popularity, the name \"Manderley\" became extremely popular as a name for ordinary houses, and at one time was the most common house name in the UK. Notably, the Irish singer Enya renamed her Dublin castle Manderley Castle.\nManderley Castle features in one of the Anno Dracula books by Kim Newman.\nDanish film director Lars von Trier's 2005 film, Manderlay, is set in a country estate with a large domestic staff, similar to Manderley from Rebecca.\nIn Stephen King (1998) Bag of Bones novel, like a generic place actually identified with Sara Laughs in the main character (Mike Noonan) dreams.", "Dame Daphne du Maurier, Lady Browning DBE (; 13 May 1907 – 19 April 1989) was an English author and playwright.\n\nAlthough she is classed as a romantic novelist, her stories seldom feature a conventional happy ending, and have been described as ‘moody and resonant’ with overtones of the paranormal. An obituarist wrote: \"Du Maurier was mistress of calculated irresolution. She did not want to put her readers' minds at rest. She wanted her riddles to persist. She wanted the novels to continue to haunt us beyond their endings.\" These bestselling works were not at first taken seriously by the critics, but have since earned an enduring reputation for storytelling craft. Many have been successfully adapted into films, including the novels Rebecca and Jamaica Inn, and the short stories The Birds and Don't Look Now.\n\nHer father was the actor Gerald du Maurier, and her grandfather was the artist and writer George du Maurier.\n\nEarly life\n\nDaphne du Maurier was born in London, the middle child of three daughters of the prominent actor-manager Sir Gerald du Maurier and actress Muriel Beaumont (maternal niece of journalist, author, and lecturer William Comyns Beaumont).[http://www.enotes.com/short-story-criticism/du-maurier-daphne/richard-kelly-essay-date-1987 Daphne du Maurier profile by Richard Kelly (essay date 1987)], \"The World of the Macabre: The Short Stories\", Daphne du Maurier, Twayne Publishers, 1987, pp. 123–40. Her grandfather was the author and Punch cartoonist George du Maurier, who created the character of Svengali in the novel Trilby. Her elder sister Angela also became a writer, and her younger sister Jeanne was a painter.\n\nHer family connections helped her in establishing her literary career, and du Maurier published some of her early work in Beaumont's Bystander magazine. Her first novel, The Loving Spirit, was published in 1931. Du Maurier was also the cousin of the Llewelyn Davies boys, who served as J.M. Barrie's inspiration for the characters in the play Peter Pan, or The Boy Who Wouldn't Grow Up. As a young child, she met many of the brightest stars of the theatre, thanks to the celebrity of her father. On meeting Tallulah Bankhead, she was quoted as saying that the actress was the most beautiful creature she had ever seen. \n\nNovels, short stories, and biographies\n\nLiterary critics have sometimes berated du Maurier's works for not being \"intellectually heavyweight\" like those of George Eliot or Iris Murdoch. By the 1950s, when the socially and politically critical \"angry young men\" were in vogue, her writing was felt by some to belong to a bygone age. Today, she has been reappraised as a first-rate storyteller, a mistress of suspense. Her ability to recreate a sense of place is much admired, and her work remains popular worldwide. For several decades she was the most popular author for library book borrowings. The author Sarah Waters states on her website, \"I'd like to have written Rebecca, by Daphne du Maurier. Du Maurier's writing is a bit ropey at times, but her novels and stories are fantastically moody and resonant, and Rebecca, in particular, just feels so fundamentally right – like a myth, or a fairy tale.\" \n\nThe novel Rebecca (1938) became one of du Maurier's most successful works - it was an immediate hit on its publication, went on to sell nearly 3 million copies between 1938 and 1965, has never gone out of print, and has been adapted for both stage and screen several times. In the U.S. she won the National Book Award for favourite novel of 1938, voted by members of the American Booksellers Association.\n\"Book About Plants Receives Award: Dr. Fairchild's 'Garden' Work Cited by Booksellers\", The New York Times, 15 February 1939, page 20. ProQuest Historical Newspapers The New York Times (1851-2007).\n• Du Maurier participating in the Hotel Astor luncheon by transatlantic telephone from London to New York. She called for writers and distributors to offset, in the literary world, the contemporary trials of civilisation in the political world. In the UK, it was listed at number 14 of the \"nation's best loved novel\" on the BBC survey The Big Read. Other significant works include The Scapegoat, The House on the Strand, and The King's General. The last is set in the middle of the first and second English Civil Wars. Although written from the Royalist perspective of her adopted Cornwall, it gives a fairly neutral view of this period of history.\n\nSeveral of her other novels have also been adapted for the screen, including Jamaica Inn, Frenchman's Creek, Hungry Hill, and My Cousin Rachel (1951). The Hitchcock film The Birds (1963) is based on a treatment of one of her short stories, as is the film Don't Look Now (1973). Of the films, du Maurier often complained that the only ones she liked were Alfred Hitchcock's Rebecca and Nicolas Roeg's Don't Look Now. Hitchcock's treatment of Jamaica Inn was disavowed by both director and author, due to a complete re-write of the ending to accommodate the ego of its star, Charles Laughton. Du Maurier also felt that Olivia de Havilland was wrongly cast as the anti-heroine of My Cousin Rachel. Frenchman's Creek fared rather better in a lavish Technicolor version released in 1944. Du Maurier later regretted her choice of Alec Guinness as the lead in the film of The Scapegoat, which she partly financed. In 1989, Indian director V. K. Pavithran adapted her short story \"No Motive\" from the collection The Rendezvous and Other Stories (1980) for his critically acclaimed mystery thriller Utharam (Answer).\n\nDu Maurier was often categorised as a \"romantic novelist\" (a term she deplored), though most of her novels, with the notable exception of Frenchman's Creek, are quite different from the stereotypical format of a Georgette Heyer novel. Du Maurier's novels rarely have a happy ending, and her brand of romanticism is often at odds with the sinister overtones and shadows of the paranormal she so favoured. In this light, she has more in common with the \"sensation novels\" of Wilkie Collins and others, which she admired. Du Maurier's novel Mary Anne (1954) is a fictionalised account of the story of her great-great-grandmother, Mary Anne Clarke née Thompson (1776–1852), who, from 1803-08, was mistress of Frederick Augustus, Duke of York and Albany (1763–1827). He was the \"Grand Old Duke of York\" of the nursery rhyme, a son of King George III and brother of the later King George IV. The central character of her last novel, Rule Britannia, is an aging and eccentric actress who was based on Gertrude Lawrence and Gladys Cooper (to whom it is dedicated).\n\nIn her short stories du Maurier was able to give free rein to the darker side of her imagination; \"The Birds\", \"Don't Look Now\", \"The Apple Tree\" and \"The Blue Lenses\" are finely-crafted tales of terror that shocked and surprised her audience in equal measure. As her biographer Margaret Forster wrote: 'She satisfied all the questionable criteria of popular fiction, and yet satisfied too the exacting requirements of \"real literature\".' Her stories read like classic tales of terror and suspense but written with a sure feel for character, imagery and suggestive meaning.\n\nA more recent discovery of a collection of du Maurier's forgotten short stories, written when the author was 21, provides an intriguing insight into her mature style. One of them, The Doll, is a suspense-driven gothic tale about a young woman's obsession with a mechanical male sex doll; it has been deemed by du Maurier's son Kits Browning to be \"quite ahead of its time\". \n\nIn later life, she wrote non-fiction, including several biographies that were well received. This, no doubt, came from a deep-rooted desire to be accepted as a serious writer, comparing herself to her neighbour, A.L. Rowse, the celebrated historian and essayist, who lived a few miles away from her house near Fowey. Of the family novels/biographies that du Maurier wrote of her own ancestry, Gerald, the biography of her father, was the most lauded. She later wrote The Glass-Blowers, which traces her French Huguenot ancestry and gives a vivid depiction of the French Revolution. The du Mauriers is a sequel of sorts describing the somewhat problematic ways in which the family moved from France to England in the 19th century and finally Mary Anne, the novel based on the life of a notable, and infamous, English ancestor – her great-grandmother Mary Anne Clarke, former mistress of Frederick, Duke of York.\n\nHer final novels reveal just how far her writing style had developed. The House on the Strand (1969) combines elements of \"mental time-travel\", a tragic love affair in 14th century Cornwall, and the dangers of using mind-altering drugs. Her final novel, Rule Britannia, written post-Vietnam, plays with the resentment of English people in general and Cornish people in particular at the increasing dominance of the U.S.\n\nPlays\n\nDaphne du Maurier wrote three plays. Her first was a successful adaptation of her novel Rebecca, which opened at the Queen's Theatre in London on 5 March 1940 in a production by George Devine, starring Celia Johnson and Owen Nares as the De Winters and Margaret Rutherford as Mrs. Danvers. At the end of May, following a run of 181 performances, the production transferred to the Strand Theatre, with Jill Furse taking over as the second Mrs De Winter and Mary Merrall as Mrs Danvers, with a further run of 176 performances.\n\nIn the summer of 1943, she began writing the autobiographically inspired drama The Years Between about the unexpected return of a senior officer, thought killed in action, who finds that his wife has taken his seat as Member of Parliament and has started a romantic relationship with a local farmer. It was first staged at the Opera House, Manchester in 1944 and then transferred to London, opening at Wyndham's Theatre on 10 January 1945, starring Nora Swinburne and Clive Brook. The production, directed by Irene Hentschel, became a long-running hit, completing 617 performances. After 60 years of neglect, it was revived by Caroline Smith at the Orange Tree Theatre in Richmond upon Thames on 5 September 2007, starring Karen Ascoe and Mark Tandy. \n\nBetter known is her third play, September Tide, about a middle-aged woman whose bohemian artist son-in-law falls for her. The central character of Stella was originally based on Ellen Doubleday and was merely what Ellen might have been in an English setting and in a different set of circumstances. Again directed by Irene Hentschel, it opened at the Aldwych Theatre on 15 December 1948 with Gertrude Lawrence as Stella, enjoying a run of 267 performances before closing at the beginning of August 1949. It was to lead to a close personal and social relationship between Daphne and Gertrude.\n\nSince then, September Tide has received occasional revivals, most recently at the Comedy Theatre in London in January 1994, starring film and stage actress Susannah York as Stella with Michael Praed as the saturnine young artist. Reviewing the production for the Richmond & Twickenham Times, critic John Thaxter wrote: \"The play and performances delicately explore their developing relationship. And as the September gales batter the Cornish coast, isolating Stella's cottage from the outside world, she surrenders herself to the truth of a moment of unconventional tenderness.\"\n\nIn 2005, September Tide adapted by Moya O'Shea and produced and directed by Tracey Neale was broadcast on BBC Radio 4 and starred Paula Wilcox as Stella and Jonathan Firth as Evan. It has since been repeated on BBC 7.\n\nPersonal names, titles and honours\n\nShe was known as Daphne du Maurier from 1907 to 1932 when she became Mrs Frederick Browning while still writing as Daphne du Maurier (1932–46). She was titled Lady Browning; Daphne du Maurier (1946–69). Later, on being created Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire, she became Lady Browning; Dame Daphne du Maurier DBE (1969–89).\n\nWhen in the Queen's Birthday Honours List for June 1969 Daphne du Maurier was created a Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire, she accepted but never used the title. According to Margaret Forster, she told no one about the honour, so that even her children learned of it only from the newspapers. \"She thought of pleading illness for the investiture, until her children insisted it would be a great day for the older grandchildren. So she went through with it, though she slipped out quietly afterwards to avoid the attention of the press.\" \n\nAccusations of plagiarism\n \nShortly after Rebecca was published in Brazil, critic Álvaro Lins (pt) and other readers pointed out many resemblances to the 1934 book, A Sucessora (The Successor), by Brazilian writer Carolina Nabuco. According to Nabuco and her editor, not only the main plot, but also situations and entire dialogues had been copied. Du Maurier denied having copied Nabuco's book, as did her publisher, pointing out that the plot elements used in Rebecca said to have been plagiarized were quite common. \n\nThe controversy was the subject of an article published on 6 November 2002 in The New York Times. The article said that according to Nabuco's memoirs, when the Hitchcock film Rebecca was first shown in Brazil, United Artists wanted Nabuco to sign a document stating that the similarities were merely a coincidence but she refused. \n\nThe Times quoted Nabuco's memoirs as saying, \"When the film version of 'Rebecca' came to Brazil, the producers' lawyer sought out my lawyer to ask him that I sign a document admitting the possibility of there having been a mere coincidence. I would be compensated with a quantity described as 'of considerable value.' I did not consent, naturally.\" The Times article said, \"Ms. Nabuco had translated her novel into French and sent it to a publisher in Paris, who she learned was also Ms. du Maurier's only after Rebecca became a worldwide success. The novels have identical plots and even some identical episodes.\"\n\nAuthor Frank Baker believed that du Maurier had plagiarised his novel The Birds (1936) in her short story \"The Birds\" (1952). Du Maurier had been working as a reader for Baker's publisher Peter Davies at the time he submitted the book. When Alfred Hitchcock's The Birds was released in 1963, based on du Maurier's story, Baker considered, but was advised against, pursuing costly litigation against Universal Studios. \n\nPersonal life\n\nShe married Major (later Lieutenant-General) Frederick \"Boy\" Browning in 1932, with whom she had three children:\n* Tessa (b. 1933) married Major Peter de Zulueta, whom she divorced; she later married David Montgomery, 2nd Viscount Montgomery of Alamein in 1970.\n* Flavia (b. 1937) married Captain Alastair Tower, whom she divorced, before marrying General Sir Peter Leng.\n* Christian (b. 1940) became a photographer and film-maker; he married Olive White (Miss Ireland 1962).\n\nBiographers have noted that the marriage was at times somewhat chilly and that du Maurier could be aloof and distant to her children, especially the girls, when immersed in her writing.Margaret Forster, Daphne du Maurier: The Secret Life of the Renowned Storyteller, Chatto & Windus. Her husband died in 1965 and soon after Daphne moved to Kilmarth, near Par, Cornwall, which became the setting for The House on the Strand.\n\nDu Maurier has often been painted as a frostily private recluse who rarely mixed in society or gave interviews. An exception to this came after the release of the film A Bridge Too Far, in which her late husband was portrayed in a less-than-flattering light. Incensed, she wrote to the national newspapers, decrying what she considered unforgivable treatment. Once out of the glare of the public spotlight, however, many remembered her as a warm and immensely funny person who was a welcoming hostess to guests at Menabilly,Oriel Malet (ed.), Letters from Menabilly, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1993. the house she leased for many years (from the Rashleigh family) in Cornwall. Letters from Menabilly contains the letters from du Maurier to Oriel Malet over 30 years, with Malet's commentary. (Malet's real name is Auriel Malet Vaughan.)\n\nSecret sexual relationships\n\nAfter her death in 1989, references were made to her reputed bisexuality; an affair with Gertrude Lawrence, as well as her attraction to Ellen Doubleday, the wife of her American publisher Nelson Doubleday, were cited. Du Maurier stated in her memoirs that her father had wanted a son; and, being a tomboy, she had naturally wished to have been born a boy. Her father, however, was vociferously homophobic.\n\nIn correspondence released by her family for the first time to her biographer, Margaret Forster, du Maurier explained to a trusted few her own unique slant on her sexuality: her personality, she explained, comprised two distinct people – the loving wife and mother (the side she showed to the world) and the lover (a decidedly male energy) hidden to virtually everyone and the power behind her artistic creativity. According to the biography, du Maurier believed the male energy fuelled her creative life as a writer. Forster maintains that it became evident in personal letters revealed after her death, however, that du Maurier's denial of her bisexuality unveiled a homophobic fear of her true nature.\n\nThe children of both du Maurier and Gertrude Lawrence have objected strongly to the suggestions about their mothers. Michael Thornton maintained that Forster did not know du Maurier; those who did knew that she was not lesbian, although there was a good deal of 'play-acting'. \"It was Menabilly, her \"house of secrets\", and her father, that remained the enduring loves of her life, not Gertrude Lawrence or Ellen Doubleday.\" \n\nDeath\n\nDu Maurier died on 19 April 1989, aged 81, at her home in Cornwall, which had been the setting for many of her books. Her body was cremated and her ashes scattered at Kilmarth.Margaret Forster, ‘Du Maurier , Dame Daphne (1907–1989)’, rev., Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004 [http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/39829 accessed 19 Jan 2009]\n\nCultural references \n\nEnglish Heritage caused controversy in June 2008 when they rejected an application to commemorate her home in Hampstead with a Blue Plaque. In 2011 a plaque was mounted on Cannon Cottage in Well Street, Hampstead, put up by the Heath and Hampstead Society. \nDaphne du Maurier was one of five \"Women of Achievement\" selected for a set of British stamps issued in August 1996.\nIn 2013, Daphne du Maurier’s grandson, Ned Browning, released a collection of men's and women's watches based on characters from the novel Rebecca, under the brand name du Maurier Watches. \nThe dialogue of Nikos Nikolaidis' 1987 film Morning Patrol contains excerpts taken from published works authored by Daphne du Maurier.\nThe character of Bedelia Du Maurier in the television series Hannibal was named after du Maurier because its creator Bryan Fuller is a fan of Alfred Hitchcock, who had adapted her book for The Birds. \n\nPublications\n\nFiction\n\n The Loving Spirit (1931)\n* I'll Never Be Young Again (1932)\n* The Progress of Julius (1933) (later re-published as Julius)\n* Jamaica Inn (1936)\n* Rebecca (1938)\n* Rebecca (1940) (du Maurier's stage adaptation of her novel)\n* Happy Christmas (1940) (short story)\n* Come Wind, Come Weather (1940) (short story collection)\n* Frenchman's Creek (1941)\n* Hungry Hill (1943)\n* The Years Between (1945) (play)\n* The King's General (1946)\n* September Tide (1948) (play)\n* The Parasites (1949)\n* My Cousin Rachel (1951)\n* The Apple Tree (1952) (short story collection, AKA Kiss Me Again, Stranger)\n* Mary Anne (1954)\n* The Scapegoat (1957)\n* Early Stories (1959) (short story collection, stories written between 1927–1930) \n* The Breaking Point (1959) (short story collection, AKA The Blue Lenses)\n* Castle Dor (1961) (with Sir Arthur Quiller-Couch) \n* The Birds and Other Stories (1963) (republication of The Apple Tree) \n* The Glass-Blowers (1963)\n* The Flight of the Falcon (1965)\n* The House on the Strand (1969)\n* Not After Midnight (1971) (short story collection, AKA Don't Look Now) \n* Rule Britannia (1972)\n* The Rendezvous and Other Stories (1980) (short story collection)\n* Classics of the Macabre (1987) (anthology of earlier stories, illustrated by Michael Foreman)\n\nNon-fiction\n\n* Gerald: A Portrait (1934)\n* The du Mauriers (1937)\n* The Young George du Maurier: a selection of his letters 1860–67 (1951)\n* The Infernal World of Branwell Brontë (1960)\n* Vanishing Cornwall (includes photographs by her son Christian, 1967)\n* Golden Lads: Sir Francis Bacon, Anthony Bacon and their Friends (1975)\n* The Winding Stair: Francis Bacon, His Rise and Fall (1976)\n* Growing Pains – the Shaping of a Writer (a.k.a. Myself When Young – the Shaping of a Writer, 1977)\n* Enchanted Cornwall (1989)" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Rifkah", "Rifko", "Rifka", "Rifkoh", "Ribhqah", "Rivqah", "Rebeccah", "Rebekah", "Rivqa", "Rivko", "Rivka", "Rebbecca", "Rebecca", "Rivkoh" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "rifkoh", "rebeccah", "rivka", "rifko", "ribhqah", "rebekah", "rifkah", "rebbecca", "rivqa", "rivqah", "rivko", "rebecca", "rivkoh", "rifka" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "rebecca", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Rebecca" }
"What is the actual title of Leonardo da Vinci's ""Mona Lisa""?"	tc_358	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Leonardo_da_Vinci.txt", "Mona_Lisa.txt" ], "title": [ "Leonardo da Vinci", "Mona Lisa" ], "wiki_context": [ "Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci, more commonly Leonardo da Vinci or simply Leonardo (15 April 14522 May 1519), was an Italian polymath whose areas of interest included invention, painting, sculpting, architecture, science, music, mathematics, engineering, literature, anatomy, geology, astronomy, botany, writing, history, and cartography. He has been variously called the father of paleontology, ichnology, and architecture, and is widely considered one of the greatest painters of all time. Sometimes credited with the inventions of the parachute, helicopter and tank, he epitomized the Renaissance humanist ideal.\n\nMany historians and scholars regard Leonardo as the prime exemplar of the \"Universal Genius\" or \"Renaissance Man\", an individual of \"unquenchable curiosity\" and \"feverishly inventive imagination\". According to art historian Helen Gardner, the scope and depth of his interests were without precedent in recorded history, and \"his mind and personality seem to us superhuman, while the man himself mysterious and remote\". Marco Rosci notes that while there is much speculation regarding his life and personality, his view of the world was logical rather than mysterious, and that the empirical methods he employed were unorthodox for his time. \n\nBorn out of wedlock to a notary, Piero da Vinci, and a peasant woman, Caterina, in Vinci in the region of Florence, Leonardo was educated in the studio of the renowned Florentine painter Andrea del Verrocchio. Much of his earlier working life was spent in the service of Ludovico il Moro in Milan. He later worked in Rome, Bologna and Venice, and he spent his last years in France at the home awarded to him by Francis I of France.\n\nLeonardo was, and is, renowned primarily as a painter. Among his works, the Mona Lisa is the most famous and most parodied portrait and The Last Supper the most reproduced religious painting of all time, their fame approached only by Michelangelo's The Creation of Adam. Leonardo's drawing of the Vitruvian Man is also regarded as a cultural icon, being reproduced on items as varied as the euro coin, textbooks, and T-shirts. Perhaps fifteen of his paintings have survived.There are 15 significant artworks which are ascribed, either in whole or in large part, to Leonardo by most art historians. This number is made up principally of paintings on panel but includes a mural, a large drawing on paper and two works which are in the early stages of preparation. There are a number of other works that have also been variously attributed to Leonardo. Nevertheless, these few works, together with his notebooks, which contain drawings, scientific diagrams, and his thoughts on the nature of painting, compose a contribution to later generations of artists rivalled only by that of his contemporary, Michelangelo.\n\nLeonardo is revered for his technological ingenuity. He conceptualised flying machines, a type of armoured fighting vehicle, concentrated solar power, an adding machine, and the double hull, also outlining a rudimentary theory of plate tectonics. Relatively few of his designs were constructed or even feasible during his lifetime, as the modern scientific approaches to metallurgy and engineering were only in their infancy during the Renaissance. Some of his smaller inventions, however, such as an automated bobbin winder and a machine for testing the tensile strength of wire, entered the world of manufacturing unheralded. A number of Leonardo's most practical inventions are nowadays displayed as working models at the Museum of Vinci. He made substantial discoveries in anatomy, civil engineering, optics, and hydrodynamics, but he did not publish his findings and they had no direct influence on later science. \n\nToday, Leonardo is widely considered one of the most diversely talented individuals ever to have lived. \n\nLife \n\nChildhood, 1452–1466 \n\nLeonardo was born on 15 April 1452 (Old Style) \"at the third hour of the night\" in the Tuscan hill town of Vinci, in the lower valley of the Arno river in the territory of the Medici-ruled Republic of Florence.His birth is recorded in the diary of his paternal grandfather Ser Antonio, as cited by Angela Ottino della Chiesa in Leonardo da Vinci, p. 83 He was the out-of-wedlock son of the wealthy Messer Piero Fruosino di Antonio da Vinci, a Florentine legal notary, and Caterina, a peasant.It has been suggested that Caterina may have been a slave from the Middle East \"or at least, from the Mediterranean\". According to Alessandro Vezzosi, head of the Leonardo Museum in Vinci, there is evidence that Piero owned a Middle Eastern slave called Caterina. That Leonardo had Middle Eastern blood is claimed to be supported by the reconstruction of a fingerprint as reported by The evidence, as stated in the article, is that 60% of people of Middle Eastern origin share the pattern of whirls found on the reconstructed fingerprint. The article also states that the claim is refuted by Simon Cole, associate professor of criminology, law and society at the University of California at Irvine: \"You can't predict one person's race from these kinds of incidences, especially if looking at only one finger.\" See also Leonardo had no surname in the modern sense – \"da Vinci\" simply meaning \"of Vinci\"; his full birth name was \"Lionardo di ser Piero da Vinci\", meaning \"Leonardo, (son) of (Mes)ser Piero from Vinci\". The inclusion of the title \"ser\" indicated that Leonardo's father was a gentleman.\n\nLittle is known about Leonardo's early life. He spent his first five years in the hamlet of Anchiano in the home of his mother, and from 1457 lived in the household of his father, grandparents and uncle, Francesco, in the small town of Vinci. His father had married a sixteen-year-old girl named Albiera Amadori, who loved Leonardo but died young in 1465 without children. When Leonardo was sixteen (1468), his father married again to twenty-year-old Francesca Lanfredini, who also died without children. Piero's legitimate heirs were born from his third wife Margherita di Guglielmo (who gave birth to six children: Antonio, Giulian, Maddalena, Lorenzo, Violante and Domenico) and his fourth and final wife, Lucrezia Cortigiani (who bore him another six children: Margherita, Benedetto, Pandolfo, Guglielmo, Bartolomeo and Giovanni). \n\nIn all Leonardo had twelve half-siblings, who were much younger than him (the last was born when Leonardo was forty years old) and with whom he had very few contacts, but they caused him difficulty after his father's death in the dispute over the inheritance.\n\nLeonardo received an informal education in Latin, geometry and mathematics. In later life, Leonardo recorded only two childhood incidents. One, which he regarded as an omen, was when a kite dropped from the sky and hovered over his cradle, its tail feathers brushing his face. The second occurred while he was exploring in the mountains: he discovered a cave and was both terrified that some great monster might lurk there and driven by curiosity to find out what was inside.\n\nLeonardo's early life has been the subject of historical conjecture. Vasari, the 16th-century biographer of Renaissance painters, tells of how a local peasant made himself a round shield and requested that Ser Piero have it painted for him. Leonardo responded with a painting of a monster spitting fire that was so terrifying that Ser Piero sold it to a Florentine art dealer, who sold it to the Duke of Milan. Meanwhile, having made a profit, Ser Piero bought a shield decorated with a heart pierced by an arrow, which he gave to the peasant. \n\nVerrocchio's workshop, 1466–76 \n\nIn 1466, at the age of fourteen, Leonardo was apprenticed to the artist Andrea di Cione, known as Verrocchio, whose bottega (workshop) was \"one of the finest in Florence\". He apprenticed as a garzone (studio boy) to Andrea del Verrocchio, the leading Florentine painter and sculptor of his day. Other famous painters apprenticed or associated with the workshop include Domenico Ghirlandaio, Perugino, Botticelli, and Lorenzo di Credi. Leonardo would have been exposed to both theoretical training and a vast range of technical skills, including drafting, chemistry, metallurgy, metal working, plaster casting, leather working, mechanics and carpentry as well as the artistic skills of drawing, painting, sculpting and modelling.The \"diverse arts\" and technical skills of Medieval and Renaissance workshops are described in detail in the 12th-century text On Divers Arts by Theophilus Presbyter and in the early 15th-century text Il Libro Dell'arte O Trattato Della Pittui by Cennino Cennini.\n\nMuch of the painted production of Verrocchio's workshop was done by his employees. According to Vasari, Leonardo collaborated with Verrocchio on his The Baptism of Christ, painting the young angel holding Jesus' robe in a manner that was so far superior to his master's that Verrocchio put down his brush and never painted again. On close examination, the painting reveals much that has been painted or touched-up over the tempera using the new technique of oil paint, with the landscape, the rocks that can be seen through the brown mountain stream and much of the figure of Jesus bearing witness to the hand of Leonardo. Leonardo may have been the model for two works by Verrocchio: the bronze statue of David in the Bargello and the Archangel Raphael in Tobias and the Angel.\n\nBy 1472, at the age of twenty, Leonardo qualified as a master in the Guild of Saint Luke, the guild of artists and doctors of medicine, but even after his father set him up in his own workshop, his attachment to Verrocchio was such that he continued to collaborate with him. Leonardo's earliest known dated work is a drawing in pen and ink of the Arno valley, drawn on 5 August 1473.This work is now in the collection of the Uffizi, Drawing No. 8P.\n \n\nProfessional life, 1476–1513 \n\nFlorentine court records of 1476 show that Leonardo and three other young men were charged with sodomy but acquitted; homosexual acts were illegal in Renaissance Florence. From that date until 1478 there is no record of his work or even of his whereabouts. In 1478, he left Verrocchio's studio and was no longer resident at his father's house. One writer, the \"Anonimo\" Gaddiano, claims that in 1480 Leonardo was living with the Medici and working in the Garden of the Piazza San Marco in Florence, a Neo-Platonic academy of artists, poets and philosophers that the Medici had established. In January 1478, he received an independent commission to paint an altarpiece for the Chapel of St. Bernard in the Palazzo Vecchio; in March 1481, he received a second independent commission for The Adoration of the Magi for the monks of San Donato a Scopeto. Neither commission was completed, the second being interrupted when Leonardo went to Milan.\n\nIn 1482, Leonardo, who according to Vasari was a most talented musician, created a silver lyre in the shape of a horse's head. Lorenzo de' Medici sent Leonardo to Milan, bearing the lyre as a gift, to secure peace with Ludovico Sforza, Duke of Milan. At this time Leonardo wrote an often-quoted letter describing the many marvellous and diverse things that he could achieve in the field of engineering and informing Ludovico that he could also paint. \n\nLeonardo worked in Milan from 1482 until 1499. He was commissioned to paint the Virgin of the Rocks for the Confraternity of the Immaculate Conception and The Last Supper for the monastery of Santa Maria delle Grazie. In the spring of 1485, Leonardo travelled to Hungary on behalf of Ludovico to meet Matthias Corvinus, for whom he is believed to have painted a Holy Family. Between 1493 and 1495, Leonardo listed a woman called Caterina among his dependents in his taxation documents. When she died in 1495, the list of funeral expenditures suggests that she was his mother. \n\nLeonardo was employed on many different projects for Ludovico, including the preparation of floats and pageants for special occasions, designs for a dome for Milan Cathedral and a model for a huge equestrian monument to Francesco Sforza, Ludovico's predecessor. Seventy tons of bronze were set aside for casting it. The monument remained unfinished for several years, which was not unusual for Leonardo. In 1492, the clay model of the horse was completed. It surpassed in size the only two large equestrian statues of the Renaissance, Donatello's Gattamelata in Padua and Verrocchio's Bartolomeo Colleoni in Venice, and became known as the \"Gran Cavallo\".Verrocchio's statue of Bartolomeo Colleoni was not cast until 1488, after his death, and after Leonardo had already begun work on the statue for Ludovico. Leonardo began making detailed plans for its casting; however, Michelangelo insulted Leonardo by implying that he was unable to cast it. In November 1494, Ludovico gave the bronze to be used for cannon to defend the city from invasion by Charles VIII.\n\nAt the start of the Second Italian War in 1499, the invading French troops used the life-size clay model for the Gran Cavallo for target practice. With Ludovico Sforza overthrown, Leonardo, with his assistant Salai and friend, the mathematician Luca Pacioli, fled Milan for Venice,della Chiesa, p.85 where he was employed as a military architect and engineer, devising methods to defend the city from naval attack. On his return to Florence in 1500, he and his household were guests of the Servite monks at the monastery of Santissima Annunziata and were provided with a workshop where, according to Vasari, Leonardo created the cartoon of The Virgin and Child with St Anne and St John the Baptist, a work that won such admiration that \"men and women, young and old\" flocked to see it \"as if they were attending a great festival\". \n\nIn Cesena in 1502, Leonardo entered the service of Cesare Borgia, the son of Pope Alexander VI, acting as a military architect and engineer and travelling throughout Italy with his patron. Leonardo created a map of Cesare Borgia's stronghold, a town plan of Imola in order to win his patronage. Maps were extremely rare at the time and it would have seemed like a new concept. Upon seeing it, Cesare hired Leonardo as his chief military engineer and architect. Later in the year, Leonardo produced another map for his patron, one of Chiana Valley, Tuscany, so as to give his patron a better overlay of the land and greater strategic position. He created this map in conjunction with his other project of constructing a dam from the sea to Florence, in order to allow a supply of water to sustain the canal during all seasons.\n\nLeonardo returned to Florence where he rejoined the Guild of Saint Luke on 18 October 1503, and spent two years designing and painting a mural of The Battle of Anghiari for the Signoria, with Michelangelo designing its companion piece, The Battle of Cascina. In Florence in 1504, he was part of a committee formed to relocate, against the artist's will, Michelangelo's statue of David. \n\nIn 1506 Leonardo returned to Milan. Many of his most prominent pupils or followers in painting either knew or worked with him in Milan, including Bernardino Luini, Giovanni Antonio Boltraffio and Marco d'Oggiono.D'Oggiono is known in part for his contemporary copies of the Last Supper. At this time he may have commenced a project for an equestrian figure of Charles II d'Amboise, the acting French governor of Milan. A wax model survives, and if genuine, is the only example of Leonardo's sculpture.\n\nLeonardo did not stay in Milan for long because his father had died in 1504, and in 1507 he was back in Florence trying to sort out problems with his brothers over his father's estate. By 1508 Leonardo was back in Milan, living in his own house in Porta Orientale in the parish of Santa Babila.della Chiesa, p.86\n\nOld age, 1513–1519 \n\nFrom September 1513 to 1516, under Pope Leo X, Leonardo spent much of his time living in the Belvedere in the Vatican in Rome, where Raphael and Michelangelo were both active at the time. In October 1515, King Francis I of France recaptured Milan. On 19 December, Leonardo was present at the meeting of Francis I and Pope Leo X, which took place in Bologna. Leonardo was commissioned to make for Francis a mechanical lion which could walk forward, then open its chest to reveal a cluster of lilies. In 1516, he entered François' service, being given the use of the manor house Clos Lucé, now a public museum, near the king's residence at the royal Château d'Amboise. It was here that he spent the last three years of his life, accompanied by his friend and apprentice, Count Francesco Melzi, and supported by a pension totalling 10,000 scudi.\n\nLeonardo died at Clos Lucé, on 2 May 1519. Francis I had become a close friend. Vasari records that the king held Leonardo's head in his arms as he died, although this story, beloved by the French and portrayed in romantic paintings by Ingres, Ménageot and other French artists, as well as by Angelica Kauffman, may be legend rather than fact.On the day of Leonardo's death, a royal edict was issued by the king at Saint-Germain-en-Laye, a two-day journey from Clos Lucé. This has been taken as evidence that King François cannot have been present at Leonardo's deathbed. However, White in Leonardo: The First Scientist points out that the edict was not signed by the king. Vasari states that in his last days, Leonardo sent for a priest to make his confession and to receive the Holy Sacrament. In accordance with his will, sixty beggars followed his casket.This was a charitable legacy as each of the sixty paupers would have been awarded an established mourner's fee in the terms of Leonardo's will. Melzi was the principal heir and executor, receiving as well as money, Leonardo's paintings, tools, library and personal effects. Leonardo also remembered his other long-time pupil and companion, Salai and his servant Battista di Vilussis, who each received half of Leonardo's vineyards, his brothers who received land, and his serving woman who received a black cloak \"of good stuff\" with a fur edge.The black cloak, of good quality material, was a ready-made item from a clothier, with the fur trim being an additional luxury. The possession of this garment meant that Leonardo's house keeper could attend his funeral \"respectably\" attired at no expense to herself. Leonardo da Vinci was buried in the Chapel of Saint-Hubert in Château d'Amboise, in France.\n\nSome 20 years after Leonardo's death, Francis was reported by the goldsmith and sculptor Benvenuto Cellini as saying: \"There had never been another man born in the world who knew as much as Leonardo, not so much about painting, sculpture and architecture, as that he was a very great philosopher.\" \n\nRelationships and influences \n\nFlorence: Leonardo's artistic and social background \n\nFlorence at the time of Leonardo's youth was the centre of Christian Humanist thought and culture. Leonardo commenced his apprenticeship with Verrocchio in 1466, the year that Verrocchio's master, the great sculptor Donatello, died. The painter Uccello, whose early experiments with perspective were to influence the development of landscape painting, was a very old man. The painters Piero della Francesca and Filippo Lippi, sculptor Luca della Robbia, and architect and writer Leon Battista Alberti were in their sixties. The successful artists of the next generation were Leonardo's teacher Verrocchio, Antonio del Pollaiuolo and the portrait sculptor Mino da Fiesole, whose lifelike busts give the most reliable likenesses of Lorenzo Medici's father Piero and uncle Giovanni.Rosci, Leonardo, chapter 1, the historical setting, pp.9–20\n\nLeonardo's youth was spent in a Florence that was ornamented by the works of these artists and by Donatello's contemporaries, Masaccio, whose figurative frescoes were imbued with realism and emotion, and Ghiberti, whose Gates of Paradise, gleaming with gold leaf, displayed the art of combining complex figure compositions with detailed architectural backgrounds. Piero della Francesca had made a detailed study of perspective, and was the first painter to make a scientific study of light. These studies and Alberti's treatise De Pictura were to have a profound effect on younger artists and in particular on Leonardo's own observations and artworks.\n\nMassaccio's \"Expulsion from the Garden of Eden\" depicting the naked and distraught Adam and Eve created a powerfully expressive image of the human form, cast into three dimensions by the use of light and shade, which was to be developed in the works of Leonardo in a way that was to be influential in the course of painting. The humanist influence of Donatello's \"David\" can be seen in Leonardo's late paintings, particularly John the Baptist.\n\nA prevalent tradition in Florence was the small altarpiece of the Virgin and Child. Many of these were created in tempera or glazed terracotta by the workshops of Filippo Lippi, Verrocchio and the prolific della Robbia family. Leonardo's early Madonnas such as The Madonna with a carnation and the Benois Madonna followed this tradition while showing idiosyncratic departures, particularly in the case of the Benois Madonna in which the Virgin is set at an oblique angle to the picture space with the Christ Child at the opposite angle. This compositional theme was to emerge in Leonardo's later paintings such as The Virgin and Child with St. Anne.\n\nLeonardo was a contemporary of Botticelli, Domenico Ghirlandaio and Perugino, who were all slightly older than he was. He would have met them at the workshop of Verrocchio, with whom they had associations, and at the Academy of the Medici. Botticelli was a particular favourite of the Medici family, and thus his success as a painter was assured. Ghirlandaio and Perugino were both prolific and ran large workshops. They competently delivered commissions to well-satisfied patrons who appreciated Ghirlandaio's ability to portray the wealthy citizens of Florence within large religious frescoes, and Perugino's ability to deliver a multitude of saints and angels of unfailing sweetness and innocence.\n\nThese three were among those commissioned to paint the walls of the Sistine Chapel, the work commencing with Perugino's employment in 1479. Leonardo was not part of this prestigious commission. His first significant commission, The Adoration of the Magi for the Monks of Scopeto, was never completed.\n\nIn 1476, during the time of Leonardo's association with Verrocchio's workshop, the Portinari Altarpiece by Hugo van der Goes arrived in Florence, bringing from Northern Europe new painterly techniques that were to profoundly affect Leonardo, Ghirlandaio, Perugino and others. In 1479, the Sicilian painter Antonello da Messina, who worked exclusively in oils, traveled north on his way to Venice, where the leading painter Giovanni Bellini adopted the technique of oil painting, quickly making it the preferred method in Venice. Leonardo was also later to visit Venice.\n\nLike the two contemporary architects Bramante and Antonio da Sangallo the Elder, Leonardo experimented with designs for centrally planned churches, a number of which appear in his journals, as both plans and views, although none was ever realised. \n\nLeonardo's political contemporaries were Lorenzo Medici (il Magnifico), who was three years older, and his younger brother Giuliano, who was slain in the Pazzi conspiracy in 1478. Leonardo was sent as an ambassador by the Medici court to Ludovico il Moro, who ruled Milan between 1479 and 1499.\n\nWith Alberti, Leonardo visited the home of the Medici and through them came to know the older Humanist philosophers of whom Marsiglio Ficino, proponent of Neo Platonism; Cristoforo Landino, writer of commentaries on Classical writings, and John Argyropoulos, teacher of Greek and translator of Aristotle were the foremost. Also associated with the Academy of the Medici was Leonardo's contemporary, the brilliant young poet and philosopher Pico della Mirandola. Leonardo later wrote in the margin of a journal, \"The Medici made me and the Medici destroyed me.\" While it was through the action of Lorenzo that Leonardo received his employment at the court of Milan, it is not known exactly what Leonardo meant by this cryptic comment.\n\nAlthough usually named together as the three giants of the High Renaissance, Leonardo, Michelangelo and Raphael were not of the same generation. Leonardo was twenty-three when Michelangelo was born and thirty-one when Raphael was born. Raphael lived until the age of only 37 and died in 1520, the year after Leonardo died, but Michelangelo went on creating for another 45 years.\n\nPersonal life \n\nWithin Leonardo's lifetime, his extraordinary powers of invention, his \"outstanding physical beauty\", \"infinite grace\", \"great strength and generosity\", \"regal spirit and tremendous breadth of mind\", as described by Vasari, as well as all other aspects of his life, attracted the curiosity of others. One such aspect was his respect for life, evidenced by his vegetarianism and his habit, according to Vasari, of purchasing caged birds and releasing them. \n\nLeonardo had many friends who are now renowned either in their fields or for their historical significance. They included the mathematician Luca Pacioli, with whom he collaborated on the book De divina proportione in the 1490s. Leonardo appears to have had no close relationships with women except for his friendship with Cecilia Gallerani and the two Este sisters, Beatrice and Isabella. While on a journey that took him through Mantua, he drew a portrait of Isabella that appears to have been used to create a painted portrait, now lost.\n\nBeyond friendship, Leonardo kept his private life secret. His sexuality has been the subject of satire, analysis, and speculation. This trend began in the mid-16th century and was revived in the 19th and 20th centuries, most notably by Sigmund Freud. Leonardo's most intimate relationships were perhaps with his pupils Salai and Melzi. Melzi, writing to inform Leonardo's brothers of his death, described Leonardo's feelings for his pupils as both loving and passionate. It has been claimed since the 16th century that these relationships were of a sexual or erotic nature. Court records of 1476, when he was aged twenty-four, show that Leonardo and three other young men were charged with sodomy in an incident involving a well-known male prostitute. The charges were dismissed for lack of evidence, and there is speculation that since one of the accused, Lionardo de Tornabuoni, was related to Lorenzo de' Medici, the family exerted its influence to secure the dismissal. Since that date much has been written about his presumed homosexuality and its role in his art, particularly in the androgyny and eroticism manifested in John the Baptist and Bacchus and more explicitly in a number of erotic drawings. \n\nAssistants and pupils \n\nGian Giacomo Caprotti da Oreno, nicknamed Salai or Il Salaino (\"The Little Unclean One\" i.e., the devil), entered Leonardo's household in 1490. After only a year, Leonardo made a list of his misdemeanours, calling him \"a thief, a liar, stubborn, and a glutton\", after he had made off with money and valuables on at least five occasions and spent a fortune on clothes. Nevertheless, Leonardo treated him with great indulgence, and he remained in Leonardo's household for the next thirty years. Salai executed a number of paintings under the name of Andrea Salai, but although Vasari claims that Leonardo \"taught him a great deal about painting\", his work is generally considered to be of less artistic merit than others among Leonardo's pupils, such as Marco d'Oggiono and Boltraffio. In 1515, he painted a nude version of the Mona Lisa, known as Monna Vanna. Salai owned the Mona Lisa at the time of his death in 1525, and in his will it was assessed at 505 lire, an exceptionally high valuation for a small panel portrait.\n\nIn 1506, Leonardo took on another pupil, Count Francesco Melzi, the son of a Lombard aristocrat, who is considered to have been his favourite student. He travelled to France with Leonardo and remained with him until Leonardo's death. Melzi inherited the artistic and scientific works, manuscripts, and collections of Leonardo and administered the estate.\n\nPainting \n\nDespite the recent awareness and admiration of Leonardo as a scientist and inventor, for the better part of four hundred years his fame rested on his achievements as a painter and on a handful of works, either authenticated or attributed to him that have been regarded as among the masterpieces. \n\nThese paintings are famous for a variety of qualities which have been much imitated by students and discussed at great length by connoisseurs and critics. Among the qualities that make Leonardo's work unique are the innovative techniques which he used in laying on the paint, his detailed knowledge of anatomy, light, botany and geology, his interest in physiognomy and the way in which humans register emotion in expression and gesture, his innovative use of the human form in figurative composition, and his use of the subtle gradation of tone. All these qualities come together in his most famous painted works, the Mona Lisa, the Last Supper and the Virgin of the Rocks. \n\nEarly works \n\nLeonardo's early works begin with the Baptism of Christ painted in conjunction with Verrocchio. Two other paintings appear to date from his time at the workshop, both of which are Annunciations. One is small, long and high. It is a \"predella\" to go at the base of a larger composition, in this case a painting by Lorenzo di Credi from which it has become separated. The other is a much larger work, long. In both these Annunciations, Leonardo used a formal arrangement, such as in Fra Angelico's two well-known pictures of the same subject, of the Virgin Mary sitting or kneeling to the right of the picture, approached from the left by an angel in profile, with a rich flowing garment, raised wings and bearing a lily. Although previously attributed to Ghirlandaio, the larger work is now generally attributed to Leonardo.\n\nIn the smaller picture, Mary averts her eyes and folds her hands in a gesture that symbolised submission to God's will. In the larger picture, however, Mary is not submissive. The girl, interrupted in her reading by this unexpected messenger, puts a finger in her bible to mark the place and raises her hand in a formal gesture of greeting or surprise. This calm young woman appears to accept her role as the Mother of God, not with resignation but with confidence. In this painting, the young Leonardo presents the humanist face of the Virgin Mary, recognising humanity's role in God's incarnation.\n\nPaintings of the 1480s \n\nIn the 1480s, Leonardo received two very important commissions and commenced another work which was also of ground-breaking importance in terms of composition. Two of the three were never finished, and the third took so long that it was subject to lengthy negotiations over completion and payment. One of these paintings is that of St. Jerome in the Wilderness. Bortolon associates this picture with a difficult period of Leonardo's life, as evidenced in his diary: \"I thought I was learning to live; I was only learning to die.\"\n\nAlthough the painting is barely begun, the composition can be seen and it is very unusual. Jerome, as a penitent, occupies the middle of the picture, set on a slight diagonal and viewed somewhat from above. His kneeling form takes on a trapezoid shape, with one arm stretched to the outer edge of the painting and his gaze looking in the opposite direction. J. Wasserman points out the link between this painting and Leonardo's anatomical studies.Wasserman, pp.104–6 Across the foreground sprawls his symbol, a great lion whose body and tail make a double spiral across the base of the picture space. The other remarkable feature is the sketchy landscape of craggy rocks against which the figure is silhouetted.\n\nThe daring display of figure composition, the landscape elements and personal drama also appear in the great unfinished masterpiece, the Adoration of the Magi, a commission from the Monks of San Donato a Scopeto. It is a complex composition, of about 250 x 250 centimetres. Leonardo did numerous drawings and preparatory studies, including a detailed one in linear perspective of the ruined classical architecture which makes part of the backdrop to the scene. But in 1482 Leonardo went off to Milan at the behest of Lorenzo de' Medici in order to win favour with Ludovico il Moro, and the painting was abandoned.\n\nThe third important work of this period is the Virgin of the Rocks which was commissioned in Milan for the Confraternity of the Immaculate Conception. The painting, to be done with the assistance of the de Predis brothers, was to fill a large complex altarpiece, already constructed. Leonardo chose to paint an apocryphal moment of the infancy of Christ when the infant John the Baptist, in protection of an angel, met the Holy Family on the road to Egypt. In this scene, as painted by Leonardo, John recognizes and worships Jesus as the Christ. The painting demonstrates an eerie beauty as the graceful figures kneel in adoration around the infant Christ in a wild landscape of tumbling rock and whirling water. \nWhile the painting is quite large, about , it is not nearly as complex as the painting ordered by the monks of St Donato, having only four figures rather than about fifty and a rocky landscape rather than architectural details. The painting was eventually finished; in fact, two versions of the painting were finished, one which remained at the chapel of the Confraternity and the other which Leonardo carried away to France. But the Brothers did not get their painting, or the de Predis their payment, until the next century.\n\nPaintings of the 1490s \n\nLeonardo's most famous painting of the 1490s is The Last Supper, painted for the refectory of the Convent of Santa Maria della Grazie in Milan. The painting represents the last meal shared by Jesus with his disciples before his capture and death. It shows specifically the moment when Jesus has just said \"one of you will betray me\". Leonardo tells the story of the consternation that this statement caused to the twelve followers of Jesus.\n\nThe novelist Matteo Bandello observed Leonardo at work and wrote that some days he would paint from dawn till dusk without stopping to eat and then not paint for three or four days at a time. This was beyond the comprehension of the prior of the convent, who hounded him until Leonardo asked Ludovico to intervene. Vasari describes how Leonardo, troubled over his ability to adequately depict the faces of Christ and the traitor Judas, told the Duke that he might be obliged to use the prior as his model. \n\nWhen finished, the painting was acclaimed as a masterpiece of design and characterisation, but it deteriorated rapidly, so that within a hundred years it was described by one viewer as \"completely ruined\". Leonardo, instead of using the reliable technique of fresco, had used tempera over a ground that was mainly gesso, resulting in a surface which was subject to mold and to flaking. Despite this, the painting has remained one of the most reproduced works of art, countless copies being made in every medium from carpets to cameos.\n\nPaintings of the 16th century \n\nAmong the works created by Leonardo in the 16th century is the small portrait known as the Mona Lisa or \"la Gioconda\", the laughing one. In the present era it is arguably the most famous painting in the world. Its fame rests, in particular, on the elusive smile on the woman's face, its mysterious quality brought about perhaps by the fact that the artist has subtly shadowed the corners of the mouth and eyes so that the exact nature of the smile cannot be determined. The shadowy quality for which the work is renowned came to be called \"sfumato\" or Leonardo's smoke. Vasari, who is generally thought to have known the painting only by repute, said that \"the smile was so pleasing that it seemed divine rather than human; and those who saw it were amazed to find that it was as alive as the original\". \n\nOther characteristics found in this work are the unadorned dress, in which the eyes and hands have no competition from other details, the dramatic landscape background in which the world seems to be in a state of flux, the subdued colouring and the extremely smooth nature of the painterly technique, employing oils, but laid on much like tempera and blended on the surface so that the brushstrokes are indistinguishable. Vasari expressed the opinion that the manner of painting would make even \"the most confident master... despair and lose heart.\" The perfect state of preservation and the fact that there is no sign of repair or overpainting is rare in a panel painting of this date. \n\nIn the painting Virgin and Child with St. Anne the composition again picks up the theme of figures in a landscape which Wasserman describes as \"breathtakingly beautiful\" and harkens back to the St Jerome picture with the figure set at an oblique angle. What makes this painting unusual is that there are two obliquely set figures superimposed. Mary is seated on the knee of her mother, St Anne. She leans forward to restrain the Christ Child as he plays roughly with a lamb, the sign of his own impending sacrifice. This painting, which was copied many times, influenced Michelangelo, Raphael, and Andrea del Sarto, and through them Pontormo and Correggio. The trends in composition were adopted in particular by the Venetian painters Tintoretto and Veronese.\n\nMurals \n\nLeonardo's The Battle of Anghiara was commissioned in 1505, but was lost. All that remains is a copy by Rubens, but Maurizio Seracini is convinced it can still be found and has spent a lifetime searching for it. He was allowed to drill some pilot holes in a mural in the Salone dei Cinquecento, Palazzo Vecchio, Florence, and his team did find evidence of an oil painting underneath. \n\nDrawings \n\nLeonardo was not a prolific painter, but he was a most prolific draftsman, keeping journals full of small sketches and detailed drawings recording all manner of things that took his attention. As well as the journals there exist many studies for paintings, some of which can be identified as preparatory to particular works such as The Adoration of the Magi, The Virgin of the Rocks and The Last Supper.\nHis earliest dated drawing is a Landscape of the Arno Valley, 1473, which shows the river, the mountains, Montelupo Castle and the farmlands beyond it in great detail.\n\nAmong his famous drawings are the Vitruvian Man, a study of the proportions of the human body, the Head of an Angel, for The Virgin of the Rocks in the Louvre, a botanical study of Star of Bethlehem and a large drawing (160×100 cm) in black chalk on coloured paper of The Virgin and Child with St. Anne and St. John the Baptist in the National Gallery, London. This drawing employs the subtle sfumato technique of shading, in the manner of the Mona Lisa. It is thought that Leonardo never made a painting from it, the closest similarity being to The Virgin and Child with St. Anne in the Louvre. \n\nOther drawings of interest include numerous studies generally referred to as \"caricatures\" because, although exaggerated, they appear to be based upon observation of live models. Vasari relates that if Leonardo saw a person with an interesting face he would follow them around all day observing them. There are numerous studies of beautiful young men, often associated with Salai, with the rare and much admired facial feature, the so-called \"Grecian profile\".The \"Grecian profile\" has a continuous straight line from forehead to nose-tip, the bridge of the nose being exceptionally high. It is a feature of many Classical Greek statues. These faces are often contrasted with that of a warrior. Salai is often depicted in fancy-dress costume. Leonardo is known to have designed sets for pageants with which these may be associated. Other, often meticulous, drawings show studies of drapery. A marked development in Leonardo's ability to draw drapery occurred in his early works. Another often-reproduced drawing is a macabre sketch that was done by Leonardo in Florence in 1479 showing the body of Bernardo Baroncelli, hanged in connection with the murder of Giuliano, brother of Lorenzo de' Medici, in the Pazzi conspiracy. With dispassionate integrity Leonardo has registered in neat mirror writing the colours of the robes that Baroncelli was wearing when he died.\n\nObservation and invention \n\nJournals and notes \n\nRenaissance humanism recognized no mutually exclusive polarities between the sciences and the arts, and Leonardo's studies in science and engineering are sometimes considered as impressive and innovative as his artistic work. These studies were recorded in 13,000 pages of notes and drawings, which fuse art and natural philosophy (the forerunner of modern science), made and maintained daily throughout Leonardo's life and travels, as he made continual observations of the world around him.\n\nLeonardo's writings are mostly in mirror-image cursive. The reason may have been more a practical expediency than for reasons of secrecy as is often suggested. Since Leonardo wrote with his left hand, it is probable that it was easier for him to write from right to left.Left-handed writers using a split nib or quill pen experience difficulty pushing the pen from left to right across the page.\n\nHis notes and drawings display an enormous range of interests and preoccupations, some as mundane as lists of groceries and people who owed him money and some as intriguing as designs for wings and shoes for walking on water. There are compositions for paintings, studies of details and drapery, studies of faces and emotions, of animals, babies, dissections, plant studies, rock formations, whirlpools, war machines, flying machines and architecture.\n\nThese notebooks—originally loose papers of different types and sizes, distributed by friends after his death—have found their way into major collections such as the Royal Library at Windsor Castle, the Louvre, the Biblioteca Nacional de España, the Victoria and Albert Museum, the Biblioteca Ambrosiana in Milan which holds the twelve-volume Codex Atlanticus, and British Library in London which has put a selection from the Codex Arundel (BL Arundel MS 263) online. The Codex Leicester is the only major scientific work of Leonardo's in private hands. It is owned by Bill Gates and is displayed once a year in different cities around the world.\n\nLeonardo's notes appear to have been intended for publication because many of the sheets have a form and order that would facilitate this. In many cases a single topic, for example, the heart or the human fetus, is covered in detail in both words and pictures on a single sheet. This method of organisation minimises of loss of data in the case of pages being mixed up or destroyed. Why they were not published within Leonardo's lifetime is unknown.\n\nScientific studies \n\nLeonardo's approach to science was an observational one: he tried to understand a phenomenon by describing and depicting it in utmost detail and did not emphasize experiments or theoretical explanation. Since he lacked formal education in Latin and mathematics, contemporary scholars mostly ignored Leonardo the scientist, although he did teach himself Latin. In the 1490s he studied mathematics under Luca Pacioli and prepared a series of drawings of regular solids in a skeletal form to be engraved as plates for Pacioli's book De divina proportione, published in 1509.\n\nIt appears that from the content of his journals he was planning a series of treatises to be published on a variety of subjects. A coherent treatise on anatomy was said to have been observed during a visit by Cardinal Louis 'D' Aragon's secretary in 1517. Aspects of his work on the studies of anatomy, light and the landscape were assembled for publication by his pupil Francesco Melzi and eventually published as Treatise on Painting by Leonardo da Vinci in France and Italy in 1651 and Germany in 1724, with engravings based upon drawings by the Classical painter Nicolas Poussin. According to Arasse, the treatise, which in France went into 62 editions in fifty years, caused Leonardo to be seen as \"the precursor of French academic thought on art\".\n\nWhile Leonardo's experimentation followed clear scientific methods, a recent and exhaustive analysis of Leonardo as a scientist by Frtijof Capra argues that Leonardo was a fundamentally different kind of scientist from Galileo, Newton and other scientists who followed him in that, as a Renaissance Man, his theorising and hypothesising integrated the arts and particularly painting. \n\nAnatomy \n\nLeonardo started his study in the anatomy of the human body under the apprenticeship of Andrea del Verrocchio, who demanded that his students develop a deep knowledge of the subject. As an artist, he quickly became master of topographic anatomy, drawing many studies of muscles, tendons and other visible anatomical features.\n\nAs a successful artist, he was given permission to dissect human corpses at the Hospital of Santa Maria Nuova in Florence and later at hospitals in Milan and Rome. From 1510 to 1511 he collaborated in his studies with the doctor Marcantonio della Torre. Leonardo made over 240 detailed drawings and wrote about 13,000 words towards a treatise on anatomy. These papers were left to his heir, Francesco Melzi, for publication, a task of overwhelming difficulty because of its scope and Leonardo's idiosyncratic writing. It was left incomplete at the time of Melzi's death more than 50 years later, with only a small amount of the material on anatomy included in Leonardo's Treatise on painting, published in France in 1632. During the time that Melzi was ordering the material into chapters for publication, they were examined by a number of anatomists and artists, including Vasari, Cellini and Albrecht Dürer who made a number of drawings from them.\n\nLeonardo's anatomical drawings include many studies of the human skeleton and its parts, and studies muscles and sinews. He studied the mechanical functions of the skeleton and the muscular forces that are applied to it in a manner that prefigured the modern science of biomechanics. He drew the heart and vascular system, the sex organs and other internal organs, making one of the first scientific drawings of a fetus in utero. The drawings and notation are far ahead of their time, and if published, would undoubtedly have made a major contribution to medical science.Alastair Sooke, Daily Telegraph, 28 July 2013, [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/art/leonardo-da-vinci/10202124/Leonardo-da-Vinci-Anatomy-of-an-artist.html \"Leonardo da Vinci: Anatomy of an artist\"], accessed 29 July 2013.\n\nAs an artist, Leonardo also closely observed and recorded the effects of age and of human emotion on the physiology, studying in particular the effects of rage. He also drew many figures who had significant facial deformities or signs of illness. Leonardo also studied and drew the anatomy of many animals, dissecting cows, birds, monkeys, bears, and frogs, and comparing in his drawings their anatomical structure with that of humans. He also made a number of studies of horses.\n\nInvestigations \n\nDa Vinci performed some very detailed investigations into not only anatomy but also physiology. He attempted to identify the source of 'emotions' and their expression. His dissections and documentation of muscles, nerves, and vessels helped to describe the physiology and mechanics of movement. He found it difficult to incorporate the prevailing system and theories of bodily humours, but eventually he abandoned these physiological explanations of bodily functions. He made the observations that humours were not located in cerebral spaces or ventricles. He also documented that the humours were not contained in the heart or the liver, and it was the heart that defined the circulatory system. He was the first to define atherosclerosis and liver cirrhosis. He created models of the cerebral ventricles with the use of melted wax and constructed a glass aorta to observe the circulation of blood through the aortic valve by using water and grass seed to watch flow patterns. Vesalius published his work on anatomy and physiology in De humani corporis fabrica in 1543. \n\nEngineering and inventions \n\nDuring his lifetime, Leonardo was valued as an engineer. In a letter to Ludovico il Moro, he claimed to be able to create all sorts of machines both for the protection of a city and for siege. When he fled to Venice in 1499, he found employment as an engineer and devised a system of moveable barricades to protect the city from attack. He also had a scheme for diverting the flow of the Arno river, a project on which Niccolò Machiavelli also worked. Leonardo's journals include a vast number of inventions, both practical and impractical. They include musical instruments, a mechanical knight, hydraulic pumps, reversible crank mechanisms, finned mortar shells, and a steam cannon.\n\nIn 1502, Leonardo produced a drawing of a single span 720 ft bridge as part of a civil engineering project for Ottoman Sultan Beyazid II of Constantinople. The bridge was intended to span an inlet at the mouth of the Bosporus known as the Golden Horn. Beyazid did not pursue the project because he believed that such a construction was impossible. Leonardo's vision was resurrected in 2001 when a smaller bridge based on his design was constructed in Norway. \n\nLeonardo was fascinated by the phenomenon of flight for much of his life, producing many studies including Codex on the Flight of Birds (), as well as plans for several flying machines such as a flapping ornithopter and a machine with a helical rotor. The British television station Channel Four commissioned a 2003 documentary Leonardo's Dream Machines. Leonardo's designs for machines such as a parachute, and giant crossbow were interpreted, constructed and tested. Some of those designs proved successes, whilst others fared less well when practically tested.\n\nFame and reputation \n\nLeonardo's fame within his own lifetime was such that the King of France carried him away like a trophy, and was claimed to have supported him in his old age and held him in his arms as he died. Interest in Leonardo and his work has never diminished. Crowds still queue to see his best-known artworks, T-shirts still bear his most famous drawing, and writers continue to hail him as a genius while speculating about his private life, as well as about what one so intelligent actually believed in.\n\nGiorgio Vasari, in the enlarged edition of Lives of the Artists, 1568, introduced his chapter on Leonardo da Vinci with the following words:\n\nThe continued admiration that Leonardo commanded from painters, critics and historians is reflected in many other written tributes. Baldassare Castiglione, author of Il Cortegiano (\"The Courtier\"), wrote in 1528: \"... Another of the greatest painters in this world looks down on this art in which he is unequalled ...\" while the biographer known as \"Anonimo Gaddiano\" wrote, : \"His genius was so rare and universal that it can be said that nature worked a miracle on his behalf...\". \n\nThe 19th century brought a particular admiration for Leonardo's genius, causing Henry Fuseli to write in 1801: \"Such was the dawn of modern art, when Leonardo da Vinci broke forth with a splendour that distanced former excellence: made up of all the elements that constitute the essence of genius...\" This is echoed by A. E. Rio who wrote in 1861: \"He towered above all other artists through the strength and the nobility of his talents.\" \n\nBy the 19th century, the scope of Leonardo's notebooks was known, as well as his paintings. Hippolyte Taine wrote in 1866: \"There may not be in the world an example of another genius so universal, so incapable of fulfilment, so full of yearning for the infinite, so naturally refined, so far ahead of his own century and the following centuries.\" \nArt historian Bernard Berenson wrote in 1896: \"Leonardo is the one artist of whom it may be said with perfect literalness: Nothing that he touched but turned into a thing of eternal beauty. Whether it be the cross section of a skull, the structure of a weed, or a study of muscles, he, with his feeling for line and for light and shade, forever transmuted it into life-communicating values.\" \n\nThe interest in Leonardo's genius has continued unabated; experts study and translate his writings, analyse his paintings using scientific techniques, argue over attributions and search for works which have been recorded but never found. Liana Bortolon, writing in 1967, said: \"Because of the multiplicity of interests that spurred him to pursue every field of knowledge ... Leonardo can be considered, quite rightly, to have been the universal genius par excellence, and with all the disquieting overtones inherent in that term. Man is as uncomfortable today, faced with a genius, as he was in the 16th century. Five centuries have passed, yet we still view Leonardo with awe.\"\n\nMiscellaneous \n\nDavinciite, a recently described mineral recognized in 2011 by the International Mineralogical Association, is named in honor of the artist.", "The Mona Lisa (; or La Gioconda, ) is a half-length portrait of a woman by the Italian artist Leonardo da Vinci, which has been acclaimed as \"the best known, the most visited, the most written about, the most sung about, the most parodied work of art in the world\". \n\nThe painting, thought to be a portrait of Lisa Gherardini, the wife of Francesco del Giocondo, is in oil on a white Lombardy poplar panel, and is believed to have been painted between 1503 and 1506. Leonardo may have continued working on it as late as 1517. It was acquired by King Francis I of France and is now the property of the French Republic, on permanent display at the Louvre Museum in Paris since 1797. \n\nThe subject's expression, which is frequently described as enigmatic, the monumentality of the composition, the subtle modeling of forms, and the atmospheric illusionism were novel qualities that have contributed to the continuing fascination and study of the work.\n\nTitle and subject\n\nThe title of the painting, which is known in English as Mona Lisa, comes from a description by Renaissance art historian Giorgio Vasari, who wrote \"Leonardo undertook to paint, for Francesco del Giocondo, the portrait of Mona Lisa, his wife.\" Mona in Italian is a polite form of address originating as ma donna – similar to Ma’am, Madam, or my lady in English. This became madonna, and its contraction mona. The title of the painting, though traditionally spelled \"Mona\" (as used by Vasari), is also commonly spelled in modern Italian as Monna Lisa (\"mona\" being a vulgarity in some Italian dialects) but this is rare in English.\n\nVasari's account of the Mona Lisa comes from his biography of Leonardo published in 1550, 31 years after the artist's death. It has long been the best-known source of information on the provenance of the work and identity of the sitter. Leonardo's assistant Salaì, at his death in 1525, owned a portrait which in his personal papers was named la Gioconda, a painting bequeathed to him by Leonardo.\n\nThat Leonardo painted such a work, and its date, were confirmed in 2005 when a scholar at Heidelberg University discovered a marginal note in a 1477 printing of a volume written by the ancient Roman philosopher Cicero. Dated October 1503, the note was written by Leonardo's contemporary Agostino Vespucci. This note likens Leonardo to renowned Greek painter Apelles, who is mentioned in the text, and states that Leonardo was at that time working on a painting of Lisa del Giocondo. \n\nThe model, Lisa del Giocondo, \nwas a member of the Gherardini family of Florence and Tuscany, and the wife of wealthy Florentine silk merchant Francesco del Giocondo. The painting is thought to have been commissioned for their new home, and to celebrate the birth of their second son, Andrea. The Italian name for the painting, La Gioconda, means \"jocund\" (\"happy\" or \"jovial\") or, literally, \"the jocund one\", a pun on the feminine form of Lisa's married name, \"Giocondo\". In French, the title La Joconde has the same meaning.\n\nBefore that discovery, scholars had developed several alternative views as to the subject of the painting. Some argued that Lisa del Giocondo was the subject of a different portrait, identifying at least four other paintings as the Mona Lisa referred to by Vasari. \nSeveral other women have been proposed as the subject of the painting. \nIsabella of Aragon, Cecilia Gallerani, Costanza d'Avalos, Duchess of Francavilla, Isabella d'Este, Pacifica Brandano or Brandino, Isabela Gualanda, Caterina Sforza—even Salaì and Leonardo himself—are all among the list of posited models portrayed in the painting. \nThe consensus of art historians in the 21st century maintains the long-held traditional opinion, that the painting depicts Lisa del Giocondo.\n\nHistory\n\nLeonardo da Vinci began painting the Mona Lisa in 1503 or 1504 in Florence, Italy. Although the Louvre states that it was \"doubtless painted between 1503 and 1506\", the art historian Martin Kemp says there is some difficulty in confirming the actual dates with certainty. According to Leonardo's contemporary, Giorgio Vasari, \"after he had lingered over it four years, [he] left it unfinished\". Leonardo, later in his life, is said to have regretted \"never having completed a single work\". \n\nIn 1516, Leonardo was invited by King François I to work at the Clos Lucé near the king's castle in Amboise. It is believed that he took the Mona Lisa with him and continued to work after he moved to France. Art historian Carmen C. Bambach has concluded that da Vinci probably continued refining the work until 1516 or 1517. \n\nUpon his death, the painting was inherited with other works by his pupil and assistant Salaì. \nFrancis I bought the painting for 4,000 écus and kept it at Palace of Fontainebleau, where it remained until Louis XIV moved the painting to the Palace of Versailles. After the French Revolution, it was moved to the Louvre, but spent a brief period in the bedroom of Napoleon in the Tuileries Palace.\n\nDuring the Franco-Prussian War (1870–71) it was moved from the Louvre to the Brest Arsenal. During World War II, the painting was again removed from the Louvre and taken safely, first to Château d'Amboise, then to the Loc-Dieu Abbey and Château de Chambord, then finally to the Ingres Museum in Montauban.\n\nIn December 2015, it was reported that French scientist Pascal Cotte had found a hidden portrait underneath the surface of the painting using reflective light technology. The portrait is an underlying image of a model looking off to the side. Having been given access to the painting by Louvre in 2004, Cotte spent ten years using layer amplification methods to study the painting. According to Cotte, the underlying image is Leonardo's original Mona Lisa.\n\nTheft and vandalism\n\nOn 21 August 1911, the painting was stolen from the Louvre. The next day, painter Louis Béroud walked into the museum and went to the Salon Carré where the Mona Lisa had been on display for five years, only to find four iron pegs on the wall. Béroud contacted the head of the guards, who thought the painting was being photographed for promotional purposes. A few hours later, Béroud checked back with the Section Chief of the Louvre who confirmed that the Mona Lisa was not with the photographers. The Louvre was closed for an entire week during the investigation.\n\nFrench poet Guillaume Apollinaire, who had once called for the Louvre to be \"burnt down\", came under suspicion and was arrested and imprisoned. Apollinaire implicated his friend Pablo Picasso, who was brought in for questioning. Both were later exonerated. Two years later the thief was found. Louvre employee Vincenzo Peruggia had stolen the Mona Lisa by entering the building during regular hours, hiding in a broom closet, and walking out with it hidden under his coat after the museum had closed. Peruggia was an Italian patriot who believed da Vinci's painting should have been returned for display in an Italian museum. Peruggia may have also been motivated by a friend whose copies of the original would significantly rise in value after the painting's theft. A later account suggested Eduardo de Valfierno had been the mastermind of the theft and had commissioned forger Yves Chaudron to create six copies of the painting to sell in the U.S. while the location of the original was unclear.[https://books.google.com/books?idkSdYINRtkWEC& The Lost Mona Lisa] by R. A. Scotti (Random House, 2010) However, the original painting remained in Europe. After having kept the Mona Lisa in his apartment for two years, Peruggia grew impatient and was caught when he attempted to sell it to directors of the Uffizi Gallery in Florence. It was exhibited in the Uffizi Gallery for over two weeks and returned to the Louvre on 4 January 1914. Peruggia served six months in prison for the crime and was hailed for his patriotism in Italy. Before its theft, the Mona Lisa was not widely known outside the art world. It was not until the 1860s that some critics, a thin slice of the French intelligentsia, began to hail it as a masterwork of Renaissance painting. \n\nIn 1956, part of the painting was damaged when a vandal threw acid at it. On 30 December of that year, a speck of pigment near the left elbow was damaged when a rock was thrown at the painting, which was later restored. \n\nThe use of bulletproof glass has shielded the Mona Lisa from subsequent attacks. In April 1974, a woman, upset by the museum's policy for disabled people, sprayed red paint at it while it was being displayed at the Tokyo National Museum. On 2 August 2009, a Russian woman, distraught over being denied French citizenship, threw a ceramic teacup purchased at the Louvre; the vessel shattered against the glass enclosure. In both cases, the painting was undamaged.\n\nAesthetics\n\nThe Mona Lisa bears a strong resemblance to many Renaissance depictions of the Virgin Mary, who was at that time seen as an ideal for womanhood.\n\nThe depiction of the sitter in three-quarter profile is similar to late 15th-century works by Lorenzo di Credi and Agnolo di Domenico del Mazziere. Zöllner notes that the sitter's general position can be traced back to Flemish models and that \"in particular the vertical slices of columns at both sides of the panel had precedents in Flemish portraiture.\" Woods-Marsden cites Hans Memling's portrait of Benededetto Portinari (1487) or Italian imitations such as Sebastiano Mainardi's pendant portraits for the use of a loggia, which has the effect of mediating between the sitter and the distant landscape, a feature missing from Leonardo's earlier portrait of Ginevra de' Benci.Woods-Marsden p. 77 n. 100\n\nThe woman sits markedly upright in a \"pozzetto\" armchair with her arms folded, a sign of her reserved posture. Only her gaze is fixed on the observer and seems to welcome them to this silent look of communication. Since the brightly lit face is practically framed by much darker elements (hair, veil, shadows), the observer's attraction to her is brought out to an even greater extent. The woman appears alive to an unusual extent, which Leonardo achieved by his new method of not drawing outlines (sfumato). The soft blending creates an ambiguous mood \"mainly in two features: the corners of the mouth, and the corners of the eyes\". \n\nThe painting was one of the first portraits to depict the sitter in front of an imaginary landscape, and Leonardo was one of the first painters to use aerial perspective. The enigmatic woman is portrayed seated in what appears to be an open loggia with dark pillar bases on either side. Behind her, a vast landscape recedes to icy mountains. Winding paths and a distant bridge give only the slightest indications of human presence. Leonardo has chosen to place the horizon line not at the neck, as he did with Ginevra de' Benci, but on a level with the eyes, thus linking the figure with the landscape and emphasizing the mysterious nature of the painting.\n\nMona Lisa has no clearly visible eyebrows or eyelashes. Some researchers claim that it was common at this time for genteel women to pluck these hairs, as they were considered unsightly. In 2007, French engineer Pascal Cotte announced that his ultra-high resolution scans of the painting provide evidence that Mona Lisa was originally painted with eyelashes and with visible eyebrows, but that these had gradually disappeared over time, perhaps as a result of overcleaning. Cotte discovered the painting had been reworked several times, with changes made to the size of the Mona Lisa's face and the direction of her gaze. He also found that in one layer the subject was depicted wearing numerous hairpins and a headdress adorned with pearls which was later scrubbed out and overpainted. \n\nThere has been much speculation regarding the painting's model and landscape. For example, Leonardo probably painted his model faithfully since her beauty is not seen as being among the best, \"even when measured by late quattrocento (15th century) or even twenty-first century standards.\" Some art historians in Eastern art, such as Yukio Yashiro, also argue that the landscape in the background of the picture was influenced by Chinese paintings. However, this thesis has been contested for lack of clear evidence.Heliana Angotti Salgueiro, Paisaje y arte, University of São Paulo, 2000, p. 74. ISBN 85-901430-1-5\n\nResearch in 2008 by a geomorphology professor at Urbino University and an artist-photographer revealed likenesses of Mona Lisas landscapes to some views in the Montefeltro region in the Italian provinces of Pesaro, Urbino and Rimini. \n\nConservation\n\nThe Mona Lisa has survived for more than 500 years, and an international commission convened in 1952 noted that \"the picture is in a remarkable state of preservation.\" This is partly due to a variety of conservation treatments the painting has undergone. A detailed analysis in 1933 by Madame de Gironde revealed that earlier restorers had \"acted with a great deal of restraint.\" Nevertheless, applications of varnish made to the painting had darkened even by the end of the 16th century, and an aggressive 1809 cleaning and revarnishing removed some of the uppermost portion of the paint layer, resulting in a washed-out appearance to the face of the figure. Despite the treatments, the Mona Lisa has been well cared for throughout its history, and although the panel's warping caused the curators \"some worry\", the 2004–05 conservation team was optimistic about the future of the work.\n\nPoplar panel\n\nAt some point, the Mona Lisa was removed from its original frame. The unconstrained poplar panel warped freely with changes in humidity, and as a result, a crack developed near the top of the panel, extending down to the hairline of the figure. In the mid-18th century to early 19th century, two butterfly-shaped walnut braces were inserted into the back of the panel to a depth of about 1/3 the thickness of the panel. This intervention was skillfully executed, and successfully stabilized the crack. Sometime between 1888 and 1905, or perhaps during the picture's theft, the upper brace fell out. A later restorer glued and lined the resulting socket and crack with cloth. The flexible oak frame (added 1951) and cross braces (1970) help to keep the panel from warping further.\n\nThe picture is kept under strict, climate-controlled conditions in its bulletproof glass case. The humidity is maintained at 50% ±10%, and the temperature is maintained between 18 and 21 °C. To compensate for fluctuations in relative humidity, the case is supplemented with a bed of silica gel treated to provide 55% relative humidity.\n\nFrame\n\nBecause the Mona Lisas poplar support expands and contracts with changes in humidity, the picture has experienced some warping. In response to warping and swelling experienced during its storage during World War II, and to prepare the picture for an exhibit to honor the anniversary of Leonardo's 500th birthday, the Mona Lisa was fitted in 1951 with a flexible oak frame with beech crosspieces. This flexible frame, which is used in addition to the decorative frame described below, exerts pressure on the panel to keep it from warping further. In 1970, the beech crosspieces were switched to maple after it was found that the beechwood had been infested with insects. In 2004–05, a conservation and study team replaced the maple crosspieces with sycamore ones, and an additional metal crosspiece was added for scientific measurement of the panel's warp.\n\nThe Mona Lisa has had many different decorative frames in its history, owing to changes in taste over the centuries. In 1909, the Comtesse de Béhague gave the portrait its current frame, a Renaissance-era work consistent with the historical period of the Mona Lisa. The edges of the painting have been trimmed at least once in its history to fit the picture into various frames, but no part of the original paint layer has been trimmed.\n\nCleaning and touch-up\n\nThe first and most extensive recorded cleaning, revarnishing, and touch-up of the Mona Lisa was an 1809 wash and revarnishing undertaken by Jean-Marie Hooghstoel, who was responsible for restoration of paintings for the galleries of the Musée Napoléon. The work involved cleaning with spirits, touch-up of colour, and revarnishing the painting. In 1906, Louvre restorer Eugène Denizard performed watercolour retouches on areas of the paint layer disturbed by the crack in the panel. Denizard also retouched the edges of the picture with varnish, to mask areas that had been covered initially by an older frame. In 1913, when the painting was recovered after its theft, Denizard was again called upon to work on the Mona Lisa. Denizard was directed to clean the picture without solvent, and to lightly touch up several scratches to the painting with watercolour. In 1952, the varnish layer over the background in the painting was evened out. After the second 1956 attack, restorer Jean-Gabriel Goulinat was directed to touch up the damage to Mona Lisas left elbow with watercolour.\n\nIn 1977, a new insect infestation was discovered in the back of the panel as a result of crosspieces installed to keep the painting from warping. This was treated on the spot with carbon tetrachloride, and later with an ethylene oxide treatment. In 1985, the spot was again treated with carbon tetrachloride as a preventive measure.\n\nDisplay\n\nOn 6 April 2005—following a period of curatorial maintenance, recording, and analysis—the painting was moved to a new location within the museum's Salle des États. It is displayed in a purpose-built, climate-controlled enclosure behind bulletproof glass. Since 2005 the painting has been illuminated by an LED lamp, and in 2013 a new 20 watt LED lamp was installed, specially designed for this painting. The lamp has a Colour Rendering Index up to 98, and minimizes infrared and ultraviolet radiation which could otherwise degrade the painting. The renovation of the gallery where the painting now resides was financed by the Japanese broadcaster Nippon Television. About 6 million people view the painting at the Louvre each year.\n\nFame\n\nToday the Mona Lisa is considered the most famous painting in the world, but until the 20th century, Mona Lisa was one among many and not the \"most famous painting\" as it is now termed.\nOnce part of the king's collection, the Mona Lisa was among the very first artworks to be exhibited in Louvre, which became a national museum after the French Revolution. From the 19th century Leonardo began to be revered as a genius and the painting's popularity grew from the middle of the 19th century when French intelligentsia developed a theme that the painting was somehow mysterious and a representation of the femme fatal. \nIn 1878, the Baedeker guide called it \"the most celebrated work of Leonardo in the Louvre\". but it was known more by the intellectual elite than the general public.\n\nThe 1911 theft and the subsequent return was reported worldwide, leading to a massive increase in public recognition of the painting. During the 20th century it was an object for mass reproduction, merchandising, lampooning and speculation, and was claimed to have been reproduced in \"300 paintings and 2,000 advertisements\". \n\nFrom December 1962 to March 1963, the French government lent it to the United States to be displayed in New York City and Washington, D.C. It was shipped on the new liner SS France. In New York an estimated 1.7 million people queued \"in order to cast a glance at the Mona Lisa for 20 seconds or so.\" In 1974, the painting was exhibited in Tokyo and Moscow. \n\nIn 2014, 9.3 million people visited the Louvre, Former director Henri Loyrette reckoned that \"80 percent of the people only want to see the Mona Lisa.\" \n\nValue\n\nBefore the 1962–63 tour, the painting was assessed for insurance at $100 million. The insurance was not bought. Instead, more was spent on security. Adjusted for inflation using the US Consumer Price Index, $100 million in 1962 is around US$782 million in 2015 making it, in practice, by far the most valued painting in the world.\n\nIn 2014 a France 24 article suggested that the painting could be sold to help ease the national debt, although it was noted that the Mona Lisa and other such art works were prohibited from being sold due to French heritage law, which states that \"Collections held in museums that belong to public bodies are considered public property and cannot be otherwise.\" \n\nLegacy\n\nBefore its completion the Mona Lisa had already begun to influence contemporary Florentine painting. Raphael, who had been to Leonardo's workshop several times, promptly used elements of the portrait's composition and format in several of his works, such as Young Woman with Unicorn (c. 1506 ), and Portrait of Maddalena Doni (c. 1506). Celebrated later paintings by Raphael, La velata (1515–16) and Portrait of Baldassare Castiglione (c. 1514–15), continued to borrow from Leonardo's painting. Zollner states that \"None of Leonardo's works would exert more influence upon the evolution of the genre than the Mona Lisa. It became the definitive example of the Renaissance portrait and perhaps for this reason is seen not jut as the likeness of a real person, but also as the embodiment of an ideal.\" \n\nEarly commentators such as Vasari and André Félibien praised the picture for its realism, but by the Victorian era writers began to regard the Mona Lisa as imbued with a sense of mystery and romance. In 1859 Théophile Gautier wrote that the Mona Lisa was a \"sphinx of beauty who smiles so mysteriously\" and that \"Beneath the form expressed one feels a thought that is vague, infinite, inexpressible. One is moved, troubled ... repressed desires, hopes that drive one to despair, stir painfully.\" Walter Pater's famous essay of 1869 described the sitter as \"older than the rocks among which she sits; like the vampire, she has been dead many times, and learned the secrets of the grave; and has been a diver in the deep seas, and keeps their fallen day about her.\" By the early 20th century some critics started to feel the painting had become a repository for subjective exegeses and theories, and upon the paintings theft in 1911, Renaissance historian Bernard Berenson admitted that it had \"simply become an incubus, and I was glad to be rid of her.\" \n\nThe avant-garde art world has made note of the undeniable fact of the Mona Lisa's popularity. Because of the painting's overwhelming stature, Dadaists and Surrealists often produce modifications and caricatures. Already in 1883, Le rire, an image of a Mona Lisa smoking a pipe, by Sapeck (Eugène Bataille), was shown at the \"Incoherents\" show in Paris. In 1919, Marcel Duchamp, one of the most influential modern artists, created L.H.O.O.Q., a Mona Lisa parody made by adorning a cheap reproduction with a moustache and a goatee. Duchamp added an inscription, which when read out loud in French sounds like \"Elle a chaud au cul\" meaning: \"she has a hot ass\", implying the woman in the painting is in a state of sexual excitement and intended as a Freudian joke. According to Rhonda R. Shearer, the apparent reproduction is in fact a copy partly modelled on Duchamp's own face. \n\nSalvador Dalí, famous for his surrealist work, painted Self portrait as Mona Lisa in 1954. In 1963 following the painting's visit to the United States, Andy Warhol created serigraph prints of multiple Mona Lisas called Thirty are Better than One, like his works of Marilyn Monroe (Twenty-five Coloured Marilyns, 1962), Elvis Presley (1964) and Campbell's soup (1961–62). The Mona Lisa continues to inspire artists around the world. A French urban artist known pseudonymously as Invader has created versions on city walls in Paris and Tokyo using his trademark mosaic style. A collection of Mona Lisa parodies may be found on YouTube. A 2014 New Yorker magazine cartoon parodies the supposed enigma of the Mona Lisa smile in an [http://www.newyorker.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/daily-cartoon-141003-monalisasmall.gif animation] showing progressively maniacal smiles.\n\nEarly copies\n\nPrado Museum La Gioconda\n\nA version of Mona Lisa known as Mujer de mano de Leonardo Abince (English: Leonardo da Vinci’s handy woman) held in Madrid's Museo del Prado was for centuries considered to be a work of da Vinci himself. However, since its restoration in 2012 it is considered to be a work by one of Leonardo's pupils, painted in da Vinci's studio while the other (Louvre version) was being painted. Their conclusion, based on analysis obtained after the picture underwent extensive restoration, that the painting is probably by Salaí (1480-1524) or by Melzi (1493-1572). This has been called into question by others. \n\nThe restored painting is from a slightly different perspective than the original Mona Lisa, leading to the speculation that it is part of the world's first stereoscopic image pair. \n\nIsleworth Mona Lisa\n\nA version of the Mona Lisa known as the Isleworth Mona Lisa was first bought by an English nobleman in 1778 and was rediscovered in 1913 by Hugh Blaker, an art connoisseur. The painting was presented to the media in 2012 by the Mona Lisa Foundation. The owners claim that Leonardo contributed to the painting, a theory that Leonardo experts such as Zöllner and Kemp deny has any substance. \n\nFile:Mona Lisa (copy, Thalwil, Switzerland).JPG\| Copy of Mona Lisa commonly attributed to Salaì\nFile:Gioconda (copia del Museo del Prado restaurada).jpg\| The Prado Museum La Gioconda\nFile:Isleworthml.JPG \|The Isleworth Mona Lisa\nFile:Mona Lisa (copy, Hermitage).jpg\|16th century copy at the Hermitage by unknown artist" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "La Gioconda (disambiguation)", "La Gioconda", "La gioconda", "La Giaconda" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "la giaconda", "la gioconda", "la gioconda disambiguation" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "la gioconda", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "La Gioconda" }
In Henry Wadsworth Longfellow's famous poem, Hiawatha, what was the name of Hiawatha's wife?	tc_360	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "The_Song_of_Hiawatha.txt" ], "title": [ "The Song of Hiawatha" ], "wiki_context": [ "The Song of Hiawatha is an 1855 epic poem in trochaic tetrameter by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow that features Native American characters. The epic relates the adventures of an Ojibwe warrior named Hiawatha and the tragedy of his love for Minnehaha. Events in the story are set in the Pictured Rocks area on the south shore of Lake Superior. Longfellow's poem, though based on native oral traditions surrounding the figure of Manabozho, represents not a work of transmission but an original work of American Romantic literature.\n\nLongfellow's sources for the legends and ethnography found in his poem were the Ojibwe Chief Kahge-ga-gah-bowh during his visits at Longfellow's home; Black Hawk and other Sac and Fox Indians Longfellow encountered on Boston Common; Algic Researches (1839) and additional writings by Henry Rowe Schoolcraft, an ethnographer and United States Indian agent; and Heckewelder's Narratives. In sentiment, scope, overall conception, and many particulars, Longfellow insisted, \"I can give chapter and verse for these legends. Their chief value is that they are Indian legends.\"\n\nLongfellow had originally planned on following Schoolcraft in calling his hero Manabozho, the name in use at the time among the Ojibwe/Anishinaabe of the south shore of Lake Superior for a figure of their folklore, a trickster-transformer. But in his journal entry for June 28, 1854, he wrote, \"Work at 'Manabozho;' or, as I think I shall call it, 'Hiawatha'—that being another name for the same personage.\" Longfellow, following Schoolcraft, was mistaken in thinking the names were synonyms. In Ojibwe lore the figure of Manabozho is legendary but the name Hiawatha is unknown. The name Hiawatha derives from the name of a historical figure associated with the League of the Iroquois, the Five Nations, then located in present-day New York and Pennsylvania. The popularity of Longfellow's poem nevertheless led to the name \"Hiawatha\" becoming attached to a number of locales and enterprises in areas more historically associated with the Ojibwe than the Iroquois.\n\nPublication and plot\n\nThe poem was published on November 10, 1855, and was an immediate success. In 1857, Longfellow calculated that it had sold 50,000 copies.\n\nLongfellow chose to set The Song of Hiawatha at the Pictured Rocks, one of the locations along the south shore of Lake Superior favored by narrators of the Manabozho stories. The Song presents a legend of Hiawatha and his lover Minnehaha in 22 chapters (and an Introduction). Hiawatha is not introduced until Chapter III.\n\nIn Chapter I, Hiawatha's arrival is prophesied by a \"mighty\" peace-bringing leader named Gitche Manito.\n\nChapter II tells a legend of how the warrior Mudjekeewis became Father of the Four Winds by slaying the Great Bear of the mountains, Mishe-Mokwa. His son Wabun, the East Wind, falls in love with a maiden whom he turns into the Morning Star, Wabun-Annung. Wabun's brother, Kabibonokka, the North Wind, bringer of autumn and winter, attacks Shingebis, \"the diver\". Shingebis repels him by burning firewood, and then in a wrestling match. A third brother, Shawondasee, the South Wind, falls in love with a dandelion, mistaking it for a golden-haired maiden.\n\nIn Chapter III, in \"unremembered ages\", a woman named Nokomis falls from the moon. Nokomis gives birth to Wenonah, who grows to be a beautiful young woman. Nokomis warns her not to be seduced by the West Wind (Mudjekeewis) but she does not heed her mother, becomes pregnant and bears Hiawatha.\n\nIn the ensuing chapters, Hiawatha has childhood adventures, falls in love with Minnehaha, slays the evil magician Pearl-Feather, invents written language, discovers corn and other episodes. Minnehaha dies in a severe winter.\n\nThe poem closes with the approach of a birch canoe to Hiawatha's village, containing \"the Priest of Prayer, the Pale-face.\" Hiawatha welcomes him joyously; and the \"Black-Robe chief\" brings word of Jesus Christ. Hiawatha and the chiefs accept the Christian message. Hiawatha bids farewell to Nokomis, the warriors, and the young men, giving them this charge: \"But my guests I leave behind me/ Listen to their words of wisdom,/ Listen to the truth they tell you.\" Having endorsed the Christian missionaries, he launches his canoe for the last time westward toward the sunset and departs forever.\n\nThe story of Hiawatha was dramatized by Tale Spinners for Children (UAC 11054) with Jordan Malek.\n\nFolkloric and ethnographic critiques\n\nGeneral remarks\n\nMuch of the scholarship on The Song of Hiawatha in the twentieth century, dating to the 1920s, has concentrated on its lack of fidelity to Ojibwe ethnography and literary genre rather than the poem as a literary work in its own right. In addition to Longfellow’s own annotations, Stellanova Osborn (and previously F. Broilo in German) tracked down \"chapter and verse\" for every detail Longfellow took from Schoolcraft. Others have identified words from native languages included in the poem.\n\nSchoolcraft as a \"textmaker\" seems to have been inconsistent in his pursuit of authenticity, as he justified rewriting and censoring sources. The folklorist Stith Thompson, although crediting Schoolcraft's research with being a \"landmark,\" was quite critical of him: \"Unfortunately, the scientific value of his work is marred by the manner in which he has reshaped the stories to fit his own literary taste.\"\n\nIntentionally epic in scope, The Song of Hiawatha was described by its author as \"this Indian Edda\". But Thompson judged that despite Longfellow's claimed \"chapter and verse\" citations, the work \"produce[s] a unity the original will not warrant,\" i.e., it is non-Indian in its totality. Thompson found close parallels in plot between the poem and its sources, with the major exception that Longfellow took legends told about multiple characters and substituted the character \"Hiawatha\" as the protagonist of them all. Resemblances between the original stories, as \"reshaped by Schoolcraft,\" and the episodes in the poem are but superficial, and Longfellow omits important details essential to Ojibwe narrative construction, characterization, and theme. This is the case even with \"Hiawatha’s Fishing,\" the episode closest to its source. Of course, some important parts of the poem were more or less Longfellow’s invention from fragments or his imagination. \"The courtship of Hiawatha and Minnehaha, the least ‘Indian’ of any of the events in ‘Hiawatha,’ has come for many readers to stand as the typical American Indian tale.\" Also, \"in exercising the function of selecting incidents to make an artistic production, Longfellow . . . omitted all that aspect of the Manabozho saga which considers the culture hero as a trickster,\" this despite the fact that Schoolcraft had already diligently avoided what he himself called \"vulgarisms.\"\n\nIn his book on the development of the image of the Indian in American thought and literature, Pearce wrote about The Song of Hiawatha: \"It was Longfellow who fully realized for mid-nineteenth century Americans the possibility of [the] image of the noble savage. He had available to him not only [previous examples of] poems on the Indian . . . but also the general feeling that the Indian belonged nowhere in American life but in dim prehistory. He saw how the mass of Indian legends which Schoolcraft was collecting depicted noble savages out of time, and offered, if treated right, a kind of primitive example of that very progress which had done them in. Thus in Hiawatha he was able, matching legend with a sentimental view of a past far enough away in time to be safe and near enough in space to be appealing, fully to image the Indian as noble savage. For by the time Longfellow wrote Hiawatha, the Indian as a direct opponent of civilization was dead, yet was still heavy on American consciences . . . . The tone of the legend and ballad…would color the noble savage so as to make him blend in with a dim and satisfying past about which readers could have dim and satisfying feelings.\"\n\nHistorical Iroquois Hiawatha\n\nApparently no connection, apart from name, exists between Longfellow's hero and the sixteenth-century Iroquois chief Hiawatha who co-founded the Iroquois League. Longfellow took the name from works by Schoolcraft, which he acknowledged as his main sources. In his notes to the poem Longfellow cites Schoolcraft as a source for \n\"a tradition prevalent among the North American Indians, of a personage of miraculous birth, who was sent among them to clear their rivers, forests, and fishing-grounds, and to teach them the arts of peace. He was known among different tribes by the several names of Michabou, Chiabo, Manabozo, Tarenyawagon, and Hiawatha.\" Longfellow's notes make no reference to the Iroquois or the Iroquois League or to any historical personage.\n\nHowever, according to ethnographer Horatio Hale (1817–1896), there was a longstanding confusion between the Iroquois leader Hiawatha and the Iroquois deity Aronhiawagon because of \"an accidental similarity in the Onondaga dialect between [their names].\" The deity, he says, was variously known as Aronhiawagon, Tearonhiaonagon, Taonhiawagi, or Tahiawagi; the historical Iroquois leader, as Hiawatha, Tayonwatha or Thannawege. Schoolcraft \"made confusion worse ... by transferring the hero to a distant region and identifying him with Manabozho, a fantastic divinity of the Ojibways. [Schoolcraft's book] has not in it a single fact or fiction relating either to Hiawatha himself or to the Iroquois deity Aronhiawagon.\"\n\nIn 1856, Schoolcraft published The Myth of Hiawatha and Other Oral Legends Mythologic and Allegoric of the North American Indians, reprinting (with a few changes) stories previously published in his Algic Researches and other works. Schoolcraft dedicated the book to Longfellow, whose work he praised highly. \n\nThe U.S. Forest Service has said that both the historical and poetic figures are the sources of the name for the Hiawatha National Forest. \n\nIndian words recorded by Longfellow\n\nLongfellow cites the Indian words he used as from the works by Henry Rowe Schoolcraft. The majority of the words were Ojibwa, with a few from the Dakota, Cree and Onondaga languages.\n\nThough the majority of the Native American words included in the text accurately reflect pronunciation and definitions, some words seem to appear incomplete. For example, the Ojibway words for \"blueberry\" are miin (plural: miinan) for the berries and miinagaawanzh (plural: miinagaawanzhiig) for the bush upon which the berries grow. Longfellow uses Meenah'ga, which appears to be a partial form for the bush, but he uses the word to mean the berry. Critics believe such mistakes are likely attributable to Schoolcraft (who was often careless about details) or to what always happens when someone who does not understand the nuances of a language and its grammar tries to use select words out of context. \n\nInspiration from the Finnish Kalevala\n\nThe Song of Hiawatha was written in trochaic tetrameter, the same meter as Kalevala, the Finnish epic compiled by Elias Lönnrot from fragments of folk poetry. Longfellow had learned some of the Finnish language while spending a summer in Sweden in 1835. It is likely that, 20 years later, Longfellow had forgotten most of what he had learned of that language, and he referred to a German translation of the Kalevala by Franz Anton Schiefner. Trochee is a rhythm natural to the Finnish language—insofar as all Finnish words are normally accented on the first syllable—to the same extent that iamb is natural to English. Longfellow’s use of trochaic tetrameter for his poem has an artificiality that the Kalevala does not have in its own language.\n\nHe was not the first American poet to use the trochaic (or tetrameter) in writing Indian romances. Schoolcraft had written a romantic poem, Alhalla, or the Lord of Talladega (1843) in trochaic tetrameter, about which he commented in his preface: \n\"The meter is thought to be not ill adapted to the Indian mode of enunciation. Nothing is more characteristic of their harangues and public speeches, than the vehement yet broken and continued strain of utterance, which would be subject to the charge of monotony, were it not varied by the extraordinary compass in the stress of voice, broken by the repetition of high and low accent, and often terminated with an exclamatory vigor, which is sometimes startling. It is not the less in accordance with these traits that nearly every initial syllable of the measure chosen is under accent. This at least may be affirmed, that it imparts a movement to the narrative, which, at the same time that it obviates languor, favors that repetitious rhythm, or pseudo-parallelism, which so strongly marks their highly compound lexicography.\" Longfellow wrote to his friend Ferdinand Freiligrath (who had introduced him to Finnische Runen in 1842) about the latter's article, \"The Measure of Hiawatha\" in the prominent London magazine, Athenaeum (December 25, 1855): \"Your article . . . needs only one paragraph more to make it complete, and that is the statement that parallelism belongs to Indian poetry as well to Finnish… And this is my justification for adapting it in Hiawatha.\" Trochaic is not a correct descriptor for Ojibwe oratory, song, or storytelling, but Schoolcraft was writing long before the study of Native American linguistics had come of age. Parallelism is an important part of Ojibwe language artistry.\n\nCultural response\n\nReception and influence\n\nIn August 1855, The New York Times carried an item on \"Longfellow's New Poem\", quoting an article from another periodical which said that it \"is very original, and has the simplicity and charm of a Saga... it is the very antipodes [sic] of Alfred Lord Tennyson's Maud, which is . . . morbid, irreligious, and painful.\" In October of that year, the New York Times noted that \"Longfellow's Song of Hiawatha is nearly printed, and will soon appear.\"\n\nBy November its column, \"Gossip: What has been most Talked About during the Week,\" observed that \"The madness of the hour takes the metrical shape of trochees, everybody writes trochaics, talks trochaics, and think [sic] in trochees: ...\n\n\"By the way, the rise in Erie\nMakes the bears as cross as thunder.\"\n\"Yes sir-ree! And Jacob's losses,\nI've been told, are quite enormous...\"\n\nThe New York Times review of The Song of Hiawatha was scathing. The anonymous reviewer judged that the poem \"is entitled to commendation\" for \"embalming pleasantly enough the monstrous traditions of an uninteresting, and, one may almost say, a justly exterminated race. As a poem, it deserves no place\" because there \"is no romance about the Indian.\" He complains that Hiawatha's deeds of magical strength pall by comparison to the feats of Hercules and to \"Finn Mac Cool, that big stupid Celtic mammoth.\" The reviewer writes that \"Grotesque, absurd, and savage as the groundwork is, Mr. LONGFELLOW has woven over it a profuse wreath of his own poetic elegancies.\" But, he concludes, Hiawatha \"will never add to Mr. LONGFELLOW's reputation as a poet.\" \n\nThomas Conrad Porter, a professor at Franklin and Marshall College, believed that Longfellow had been inspired by more than the metrics of the Kalevala. He claimed The Song of Hiawatha was \"Plagiarism\" in the Washington National Intelligencer of November 27, 1855. Longfellow wrote to his friend Charles Sumner a few days later: \"As to having 'taken many of the most striking incidents of the Finnish Epic and transferred them to the American Indians'—it is absurd\". Longfellow also insisted in his letter to Sumner that, \"I know the Kalevala very well, and that some of its legends resemble the Indian stories preserved by Schoolcraft is very true. But the idea of making me responsible for that is too ludicrous.\" Later scholars continued to debate the extent to which The Song of Hiawatha borrowed its themes, episodes, and outline from the Kalevala.\n\nDespite the critics, the poem was immediately popular with readers and continued so for many decades. The Grolier Club named The Song of Hiawatha the most influential book of 1855. Lydia Sigourney was inspired by the book to write a similar epic poem on Pocahontas, though she never completed it. English writer George Eliot called The Song of Hiawatha, along with Nathaniel Hawthorne's The Scarlet Letter, the \"two most indigenous and masterly productions in American literature\". \n\nMusic\n\nLongfellow's poem was taken as the first American epic to be composed of North American materials and free of European literary models. Earlier attempts to write a national epic, such as The Columbiad of Richard Snowden (1753–1825), ‘a poem on the American war’ published in 1795, or Joel Barlow's Vision of Columbus (1787) (rewritten and entitled The Columbiad in 1807), were considered derivative. Longfellow provided something entirely new, a vision of the continent's pre-European civilisation in a metre adapted from a Finnish, non-Indo-European source.\n\nSoon after the poem's publication, composers competed to set it to music. One of the first to tackle the poem was Emile Karst, whose cantata Hiawatha (1858) freely adapted and arranged texts of the poem. It was followed by Robert Stoepel's Hiawatha: An Indian Symphony, a work in 14 movements that combined narration, solo arias, descriptive choruses and programmatic orchestral interludes. The composer consulted with Longfellow, who approved the work before its premiere in 1859, but despite early success it was soon forgotten. An equally ambitious project was the 5-part instrumental symphony by Ellsworth Phelps in 1878. \n\nThe poem also influenced two composers of European origin who spent a few years in the USA but did not choose to settle there. The first of these was Frederick Delius, who completed his tone poem Hiawatha in 1888 and inscribed on the title page the passage beginning “Ye who love the haunts of Nature” from near the start of the poem. The work was not performed at the time and the mutilated score was only revised and recorded in 2009. The other and more notorious instance was the poem's connection with Antonín Dvořák's Symphony No. 9, From the New World, (1893). In an article published in the New York Herald on December 15, 1893, he stated that the second movement of his work was a \"sketch or study for a later work, either a cantata or opera ... which will be based upon Longfellow's Hiawatha\" (with which he was familiar in Czech translation), and that the third movement scherzo was \"suggested by the scene at the feast in Hiawatha where the Indians dance\". African-American melodies also appeared in the symphony, thanks to his student Harry Burleigh, who used to sing him songs from the plantations which he then noted down. The fact that Burleigh’s grandmother was part Indian has been suggested to explain why Dvorak came to equate or confuse Indian with African American music in his pronouncements to the press. \n\nAmong later orchestral treatments of the Hiawatha theme by American composers there was Louis Coerne's 4-part symphonic suite, each section of which was prefaced by a quotation from the poem. This had a Munich premiere in 1893 and a Boston performance in 1894. Dvorac's student Rubin Goldmark followed with a Hiawatha Overturne in 1896 and in 1901 there were performances of Hugo Kaun's symphonic poems \"Minnehaha\" and \"Hiawatha\". There were also more settings of Longfellow's words. Arthur Foote's \"The Farewell of Hiawatha\" (Op.11, 1886) was dedicated to the Apollo Club of Boston, the male voice group that gave its first performance. In 1897 Frederick Russell Burton (1861 — 1909) completed his dramatic cantata Hiawatha. At the same time he wrote \"Hiawatha's Death Song\", subtitled 'Song of the Ojibways', which set native words followed by an English translation by another writer. Much later, Ojibwe flute music was to influence the 2013 setting of “The death of Minnehaha” for two voices with piano and flute accompaniment by Mary Montgomery Koppel (b.1982). \n\nThe most celebrated setting of Longfellow's story was the cantata trilogy, The Song of Hiawatha (1898–1900), by the African-English composer Samuel Coleridge-Taylor. The first part, \"Hiawatha's Wedding Feast\" (Op. 30, No. 1), based on cantos 11–12 of the poem, was particularly famous for well over 50 years, receiving thousands of performances in the UK, the USA, Canada, New Zealand and South Africa. Though it slipped from popularity in recent years, revival performances continue. The initial work was followed by two additional oratorios which were equally popular: \"The Death of Minnehaha\" (Op. 30, No. 2), based on canto 20, and \"Hiawatha's Departure\" (Op. 30, No. 4), based on cantos 21–2. \n\nMore popular settings of the poem followed publication of the poem. The first was Charles Crozat Converse's \"The Death of Minnehaha\", published in Boston around 1856. The hand colored lithograph on the cover of the printed song, by John Henry Bufford, is now much sought after. The next popular tune, originally titled \"Hiawatha (A Summer Idyl)\", was not inspired by the poem. It was composed by ‘Neil Moret’ (Charles Daniels) while on the train to Hiawatha, Kansas, in 1901 and was inspired by the rhythm of the wheels on the rails. It was already popular when James O'Dea added lyrics in 1903 and the music was newly subtitled \"His Song to Minnehaha\". Later treated as a rag, it went on to become a jazz standard. Duke Ellington was later to incorporate treatments of Hiawatha and Minnehaha in his jazz suite The Beautiful Indians (1946–7). Other popular songs have included \"Hiawatha’s Melody of Love\", by George W. Meyer with words by Alfred Bryan and Artie Mehlinger (1908), and Al Bowlly's \"Hiawatha’s Lullaby\" (1933).\n\nModern composers have written works with the Hiawatha theme for young performers. They include the English musician Stanley Wilson's \"Hiawatha, 12 Scenes\" (1928) for first grade solo piano, based on Longfellow's lines, and Soon Hee Newbold's rhythmic composition for strings in Dorian mode (2003), which is frequently performed by youth orchestras. \n\nSome performers have incorporated excerpts from the poem into their musical work. Johnny Cash used a modified version of \"Hiawatha's Vision“ as the opening piece on Johnny Cash Sings the Ballads of the True West (1965). Mike Oldfield used the sections \"Hiawatha's Departure\" and \"The Son of the Evening Star\" in the second part of his Incantations album (1978), rearranging some words to conform more to his music. And Laurie Anderson used parts of the poem's third section at the beginning and end of the final piece of her Strange Angels album (1989).\n\nArtistic use\n\nArtists also responded in number to the epic. The earliest pieces of sculpture were by Edmonia Lewis, who had most of her career in Rome. Her father was Haitian and her mother was Native American and African American. The arrow-maker and his daughter, later called The Wooing of Hiawatha, was modelled in 1866 and carved in 1872. By that time she had achieved success with individual heads of Hiawatha and Minnehaha. Carved in Rome, these are now held by the Newark Museum in New Jersey. In 1872 Lewis carved The Marriage of Hiawatha in marble, a work purchased in 2010 by the Kalamazoo Institute of Arts. \n\nOther 19th-century sculptors inspired by the epic were Augustus Saint-Gaudens; his marble statue of the seated Hiawatha (1874) is held by the Metropolitan Museum of Art; Jacob Fjelde created a bronze statue, Hiawatha carrying Minnehaha, for the Columbian Exposition in 1893. It was installed in Minnehaha Park, Minneapolis, in 1912 (illustrated at the head of this article).\n\nIn the 20th century Marshall Fredericks created a small bronze Hiawatha (1938), now installed in the Michigan University Centre; a limestone statue (1949), also at the University of Michigan; and a relief installed at the Birmingham Covington School, Bloomfield Hills, Michigan. \n\nEarly paintings were by artists who concentrated on authentic American Native subjects. Eastman Johnson's pastel of Minnehaha seated by a stream (1857) was drawn directly from an Objibwe model. The English artist Frances Anne Hopkins travelled in the hunting country of Canada and used her sketches from the trip when she returned to her studio in England in 1870. Her Minnehaha Feeding Birds was painted about 1880. Critics have thought these two artists had a sentimental approach, as did Charles-Émile-Hippolyte Lecomte-Vernet (1821–1900) in his 1871 painting of Minnehaha, making her a native child of the wild. The kinship of the latter is with other kitsch images, like Bufford's cover for \"The Death of Minnehaha\" (see above) or those of the 1920s calendar painters James Arthur and Rudolph F. Ingerle (1879 – 1950).\n\nAmerican landscape painters referred to the poem to add an epic dimension to their patriotic celebration of the wonders of the national landscape. Albert Bierstadt presented his sunset piece, The Departure of Hiawatha, to Longfellow in 1868 when the poet was in England to receive an honorary degree at the University of Cambridge. Other examples include Thomas Moran's Fiercely the Red Sun Descending, Burned His Way along the Heavens (1875), held by the North Carolina Museum of Art, and the panoramic waterfalls of Hiawatha and Minnehaha on their Honeymoon (1885) by Jerome Thompson (1814 – 1886). Thomas Eakins made of his Hiawatha (c.1874) a visionary statement superimposed on the fading light of the sky. \n\nToward the end of the 19th century, artists deliberately emphasized the epic qualities of the poem, as in William de Leftwich Dodge's Death of Minnehaha (1885). Frederic Remington demonstrated a similar quality in his series of 22 grisailes painted in oil for the 1890 de-luxe photogravure edition of The Song of Hiawatha. One of the editions is owned by the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Dora Wheeler's Minnehaha listening to the waterfall (1884) design for a needle-woven tapestry, made by the Associated Artists for the Cornelius Vanderbilt house, was also epic. The monumental quality survives into the 20th century in Frances Foy's Hiawatha returning with Minnehaha (1937), a mural sponsored during the Depression for the Gibson City Post Office, Illinois. \n\nParodies\n\nParodies of the \"Song of Hiawatha\" emerged immediately on its publication. The New York Times even reviewed one such parody four days before reviewing Longfellow's original poem. This was Pocahontas: or the Gentle Savage, a comic extravaganza which included extracts from an imaginary Viking poem, \"burlesquing the recent parodies, good, bad, and indifferent, on The Song of Hiawatha.\" The Times quoted:\nWhence this song of Pocahontas,\nWith its flavor of tobacco,\nAnd the stincweed [sic] Old Mundungus,\nWith the ocho of the Breakdown,\nWith its smack of Bourbonwhiskey,\nWith the twangle of the Banjo,\nOf the Banjo—the Goatskinner,\nAnd the Fiddle—the Catgutto...\n\nIn 1856 there appeared a 94-page parody, The Song of Milkanwatha: Translated from the Original Feejee. Probably the work of Rev. George A. Strong, it was ascribed on the title page to \"Marc Antony Henderson\" and to the publishers \"Tickell and Grinne\". The work following the original chapter by chapter and one passage later became notorious:\nIn one hand Peek-Week, the squirrel,\nin the other hand the blow-gun—\nFearful instrument, the blow-gun;\nAnd Marcosset and Sumpunkin,\nKissed him, 'cause he killed the squirrel,\n'Cause it was a rather big one.\nFrom the squirrel-skin, Marcosset\nMade some mittens for our hero,\nMittens with the fur-side inside,\nWith the fur-side next his fingers\nSo's to keep the hand warm inside;\nThat was why she put the fur-side—\nWhy she put the fur-side, inside.\n\nOver time, an elaborated version stand-alone version developed, titled \"The Modern Hiawatha\":\nWhen he killed the Mudjokivis,\nOf the skin he made him mittens,\nMade them with the fur side inside,\nMade them with the skin side outside.\nHe, to get the warm side inside,\nPut the inside skin side outside;\nHe, to get the cold side outside,\nPut the warm side fur side inside.\nThat's why he put the fur side inside,\nWhy he put the skin side outside,\nWhy he turned them inside outside. \n\nEnglish composer David. W. Solomons (b.1953) has now set the passage as a canon for 4 equal voices. The passage was also adapted by the Smothers Brothers for their song \"Hiawatha,\" on their 1964 album It Must Have Been Something I Said!\n\nIn England, Lewis Carroll published Hiawatha's Photographing (1857), which he introduced by noting (in the same rhythm as the Longfellow poem), \"In an age of imitation, I can claim no special merit for this slight attempt at doing what is known to be so easy. Any fairly practised writer, with the slightest ear for rhythm, could compose, for hours together, in the easy running metre of The Song of Hiawatha. Having then distinctly stated that I challenge no attention in the following little poem to its merely verbal jingle, I must beg the candid reader to confine his criticism to its treatment of the subject.\" A poem of some 200 lines, it describes Hiawatha's attempts to photograph the members of a pretentious middle-class family ending in disaster.\nFrom his shoulder Hiawatha\nTook the camera of rosewood,\nMade of sliding, folding rosewood;\nNeatly put it all together.\nIn its case it lay compactly,\nFolded into nearly nothing;\nBut he opened out the hinges\nTill it looked all squares and oblongs,\nLike a complicated figure\nIn the Second Book of Euclid. \n\n1865 saw the Scottish-born immigrant James Linen's San Francisco (in imitation of Hiawatha).\nAnent oak-wooded Contra Costa,\nBuilt on hills, stands San Francisco;\nBuilt on tall piles Oregonian,\nDeeply sunk in mud terraqueous,\nWhere the crabs, fat and stupendous,\nOnce in all their glory revelled;\nAnd where other tribes testaceous\nFelt secure in Neptune's kingdom;\nWhere sea-sharks, with jaws terrific,\nFled from land-sharks of the Orient;\nNot far from the great Pacific,\nSnug within the Gate called Golden,\nBy the Hill called Telegraph,\nNear the Mission of Dolores,\nClose by the Valley of St. Ann's,\nSan Francisco rears its mansions,\nRears its palaces and churches;\nBuilt of timber, bricks, and mortar,\nBuilt on hills and built in valleys,\nBuilt in Beelzebubbian splendor,\nStands the city San Francisco. \n\nDuring World War I, Owen Rutter, a British officer of the Army of the Orient, wrote Tiadatha, describing the city of Salonica, where several hundred thousand soldiers were stationed on the Macedonian Front in 1916–1918:\nTiadatha thought of Kipling,\nWondered if he's ever been there\nThought: \"At least in Rue Egnatia\nEast and West are met together.\"\nThere were trams and Turkish beggars,\nMosques and minarets and churches,\nTurkish baths and dirty cafés,\nPicture palaces and kan-kans:\nDaimler cars and Leyland lorries\nBarging into buffalo wagons,\nFrench and English private soldiers\nJostling seedy Eastern brigands. \n\nYet another parody was the work of Mike Shields, (pen name of the British computer scientist F. X. Reid), who composed a computing-oriented parody, \"The Song of Hakawatha\", containing references to hacking. \n\nIn the film industry parody was extended to two cartoons with episodes in which inept protagonists are beset by comic calamities while hunting. The connection is made plain by the scenes being introduced by a mock-solemn intonation of lines from the poem. The most famous was the 1937 Silly Symphony Little Hiawatha, whose hero is a small boy whose pants keep falling down. The 1941 Warner Bros. cartoon, Hiawatha's Rabbit Hunt, features Bugs Bunny and a pint-sized version of Hiawatha in quest of rabbit stew. \n\nNotes\n\nBibliography\n\n\nClements, William M. (1990). \"Schoolcraft as Textmaker\", Journal of American Folklore 103: 177–190.\n\n\n\n\nNew York Times. 1855 December 28. [http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?res=F3081EFB3B59157493CAAB1789D95F418584F9 \"Longfellow's Poem\": The Song of Hiawatha, Anonymous review.]\n\n\nPisani, Michael V. (1998). \"Hiawatha: Longfellow, Robert Stoepel, and an Early Musical Setting of Hiawatha (1859)\", American Music, Spring 1998, 16(1): 45–85.\n\nSchramm, Wilbur (1932). \"Hiawatha and Its Predecessors\", Philological Quarterly 11: 321–343.\n\nSteil, Mark (2005). [http://news.minnesota.publicradio.org/features/2005/07/22_steilm_hiawatha/ Pipestone stages Longfellow's \"Hiawatha\"]. Minnesota Public Radio, 2005 July 22.\nThompson, Stith (1922). \"The Indian Legend of Hiawatha, PMLA 37: 128–140\n\n*" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Minnehaha", "Minniehaha" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "minniehaha", "minnehaha" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "minnehaha", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Minnehaha" }
How many husbands did the Wife of Bath have, as reported in Chaucer's Canterbury Tales?	tc_365	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Geoffrey_Chaucer.txt", "The_Canterbury_Tales.txt" ], "title": [ "Geoffrey Chaucer", "The Canterbury Tales" ], "wiki_context": [ "Geoffrey Chaucer (; c. 1343 – 25 October 1400), known as the Father of English literature, is widely considered the greatest English poet of the Middle Ages and was the first poet to be buried in Poets' Corner of Westminster Abbey.\n\nWhile he achieved fame during his lifetime as an author, philosopher, and astronomer, composing a scientific treatise on the astrolabe for his ten-year-old son Lewis, Chaucer also maintained an active career in the civil service as a bureaucrat, courtier and diplomat. Among his many works are The Book of the Duchess, The House of Fame, The Legend of Good Women and Troilus and Criseyde. He is best known today for The Canterbury Tales.\n\nChaucer's work was crucial in legitimizing the literary use of the Middle English vernacular at a time when the dominant literary languages in England were French and Latin.\n\nLife \n\nGeoffrey Chaucer was born in London sometime around 1343, though the precise date and location of his birth remain unknown. His father and grandfather were both London vintners; several previous generations had been merchants in Ipswich. (His family name derives from the French chausseur, meaning \"shoemaker\".) In 1324 John Chaucer, Geoffrey's father, was kidnapped by an aunt in the hope of marrying the twelve-year-old boy to her daughter in an attempt to keep property in Ipswich. The aunt was imprisoned and the £250 fine levied suggests that the family was financially secure—bourgeois, if not elite. John Chaucer married Agnes Copton, who, in 1349, inherited properties including 24 shops in London from her uncle, Hamo de Copton, who is described in a will dated 3 April 1354 and listed in the City Hustings Roll as \"moneyer\"; he was said to be moneyer at the Tower of London. In the City Hustings Roll 110, 5, Ric II, dated June 1380, Geoffrey Chaucer refers to himself as me Galfridum Chaucer, filium Johannis Chaucer, Vinetarii, Londonie.\n\nWhile records concerning the lives of his contemporary poets, William Langland and the Pearl Poet are practically non-existent, since Chaucer was a public servant, his official life is very well documented, with nearly five hundred written items testifying to his career. The first of the \"Chaucer Life Records\" appears in 1357, in the household accounts of Elizabeth de Burgh, the Countess of Ulster, when he became the noblewoman's page through his father's connections, a common medieval form of apprenticeship for boys into knighthood or prestige appointments. The countess was married to Lionel, Duke of Clarence, the second surviving son of the king, Edward III, and the position brought the teenage Chaucer into the close court circle, where he was to remain for the rest of his life. He also worked as a courtier, a diplomat, and a civil servant, as well as working for the king from 1389 to 1391 as Clerk of the King's Works. \n\nIn 1359, in the early stages of the Hundred Years' War, Edward III invaded France and Chaucer travelled with Lionel of Antwerp, 1st Duke of Clarence, Elizabeth's husband, as part of the English army. In 1360, he was captured during the siege of Rheims. Edward paid £16 for his ransom, a considerable sum, and Chaucer was released.\n\nAfter this, Chaucer's life is uncertain, but he seems to have travelled in France, Spain, and Flanders, possibly as a messenger and perhaps even going on a pilgrimage to Santiago de Compostela. Around 1366, Chaucer married Philippa (de) Roet. She was a lady-in-waiting to Edward III's queen, Philippa of Hainault, and a sister of Katherine Swynford, who later (c. 1396) became the third wife of John of Gaunt. It is uncertain how many children Chaucer and Philippa had, but three or four are most commonly cited. His son, Thomas Chaucer, had an illustrious career, as chief butler to four kings, envoy to France, and Speaker of the House of Commons. Thomas's daughter, Alice, married the Duke of Suffolk. Thomas's great-grandson (Geoffrey's great-great-grandson), John de la Pole, Earl of Lincoln, was the heir to the throne designated by Richard III before he was deposed. Geoffrey's other children probably included Elizabeth Chaucy, a nun at Barking Abbey, Agnes, an attendant at Henry IV's coronation; and another son, Lewis Chaucer. Chaucer's \"Treatise on the Astrolabe\" was written for Lewis. \n\nAccording to tradition, Chaucer studied law in the Inner Temple (an Inn of Court) at this time. He became a member of the royal court of Edward III as a varlet de chambre, yeoman, or esquire on 20 June 1367, a position which could entail a wide variety of tasks. His wife also received a pension for court employment. He travelled abroad many times, at least some of them in his role as a valet. In 1368, he may have attended the wedding of Lionel of Antwerp to Violante Visconti, daughter of Galeazzo II Visconti, in Milan. Two other literary stars of the era were in attendance: Jean Froissart and Petrarch. Around this time, Chaucer is believed to have written The Book of the Duchess in honour of Blanche of Lancaster, the late wife of John of Gaunt, who died in 1369.\n\nChaucer travelled to Picardy the next year as part of a military expedition; in 1373 he visited Genoa and Florence. Numerous scholars such as Skeat, Boitani, and Rowland suggested that, on this Italian trip, he came into contact with Petrarch or Boccaccio. They introduced him to medieval Italian poetry, the forms and stories of which he would use later. The purposes of a voyage in 1377 are mysterious, as details within the historical record conflict. Later documents suggest it was a mission, along with Jean Froissart, to arrange a marriage between the future King Richard II and a French princess, thereby ending the Hundred Years War. If this was the purpose of their trip, they seem to have been unsuccessful, as no wedding occurred.\n\nIn 1378, Richard II sent Chaucer as an envoy (secret dispatch) to the Visconti and to Sir John Hawkwood, English condottiere (mercenary leader) in Milan. It has been speculated that it was Hawkwood on whom Chaucer based his character the Knight in the Canterbury Tales, for a description matches that of a 14th-century condottiere.\n\nA possible indication that his career as a writer was appreciated came when Edward III granted Chaucer \"a gallon of wine daily for the rest of his life\" for some unspecified task. This was an unusual grant, but given on a day of celebration, St George's Day, 1374, when artistic endeavours were traditionally rewarded, it is assumed to have been another early poetic work. It is not known which, if any, of Chaucer's extant works prompted the reward, but the suggestion of him as poet to a king places him as a precursor to later poets laureate. Chaucer continued to collect the liquid stipend until Richard II came to power, after which it was converted to a monetary grant on 18 April 1378.\n\nChaucer obtained the very substantial job of comptroller of the customs for the port of London, which he began on 8 June 1374. He must have been suited for the role as he continued in it for twelve years, a long time in such a post at that time. His life goes undocumented for much of the next ten years, but it is believed that he wrote (or began) most of his famous works during this period. He was mentioned in law papers of 4 May 1380, involved in the raptus of Cecilia Chaumpaigne. What raptus means is unclear, but the incident seems to have been resolved quickly and did not leave a stain on Chaucer's reputation. It is not known if Chaucer was in the city of London at the time of the Peasants' Revolt, but if he was, he would have seen its leaders pass almost directly under his apartment window at Aldgate. \n\nWhile still working as comptroller, Chaucer appears to have moved to Kent, being appointed as one of the commissioners of peace for Kent, at a time when French invasion was a possibility. He is thought to have started work on The Canterbury Tales in the early 1380s. He also became a Member of Parliament for Kent in 1386. On 15 October that year, he gave a deposition in the case of Scrope v. Grosvenor. There is no further reference after this date to Philippa, Chaucer's wife, and she is presumed to have died in 1387. He survived the political upheavals caused by the Lords Appellants, despite the fact that Chaucer knew some of the men executed over the affair quite well.\n\nOn 12 July 1389, Chaucer was appointed the clerk of the king's works, a sort of foreman organising most of the king's building projects. No major works were begun during his tenure, but he did conduct repairs on Westminster Palace, St. George's Chapel, Windsor, continue building the wharf at the Tower of London, and build the stands for a tournament held in 1390. It may have been a difficult job, but it paid well: two shillings a day, more than three times his salary as a comptroller. Chaucer was also appointed keeper of the lodge at the King's park in Feckenham, which was a largely honorary appointment. \n\nIn September 1390, records say that he was robbed, and possibly injured, while conducting the business, and it was shortly after, on 17 June 1391, that he stopped working in this capacity. Almost immediately, on 22 June, he began as Deputy Forester in the royal forest of Petherton Park in North Petherton, Somerset. This was no sinecure, with maintenance an important part of the job, although there were many opportunities to derive profit. He was granted an annual pension of twenty pounds by Richard II in 1394. It is believed that Chaucer stopped work on the Canterbury Tales sometime towards the end of this decade.\n\nNot long after the overthrow of his patron, Richard II, in 1399, Chaucer's name fades from the historical record. The last few records of his life show his pension renewed by the new king, and his taking of a lease on a residence within the close of Westminster Abbey on 24 December 1399. Although Henry IV renewed the grants assigned to Chaucer by Richard, Chaucer's own The Complaint of Chaucer to his Purse hints that the grants might not have been paid. The last mention of Chaucer is on 5 June 1400, when some monies owed to him were paid.\n\nHe is believed to have died of unknown causes on 25 October 1400, but there is no firm evidence for this date, as it comes from the engraving on his tomb, erected more than one hundred years after his death. There is some speculation—most recently in Terry Jones' book Who Murdered Chaucer? : A Medieval Mystery—that he was murdered by enemies of Richard II or even on the orders of his successor Henry IV, but the case is entirely circumstantial. Chaucer was buried in Westminster Abbey in London, as was his right owing to his status as a tenant of the Abbey's close. In 1556, his remains were transferred to a more ornate tomb, making Chaucer the first writer interred in the area now known as Poets' Corner.\n\nRelationship to John of Gaunt \n\nChaucer was a close friend of and served under the patronage of John of Gaunt, the wealthy Duke of Lancaster (and father of the future King of England). Near the end of their lives Lancaster and Chaucer became brothers-in-law. Chaucer married Philippa (Pan) de Roet in 1366, and Lancaster took his mistress of nearly 30 years, Katherine Swynford (de Roet), who was Philippa Chaucer's sister, as his third wife in 1396. Although Philippa died c.1387, the men were bound as brothers and Lancaster's children by Katherine—John, Henry, Thomas and Joan Beaufort—were Chaucer's nephews and niece.\n\nChaucer's Book of the Duchess, also known as the Deeth of Blaunche the Duchesse, was written in commemoration of Blanche of Lancaster, John of Gaunt's first wife. The poem refers to John and Blanche in allegory as the narrator relates the tale of \"A long castel with walles white/Be Seynt Johan, on a ryche hil\" (1318–1319) who is mourning grievously after the death of his love, \"And goode faire White she het/That was my lady name ryght\" (948–949). The phrase \"long castel\" is a reference to Lancaster (also called \"Loncastel\" and \"Longcastell\"), \"walles white\" is thought to likely be an oblique reference to Blanche, \"Seynt Johan\" was John of Gaunt's name-saint, and \"ryche hil\" is a reference to Richmond; these thinly veiled references reveal the identity of the grieving black knight of the poem as John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster and Earl of Richmond. \"White\" is the English translation of the French word \"blanche\", implying that the white lady was Blanche of Lancaster. \n\nBelieved to have been written in the 1390s, Chaucer's short poem Fortune, is also inferred to directly reference Lancaster. \"Chaucer as narrator\" openly defies Fortune, proclaiming he has learned who his enemies are through her tyranny and deceit, and declares \"my suffisaunce\" (15) and that \"over himself hath the maystrye\" (14). Fortune, in turn, does not understand Chaucer's harsh words to her for she believes she has been kind to him, claims that he does not know what she has in store for him in the future, but most importantly, \"And eek thou hast thy beste frend alyve\" (32, 40, 48). Chaucer retorts that \"My frend maystow nat reven, blind goddesse\" (50) and orders her to take away those who merely pretend to be his friends. Fortune turns her attention to three princes whom she implores to relieve Chaucer of his pain and \"Preyeth his beste frend of his noblesse/That to som beter estat he may atteyne\" (78–79). The three princes are believed to represent the dukes of Lancaster, York, and Gloucester, and a portion of line 76, \"as three of you or tweyne,\" to refer to the ordinance of 1390 which specified that no royal gift could be authorised without the consent of at least two of the three dukes. Most conspicuous in this short poem is the number of references to Chaucer's \"beste frend\". Fortune states three times in her response to the plaintiff, \"And also, you still have your best friend alive\" (32, 40, 48); she also references his \"beste frend\" in the envoy when appealing to his \"noblesse\" to help Chaucer to a higher estate. A fifth reference is made by \"Chaucer as narrator\" who rails at Fortune that she shall not take his friend from him. While the envoy playfully hints to Lancaster that Chaucer would certainly appreciate a boost to his status or income, the poem Fortune distinctively shows his deep appreciation and affection for John of Gaunt.\n\nWorks \n\nChaucer's first major work, The Book of the Duchess, was an elegy for Blanche of Lancaster (who died in 1369). It is possible that this work was commissioned by her husband John of Gaunt, as he granted Chaucer a £10 annuity on 13 June 1374. This would seem to place the writing of The Book of the Duchess between the years 1369 and 1374. Two other early works by Chaucer were Anelida and Arcite and The House of Fame. Chaucer wrote many of his major works in a prolific period when he held the job of customs comptroller for London (1374 to 1386). His Parlement of Foules, The Legend of Good Women and Troilus and Criseyde all date from this time. It is believed that in the early 1380s he started the work for which he is best known – The Canterbury Tales a collection of stories told by fictional pilgrims on the road to the cathedral at Canterbury; tales that would help to shape English literature.\n\nThe Canterbury Tales contrasts with other literature of the period in the naturalism of its narrative, the variety of stories the pilgrims tell and the varied characters who are engaged in the pilgrimage. Many of the stories narrated by the pilgrims seem to fit their individual characters and social standing, although some of the stories seem ill-fitting to their narrators, perhaps as a result of the incomplete state of the work. Chaucer drew on real life for his cast of pilgrims: the innkeeper shares the name of a contemporary keeper of an inn in Southwark, and real-life identities for the Wife of Bath, the Merchant, the Man of Law and the Student have been suggested. The many jobs that Chaucer held in medieval society—page, soldier, messenger, valet, bureaucrat, foreman and administrator—probably exposed him to many of the types of people he depicted in the Tales. He was able to shape their speech and satirise their manners in what was to become popular literature among people of the same types.\n\nChaucer's works are sometimes grouped into first a French period, then an Italian period and finally an English period, with Chaucer being influenced by those countries' literatures in turn. Certainly Troilus and Criseyde is a middle period work with its reliance on the forms of Italian poetry, little known in England at the time, but to which Chaucer was probably exposed during his frequent trips abroad on court business. In addition, its use of a classical subject and its elaborate, courtly language sets it apart as one of his most complete and well-formed works. In Troilus and Criseyde Chaucer draws heavily on his source, Boccaccio, and on the late Latin philosopher Boethius. However, it is The Canterbury Tales, wherein he focuses on English subjects, with bawdy jokes and respected figures often being undercut with humour, that has cemented his reputation.\n\nChaucer also translated such important works as Boethius' Consolation of Philosophy and The Romance of the Rose by Guillaume de Lorris (extended by Jean de Meun). However, while many scholars maintain that Chaucer did indeed translate part of the text of Roman de la Rose as The Romaunt of the Rose, others claim that this has been effectively disproved. Many of his other works were very loose translations of, or simply based on, works from continental Europe. It is in this role that Chaucer receives some of his earliest critical praise. Eustache Deschamps wrote a ballade on the great translator and called himself a \"nettle in Chaucer's garden of poetry\". In 1385 Thomas Usk made glowing mention of Chaucer, and John Gower, Chaucer's main poetic rival of the time, also lauded him. This reference was later edited out of Gower's Confessio Amantis and it was suggested by one editor that this was done because of ill feeling between them, but it is likely due simply to stylistic concerns.\n\nOne other significant work of Chaucer's is his Treatise on the Astrolabe, possibly for his own son, that describes the form and use of that instrument in detail and is sometimes cited as the first example of technical writing in the English language. Although much of the text may have come from other sources, the treatise indicates that Chaucer was versed in science in addition to his literary talents. Another scientific work discovered in 1952, Equatorie of the Planetis, has similar language and handwriting compared to some considered to be Chaucer's and it continues many of the ideas from the Astrolabe. Furthermore, it contains an example of early European encryption. The attribution of this work to Chaucer is still uncertain.\n\nInfluence \n\nLinguistic \n\nChaucer wrote in continental accentual-syllabic meter, a style which had developed since around the 12th century as an alternative to the alliterative Anglo-Saxon metre. Chaucer is known for metrical innovation, inventing the rhyme royal, and he was one of the first English poets to use the five-stress line, a decasyllabic cousin to the iambic pentameter, in his work, with only a few anonymous short works using it before him. The arrangement of these five-stress lines into rhyming couplets, first seen in his The Legend of Good Women, was used in much of his later work and became one of the standard poetic forms in English. His early influence as a satirist is also important, with the common humorous device, the funny accent of a regional dialect, apparently making its first appearance in The Reeve's Tale.\n\nThe poetry of Chaucer, along with other writers of the era, is credited with helping to standardise the London Dialect of the Middle English language from a combination of the Kentish and Midlands dialects. This is probably overstated; the influence of the court, chancery and bureaucracy—of which Chaucer was a part—remains a more probable influence on the development of Standard English. Modern English is somewhat distanced from the language of Chaucer's poems owing to the effect of the Great Vowel Shift some time after his death. This change in the pronunciation of English, still not fully understood, makes the reading of Chaucer difficult for the modern audience. The status of the final -e in Chaucer's verse is uncertain: it seems likely that during the period of Chaucer's writing the final -e was dropping out of colloquial English and that its use was somewhat irregular. Chaucer's versification suggests that the final -e is sometimes to be vocalised, and sometimes to be silent; however, this remains a point on which there is disagreement. When it is vocalised, most scholars pronounce it as a schwa. Apart from the irregular spelling, much of the vocabulary is recognisable to the modern reader. Chaucer is also recorded in the Oxford English Dictionary as the first author to use many common English words in his writings. These words were probably frequently used in the language at the time but Chaucer, with his ear for common speech, is the earliest extant manuscript source. Acceptable, alkali, altercation, amble, angrily, annex, annoyance, approaching, arbitration, armless, army, arrogant, arsenic, arc, artillery and aspect are just some of the many English words first attested in Chaucer.\n\nLiterary \n\nWidespread knowledge of Chaucer's works is attested by the many poets who imitated or responded to his writing. John Lydgate was one of the earliest poets to write continuations of Chaucer's unfinished Tales while Robert Henryson's Testament of Cresseid completes the story of Cressida left unfinished in his Troilus and Criseyde. Many of the manuscripts of Chaucer's works contain material from these poets and later appreciations by the romantic era poets were shaped by their failure to distinguish the later \"additions\" from original Chaucer. Writers or the 17th and 18th centuries, such as John Dryden, admired Chaucer for his stories, but not for his rhythm and rhyme, as few critics could then read Middle English and the text had been butchered by printers, leaving a somewhat unadmirable mess. It was not until the late 19th century that the official Chaucerian canon, accepted today, was decided upon, largely as a result of Walter William Skeat's work. Roughly seventy-five years after Chaucer's death, The Canterbury Tales was selected by William Caxton to be one of the first books to be printed in England.\n\nEnglish \n\nChaucer is sometimes considered the source of the English vernacular tradition. His achievement for the language can be seen as part of a general historical trend towards the creation of a vernacular literature, after the example of Dante, in many parts of Europe. A parallel trend in Chaucer's own lifetime was underway in Scotland through the work of his slightly earlier contemporary, John Barbour, and was likely to have been even more general, as is evidenced by the example of the Pearl Poet in the north of England.\n\nAlthough Chaucer's language is much closer to Modern English than the text of Beowulf, such that (unlike that of Beowulf) a Modern English-speaker with a large vocabulary of archaic words may understand it, it differs enough that most publications modernise his idiom. The following is a sample from the prologue of The Summoner's Tale that compares Chaucer's text to a modern translation:\n\nCritical reception \n\nEarly criticism \n\nThe poet Thomas Hoccleve, who may have met Chaucer and considered him his role model, hailed Chaucer as \"the firste fyndere of our fair langage.\" John Lydgate referred to Chaucer within his own text The Fall of Princes as the \"lodesterre … off our language\". Around two centuries later, Sir Philip Sidney greatly praised Troilus and Criseyde in his own Defence of Poesie. \n\nManuscripts and audience \n\nThe large number of surviving manuscripts of Chaucer's works is testimony to the enduring interest in his poetry prior to the arrival of the printing press. There are 83 surviving manuscripts of the Canterbury Tales (in whole or part) alone, along with sixteen of Troilus and Criseyde, including the personal copy of Henry IV. Given the ravages of time, it is likely that these surviving manuscripts represent hundreds since lost. Chaucer's original audience was a courtly one, and would have included women as well as men of the upper social classes. Yet even before his death in 1400, Chaucer's audience had begun to include members of the rising literate, middle and merchant classes, which included many Lollard sympathisers who may well have been inclined to read Chaucer as one of their own, particularly in his satirical writings about friars, priests, and other church officials. In 1464, John Baron, a tenant farmer in Agmondesham, was brought before John Chadworth, the Bishop of Lincoln, on charges he was a Lollard heretic; he confessed to owning a \"boke of the Tales of Caunterburie\" among other suspect volumes. \n\nPrinted editions \n\nWilliam Caxton, the first English printer, was responsible for the first two folio editions of The Canterbury Tales which were published in 1478 and 1483. Caxton's second printing, by his own account, came about because a customer complained that the printed text differed from a manuscript he knew; Caxton obligingly used the man's manuscript as his source. Both Caxton editions carry the equivalent of manuscript authority. Caxton's edition was reprinted by his successor, Wynkyn de Worde, but this edition has no independent authority.\n\nRichard Pynson, the King's Printer under Henry VIII for about twenty years, was the first to collect and sell something that resembled an edition of the collected works of Chaucer, introducing in the process five previously printed texts that we now know are not Chaucer's. (The collection is actually three separately printed texts, or collections of texts, bound together as one volume.) There is a likely connection between Pynson's product and William Thynne's a mere six years later. Thynne had a successful career from the 1520s until his death in 1546, when he was one of the masters of the royal household. His editions of Chaucers Works in 1532 and 1542 were the first major contributions to the existence of a widely recognised Chaucerian canon. Thynne represents his edition as a book sponsored by and supportive of the king who is praised in the preface by Sir Brian Tuke. Thynne's canon brought the number of apocryphal works associated with Chaucer to a total of 28, even if that was not his intention. As with Pynson, once included in the Works, pseudepigraphic texts stayed within it, regardless of their first editor's intentions.\n\nIn the 16th and 17th centuries, Chaucer was printed more than any other English author, and he was the first author to have his works collected in comprehensive single-volume editions in which a Chaucer canon began to cohere. Some scholars contend that 16th-century editions of Chaucer's Works set the precedent for all other English authors in terms of presentation, prestige and success in print. These editions certainly established Chaucer's reputation, but they also began the complicated process of reconstructing and frequently inventing Chaucer's biography and the canonical list of works which were attributed to him.\n\nProbably the most significant aspect of the growing apocrypha is that, beginning with Thynne's editions, it began to include medieval texts that made Chaucer appear as a proto-Protestant Lollard, primarily the Testament of Love and The Plowman's Tale. As \"Chaucerian\" works that were not considered apocryphal until the late 19th century, these medieval texts enjoyed a new life, with English Protestants carrying on the earlier Lollard project of appropriating existing texts and authors who seemed sympathetic—or malleable enough to be construed as sympathetic—to their cause. The official Chaucer of the early printed volumes of his Works was construed as a proto-Protestant as the same was done, concurrently, with William Langland and Piers Plowman. The famous Plowman's Tale did not enter Thynne's Works until the second, 1542, edition. Its entry was surely facilitated by Thynne's inclusion of Thomas Usk's Testament of Love in the first edition. The Testament of Love imitates, borrows from, and thus resembles Usk's contemporary, Chaucer. (Testament of Love also appears to borrow from Piers Plowman.) Since the Testament of Love mentions its author's part in a failed plot (book 1, chapter 6), his imprisonment, and (perhaps) a recantation of (possibly Lollard) heresy, all this was associated with Chaucer. (Usk himself was executed as a traitor in 1388.) Interestingly, John Foxe took this recantation of heresy as a defence of the true faith, calling Chaucer a \"right Wiclevian\" and (erroneously) identifying him as a schoolmate and close friend of John Wycliffe at Merton College, Oxford. (Thomas Speght is careful to highlight these facts in his editions and his \"Life of Chaucer.\") No other sources for the Testament of Love exist—there is only Thynne's construction of whatever manuscript sources he had.\n\nJohn Stow (1525–1605) was an antiquarian and also a chronicler.\nHis edition of Chaucer's Works in 1561 brought the apocrypha to more than 50 titles. More were added in the 17th century, and they remained as late as 1810, well after Thomas Tyrwhitt pared the canon down in his 1775 edition. The compilation and printing of Chaucer's works was, from its beginning, a political enterprise, since it was intended to establish an English national identity and history that grounded and authorised the Tudor monarchy and church. What was added to Chaucer often helped represent him favourably to Protestant England.\n\nIn his 1598 edition of the Works, Speght (probably taking cues from Foxe) made good use of Usk's account of his political intrigue and imprisonment in the Testament of Love to assemble a largely fictional \"Life of Our Learned English Poet, Geffrey Chaucer.\" Speght's \"Life\" presents readers with an erstwhile radical in troubled times much like their own, a proto-Protestant who eventually came around the king's views on religion. Speght states that \"In the second year of Richard the second, the King tooke Geffrey Chaucer and his lands into his protection. The occasion wherof no doubt was some daunger and trouble whereinto he was fallen by favouring some rash attempt of the common people.\" Under the discussion of Chaucer's friends, namely John of Gaunt, Speght further explains:\n\n:Yet it seemeth that [Chaucer] was in some trouble in the daies of King Richard the second, as it may appeare in the Testament of Loue: where hee doth greatly complaine of his owne rashnesse in following the multitude, and of their hatred of him for bewraying their purpose. And in that complaint which he maketh to his empty purse, I do find a written copy, which I had of Iohn Stow (whose library hath helped many writers) wherein ten times more is adjoined, then is in print. Where he maketh great lamentation for his wrongfull imprisonment, wishing death to end his daies: which in my iudgement doth greatly accord with that in the Testament of Love. Moreover we find it thus in Record.\n\nLater, in \"The Argument\" to the Testament of Love, Speght adds:\n:Chaucer did compile this booke as a comfort to himselfe after great griefs conceiued for some rash attempts of the commons, with whome he had ioyned, and thereby was in feare to loose the fauour of his best friends.\n\nSpeght is also the source of the famous tale of Chaucer being fined for beating a Franciscan friar in Fleet Street, as well as a fictitious coat of arms and family tree. Ironically—and perhaps consciously so—an introductory, apologetic letter in Speght's edition from Francis Beaumont defends the unseemly, \"low\", and bawdy bits in Chaucer from an elite, classicist position. Francis Thynne noted some of these inconsistencies in his Animadversions, insisting that Chaucer was not a commoner, and he objected to the friar-beating story. Yet Thynne himself underscores Chaucer's support for popular religious reform, associating Chaucer's views with his father William Thynne's attempts to include The Plowman's Tale and The Pilgrim's Tale in the 1532 and 1542 Works.\n\nThe myth of the Protestant Chaucer continues to have a lasting impact on a large body of Chaucerian scholarship. Though it is extremely rare for a modern scholar to suggest Chaucer supported a religious movement that didn't exist until more than a century after his death, the predominance of this thinking for so many centuries left it for granted that Chaucer was at least hostile toward Catholicism. This assumption forms a large part of many critical approaches to Chaucer's works, including neo-Marxism.\n\nAlongside Chaucer's Works, the most impressive literary monument of the period is John Foxe's Acts and Monuments.... As with the Chaucer editions, it was critically significant to English Protestant identity and included Chaucer in its project. Foxe's Chaucer both derived from and contributed to the printed editions of Chaucer's Works, particularly the pseudepigrapha. Jack Upland was first printed in Foxe's Acts and Monuments, and then it appeared in Speght's edition of Chaucer's Works. Speght's \"Life of Chaucer\" echoes Foxe's own account, which is itself dependent upon the earlier editions that added the Testament of Love and The Plowman's Tale to their pages. Like Speght's Chaucer, Foxe's Chaucer was also a shrewd (or lucky) political survivor. In his 1563 edition, Foxe \"thought it not out of season … to couple … some mention of Geoffrey Chaucer\" with a discussion of John Colet, a possible source for John Skelton's character Colin Clout.\n\nProbably referring to the 1542 Act for the Advancement of True Religion, Foxe said that he \"marvel[s] to consider … how the bishops, condemning and abolishing all manner of English books and treatises which might bring the people to any light of knowledge, did yet authorise the works of Chaucer to remain still and to be occupied; who, no doubt, saw into religion as much almost as even we do now, and uttereth in his works no less, and seemeth to be a right Wicklevian, or else there never was any. And that, all his works almost, if they be thoroughly advised, will testify (albeit done in mirth, and covertly); and especially the latter end of his third book of the Testament of Love … Wherein, except a man be altogether blind, he may espy him at the full: although in the same book (as in all others he useth to do), under shadows covertly, as under a visor, he suborneth truth in such sort, as both privily she may profit the godly-minded, and yet not be espied of the crafty adversary. And therefore the bishops, belike, taking his works but for jests and toys, in condemning other books, yet permitted his books to be read.\"\n\nIt is significant, too, that Foxe's discussion of Chaucer leads into his history of \"The Reformation of the Church of Christ in the Time of Martin Luther\" when \"Printing, being opened, incontinently ministered unto the church the instruments and tools of learning and knowledge; which were good books and authors, which before lay hid and unknown. The science of printing being found, immediately followed the grace of God; which stirred up good wits aptly to conceive the light of knowledge and judgment: by which light darkness began to be espied, and ignorance to be detected; truth from error, religion from superstition, to be discerned.\"\n\nFoxe downplays Chaucer's bawdy and amorous writing, insisting that it all testifies to his piety. Material that is troubling is deemed metaphoric, while the more forthright satire (which Foxe prefers) is taken literally.\n\nJohn Urry produced the first edition of the complete works of Chaucer in a Latin font, published posthumously in 1721. Included were several tales, according to the editors, for the first time printed, a biography of Chaucer, a glossary of old English words, and testimonials of author writers concerning Chaucer dating back to the 16th century. According to A. S. G Edwards, \"This was the first collected edition of Chaucer to be printed in roman type. The life of Chaucer prefixed to the volume was the work of the Reverend John Dart, corrected and revised by Timothy Thomas. The glossary appended was also mainly compiled by Thomas. The text of Urry's edition has often been criticised by subsequent editors for its frequent conjectural emendations, mainly to make it conform to his sense of Chaucer's metre. The justice of such criticisms should not obscure his achievement. His is the first edition of Chaucer for nearly a hundred and fifty years to consult any manuscripts and is the first since that of William Thynne in 1534 to seek systematically to assemble a substantial number of manuscripts to establish his text. It is also the first edition to offer descriptions of the manuscripts of Chaucer's works, and the first to print texts of 'Gamelyn' and 'The Tale of Beryn', works ascribed to, but not by, Chaucer.\"\n\nModern scholarship \n\nAlthough Chaucer's works had long been admired, serious scholarly work on his legacy did not begin until the late 18th century, when Thomas Tyrwhitt edited The Canterbury Tales, and it did not become an established academic discipline until the 19th century. Scholars such as Frederick James Furnivall, who founded the Chaucer Society in 1868, pioneered the establishment of diplomatic editions of Chaucer's major texts, along with careful accounts of Chaucer's language and prosody. Walter William Skeat, who like Furnivall was closely associated with the Oxford English Dictionary, established the base text of all of Chaucer's works with his edition, published by Oxford University Press. Later editions by John H. Fisher and Larry D. Benson offered further refinements, along with critical commentary and bibliographies.\n\nWith the textual issues largely addressed, if not resolved, attention turned to the questions of Chaucer's themes, structure, and audience. The Chaucer Review was founded in 1966 and has maintained its position as the pre-eminent journal of Chaucer studies.\n\nIn popular culture \n\n* Powell and Pressburger's 1944 film A Canterbury Tale opens with a re-creation of Chaucer's Canterbury pilgrims; the film itself takes place on the road to, and in, wartime Canterbury.\n* The plot of the detective novel Landscape with Dead Dons by Robert Robinson centres on the apparent rediscovery of The Book of the Leoun, and a passage from it (eleven lines of good Chaucerian pastiche) turn out to be the vital murder clue as well as proving that the \"rediscovered\" poem is an elaborate, clever forgery by the murderer (a Chaucer scholar).\n* In Rudyard Kipling's story \"Dayspring Mishandled\", a writer plans an elaborate revenge on a former friend, a Chaucer expert, who has insulted the woman he loves, by fabricating a \"medieval\" manuscript sheet containing an alleged fragment of a lost Canterbury Tale (actually his own composition).\n* Both an asteroid and a lunar crater have been named after Chaucer.\n* A (fictionalized) version of Chaucer was portrayed by Paul Bettany in the 2001 movie A Knight's Tale.\n\nList of works \n\nThe following major works are in rough chronological order but scholars still debate the dating of most of Chaucer's output and works made up from a collection of stories may have been compiled over a long period.\n\nMajor works \n\n* Translation of Roman de la Rose, possibly extant as The Romaunt of the Rose\n* The Book of the Duchess\n* The House of Fame\n* Anelida and Arcite\n* Parlement of Foules\n* Translation of Boethius' Consolation of Philosophy as Boece\n* Troilus and Criseyde\n* The Legend of Good Women\n* The Canterbury Tales\n* A Treatise on the Astrolabe\n\nShort poems \n\n* An ABC\n* Chaucers Wordes unto Adam, His Owne Scriveyn\n* The Complaint unto Pity\n* The Complaint of Chaucer to his Purse\n* The Complaint of Mars\n* The Complaint of Venus\n* A Complaint to His Lady\n* The Former Age\n* Fortune\n* Gentilesse\n* Lak of Stedfastnesse\n* Lenvoy de Chaucer a Scogan\n* Lenvoy de Chaucer a Bukton\n* Proverbs\n* Balade to Rosemounde\n* Truth\n* Womanly Noblesse\n\nPoems of dubious authorship \n\n* Against Women Unconstant\n* A Balade of Complaint\n* Complaynt D'Amours\n* Merciles Beaute\n* The Equatorie of the Planets – A rough translation of a Latin work derived from an Arab work of the same title. It is a description of the construction and use of a planetary equatorium, which was used in calculating planetary orbits and positions (at the time it was believed the sun orbited the Earth). The similar Treatise on the Astrolabe, not usually doubted as Chaucer's work, in addition to Chaucer's name as a gloss to the manuscript are the main pieces of evidence for the ascription to Chaucer. However, the evidence Chaucer wrote such a work is questionable, and as such is not included in The Riverside Chaucer. If Chaucer did not compose this work, it was probably written by a contemporary.\n\nWorks presumed lost \n\n* Of the Wreched Engendrynge of Mankynde, possible translation of Innocent III's De miseria conditionis humanae\n* Origenes upon the Maudeleyne\n* The Book of the Leoun – \"The Book of the Lion\" is mentioned in Chaucer's retraction. It has been speculated that it may have been a redaction of Guillaume de Machaut's 'Dit dou lyon,' a story about courtly love (a subject about which Chaucer frequently wrote).\n\nSpurious works \n\n* The Pilgrim's Tale – written in the 16th century with many Chaucerian allusions\n* The Plowman's Tale or [http://www.lib.rochester.edu/camelot/teams/plwtlint.htm The Complaint of the Ploughman] – a Lollard satire later appropriated as a Protestant text\n* Pierce the Ploughman's Crede – a Lollard satire later appropriated by Protestants\n* [http://www.lib.rochester.edu/camelot/teams/plgtlint.htm The Ploughman's Tale] – its body is largely a version of Thomas Hoccleve's \"Item de Beata Virgine\"\n* [http://www.lib.rochester.edu/camelot/teams/sym4int.htm \"La Belle Dame Sans Merci\"] – Richard Roos's translation of a poem of the same name by Alain Chartier\n* [http://www.lib.rochester.edu/camelot/teams/shoaf.htm The Testament of Love] – actually by Thomas Usk\n* Jack Upland – a Lollard satire\n* The Floure and the Leafe – a 15th-century allegory\n\nDerived works \n\n* God Spede the Plough – Borrows twelve stanzas of Chaucer's Monk's Tale", "The Canterbury Tales (Middle English: Tales of Caunterbury) is a collection of 24 stories that runs to over 17,000 lines written in Middle English by Geoffrey Chaucer. In 1386, Chaucer became Controller of Customs and Justice of Peace and, three years later, Clerk of the King's work in 1389. It was during these years that Chaucer began working on his most famous text, The Canterbury Tales. The tales (mostly written in verse, although some are in prose) are presented as part of a story-telling contest by a group of pilgrims as they travel together on a journey from London to Canterbury in order to visit the shrine of Saint Thomas Becket at Canterbury Cathedral. The prize for this contest is a free meal at the Tabard Inn at Southwark on their return.\n\nAfter a long list of works written earlier in his career, including Troilus and Criseyde, House of Fame, and Parliament of Fowls, The Canterbury Tales is near-unanimously seen as Chaucer's magnum opus. He uses the tales and the descriptions of its characters to paint an ironic and critical portrait of English society at the time, and particularly of the Church. Chaucer's use of such a wide range of classes and types of people was without precedent in English. Although the characters are fictional, they still offer a variety of insights into the customs and practices of the time. Often, such insight leads to a variety of discussions and disagreements among people in the 14th century. For example, although various social classes are represented in these stories and all of the pilgrims are on a spiritual quest, it is apparent that they are more concerned with worldly things than spiritual. Structurally, the collection resembles The Decameron, which Chaucer may have read during his first diplomatic mission to Italy in 1372.\n\nIt is sometimes argued that the greatest contribution The Canterbury Tales made to English literature was in popularising the literary use of the vernacular, English, rather than French, Italian or Latin. English had, however, been used as a literary language centuries before Chaucer's time, and several of Chaucer's contemporaries—John Gower, William Langland, the Pearl Poet, and Julian of Norwich—also wrote major literary works in English. It is unclear to what extent Chaucer was responsible for starting a trend as opposed to simply being part of it.\n\nWhile Chaucer clearly states the addressees of many of his poems, the intended audience of The Canterbury Tales is more difficult to determine. Chaucer was a courtier, leading some to believe that he was mainly a court poet who wrote exclusively for nobility.\n\nThe Canterbury Tales was far from complete at the end of Chaucer's life. In the General Prologue, some thirty pilgrims are introduced. According to the Prologue, Chaucer's intention was to write two stories from the perspective of each pilgrim on the way to and from their ultimate destination, St. Thomas Becket's shrine (making for a total of four stories per pilgrim). Although perhaps incomplete, The Canterbury Tales is revered as one of the most important works in English literature. Not only do readers from all time periods find it entertaining, but it is also a work that is open to a range of interpretations. \n\nText\n\nThe question of whether The Canterbury Tales is finished has not yet been answered. There are 83 known manuscripts of the work from the late medieval and early Renaissance periods, more than any other vernacular literary text with the exception of The Prick of Conscience. This is taken as evidence of the tales' popularity during the century after Chaucer's death. Fifty-five of these manuscripts are thought to have been complete at one time, while 28 are so fragmentary that it is difficult to ascertain whether they were copied individually or as part of a set. The Tales vary in both minor and major ways from manuscript to manuscript; many of the minor variations are due to copyists' errors, while others suggest that Chaucer added to and revised his work as it was being copied and (possibly) distributed.\n\nEven the earliest surviving manuscripts are not Chaucer's originals, the oldest being MS Peniarth 392 D (called \"Hengwrt\"), compiled by a scribe shortly after Chaucer's death. The most beautiful of the manuscripts of the tales is the Ellesmere Manuscript, and many editors have followed the order of the Ellesmere over the centuries, even down to the present day. The first version of The Canterbury Tales to be published in print was William Caxton's 1478 edition. Only 10 copies of this edition are known to exist, including one held by the British Library and one held by the Folger Shakespeare Library. Since this print edition was created from a now-lost manuscript, it is counted as among the 83 manuscripts. In 2004, Professor Linne Mooney was able to identify the scrivener who worked for Chaucer as an Adam Pinkhurst. Mooney, then a professor at the University of Maine and a visiting fellow at Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, was able to match Pinkhurst's signature, on an oath he signed, to his lettering on a copy of The Canterbury Tales that was transcribed from Chaucer's working copy. \n\nOrder\n\nNo authorial, arguably complete version of the Tales exists and no consensus has been reached regarding the order in which Chaucer intended the stories to be placed.Cooper, 7 \n\nTextual and manuscript clues have been adduced to support the two most popular modern methods of ordering the tales. Some scholarly editions divide the Tales into ten \"Fragments\". The tales that make up a Fragment are closely related and contain internal indications of their order of presentation, usually with one character speaking to and then stepping aside for another character. However, between Fragments, the connection is less obvious. Consequently, there are several possible orders; the one most frequently seen in modern editions follows the numbering of the Fragments (ultimately based on the Ellesmere order). Victorians frequently used the nine \"Groups\", which was the order used by Walter William Skeat whose edition Chaucer: Complete Works was used by Oxford University Press for most of the twentieth century, but this order is now seldom followed.\n\nAn alternative ordering (seen in an early manuscript containing The Canterbury Tales, the early-fifteenth century Harley MS. 7334) places Fragment VIII before VI. Fragments I and II almost always follow each other, just as VI and VII, IX and X do in the oldest manuscripts. Fragments IV and V, by contrast, vary in location from manuscript to manuscript.\n\nLanguage\n\nChaucer wrote in late Middle English, which has clear differences from Modern English. From philological research, we know certain facts about the pronunciation of English during the time of Chaucer. Chaucer pronounced -e at the end of words, so that care was, not as in Modern English. Other silent letters were also pronounced, so that the word knight was, with both the k and the gh pronounced, not. In some cases, vowel letters in Middle English were pronounced very differently from Modern English, because the Great Vowel Shift had not yet happened. For instance, the long e in wepyng \"weeping\" was pronounced as, as in modern German or Italian, not as. Below is an IPA transcription of the opening lines of The Merchant's Prologue:\n\n'Wepyng and waylyng, care and oother sorwe\nI knowe ynogh, on even and a-morwe,'\nQuod the Marchant, 'and so doon oother mo\nThat wedded been.' \n\n:\n: \n\n'Weeping and wailing, care and other sorrow\nI know enough, in the evening and in the morning,'\nsaid the Merchant, 'and so does many another\nwho has been married.'\n\nAlthough no manuscript exists in Chaucer's own hand, two were copied around the time of his death by Adam Pinkhurst, a scribe with whom he seems to have worked closely before, giving a high degree of confidence that Chaucer himself wrote the Tales. Because final -e was lost soon after Chaucer's time, scribes did not accurately copy it, and this gave scholars the impression that Chaucer himself was inconsistent in using it. It has now been established, however, that -e was an important part of Chaucer's grammar, and helped to distinguish singular adjectives from plural and subjunctive verbs from indicative. \n\nSources\n\nNo other work prior to Chaucer's is known to have set a collection of tales within the framework of pilgrims on a pilgrimage. It is obvious, however, that Chaucer borrowed portions, sometimes very large portions, of his stories from earlier stories, and that his work was influenced by the general state of the literary world in which he lived. Storytelling was the main entertainment in England at the time, and storytelling contests had been around for hundreds of years. In 14th-century England the English Pui was a group with an appointed leader who would judge the songs of the group. The winner received a crown and, as with the winner of The Canterbury Tales, a free dinner. It was common for pilgrims on a pilgrimage to have a chosen \"master of ceremonies\" to guide them and organise the journey. Harold Bloom suggests that the structure is mostly original, but inspired by the \"pilgrim\" figures of Dante and Virgil in The Divine Comedy. \n\nThe Decameron by Giovanni Boccaccio contains more parallels to The Canterbury Tales than any other work. Like the Tales, it features a number of narrators who tell stories along a journey they have undertaken (to flee from the Black Death). It ends with an apology by Boccaccio, much like Chaucer's Retraction to the Tales. A quarter of the tales in The Canterbury Tales parallel a tale in the Decameron, although most of them have closer parallels in other stories. Some scholars thus find it unlikely that Chaucer had a copy of the work on hand, surmising instead that he must have merely read the Decameron at some point. Each of the tales has its own set of sources that have been suggested by scholars, but a few sources are used frequently over several tales. They include poetry by Ovid, the Bible in one of the many vulgate versions in which it was available at the time (the exact one is difficult to determine), and the works of Petrarch and Dante. Chaucer was the first author to utilise the work of these last two, both Italians. Boethius' Consolation of Philosophy appears in several tales, as the works of John Gower do. Gower was a known friend to Chaucer. A full list is impossible to outline in little space, but Chaucer also, lastly, seems to have borrowed from numerous religious encyclopaedias and liturgical writings, such as John Bromyard's Summa praedicantium, a preacher's handbook, and Jerome's Adversus Jovinianum. Many scholars say there is a good possibility Chaucer met Petrarch or Boccaccio. \n\nGenre and structure\n\nThe Canterbury Tales is a collection of stories built around a frame narrative or frame tale, a common and already long established genre of its period. Chaucer's Tales differs from most other story \"collections\" in this genre chiefly in its intense variation. Most story collections focused on a theme, usually a religious one. Even in the Decameron, storytellers are encouraged to stick to the theme decided on for the day. The idea of a pilgrimage to get such a diverse collection of people together for literary purposes was also unprecedented, though \"the association of pilgrims and storytelling was a familiar one\". Introducing a competition among the tales encourages the reader to compare the tales in all their variety, and allows Chaucer to showcase the breadth of his skill in different genres and literary forms. \n\nWhile the structure of the Tales is largely linear, with one story following another, it is also much more than that. In the General Prologue, Chaucer describes not the tales to be told, but the people who will tell them, making it clear that structure will depend on the characters rather than a general theme or moral. This idea is reinforced when the Miller interrupts to tell his tale after the Knight has finished his. Having the Knight go first gives one the idea that all will tell their stories by class, with the Monk following the Knight. However, the Miller's interruption makes it clear that this structure will be abandoned in favour of a free and open exchange of stories among all classes present. General themes and points of view arise as the characters tell their tales, which are responded to by other characters in their own tales, sometimes after a long lapse in which the theme has not been addressed. \n\nLastly, Chaucer does not pay much attention to the progress of the trip, to the time passing as the pilgrims travel, or to specific locations along the way to Canterbury. His writing of the story seems focused primarily on the stories being told, and not on the pilgrimage itself. \n\nStyle\n\nThe variety of Chaucer's tales shows the breadth of his skill and his familiarity with many literary forms, linguistic styles, and rhetorical devices. Medieval schools of rhetoric at the time encouraged such diversity, dividing literature (as Virgil suggests) into high, middle, and low styles as measured by the density of rhetorical forms and vocabulary. Another popular method of division came from St. Augustine, who focused more on audience response and less on subject matter (a Virgilian concern). Augustine divided literature into \"majestic persuades\", \"temperate pleases\", and \"subdued teaches\". Writers were encouraged to write in a way that kept in mind the speaker, subject, audience, purpose, manner, and occasion. Chaucer moves freely between all of these styles, showing favouritism to none. He not only considers the readers of his work as an audience, but the other pilgrims within the story as well, creating a multi-layered rhetorical puzzle of ambiguities. Thus Chaucer's work far surpasses the ability of any single medieval theory to uncover. \n\nWith this, Chaucer avoids targeting any specific audience or social class of readers, focusing instead on the characters of the story and writing their tales with a skill proportional to their social status and learning. However, even the lowest characters, such as the Miller, show surprising rhetorical ability, although their subject matter is more lowbrow. Vocabulary also plays an important part, as those of the higher classes refer to a woman as a \"lady\", while the lower classes use the word \"wenche\", with no exceptions. At times the same word will mean entirely different things between classes. The word \"pitee\", for example, is a noble concept to the upper classes, while in the Merchant's Tale it refers to sexual intercourse. Again, however, tales such as the Nun's Priest's Tale show surprising skill with words among the lower classes of the group, while the Knight's Tale is at times extremely simple. \n\nChaucer uses the same meter throughout almost all of his tales, with the exception of Sir Thopas and his prose tales. It is a decasyllable line, probably borrowed from French and Italian forms, with riding rhyme and, occasionally, a caesura in the middle of a line. His meter would later develop into the heroic meter of the 15th and 16th centuries and is an ancestor of iambic pentameter. He avoids allowing couplets to become too prominent in the poem, and four of the tales (the Man of Law's, Clerk's, Prioress', and Second Nun's) use rhyme royal. \n\nHistorical context and themes\n\nThe Canterbury Tales was written during a turbulent time in English history. The Catholic Church was in the midst of the Western Schism and, though it was still the only Christian authority in Europe, was the subject of heavy controversy. Lollardy, an early English religious movement led by John Wycliffe, is mentioned in the Tales, which also mention a specific incident involving pardoners (sellers of indulgences, which were believed to relieve the temporal punishment due for sins that were already forgiven in the Sacrament of Confession) who nefariously claimed to be collecting for St. Mary Rouncesval hospital in England. The Canterbury Tales is among the first English literary works to mention paper, a relatively new invention that allowed dissemination of the written word never before seen in England. Political clashes, such as the 1381 Peasants' Revolt and clashes ending in the deposing of King Richard II, further reveal the complex turmoil surrounding Chaucer in the time of the Tales writing. Many of his close friends were executed and he himself moved to Kent to get away from events in London. \n\nWhile some readers look to interpret the characters of The Canterbury Tales as historical figures, other readers choose to interpret its significance in less literal terms. After analysis of Chaucer's diction and historical context, his work appears to develop a critique of society during his lifetime. Within a number of his descriptions, his comments can appear complimentary in nature, but through clever language, the statements are ultimately critical of the pilgrim's actions. It is unclear whether Chaucer would intend for the reader to link his characters with actual persons. Instead, it appears that Chaucer creates fictional characters to be general representations of people in such fields of work. With an understanding of medieval society, one can detect subtle satire at work. \n\nReligion\n\nThe Tales reflect diverse views of the Church in Chaucer's England. After the Black Death, many Europeans began to question the authority of the established Church. Some turned to lollardy, while others chose less extreme paths, starting new monastic orders or smaller movements exposing church corruption in the behaviour of the clergy, false church relics or abuse of indulgences. Several characters in the Tales are religious figures, and the very setting of the pilgrimage to Canterbury is religious (although the prologue comments ironically on its merely seasonal attractions), making religion a significant theme of the work. \n\nTwo characters, the Pardoner and the Summoner, whose roles apply the Church's secular power, are both portrayed as deeply corrupt, greedy, and abusive. A pardoner in Chaucer's day was a person from whom one bought Church \"indulgences\" for forgiveness of sins, but pardoners were often thought guilty of abusing their office for their own gain. Chaucer's Pardoner openly admits the corruption of his practice while hawking his wares. The Summoner is a Church officer who brought sinners to the Church court for possible excommunication and other penalties. Corrupt summoners would write false citations and frighten people into bribing them to protect their interests. Chaucer's Summoner is portrayed as guilty of the very kinds of sins for which he is threatening to bring others to court, and is hinted as having a corrupt relationship with the Pardoner. In The Friar's Tale, one of the characters is a summoner who is shown to be working on the side of the devil, not God. \n\nChurchmen of various kinds are represented by the Monk, the Prioress, the Nun's Priest, and the Second Nun. Monastic orders, which originated from a desire to follow an ascetic lifestyle separated from the world, had by Chaucer's time become increasingly entangled in worldly matters. Monasteries frequently controlled huge tracts of land on which they made significant sums of money, while peasants worked in their employ. The Second Nun is an example of what a Nun was expected to be: her tale is about a woman whose chaste example brings people into the church. The Monk and the Prioress, on the other hand, while not as corrupt as the Summoner or Pardoner, fall far short of the ideal for their orders. Both are expensively dressed, show signs of lives of luxury and flirtatiousness and show a lack of spiritual depth. The Prioress's Tale is an account of Jews murdering a deeply pious and innocent Christian boy, a blood libel against Jews that became a part of English literary tradition. The story did not originate in the works of Chaucer and was well known in the 14th century. \n\nPilgrimage was a very prominent feature of medieval society. The ultimate pilgrimage destination was Jerusalem, but within England Canterbury was a popular destination. Pilgrims would journey to cathedrals that preserved relics of saints, believing that such relics held miraculous powers. Saint Thomas Becket, Archbishop of Canterbury, had been murdered in Canterbury Cathedral by knights of Henry II during a disagreement between Church and Crown. Miracle stories connected to his remains sprang up soon after his death, and the cathedral became a popular pilgrimage destination. The pilgrimage in the work ties all of the stories together and may be considered a representation of Christians' striving for heaven, despite weaknesses, disagreement, and diversity of opinion. \n\nSocial class and convention\n\nThe upper class or nobility, represented chiefly by the Knight and his Squire, was in Chaucer's time steeped in a culture of chivalry and courtliness. Nobles were expected to be powerful warriors who could be ruthless on the battlefield yet mannerly in the King's Court and Christian in their actions. Knights were expected to form a strong social bond with the men who fought alongside them, but an even stronger bond with a woman whom they idealised to strengthen their fighting ability. Though the aim of chivalry was to noble action, its conflicting values often degenerated into violence. Church leaders frequently tried to place restrictions on jousts and tournaments, which at times ended in the death of the loser. The Knight's Tale shows how the brotherly love of two fellow knights turns into a deadly feud at the sight of a woman whom both idealise. To win her, both are willing to fight to the death. Chivalry was in Chaucer's day on the decline, and it is possible that The Knight's Tale was intended to show its flaws, although this is disputed. Chaucer himself had fought in the Hundred Years' War under Edward III, who heavily emphasised chivalry during his reign. Two tales, Sir Topas and The Tale of Melibee are told by Chaucer himself, who is travelling with the pilgrims in his own story. Both tales seem to focus on the ill-effects of chivalry—the first making fun of chivalric rules and the second warning against violence. \n\nThe Tales constantly reflect the conflict between classes. For example, the division of the three estates: the characters are all divided into three distinct classes, the classes being \"those who pray\" (the clergy), \"those who fight\" (the nobility), and \"those who work\" (the commoners and peasantry). Most of the tales are interlinked by common themes, and some \"quit\" (reply to or retaliate against) other tales. Convention is followed when the Knight begins the game with a tale, as he represents the highest social class in the group. But when he is followed by the Miller, who represents a lower class, it sets the stage for the Tales to reflect both a respect for and a disregard for upper class rules. Helen Cooper, as well as Mikhail Bakhtin and Derek Brewer, call this opposition \"the ordered and the grotesque, Lent and Carnival, officially approved culture and its riotous, and high-spirited underside.\"Cooper, 19 Several works of the time contained the same opposition.\n\nRelativism versus realism\n\nChaucer's characters each express different—sometimes vastly different—views of reality, creating an atmosphere of testing, empathy, and relativism. As Helen Cooper says, \"Different genres give different readings of the world: the fabliau scarcely notices the operations of God, the saint's life focuses on those at the expense of physical reality, tracts and sermons insist on prudential or orthodox morality, romances privilege human emotion.\" The sheer number of varying persons and stories renders the Tales as a set unable to arrive at any definite truth or reality. \n\nLiminality\n\nThe concept of liminality figures prominently within The Canterbury Tales. A liminal space, which can be both geographical as well as metaphorical or spiritual, is the transitional or transformational space between a “real” (secure, known, limited) world and an unknown or imaginary space of both risk and possibility. The notion of a pilgrimage is itself a liminal experience, because it centers on travel between destinations and because pilgrims undertake it hoping to become more holy in the process. Thus, the structure of The Canterbury Tales itself is liminal; it not only covers the distance between London and Canterbury, but the majority of the tales refer to places entirely outside the geography of the pilgrimage. Jean Jost summarises the function of liminality in The Canterbury Tales,\n\n\"Both appropriately and ironically in this raucous and subversive liminal space, a ragtag assembly gather together and tell their equally unconventional tales. In this unruly place, the rules of tale telling are established, themselves to be both disordered and broken; here the tales of game and earnest, solas and sentence, will be set and interrupted. Here the sacred and profane adventure begins, but does not end. Here, the condition of peril is as prominent as that of protection. The act of pilgrimaging itself consists of moving from one urban space, through liminal rural space, to the next urban space with an ever fluctuating series of events and narratives punctuating those spaces. The goal of pilgrimage may well be a religious or spiritual space at its conclusion, and reflect a psychological progression of the spirit, in yet another kind of emotional space.\" \n\nLiminality is also evident in the individual tales. An obvious instance of this is the Friar’s Tale in which the yeoman devil is a liminal figure because of his transitory nature and function; it is his purpose to issue souls from their current existence to hell, an entirely different one. The Franklin’s Tale is a Breton Lai tale, which takes the tale into a liminal space by invoking both the interaction of the supernatural and the mortal, but the relation between the present and the imagined past. \n\nInfluence on literature\n\nIt is sometimes argued that the greatest contribution that this work made to English literature was in popularising the literary use of the vernacular English, rather than French or Latin. English had, however, been used as a literary language for centuries before Chaucer's life, and several of Chaucer's contemporaries—John Gower, William Langland, and the Pearl Poet—also wrote major literary works in English. It is unclear to what extent Chaucer was responsible for starting a trend rather than simply being part of it. It is interesting to note that, although Chaucer had a powerful influence in poetic and artistic terms, which can be seen in the great number of forgeries and mistaken attributions (such as The Floure and the Leafe, which was translated by John Dryden), modern English spelling and orthography owe much more to the innovations made by the Court of Chancery in the decades during and after his lifetime.\n\nReception\n\nWhile Chaucer clearly states the addressees of many of his poems (the Book of the Duchess is believed to have been written for John of Gaunt on the occasion of his wife's death in 1368), the intended audience of The Canterbury Tales is more difficult to determine. Chaucer was a courtier, leading some to believe that he was mainly a court poet who wrote exclusively for the nobility. He is referred to as a noble translator and poet by Eustache Deschamps and by his contemporary John Gower. It has been suggested that the poem was intended to be read aloud, which is probable as this was a common activity at the time. However, it also seems to have been intended for private reading as well, since Chaucer frequently refers to himself as the writer, rather than the speaker, of the work. Determining the intended audience directly from the text is even more difficult, since the audience is part of the story. This makes it difficult to tell when Chaucer is writing to the fictional pilgrim audience or the actual reader. \n\nChaucer's works may have been distributed in some form during his lifetime in part or in whole. Scholars speculate that manuscripts were circulated among his friends, but likely remained unknown to most people until after his death. However, the speed with which copyists strove to write complete versions of his tale in manuscript form shows that Chaucer was a famous and respected poet in his own day. The Hengwrt and Ellesmere manuscripts are examples of the care taken to distribute the work. More manuscript copies of the poem exist than for any other poem of its day except The Prick of Conscience, causing some scholars to give it the medieval equivalent of bestseller status. Even the most elegant of the illustrated manuscripts, however, is not nearly as highly decorated as the work of authors of more respectable works such as John Lydgate's religious and historical literature. \n\n15th century\n\nJohn Lydgate and Thomas Occleve were among the first critics of Chaucer's Tales, praising the poet as the greatest English poet of all time and the first to show what the language was truly capable of poetically. This sentiment was universally agreed upon by later critics into the mid-15th century. Glosses included in The Canterbury Tales manuscripts of the time praised him highly for his skill with \"sentence\" and rhetoric, the two pillars by which medieval critics judged poetry. The most respected of the tales was at this time the Knight's, as it was full of both. \n\nLiterary additions and supplements\n\nThe incompleteness of the Tales led several medieval authors to write additions and supplements to the tales to make them more complete. Some of the oldest existing manuscripts of the tales include new or modified tales, showing that even early on, such additions were being created. These emendations included various expansions of the Cook's Tale, which Chaucer never finished, The Plowman's Tale, The Tale of Gamelyn, the Siege of Thebes, and the Tale of Beryn. \n\nThe Tale of Beryn, written by an anonymous author in the 15th century, is preceded by a lengthy prologue in which the pilgrims arrive at Canterbury and their activities there are described. While the rest of the pilgrims disperse throughout the town, the Pardoner seeks the affections of Kate the barmaid, but faces problems dealing with the man in her life and the innkeeper Harry Bailey. As the pilgrims turn back home, the Merchant restarts the storytelling with Tale of Beryn. In this tale, a young man named Beryn travels from Rome to Egypt to seek his fortune only to be cheated by other businessmen there. He is then aided by a local man in getting his revenge. The tale comes from the French tale Bérinus and exists in a single early manuscript of the tales, although it was printed along with the tales in a 1721 edition by John Urry. \n\nJohn Lydgate wrote The Siege of Thebes in about 1420. Like the Tale of Beryn, it is preceded by a prologue in which the pilgrims arrive in Canterbury. Lydgate places himself among the pilgrims as one of them and describes how he was a part of Chaucer's trip and heard the stories. He characterises himself as a monk and tells a long story about the history of Thebes before the events of the Knight's Tale. John Lydgate's tale was popular early on and exists in old manuscripts both on its own and as part of the Tales. It was first printed as early as 1561 by John Stow, and several editions for centuries after followed suit. \n\nThere are actually two versions of The Plowman's Tale, both of which are influenced by the story Piers Plowman, a work written during Chaucer's lifetime. Chaucer describes a Plowman in the General Prologue of his tales, but never gives him his own tale. One tale, written by Thomas Occleve, describes the miracle of the Virgin and the Sleeveless Garment. Another tale features a pelican and a griffin debating church corruption, with the pelican taking a position of protest akin to John Wycliffe's ideas. \n\nThe Tale of Gamelyn was included in an early manuscript version of the tales, Harley 7334, which is notorious for being one of the lower-quality early manuscripts in terms of editor error and alteration. It is now widely rejected by scholars as an authentic Chaucerian tale, although some scholars think he may have intended to rewrite the story as a tale for the Yeoman. Dates for its authorship vary from 1340 to 1370. \n\nLiterary adaptations\n\nMany literary works (both fiction and non-fiction alike) have used a similar frame narrative to The Canterbury Tales as an homage. Science-fiction writer Dan Simmons wrote his Hugo Award winning novel Hyperion based on an extra-planetary group of pilgrims. Evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins used The Canterbury Tales as a structure for his 2004 non-fiction book about evolution titled The Ancestor's Tale: A Pilgrimage to the Dawn of Evolution. His animal pilgrims are on their way to find the common ancestor, each telling a tale about evolution.\n\nHenry Dudeney's book The Canterbury Puzzles contains a part reputedly lost from what modern readers know as Chaucer's tales.\n\nHistorical-mystery novelist P.C. Doherty wrote a series of novels based on The Canterbury Tales, making use of both the story frame and Chaucer's characters.\n\nCanadian author Angie Abdou translates The Canterbury Tales to a cross section of people, all snow-sports enthusiasts but from different social backgrounds, converging on a remote back-country ski cabin in British Columbia in the 2011 novel The Canterbury Trail.\n\nAdaptations and homages\n\nThe Two Noble Kinsmen, by William Shakespeare and John Fletcher, a retelling of \"The Knight's Tale\", was first performed in 1613 or 1614 and published in 1634. In 1961, Erik Chisholm completed his opera, The Canterbury Tales. The opera is in three acts: The Wyf of Bath’s Tale, The Pardoner’s Tale and The Nun’s Priest’s Tale. Nevill Coghill's modern English version formed the basis of a musical version that was first staged in 1964.\n\nA Canterbury Tale, a 1944 film jointly written and directed by Michael Powell and Emeric Pressburger, is loosely based on the narrative frame of Chaucer's tales. The movie opens with a group of medieval pilgrims journeying through the Kentish countryside as a narrator speaks the opening lines of the General Prologue. The scene then makes a now-famous transition to the time of World War II. From that point on, the film follows a group of strangers, each with his or her own story and in need of some kind of redemption, who are making their way to Canterbury together. The film's main story takes place in an imaginary town in Kent and ends with the main characters arriving at Canterbury Cathedral, bells pealing and Chaucer's words again resounding. A Canterbury Tale is recognised as one of the Powell-Pressburger team's most poetic and artful films. It was produced as wartime propaganda, using Chaucer's poetry, referring to the famous pilgrimage, and offering photography of Kent to remind the public of what made Britain worth fighting for. In one scene a local historian lectures an audience of British soldiers about the pilgrims of Chaucer's time and the vibrant history of England. \n\nPier Paolo Pasolini's 1972 film The Canterbury Tales features several of the tales, some of which keep close to the original tale and some of which are embellished. The Cook's Tale, for instance, which is incomplete in the original version, is expanded into a full story, and the Friar's Tale extends the scene in which the Summoner is dragged down to hell. The film includes these two tales as well as the Miller's Tale, the Summoner's Tale, the Wife of Bath's Tale, and the Merchant's Tale. \n\nOn April 26, 1986, American radio personality Garrison Keillor opened \"The News from Lake Wobegon\" portion of the first live TV broadcast of his A Prairie Home Companion radio show with a reading of the original Middle English text of the General Prologue. He commented, \"Although those words were written more than 600 years ago, they still describe spring.\"\n\nEnglish rock musician Sting paid tribute to Chaucer and the book with his 1993 concept album Ten Summoner's Tales, which he described as ten songs (plus an epilogue number) with no theme or subject tying them together. Sting's real name is Gordon Sumner, hence the reference to the \"Summoner\" character in the record's title. In essence, the collection of songs was composed as \"a musical Canterbury Tales\".\n\nSeveral more recent films, while they are not based on the tales, do have references to them. For example, in the 1995 film Se7en, the Parson's Tale is an important clue to the methods of a serial killer who chooses his victims based on the seven deadly sins. The 2001 film A Knight's Tale took its name from \"The Knight's Tale\". Although it bears little resemblance to the tale, it does feature what Martha Driver and Sid Ray call an \"MTV-generation\" Chaucer who is a gambling addict with a way with words. Scattered references to the Tales include Chaucer's declaration that he will use his verse to vilify a summoner and a pardoner who have cheated him. \n\nTelevision adaptations include Alan Plater's 1975 re-telling of the stories in a series of plays for BBC2: Trinity Tales. In 2003, BBC again featured modern re-tellings of selected tales. \n\nThe 2014 young adult short novel Anaheim Tales by M.L. Millard was inspired by and references The Canterbury Tales.\n\nFile:The Knight - Ellesmere Chaucer.jpg\|The Knight \nFile:The Squire - Ellesmere Chaucer.jpg\|The Squire\nFile:The Reeve - Ellesmere Chaucer.jpg\|The Reeve\nFile:Canterbury Tales - The Miller - f. 34v detail - Robin with the Bagpype - early 1400s Chaucer.png\|The Miller\nFile:Chaucer cook.jpg\|The Cook\nFile:Wife-of-Bath-ms-2.jpg\|The Wife of Bath\nFile:The Franklin - Ellesmere Chaucer.jpg\|The Franklin\nFile:The Shipman - Ellesmere Chaucer.jpg\|The Shipman\nFile:The Manciple - Ellesmere Chaucer.jpg\|The Manciple\nFile:The Merchant - Ellesmere Chaucer.jpg\|The Merchant\nFile:The Clerk of Oxford from the “Ellesmere Chaucer” (Huntington Library, San Marino).jpg\|The Clerk of Oxford\nFile:The Man of Law from the EllsMan of Law from the “Ellesmere Chaucer” (Huntington Library, San Marino).jpg\|The Sergeant of Law\nFile:The Physician - Ellesmere Chaucer.jpg\|The Physician\nFile:The Parson - Ellesmere Chaucer.jpg\|The Parson\nFile:The Monk - Ellesmere Chaucer.jpg\|The Monk\nFile:The Prioress - Ellesmere Chaucer.jpg\|The Prioress\nFile:The Second Nun - Ellesmere Chaucer.jpg\|The Second Nun\nFile:The Nun's Priest - Ellesmere Chaucer.jpg\|The Nun's Priest\nFile:Friar-canterbury-tales.jpg\|The Friar\nFile:The Summoner - Ellesmere Chaucer.jpg\|The Summoner\nFile:The Pardoner - Ellesmere Chaucer.jpg\|The Pardoner\nFile:The Canon's Yeoman - Ellesmere Chaucer.jpg\|The Canon Yeoman\nFile:Chaucer ellesmere.jpg\|Geoffrey Chaucer\n\nNotes" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "five", "5", "Five" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "five", "5" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "five", "type": "Numerical", "value": "Five" }
What was the name of the she-ape that rescued the infant Tarzan and raised him to be Lord of the Apes?	tc_368	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Tarzan.txt" ], "title": [ "Tarzan" ], "wiki_context": [ "Tarzan (John Clayton, Viscount Greystoke) is a fictional character, an archetypal feral child raised in the African jungles by the Mangani great apes; he later experiences civilization only to largely reject it and return to the wild as a heroic adventurer. Created by Edgar Rice Burroughs, Tarzan first appeared in the novel Tarzan of the Apes (magazine publication 1912, book publication 1914), and subsequently in twenty-five sequels, several authorized books by other authors, and innumerable works in other media, both authorized and unauthorized.\n\nCharacter biography\n\nChildhood years\n\nTarzan is the son of a British lord and lady who were marooned on the Atlantic coast of Africa by mutineers. When Tarzan was only an infant, his mother died, and his father was killed by Kerchak, leader of the ape tribe by whom Tarzan was adopted. From then onwards, Tarzan became a feral child. Tarzan's tribe of apes is known as the Mangani, Great Apes of a species unknown to science. Kala is his ape mother. Burroughs added stories occurring during Tarzan's adolescence in his sixth Tarzan book, Jungle Tales of Tarzan. Tarzan is his ape name; his real English name is John Clayton, Viscount Greystoke (according to Burroughs in Tarzan, Lord of the Jungle; Earl of Greystoke in later, less canonical sources, notably the 1984 movie Greystoke). In fact, Burroughs's narrator in Tarzan of the Apes describes both Clayton and Greystoke as fictitious names – implying that, within the fictional world that Tarzan inhabits, he may have a different real name.\n\nAdult life\n\nAs a young adult, Tarzan meets a young American woman, Jane Porter. She, her father, and others of their party are marooned on exactly the same coastal jungle area where Tarzan's biological parents were twenty years earlier. When Jane returns to the United States, Tarzan leaves the jungle in search of her, his one true love. In The Return of Tarzan, Tarzan and Jane marry. In later books he lives with her for a time in England. They have one son, Jack, who takes the ape name Korak (\"the Killer\"). Tarzan is contemptuous of what he sees as the hypocrisy of civilization, and he and Jane return to Africa, making their home on an extensive estate that becomes a base for Tarzan's later adventures.\n\nCharacterization\n\nBurroughs created an elegant version of the wild man figure largely unalloyed with character flaws or faults. He is described as being white, extremely athletic, tall, handsome, and tanned, with grey eyes and long black hair. Emotionally, he is courageous, intelligent, loyal, and steadfast. He is presented as behaving ethically in most situations, except when seeking vengeance under the motivation of grief, as when his ape mother Kala is killed in Tarzan of the Apes, or when he believes Jane has been murdered in Tarzan the Untamed. He is deeply in love with his wife and totally devoted to her; in numerous situations where other women express their attraction to him, Tarzan politely but firmly declines their attentions. When presented with a situation where a weaker individual or party is being preyed upon by a stronger foe, Tarzan invariably takes the side of the weaker party. In dealing with other men, Tarzan is firm and forceful. With male friends, he is reserved but deeply loyal and generous. As a host, he is, likewise, generous and gracious. As a leader, he commands devoted loyalty.\n\nIn keeping with these noble characteristics, Tarzan's philosophy embraces an extreme form of \"return to nature\". Although he is able to pass within society as a civilized individual, he prefers to \"strip off the thin veneer of civilization\", as Burroughs often puts it. His preferred dress is a knife and a loincloth of animal hide, his preferred abode is any convenient tree branch when he desires to sleep, and his favored food is raw meat, killed by himself; even better if he is able to bury it a week so that putrefaction has had a chance to tenderize it a bit.\n\nTarzan's primitivist philosophy was absorbed by countless fans, amongst whom was Jane Goodall, who describes the Tarzan series as having a major influence on her childhood. She states that she felt she would be a much better spouse for Tarzan than his fictional wife, Jane, and that when she first began to live among and study the chimpanzees she was fulfilling her childhood dream of living among the great apes just as Tarzan did. \n\nRudyard Kipling's Mowgli has been cited as a major influence on Edgar Rice Burroughs' creation of Tarzan. Mowgli was also an influence for a number of other \"wild boy\" characters.\n\nSkills and abilities\n\nTarzan's jungle upbringing gives him abilities far beyond those of ordinary humans. These include climbing, clinging, and leaping as well as any great ape, or better. He uses branches and hanging vines to swing at great speed, a skill acquired among the anthropoid apes.\n\nHis strength, speed, stamina, agility, reflexes, senses, flexibility, durability, endurance, and swimming are extraordinary in comparison to normal men. He has wrestled full grown bull apes and gorillas, lions, rhinos, crocodiles, pythons, sharks, tigers, man-size seahorses (once) and even dinosaurs (when he visited Pellucidar). He is also a skilled tracker and uses his exceptional senses of hearing and smell to follow prey or avoid predators, and kills only for food, yet is a skilled thief when raiding African tribal villages or hunting parties that Tarzan has judged to be brutal and deserve no pity, taking their spears, shields, bows, knives, and most importantly, metal arrowheads. His sense of hearing also allows him to eavesdrop on conversations between other people near him.\n\nHe is also able to communicate with animals, in particular tribes of Great Apes that live in his local region of Africa who possess a primitive language that is unknown to science. The language may not be complex, but it does have names for individuals, and Tarzan is his Great Ape name.\n\nTarzan is extremely intelligent, and was literate in English before being able to speak the language when he first encounters other English-speaking people such as his love interest, Jane Porter. His literacy is self-taught after several years in his early teens by visiting the log cabin of his dead parents and looking at and correctly deducing the function of children's primer/picture books. The books were brought to Africa by his dead mother who intended to teach her son herself. He eventually reads every book in his dead father's portable book collection, and is fully aware of geography, basic world history, and his family tree, yet is not able to speak English until after meeting human beings as he never heard what English is supposed to sound like when spoken aloud. He is \"found\" by a traveling Frenchman that teaches him the basics of human speech and returns him to England. \n\nHe learns a new language in days, ultimately speaking many languages, including that of the great apes, French, Finnish, English, Dutch, German, Swahili, many Bantu dialects, Arabic, ancient Greek, ancient Latin, Mayan, the languages of the Ant Men and of Pellucidar.\n\nIt should be noted that unlike depictions in black and white movies of the 1930s, after learning to speak a language in the novels Tarzan/John Clayton is very articulate, reserved (he prefers to listen and carefully observe before speaking) and does not speak in broken English as the classic movies depict him.\n\nHe also communicates with many species of jungle animals, and has been shown to be a skilled impressionist, able to mimic the sound of a gunshot perfectly.\n\nIn Tarzan's Quest (1935), he was one of the recipients of an immortality drug at the end of the book that functionally made him immortal.\n\nLiterature\n\nTarzan has been called one of the best-known literary characters in the world. In addition to more than two dozen books by Burroughs and a handful more by authors with the blessing of Burroughs' estate, the character has appeared in films, radio, television, comic strips, and comic books. Numerous parodies and pirated works have also appeared.\n\nBurroughs considered other names for the character, including \"Zantar\" and \"Tublat Zan,\" before he settled on \"Tarzan.\" \n\nEven though the copyright on Tarzan of the Apes has expired in the United States of America and other countries, the name Tarzan is claimed as a trademark of Edgar Rice Burroughs, Inc.\n\nCritical reception\n\nWhile Tarzan of the Apes met with some critical success, subsequent books in the series received a cooler reception and have been criticized for being derivative and formulaic. The characters are often said to be two-dimensional, the dialogue wooden, and the storytelling devices (such as excessive reliance on coincidence) strain credulity. According to author Rudyard Kipling (who himself wrote stories of a feral child, The Jungle Books Mowgli), Burroughs wrote Tarzan of the Apes just so that he could \"find out how bad a book he could write and get away with it.\" \n\nWhile Burroughs is not a polished novelist, he is a vivid storyteller, and many of his novels are still in print. In 1963, author Gore Vidal wrote a piece on the Tarzan series that, while pointing out several of the deficiencies that the Tarzan books have as works of literature, praises Edgar Rice Burroughs for creating a compelling \"daydream figure\". Critical reception grew more positive with the 1981 study by Erling B. Holtsmark, Tarzan and Tradition: Classical Myth in Popular Literature. Holtsmark added a volume on Burroughs for Twayne's United States Author Series in 1986. In 2010, Stan Galloway provided a sustained study of the adolescent period of the fictional Tarzan's life in The Teenage Tarzan. \n\nDespite critical panning, the Tarzan stories have remained popular. Burroughs's melodramatic situations and the elaborate details he works into his fictional world, such as his construction of a partial language for his great apes, appeal to a worldwide fan base. \n\nThe Tarzan books and movies employ extensive stereotyping to a degree common in the times in which they were written. This has led to criticism in later years, with changing social views and customs, including charges of racism since the early 1970s. The early books give a pervasively negative and stereotypical portrayal of native Africans, including Arabs. In The Return of Tarzan, Arabs are \"surly looking\" and call Christians \"dogs\", while blacks are \"lithe, ebon warriors, gesticulating and jabbering\". One could make an equal argument that when it came to blacks that Burroughs was simply depicting unwholesome characters as unwholesome and the good ones in a better light as in Chapter 6 of Tarzan and the Jewels of Opar where Burroughs writes of Mugambi, \"...nor could a braver or more loyal guardian have been found in any clime or upon any soil.\" Other groups are stereotyped as well. A Swede has \"a long yellow moustache, an unwholesome complexion, and filthy nails\", and Russians cheat at cards. The aristocracy (except the House of Greystoke) and royalty are invariably effete. In later books, Africans are portrayed somewhat more realistically as people. For example, in Tarzan's Quest, while the depiction of Africans remains relatively primitive, they are portrayed more individualistically, with a greater variety of character traits (positive and negative), while the main villains are white people. Burroughs never loses his distaste for European royalty, though. \n\nBurroughs' opinions, manifested through the narrative voice in the stories, reflect common attitudes in his time, which in a 21st-century context would be considered racist and sexist. However Thomas F. Bertonneau writes about Burroughs' \"conception of the feminine that elevates the woman to the same level as the man and that – in such characters as Dian of the Pellucidar novels or Dejah Thoris of the Barsoom novels – figures forth a female type who corresponds neither to desperate housewife, full-lipped prom-date, middle-level careerist office-manager, nor frowning ideological feminist-professor, but who exceeds all these by bounds in her realized humanity and in so doing suggests their insipidity.\" The author is not especially mean-spirited in his attitudes. His heroes do not engage in violence against women or in racially motivated violence. In Tarzan of the Apes, details of a background of suffering experienced at the hands of whites by Mbonga's \"once great\" people are repeatedly told with evident sympathy, and in explanation or even justification of their current animosity toward whites.\n\nAlthough the character of Tarzan does not directly engage in violence against women, feminist scholars have critiqued the presence of other sympathetic male characters who do with Tarzan's approval. In Tarzan and the Ant Men, the men of a fictional tribe of creatures called the Alali gain social dominance of their society by beating Alali women into submission with weapons that Tarzan willingly provides them. Following the battle, Burroughs states: \"To entertain Tarzan and to show him what great strides civilization had taken—the son of The First Woman seized a female by the hair and dragging her to him struck her heavily about the head and face with his clenched fist, and the woman fell upon her knees and fondled his legs, looking wistfully into his face, her own glowing with love and admiration. (178)\" While Burroughs depicts some female characters with humanistic equalizing elements, Torgovnick argues that violent scenes against women in the context of male political and social domination are condoned in his writing, reinforcing a notion of gendered hierarchy where patriarchy is portrayed as the natural pinnacle of society.\n\nIn regards to race, a superior-inferior relationship with valuation is also accordingly implied, as it is unmistakable in virtually all interactions between whites and blacks in the Tarzan stories, and similar relationships and valuations can be seen in most other interactions between differing people, although one could argue that such interactions are the bedrock of the dramatic narrative and without such valuations there is no story. According to James Loewen's Sundown Towns, this may be a vestige of Burroughs' having been from Oak Park, Illinois, a former Sundown town (a town that forbids non-whites from living within it).\n\nGail Bederman takes a different view in her Manliness and Civilization: A Cultural History of Gender and Race in the United States, 1880-1917. There she describes how various people of the time either challenged or upheld the idea that \"civilization\" is predicated on white masculinity. She closes with a chapter on 1912's Tarzan of the Apes because the story's protagonist is, according to her, the ultimate male by the standards of 1912 white America. Bederman does note that Tarzan, \"an instinctivily chivalrous Anglo-Saxon\", does not engage in sexual violence, renouncing his \"masculine impulse to rape.\" However, she also notes that not only does Tarzan kill black man Kulonga in revenge for killing his ape mother (a stand-in for his biological white mother) by hanging him, \"lyncher Tarzan\" actually enjoys killing black people, the cannibalistic Mbongans, for example. Bederman, in fact, reminds readers that when Tarzan first introduces himself to Jane, he does so as \"Tarzan, the killer of beasts and many black men.\" The novel climaxes with Tarzan saving Jane—who in the original novel is not British, but a white woman from Baltimore, Maryland—from a black ape rapist. When he leaves the jungle and sees \"civilized\" Africans farming, his first instinct is to kill them just for being black. \"Like the lynch victims reported in the Northern press, Tarzan's victims--cowards, cannibals, and despoilers of white womanhood--lack all manhood. Tarzan's lynchings thus prove himself the superior man.\"\n\nDespite embodying all the tropes of white supremacy espoused or rejected by the people she had reviewed (Theodore Roosevelt, G. Stanley Hall, Charlotte Perkins Gilman, Ida B. Wells), Bederman states that, in all probability, Burroughs was not trying to make any kind of statement or echo any of them. \"He probably never heard of any of them.\" Instead, Bederman writes that Burroughs proves her point because in telling racist and sexist stories whose protagonist boasted of killing blacks, he was not being unusual at all, but was instead just being a typical 1912 white American.\n\nTarzan is a white European male who grows up with apes. According to \"Taking Tarzan Seriously\" by Marianna Torgovnick, Tarzan is confused with the social hierarchy that he is a part of. Unlike everyone else in his society, Tarzan is the only one who is not clearly part of any social group. All the other members of his world are not able to climb or decline socially because they are already part of a social hierarchy which is stagnant. Turgovnick writes that since Tarzan was raised as an ape, he thinks and acts like an ape. However, instinctively he is human and he resorts to being human when he is pushed to. The reason of his confusion is that he does not understand what the typical white male is supposed to act like. His instincts eventually kick in when he is in the midst of this confusion, and he ends up dominating the jungle. In Tarzan, the jungle is a microcosm for the world in general in 1912 to the early 1930s. His climbing of the social hierarchy proves that the European white male is the most dominant of all races/sexes, no matter what the circumstance. Furthermore, Turgovnick writes that when Tarzan first meets Jane, she is slightly repulsed but also fascinated by his animal-like actions. As the story progresses, Tarzan surrenders his knife to Jane in an oddly chivalrous gesture, which makes Jane fall for Tarzan despite his odd circumstances. Turgovnick believes that this displays an instinctual, civilized chivalry that Burrough believes is common in white men. \n\nUnauthorized works\n\nAfter Burroughs' death a number of writers produced new Tarzan stories. In some instances, the estate managed to prevent publication of such works. The most notable example in the United States was a series of five novels by the pseudonymous \"Barton Werper\" that appeared 1964-65 by Gold Star Books (part of Charlton Comics). As a result of legal action by Edgar Rice Burroughs, Inc., they were taken off the market. Similar series appeared in other countries, notably Argentina, Israel, and some Arab countries.\n\nModern fiction\n\nIn 1972, science fiction author Philip José Farmer wrote Tarzan Alive, a biography of Tarzan utilizing the frame device that he was a real person. In Farmer's fictional universe, Tarzan, along with Doc Savage and Sherlock Holmes, are the cornerstones of the Wold Newton family. Farmer wrote two novels, Hadon of Ancient Opar and Flight to Opar, set in the distant past and giving the antecedents of the lost city of Opar, which plays an important role in the Tarzan books. In addition, Farmer's A Feast Unknown, and its two sequels Lord of the Trees and The Mad Goblin, are pastiches of the Tarzan and Doc Savage stories, with the premise that they tell the story of the real characters the fictional characters are based upon. A Feast Unknown is somewhat infamous among Tarzan and Doc Savage fans for its graphic violence and sexual content.\n\nTarzan in film and other non-print media\n\nFilm\n\nThe Internet Movie Database lists 200 movies with Tarzan in the title between 1918 and 2014. The first Tarzan movies were silent pictures adapted from the original Tarzan novels, which appeared within a few years of the character's creation. The first actor to portray the adult Tarzan was Elmo Lincoln in 1918's Tarzan Of The Apes. With the advent of talking pictures, a popular Tarzan movie franchise was developed, which lasted from the 1930s through the 1960s. Starting with Tarzan the Ape Man in 1932 through twelve films until 1948, the franchise was anchored by former Olympic swimmer Johnny Weissmuller in the title role. Weissmuller and his immediate successors were enjoined to portray the ape-man as a noble savage speaking broken English, in marked contrast to the cultured aristocrat of Burroughs's novels.\n\nWith the exception of the Burroughs co-produced The New Adventures of Tarzan, this \"me Tarzan, you Jane\" characterization of Tarzan persisted until the late 1950s, when producer Sy Weintraub, having bought the film rights from producer Sol Lesser, produced Tarzan's Greatest Adventure followed by eight other films and a television series. The Weintraub productions portray a Tarzan that is closer to Edgar Rice Burroughs' original concept in the novels: a jungle lord who speaks grammatical English and is well educated and familiar with civilization. Most Tarzan films made before the mid-fifties were black-and-white films shot on studio sets, with stock jungle footage edited in. The Weintraub productions from 1959 on were shot in foreign locations and were in color.\n\nThere were also several serials and features that competed with the main franchise, including Tarzan the Fearless (1933) starring Buster Crabbe and The New Adventures of Tarzan (1935) starring Herman Brix. The latter serial was unique for its period in that it was partially filmed on location (Guatemala) and portrayed Tarzan as educated. It was the only Tarzan film project for which Edgar Rice Burroughs was personally involved in the production.\n\nTarzan films from the 1930s on often featured Tarzan's chimpanzee companion Cheeta, his consort Jane (not usually given a last name), and an adopted son, usually known only as \"Boy.\" The Weintraub productions from 1959 on dropped the character of Jane and portrayed Tarzan as a lone adventurer. Later Tarzan films have been occasional and somewhat idiosyncratic. Recently, Tony Goldwyn portrayed Tarzan in Disney’s animated film of the same name (1999). This version marked a new beginning for the ape man, taking its inspiration equally from Burroughs and the 1984 live-action film Greystoke: The Legend of Tarzan, Lord of the Apes. Since Greystoke, two additional live-action Tarzan movies have been released, 1998's Tarzan and the Lost City and 2016's The Legend of Tarzan, both period pieces that drew inspiration from Edgar Rice Burroughs' writings.\n\nRadio\n\nTarzan was the hero of two popular radio programs in the United States. The first aired from 1932–1936 with James Pierce in the role of Tarzan. The second ran from 1951–1953 with Lamont Johnson in the title role. \n\nTelevision\n\nTelevision later emerged as a primary vehicle bringing the character to the public. From the mid-1950s, all the extant sound Tarzan films became staples of Saturday morning television aimed at young and teenaged viewers. In 1958, movie Tarzan Gordon Scott filmed three episodes for a prospective television series. The program did not sell, but a different live action Tarzan series produced by Sy Weintraub and starring Ron Ely ran on NBC from 1966 to 1968. An animated series from Filmation, Tarzan, Lord of the Jungle, aired from 1976 to 1977, followed by the anthology programs Batman/Tarzan Adventure Hour (1977–1978), Tarzan and the Super 7 (1978–1980), The Tarzan/Lone Ranger Adventure Hour (1980–1981), and The Tarzan/Lone Ranger/Zorro Adventure Hour) (1981–1982). Joe Lara starred in the title role in Tarzan in Manhattan (1989), an offbeat TV movie, and later returned in a completely different interpretation in Tarzan: The Epic Adventures (1996), a new live-action series. In between the two productions with Lara, Tarzán, a half-hour syndicated series ran from 1991 through 1994. In this version of the show, Tarzan was portrayed as a blond environmentalist, with Jane turned into a French ecologist. Disney’s animated series The Legend of Tarzan (2001–2003) was a spin-off from its animated film. The latest television series was the live-action Tarzan (2003), which starred male model Travis Fimmel and updated the setting to contemporary New York City, with Jane as a police detective, played by Sarah Wayne Callies. The series was cancelled after only eight episodes. A 1981 television special, The Muppets Go to the Movies, features a short sketch titled \"Tarzan and Jane\". Lily Tomlin plays Jane opposite The Great Gonzo as Tarzan. In addition, the Muppets have made reference to Tarzan on half a dozen occasions since the 1960s. Saturday Night Live featured recurring sketches with the speech-impaired trio of \"Frankenstein, Tonto, and Tarzan\".\n\nStage\n\nA 1921 Broadway production of Tarzan of The Apes starred Ronald Adair as Tarzan and Ethel Dwyer as Jane Porter. In 1976, Richard O'Brien wrote a musical entitled T. Zee, loosely based on Tarzan but restyled in a rock idiom. Tarzan, a musical stage adaptation of the 1999 animated feature, opened at the Richard Rodgers Theatre on Broadway on May 10, 2006. The show, a Disney Theatrical production, was directed and designed by Bob Crowley. The same version of Tarzan that was played at the Richard Rodgers Theatre is being played throughout Europe and has been a huge success in the Netherlands. The Broadway show closed on July 8, 2007. Tarzan also appeared in the Tarzan Rocks! show at the Theatre in the Wild at Walt Disney World Resort's Disney's Animal Kingdom. The show closed in 2006.\n\nVideo and computer games\n\nIn the mid-1980s there was an arcade video game called Jungle King that featured a Tarzanesque character in a loin cloth. A game under the title Tarzan Goes Ape was released in the 1980s for the Commodore 64. A Tarzan computer game by Michael Archer was produced by Martech. Disney's Tarzan had seen video games released for the PlayStation, Nintendo 64 and Game Boy Color. Followed by Disney's Tarzan Untamed for the PS2 and Gamecube. Tarzan also appeared in the PS2 game Kingdom Hearts, although this Tarzan was shown in the Disney context, not the original conceptional idea of Tarzan by Burroughs. In the first Rayman, a Tarzanesque version of Rayman named Tarayzan appears in the Dream Forest.\n\nIn the 1982 video game Pitfall! for the Atari VCS game console system, the main hero, called \"Pitfall Harry,\" sometimes has to traverse vines over dangerous lakes. When doing so, a sound effect is played imitating Tarzan's signature cry.\n\nAction figures\n\nThroughout the 1970s Mego Corporation licensed the Tarzan character and produced 8\" action figures which they included in their \"World's Greatest Super Heroes\" line of characters. In 1975 they also produced a 3\" \"Bendy\" figure made of poseable, malleable plastic.\n\nEphemera\n\nSeveral Tarzan-themed products have been manufactured, including View-Master reels and packets, numerous Tarzan coloring books, children's books, follow-the-dots, and activity books.\n\nTarzan in comics\n\nTarzan of the Apes was adapted in newspaper strip form, in early 1929, with illustrations by Hal Foster. A full page Sunday strip began March 15, 1931 by Rex Maxon. Over the years, many artists have drawn the Tarzan comic strip, notably Burne Hogarth, Russ Manning, and Mike Grell. The daily strip began to reprint old dailies after the last Russ Manning daily (#10,308, which ran on 29 July 1972). The Sunday strip also turned to reprints circa 2000. Both strips continue as reprints today in a few newspapers and in Comics Revue magazine. NBM Publishing did a high quality reprint series of the Foster and Hogarth work on Tarzan in a series of hardback and paperback reprints in the 1990s.\n\nTarzan has appeared in many comic books from numerous publishers over the years. The character's earliest comic book appearances were in comic strip reprints published in several titles, such as Sparkler, Tip Top Comics and Single Series. Western Publishing published Tarzan in Dell Comics's Four Color Comics #134 & 161 in 1947, before giving him his own series, Tarzan, published through Dell Comics and later Gold Key Comics from January–February 1948 to February 1972). DC took over the series in 1972, publishing Tarzan #207-258 from April 1972 to February 1977, including work by Joe Kubert. In 1977 the series moved to Marvel Comics, which restarted the numbering rather than assuming that used by the previous publishers. Marvel issued Tarzan #1-29 (as well as three Annuals), from June 1977 to October 1979, mainly by John Buscema. Following the conclusion of the Marvel series the character had no regular comic book publisher for a number of years. During this period Blackthorne Comics published Tarzan in 1986, and Malibu Comics published Tarzan comics in 1992. Dark Horse Comics has published various Tarzan series from 1996 to the present, including reprints of works from previous publishers like Gold Key and DC, and joint projects with other publishers featuring crossovers with other characters.\n\nThere have also been a number of different comic book projects from other publishers over the years, in addition to various minor appearances of Tarzan in other comic books. The Japanese manga series Jungle no Ouja Ta-chan (Jungle King Tar-chan) by Tokuhiro Masaya was based loosely on Tarzan. Also, manga \"god\" Osamu Tezuka created a Tarzan manga in 1948 entitled Tarzan no Himitsu Kichi (Tarzan's Secret Base).\n\nWorks inspired by Tarzan\n\nJerry Siegel named Tarzan and another Burroughs character, John Carter, as early inspiration for his creation of Superman. \n\nTarzan's popularity inspired numerous imitators in pulp magazines. A number of these, like Kwa and Ka-Zar were direct or loosely veiled copies; others, like Polaris of the Snows, were similar characters in different settings, or with different gimmicks. Of these characters the most popular was Ki-Gor, the subject of fifty-nine novels that appeared between winter 1939 to spring 1954 in the magazine Jungle Stories. \n\nIn popular culture\n\nTarzan is often used as a nickname to indicate a similarity between a person's characteristics and that of the fictional character. Individuals with an exceptional 'ape-like' ability to climb, cling and leap beyond that of ordinary humans may often receive the nickname 'Tarzan'. An example is retired American baseball player Joe Wallis. \n\nBritish politician Michael Heseltine is nicknamed Tarzan, and was often portrayed as such in the press.\n\nComedian Carol Burnett was often prompted by her audiences to perform her trademark Tarzan yell. She explained that it originated in her youth when she and a friend watched a Tarzan movie. \n\n\"Tarzan Boy\" is a song recorded by Italian-based act Baltimora. It was the group's debut single, released in April 1985, from its first album Living in the Background, on which it features as first track. The song was re-recorded in 1993 and has been covered by several artists throughout the years. The refrain uses Tarzan's cry as a melodic line. The song is rhythmical, with an electronic melody and simple lyrics.[2]\n\nA 2016 GEICO TV commercial depicts Tarzan and his wife Jane arguing over directions while they're swinging from tree to tree. \n \n\nBibliography\n\nBy Edgar Rice Burroughs\n\n;Main Series\n#Tarzan of the Apes (1912) (Project Gutenberg Entry:[http://gutenberg.org/etext/78 Ebook]) ([http://librivox.org/tarzan-of-the-apes/ LibriVox.org Audiobook])\n#The Return of Tarzan (1913) ([http://gutenberg.org/etext/81 Ebook]) ([http://librivox.org/the-return-of-tarzan-by-edgar-rice-burroughs/ Audiobook])\n#The Beasts of Tarzan (1914) ([http://gutenberg.org/etext/85 Ebook]) ([http://librivox.org/the-beasts-of-tarzan/ Audiobook])\n#The Son of Tarzan (1914) ([http://gutenberg.org/etext/90 Ebook]) ([http://librivox.org/son-of-tarzan-by-edgar-rice-burroughs/ Audiobook])\n#Tarzan and the Jewels of Opar (1916) ([http://gutenberg.org/etext/92 Ebook]) ([http://librivox.org/tarzan-and-the-jewels-of-opar-by-edgar-rice-burroughs/ Audiobook])\n#Jungle Tales of Tarzan (1919) ([http://gutenberg.org/etext/106 Ebook]) ([http://librivox.org/jungle-tales-of-tarzan-by-edgar-rice-burroughs/ Audiobook])\n#\"Tarzan's First Love\" (1916)\n#\"The Capture of Tarzan\" (1916)\n#\"The Fight for the Balu\" (1916)\n#\"The God of Tarzan\" (1916)\n#\"Tarzan and the Black Boy\" (1917)\n#\"The Witch-Doctor Seeks Vengeance\" (1917)\n#\"The End of Bukawai\" (1917)\n#\"The Lion\" (1917)\n#\"The Nightmare\" (1917)\n#\"The Battle for Teeka\" (1917)\n#\"A Jungle Joke\" (1917)\n#\"Tarzan Rescues the Moon\" (1917)\n#Tarzan the Untamed (1920) ([http://gutenberg.org/etext/1401 Ebook])\n#\"Tarzan and the Huns\" (1919)\n#\"Tarzan and the Valley of Luna\" (1920)\n#Tarzan the Terrible (1921) ([http://gutenberg.org/etext/2020 Ebook]) ([http://librivox.org/tarzan-the-terrible-by-edgar-rice-burroughs/ Audiobook])\n#Tarzan and the Golden Lion (1922, 1923) ([http://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks01/0100271.txt Ebook])\n#Tarzan and the Ant Men (1924) ([http://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks06/0600651h.html Ebook])\n#Tarzan, Lord of the Jungle (1927, 1928) ([http://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks06/0600681.txt Ebook])\n#Tarzan and the Lost Empire (1928) ([http://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks06/0600911.txt Ebook])\n#Tarzan at the Earth's Core (1929) ([http://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks06/0601071h.html Ebook])\n#Tarzan the Invincible (1930, 1931) ([http://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks05/0500191h.html Ebook])\n#Tarzan Triumphant (1931) ([http://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks06/0601121.txt Ebook])\n#Tarzan and the City of Gold (1932) ([http://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks05/0500241.txt Ebook])\n#Tarzan and the Lion Man (1933, 1934) ([http://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks06/0600711.txt Ebook])\n#Tarzan and the Leopard Men (1935) ([http://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks05/0500201h.html Ebook])\n#Tarzan's Quest (1935, 1936) ([http://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks06/0601011.txt Ebook])\n#Tarzan and the Forbidden City (1938) ([http://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks06/0600671.txt Ebook])\n#Tarzan the Magnificent (1939) ([http://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks05/0500211h.html Ebook])\n#\"Tarzan and the Magic Men\" (1936)\n#\"Tarzan and the Elephant Men\" (1937–1938)\n#Tarzan and the Foreign Legion (1947) ([http://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks06/0600701.txt Ebook])\n#Tarzan and the Madman (1964)\n#Tarzan and the Castaways (1965)\n#\"Tarzan and the Castaways\" (1941) ([http://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks06/0600661.txt Ebook])\n#\"Tarzan and the Champion\" (1940)\n#\"Tarzan and the Jungle Murders\" (1940)\n\n#Tarzan and the Tarzan Twins (1963, for younger readers)\n\"The Tarzan Twins\" (1927) ([http://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks06/0601161.txt Ebook])\n\"Tarzan and the Tarzan Twins and Jad-Bal-Ja the Golden Lion\" (1936) ([http://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks09/0900371.txt Ebook])\n\n#Tarzan: the Lost Adventure (with Joe R. Lansdale) (1995)\n\nBy other authors\n\nBarton Werper – these novels were never authorized by the Burroughs estate, were taken off the market and remaining copies destroyed.\n#Tarzan and the Silver Globe (1964)\n#Tarzan and the Cave City (1964)\n#Tarzan and the Snake People (1964)\n#Tarzan and the Abominable Snowmen (1965)\n#Tarzan and the Winged Invaders (1965)\nFritz Leiber – the first novel authorized by the Burroughs estate, and numbered as the 25th book in the Tarzan series.\n*Tarzan and the Valley of Gold (1966)\nPhilip José Farmer\nTarzan Alive (1972) a fictional biography of Tarzan (here Lord Greystoke), which is one of the two foundational books (along with Doc Savage: His Apocalyptic Life) of the Wold Newton family.\nThe Adventure of the Peerless Peer (1974) Sherlock Holmes goes to Africa and meets Tarzan.\n*The Dark Heart of Time (1999) this novel was specifically authorized by the Burroughs estate, and references Tarzan by name rather than just by inference. The story is set between Tarzan the Untamed and Tarzan the Terrible.\nFarmer also wrote a novel based on his own fascination with Tarzan, entitled Lord Tyger, and translated the novel Tarzan of the Apes into Esperanto.\n\nR. A. Salvatore\n*Tarzan: The Epic Adventures (1996) an authorized novel based on the pilot episode of the series of the same name.\nNigel Cox\n**Tarzan Presley (2004) This novel combines aspects of Tarzan and Elvis Presley into a single character named Tarzan Presley, within New Zealand and American settings. Upon its release, it was subject to legal action in the United States, and has not been reprinted since its initial publication.\n\nNew Tarzan\n\nPublisher Faber and Faber with the backing of the Edgar Rice Burroughs, Inc. have updated the series using Author Andy Briggs and in 2011 he published the first of the books Tarzan: The Greystoke Legacy. In 2012 he published the second book Tarzan: The Jungle Warrior In 2013, he has published the third book Tarzan: The Savage Lands." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Kāla", "Kala", "Kala (disambiguation)", "Kala, Mazandaran", "KALA" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "kala disambiguation", "kala", "kala mazandaran", "kāla" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "kala", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Kala" }
What was the title of Mac West's 1959 autobiography?	tc_370	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "Search" ], "filename": [ "Mae_West.txt" ], "title": [ "Mae West" ], "wiki_context": [ "Mary Jane \"Mae\" West (August 17, 1893 – November 22, 1980) was an American actress, singer, playwright, screenwriter, comedian and sex symbol whose entertainment career spanned seven decades.\n\nKnown for her lighthearted bawdy double entendres, and breezy sexual independence, West made a name for herself in vaudeville and on the stage in New York City before moving to Hollywood to become a comedian, actress, and writer in the motion picture industry, as well as on radio and television. For her contributions to American cinema, the American Film Institute named West 15th among the greatest female stars of classic American cinema.\n\nOne of the more controversial movie stars of her day, West encountered many problems, especially censorship. She bucked the system, making comedy out of prudish conventional mores, and the Depression Era audience admired her for it. When her cinematic career ended, she wrote books, plays, and continued to perform in Las Vegas, in the United Kingdom, and on radio and television, and to record rock and roll albums. Asked about the various efforts to impede her career, West replied: \"I believe in censorship. I made a fortune out of it.\" While true, she also suffered greatly because of it, even going to prison for her right to freedom of speech. \n\nEarly life, career and prison \n\nWest was born Mary Jane West in Bushwick, Brooklyn on August 17, 1893, having been delivered at home by an aunt who was a midwife. She was the eldest surviving child of John Patrick West and Matilda \"Tillie\" Delker (sometimes spelled \"Dilker\"), who, with her five siblings, had emigrated with their parents, Jacob and Christiana, from the German state of Bavaria in 1886. West's parents married on January 18, 1889, in Brooklyn and reared their children as Protestants, although John West was of mixed Catholic-Protestant descent. Her father was a prizefighter known as \"Battlin' Jack West\" who later worked as a \"special policeman\", and later had his own private investigations agency. Her mother was a former corset and fashion model. Her paternal grandmother, Mary Jane (née Copley), for whom she was named, was of Irish Catholic descent, and West's paternal grandfather, John Edwin West, was of English-Scots descent and a ship's rigger. \n\nHer eldest sibling, Katie, died in infancy. Her other siblings were Mildred Katherine West, later known as Beverly (December 8, 1898 – March 12, 1982), and John Edwin West, II (sometimes inaccurately called \"John Edwin West, Jr.\"; February 11, 1900 – October 12, 1964). During her childhood, West's family moved to various parts of Woodhaven, as well as the Williamsburg and Greenpoint neighborhoods of Brooklyn. In Woodhaven, at Neir's Social Hall (which opened in 1829 and is still extant), West supposedly first performed professionally. \n\nWest was five when she first entertained a crowd at a church social, and she started appearing in amateur shows at the age of seven. She often won prizes at local talent contests. She began performing professionally in vaudeville in the Hal Clarendon Stock Company in 1907 at the age of 14. West first performed under the stage name Baby Mae, and tried various personas including a male impersonator, She used the alias \"Jane Mast\" early in her career. Her trademark walk was said to have been inspired or influenced by female impersonators Bert Savoy and Julian Eltinge, who were famous during the Pansy Craze. Her first appearance in a Broadway show was in a 1911 revue A La Broadway put on by her former dancing teacher, Ned Wayburn. The show folded after eight performances, but at age 18, West was singled out and discovered by the New York Times. The Times reviewer wrote that a \"girl named Mae West, hitherto unknown, pleased by her grotesquerie and snappy way of singing and dancing.\" West next appeared in a show called Vera Violetta, whose cast featured Al Jolson. In 1912, she appeared in the opening performance of A Winsome Widow as a \"baby vamp\" named La Petite Daffy. \n\nShe was encouraged as a performer by her mother, who according to West, always thought that anything Mae did was fantastic. Other family members were less encouraging, including an aunt and her paternal grandmother. They are all reported as having disapproved of her career and her choices. In 1918, after exiting several high-profile revues, West finally got her break in the Shubert Brothers revue Sometime, opposite Ed Wynn. Her character Mayme danced the shimmy, and her photograph appeared on an edition of the sheet music for the popular number \"Ev'rybody Shimmies Now\".\n\nEventually, she began writing her own risqué plays using the pen name Jane Mast. Her first starring role on Broadway was in a 1926 play she entitled Sex, which she wrote, produced, and directed. Although conservative critics panned the show, ticket sales were hot. The production did not go over well with city officials, who had received complaints from some religious groups, and the theater was raided, with West arrested along with the cast. She was taken to the Jefferson Market Court House, (now Jefferson Market Library), where she was prosecuted on morals charges and, on April 19, 1927, was sentenced to ten days for \"corrupting the morals of youth. Though West could have paid a fine, and been let off, she chose the jail sentence for the publicity it would garner.\" While incarcerated on Welfare Island (now known as Roosevelt Island), she dined with the warden and his wife; she told reporters that she had worn her silk panties while serving time, in lieu of the \"burlap\" the other girls had to wear. West got great mileage from this jail stint. She served eight days with two days off for \"good\" behavior. Media attention surrounding the incident enhanced her career, by crowning her the darling \"bad girl,\" who \"had climbed the ladder of success wrong by wrong.\"\n\nHer next play, The Drag, dealt with homosexuality, and was what West called one of her \"comedy-dramas of life\". After a series of try-outs in Connecticut and New Jersey, West announced she would open the play in New York. However, The Drag never opened on Broadway due to efforts by the New York Society for the Suppression of Vice to ban any attempt by West to stage it. West explained,\"the city fathers begged me not to bring the show to New York, because they were not equipped to handle the commotion it would cause.\" West was an early supporter of the women's liberation movement, but said she was not a \"burn your bra\" type feminist. Since the 1920s she was also an early supporter of gay rights. \n\nWest continued to write plays, including The Wicked Age, Pleasure Man, and The Constant Sinner. Her productions aroused controversy, which ensured that she stayed in the news, which also often resulted in packed houses at her performances. Her 1928 play, Diamond Lil, about a racy, easygoing, and ultimately very smart lady of the 1890s, became a Broadway hit, and cemented West's image in the public's eye. This show had an enduring popularity and West successfully revived it many times throughout the course of her career. With Diamond Lil being a hit show, Hollywood naturally came courting. \n\nMotion pictures and censorship\n\nIn 1932, West was offered a motion picture contract by Paramount Pictures despite being close to 40. This was an unusually late age to begin a movie career, especially for women, but she was not playing an ingénue, and her characterization of a freewheeling sexually secure and liberated woman was timeless and ageless. She nonetheless managed to keep her age ambiguous for some years. She made her film debut in 1932's Night After Night starring George Raft. It was George Raft who suggested her for the role, and helped secure her entry into film history. At first, she did not like her small role in Night After Night, but was appeased when she was allowed to rewrite her scenes. In West's first scene, a hat check girl exclaims, \"Goodness, what beautiful diamonds.\" And West replies, \"Goodness had nothing to do with it, dearie. \" The rest was cinema history, effectively waking up the American audience from the doldrums of the Depression. Reflecting on the overall result of her rewritten scenes, Raft is said to have remarked, \"She stole everything but the cameras.\"\n\nShe brought her Diamond Lil character, now renamed Lady Lou, to the screen in She Done Him Wrong (1933). The film is also notable as one of Cary Grant's first major roles, which boosted his career. West claimed she spotted Grant at the studio and insisted that he be cast as the male lead. She claimed to have told a Paramount director \"If he can talk, I'll take him!\" The film was a box office hit and earned an Academy Award nomination for Best Picture. The success of the film saved Paramount from bankruptcy, grossing over 2 million dollars, the equivalent of $140 million in today's dollars. Paramount recognizes that debt of gratitude today, with a building on the lot named after her. \n\nHer next release, I'm No Angel (1933), paired her with Grant again. I'm No Angel was also a financial success, and was the most successful film of her entire movie career. In the months that followed the release of this film, reference to Mae West could be found almost anywhere; from the song lyrics of Cole Porter, to a WPA mural of San Francisco's newly built Art-Deco Coit Tower, to \"She Done Him Right\" a Betty Boop cartoon, to \"My Dress Hangs There,\" a painting by renowned Mexican artist Frida Kahlo. Kahlo's equally famed muralist painter husband Diego Rivera, paid his own tribute: \"West is the most wonderful machine for living I have ever known - unfortunately on the screen only.\" To F. Scott Fitzgerald, Mae West was especially unique: \"The only Hollywood actress with both an ironic edge and a comic spark.\" As Variety put it, \"Mae West's films have made her the biggest conversation-provoker, free space grabber, and all-around box-office bet in the country. She's as hot an issue as Hitler.\" \n\nBy 1933, West was one of the largest box office draws in the United States and, by 1935, West was also the highest paid woman and the second-highest paid person in the United States (after William Randolph Hearst). Hearst invited West to San Simeon, California. \"I could'a married him,\" West explained, \"but I got no time for parties. I don't like those big crowds.\" On July 1, 1934, the censorship of the Production Code began to be seriously and meticulously enforced, and her screenplays were heavily edited. West would purposely place over-the-top lines in her scripts, knowing the censors would cut them out. She had hope they'd then not object as much to her other lines. Her next film was Belle of the Nineties (1934). Originally titled It Ain't No Sin, the title was changed due to the censors' objections. Despite Paramount's early objections regarding costs, she insisted the studio hire Duke Ellington and his orchestra to accompany her in the film's musical numbers. Their collaboration was a success; the classic \"My Old Flame\" (recorded by Duke Ellington) was introduced in this picture. Her next film, Goin' to Town (1934), received mixed reviews, as censorship continued to take its toll in eroding West's best lines. \n\nHer following effort, Klondike Annie (1935) dealt, as best it could given the heavy censorship, with religion and hypocrisy. Some critics called the film her screen masterpiece. But not everyone felt the same way. Press baron and would-be film mogul William Randolph Hearst, ostensibly offended by an offhanded remark West made about his mistress, Marion Davies, sent a private memo to all his editors stating, \"That Mae West picture 'Klondike Annie' is a filthy picture...We should have editorials roasting that picture, Mae West, and Paramount...DO NOT ACCEPT ANY ADVERTISING OF THIS PICTURE.\" At one point, Hearst asked aloud, \"Isn't it time Congress did something about the Mae West menace?\" Paramount executives felt they had to tone down the West characterization, or face further recrimination. This may be surprising by today's standards, as West's films contained no nudity, no profanity, and very little violence. Though raised in an era when women held second place roles in society, West portrayed confident women who weren't afraid to use their sexual wiles to get what they wanted. \"I was the first liberated woman, you know. No guy was going to get the best of me. That's what I wrote all my scripts about.\" \n\nThat same year, 1935, West played opposite Randolph Scott in Go West, Young Man. In this film, she adapted Lawrence Riley's Broadway hit Personal Appearance into a screenplay. Directed by Henry Hathaway, Go West, Young Man is considered one of West's weaker films of the era, due to the censor's cuts. \n\nWest next starred in Every Day's a Holiday (1937) for Paramount before their association came to an end. Again, due to censor cuts, the film performed below its goal. Censorship had made West's sexually suggestive brand of humor impossible for the studios to distribute. West, along with other stellar performers, was put on a list of actors called \"Box Office Poison\" by Harry Brandt on behalf of the Independent Theatre Owners Association. Others on the list were Greta Garbo, Joan Crawford, Marlene Dietrich, Fred Astaire, Dolores del Río, Katharine Hepburn, and Kay Francis. The attack was published as a paid advertisement in the Hollywood Reporter and was taken seriously by the fearful studio executives. The Association argued that these stars' high salaries and extreme public popularity didn't affect their ticket sales and thus hurt the exhibitors. This didn't stop producer David O. Selznick, who next offered West the role of the sage madam, Belle Watling, the only woman ever to truly understand Rhett Butler, in his film version of Margaret Mitchell's Gone with the Wind after Tallulah Bankhead turned him down. West also declined the part, claiming that as it was, it was too small for an established star, and that she would need to rewrite her lines to suit her own persona. It certainly would have been a memorable cameo. The role eventually went to Ona Munson. \n\nIn 1939, Universal Pictures approached West to star in a film opposite W. C. Fields. The studio was eager to duplicate the success of Destry Rides Again starring Marlene Dietrich and James Stewart with a comic vehicle starring West and Fields. Having left Paramount eighteen months earlier and looking for a new film, West accepted the role of Flower Belle Lee in the film My Little Chickadee (1940). Despite the stars' intense mutual dislike, and Fields's very real drinking problems, and fights over the screenplay, My Little Chickadee was a box office success, outgrossing Fields's previous film, You Can't Cheat an Honest Man (1939), and the later The Bank Dick (1940). Despite this, religious leaders condemned West as a negative role model, taking offense at lines such as \"Between two evils, I like to pick the one I haven't tried before,\" and \"Is that a gun in your pocket, or are you just glad to see me?\" \n\nWest's next film was The Heat's On (1943) for Columbia Pictures. She initially did not want to do the film but after actor/producer/director and personal friend Gregory Ratoff (producer Max Fabian in All About Eve) pleaded with her and claimed he would go bankrupt if she couldn't help, West relented as a personal favor. But censors by now had curtailed the sexual burlesque of the West characterization. The studio had orders to raise the neck lines and clean up the double entendres. This was the only film for which West was virtually not allowed to write her own dialogue, and as a result the film suffered.\n\nPerhaps the most critical challenge facing West in her career was censorship of her dialogue. As on Broadway a decade before, by the mid 1930s her risqué and ribald dialogue could no longer be allowed to pass. The Heat's On opened to poor reviews and weak performance at the box office. West was so distraught by the experience, and by her years of struggling with the ultra-conservative and hypocritical Hays censorship office, that she would not attempt another film role for the next quarter-century. Instead, West pursued a successful and record-breaking career in top nightclubs, Las Vegas, nationally in theater, and on Broadway where she was allowed, even welcomed to be herself.\n\nRadio and more censorship\n\nOn December 12, 1937, West appeared in two separate sketches on ventriloquist Edgar Bergen's radio show The Chase and Sanborn Hour. By the second half of the 1930s, West's popularity was affected by her dialogue being severely censored. She went on the show eager to promote her latest movie, Every Day's a Holiday. Appearing as herself, West flirted with Charlie McCarthy, Bergen's dummy, using her usual brand of wit and risqué sexual references. West referred to Charlie as \"all wood and a yard long\" and commented, \"Charles, I remember our last date, and have the splinters to prove it!\" West was on the verge of being banned from radio.\n\nMore outrageous still was a sketch written by Arch Oboler, starring West and Don Ameche as Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden on NBC. She told Ameche in the show to \"get me a big one... I feel like doin' a big apple!\" This ostensible reference to the then-current dance craze was one of the many double entendres in the dialogue. Days after the broadcast, the studio received letters calling the show \"immoral\" and \"obscene\" by societies for the protection of morals. Several conservative Women's clubs and religious groups admonished the show's sponsor, Chase & Sanborn Coffee Company, for \"prostituting\" their services for allowing \"impurity [to] invade the air\". Under pressure, the Federal Communications Commission later deemed the broadcast \"vulgar and indecent\" and \"far below even the minimum standard which should control in the selection and production of broadcast programs\". There is some debate regarding the reaction to the skit. Conservative religious groups took umbrage far more swiftly than the mainstream. These groups found it easy to choose West as their target. They claimed to take exception to her outspoken use of sexuality and sexual imagery, which she had employed in her career since at least the Pre-Code films she had made in the early 1930s, and for decades before on Broadway. The groups reportedly warned the sponsor of the program they would protest her appearance. \n\nNBC RADIO scapegoated West for the incident and banned her (and the mention of her name) from their stations. They claimed it was not the content of the skit, but West's tonal inflections that gave it the controversial context, acting as though they hired West knowing nothing of her previous work, nor having any idea of how she would deliver the lines written for her by Obler. West would not perform in radio for a dozen years, until January 1950, in an episode of The Chesterfield Supper Club, which was hosted by Perry Como. Ameche's career did not suffer any serious repercussions, however, as he was playing the \"straight\" guy. Nonetheless, Mae West would go on to enjoy a record-breaking success in Las Vegas, swank nightclubs like Lou Walters's The Latin Quarter, Broadway, and London, England.\n\nMiddle years\n\nAfter appearing in The Heat's On in 1943, West returned to a very active career on stage and swank clubs like The Latin Quarter. Among her popular new stage performances was the title role in Catherine Was Great (1944) on Broadway, in which she penned a spoof on the story of Catherine the Great of Russia, surrounding herself with an \"imperial guard\" of tall, muscular young actors. The play was produced by theater and film impresario Mike Todd (Around The World In 80 Days) and ran for 191 performances. \n\nWhen Mae West revived her 1928 play Diamond Lil, bringing it back to Broadway in 1949, The New York Times labeled her an \"American Institution - as beloved and indestructible as Donald Duck. Like Chinatown, and Grant's Tomb, Mae West should be seen at least once.\" In the 1950s, West starred in her own Las Vegas stage show at the newly opened Sahara Hotel, singing while surrounded by bodybuilders. It was a show that stood Las Vegas on its head. \"Men come to see me, but I also give the women something to see: wall to wall men!\" West explained. Jayne Mansfield met and later married one of West's muscle men, a former Mr. Universe, Mickey Hargitay. \n\nWhen casting about for the role of Norma Desmond for the 1950 film Sunset Boulevard, Billy Wilder offered West the role. Still smarting from the censorship debacle of The Heat's On, and the constraints placed on her characterization, she declined. The theme of the Wilder film, she noted, was pure pathos, while her brand of comedy was always \"about uplifting the audience\". Mae West was a unique comedy character, and as such, timeless, in the same way as Charlie Chaplin. After Mary Pickford also declined the role, Gloria Swanson was cast. In subsequent years, West was offered the role of Vera Simpson, opposite Marlon Brando, in Rodgers and Hart's Pal Joey, which she turned down, with the role going to Rita Hayworth. In 1964, West was offered the part of Maude opposite Elvis Presley, in Roustabout. She turned this down, and Barbara Stanwyck took it. West was also courted for roles in Frederico Fellini's Juliet of the Spirits and Satyricon, but rejected those offers as well. West avoided roles where the female character is victimized, as not being in sync with her own Westian creation.\n\nTelevision, and the next generations\n\nIn 1958, West appeared at the live televised Academy Awards and performed the song \"Baby, It's Cold Outside\" with Rock Hudson, which brought a standing ovation. In 1959, she released an autobiography, Goodness Had Nothing to Do With It, which became a best seller and was reprinted with a new chapter in 1970. West guest starred on television, including \"The Dean Martin Variety Show\" in 1959, The Red Skelton Show in 1960, to promote her autobiography Goodness Had Nothing To Do With It, and a lengthy interview on Person To Person with Charles Collingwood, which was censored by CBS in 1959, and never aired. CBS executives felt members of the television audience were not ready to see a nude marble statue of West, which rested on her piano. In 1964, she made a guest appearance on the sitcom Mister Ed.. Much later, in 1976, she was interviewed by Dick Cavett and sang two songs on his \"Back Lot U.S.A.\" special on CBS.\n\nRecording career\n\nWest's recording career started in the early 1930s with releases of her film songs on bakelite 78s. Most of her film songs were released as 78s as well as sheet music. She recorded \"The Fabulous Mae West\" in 1955. Demonstrating her willingness to keep in touch with the contemporary scene, she recorded a pair of rock-and-roll albums, Way Out West (1966) and Great Balls of Fire (1972). Her Christmas album Wild Christmas (later re-issued as Mae in December (1980)) was released in 1966. In 1965, she recorded two songs, \"Am I Too Young,\" and \"He's Good For Me\" for a 45 rpm record released by Plaza Records. She also recorded several tongue in cheek songs including \"Santa, Come Up to See Me\" on the album Wild Christmas. \n\nThe April 18, 1969, issue of Life featured West at age 75, with images by child star, actor, and professional photographer Roddy McDowall.\n\nAfter a 27-year absence from motion pictures, West appeared as Leticia Van Allen in Gore Vidal's Myra Breckinridge (1970) with Raquel Welch, Rex Reed, Farrah Fawcett, and Tom Selleck in a small part. The movie was intended to be deliberately campy sex change comedy, yet was tastelessly directed and edited, resulting in a botched film that was both a box office and critical failure. Author Vidal, at great odds with inexperienced and self-styled \"art film\" director Michael Sarne, later called the film \"an awful joke\". Though Mae West was given star billing to attract ticket buyers, her scenes were truncated by the inexperienced film editor, and her songs were filmed as though they were merely side acts. Despite Myra Breckinridges mainstream failure, it continued to find an audience on the cult film circuit where West's films were regularly screened and West herself was dubbed \"the queen of camp\". Mae West's counterculture appeal included the young and hip, and by 1971, the student body of UCLA voted Mae West \"Woman of the Century\" in honor of her relevance as a pioneering advocate of sexual frankness and courageous crusader against censorship. \n \nWest's last rock album (released in 1972) on MGM Records, titled Great Balls of Fire, covered songs by The Doors among others, and had songs written for West by English songwriter-producer Ian Whitcomb. In 1975, West released her book Sex, Health, and ESP (William Allen & Sons, publisher), and Pleasure Man (Dell publishers) based on her 1928 play of the same name. Her autobiography, Goodness Had Nothing to Do with It, was also updated and republished in the 1970s. \n\nFinal decade\n\nMae West was a shrewd investor, produced her own stage acts, and invested her money in considerable tracts of land in Van Nuys, a thriving suburb of Los Angeles. With her considerable fortune, she could afford to do as she liked. In 1976, she appeared on Back Lot U.S.A. on CBS, where she was interviewed by Dick Cavett and sang \"Frankie and Johnny\" along with \"After You've Gone.\" That same year, she began work on her final film, Sextette (1978). Adapted from a 1959 script written by West, daily revisions and production disagreements hampered production from the beginning. Due to the near endless last minute script changes and tiring production schedule, West agreed to have her lines signaled to her through a speaker concealed in her hair piece. Despite the daily problems, West was, according to Sextette director Ken Hughes, determined to see the film through. At 86, her now-failing eyesight made navigating around the set difficult, but she made it through the filming, a tribute to her self-confidence, remarkable endurance and stature as a self-created star 67 years after her Broadway debut in 1911 at the age of 18. Time Magazine wrote an article on the indomitable star entitled \"At 84, Mae West Is Still Mae West.\" Upon its release, Sextette was not a critical or commercial success, but remains interesting for the diverse cast, and considering none of West's contemporaries such as Dietrich, Garbo, Davis, etc., were still making films. The cast included some of West's first co-stars such George Raft (Night After Night, 1932), silver screen stars such as Walter Pigeon, Tony Curtis, and more contemporary pop stars such as The Beatles' Ringo Starr, and Alice Cooper, and television favorites such as Dom DeLuise and gossip queen Rona Barrett. It also included cameos of some of her famed musclemen from her 1950s Las Vegas show, such as the still remarkably fit Reg Lewis. Sextette also reunited Mae West with Edith Head, her costume designer from 1933 in She Done Him Wrong. The film was a last hurrah and a Valentine from Mae West to her fans.\n\nIn August 1980, West tripped while getting out of bed. After the fall, West was unable to speak and was taken to Good Samaritan Hospital in Los Angeles where tests revealed that she had suffered a stroke. She died on November 22, 1980, at the age of 87. \n\nA private service was held in the Old North Church replica, in Forest Lawn, Hollywood Hills, on November 25, 1980. Bishop Andre Penachio, a friend, officiated at the entombment in the family mausoleum at Cypress Hills Abbey, Brooklyn, purchased in 1930 when her mother died. Her father and brother were also entombed there before her, and her younger sister, Beverly, was laid to rest in the last of the five crypts less than 18 months after West's death. \n\nFor her contribution to the film industry, Mae West has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 1560 Vine Street in Hollywood. For her contributions as a stage actor in the theater world, she has been inducted into the American Theater Hall of Fame. \n\nPersonal life\n\nWest was married on April 11, 1911, in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, to Frank Szatkus, whose stage name was Frank Wallace, a fellow vaudevillian whom she first met in 1909. She was 17; he was 21. West kept the marriage a secret, but in 1935, after West had made several hit movies, a filing clerk discovered West's marriage certificate and alerted the press. An affidavit in which she had declared herself married, which she made during the Sex trial in 1927, was also uncovered. At first, West denied ever marrying Wallace, but she finally admitted in July 1937, in reply to a legal interrogatory, that they had been married. Although legally wed, the couple never lived together as husband and wife. She insisted they have separate bedrooms, and she soon sent him away in a show of his own to get rid of him. She obtained a legal divorce on July 21, 1942, during which Wallace withdrew his request for separate maintenance, and West testified that Wallace and she had lived together for only \"several weeks\". The final divorce decree was granted on May 7, 1943. \n\nIn August 1913, she met an Italian-born vaudeville headliner and star of the piano-accordion, Guido Deiro. Her affair went \"[v]ery deep, hittin' on all the emotions.\" West later said, \"Marriage is a great institution. I'm not ready for an institution yet.\" \n\nWest remained close to her family throughout her life and was devastated by her mother's death in 1930. In 1930, she moved to Hollywood and into the penthouse at the new Ravenswood apartment building, where she lived until her death in 1980. \n\nAfter she began her movie career, her sister, brother, and father followed her to Hollywood. West provided them with nearby homes, jobs, and sometimes financial support. Among West's other boyfriends was boxing champion William Jones, nicknamed Gorilla Jones. When the management at her Ravenswood apartment building barred the African American boxer from entering the premises, West solved the problem by buying the building and lifting the ban. \n\nWest had a relationship with James Timony, an attorney 15 years her senior, in 1916, when she was a vaudeville actress. Timony was also her manager. By the time West was an established movie actress in the mid-1930s, they were no longer a couple. West and Timony remained extremely close, living in the same building, working together, and providing support for each other until Timony's death in 1954. \n\nAt 61, West became romantically involved with one of the muscle-men in her Las Vegas stage show, wrestler, former Mr. California, and former merchant marine Chester Rybinski. He was 30 years younger than West, and later changed his name to Paul Novak. He soon moved in with her, and their romance continued until West's death in 1980 at age 87. Novak once commented, \"I believe I was put on this Earth to take care of Mae West.\" \n\nIn popular culture\n\n* During World War II, Allied aircrew called their yellow inflatable, vest-like life preserver jackets \"Mae Wests\" partly from rhyming slang for \"breasts\" and \"life vest\" and partly because of the resemblance to her torso. A \"Mae West\" is also a type of round parachute malfunction (partial inversion) which contorts the shape of the canopy into the appearance of an extraordinarily large brassiere. \n* West has been the subject of songs, including the title song of Cole Porter's Broadway musical Anything Goes and in \"You're the Top\". \n* One of the most popular objects of the surrealist movement was the painting by Salvador Dalí entitled \"Face Of Mae West Which May Be Used As An Apartment,\" and the Mae West Lips Sofa, which was completed by artist Salvador Dalí in 1938 for Edward James. A version of the sofa in red was created by famed Paris furniture maker Jean-Michel Frank, and there is a rendition in pink at London's Victoria and Albert Museum. One can see the actual Dali Mae West room, and walk into it, at the Dali Museum in Figueras, Spain. \nWhen approached for permission to allow her likeness on The Beatles' Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band album cover, West initially refused, asking, \"What would I be doing in a Lonely Heart's Club?\" The Beatles wrote her a personal letter declaring themselves great admirers of the star and persuaded her to change her mind. \n\nBroadway stage\n\n; Other plays as writer\n\nFilmography\n\nDiscography\n\nAlbums:\n 1956: The Fabulous Mae West; Decca D/DL-79016 (several reissues up to 2006)\n* 1960: W.C. Fields His Only Recording Plus 8 Songs by Mae West; Proscenium PR 22\n* 1966: Way Out West; Tower T/ST-5028\n* 1966: Wild Christmas; Dragonet LPDG-48\n* 1970: The Original Voice Tracks from Her Greatest Movies; Decca D/DL-791/76\n* 1970: Mae West & W.C. Fields Side by Side; Harmony HS 11374/HS 11405\n* 1972: Great Balls of Fire; MGM SE 4869\n* 1974: Original Radio Broadcasts; Mark 56 Records 643\n* 1987/1995: Sixteen Sultry Songs Sung by Mae West Queen of Sex; Rosetta RR 1315\n* 1996: I'm No Angel; Jasmine CD 04980 102\n* 2006: The Fabulous: Rev-Ola CR Rev 181\nAt least 21 singles (78 rpm and 45 rpm) also were released from 1933 to 1973.\n\nBibliography\n\n* (the novel on which The Constant Sinner was based)\n* (novelization of play)\n* \n* \n* \n*" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Goodness Had Nothing to Do With It" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "goodness had nothing to do with it" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "goodness had nothing to do with it", "type": "FreeForm", "value": "Goodness Had Nothing to Do With It" }
What is the native country of Agatha Chrisitie's detective Hercule Poirot?	tc_384	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Hercule_Poirot.txt" ], "title": [ "Hercule Poirot" ], "wiki_context": [ "Hercule Poirot (;) is a fictional Belgian detective, created by Agatha Christie. Poirot is one of Christie's most famous and long-lived characters, appearing in 33 novels, one play (Black Coffee), and more than 50 short stories published between 1920 and 1975.\n\nPoirot has been portrayed on radio, in film and on television by various actors, including John Moffatt, Albert Finney, Sir Peter Ustinov, Sir Ian Holm, Tony Randall, Alfred Molina, Orson Welles and, most notably, David Suchet.\n\nOverview \n\nInfluences \n\nPoirot's name was derived from two other fictional detectives of the time: Marie Belloc Lowndes' Hercule Popeau and Frank Howel Evans' Monsieur Poiret, a retired Belgian police officer living in London. \n\nA more obvious influence on the early Poirot stories is that of Arthur Conan Doyle. In An Autobiography, Christie states, \"I was still writing in the Sherlock Holmes tradition – eccentric detective, stooge assistant, with a Lestrade-type Scotland Yard detective, Inspector Japp\". For his part, Conan Doyle acknowledged basing his detective stories on the model of Edgar Allan Poe's C. Auguste Dupin and his anonymous narrator, and basing his character Sherlock Holmes on Joseph Bell, who in his use of \"ratiocination\" prefigured Poirot's reliance on his \"little grey cells\".\n\nPoirot also bears a striking resemblance to A. E. W. Mason's fictional detective, Inspector Hanaud of the French Sûreté, who first appeared in the 1910 novel At the Villa Rose and predates the first Poirot novel by ten years.\n\nUnlike the models mentioned above, Christie's Poirot was clearly the result of her early development of the detective in her first book, written in 1916 and published in 1920. His Belgian nationality was interesting because of Belgium's occupation by Germany, which also provided a plausible explanation of why such a skilled detective would be out of work and available to solve mysteries at an English country house. At the time of Christie's writing, it was considered patriotic to express sympathy towards the Belgians, since the invasion of their country had constituted Britain's casus belli for entering World War I, and British wartime propaganda emphasised the \"Rape of Belgium\".\n\nPopularity \n\nPoirot first appeared in The Mysterious Affair at Styles (published in 1920) and exited in Curtain (published in 1975). Following the latter, Poirot was the only fictional character to receive an obituary on the front page of The New York Times. \n\nBy 1930, Agatha Christie found Poirot \"insufferable\", and by 1960 she felt that he was a \"detestable, bombastic, tiresome, ego-centric little creep\". Yet the public loved him and Christie refused to kill him off, claiming that it was her duty to produce what the public liked. \n\nAppearance and proclivities \n\nCaptain Arthur Hastings' first description of Poirot:\n\nHe was hardly more than five feet four inches but carried himself with great dignity. His head was exactly the shape of an egg, and he always perched it a little on one side. His moustache was very stiff and military. Even if everything on his face was covered, the tips of moustache and the pink-tipped nose would be visible.\nThe neatness of his attire was almost incredible; I believe a speck of dust would have caused him more pain than a bullet wound. Yet this quaint dandified little man who, I was sorry to see, now limped badly, had been in his time one of the most celebrated members of the Belgian police.\n\nAgatha Christie's initial description of Poirot in The Murder on the Orient Express:\n\nBy the step leading up into the sleeping-car stood a young French lieutenant, resplendent in uniform, conversing with a small man [Hercule Poirot] muffled up to the ears of whom nothing was visible but a pink-tipped nose and the two points of an upward-curled moustache.\n\nIn the later books, his limp is not mentioned, suggesting it may have been a temporary wartime injury. Poirot has green eyes that are repeatedly described as shining \"like a cat's\" when he is struck by a clever idea, and dark hair, which he dyes later in life. However, in many of his screen incarnations, he is bald or balding.\n\nFrequent mention is made of his patent leather shoes, damage to which is frequently a source of misery for him, but comical for the reader. Poirot's appearance, regarded as fastidious during his early career, later falls hopelessly out of fashion. He employs pince-nez reading glasses.\n\nAmong Poirot's most significant personal attributes is the sensitivity of his stomach:\n\nThe plane dropped slightly. \"Mon estomac,\" thought Hercule Poirot, and closed his eyes determinedly.\n\nHe suffers from sea sickness, and in Death in the Clouds he states that his air sickness prevents him from being more alert at the time of the murder. Later in his life, we are told:\n\nAlways a man who had taken his stomach seriously, he was reaping his reward in old age. Eating was not only a physical pleasure, it was also an intellectual research.\n\nPoirot is extremely punctual and carries a turnip pocket watch almost to the end of his career. He is also pernickety about his personal finances, preferring to keep a bank balance of 444 pounds, 4 shillings, and 4 pence.\n\nAs mentioned in Curtain and The Clocks, he is fond of classical music, particularly Mozart and Bach.\n\nMethods \n\nIn The Mysterious Affair at Styles, Poirot operates as a fairly conventional, clue-based and logical detective; reflected in his vocabulary by two common phrases: his use of \"the little grey cells\" and \"order and method\". Hastings is irritated by the fact that Poirot sometimes conceals important details of his plans, as in The Big Four. In this novel, Hastings is kept in the dark throughout the climax. This aspect of Poirot is less evident in the later novels, partly because there is rarely a narrator to mislead.\n\nIn Murder on the Links, still largely dependent on clues himself, Poirot mocks a rival \"bloodhound\" detective who focuses on the traditional trail of clues established in detective fiction (e.g., Sherlock Holmes depending on footprints, fingerprints, and cigar ash). From this point on, Poirot establishes his psychological bona fides. Rather than painstakingly examining crime scenes, he enquires into the nature of the victim or the psychology of the murderer. He predicates his actions in the later novels on his underlying assumption that particular crimes are committed by particular types of people.\n\nPoirot focuses on getting people to talk. In the early novels, he casts himself in the role of \"Papa Poirot\", a benign confessor, especially to young women. In later works, Christie made a point of having Poirot supply false or misleading information about himself or his background to assist him in obtaining information. In The Murder of Roger Ackroyd, Poirot speaks of a non-existent mentally disabled nephew to uncover information about homes for the mentally unfit. In Dumb Witness, Poirot invents an elderly invalid mother as a pretence to investigate local nurses. In The Big Four, Poirot pretends to have (and poses as) an identical twin brother named Achille: however, this brother was mentioned again in The Labours of Hercules. Poirot claimed to have a brother for a short time.\n\nTo this day Harold is not quite sure what made him suddenly pour out the whole story to a little man to whom he had only spoken a few minutes before.\n\nPoirot is also willing to appear more foreign or vain in an effort to make people underestimate him. He admits as much:\n\nIt is true that I can speak the exact, the idiomatic English. But, my friend, to speak the broken English is an enormous asset. It leads people to despise you. They say – a foreigner – he can't even speak English properly. [...] Also I boast! An Englishman he says often, \"A fellow who thinks as much of himself as that cannot be worth much.\" [...] And so, you see, I put people off their guard.\n\nIn later novels, Christie often uses the word mountebank when characters describe Poirot, showing that he has successfully passed himself off as a charlatan or fraud.\n\nPoirot's investigating techniques assist him solving cases; \"For in the long run, either through a lie, or through truth, people were bound to give themselves away...\" At the end, Poirot usually reveals his description of the sequence of events and his deductions to a room of suspects, often leading to the culprit's apprehension.\n\nLife \n\n\"I suppose you know pretty well everything there is to know about Poirot's family by this time\". \n\nChristie has been purposefully vague about Poirot's origins, as he is thought to be an elderly man even in the early novels. In An Autobiography, she admitted that she already imagined him to be an old man in 1920. At the time, however, she had no idea she would write works featuring him for decades to come.\n\nA brief passage in The Big Four provides original information about Poirot's birth or at least childhood in or near the town of Spa, Belgium: \"But we did not go into Spa itself. We left the main road and wound into the leafy fastnesses of the hills, till we reached a little hamlet and an isolated white villa high on the hillside.\" Christie strongly implies that this \"quiet retreat in the Ardennes\" near Spa is the location of the Poirot family home.\n \nAn alternate tradition holds that Poirot was born in the village of Ellezelles (province of Hainaut, Belgium). A few memorials dedicated to Hercule Poirot can be seen in the centre of this village. There appears to be no reference to this in Christie's writings, but the town of Ellezelles cherishes a copy of Poirot's birth certificate in a local memorial 'attesting' Poirot's birth, naming his father and mother as Jules-Louis Poirot and Godelieve Poirot.\n\nChristie wrote that Poirot is a Roman Catholic by birth, but not much is described about his later religious convictions, except sporadic references to his \"going to church\". Christie provides little information regarding Poirot’s childhood, only mentioning in Three Act Tragedy that he comes from a large family with little wealth, and has at least one younger sister.\n\nPoliceman \n\nGustave[...] was not a policeman. I have dealt with policemen all my life and I know. He could pass as a detective to an outsider but not to a man who was a policeman himself.\n\n— Hercule Poirot \n\nHercule Poirot was active in the Brussels police force by 1893. Very little mention is made about this part of his life, but in \"The Nemean Lion\" (1939) Poirot refers to a Belgian case of his in which \"a wealthy soap manufacturer[...] poisoned his wife in order to be free to marry his secretary\". As Poirot was often misleading about his past to gain information, the truthfulness of that statement is unknown.\n\nInspector Japp offers some insight into Poirot's career with the Belgian police when introducing him to a colleague:\n\nYou've heard me speak of Mr Poirot? It was in 1904 he and I worked together – the Abercrombie forgery case – you remember he was run down in Brussels. Ah, those were the days Moosier. Then, do you remember \"Baron\" Altara? There was a pretty rogue for you! He eluded the clutches of half the police in Europe. But we nailed him in Antwerp – thanks to Mr. Poirot here.\n\nIn the short story \"The Chocolate Box\" (1923), Poirot reveals to Captain Arthur Hastings an account of what he considers to be his only failure. Poirot admits that he has failed to solve a crime \"innumerable\" times:\n\nI have been called in too late. Very often another, working towards the same goal, has arrived there first. Twice I have been struck down with illness just as I was on the point of success.\n\nNevertheless, he regards the 1893 case in \"The Chocolate Box\", as his only actual failure of detection. Again, Poirot is not reliable as a narrator of his personal history and there is no evidence that Christie sketched it out in any depth. During his police career Poirot shot a man who was firing from a roof into the public below. In Lord Edgware Dies, Poirot reveals that he learned to read writing upside down during his police career. Around that time he met Xavier Bouc, director of the Compagnie Internationale des Wagons-Lits. Poirot also became a uniformed director, working on trains.\n\nIn The Double Clue, Poirot mentions that he was Chief of Police of Brussels, until \"the Great War\" (World War I) forced him to leave for England.\n\nPrivate detective \n\nI had called in at my friend Poirot's rooms to find him sadly overworked. So much had he become the rage that every rich woman who had mislaid a bracelet or lost a pet kitten rushed to secure the services of the great Hercule Poirot.\n\nDuring World War I, Poirot left Belgium for England as a refugee (although he returned a few times). On 16 July 1916 he again met his lifelong friend, Captain Arthur Hastings, and solved the first of his cases to be published, The Mysterious Affair at Styles. It is clear that Hastings and Poirot are already friends when they meet in Chapter 2 of the novel, as Hastings tells Cynthia that he has not seen him for \"some years\". Particulars such as the date of 1916 for the case and that Hastings had met Poirot in Belgium, are given in Curtain: Poirot's Last Case, Chapter 1. After that case, Poirot apparently came to the attention of the British secret service and undertook cases for the British government, including foiling the attempted abduction of the Prime Minister. Readers were told that the British authorities had learned of Poirot's keen investigative ability from certain Belgian royals.\n\nAfter the war Poirot became a private detective and began undertaking civilian cases. He moved into what became both his home and work address, Flat 203 at 56B Whitehaven Mansions. Hastings first visits the flat when he returns to England in June 1935 from Argentina in The A.B.C. Murders, Chapter 1. The TV programmes place this in Florin Court, Charterhouse Square, in the wrong part of London. According to Hastings, it was chosen by Poirot \"entirely on account of its strict geometrical appearance and proportion\" and described as the \"newest type of service flat\". (The Florin Court building was actually built in 1936, decades after Poirot fictionally moved in.) His first case in this period was \"The Affair at the Victory Ball\", which allowed Poirot to enter high society and begin his career as a private detective.\n\nBetween the world wars, Poirot travelled all over Europe, Africa, Asia, and half of South America investigating crimes and solving murders. Most of his cases occurred during this time and he was at the height of his powers at this point in his life. In The Murder on the Links, the Belgian pits his grey cells against a French murderer. In the Middle East, he solved the cases Death on the Nile and Murder in Mesopotamia with ease and even survived An Appointment with Death. As he passed through Eastern Europe on his return trip, he solved The Murder on the Orient Express. However he did not travel to North America, the West Indies, the Caribbean or Oceania, probably to avoid sea sickness.\n\nIt is this villainous sea that troubles me! The mal de mer – it is horrible suffering! \n\nIt was during this time he met the Countess Vera Rossakoff, a glamorous jewel thief. The history of the Countess is, like Poirot's, steeped in mystery. She claims to have been a member of the Russian aristocracy before the Russian Rebellion and suffered greatly as a result, but how much of that story is true is an open question. Even Poirot acknowledges that Rossakoff offered wildly varying accounts of her early life. Poirot later became smitten with the woman and allowed her to escape justice. \n\nIt is the misfortune of small, precise men always to hanker after large and flamboyant women. Poirot had never been able to rid himself of the fatal fascination that the Countess held for him. \n\nAlthough letting the Countess escape was morally questionable, it was not uncommon. In The Nemean Lion, Poirot sided with the criminal, Miss Amy Carnaby, allowing her to evade prosecution by blackmailing his client Sir Joseph Hoggins, who, Poirot discovered, had plans to commit murder. Poirot even sent Miss Carnaby two hundred pounds as a final payoff prior to the conclusion of her dog kidnapping campaign. In The Murder of Roger Ackroyd, Poirot allowed the murderer to escape justice through suicide and then withheld the truth to spare the feelings of the murderer's relatives. In The Augean Stables, he helped the government to cover up vast corruption. In Murder on the Orient Express, Poirot allowed the murderers to go free after discovering that twelve different people participated in Ratchett's murder. There was no question of his guilt, but he had been acquitted in America over a technicality. Considering it poetic justice that twelve jurors had acquitted Ratchett and twelve people had stabbed him, Poirot produced an alternate sequence of events to explain the death.\n\nAfter his cases in the Middle East, Poirot returned to Britain. Apart from some of the so-called \"Labours of Hercules\" (see next section) he very rarely went abroad during his later career. He moved into Styles Court towards the end of his life.\n\nWhile Poirot was usually paid handsomely by clients, he was also known to take on cases that piqued his curiosity, although they did not pay well.\n\nPoirot shows a love of steam trains, which Christie contrasts with Hastings' love of autos: this is shown in The Plymouth Express, The Mystery of the Blue Train, Murder on the Orient Express, and The ABC Murders (in the TV series, steam trains are seen in nearly all of the episodes).\n\nRetirement \n\nThat’s the way of it. Just a case or two, just one case more – the Prima Donna’s farewell performance won’t be in it with yours, Poirot. \n\nConfusion surrounds Poirot's retirement. Most of the cases covered by Poirot's private detective agency take place before his retirement to grow marrows, at which time he solves The Murder of Roger Ackroyd. It has been said that the twelve cases related in The Labours of Hercules (1947) must refer to a different retirement, but the fact that Poirot specifically says that he intends to grow marrows indicates that these stories also take place before Roger Ackroyd, and presumably Poirot closed his agency once he had completed them. There is specific mention in \"The Capture of Cerberus\" of the twenty-year gap between Poirot's previous meeting with Countess Rossakoff and this one. If the Labours precede the events in Roger Ackroyd, then the Ackroyd case must have taken place around twenty years later than it was published, and so must any of the cases that refer to it. One alternative would be that having failed to grow marrows once, Poirot is determined to have another go, but this is specifically denied by Poirot himself. Also, in \"The Erymanthian Boar\", a character is said to have been turned out of Austria by the Nazis, implying that the events of The Labours of Hercules took place after 1937. Another alternative would be to suggest that the Preface to the Labours takes place at one date but that the labours are completed over a matter of twenty years. None of the explanations is especially attractive.\n\nIn terms of a rudimentary chronology, Poirot speaks of retiring to grow marrows in Chapter 18 of The Big Four (1927) which places that novel out of published order before Roger Ackroyd. He declines to solve a case for the Home Secretary because he is retired in Chapter One of Peril at End House (1932). He is certainly retired at the time of Three Act Tragedy (1935) but he does not enjoy his retirement and repeatedly takes cases thereafter when his curiosity is engaged. He continues to employ his secretary, Miss Lemon, at the time of the cases retold in Hickory Dickory Dock and Dead Man's Folly, which take place in the mid-1950s. It is therefore better to assume that Christie provided no authoritative chronology for Poirot's retirement, but assumed that he could either be an active detective, a consulting detective, or a retired detective as the needs of the immediate case required.\n\nOne consistent element about Poirot's retirement is that his fame declines during it, so that in the later novels he is often disappointed when characters (especially younger characters) recognise neither him nor his name:\n\n\"I should, perhaps, Madame, tell you a little more about myself. I am Hercule Poirot.\"\nThe revelation left Mrs Summerhayes unmoved.\n\"What a lovely name,\" she said kindly. \"Greek, isn't it?\"\n\nPost–World War II \n\nPoirot is less active during the cases that take place at the end of his career. Beginning with Three Act Tragedy (1934), Christie had perfected during the inter-war years a subgenre of Poirot novel in which the detective himself spent much of the first third of the novel on the periphery of events. In novels such as Taken at the Flood, After the Funeral, and Hickory Dickory Dock, he is even less in evidence, frequently passing the duties of main interviewing detective to a subsidiary character. In Cat Among the Pigeons, Poirot's entrance is so late as to be almost an afterthought. Whether this was a reflection of his age or of Christie's distaste for him, is impossible to assess. Crooked House (1949) and Ordeal by Innocence (1957), which could easily have been Poirot novels, represent a logical endpoint of the general diminution of his presence in such works.\n\nTowards the end of his career, it becomes clear that Poirot's retirement is no longer a convenient fiction. He assumes a genuinely inactive lifestyle during which he concerns himself with studying famous unsolved cases of the past and reading detective novels. He even writes a book about mystery fiction in which he deals sternly with Edgar Allan Poe and Wilkie Collins. In the absence of a more appropriate puzzle, he solves such inconsequential domestic riddles as the presence of three pieces of orange peel in his umbrella stand. \n\nPoirot (and, it is reasonable to suppose, his creator) becomes increasingly bemused by the vulgarism of the up-and-coming generation's young people. In Hickory Dickory Dock, he investigates the strange goings on in a student hostel, while in Third Girl (1966) he is forced into contact with the smart set of Chelsea youths. In the growing drug and pop culture of the sixties, he proves himself once again, but has become heavily reliant on other investigators (especially the private investigator, Mr. Goby) who provide him with the clues that he can no longer gather for himself.\n\nNotably, during this time his physical characteristics also change dramatically, and by the time Arthur Hastings meets Poirot again in Curtain, he looks very different from his previous appearances, having become thin with age and with obviously dyed hair.\n\nDeath \n\nPoirot passes away in October 1949 from complications of a heart condition at the end of Curtain: Poirot's Last Case. He had moved his amyl nitrite pills out of his own reach, possibly because of guilt. He thereby became the murderer in Curtain, although it was for the benefit of others. Poirot himself noted that he wanted to kill his victim shortly before his own death so that he could avoid succumbing to the arrogance of the murderer, concerned that he might come to view himself as entitled to kill those whom he deemed necessary to eliminate.\n\nThe \"murderer\" that he was hunting had never actually killed anyone, but he had manipulated others to kill for him, subtly and psychologically manipulating the moments where others desire to commit murder so that they carry out the crime when they might otherwise dismiss their thoughts as nothing more than a momentary passion. Poirot thus was forced to kill the man himself, as otherwise he would have continued his actions and never been officially convicted, as he did not legally do anything wrong. It is revealed at the end of Curtain that he fakes his need for a wheelchair to fool people into believing that he is suffering from arthritis, to give the impression that he is more infirm than he is. His last recorded words are \"Cher ami!\", spoken to Hastings as the Captain left his room. (The TV adaptation adds that as Poirot is dying alone, he whispers out his final prayer to God in these words: \"Forgive me... forgive...\") Poirot was buried at Styles, and his funeral was arranged by his best friend Hastings and Hastings' daughter Judith. Hastings reasoned, \"Here was the spot where he had lived when he first came to this country. He was to lie here at the last.\"\n\nPoirot's actual death and funeral occurred in Curtain, years after his retirement from active investigation, but it was not the first time that Hastings attended the funeral of his best friend. In The Big Four (1927), Poirot feigned his death and subsequent funeral to launch a surprise attack on the Big Four.\n\nRecurring characters \n\nArthur Hastings \n\nHastings, a former British Army officer, first meets Poirot during Poirot's years as a police officer in Belgium and almost immediately after they both arrive in England. He becomes Poirot's lifelong friend and appears in many cases. Poirot regards Hastings as a poor private detective, not particularly intelligent, yet helpful in his way of being fooled by the criminal or seeing things the way the average man would see them and for his tendency to unknowingly \"stumble\" onto the truth. Hastings marries and has four children – two sons and two daughters.\nAs a loyal, albeit somewhat naïve companion, Hastings is to Poirot what Watson is to Sherlock Holmes.\n\nHastings is capable of great bravery and courage, facing death unflinchingly when confronted by The Big Four and displaying unwavering loyalty towards Poirot. However, when forced to choose between Poirot and his wife in that novel, he initially chooses to betray Poirot to protect his wife. Later, though, he tells Poirot to draw back and escape the trap.\n\nThe two are an airtight team until Hastings meets and marries Dulcie Duveen, a beautiful music hall performer half his age, after investigating the Murder on the Links. They later emigrate to Argentina, leaving Poirot behind as a \"very unhappy old man\". Poirot and Hastings reunite for the final time in Curtain: Poirot's Last Case, having been earlier reunited in The Big Four, Peril at End House, The ABC Murders, Lord Edgware Dies and Dumb Witness when Hastings arrives in England for business.\n\nAriadne Oliver \n\nDetective novelist Ariadne Oliver is Agatha Christie's humorous self-caricature. Like Christie, she is not overly fond of the detective whom she is most famous for creating–in Ariadne's case, Finnish sleuth Sven Hjerson. We never learn anything about her husband, but we do know that she hates alcohol and public appearances and has a great fondness for apples until she is put off them by the events of Hallowe'en Party. She also has a habit of constantly changing her hairstyle, and in every appearance by her much is made of her clothes and hats. Her maid Maria prevents the public adoration from becoming too much of a burden on her employer, but does nothing to prevent her from becoming too much of a burden on others.\n\nShe has authored over 56 novels and greatly dislikes people modifying her characters. She is the only one in Poirot's universe to have noted that \"It’s not natural for five or six people to be on the spot when B is murdered and all have a motive for killing B.\" She first met Poirot in the story Cards on the Table and has been bothering him ever since.\n\nMiss Felicity Lemon \n\nPoirot's secretary, Miss Felicity Lemon, has few human weaknesses. The only mistakes she makes within the series are a typing error during the events of Hickory Dickory Dock and the mis-mailing of an electricity bill, although she was worried about strange events surrounding her sister at the time. Poirot described her as being \"Unbelievably ugly and incredibly efficient. Anything that she mentioned as worth consideration usually was worth consideration.\" She is an expert on nearly everything and plans to create the perfect filing system. She also worked for the government statistician-turned-philanthropist Parker Pyne. Whether this was during one of Poirot’s numerous retirements or before she entered his employ is unknown. In The Agatha Christie Hour, she was portrayed by British actress Angela Easterling, while in Agatha Christie's Poirot she was portrayed by Pauline Moran. A marked difference from the text exists in Moran's portrayal, where she is an attractive, fashionable, and emotional woman showing an occasional soft corner for Poirot. She also appears far more often in the TV series, making an appearance in most episodes and often being a bigger part of the plot. On a number of occasions, she joins Poirot in his inquiries or seeks out answers alone at his request.\n\nChief Inspector James Harold Japp \n\nJapp is a Scotland Yard Inspector and appears in many of the stories trying to solve cases that Poirot is working on. Japp is outgoing, loud and sometimes inconsiderate by nature and his relationship with the refined Belgian is one of the stranger aspects of Poirot’s world. He first met Poirot in Belgium in 1904, during the Abercrombie Forgery. Later that year they joined forces again to hunt down a criminal known as Baron Altara. They also meet in England where Poirot often helps Japp and lets him take credit in return for special favours. These favours usually entail Poirot being supplied with other interesting cases. In Agatha Christie's Poirot, Japp was portrayed by Philip Jackson. In the film, Thirteen at Dinner (1985), adapted from Lord Edgware Dies, the role of Japp was taken by the actor David Suchet, who would later star as Poirot in the ITV adaptations.\n\nMajor novels \n\nThe Poirot books take readers through the whole of his life in England, from the first book (The Mysterious Affair at Styles), where he is a refugee staying at Styles, to the last Poirot book (Curtain), where he visits Styles before his death. In between, Poirot solves cases outside England as well, including his most famous case, Murder on the Orient Express (1934).\n\nHercule Poirot became famous in 1926 with the publication of The Murder of Roger Ackroyd, whose surprising solution proved controversial. The novel is still among the most famous of all detective novels: Edmund Wilson alludes to it in the title of his well-known attack on detective fiction, \"Who Cares Who Killed Roger Ackroyd?\" Aside from Roger Ackroyd, the most critically acclaimed Poirot novels appeared from 1932 to 1942, including Murder on the Orient Express, The ABC Murders (1935), Cards on the Table (1936), and Death on the Nile (1937), a tale of multiple homicide upon a Nile steamer. Death on the Nile was judged by detective novelist John Dickson Carr to be among the ten greatest mystery novels of all time.\n\nThe 1942 novel Five Little Pigs (a.k.a. Murder in Retrospect), in which Poirot investigates a murder committed sixteen years before by analysing various accounts of the tragedy, is a Rashomon-like performance. In his analysis of this book, critic and mystery novelist Robert Barnard referred to it as \"the best Christie of all\". \n\nPortrayals \n\nStage \n\nThe first actor to portray Hercule Poirot was Charles Laughton. He appeared on the West End in 1928 in the play Alibi which had been adapted by Michael Morton from the novel The Murder of Roger Ackroyd.\n\nFilm \n\nAustin Trevor \n\nAustin Trevor debuted the role of Poirot on screen in the 1931 British film Alibi. The film was based on the stage play. Trevor reprised the role of Poirot twice, in Black Coffee and Lord Edgware Dies. Trevor said once that he was probably cast as Poirot simply because he could do a French accent. Leslie S. Hiscott directed the first two films, with Henry Edwards taking over for the third.\n\nTony Randall \n\nTony Randall portrayed Poirot in The Alphabet Murders, a 1965 film also known as The ABC Murders. This was more a satire of Poirot than a straightforward adaptation, and was greatly changed from the original. Much of the story, set in modernistic times, was played for comedy, with Poirot investigating the murders while evading the attempts by Hastings (Robert Morley) and the police to get him out of England and back to Belgium.\n\nAlbert Finney \n\nAlbert Finney played Poirot in 1974 in the cinematic version of Murder on the Orient Express. Finney is the only actor to receive an Academy Award nomination for playing Poirot, though he did not win.\n\nPeter Ustinov \n\nPeter Ustinov played Poirot six times, starting with Death on the Nile (1978). He reprised the role in Evil Under the Sun (1982) and Appointment with Death (1988).\n\nChristie's daughter Rosalind Hicks observed Ustinov during a rehearsal and said, \"That's not Poirot! He isn't at all like that!\" Ustinov overheard and remarked \"He is now!\" \n\nHe appeared again as Poirot in three made-for-television movies: Thirteen at Dinner (1985), Dead Man's Folly (1986), and Murder in Three Acts (1986). Earlier adaptations were set during the time in which the novels were written, but these TV movies were set in the contemporary era. The first of these was based on Lord Edgware Dies and was made by Warner Bros. It also starred Faye Dunaway, with David Suchet as Inspector Japp, just before Suchet began to play Poirot. David Suchet considers his performance as Japp to be \"possibly the worst performance of [his] career\". \n\nOther \n\n* Anatoly Ravikovich, Zagadka Endkhauza (End House Mystery) (1989; based on \"Peril at End House\")\n\nTelevision \n\nDavid Suchet \n\nDavid Suchet starred as Poirot in the ITV series Agatha Christie's Poirot from 1989 until June 2013, when he announced that he was bidding farewell to the role. \"No one could've guessed then that the series would span a quarter-century or that the classically trained Suchet would complete the entire catalogue of whodunits featuring the eccentric Belgian investigator, including 33 novels and dozens of short stories.\" His final appearance was in an adaptation of Curtain: Poirot's Last Case, aired on 13 November 2013. During the time that it was filmed, Suchet expressed his sadness at his final farewell to the Poirot character whom he had loved:\n\nPoirot’s death was the end of a long journey for me. I had only ever wanted to play Dame Agatha’s true Poirot [...] He was as real to me as he had been to her: a great detective, a remarkable man, if, perhaps, just now and then, a little irritating.\n\nI think back to Poirot’s last words in the scene before he dies. That second ‘Cher ami’ was for someone other than Hastings. It was for my dear, dear friend Poirot. I was saying goodbye to him as well — and I felt it with all my heart.\n\nThe writers of the \"Binge!\" article of Entertainment Weekly Issue #1343-44 (26 December 2014 – 3 January 2015) picked Suchet as \"Best Poirot\" in the \"Hercule Poirot & Miss Marple\" timeline. \n\nOther \n\n* Heini Göbel, (1955; an adaptation of Murder on the Orient Express for the West German television series Die Galerie der großen Detektive)\n* José Ferrer, Hercule Poirot (1961; Unaired TV Pilot, MGM; adaptation of \"The Disappearance of Mr. Davenheim\")\n* Martin Gabel, General Electric Theater (4/1/1962; adaptation of \"The Disappearance of Mr. Davenheim\")\n* Horst Bollmann, Black Coffee 1973\n* Ian Holm, Murder by the Book, 1986\n* Alfred Molina, Murder on the Orient Express, 2001\n* Konstantin Raikin, Neudacha Puaro (Poirot's Failure) (2002; based on \"The Murder of Roger Ackroyd\")\n\nAnimated \n\nIn 2004, NHK (Japanese public TV network) produced a 39 episode anime series titled Agatha Christie's Great Detectives Poirot and Marple, as well as a manga series under the same title released in 2005. The series, adapting several of the best-known Poirot and Marple stories, ran from 4 July 2004 through 15 May 2005, and in repeated reruns on NHK and other networks in Japan. Poirot was voiced by Kōtarō Satomi and Miss Marple was voiced by Kaoru Yachigusa.\n\nRadio \n\nRadio adaptations of the Poirot stories also appeared, most recently twenty seven of them on BBC Radio 4 (and regularly repeated on BBC 7, later BBC Radio 4 Extra), starring John Moffatt; Maurice Denham and Peter Sallis have also played Poirot on BBC Radio 4, Mr. Denham in The Mystery of the Blue Train and Mr. Sallis in Hercule Poirot's Christmas.\n\nIn 1939, Orson Welles and the Mercury Players dramatised Roger Ackroyd on CBS's Campbell Playhouse. \n\nA 1945 radio series of at least 13 original half-hour episodes (none of which apparently adapt any Christie stories) transferred Poirot from London to New York and starred character actor Harold Huber, perhaps better known for his appearances as a police officer in various Charlie Chan films. On 22 February 1945, \"speaking from London, Agatha Christie introduced the initial broadcast of the Poirot series via shortwave\".\n\nAn adaptation of Murder in the Mews was broadcast on the BBC Light Programme in March 1955 starring Richard Williams as Poirot; this program was thought lost, but was recently discovered in the BBC archives in 2015. \n\nBBC Radio 4 Poirot radio dramas \n\nRecorded and released (John Moffatt stars as Poirot unless otherwise indicated): \n\nParodies and references \n\nIn a 1964 episode of the TV series \"Burke's Law\" entitled \"Who Killed Supersleuth?\", Ed Begley plays a parody of Poirot named Bascule Doirot.\n\nIn Revenge of the Pink Panther, Poirot makes a cameo appearance in a mental asylum, portrayed by Andrew Sachs and claiming to be \"the greatest detective in all of France, the greatest in all the world\".\n\nIn Neil Simon's Murder By Death, American actor James Coco plays \"Milo Perrier\", a parody of Poirot. The film also features parodies of Charlie Chan, Sam Spade, Nick and Nora Charles, Hildegarde Withers and Miss Marple.\n\nBenny Hill played not only Poirot but also Deputy Sam McCloud, Frank Cannon, Theo Kojak and Robert Ironside in a sketch entitled \"Murder on the Oregon Express\" broadcast as part of episode 2 of the seventh season of his Thames Television series (but he played Poirot as French, not Belgian).\n\nDudley Jones played Poirot in the film The Strange Case of the End of Civilization as We Know It (1977).\n\nIn the movie Spice World, Poirot (Hugh Laurie) accuses a weapons-packing Emma Bunton of the crime.\n\nMuch the same joke had already been done in The Mary Whitehouse Experience, with Poirot played by Steve Punt, failing to accuse Hannibal Lecter of an obvious murder.\n\nIn Sherlock Holmes: The Awakened, Poirot appears as a young boy on the train transporting Holmes and Watson. Holmes helps the boy in opening a puzzle-box, with Watson giving the boy advice about using his \"little grey cells\", giving the impression that Poirot first heard about grey cells and their uses from Dr. Watson. Poirot would go on to use the \"little grey cells\" line countless times throughout Agatha Christie's fiction.\n\nThe Belgian brewery Brasserie Ellezelloise makes a highly rated stout called Hercule with a moustachioed caricature of Hercule Poirot on the label.\n\nIn the final host segment of Mystery Science Theater 3000s episode \"The Rebel Set\", Tom Servo dresses up as Poirot and impersonates him in an attempt to discover the identity of B-movie actor Merritt Stone.\n\nJason Alexander played Poirot in episode 8 of Muppets Tonight in a spoof called \"Murder on the Disoriented Express\".\n\nPoirot is parodied twice in sketch show That Mitchell and Webb Look, where he is played by David Mitchell; one sketch sees him identifying a killer due to her use of \"the evil voice\"—a voice that only murderers use—admitting that he otherwise had no evidence, and a later sketch sees him meeting a ship captain who is also played by Mitchell.\n\nLeo Bruce parodied Hercule Poirot with the character Amer Picon in his book Case for Three Detectives (1936); the other two characters were parodies of Lord Peter Wimsey and Father Brown.\n\nIn C. Northcote Parkinson's charity biography based on the PG Wodehouse character, \"Jeeves, A Gentleman's Personal Gentleman\", Poirot is one of a number of famous detectives beaten to a mystery's solution by the eponymous valet.\n\nIn the fourth episode of the second season of TVFPlay's Indian web series Permanent Roommates, one the of the characters refers to Hercule Poirot as her inspiration while she attempts to solve the mystery of the cheating spouse. Throughout the episode, she is satirized as Hercule Poirot and Agatha Christie by the suspects. TVFPlay also telecasted a spoof of Indian TV suspense Drama CID as Qissa Missing Dimaag Ka : C.I.D Qtiyapa. In the first episode, when Ujjwal is shown to browse for the best detectives of the world, David Suchet appears as Poirot in his search." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Belguim", "Koenigreich Belgien", "Belgium/Belgie", "Kingdom of Belgium", "Belgian", "Beljum", "Königreich Belgien", "Belgique", "Belgium", "Beligum", "Kingdom of the Belgians", "Beljam", "Kingdom Of Belgium", "Belgum", "ISO 3166-1:BE", "Belgie", "Cockpit of Europe", "Koninkrijk België", "Beldjike", "Blegium", "Belgio", "The Quebec of Europe", "België", "Begium", "Royaume de Belgique", "Konigreich Belgien", "Koninkrijk Belgie", "People of Belgium", "Belgien", "Belgium/facts", "Administrative divisions of Belgium", "Belgium facts" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "cockpit of europe", "koninkrijk belgie", "königreich belgien", "belgië", "begium", "konigreich belgien", "belgie", "quebec of europe", "belgio", "iso 3166 1 be", "administrative divisions of belgium", "belgium facts", "koninkrijk belgië", "belgique", "belgium", "beljam", "kingdom of belgians", "blegium", "belguim", "belgium belgie", "belgian", "belgum", "beldjike", "royaume de belgique", "beligum", "belgien", "people of belgium", "kingdom of belgium", "koenigreich belgien", "beljum" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "belgium", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Belgium" }
What was the hometown of Sgt. Snorkel in Beetle Bailey?	tc_385	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Beetle_Bailey.txt" ], "title": [ "Beetle Bailey" ], "wiki_context": [ "Beetle Bailey (begun on September 4, 1950) is an American comic strip created by cartoonist Mort Walker. Set in a fictional United States Army military post, it is among the oldest comic strips still being produced by the original creator. Over the years, Mort Walker has been assisted by (among others) Jerry Dumas, Bob Gustafson, Frank Johnson and Walker's sons Neal, Brian and Greg Walker. The latter is currently credited on the strip.\n\nOverview\n\nBeetle was originally a college student at Rockview University. The characters in that early strip were modeled after Walker's fraternity brothers at the University of Missouri. On March 13, 1951, during the strip's first year, Beetle quit school and enlisted in the U.S. Army, where he has remained ever since.\n\nMost of the humor in Beetle Bailey revolves around the inept characters stationed at Camp Swampy (inspired by Camp Crowder, where Walker had once been stationed while in the Army), which is located near the town of Hurleyburg at \"Parris Island, S.C.\". Private Bailey is a lazy sort who usually naps and avoids work, and thus is often the subject of verbal and physical chastising from his supervisor, Sergeant Snorkel. The characters never seem to see combat themselves, with the exception of mock battles and combat drills. In fact, they seem to be in their own version of stereotypical comic strip purgatory (initially basic training, they now appear to be stuck in time in a regular infantry division). The uniforms of Beetle Bailey are still the uniforms of the late 1940s to early 1970s Army, with green fatigues and baseball caps as the basic uniform, and the open jeep as the basic military vehicle. Sergeant First Class Snorkel wears a green Class A Army dress uniform with heavily wrinkled garrison cap; the officers wear M1 helmet liners painted with their insignia. While Beetle Bailey's unit is Company A, one running gag is that the characters are variously seen in different branches of the Army, such as artillery, armor, infantry and paratroops.\n\nBeetle is always seen with a hat or helmet covering his forehead and eyes. Even on leave, his \"civvies\" include a pork pie hat worn in the same style. He can only be seen without it once—in the original strip when he was still a college student. The strip was pulled and never ran in any newspaper. It has only been printed in various books on the strip's history. One daily strip had Sarge scare Beetle's hat off, but Beetle was wearing sunglasses.\n\nOne running gag has Sergeant Snorkel hanging helplessly from a small tree branch after having fallen off a cliff (first time August 16, 1956). While he is never shown falling off, or even walking close to the edge of a cliff, he always seems to hold on to that same branch, yelling for help. This gag may have spawned the segment of the children's show Between the Lions featuring a person named Cliff Hanger, who, like Sergeant Snorkel, is hanging from a cliff in each feature.\n\nCharacters and story\n\nBeetle Bailey is unusual in having one of the largest and most varied permanent casts of any comic strip. While many of the older characters are rarely seen, almost none have been completely retired.\n\nMain characters\n\nPrivate Beetle Bailey—the main character and strip's namesake; a feckless, shirking, perpetual goof-off and straggler known for his chronic laziness and generally insubordinate attitude. Slack, hapless, lanky and freckled, Beetle's eyes are always concealed, whether by headgear or, in the rare instance of not wearing any (e.g., in the shower), by his hair.Beetle's eyes are seen in the animated cartoon \"Son of a Gun of a Gun\" (1963) at 4 minutes 42 seconds. He's hiding from Sgt. Snorkel in a civil war cannon—and in a few seconds it's going to be fired off at a ceremony. Gen. Halftrack: Now, remember, Sergeant: fire the cannon when Gen. Gonzales extends his arms to greet me. Sgt. Snorkel: Yes, sir! (4:42) Beetle's wide-open eyes are seen in the dark mouth of the cannon blinking 5 times. Gen. Halftrack: Here he comes now! — Now, Sergeant! Beetle is fired up into the air with his duty cover still on his head and over his eyes—as usual. Source: beetle bailey ® The Complete Collection: 13 Episodes on 2 DVDs!, Disc One, episode 6, \"Son of a Gun of a Gun\" © Manufactured under license Hearst Entertainment for Exclusively [sic] distribution by Mill Creek Entertainment. The Mill Creek logo is a trademark of Mill Creek Entertainment ©2009. All Rights Reserved. 'Copyright information verbatim from DVD case' In early strips, it was revealed that he is the brother of Lois Flagston (from the Hi and Lois cartoon, which Mort Walker wrote, and Dik Browne drew). Beetle is a member of \"Kilo Company\" 3rd Battalion of the 9th Infantry Regiment (United States) 13th Division {fictional} Beetle's and Lois's grandmother came from Dublin, Ireland. \nSergeant 1st Class Orville P. Snorkel—Beetle's platoon sergeant and nemesis; introduced in 1951. Sarge is known to frequently beat up Beetle for any excuse he can think of, leaving Beetle a shapeless pulp (one of the most iconic images in the strip). Once, in the February 2, 1971 strip, he even shoved Beetle through a knothole in the floorboard. Sarge is too lovable to be a villain, however. Obese, snaggle-toothed, and volatile, Sarge can be alternately short-tempered and sentimental. He and Beetle seem to have a mutual love/hate relationship; much of the time there's an implied truce between them. They share an uneasy alliance that sometimes borders on genuine (albeit unequal) friendship. In some early strips Sarge was married, but he was later retconned into an unmarried Army lifer, who knows next to nothing about civilian life. Despite his grouchiness and bossiness, Sarge does have a soft side, which he usually keeps concealed. He is from Pork Corners, Kansas.\nPrivate \"Killer\" Diller—the notorious ladies' man, and Beetle's frequent crony—introduced in 1951. When he tries to pick up a girl, some small parts of his headgear begin to flutter.\nOtto—Sgt. Snorkel's anthropomorphic, look-alike bulldog whom Sarge dresses up the same as himself, in an army uniform. Otto is fiercely protective of Sarge, and seems to have a particular antipathy towards Beetle. First appearance July 17, 1956, originally he was a regular dog who walked on all fours, but Mort Walker finally decided to make him more humanlike. As Walker put it, \"I guess he's funnier that way.\" As Sarge is often found hanging on a branch protruding from a cliff face, so once was Otto.\nCookie Jowls—the mess sergeant, who smokes cigarettes while preparing the mess hall's questionable menu (infamous for rubbery meatballs and tough-as-rawhide steaks). Walker once described him as \"the sum of all Army cooks I've met in my life.\" Except for the presence of cauliflower ears, a prominent heart tattoo, hairy shoulders and perpetual beard stubble, he bears a striking resemblance to SFC Snorkel—and has also been known to occasionally beat up on Beetle. Like Sarge, he also loves food.\nBrigadier General Amos T. Halftrack—the inept, frustrated, semi-alcoholic commander of Camp Swampy; introduced in 1951. Loves to golf, much to his wife Martha's dismay. He's 78 years old, from Kenner, Louisiana—though according to Capt. Scabbard he was born in China (April 28, 1971).\nMiss Sheila Buxley—Halftrack's beautiful, blonde, buxom civilian secretary—and occasional soldier's date (as well as a constant distraction for Halftrack). She used to live in Amarillo, Texas. She appears in every Wednesday strip, with the exception of November 4, 2009; February 16, 2011; March 2, 2011; April 6, 2011; and February 12, 2014; why on Wednesdays is unknown. (However, a possible prototype for Miss Buxley, a very similar-looking \"new stenographer\" for General Halftrack, appeared on January 22, 1970—a Thursday.) Miss Buxley has an apparent interest in Beetle, later becomes his girlfriend, but is constantly pursued by Killer.\nLieutenant Sonny Fuzz—very young (with noticeably pointy eyebrows and very little facial hair), overly earnest, anal-retentive and \"by the book,\" and highly susceptible to squeaky furniture. The apple-polishing Fuzz is always trying to impress uninterested superiors (especially Halftrack), and \"rub it in the noses\" of his subordinates. He was introduced March 7, 1956. Mort Walker said he modeled the character and personality of Lt. Fuzz on himself, having taken himself too seriously after completing Officer Training. \nLieutenant Jackson Flap—the strip's first black character, often touchy and suspicious—but effortlessly cool, introduced in 1970. Originally wore an afro hairstyle.\nPrivate Zero—the buck-toothed, naïve farm boy who takes commands literally, and misunderstands practically everything. Sometimes Zero serves to enrage Sarge even more than Beetle, often when Beetle and Zero are under Sarge's command. Sarge, being resentful of Beetle, will find Zero so ridiculous or poor performing that he attacks Zero or gives Beetle the easy job just to be rid of Zero. Was briefly promoted from Private to Lieutenant during a military exercise (September 29, 2013). Following the exercise, he was returned to his normal rank of E-1 Private (shown in his next strip appearance on Saturday, October 12, 2013).\nPrivate Plato—the Camp's resident intellectual (as Tom Lehrer might say, \"brings a book to every meal\"); bespectacled, given to scrawling long-winded, analytical, often philosophical graffiti. Named after Plato but reportedly based on Walker's pal, fellow cartoonist Dik Browne. Plato is the only character other than Beetle to evolve from the early \"college\" months of the strip.\n\nSupporting characters\n\nPrivate Blips—Gen. Halftrack's competent, jaded, feministic/chauvinistic, not-at-all-buxom secretary (\"blips\" are small points of light on a radar screen). Resents Halftrack's constant ogling of Miss Buxley.\nChaplain Staneglass—\"He's praying... he's looking at the food... he's praying again!\" According to Mort Walker's Private Scrapbook, Walker based the chaplain on Irish actor Barry Fitzgerald's priest character, from Going My Way (1944).\nMartha Halftrack—the General's formidable, domineering wife. She's 70 yrs. old and is from Morganfield, KY. (She has been known to sneak dates without Amos knowing.) Despite all this, Amos still is in love with her and values their marriage. \nPrivate Rocky—Camp Swampy's long-haired, disgruntled social dissident; a former biker gang member and rebel-without-a-clue, introduced 1958. Is the editor of the \"Camp Swampy\" Muckateer. \nPrivate Cosmo—Camp Swampy's sunglass-wearing, resident \"shady entrepreneur\" and huckster. Loosely based on William Holden's Sefton character from Stalag 17; almost forgotten in the 1980s.\nCaptain Sam Scabbard—hard-nosed, flat-top wearing officer; commanding officer of the A Company. Often as hard on Sarge as Sarge is on Beetle, but usually depicted as a competent officer. Has more or less disappeared from the strip.\nMajor Greenbrass—staff officer and golf partner to Gen. Halftrack. He is most often simply a sounding-board for the general, reacting to his superior's shenanigans instead of causing his own.\nPrivate Julius Plewer—fastidious fussbudget, who eventually became Halftrack's chauffeur.\nCorporal Yo—the strip's first Asian character, introduced in 1990. Like Major Greenbrass's relationship to General Halftrack, Cpl. Yo is most often simply a conversation partner for Sarge or one of the lieutenants. He is rarely if ever shown to be goofing off like the rest of the enlisted men.\nDr. Bonkus—Camp Swampy's loopy staff psychiatrist, whose own sanity is questionable. \"Bonkus\" likely refers to the Yiddish word for the cups used in traditional medicine - and to the saying translating to, \"It will do as much good as 'cupping' a corpse\", often abbreviated to the phrase \"Toten bonkus\", applied to a hopeless therapy or consulting an incompetent doctor. \nSergeant 1st Class Louise Lugg—hopes to be Sarge's girlfriend, introduced in 1986. Lt. Flap wondered why Lugg was sent to the camp; Halftrack commented that she showed up after he called the Pentagon to request an overseas assignment — \"I asked them to send me abroad.\" Although she is often competent, Louise Lugg has had occasional ridiculous moments like Zero, such as when Beetle recommended she get on Sarge's good side then \"nail him\"; after Sarge has a better opinion of Louise she is then seen ready to assault Sarge with a baseball bat - having taken Beetle's slang literally.\nSpecialist Chip Gizmo— Camp Swampy's resident computer geek, was named by a write-in contest in 2002. The contest, sponsored by Dell Computer Corp., received more than 84,000 entries. It raised more than $100,000 for the Fisher House Foundation, a non-profit organization that provides housing for families of patients at military and veterans hospitals.\nBella—Sgt. Louise Lugg's female cat.\n\nRetired characters\n\nBunny Piper—Was Beetle's seldom-seen girlfriend (from 1959 ), before he started dating Miss Buxley.\nBuzz—Was Beetle's girlfriend before 1959.\n* Canteen (early 1950s) —always eating.\n* Snake Eyes (early 1950s) —the barracks gambler, replaced by Cosmo, Rocky, and others.\n* Big Blush (early 1950s) —tall, innocent, and a great attraction to the girls; many of his characteristics incorporated into both Sarge and Zero.\n* Fireball (early 1950s) —neophyte who always seems to be in the way; forerunner of both Zero and Lt. Fuzz.\n* Bammy (early 1950s) —the southern patriot from Alabama who is still fighting the Civil war.\n* Dawg (early 1950s) —the guy in every barracks who creates his own pollution.\n* Ozone (late 1950s) —Zero's bigger, even more naïve friend.\n* Moocher (early 1960s) —stingy and always borrowing things.\n* Pop (1960s)—married private: gets yelled at by Sarge all day and goes home at night for more abuse from his wife.\n* Sergeant Webbing—variously described as being from either B Company or D Company. He somewhat resembles Snorkel, except that he lacks the trademark wrinkles in Snorkel's garrison cap, and has wavy hair and thick eyebrows. He has pointy teeth. On at least two separate occasions, Webbing engaged Sgt. Snorkel in a cussing duel. He also attempted to one-up Snorkel in anthropomorphizing dogs, leading to Otto's first appearance in uniform, and was most recently seen (recognizably, but not mentioned by name) in 1983. \nRolf (early 1980s) —civilian tennis instructor, very popular with the female cast (including both Mrs. Halftrack and Miss Buxley, much to the General's consternation). Originally introduced in response to complaints about the constant ogling of Miss Buxley by the male characters. First appearance was in the September 9, 1982 strip, and he disappeared completely by the mid-1980s. \n\nThe early strip was set at Rockview University. When Beetle joined the Army, all of the other characters were dropped (although both incarnations of the strip include a spectacled intellectual named Plato). Four characters from the original cast (Bitter Bill, Diamond Jim, Freshman, and Sweatsock) made at least one appearance, in the January 5, 1963 strip. \n\nExtras, one-shots and walk-ons\n\nBeetle's family, etc.:\n Mr. and Mrs. Bailey, the unnamed parents of Beetle, Lois, and Chigger\n* Lois Flagston (née Bailey), Beetle's sister; she and her husband are the title characters of the Hi and Lois comic strips\n* Chigger, the younger brother of Beetle and Lois\n* Hiram \"Hi\" Flagston, Beetle's brother-in-law and Lois's husband\n* Chip, Dot, Ditto, and Trixie Flagston, Hi and Lois's children, Beetle's nephews and nieces\n* Mr. and Mrs. Piper, Bunny's parents\nCamp Swampy:\n* A camp doctor whose appearance is consistent, but who is apparently unnamed \n* An unnamed officers' club bartender, frequent intermediary between the Halftracks\n* An unnamed Secretary of Defense who has made numerous appearances\n* Popeye the Sailor once made an indirect appearance in the form of a Halloween mask worn by Zero. He made a one-time appearance in a strip dated July 16, 2012. \n2012 NCS Cartoonist of the Year Tom Richmond made an appearance in a Sunday page. \nNumerous one-shot characters have appeared over the years, mostly unnamed, including an inspector general who looks like Alfred E. Neuman, and various officers and civilians. Among the few to be given names is Julian, a nondescript chauffeur eventually replaced by Julius. \n\nCensorship\n\nAs with most other American comic strips, Beetle Bailey has been censored from time to time. In 1962, the comic strip was censored because it showed a belly button, and in 2006, the description of Rocky's criminal past was replaced with a non-criminal past.\n\nSelf-censoring\n\nSometimes Mort Walker creates strips with raunchy subject matter for his own amusement. This is done at the sketch stage, and those strips are never meant to be published in the USA. They \"end up in a black box in the bottom drawer\", according to Walker. These sketches are sometimes published in Scandinavia, however, with a translation underneath. In Norway, they've appeared in the Norwegian Beetle Bailey comic book, Billy, with the cover of the comic marked to show it contains censored strips. To offset any possible negative reaction, the publisher experimented with \"scrambling\" the strips in the mid-1990s. To see them, the reader had to view them through a \"de-scrambling\" plastic card. This was discontinued soon afterwards, and the strips today are printed without scrambling. In Sweden, some of these strips were collected in the \"Alfapocket\" series. \n\nAnimation\n\nA TV version of the strip, consisting of 50 six-minute animated cartoon shorts produced by King Features Syndicate, was animated by Paramount Cartoon Studios in the USA and Artransa Film Studios in Sydney, Australia, and was first broadcast in 1963. The opening credits included the sound of a bugle reveille, followed by a theme song specifically composed for the cartoon:\nHe's the military hero of the nation\nThough he doesn't always follow regulation\nAt the sound of reveille\nHe is here for you to see\nAnd we know you'll laugh at Private Beetle Bailey—\n(Beetle Bailey!)\n\nAsk the General, Colonel, Major and the Captain,\nThe Lieutenant and the Sergeant and the Corporal,\nThey will tell you with a shout\nThey would gladly live without\nA certain Private by the name of Beetle Bailey—\n(Beetle Bailey!)(BEETLE BAILEY!!!)\n\nThe repeat of the name of Beetle Bailey is heard by an angry Sgt. Snorkel.\n\nBeetle was voiced by comic actor and director Howard Morris with Allan Melvin as the voice of Sarge. Other King Features properties, such as Snuffy Smith and Krazy Kat, also appeared in the syndicated series, under the collective title: Beetle Bailey and His Friends. June Foray did the voice of Bunny, plus all of the female characters involved.\n\nBeetle Bailey episodes\n\nHome Sweet Swampy\nHero's Reward\nPsychological Testing from You're in the Army, Wow! and Pride of Camp Swampy\nEt Tu, Otto? from You're in the Army, Wow! and Pride of Camp Swampy\nA Tree Is a Tree Is a Tree\nBeetle's High Horps\nLabor Shortage\nDon't Fiddle with the Band from Pranks in the Ranks\nThe Sergeant's Master\nThe Bull of the Ball\n60—Count 'Em—60! from Pranks in the Ranks\nGrab Your Socks from Sarge's Last Stand and Pride of Camp Swampy\nThe Blue Ribbon\nGo Yeast, Young Man from You're in the Army, Wow! and Pride of Camp Swampy\nWe Love You Sergeant Snorkel from Pranks in the Ranks\nIs This Drip Necessary? from Sarge's Last Stand and Pride of Camp Swampy\nA Christmas Tale\nFor Officers Only from Pranks in the Ranks\nBye-Bye Young Lovers\nA Pass Is a Pass Is a Pass from Great Guns and Other Games\nLeap No More My Lady\nTattoo-Tootsie Goodbye\nWelsh Rabbit from Great Guns and Other Games\nCosmo's Naught\nCamp Invisible from Sarge's Last Stand and Pride of Camp Swampy\n\"V\" for Visitors\nShutterbugged\nLittle Pooch Lost\nHalftrack's Navy\nDon't Give Up the Swamp from Great Guns and Other Games\nHoss Laff from Pranks in the Ranks\nThe Red Carpet Treatment\nLucky Beetle from Sarge's Last Stand and Pride of Camp Swampy\nSweet Sunday\nOperation Butler\nBridge on the River \"Y\" from Great Guns and Other Games\nThe Secret Weapon\nThe Diet from Sarge's Last Stand and Pride of Camp Swampy\nThe Heir\nBreaking the Leash\nThe Spy from Great Guns and Other Games\nThe Jinx from You're in the Army, Wow! and Pride of Camp Swampy\nCourage Encourager from You're in the Army, Wow! and Pride of Camp Swampy\nSgt. Snorkel's Longest Day\nEverything's Ducky\nThe Play's the Thing from Pranks in the Ranks\nGeronimo\nSon of a Gun of a Gun\nZero's Dizzy Double Date\nDr. Jekyll and Beetle Bailey\n\n1989 special\n\nA new animated special based off the strip was created in 1989, but did not air on TV for some reason; it has been released on DVD alongside the 1960's cartoon. Greg Whalen played Beetle, Bob Bergen portrayed Killer, Henry Corden was Sgt. Snorkel, Frank Welker was both Zero and Otto, Linda Gary voiced both Miss Buxley and Ms. Blips, and General Halftrack was Larry Storch. This special was one of a number of specials made in the same timeframe by King Features/Hearst for TV as potential series pilots; others included Blondie & Dagwood (co-produced with Marvel Productions, who had also collaborated with King Features for the Defenders of the Earth series a few years before) and Hägar the Horrible (co-produced with Hanna-Barbera Productions).\n\nLicensing\n\nOver the years, Beetle Bailey characters have been licensed for dolls, T-shirts, salt and pepper shakers, toys, telephones, music boxes, handpuppets, coffee mugs, cookie jars, neckties, lunchboxes, paperback books, games, bobblehead nodders, banks, lapel pins and greeting cards. The Multiple Plastics Corporation manufactured a 1964 Camp Swampy playset, a tie-in with the cartoon TV show, with character figures accompanying the usual MPC toy GIs and military vehicles.\nIn 2000, Dark Horse Comics issued two collectible figures of Beetle and Sarge as part of their line of Classic Comic Characters—statues No. 11 and 12, respectively. In honor of the strip's 50th anniversary, DHC also produced a boxed, PVC figure set of seven Beetle Bailey characters; (Beetle, Sarge, Gen. Halftrack, Miss Buxley, Otto, Lt. Flap and Cookie.)\nBCI Eclipse has released 20 episodes of Beetle Bailey as part of Animated All Stars, a 2-DVD set (BCI 46952). Rhino Home Video also released a DVD containing 10 episodes, along with a couple of Hägar the Horrible and Betty Boop cartoons. In 2007, Beetle Bailey: The Complete Collection was released to DVD, containing all 50 shorts grouped randomly into 13 episodes, plus a previously un-aired 1989 TV special. \nFor Beetle Bailey's 50th anniversary in 2000, Gate offered a 1/18th Willys MB with figurines of Beetle, Sarge, and Otto. The figures were the same scale as the Jeep, and were molded in seated poses, so they could be placed in the seats of the model. The Jeep could also be ordered without the figures, with figurines of Laurel and Hardy, or figurines of Laurel and Hardy in sailor suits. \n In 2010 Fashion Designer Dr. X and Bloomingdales unveiled a limited edition retro/punk rock style line of clothing including T-shirts, leather jackets, Beetle themed Chuck Taylors shoes, and various accessories. \n* 2012 Rolex and Bamford Watch Department created a Beetle Bailey Rolex watch." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Pork Corners, Kansas" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "pork corners kansas" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "pork corners kansas", "type": "FreeForm", "value": "Pork Corners, Kansas" }
In the Robin Hood stories, what was the real name of Little John?	tc_386	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Little_John.txt" ], "title": [ "Little John" ], "wiki_context": [ "John Little (Robin Hood changed his name into Little John) was a legendary fellow outlaw of Robin Hood. He was said to be Robin's chief lieutenant and second-in-command of the Merry Men. The sobriquet \"Little\" is a form of irony, as he is usually depicted as a gigantic, seven-foot-tall warrior of the British forests, skilled with bow and quarterstaff.\n\nFolklore\n\nLittle John appears in the earliest recorded Robin Hood ballads and stories, and in the earliest chronicle references to Robin Hood, by Andrew of Wyntoun in about 1420 and by Walter Bower in about 1440, neither of which refer to any other of the Merry Men. In the early tales, Little John is shown to be intelligent and highly capable. In A Gest of Robyn Hode, he captures the sorrowful knight and, when Robin Hood decides to pay the knight's mortgage for him, accompanies him as a servant. In Robin Hood's Death, he is the only one of the Merry Men that Robin takes with him. In the 15th-century ballad commonly called \"Robin Hood and the Monk\", Little John leaves in anger after a dispute with Robin. When Robin Hood is captured, it is Little John who plans his leader's rescue. In thanks, Robin offers Little John leadership of the band, but John refuses. Later depictions of Little John portray him as less cunning.\n\nThe earliest ballads do not feature an origin story for this character; but according to a 17th-century ballad, he was a giant of a man (at least seven feet tall), and introduced when he tried to prevent Robin from crossing a narrow bridge, whereupon they fought with quarterstaves, and Robin was overcome. Despite having won the duel, John agreed to join his band and fight alongside him. He was then called Little John, in whimsical reference to his size and in a play that reversed his first and last names (as his proper name was John Little). This scene is almost always re-enacted in film and television versions of the story. In some modern film versions, Little John loses the duel to Robin.\n\nStarting from the ballad tradition, Little John is commonly shown to be the only Merry Man present at Robin Hood's death.\n\nDespite a lack of historical evidence for his existence, Little John is reputed to be buried in a churchyard in the village of Hathersage, Derbyshire. A modern tombstone marks the supposed location of his grave, which lies under an old yew tree. This grave was owned by the Nailor (Naylor) family, and sometimes some variation of \"Nailer\" is given as John's surname. In other versions of the legends his name is given as John Little, enhancing the irony of his nickname.\n\nIn Dublin, there is a local legend that suggests that Little John visited the city in the 12th century and perhaps was even hanged there. \n\nLittle John was also a figure in the Robin Hood plays or games during the 15th to 17th centuries, particularly those held in Scotland.\n\nThere are many historical figures named Little John and John Little, but it is debatable which – if any – are the inspiration for the legendary character.\n\nAppearances in other media\n\nAlan Hale, Sr. played the role of Little John in three movies. He first played Little John as a young squire in 1922's Robin Hood starring Douglas Fairbanks. He reprised the role opposite Errol Flynn's Robin in 1938's The Adventures of Robin Hood. And finally, he played an older Little John opposite John Derek, as Robin's son, in Rogues of Sherwood Forest from 1951.\n\nOther notable film and TV Little Johns include Archie Duncan in the 1950s TV series, Nicol Williamson in Robin and Marian, Clive Mantle in the 1980s TV series Robin of Sherwood, Phil Harris as the voice of Little John the Bear in the 1973 Disney animated film Robin Hood, David Morrissey in Robin Hood and Nick Brimble in Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves - both in 1991, and Eric Allan Kramer in 1993's Robin Hood: Men in Tights.\n\nKevin Durand plays John in 2010's Robin Hood. In this incarnation, he was a Scottish Foot Soldier in the Crusades and fought Robin over a lost bet, claiming he was cheating, then joined Robin, Will, and Alan when the King was killed. His quarterstaff has a blade fixed to one end, similar to a splitting maul.\n\nIn the BBC's Robin Hood, Little John is played by Gordon Kennedy. John meets Robin when his band of outlaws steal from Robin's band. He dislikes Robin immediately, but later comes to agree with him. John also has a wife, Alice and a son, both of whom believe he is dead until late in the first series. John is the oldest of the outlaws, and fights with a quarterstaff.\n\nJamie Foxx will be portraying John in the upcoming movie Robin Hood: Origins. \n\nIn the Star Trek: The Next Generation episode \"Qpid\", Little John is portrayed by Commander William Riker (himself represented by Jonathan Frakes), as part of Q's recreated fantasy of Robin Hood.\n\nIn the Dick King-Smith novel Dragon Boy, looking at the adventures of a boy called John as he is raised by dragons after the death of his parents, it is implied that John – whose full name is John Little — will become the Little John of the Robin Hood mythos, the novel noting at one point that 'Little John' will become a giant of a man in future thanks to his healthy meals at the dragons' table.\n\nIn the Netflix series House of Cards, when main character Francis Underwood becomes Vice President he is given the code name \"Little John\" by the Secret Service.\n\nHe was portrayed by Rusty Goffe in the Doctor Who Series 8 episode, Robot of Sherwood. He is here presented as a Dwarf, who originally appears out from behind a large, stereotypical portrayal of the character.\n\nOther references\n\n\"Little John\" used as term of endearment, typically denoting kindness, compassion, empathy, and a certain level of optimism, a bit hard headed at times. It also functions as an ironic name in this case, due to John being physically enormous." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "John Little", "John Little (disambiguation)" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "john little", "john little disambiguation" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "john little", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "John Little" }
The Last Of The Really Great Whangdoodles and Mandy are children's books written by what well-known Oscar-winning actress?	tc_388	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "The_Last_of_the_Really_Great_Whangdoodles.txt" ], "title": [ "The Last of the Really Great Whangdoodles" ], "wiki_context": [ "The Last of the Really Great Whangdoodles is a children's novel written by Julie Edwards, the married name of singer and actress Dame Julie Andrews. More recent editions credit the book to \"Julie Andrews Edwards\".\n\nPlot summary\n\nThree siblings, Ben, Tom, and Melinda Potter (better known as Lindy), meet Professor Savant while visiting the zoo one rainy day. On Halloween, Lindy dared to knock on the spookiest house on the block, which happens to belong to the Professor, and the three become more acquainted with him. After a second meeting, they begin spending time at the Professor's house, where he introduces them to games of concentration and observation. He reveals that there is a magic land called Whangdoodleland that can only be reached through the imagination, and that he is training them to accompany him there. \n\nWhangdoodleland is the home of the last Whangdoodle that lived in the world. Once the Whangdoodle, and other creatures that are now considered imaginary, lived in our world. However, fearing that people were losing their imaginations in the pursuit of power and greed, the Whangdoodle created a magic and peaceful world over which he reigns. The professor and the children explore this world.\n\nEach time the children return, they venture farther and farther into Whangdoodleland, intending to reach the palace where the Last Whangdoodle resides. However, the Whangdoodle's Prime Minister, the \"Oily Prock\", does not want them to disturb His Highness, and sets up a number of traps, both in Whangdoodleland and the real world to prevent this meeting. He enlists the marvelous and funny creatures of the land in his effort, including the High Behind Splintercat, the Sidewinders, the Oinck, the Gazooks, the Tree Squeaks, and the Swamp Gaboons. The children use their imaginations, intelligence, and the friendship of another denizen, the Whiffle Bird, to outwit the traps.\n\nThe kids at last meet the last Whangdoodle. It turns out he wants a female Whangdoodle to be his queen, so he won't be lonely, and Professor Savant's knowledge and talents have the ability to grant the Whangdoodle just that. That is, if the Professor can figure out exactly how to do it." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Julia Elizabeth Wells", "Julie Elizabeth Andrews, DBE", "Julie Andrews Edwards", "Julie Wells", "Julie Elizabeth Wells", "Julie Elizabeth Andrews", "Dame Julie Andrews", "Julie Elizabeth Andrews DBE", "Julie andrews", "Julie Andrews" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "julie elizabeth wells", "julie elizabeth andrews dbe", "julie elizabeth andrews", "julia elizabeth wells", "julie andrews", "julie wells", "dame julie andrews", "julie andrews edwards" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "julie andrews", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Julie Andrews" }
By what pseudonym is writer Frederick Dannay Manfred Bennington Lee better known?	tc_389	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Pseudonym.txt", "Ellery_Queen.txt" ], "title": [ "Pseudonym", "Ellery Queen" ], "wiki_context": [ "A pseudonym ( and ) or alias is a name that a person or group assumes for a particular purpose, which can differ from their original or true name (orthonym). Pseudonyms include stage names and user names (both called screen names), ring names, pen names, nicknames, aliases, superhero identities and code names, gamer identifications, and regnal names of emperors, popes, and other monarchs. Historically, they have often taken the form of anagrams, Graecisms, and Latinisations, although there are many other methods of choosing a pseudonym. \n\nPseudonyms are most usually adopted to hide an individual's real identity, as with writers' pen names, graffiti artists' tags, resistance fighters' or terrorists' noms de guerre, and computer hackers' handles. Actors, musicians, and other performers sometimes use stage names, for example, to mask their ethnic backgrounds.\n\nIn some cases, pseudonyms are adopted because they are part of a cultural or organisational tradition: for example devotional names used by members of some religious institutes, and \"cadre names\" used by Communist party leaders such as Trotsky and Lenin.\n\nA pseudonym may also be used for personal reasons: for example, an individual may prefer to be called or known by a name that differs from their given or legal name, but is not ready to take the numerous steps to get their name legally changed; or an individual may simply feel that the context and content of an exchange offer no reason, legal or otherwise, to provide their given or legal name.\n\nA collective name or collective pseudonym is one shared by two or more persons, for example the co-authors of a work, such as Ellery Queen, or Nicolas Bourbaki.\n\nEtymology\n\nThe term is derived from the Greek (pseudṓnymon), literally \"false name\", from (pseûdos), \"lie, falsehood\" and (ónoma), \"name\". A pseudonym is distinct from an allonym, which is the (real) name of another person, assumed by the author of a work of art. This may occur when someone is ghostwriting a book or play, or in parody, or when using a \"front\" name, such as by screenwriters blacklisted in Hollywood in the 1950s and 1960s. See also pseudepigraph, for falsely attributed authorship.\n\nConcealment of identity\n\nLiterary pen names\n\nA pen name (or \"nom de plume\") is a pseudonym (sometimes a particular form of the real name) adopted by an author (or on the author's behalf by their publishers). Many pen names are used to conceal the author's identity. One famous example of this is Samuel Clemens' writing under the pen name Mark Twain. A pen name may be used if a writer's real name is likely to be confused with the name of another writer or notable individual, or if their real name is deemed to be unsuitable. Authors who write both fiction and non-fiction, or in different genres, may use different pen names to avoid confusing their readers, as in the case of mathematician Charles Dodgson, who wrote fantasy novels under the pen name Lewis Carroll and mathematical treatises under his own name. Some authors, such as Harold Robbins, use several literary pseudonyms. \n\nThe Brontë family used pen names for their early work, so as not to reveal their gender (see below) and so that local residents would not know that the books related to people of the neighbourhood. The Brontës used their neighbours as inspiration for characters in many of their books. Anne Brontë published The Tenant of Wildfell Hall under the name Acton Bell. Charlotte Brontë published Shirley and Jane Eyre under the name Currer Bell. Emily Brontë published Wuthering Heights as Ellis Bell.\n\nSome female authors used male pen names, in particular in the 19th century, when writing was a male-dominated profession. In contrast, some twentieth and twenty first century male romance novelists have used female pen names. A well-known example of the former is Mary Ann Evans, who wrote as George Eliot. Another example is Amandine Aurore Lucile Dupin, a 19th-century French writer who used the pen name George Sand. A few examples of male authors using female pseudonyms include Brindle Chase, Peter O'Donnell (wrote as Madeline Brent) and Christopher Wood (wrote as Penny Sutton and Rosie Dixon).\n\nSome pen names are not strictly pseudonyms, as they are simply variants of the authors' actual names. The authors C. L. Moore and S. E. Hinton were female authors who used the initialised forms of their full names. C. L. Moore was Catherine Lucille Moore, who wrote in the 1930s male-dominated science fiction genre, and S. E. Hinton, (author of The Outsiders) is Susan Eloise Hinton. Star Trek writer D. C. Fontana (Dorothy Catherine) wrote using her abbreviated own name and also under the pen names Michael Richards and J. Michael Bingham. Author V.C. Andrews intended to publish under her given name of Virginia Andrews, but was told that, due to a production error, her first novel was being released under the name of \"V.C. Andrews\"; later she learned that her publisher had in fact done this deliberately. Joanne Kathleen Rowling published the Harry Potter series under the shortened name J. K. Rowling. Rowling also published a detective novel The Cuckoo's Calling under the pseudonym \"Robert Galbraith\".\n\nWinston Churchill wrote under the pen name Winston S. Churchill (from his full surname \"Spencer-Churchill\" which he did not otherwise use) in an attempt to avoid confusion with the American novelist of the same name. In this case, the attempt was not entirely successful – and the two are still sometimes confused by booksellers. \n\nA pen name may be used specifically to hide the identity of the author, as in the case of exposé books about espionage or crime, or explicit erotic fiction. Some prolific authors adopt a pseudonym to disguise the extent of their published output, e.g. Stephen King writing as Richard Bachman. Co-authors may choose to publish under a collective pseudonym, e.g., P. J. Tracy and Perri O'Shaughnessy. Frederic Dannay and Manfred Lee used the name Ellery Queen as both a pen name for their collaborative works and as the name of their main character.\n\nA famous case in French literature was Romain Gary. Already a well-known and highly acclaimed writer, he started publishing books under the pen name Émile Ajar. He wanted to test whether his new books would be well received on their own merits and without the aid of his established reputation, and they were: Émile Ajar, like Romain Gary before him, was awarded the prestigious Prix Goncourt by a jury unaware that both were the same person. Similarly, Ronnie Barker submitted comedy material under the name of Gerald Wiley.\n\nA collective pseudonym may represent an entire publishing house, or any contributor to a long-running series, especially with juvenile literature. Examples include Watty Piper, Victor Appleton, Erin Hunter, and Kamiru M. Xhan.\n\nAnother use of a pseudonym in literature is to present a story as being written by the fictional characters in the story. The series of novels known as A Series Of Unfortunate Events are written by Daniel Handler under the pen name of Lemony Snicket, a character in the series.\n\nAn anonymity pseudonym or multiple-use name is a name used by many different people to protect anonymity. It is a strategy that has been adopted by many unconnected radical groups and by cultural groups, where the construct of personal identity has been criticised. This has led to the idea of the \"open pop star\".\n\nAliases, fictitious business names, and dummy corporations in criminal activity\n\nCriminals may use aliases, fictitious business names, and dummy corporations (corporate shells) to hide their identity, or to impersonate other persons or entities in order to commit fraud. Aliases and fictitious business names used for dummy corporations may become so complex that, in the words of the Washington Post, \"getting to the truth requires a walk down a bizarre labyrinth\" and multiple government agencies may become involved to uncover the truth.The Ruse That Roared, The Washington Post, November 5, 1995, Richard Leiby, James Lileks\nWhile governor of Alaska, Sarah Palin used a private Yahoo! e-mail account to skirt government transparency laws. While director of the EPA, Lisa Jackson set up a false identity named Richard Windsor in order to use an official epa.gov email account that was not linked to her office. \"Richard Windsor\" was awarded certificates for completing training in ethical behaviour and e-mail management. \n\nNoms de guerre\n\nIn Ancien Régime France, a nom de guerre (\"war name\") would be adopted by each new recruit (or assigned to him by the captain of his company) as he enlisted in the French army. These pseudonyms had an official character and were the predecessor of identification numbers: soldiers were identified by their first names, their family names, and their noms de guerre (e.g. Jean Amarault dit Lafidélité). These pseudonyms were usually related to the soldier's place of origin (e.g. Jean Deslandes dit Champigny, for a soldier coming from a town named Champigny), or to a particular physical or personal trait (e.g. Antoine Bonnet dit Prettaboire, for a soldier prêt à boire, ready to drink). In 1716, a nom de guerre was mandatory for every soldier; officers did not adopt noms de guerre as they considered them derogatory. In daily life, these aliases could replace the real family name. \n\nNoms de guerre were adopted for security reasons by members of the World War II French resistance and Polish resistance. Such pseudonyms are often adopted by military special forces soldiers, such as members of the SAS and other similar units, resistance fighters, terrorists, and guerrillas. This practice hides their identities and may protect their families from reprisals; it may also be a form of dissociation from domestic life. Some well-known men who adopted noms de guerre include Carlos, for Ilich Ramírez Sánchez; Willy Brandt, Chancellor of West Germany; and Subcomandante Marcos, the spokesman of the Zapatista Army of National Liberation (EZLN). During Lehi's underground fight against the British in Mandatory Palestine, the organization's commander Yitzchak Shamir (later Prime Minister of Israel) adopted the nom de guerre \"Michael\", in honor of Ireland's Michael Collins. Revolutionaries and resistance leaders, such as Lenin, Trotsky, Golda Meir, Philippe Leclerc de Hauteclocque, and Josip Broz Tito, often adopted their noms de guerre as their proper names after the struggle. George Grivas, the Greek-Cypriot EOKA militant, adopted the nom de guerre Digenis (Διγενής). In the French Foreign Legion, recruits can adopt a pseudonym to break with their past lives. Mercenaries have long used \"noms de guerre\", even sometimes multiple identities depending on country, conflict and circumstance. Some of the most familiar noms de guerre today are the kunya used by Islamic mujahideen. These take the form of a teknonym, either literal or figurative.\n\nComputer users\n\nIndividuals using a computer online may adopt or be required to use a form of pseudonym known as a \"handle\" (a term deriving from CB slang), \"user name\", \"login name\", \"avatar\", or, sometimes, \"screen name\", \"gamertag\" or \"nickname\". On the Internet, pseudonymous remailers utilise cryptography that achieves persistent pseudonymity, so that two-way communication can be achieved, and reputations can be established, without linking physical identities to their respective pseudonyms. Aliasing is the use of multiple names for the same data location.\n\nMore sophisticated cryptographic systems, such as anonymous digital credentials, enable users to communicate pseudonymously (i.e., by identifying themselves by means of pseudonyms). In well-defined abuse cases, a designated authority may be able to revoke the pseudonyms and reveal the individuals' real identity.\n\nUse of pseudonyms is common among professional eSports players, despite the fact that most professional games are played offline. \n\nBusiness sales\n\nPeople of ethnic minorities in some areas of the world are sometimes told by an employer to use a pseudonym that is common or acceptable in that part of the world when conducting business, as some people might prefer a person of similar ethnic origin or similar background to people of foreign background or foreign ethnicity. \n\nPrivacy\n\nPeople seeking privacy often use pseudonyms to make appointments and reservations. Those writing to advice columns in newspapers and magazines may use pseudonyms. Steve Wozniak used a pseudonym when attending the University of California, Berkeley after cofounding Apple Computer because, he said, \"I knew I wouldn't have time enough to be an A+ student.\" \n\nEstablishment of identity\n\nThe practice of assigning patrilineal and matrilineal names to offspring for the purpose of tracing ancestry or determining inheritance and other relationships may be giving way to a 21st-century preference for self-assigned or quality-assigned names as replacements for birth given names. A common practice of many indigenous peoples was to assign a clan or shamanic name to members in puberty and post-puberty rituals. It is becoming more common for modern authors and others to elect to take names better suited to their own tastes, characters, or other aspects of personal description or preference. \"In most legal systems, a name assumed for a non-fraudulent purpose is a legal name and usable as the person's true name...\". This is distinct from, though not exclusive of, employing a pseudonym for the purpose of concealment.\n\nStage names\n\nWhen used by an actor, musician, radio disc jockey, model, or other performer or \"show business\" personality a pseudonym is called a stage name, or, occasionally, a professional name, or screen name.\n\nFilm, theatre, and related activities\n\nMembers of a marginalized ethnic or religious group have often adopted stage names, typically changing their surname or entire name to mask their original background. The film-making team of Joel and Ethan Coen, for instance, share credit for editing under the alias Roderick Jaynes. \n\nStage names are also used to create a more marketable name, as in the case of Creighton Tull Chaney, who adopted the pseudonym Lon Chaney, Jr., a reference to his famous father Lon Chaney, Sr. Conversely, Nicolas Cage adopted this stage name instead of his real name, Nicolas Kim Coppola, in order to conceal the appearance of nepotism as the nephew of famous director Francis Ford Coppola. Chris Curtis of Deep Purple fame was christened as Christopher Crummey. In this and similar cases a stage name is adopted simply to avoid an unfortunate pun.\n\nPseudonyms are also used to comply with the rules of performing arts guilds (Screen Actors Guild (SAG), Writers Guild of America, East (WGA), AFTRA, etc.), which do not allow performers to use an existing name, in order to avoid confusion. For example, these rules required film and television actor Michael Fox to add a middle initial and become Michael J. Fox, to avoid being confused with another actor named Michael Fox. This was also true of author and actress Fannie Flagg, who chose this pseudonym; her real name, Patricia Neal, being the name of another well-known actress; and British actor Stewart Granger, whose real name was James Stewart. Even Dick Van Dyke was called \"Navckid Keyd\" at the end of the credits in the 1964 film Mary Poppins, although this was just an anagram that rearranges itself to spell \"Dick Van Dyke\" after a few seconds, revealing that the actor played two roles.\n\nSome stage names are used to conceal a person's identity, such as the pseudonym Alan Smithee, which is used by directors in the Directors Guild of America (DGA) to remove their name from a film they feel was edited or modified beyond their artistic satisfaction. Actors and actresses in pornographic films use \"noms de porn\" to conceal their identity as well as to make it more outrageous and memorable (e.g., Dick Nasty). In theatre, the pseudonyms George or Georgina Spelvin, and Walter Plinge are used to hide the identity of a performer, usually when he or she is \"doubling\" (playing more than one role in the same play).\n\nDavid Agnew was a name used by the BBC to conceal the identity of a scriptwriter, such as for the Doctor Who serial City of Death, which had 3 writers, including Douglas Adams, who was at the time of writing the show's Script Editor. In another Doctor Who serial, The Brain of Morbius, writer Terrance Dicks demanded the removal of his name from the credits saying it could go out under a \"bland pseudonym\". This ended up being the name Robin Bland. \n\nMusic\n\nMusicians and singers can use pseudonyms to allow artists to collaborate with artists on other labels while avoiding the need to gain permission from their own labels, such as the artist Jerry Samuels, who made songs under Napoleon XIV. Rock singer-guitarist George Harrison, for example, played guitar on Cream's song \"Badge\" using a pseudonym. In classical music, some record companies issued recordings under a nom de disque in the 1950s and 1960s to avoid paying royalties. A number of popular budget LPs of piano music were released under the pseudonym Paul Procopolis. Pseudonyms are also used as stage names in heavy metal bands, such as Tracii Guns in LA Guns, Axl Rose and Slash in Guns N' Roses, Mick Mars in Mötley Crüe, or C.C. Deville in Poison. Some of these names have additional meanings, like that of Brian Hugh Warner, more commonly known as Marilyn Manson: Marilyn coming from Marilyn Monroe and Manson from convicted serial killer Charles Manson. Jacoby Shaddix of Papa Roach went under the name \"Coby Dick\" during the Infest era. He changed back to his birth name when lovehatetragedy was released.\n\nReginald Kenneth Dwight legally changed his name to Elton John in 1972.\n\nRoss Bagdasarian, Sr., creator of Alvin and the Chipmunks, wrote original songs, arranged, and produced the records under his real name, but performed on them as David Seville. He also wrote songs using the name Skipper Adams. Danish pop pianist Bent Fabric, whose full name is Bent Fabricius-Bjerre, wrote his biggest instrumental hit \"Alley Cat\" under the name Frank Bjorn.\n\nFor a time, the musician Prince used an unpronounceable \"Love Symbol\" as a pseudonym (\"Prince\" is his actual first name rather than a stage name). He wrote the song \"Sugar Walls\" for Sheena Easton under the alias \"Alexander Nevermind\" and \"Manic Monday\" for The Bangles as \"Christopher Tracy\" (he also produced albums early in his career as \"Jamie Starr\").\n\nMany Italian-American singers have used stage names as their birth names were difficult to pronounce, or considered too ethnic for American tastes. Singers changing their names included Dean Martin (born Dino Paul Crocetti), Connie Francis (born Concetta Franconero), Frankie Valli (born Francesco Castelluccio), Tony Bennett (born Anthony Benedetto), and Lady Gaga (born Stefani Germanotta)\n\nIn 2009, British rock band Feeder briefly changed their name to Renegades so they could play a whole show featuring a setlist in which 95 percent of the songs played were from their forthcoming new album of the same name, with none of their singles included. Frontman Grant Nicholas felt that if they played as Feeder, there would be an uproar that they did not play any of the singles, so used the pseudonym as a hint. A series of small shows were played in 2010, at 250- to 1,000-capacity venues with the plan not to say who the band really are and just announce the shows as if they were a new band.\n\nIn many cases, hip-hop and rap artist prefer to use pseudonyms that represents some variation of their name, personality, or interests. Prime examples include Iggy Azalea (her name comes from her dog name, Iggy, and her home street in Mullumbimby, Azalea street) Ol' Dirty Bastard (who was known under at least six aliases), Diddy (previously known at various times as Puffy, P. Diddy, and Puff Daddy), Ludacris, Flo Rida (his name is a tribute to his home state, Florida), LL Cool J, and Chingy. Black metal artists also adopt pseudonyms, usually symbolizing dark values, such as Nocturno Culto, Gaahl, Abbath, and Silenoz. In punk and hardcore punk, singers and band members often replace their real names with \"tougher\"-sounding stage names, such as Sid Vicious (real name John Simon Ritchie) of the late 1970s band Sex Pistols and \"Rat\" of the early 1980s band The Varukers and the 2000s re-formation of Discharge. Punk rock band The Ramones also had every member take the last name of Ramone. Rob Crow of the rock band Goblin Cock chose to go by the name \"Lord Phallus\" during the release of the band's albums. A similar practice occurred in hardcore with musicians taking the names of their bands, like Kevin Seconds of 7 Seconds and Ray Cappo of Youth of Today who, for a while, billed himself as Ray of Today. The Norwegian electronic duo Röyksopp's pseudonym for their Back to Mine album was Emmanuel Splice.\n\nHenry John Deutschendorf Jr., an American singer-songwriter used the stage name John Denver. The Australian country musician born Robert Lane changed his name to Tex Morton.\n\nCultural or organizational traditions\n\nAge\n\nIn many cultures, people go by several different nicknames over the course of their lives, to reflect important parts of their lives. In some cases, a rite of passage or puberty marks the transition from a \"milk name\" to an adult name. Enrollment in school is another occasion where a child's formal or legal name would begin to be used.\n\nMonarchies\n\nIn many monarchies, the sovereign is allowed to choose a regnal name. This official name may differ from their first name and may not even be one of their given names.\n\nA sovereign may choose not to use their first name for many reasons. Some, such as George VI of the United Kingdom (born Albert Frederick Arthur George), may wish to make a connection between their reign and that of a previous sovereign (in his case, his father, George V). Others, such as Queen Victoria (born Alexandrina Victoria of Kent), may never have been known by their original first name.\n\nIn Japan, the Emperor's personal name is never used as a regnal name: he is referred to by the name of his regnal era, and after his death his name is officially changed to that of the era. It is a severe breach of etiquette in Japan to refer to the current Emperor's personal name either in speech or in writing unless absolutely required by law. This does not apply to those outside Japan, which explains why Japanese and non-Japanese use different names for the Emperor. For instance, Emperor Hirohito was known within Japan as Emperor Shōwa.\n\nReligion\n\nIn the tradition of various Roman Catholic religious institutes, members abandon their birth name to assume a new, often unrelated, devotional name, often referring to an admired saint. For women, for example in the Society of the Helpers of the Holy Souls, this reflects the mystical marriage as bride of Christ. Newly elected popes assume a papal name. Most popes choose a name commemorating an admired saint (Benedict XVI, for example) or a predecessor or predecessors (John Paul I), or even a family member (John XXIII).\n\nIn Eastern Orthodoxy, a monk or a nun is given a saint's name by their bishop or abbot at the time of their tonsure as the new monk's or nun's first act of monastic obedience. In addition, Orthodox monks and nuns never use their last names, except for legal reasons or for disambiguation. This may also have changed to indicate their brotherhood e.g. a monk at Kykkos Monastery in Cyprus may be known as Κυκκότης.\n\nIn Judaism, a convert adopts a Hebrew name.\n\nIn Buddhism, a Dharma name is given during the traditional refuge ceremony.\n\nIn Islam, new converts often accept Islamic names. Examples include Muhammad Ali, formerly Cassius Clay; Ivan Aguéli, who became Abd al-Hadi Aqhili; Cat Stevens, who became Yusuf Islam; and Yousuf Youhana, who became Mohammad Yousef. Malcolm X (born Malcolm Little) adopted the Arabic name El-Hajj Malik El-Shabazz when he converted to Islam in 1964.\n\nIn Sikhism, adherents adopt the last name Singh for males or Kaur for females.\n\nIt is a long-standing tradition in the Western Occult tradition to assume a pseudonym or motto. For instance, Alphonse Louis Constant wrote under the name Eliphas Levi, William Wynn Westcott wrote under Frater Sapere Aude, and Aleister Crowley wrote under the name Frater Perdurabo.\n\nSome practitioners of Wicca adopt a \"craft name\" or \"witch name\" upon initiation for use within their community. This may be to create a name of their own choosing as opposed to their given name, or to provide anonymity to those who are in the \"broom closet.\" Often a craft name will reflect their personality, interests or feelings. \n\nSexual minorities\n\nMembers of sexual minority groups have often assumed different names to protect their identity, or to represent a different persona. Sex workers frequently adopt new names to protect themselves or their clientele, to sound more exotic or enticing, or both. \"Scene names\" are still common within the BDSM community, and the use of the Internet for social networking and information exchange among kinky and polyamorous people means that many are often known more by their computer \"handles\" than their legal names.\n\nCadre names\n\nWithin Communist parties and Trotskyist organisations, noms de guerre are usually known as \"party names\" or \"cadre names\". While the practice originated during the revolutionary years after World War I, to conceal the identity of leaders, by the 1950s and 1960s, the practice was more of a tradition than an identity-concealment strategy. Some famous Communist Party names include Lenin (Vladimir Il'ich Ulyanov); Stalin (Yosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili); Trotsky (Lev Davidovich Bronshtein); Max (Yakov Sverdlov); Nahuel Moreno (Hugo Miguel Bressano) and Hua Guofeng (Su Zhu).\n\nPolitical articles\n\nFrom the late-18th to early-19th centuries, it was established practice for political articles to be signed with pseudonyms. A well-known American was the pen name \"Publius\", used by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay, in writing The Federalist Papers. In his youth, Benjamin Franklin wrote a number of letters to his brother's newspaper posing as a widow under the pen name Silence Dogood. The British political writer \"Junius\" was never identified but is probably Sir Philip Francis.\n\nOther types\n\nPseudonyms are also adopted for other reasons. Criminals often took on (or were given) pseudonyms, such as famed con man Jefferson R. Smith, who was known as Soapy Smith.\n\nComedians and others performing hoaxes often adopt aliases for their performance role. A notable instance is provided by the comedian and hoaxer Rodney Marks, who in public performances as a corporate comedian has used over one hundred different aliases indicative of the hoax features. \n\nMervyn's founder Mervin G. Morris was advised by an architect to spell the name of his store chain with a Y instead of an I because the signs would be more pleasing to the eye.\n\nIt is not uncommon for a pseudonym to be adopted by a racing car driver. Reasons for this may include keeping their parents or family unaware of their participation in such activities, so members of royalty (who may be otherwise prohibited from such a dangerous activity as racing) can participate, or as a way to remain in relative anonymity. Three-time F1 champion Jackie Stewart's son Paul used a pseudonym when he joined a British racing school for just this reason. Of the many instances of racing drivers assuming false names, two more are Louis Krages, who raced under the name \"John Winter\" to keep his mother from finding out about his \"habit\", and former F1 driver Jean Alesi. Alesi, born in France but of Italian descent, went by his real given name of Giovanni until teasing from classmates led him to adopting a more French first name. Other notable examples include Nelson Piquet, who used his mother's maiden name as his father (Estácio Gonçalves Souto Maior, a prominent Brazilian politician) disapproved of motor racing, and rallycross driver Hervé Lemonnier, who originally used the pseudonym \"Knapick\" - a manufacturer of French trailers - to hide his identity from the customers of his machinery business.\n\nFamous pseudonyms of people who were neither authors nor actors include the architect Le Corbusier (né Charles Édouard Jeanneret), and the statistician Student (né William Sealey Gosset), discoverer of Student's t-distribution in statistics (Gosset's employer prohibited publication by employees to prevent trade secrets being revealed).\n\nWhen used by a radio operator, a pseudonym is called a \"handle\", especially in Citizens' Band radio; on the Appalachian Trail it is common to adopt or, more usually, be given by others a \"trail name\".\n\nPseudonyms should not be confused with new names that replace old ones. Some Jewish politicians adopted Hebrew family names upon making aliyah to Israel, dropping Westernized surnames that may have been in the family for generations. David Ben-Gurion, for example, was born David Grün in Poland. He adopted his Hebrew name in 1910, when he published his first article in a Zionist journal in Jerusalem. In the 1960s, black civil rights campaigner Malcolm X (né Malcolm Little) took the \"X\" to represent his unknown African ancestral name that was lost when his ancestors were brought to North America as slaves, and then changed his name again to Malik El-Shabazz when he converted to Islam.", "Daniel Nathan, professionally known as Frederic Dannay (October 20, 1905 – September 3, 1982), and Emanuel Benjamin Lepofsky, professionally known as Manfred Bennington Lee (January 11, 1905 – April 3, 1971), were American cousins from Brooklyn, New York who wrote, edited, and anthologized detective fiction under the pseudonym of Ellery Queen. The writers' main fictional character, whom they also named Ellery Queen, is a mystery writer and amateur detective who helps his father, Richard Queen, a New York City police inspector, solve baffling murders. \n\nCareer of Dannay and Lee\n\nIn a successful series of novels and short stories that covered 42 years, \"Ellery Queen\" served as a joint pseudonym for the cousins Dannay and Lee, as well as the name of the primary detective-hero they created. During the 1930s and much of the 1940s, that detective-hero was possibly the best known American fictional detective. Movies, radio shows, and television shows were based on Dannay and Lee's works.\n\nFrederic Dannay, without much involvement from Lee, was founding and directing editor of Ellery Queen's Mystery Magazine, generally considered one of the most influential English-language crime fiction magazines of the last sixty-five years. They were also prominent historians in the field, editing numerous collections and anthologies of short stories such as The Misadventures of Sherlock Holmes. Their 994-page anthology for The Modern Library, 101 Years' Entertainment: The Great Detective Stories, 1841–1941, was a landmark work that remained in print for many years. Under their collective pseudonym, the cousins were given the Grand Master Award for achievements in the field of the mystery story by the Mystery Writers of America in 1961.\n\nThe fictional Ellery Queen was the hero of more than 30 novels and several short story collections, written by Dannay and Lee and published under the Ellery Queen pseudonym... Dannay and Lee also wrote four novels about a detective named Drury Lane using the pseudonym Barnaby Ross. They allowed the Ellery Queen name to be used as a house name for a number of novels written by other authors from outlines provided by Dannay, most of them published in the 1960s as paperback originals and not featuring Ellery Queen as a character.\n\nDannay and Lee remained circumspect about their writing methods. Novelist and critic H.R.F. Keating wrote, \"How actually did they do it? Did they sit together and hammer the stuff out word by word? Did one write the dialogue and the other the narration? ... What eventually happened was that Fred Dannay, in principle, produced the plots, the clues, and what would have to be deduced from them as well as the outlines of the characters and Manfred Lee clothed it all in words. But it is unlikely to have been as clear cut as that.\" \n\nAccording to critic Otto Penzler, \"As an anthologist, Ellery Queen is without peer, his taste unequalled. As a bibliographer and a collector of the detective short story, Queen is, again, a historical personage. Indeed, Ellery Queen clearly is, after Poe, the most important American in mystery fiction.\" British crime novelist Margery Allingham wrote that Ellery Queen had \"done far more for the detective story than any other two men put together\".\n\nAlthough Frederic Dannay outlived his cousin by ten years, the Ellery Queen authorial name died with Manfred Lee. The last Ellery Queen novel, A Fine and Private Place, was published in 1971, the year of Lee's death. However, Ellery Queen's Mystery Magazine, now published by Dell Magazines, continues as an almost monthly crime fiction magazine as of 2016, publishing ten issues per year including two \"double issues.\"\n\nFictional character\n\nEllery Queen was created in 1928 when Dannay and Lee entered a writing contest sponsored by McClure's Magazine for the best first mystery novel. They decided to use as their collective pseudonym the same name that they had given their detective. Inspired by the formula and style of the Philo Vance novels by S. S. Van Dine, their entry won the contest, but before it could be published, the magazine closed. Undeterred, the cousins took their novel to other publishers, and The Roman Hat Mystery was published in 1929. According to H. R. F. Keating, \"Later the cousins took a sharper view of the Philo Vance character, Manfred Lee calling him, with typical vehemence, 'the biggest prig that ever came down the pike'.\"\n\nThe Roman Hat Mystery established a reliable template: a geographic formula title (The Dutch Shoe Mystery, The Egyptian Cross Mystery, etc.); an unusual crime; a complex series of clues and red herrings; multiple misdirected solutions before the final truth is revealed, and a cast of supporting characters including Ellery's father, Inspector Richard Queen, and his irascible assistant, Sergeant Velie. What became the most famous part of the early Ellery Queen books was the \"Challenge to the Reader.\" This was a single page near the end of the book declaring that the reader had seen all the same clues Ellery had, and that only one solution was possible. According to novelist/critic Julian Symons, \"The rare distinction of the books is that this claim is accurate. There are problems in deduction that do really permit of only one answer, and there are few crime stories indeed of which this can be said.\" \n\nThe fictional detective Ellery Queen is the author of the books in which he appears (The Finishing Stroke, 1958) and the editor of the magazine that bears his name (The Player On The Other Side, 1963). In earlier novels he is a snobbish Harvard-educated intellectual of independent means who wears pince-nez glasses and investigates crimes because he finds them stimulating. He supposedly derived these characteristics from his mother, the daughter of an aristocratic New York family, who had married Richard Queen, a bluff, man-in-the-street New York Irishman, and who dies before the stories began. From 1938, Ellery spends some time working in Hollywood as a screenwriter (in The Four of Hearts and The Origin of Evil), and solves cases with a Hollywood setting. At this point, he has a slick façade, is part of Hollywood society and hobnobs comfortably with the wealthy and famous. Beginning with Calamity Town in 1942, Ellery becomes less of a cypher and more of a human being, often becoming emotionally affected by the people in his cases, and at one point quitting detective work altogether. Calamity Town, two sequels, and some short stories are set in the imaginary town of Wrightsville, and subsidiary characters recur from story to story; Ellery relates to the various strata of American society as an outsider. However, after his Hollywood and Wrightsville periods, he is returned to his New York City roots for the remainder of his career, and is then seen again as an ultra-logical crime solver who remains distant from his cases. In the very late novels, he often seems a near-faceless, near-characterless persona whose role is purely to solve the mystery. So striking are the differences between the different periods of the Ellery Queen character that Julian Symons advanced the theory that there were two \"Ellery Queens\"—an older and younger brother. \n\nEllery Queen is said to be married and the father of a child in the introductions to the first few novels, but this plot line is never developed and Ellery is mainly portrayed as a bachelor. The character of Nikki Porter, who acts as Ellery's secretary and is something of a love interest, was encountered first in the radio series. Nikki's curiosity and her attempts to encourage Ellery to work as a detective are responsible for a number of radio and film plots from the early 1940s. Her first appearance in a written story is in the final pages of There Was An Old Woman (1943), when a character with whom Ellery has had some flirtatious moments announces spontaneously that she's changing her name to Nikki Porter and going to work as Ellery's secretary. Nikki Porter appears sporadically thereafter in novels and stories, linking the character from radio and movies into the written canon. The character of Paula Paris, an agoraphobic gossip columnist, is linked romantically with Ellery in one novel, The Four of Hearts, and in short stories during the Hollywood period, but does not appear in the radio series or films, and soon vanished from the books. Ellery is not given any serious romantic interests after Nikki Porter and Paula Paris disappear from the books. Late in the series, in the 1968 novel \"The House of Brass\", Inspector Queen remarries after decades as a widower.\n\nThe Queen household, an apartment in New York shared by the Queens father and son, also contains a houseboy named Djuna, at least in the earliest novels and short stories. This young man, who may be of gypsy origin, appears periodically in the canon, apparently ageless and family-free, in a supporting role as cook, receiver of parcels, valet, and as occasional minor comedy relief. He is the principal character in some, not all, of the juvenile novels ghost-written by other writers under the pseudonym Ellery Queen, Jr.\n\nFictional style\n\nThe Queen novels are examples of the classic \"fair play\" whodunit mystery, and are textbook examples of what became known as the \"Golden Age\" of the mystery novel. Because the reader obtains clues in the same way as the protagonist detective, the book becomes an intellectually challenging puzzle. Mystery writer John Dickson Carr termed it \"the grandest game in the world\".\n\nThe early Queen novels were characterized by intricately plotted clues and solutions. In The Greek Coffin Mystery (1932), The Siamese Twin Mystery, and others, multiple solutions to the mystery are proposed, a feature that also showed up in later books such as Double, Double and Ten Days' Wonder. Queen's \"false solution, followed by the truth\" became a hallmark of the canon. Another stylistic element in many early books (notably The Dutch Shoe Mystery, The French Powder Mystery and Halfway House) is Ellery's method of creating a list of attributes (the murderer is male, the murderer smokes a pipe, etc.). Then, by comparing each suspect to these attributes, he reduces the list of suspects to a single name, often an unlikely one. \n\nBy the late 1930s, when Ellery Queen—author and character—moved to Hollywood to try movie scriptwriting, the tone of the novels began to change along with the detective's character. Romance was introduced, solutions began to involve more psychological elements, and the \"Challenge to the Reader\" vanished from the books. Some of the novels also moved from mere puzzles to more introspective themes. The three novels set in the fictional New England town of Wrightsville, starting with Calamity Town in 1942, even showed the limitations of Ellery's methods of detection. According to Julian Symons, \"Ellery ... occasionally lost his father, as his exploits took place more frequently in the small town of Wrightsville ... where his arrival as a house guest was likely to be the signal for the commission of one or more murders. Very intelligently, Dannay and Lee used this change in locale to loosen the structure of their stories. More emphasis was placed on personal relationships, and less on the details of investigation.\"\n\nIn the 1950s and 1960s, the authors tried some more experimental work, especially in three novels written by other writers, all based on detailed outlines by Dannay. The Player on the Other Side, ghost-written by Theodore Sturgeon, delves more deeply into motive than most Ellery Queen novels. And on the Eighth Day (1964), ghost-written by Avram Davidson, was a religious allegory touching on fascism. Davidson also wrote The Fourth Side of the Triangle. \n\nToward the end of their careers, the cousins allowed some crime novels, mainly paperback originals, to be written by various ghostwriters under the Ellery Queen name. These books did not feature the character Ellery Queen as the protagonist. They included three novels featuring \"the governor's troubleshooter\", Micah \"Mike\" McCall, and six featuring Captain Tim Corrigan, of the NYPD's Main Office Squad. The prominent science-fiction writer Jack Vance wrote three of these original paperbacks, including the locked room mystery A Room to Die In.\n\nThere are also several collections of Ellery Queen short stories. These were praised by Julian Symons as follows \"...in some ways the short story is better suited than the novel to this kind of writing... This is notable especially in the case of Ellery Queen. The best of his short stories belong to the early intensely ratiocinative period, and both The Adventures of Ellery Queen (1934) and The New Adventures (1940) are as absolutely fair and totally puzzling as the most passionate devotee of orthodoxy could wish... (E)very story in these books is composed with wonderful skill.\"\n\nNovels as Barnaby Ross\n\nBeginning in 1932, the cousins wrote four novels using the pseudonym Barnaby Ross about Drury Lane, a Shakespearean actor who had retired from the stage due to deafness and was consulted as an amateur detective. The novels also featured Inspector Thumm (at first of the New York police, then later a private investigator) and his crime-solving daughter Patience. The Drury Lane novels are in the whodunit style. The Tragedy of X and The Tragedy of Y are variations on the locked room mystery format. The Tragedy of Y bears some resemblance to the Ellery Queen novel There Was an Old Woman: both are about eccentric families headed by a matriarch.\n\nIn the early 1930s, before Dannay and Lee's identity as the authors had been made public, \"Ellery Queen\" and \"Barnaby Ross\" staged a series of public debates in which one cousin impersonated Queen and the other impersonated Ross, both of them wearing masks to preserve their anonymity. According to H.R.F. Keating, \"People said Ross must be the wit and critic Alexander Woollcott and Queen S.S. Van Dine..., creator of the super-snob detective Philo Vance, on whom 'Ellery Queen' was indeed modeled.\"\n\nThe cousins also allowed the Barnaby Ross name to be used as a house name for the publication of a series of historical novels by Don Tracy. (See Ellery Queen (house name).) From the 1940s, republications of the Drury Lane books were mostly under the Ellery Queen name.\n\nIn other media\n\nRadio\n\nOn radio, The Adventures of Ellery Queen was heard on all three networks from 1939 to 1948. During the 1970s, syndicated radio fillers, Ellery Queen's Minute Mysteries, began with an announcer saying, \"This is Ellery Queen...\" and contained a short one-minute case. The radio station encouraged callers to solve the mystery and win a sponsor's prize. Once a winner was found, the solution was broadcast as confirmation. A complete episode guide and history of this radio program can be found in the book The Sound of Detection: Ellery Queen's Adventures in Radio, published by OTR Publishing in 2002. The Adventure of the Murdered Moths (Crippen & Landru, 2005) is the first book edition of many of the radio scripts.\n\nTelevision\n\nHelene Hanff, best known for her book 84 Charing Cross Road, was a scripter for the television series version of The Adventures of Ellery Queen (1950–1952), which began on the DuMont Television Network but soon moved to ABC. Shortly after the series began, Richard Hart, who played Queen, died and was replaced in the lead role by Lee Bowman. The series returned to DuMont in 1954 with Hugh Marlowe (who had played the role on the radio series) as the title character. George Nader played Queen in The Further Adventures of Ellery Queen (1958–1959), but he was replaced with Lee Philips in the final episodes.\n\nPeter Lawford starred in a television movie, Ellery Queen: Don't Look Behind You, in 1971. Veteran actor Harry Morgan played Inspector Queen, but in this film he was described as Ellery's uncle (perhaps to account for the fact that Morgan was only eight years Lawford's senior, or for Lawford's English accent). This film is loosely based on Cat of Many Tails.\n\nThe 1975 television movie Ellery Queen (a.k.a. \"Too Many Suspects\"—a loose adaptation of The Fourth Side of the Triangle) led to the 1975–1976 Ellery Queen television series starring Jim Hutton in the title role (with David Wayne as his widowed father). The series was done as a period piece set in New York City in 1946-1947. Sergeant Velie, Inspector Queen's assistant, was a cast regular in this series; he had appeared in the novels and the radio series, but had not been seen regularly in any of the previous television versions. Each episode contained a \"Challenge to the Viewer\" with Ellery breaking the fourth wall to go over the facts of the case and invite the audience to solve the mystery on their own, immediately before the solution was revealed. Each episode of the 1975 television series featured a number of Hollywood celebrities. Eve Arden, George Burns, Joan Collins, Roddy McDowall, Milton Berle, Guy Lombardo, Rudy Vallée, and Don Ameche were among the guests. Richard Levinson and William Link, the creators of the series had won a Special Edgars Award for creating the Columbo and Ellery Queen TV series.\n\nIn 2011, the Leverage episode \"The 10 Li'l Grifters Job\", Timothy Hutton's character Nate Ford appears at a costumed murder mystery party as Ellery Queen, in a homage to the actor's late father, Jim.\n\nIn episode 12, season 3 of Mad Men, character Peter Campbell tells his questioning wife to stop being an \"Ellery Queen.\"\n\nFilms\n\nThe Spanish Cape Mystery (1935) Donald Cook as Ellery Queen, Guy Usher as Inspector Queen (based on The Spanish Cape Mystery)\nThe Mandarin Mystery (1936) Eddie Quillan as Ellery Queen, Wade Boteler as Inspector Queen (loosely based on The Chinese Orange Mystery); this film is now in the public domain \nEllery Queen, Master Detective (1940) Ralph Bellamy as Ellery Queen, Margaret Lindsay as Nikki Porter, Charley Grapewin as Inspector Queen (very loosely based on The Door Between) \nEllery Queen's Penthouse Mystery (1941) Ralph Bellamy as Ellery Queen, Margaret Lindsay as Nikki Porter, Charley Grapewin as Inspector Queen\nEllery Queen and the Perfect Crime (1941) Ralph Bellamy as Ellery Queen, Margaret Lindsay as Nikki Porter, Charley Grapewin as Inspector Queen (loosely based on The Devil To Pay)\nEllery Queen and the Murder Ring (1941) Ralph Bellamy as Ellery Queen, Margaret Lindsay as Nikki Porter, Charley Grapewin as Inspector Queen (loosely based on The Dutch Shoe Mystery)\nA Close Call for Ellery Queen (1942) William Gargan as Ellery Queen, Margaret Lindsay as Nikki Porter, Charley Grapewin as Inspector Queen\nA Desperate Chance for Ellery Queen (1942) William Gargan as Ellery Queen, Margaret Lindsay as Nikki Porter, Charley Grapewin as Inspector Queen\nEnemy Agents Meet Ellery Queen (1942) Ralph Bellamy as Ellery Queen, Margaret Lindsay as Nikki Porter, Charley Grapewin as Inspector Queen\nLa Décade prodigieuse (1971) (English title, Ten Days' Wonder) directed by Claude Chabrol and starring Anthony Perkins, Orson Welles. There is no character named Ellery Queen but Michel Piccoli plays \"Paul Regis\", the investigator. (Based on Ten Days' Wonder)\nHaitatsu sarenai santsu no tegami (1979) (English title, The Three Undelivered Letters) a Japanese movie directed by Yoshitaro Nomura (based on Calamity Town but apparently not containing Ellery Queen or any detective character)\n\nComic books and graphic novels\n\nEllery Queen stories appeared in issues of Crackajack Funnies beginning in 1940, a four issue series by Superior Comics in 1949, two issues of a short-lived series by Ziff-Davis in 1952, and three comics published by Dell in 1962. Mike W. Barr used Ellery as a guest star in an issue of his Maze Agency #9 in February 1990, published by Innovation Comics, in a story titled \"The English Channeler Mystery: A Problem in Deduction.\"\nQueen (the character) is highlighted in volume 11 of Detective Conan manga's edition of \"Gosho Aoyoma's Mystery Library\", a section of the graphic novels where the author introduces a different detective (or occasionally, a villain) from mystery literature, television, or other media. The character Heiji Hattori also mentioned that he prefers Ellery Queen to Arthur Conan Doyle in volume 12.\n\nBoard games and jigsaw puzzles\n\nThe name of Ellery Queen was attached to a number of games, including 1956's (Ellery Queen's Great Mystery Game) Trapped, 1971's The Case of the Elusive Assassin by Ellery Queen, a jigsaw puzzle in 1973 called \"Ellery Queen: The Case of His Headless Highness\" and a board game in 1986 called \"Ellery Queen's Mystery Magazine Game\". There is also a VCR-based game from the early 1980s called \"Ellery Queen's Operation: Murder\" (loosely based on The Dutch Shoe Mystery). \n\nTheater\n\nAmerican playwright Joseph Goodrich adapted Calamity Town into a stage play which he described as \"Our Town with murder,\" in its New England setting and spare stage work. The play had its premiere at the Vertigo Theatre in Calgary, Alberta on January 23, 2016.\n\nAwards and honors\n\nThe writing team of Ellery Queen received the following \"Edgar\" awards from the Mystery Writers of America:\n 1946: Best Radio Drama (tied with Mr and Mrs North)\n* 1950: Special Edgar Award for ten years' service through Ellery Queen's Mystery Magazine\n* 1961: Grand Master Edgar Award\n* 1962: Best Short Story (\"Ellery Queen 1962 Anthology\")\n* 1964: Best Novel (The Player on the Other Side)\n* 1969: Special Edgar Award on the 40th anniversary of the publication of The Roman Hat Mystery\n\nThe Mystery Writers of America established the Ellery Queen Award in 1983 \"to honor writing teams and outstanding people in the mystery-publishing industry.\" \n\nEllery Queen was featured on a postage stamp issued by Nicaragua as part of a series of \"Famous Fictional Detectives\" to commemorate the 50th anniversary of Interpol in 1973 and a similar series of famous fictional detectives from San Marino in 1979. \n\nBibliography\n\nNovels\n\nThe Roman Hat Mystery—1929\nThe French Powder Mystery—1930\nThe Dutch Shoe Mystery—1931\nThe Greek Coffin Mystery—1932\nThe Egyptian Cross Mystery—1932\nThe American Gun Mystery—1933\nThe Siamese Twin Mystery—1933\nThe Chinese Orange Mystery—1934\nThe Spanish Cape Mystery—1935\nThe Lamp of God—1935†\nHalfway House—1936\nThe Door Between—1937\nThe Devil to Pay—1938\nThe Four of Hearts—1938\nThe Dragon's Teeth AKA The Virgin Heiresses—1939\nCalamity Town—1942\nThere Was an Old Woman AKA The Quick and the Dead—1943\nThe Murderer Is a Fox—1945\nTen Days' Wonder—1948\nCat of Many Tails—1949\nDouble, Double—1950\nThe Origin of Evil—1951\nThe King Is Dead—1952\nThe Scarlet Letters—1953\nThe Glass Village—1954 (neither Ellery Queen nor Inspector Queen in book)\nInspector Queen's Own Case—1956 (Inspector Queen only)\nThe Finishing Stroke—1958\nThe Player on The Other Side—1963 (ghost-written with Theodore Sturgeon)\nAnd on the Eighth Day—1964 (ghost-written with Avram Davidson) (Grand Prix de Littérature Policière winner)\nThe Fourth Side of the Triangle—1965 (ghost-written with Avram Davidson)\nA Study in Terror AKA Ellery Queen vs Jack the Ripper—1966 (Movie tie-in or novelization of a movie of the same name about Sherlock Holmes and Jack the Ripper, with Ellery Queen added as a character in the framing story. The Sherlock Holmes part was written by Paul W. Fairman with Dannay/Lee input.)\nFace to Face—1967\nThe House of Brass—1968 (ghost-written with Avram Davidson) (A sequel to Inspector Queen's Own Case with a minimal appearance by Ellery.)\nCop Out—1969 (neither Ellery Queen nor Inspector Queen appear)\nThe Last Woman in His Life—1970\nA Fine and Private Place—1971\n\n† The Lamp of God is a long short story or a short novella, originally published in Detective Story magazine in 1935, first collected in The New Adventures of Ellery Queen (see below) and published separately (alone) as #23 in the Dell Ten-Cent Editions (64 pages) in 1951.\n\nTrue crime\n\nTwo collections of true crime stories (based on material gathered by anonymous researchers) written by Lee alone that had been originally published in The American Weekly were collected into volumes.\n\n* Ellery Queen's International Case Book (1964)\n* The Woman in the Case (1967)\n\nShort story collections\n\nThe Adventures of Ellery Queen—1934\nThe New Adventures of Ellery Queen—1940 (Contains \"The Lamp of God\" —- see \"Novels\" above)\nThe Case Book of Ellery Queen—1945 (reprints five stories from the two previous collections, plus three scripts of radio dramas)\nCalendar of Crime—1952\nQBI: Queen's Bureau of Investigation—1955\nQueens Full—1966\nQED: Queen's Experiments In Detection—1968\nThe Best Of Ellery Queen—1985 (includes \"Wedding Anniversary,\" otherwise uncollected, and a complete list of Ellery Queen short stories)\nThe Tragedy Of Errors—Crippen & Landru, 1999 (a previously unpublished synopsis written by Dannay, which was to be a Queen novel, plus all the previously uncollected short stories)\nThe Adventure of the Murdered Moths and Other Radio Mysteries—Crippen & Landru, 2005\n\nOther short story collections exist, such as More Adventures of Ellery Queen (1940), which reprints stories from two previous collections.\n\nAs Barnaby Ross\n\nThe Tragedy Of X—1932\nThe Tragedy Of Y—1932\nThe Tragedy Of Z—1933\nDrury Lane's Last Case—1933\n\nOmnibus volumes\n\nThe Ellery Queen Omnibus—1934\nThe Ellery Queen Omnibus—1936\nEllery Queen's Big Book—1938\nEllery Queen's Adventure Omnibus—1941\nEllery Queen's Mystery Parade—1944\nThe Case Book of Ellery Queen—1949\nThe Wrightsville Murders—1942\nThe Hollywood Murders—1957\nThe New York Murders—1958\nThe XYZ Murders—1961\nThe Bizarre Murders—1962\n\nNovels by others\n\nFor novels attributed to Ellery Queen, Barnaby Ross, or Ellery Queen Jr., but written by other authors, see Ellery Queen (house name).\n\nCritical works\n\nThe Detective Short Story: A Bibliography—1942\nQueen's Quorum: A History of the Detective-Crime Short Story As Revealed by the 100 Most Important Books Published in this Field Since 1845—1951\nIn the Queen's Parlor, and Other Leaves from the Editor's Notebook—1957\n\nMagazines\n\nMystery League—1933\nEllery Queen's Mystery Magazine—1941 onwards\n\nAnthologies and collections\n\nChallenge to the Reader—1938\n101 Years' Entertainment, The Great Detective Stories, 1841–1941—1941\nSporting Blood: The Great Sports Detective Stories—1942\nThe Female of the Species: Great Women Detectives and Criminals—1943\nThe Misadventures of Sherlock Holmes—1944\nThe Best Stories from Ellery Queen's Mystery Magazine—1944\nDashiell Hammett: The Adventures of Sam Spade and Other Stories—1944\nRogues' Gallery: The Great Criminals of Modern Fiction—1945\nTo The Queen's Taste: The First Supplement to 101 Years' Entertainment, Consisting of the Best Stories Published in the First Five Years of Ellery Queen's Mystery Magazine—1946\nThe Queen's Awards, 1946—1946\nDashiell Hammett: The Continental Op—1945\nDashiell Hammett: The Return of the Continental Op—1945\nDashiell Hammett: Hammett Homicides—1946\nMurder By Experts—1947\nThe Queen's Awards, 1947—1947\nDashiell Hammett: Dead Yellow Women—1947\nStuart Palmer: The Riddles of Hildegarde Withers—1947\nJohn Dickson Carr: Dr. Fell, Detective, and Other Stories—1947\nRoy Vickers: The Department of Dead Ends—1947\nMargery Allingham: The Case Book of Mr. Campion—1947\n20th Century Detective Stories—1948\nThe Queen's Awards, 1948—1948\nDashiell Hammett: Nightmare Town—1948\nO. Henry: Cops and Robbers—1947\nThe Queen's Awards, 1949—1949\nThe Literature of Crime: Stories by World-Famous Authors—1950\nThe Queen's Awards, Fifth Series—1950\nDashiell Hammett: The Creeping Siamese—1950\n*Stuart Palmer: The Monkey Murder and Other Stories—1950\nand many more\n\nNotes" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Manfred B. Lee", "Frederic Dannay", "Manfred Bennington Lee", "Manfred Lee", "Barnaby Ross", "Pseud. Ellery Queen", "Lee, Manfred Bennington", "Dannay, Frederic", "Ellery Queen" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "manfred lee", "pseud ellery queen", "manfred b lee", "dannay frederic", "frederic dannay", "manfred bennington lee", "barnaby ross", "lee manfred bennington", "ellery queen" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "ellery queen", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Ellery Queen" }
What was art-world guru Andy Warhol's name at birth?	tc_400	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Andy_Warhol.txt" ], "title": [ "Andy Warhol" ], "wiki_context": [ "Andy Warhol (; born Andrew Warhola; August 6, 1928 – February 22, 1987) was an American artist who was a leading figure in the visual art movement known as pop art. His works explore the relationship between artistic expression, celebrity culture, and advertisement that flourished by the 1960s.\n\nAfter a successful career as a commercial illustrator, Warhol became a renowned and sometimes controversial artist. His art used many types of media, including hand drawing, painting, printmaking, photography, silk screening, sculpture, film, and music. His studio, The Factory, was a well known gathering place that brought together distinguished intellectuals, drag queens, playwrights, Bohemian street people, Hollywood celebrities, and wealthy patrons. He managed and produced The Velvet Underground, a rock band which had a strong influence on the evolution of punk rock music. He founded Interview magazine and was the author of numerous books, including The Philosophy of Andy Warhol and Popism: The Warhol Sixties. He is also notable as a gay man who lived openly as such before the gay liberation movement, and he is credited with coining the widely used expression \"15 minutes of fame\". \n\nWarhol has been the subject of numerous retrospective exhibitions, books, and feature and documentary films. The Andy Warhol Museum in his native city, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, which holds an extensive permanent collection of art and archives, is the largest museum in the United States dedicated to a single artist. Many of his creations are very collectible and highly valuable. The highest price ever paid for a Warhol painting is US$105 million for a 1963 canvas titled \"Silver Car Crash (Double Disaster)\"; his works include some of the most expensive paintings ever sold. A 2009 article in The Economist described Warhol as the \"bellwether of the art market\". \n\nEarly life and beginnings (1928–49)\n\nWarhol was born on August 6, 1928 in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. He was the fourth child of Ondrej Warhola (Americanized as Andrew Warhola, Sr., 1889–1942) and Julia (née Zavacká, 1892–1972), whose first child was born in their homeland and died before their move to the U.S.\n\nHis parents were working-class Lemko emigrants from Mikó (now called Miková), located in today's northeastern Slovakia, part of the former Austro-Hungarian Empire. Warhol's father emigrated to the United States in 1914, and his mother joined him in 1921, after the death of Warhol's grandparents. Warhol's father worked in a coal mine. The family lived at 55 Beelen Street and later at 3252 Dawson Street in the Oakland neighborhood of Pittsburgh. The family was Byzantine Catholic and attended St. John Chrysostom Byzantine Catholic Church. Andy Warhol had two older brothers—Pavol (Paul), the oldest, was born before the family emigrated; Ján was born in Pittsburgh. Pavol's son, James Warhola, became a successful children's book illustrator.\n\nIn third grade, Warhol had Sydenham's chorea (also known as St. Vitus' Dance), the nervous system disease that causes involuntary movements of the extremities, which is believed to be a complication of scarlet fever which causes skin pigmentation blotchiness. He became a hypochondriac, developing a fear of hospitals and doctors. Often bedridden as a child, he became an outcast at school and bonded with his mother. At times when he was confined to bed, he drew, listened to the radio and collected pictures of movie stars around his bed. Warhol later described this period as very important in the development of his personality, skill-set and preferences. When Warhol was 13, his father died in an accident. \n\nAs a teenager, Warhol graduated from Schenley High School in 1945. After graduating from high school, his intentions were to study art education at the University of Pittsburgh in the hope of becoming an art teacher, but his plans changed and he enrolled in the Carnegie Institute of Technology in Pittsburgh, where he studied commercial art. During his time there, Warhol joined the campus Modern Dance Club and Beaux Arts Society. He also served as art director of the student art magazine, Cano, illustrating a cover in 1948 and a full-page interior illustration in 1949. These are believed to be his first two published artworks. Warhol earned a Bachelor of Fine Arts in pictorial design in 1949. Later that year, he moved to New York City and began a career in magazine illustration and advertising.\n\nCareer \n\n1950s\n\nDuring the 1950s, Warhol gained fame for his whimsical ink drawings of shoe advertisements. These were done in a loose, blotted-ink style, and figured in some of his earliest showings at the Bodley Gallery in New York. With the concurrent rapid expansion of the record industry and the introduction of the vinyl record, Hi-Fi, and stereophonic recordings, RCA Records hired Warhol, along with another freelance artist, Sid Maurer, to design album covers and promotional materials. \n\nWarhol was an early adopter of the silk screen printmaking process as a technique for making paintings. His earliest silkscreening in painting involved hand-drawn images though this soon progressed to the use of photographically derived silkscreening in paintings. Prior to entering the field of fine art, Warhol's commercial art background also involved innovative techniques for image making that were somewhat related to printmaking techniques. When rendering commercial objects for advertising Warhol devised a technique that resulted in a characteristic image. His imagery used in advertising was often executed by means of applying ink to paper and then blotting the ink while still wet. This was akin to a printmaking process on the most rudimentary scale. \n\nWarhol's work both as a commercial artist and later a fine artist displays a casual approach to image making, in which chance plays a role and mistakes and unintentional marks are tolerated. The resulting imagery in both Warhol's commercial art and later in his fine art endeavors is often replete with imperfection—smudges and smears can often be found. In his book POPism Warhol writes, \"When you do something exactly wrong, you always turn up something.\" \n\n1960s\n\nHe began exhibiting his work during the 1950s. He held exhibitions at the Hugo Gallery and the Bodley Gallery in New York City; in California, his first West Coast gallery exhibition was on July 9, 1962, in the Ferus Gallery of Los Angeles. The exhibition marked his West Coast debut of pop art. \nAndy Warhol's first New York solo pop art exhibition was hosted at Eleanor Ward's Stable Gallery November 6–24, 1962. The exhibit included the works Marilyn Diptych, 100 Soup Cans, 100 Coke Bottles, and 100 Dollar Bills. At the Stable Gallery exhibit, the artist met for the first time poet John Giorno who would star in Warhol's first film, Sleep, in 1963.\n\nIt was during the 1960s that Warhol began to make paintings of iconic American objects such as dollar bills, mushroom clouds, electric chairs, Campbell's Soup Cans, Coca-Cola bottles, celebrities such as Marilyn Monroe, Elvis Presley, Marlon Brando, Troy Donahue, Muhammad Ali, and Elizabeth Taylor, as well as newspaper headlines or photographs of police dogs attacking civil rights protesters. During these years, he founded his studio, \"The Factory\" and gathered about him a wide range of artists, writers, musicians, and underground celebrities. His work became popular and controversial. Warhol had this to say about Coca-Cola:\n\nNew York City's Museum of Modern Art hosted a Symposium on pop art in December 1962 during which artists such as Warhol were attacked for \"capitulating\" to consumerism. Critics were scandalized by Warhol's open embrace of market culture. This symposium set the tone for Warhol's reception. Throughout the decade it became increasingly clear that there had been a profound change in the culture of the art world, and that Warhol was at the center of that shift.\n\nA pivotal event was the 1964 exhibit The American Supermarket, a show held in Paul Bianchini's Upper East Side gallery. The show was presented as a typical U.S. small supermarket environment, except that everything in it—from the produce, canned goods, meat, posters on the wall, etc.—was created by six prominent pop artists of the time, among them the controversial (and like-minded) Billy Apple, Mary Inman, and Robert Watts. Warhol's painting of a can of Campbell's soup cost $1,500 while each autographed can sold for $6. The exhibit was one of the first mass events that directly confronted the general public with both pop art and the perennial question of what art is.\n\nAs an advertisement illustrator in the 1950s, Warhol used assistants to increase his productivity. Collaboration would remain a defining (and controversial) aspect of his working methods throughout his career; this was particularly true in the 1960s. One of the most important collaborators during this period was Gerard Malanga. Malanga assisted the artist with the production of silkscreens, films, sculpture, and other works at \"The Factory\", Warhol's aluminum foil-and-silver-paint-lined studio on 47th Street (later moved to Broadway). Other members of Warhol's Factory crowd included Freddie Herko, Ondine, Ronald Tavel, Mary Woronov, Billy Name, and Brigid Berlin (from whom he apparently got the idea to tape-record his phone conversations). \n\nDuring the 1960s, Warhol also groomed a retinue of bohemian and counterculture eccentrics upon whom he bestowed the designation \"Superstars\", including Nico, Joe Dallesandro, Edie Sedgwick, Viva, Ultra Violet, Holly Woodlawn, Jackie Curtis, and Candy Darling. These people all participated in the Factory films, and some—like Berlin—remained friends with Warhol until his death. Important figures in the New York underground art/cinema world, such as writer John Giorno and film-maker Jack Smith, also appear in Warhol films of the 1960s, revealing Warhol's connections to a diverse range of artistic scenes during this time. Less well known was his support and collaboration with several teen-agers during this era, who would achieve prominence later in life including writer David Dalton, photographer Stephen Shore and artist Bibbe Hansen (mother of pop musician Beck). \n\nAttempted murder (1968)\n\nOn June 3, 1968, radical feminist writer Valerie Solanas shot Warhol and Mario Amaya, art critic and curator, at Warhol's studio. Before the shooting, Solanas had been a marginal figure in the Factory scene. She authored in 1967 the S.C.U.M. Manifesto, a separatist feminist tract that advocated the elimination of men; and appeared in the 1968 Warhol film I, a Man. Earlier on the day of the attack, Solanas had been turned away from the Factory after asking for the return of a script she had given to Warhol. The script had apparently been misplaced. \n\nAmaya received only minor injuries and was released from the hospital later the same day. Warhol was seriously wounded by the attack and barely survived: surgeons opened his chest and massaged his heart to help stimulate its movement again. He suffered physical effects for the rest of his life, including being required to wear a surgical corset. The shooting had a profound effect on Warhol's life and art. \n\nSolanas was arrested the day after the assault, after turning herself in to police. By way of explanation, she said that Warhol \"had too much control over my life.\" She was subsequently diagnosed with paranoid schizophrenia and eventually sentenced to three years under the control of the Department of Corrections. After the shooting, the Factory scene heavily increased security, and for many the \"Factory 60s\" ended.\n\nWarhol had this to say about the attack: \"Before I was shot, I always thought that I was more half-there than all-there—I always suspected that I was watching TV instead of living life. People sometimes say that the way things happen in movies is unreal, but actually it's the way things happen in life that's unreal. The movies make emotions look so strong and real, whereas when things really do happen to you, it's like watching television—you don't feel anything. Right when I was being shot and ever since, I knew that I was watching television. The channels switch, but it's all television.\" \n\n1970s\n\nCompared to the success and scandal of Warhol's work in the 1960s, the 1970s were a much quieter decade, as he became more entrepreneurial. According to Bob Colacello, Warhol devoted much of his time to rounding up new, rich patrons for portrait commissions—including Shah of Iran Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, his wife Empress Farah Pahlavi, his sister Princess Ashraf Pahlavi, Mick Jagger, Liza Minnelli, John Lennon, Diana Ross, and Brigitte Bardot. Warhol's famous portrait of Chinese Communist leader Mao Zedong was created in 1973. He also founded, with Gerard Malanga, Interview magazine, and published The Philosophy of Andy Warhol (1975). An idea expressed in the book: \"Making money is art, and working is art and good business is the best art.\" \n\nWarhol used to socialize at various nightspots in New York City, including Max's Kansas City; and, later in the 1970s, Studio 54. He was generally regarded as quiet, shy, and a meticulous observer. Art critic Robert Hughes called him \"the white mole of Union Square.\" \n\nWith his longtime friend Stuart Pivar, Warhol founded the New York Academy of Art in 1979. \n\n1980s\n\nWarhol had a re-emergence of critical and financial success in the 1980s, partially due to his affiliation and friendships with a number of prolific younger artists, who were dominating the \"bull market\" of 1980s New York art: Jean-Michel Basquiat, Julian Schnabel, David Salle and other so-called Neo-Expressionists, as well as members of the Transavantgarde movement in Europe, including Francesco Clemente and Enzo Cucchi.\n\nBy this period, Warhol was being criticized for becoming merely a \"business artist\". In 1979, reviewers disliked his exhibits of portraits of 1970s personalities and celebrities, calling them superficial, facile and commercial, with no depth or indication of the significance of the subjects. They also criticized his 1980 exhibit of 10 portraits at the Jewish Museum in Manhattan, entitled Jewish Geniuses, which Warhol—who was uninterested in Judaism and Jews—had described in his diary as \"They're going to sell.\" In hindsight, however, some critics have come to view Warhol's superficiality and commerciality as \"the most brilliant mirror of our times,\" contending that \"Warhol had captured something irresistible about the zeitgeist of American culture in the 1970s.\"\n\nWarhol also had an appreciation for intense Hollywood glamour. He once said: \"I love Los Angeles. I love Hollywood. They're so beautiful. Everything's plastic, but I love plastic. I want to be plastic.\" \n\nDeath\n\nWarhol died in Manhattan, at 6:32 am, on February 22, 1987. According to news reports, he had been making good recovery from a routine gallbladder surgery at New York Hospital before dying in his sleep from a sudden post-operative cardiac arrhythmia. Prior to his diagnosis and operation, Warhol delayed having his recurring gallbladder problems checked, as he was afraid to enter hospitals and see doctors. His family sued the hospital for inadequate care, saying that the arrhythmia was caused by improper care and water intoxication. The malpractice case was quickly settled out of court; Warhol's family received an undisclosed sum of money. \n\nWarhol's body was taken back to Pittsburgh, by his brothers, for burial. The wake was at Thomas P. Kunsak Funeral Home and was an open-coffin ceremony. The coffin was a solid bronze casket with gold plated rails and white upholstery. Warhol was dressed in a black cashmere suit, a paisley tie, a platinum wig, and sunglasses. He was posed holding a small prayer book and a red rose. The funeral liturgy was held at the Holy Ghost Byzantine Catholic Church on Pittsburgh's North Side. The eulogy was given by Monsignor Peter Tay. Yoko Ono and John Richardson were speakers. The coffin was covered with white roses and asparagus ferns. After the liturgy, the coffin was driven to St. John the Baptist Byzantine Catholic Cemetery in Bethel Park, a south suburb of Pittsburgh.\n\nAt the grave, the priest said a brief prayer and sprinkled holy water on the casket. Before the coffin was lowered, Paige Powell dropped a copy of Interview magazine, an Interview T-shirt, and a bottle of the Estee Lauder perfume \"Beautiful\" into the grave. Warhol was buried next to his mother and father. A memorial service was held in Manhattan for Warhol on April 1, 1987, at St. Patrick's Cathedral, New York.\n\nFoundation\n\nWarhol's will dictated that his entire estate — with the exception of a few modest legacies to family members — would go to create a foundation dedicated to the \"advancement of the visual arts\". Warhol had so many possessions that it took Sotheby's nine days to auction his estate after his death; the auction grossed more than US$20 million.\n\nIn 1987, in accordance with Warhol's will, the Andy Warhol Foundation for the Visual Arts began. The foundation serves as the estate of Andy Warhol, but also has a mission \"to foster innovative artistic expression and the creative process\" and is \"focused primarily on supporting work of a challenging and often experimental nature.\" \n\nThe Artists Rights Society is the U.S. copyright representative for the Andy Warhol Foundation for the Visual Arts for all Warhol works with the exception of Warhol film stills. The U.S. copyright representative for Warhol film stills is the Warhol Museum in Pittsburgh. Additionally, the Andy Warhol Foundation for the Visual Arts has agreements in place for its image archive. All digital images of Warhol are exclusively managed by Corbis, while all transparency images of Warhol are managed by Art Resource. \n\nThe Andy Warhol Foundation released its 20th Anniversary Annual Report as a three-volume set in 2007: Vol. I, 1987–2007; Vol. II, Grants & Exhibitions; and Vol. III, Legacy Program. The Foundation remains one of the largest grant-giving organizations for the visual arts in the U.S. \n\nWorks \n\nPaintings \n\nBy the beginning of the 1960s, Warhol had become a very successful commercial illustrator. His detailed and elegant drawings for I. Miller shoes were particularly popular. They consisted mainly of \"blotted ink\" drawings (or monoprints), a technique which he applied in much of his early art. Although many artists of this period worked in commercial art, most did so discreetly. Warhol was so successful, however, that his profile as an illustrator seemed to undermine his efforts to be taken seriously as an artist.\n\nPop art was an experimental form that several artists were independently adopting; some of these pioneers, such as Roy Lichtenstein, would later become synonymous with the movement. Warhol, who would become famous as the \"Pope of Pop\", turned to this new style, where popular subjects could be part of the artist's palette. His early paintings show images taken from cartoons and advertisements, hand-painted with paint drips. Marilyn Monroe was a pop art painting that Warhol had done and it was very popular. Those drips emulated the style of successful abstract expressionists (such as Willem de Kooning). Warhol's first pop art paintings were displayed in April 1961, serving as the backdrop for New York Department Store Bronwit Teller's window display. This was the same stage his Pop Art contemporaries Jasper Johns, James Rosenquist and Robert Rauschenberg had also once graced. Eventually, Warhol pared his image vocabulary down to the icon itself—to brand names, celebrities, dollar signs—and removed all traces of the artist's \"hand\" in the production of his paintings.\n\nTo him, part of defining a niche was defining his subject matter. Cartoons were already being used by Lichtenstein, typography by Jasper Johns, and so on; Warhol wanted a distinguishing subject. His friends suggested he should paint the things he loved the most. It was the gallerist Muriel Latow who came up with the ideas for both the soup cans and Warhol's dollar paintings. On November 23, 1961 Warhol wrote Latow a check for $50 which, according to the 2009 Warhol biography, Pop, The Genius of Warhol, was payment for coming up with the idea of the soup cans as subject matter. \nFor his first major exhibition Warhol painted his famous cans of Campbell's Soup, which he claimed to have had for lunch for most of his life. The work sold for $10,000 at an auction on November 17, 1971, at Sotheby's New York.\n\nHe loved celebrities, so he painted them as well. From these beginnings he developed his later style and subjects. Instead of working on a signature subject matter, as he started out to do, he worked more and more on a signature style, slowly eliminating the handmade from the artistic process. Warhol frequently used silk-screening; his later drawings were traced from slide projections. At the height of his fame as a painter, Warhol had several assistants who produced his silk-screen multiples, following his directions to make different versions and variations. \n\nIn 1979, Warhol was commissioned by BMW to paint a Group 4 race version of the then elite supercar BMW M1 for the fourth installment in the BMW Art Car Project. Unlike the three artists before him, Warhol declined the use of a small scale practice model, instead opting to immediately paint directly onto the full scale automobile. It was indicated that Warhol spent only a total of 23 minutes to paint the entire car. \nWarhol produced both comic and serious works; his subject could be a soup can or an electric chair. Warhol used the same techniques—silkscreens, reproduced serially, and often painted with bright colors—whether he painted celebrities, everyday objects, or images of suicide, car crashes, and disasters, as in the 1962–63 Death and Disaster series. The Death and Disaster paintings included Red Car Crash, Purple Jumping Man, and Orange Disaster. One of these paintings, the diptych \"Silver Car Crash\", became the highest priced work of his when it sold at Sotheby's Contemporary Art Auction on Wednesday, November 13, 2013, for $105.4 million. \n\nSome of Warhol's work, as well as his own personality, has been described as being Keatonesque. Warhol has been described as playing dumb to the media. He sometimes refused to explain his work. He has suggested that all one needs to know about his work is \"already there 'on the surface.'\" \n\nHis Rorschach inkblots are intended as pop comments on art and what art could be. His cow wallpaper (literally, wallpaper with a cow motif) and his oxidation paintings (canvases prepared with copper paint that was then oxidized with urine) are also noteworthy in this context. Equally noteworthy is the way these works—and their means of production—mirrored the atmosphere at Andy's New York \"Factory\". Biographer Bob Colacello provides some details on Andy's \"piss paintings\":\n\nWarhol's first portrait of Basquiat (1982) is a black photosilkscreen over an oxidized copper \"piss painting\".\n\nAfter many years of silkscreen, oxidation, photography, etc., Warhol returned to painting with a brush in hand in a series of more than 50 large collaborative works done with Jean-Michel Basquiat between 1984 and 1986. Despite negative criticism when these were first shown, Warhol called some of them \"masterpieces,\" and they were influential for his later work. \n\nThe influence of the large collaborations with Basquiat can be seen in Warhol's \"The Last Supper\" cycle, his last and possibly his largest series.\nAndy Warhol was commissioned in 1984 by the gallerist Alexander Iolas to produce work based on Leonardo da Vinci's \"The Last Supper\" for an exhibition at the old refectory of the Palazzo delle Stelline in Milan, opposite from the Santa Maria delle Grazie where Leonardo da Vinci's mural can be seen. \nWarhol exceeded the demands of the commission and produced nearly 100 variations on the theme, mostly silkscreens and paintings, and among them a collaborative sculpture with Basquiat, the \"Ten Punching Bags (Last Supper)\". \nThe Milan exhibition that opened in January 1987 with a set of 22 silk-screens, was the last exhibition for both the artist and the gallerist. \nThe series of The Last Supper was seen by some as \"arguably his greatest,\" but by others as \"wishy-washy, religiose\" and \"spiritless.\" It is also the largest series of religious-themed works by any U.S. artist.\n\nWarhol's ability to find the uncanny, silly, or seductive in any given object, whether said object is mundane or sensational, influenced many artists working through photo and media outlets, among a vast number of other mediums. Artist Maurizio Cattelan describes that it is difficult to separate daily encounters from the art of Andy Warhol: \"That’s probably the greatest thing about Warhol: the way he penetrated and summarized our world, to the point that distinguishing between him and our everyday life is basically impossible, and in any case useless.\" Warhol was an inspiration towards Cattelan's magazine and photography compilations, such as Permanent Food, Charley, and Toilet Paper. \n\nAt the time of his death, Warhol was working on Cars, a series of paintings for Mercedes-Benz. \n\nA self-portrait by Andy Warhol (1963–64), which sold in New York at the May Post-War and Contemporary evening sale in Christie's, fetched $38.4 million.\n\nOn May 9, 2012, his classic painting \"Double Elvis (Ferus Type)\" sold at auction at Sotheby's in New York for US$33 million. With commission, the sale price totaled US$37,042,500, short of the $50 million that Sotheby's had predicted the painting might bring. The piece (silkscreen ink and spray paint on canvas) shows Elvis Presley in a gunslinger pose. It was first exhibited in 1963 at the Ferus Gallery in Los Angeles. Warhol made 22 versions of the \"Double Elvis,\" nine of which are held in museums. \n\nIn November 2013, his \"Silver Car Crash (Double Disaster)\" diptych sold at Sotheby's Contemporary Art Auction for $105.4 million, a new record for the famed pop artist (pre-auction estimates at $80 million). Created in 1963, this work has only been seen in public once in the past 26 years. In November 2014, \"Triple Elvis\" sold for $81.9m (£51.9m) at auction in New York. \n\nFilms \n\nWarhol worked across a wide range of media—painting, photography, drawing, and sculpture. In addition, he was a highly prolific filmmaker. Between 1963 and 1968, he made more than 60 films, plus some 500 short black-and-white \"screen test\" portraits of Factory visitors. One of his most famous films, Sleep, monitors poet John Giorno sleeping for six hours. The 35-minute film Blow Job is one continuous shot of the face of DeVeren Bookwalter supposedly receiving oral sex from filmmaker Willard Maas, although the camera never tilts down to see this. Another, Empire (1964), consists of eight hours of footage of the Empire State Building in New York City at dusk. The film Eat consists of a man eating a mushroom for 45 minutes. Warhol attended the 1962 premiere of the static composition by LaMonte Young called Trio for Strings and subsequently created his famous series of static films including Kiss, Eat, and Sleep (for which Young initially was commissioned to provide music). Uwe Husslein cites filmmaker Jonas Mekas, who accompanied Warhol to the Trio premiere, and who claims Warhol's static films were directly inspired by the performance. \n\nBatman Dracula is a 1964 film that was produced and directed by Warhol, without the permission of DC Comics. It was screened only at his art exhibits. A fan of the Batman series, Warhol's movie was an \"homage\" to the series, and is considered the first appearance of a blatantly campy Batman. The film was until recently thought to have been lost, until scenes from the picture were shown at some length in the 2006 documentary Jack Smith and the Destruction of Atlantis.\n\nWarhol's 1965 film Vinyl is an adaptation of Anthony Burgess' popular dystopian novel A Clockwork Orange. Others record improvised encounters between Factory regulars such as Brigid Berlin, Viva, Edie Sedgwick, Candy Darling, Holly Woodlawn, Ondine, Nico, and Jackie Curtis. Legendary underground artist Jack Smith appears in the film Camp.\n\nHis most popular and critically successful film was Chelsea Girls (1966). The film was highly innovative in that it consisted of two 16 mm-films being projected simultaneously, with two different stories being shown in tandem. From the projection booth, the sound would be raised for one film to elucidate that \"story\" while it was lowered for the other. The multiplication of images evoked Warhol's seminal silk-screen works of the early 1960s.\n\nOther important films include Bike Boy, My Hustler, The Nude Restaurant, and Lonesome Cowboys, a raunchy pseudo-western. These and other titles document gay underground and camp culture, and continue to feature prominently in scholarship about sexuality and art. Blue Movie—a film in which Warhol superstar Viva makes love and fools around in bed with a man for 33 minutes of the film's playing-time—was Warhol's last film as director. The film, a seminal film in the Golden Age of Porn, was at the time scandalous for its frank approach to a sexual encounter. Blue Movie was publicly screened in New York City in 2005 for the first time in more that 30 years. \n\nAfter his June 3, 1968 shooting, a reclusive Warhol relinquished his personal involvement in filmmaking. His acolyte and assistant director, Paul Morrissey, took over the film-making chores for the Factory collective, steering Warhol-branded cinema towards more mainstream, narrative-based, B-movie exploitation fare with Flesh, Trash, and Heat. All of these films, including the later Andy Warhol's Dracula and Andy Warhol's Frankenstein, were far more mainstream than anything Warhol as a director had attempted. These latter \"Warhol\" films starred Joe Dallesandro—more of a Morrissey star than a true Warhol superstar.\n\nIn the early 1970s, most of the films directed by Warhol were pulled out of circulation by Warhol and the people around him who ran his business. After Warhol's death, the films were slowly restored by the Whitney Museum and are occasionally projected at museums and film festivals. Few of the Warhol-directed films are available on video or DVD.\n\nFilmography \n\nFactory in New York \n\n* Factory: 1342 Lexington Avenue (the first Factory)\n* The Factory: 231 East 47th Street, 1963–67 (the building no longer exists)\n* Factory: 33 Union Square, 1967–73 (Decker Building)\n* Factory: 860 Broadway (near 33 Union Square), 1973–84 (the building has now been completely remodeled and was for a time (2000–2001) the headquarters of the dot-com consultancy Scient)\n* Factory: 22 East 33rd Street, 1984–87 (the building no longer exists)\n* Home: 1342 Lexington Avenue\n* Home: 57 East 66th Street (Warhol's last home)\n* Last personal studio: 158 Madison Avenue\n\nMusic \n\nIn the mid-1960s, Warhol adopted the band the Velvet Underground, making them a crucial element of the Exploding Plastic Inevitable multimedia performance art show. Warhol, with Paul Morrissey, acted as the band's manager, introducing them to Nico (who would perform with the band at Warhol's request). In 1966 he \"produced\" their first album The Velvet Underground & Nico, as well as providing its album art. His actual participation in the album's production amounted to simply paying for the studio time. After the band's first album, Warhol and band leader Lou Reed started to disagree more about the direction the band should take, and their artistic friendship ended. In 1989, after Warhol's death, Reed and John Cale re-united for the first time since 1972 to write, perform, record and release the concept album Songs for Drella, a tribute to Warhol.\n\nWarhol designed many album covers for various artists starting with the photographic cover of John Wallowitch's debut album, This Is John Wallowitch!!! (1964). He designed the cover art for The Rolling Stones' albums Sticky Fingers (1971) and Love You Live (1977), and the John Cale albums The Academy in Peril (1972) and Honi Soit in 1981. One of Warhol's last works was a portrait of Aretha Franklin for the cover of her 1986 gold album Aretha, which was done in the style of the Reigning Queens series he had completed the year before. \n\nWarhol strongly influenced the new wave/punk rock band Devo, as well as David Bowie. Bowie recorded a song called \"Andy Warhol\" for his 1971 album Hunky Dory. Lou Reed wrote the song \"Andy's Chest\", about Valerie Solanas, the woman who shot Warhol, in 1968. He recorded it with the Velvet Underground, and this version was released on the VU album in 1985. Bowie would later play Warhol in the 1996 movie, Basquiat. Bowie recalled how meeting Warhol in real life helped him in the role, and recounted his early meetings with him:\n\nBooks and print \n\nBeginning in the early 1950s, Warhol produced several unbound portfolios of his work.\n\nThe first of several bound self-published books by Warhol was 25 Cats Name Sam and One Blue Pussy, printed in 1954 by Seymour Berlin on Arches brand watermarked paper using his blotted line technique for the lithographs. The original edition was limited to 190 numbered, hand colored copies, using Dr. Martin's ink washes. Most of these were given by Warhol as gifts to clients and friends. Copy No. 4, inscribed \"Jerry\" on the front cover and given to Geraldine Stutz, was used for a facsimile printing in 1987, and the original was auctioned in May 2006 for US $35,000 by Doyle New York. \n\nOther self-published books by Warhol include:\n* A Gold Book\n* Wild Raspberries\n* Holy Cats\n\nWarhol's book A La Recherche du Shoe Perdu (1955) marked his \"transition from commercial to gallery artist\".Smith, John W., Pamela Allara, and Andy Warhol. Possession Obsession: Andy Warhol and Collecting. Pittsburgh, PA: Andy Warhol Museum, 2002, p. 46. ISBN 0-9715688-0-4. (The title is a play on words by Warhol on the title of French author Marcel Proust's À la recherche du temps perdu.)\n\nAfter gaining fame, Warhol \"wrote\" several books that were commercially published:\n* a, A Novel (1968, ISBN 0-8021-3553-6) is a literal transcription—containing spelling errors and phonetically written background noise and mumbling—of audio recordings of Ondine and several of Andy Warhol's friends hanging out at the Factory, talking, going out.\n* The Philosophy of Andy Warhol (From A to B & Back Again) (1975, ISBN 0-15-671720-4)—according to Pat Hackett's introduction to The Andy Warhol Diaries, Pat Hackett did the transcriptions and text for the book based on daily phone conversations, sometimes (when Warhol was traveling) using audio cassettes that Andy Warhol gave her. Said cassettes contained conversations with Brigid Berlin (also known as Brigid Polk) and former Interview magazine editor Bob Colacello.\n* Popism: The Warhol Sixties (1980, ISBN 0-15-672960-1), authored by Warhol and Pat Hackett, is a retrospective view of the 1960s and the role of pop art.\n* The Andy Warhol Diaries (1989, ISBN 0-446-39138-7), edited by Pat Hackett, is a diary dictated by Warhol to Hackett in daily phone conversations. Warhol started the diary to keep track of his expenses after being audited, although it soon evolved to include his personal and cultural observations. \n\nWarhol created the fashion magazine Interview that is still published today. The loopy title script on the cover is thought to be either his own handwriting or that of his mother, Julia Warhola, who would often do text work for his early commercial pieces. \n\nOther media \n\nAlthough Andy Warhol is most known for his paintings and films, he authored works in many different media.\n* Drawing: Warhol started his career as a commercial illustrator, producing drawings in \"blotted-ink\" style for advertisements and magazine articles. Best known of these early works are his drawings of shoes. Some of his personal drawings were self-published in small booklets, such as Yum, Yum, Yum (about food), Ho, Ho, Ho (about Christmas) and (of course) Shoes, Shoes, Shoes. His most artistically acclaimed book of drawings is probably A Gold Book, compiled of sensitive drawings of young men. A Gold Book is so named because of the gold leaf that decorates its pages. In April 2012 a sketch of 1930s singer Rudy Vallee claimed to have been drawn by Andy Warhol was found at a Las Vegas garage sale. The image was said to have been drawn when Andy was nine or 10. Various authorities have challenged the image's authenticity.\n\n* Sculpture: Warhol's most famous sculpture is probably his Brillo Boxes, silkscreened ink on wood replicas of the large, branded cardboard boxes used to hold 24 packages of Brillo soap pads. The original Brillo design was by commercial artist James Harvey. Warhol's sculpture was part of a series of \"grocery carton\" works that also included Heinz ketchup and Campbell's tomato juice cases. Other famous works include the Silver Clouds—helium filled, silver mylar, pillow-shaped balloons. A Silver Cloud was included in the traveling exhibition Air Art (1968–1969) curated by Willoughby Sharp. Clouds was also adapted by Warhol for avant-garde choreographer Merce Cunningham's dance piece RainForest (1968).\n* Audio: At one point Warhol carried a portable recorder with him wherever he went, taping everything everybody said and did. He referred to this device as his \"wife\". Some of these tapes were the basis for his literary work. Another audio-work of Warhol's was his \"Invisible Sculpture\", a presentation in which burglar alarms would go off when entering the room. Warhol's cooperation with the musicians of The Velvet Underground was driven by an expressed desire to become a music producer.\n* Time Capsules: In 1973, Warhol began saving ephemera from his daily life—correspondence, newspapers, souvenirs, childhood objects, even used plane tickets and food—which was sealed in plain cardboard boxes dubbed Time Capsules. By the time of his death, the collection grew to include 600, individually dated \"capsules\". The boxes are now housed at the Andy Warhol Museum. \n* Television: Andy Warhol dreamed of a television special about a favorite subject of hisNothingthat he would call The Nothing Special. Later in his career he did create two cable television shows, Andy Warhol's TV in 1982 and Andy Warhol's Fifteen Minutes (based on his famous \"fifteen minutes of fame\" quotation) for MTV in 1986. Besides his own shows he regularly made guest appearances on other programs, including The Love Boat wherein a Midwestern wife (Marion Ross) fears Andy Warhol will reveal to her husband (Tom Bosley, who starred alongside Ross in sitcom Happy Days) her secret past as a Warhol superstar named Marina del Rey. Warhol also produced a TV commercial for Schrafft's Restaurants in New York City, for an ice cream dessert appropriately titled the \"Underground Sundae\". \n* Fashion: Warhol is quoted for having said: \"I'd rather buy a dress and put it up on the wall, than put a painting, wouldn't you?\" One of his most well-known Superstars, Edie Sedgwick, aspired to be a fashion designer, and his good friend Halston was a famous one. Warhol's work in fashion includes silkscreened dresses, a short sub-career as a catwalk-model and books on fashion as well as paintings with fashion (shoes) as a subject. Warhol himself has been described as a modern dandy, whose authority \"rested more on presence than on words\". \n* Performance Art: Warhol and his friends staged theatrical multimedia happenings at parties and public venues, combining music, film, slide projections and even Gerard Malanga in an S&M outfit cracking a whip. The Exploding Plastic Inevitable in 1966 was the culmination of this area of his work.\n* Theater: Andy Warhol's Pork opened on May 5, 1971, at LaMama theater in New York for a two-week run and was brought to the Roundhouse in London for a longer run in August 1971. Pork was based on tape-recorded conversations between Brigid Berlin and Andy during which Brigid would play for Andy tapes she had made of phone conversations between herself and her mother, socialite Honey Berlin. The play featured Jayne County as \"Vulva\" and Cherry Vanilla as \"Amanda Pork\". In 1974, Andy Warhol also produced the stage musical Man on the Moon, which was written by John Phillips of the Mamas and the Papas.\n* Photography: To produce his silkscreens, Warhol made photographs or had them made by his friends and assistants. These pictures were mostly taken with a specific model of Polaroid camera that Polaroid kept in production especially for Warhol. This photographic approach to painting and his snapshot method of taking pictures has had a great effect on artistic photography. Warhol was an accomplished photographer, and took an enormous amount of photographs of Factory visitors, friends.\n* Computer: Warhol used Amiga computers to generate digital art, including You Are the One, which he helped design and build with Amiga, Inc. He also displayed the difference between slow fill and fast fill on live TV with Debbie Harry as a model. ([https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3oqUd8utr14 video])\n\nProducer and product \n\nWarhol had assistance in producing his paintings. This is also true of his film-making and commercial enterprises.\n\nHe founded the gossip magazine Interview, a stage for celebrities he \"endorsed\" and a business staffed by his friends. He collaborated with others on all of his books (some of which were written with Pat Hackett.) He adopted the young painter Jean-Michel Basquiat, and the band The Velvet Underground, presenting them to the public as his latest interest, and collaborating with them. One might even say that he produced people (as in the Warholian \"Superstar\" and the Warholian portrait). He endorsed products, appeared in commercials, and made frequent celebrity guest appearances on television shows and in films (he appeared in everything from Love Boat to Saturday Night Live and the Richard Pryor movie Dynamite Chicken).\n\nIn this respect Warhol was a fan of \"Art Business\" and \"Business Art\"—he, in fact, wrote about his interest in thinking about art as business in The Philosophy of Andy Warhol from A to B and Back Again.\n\nPersonal life\n\nSexuality\n\nWarhol was gay. Interviewed in 1980, he indicated that he was still a virgin—biographer Bob Colacello who was present at the interview felt it was probably true and that what little sex he had was probably \"a mixture of voyeurism and masturbation—to use his [Andy's] word abstract\". Warhol's assertion of virginity would seem to be contradicted by his hospital treatment in 1960 for condylomata, a sexually transmitted disease. It has also been contradicted by his lovers, including Warhol muse BillyBoy who has said they had sex to orgasm: \"When he wasn't being Andy Warhol and when you were just alone with him he was an incredibly generous and very kind person. What seduced me was the Andy Warhol who I saw alone. In fact when I was with him in public he kind of got on my nerves….I'd say: 'You're just obnoxious, I can't bear you.\" Asked if Warhol was only a voyeur, Billy Name also denied it, saying: \"He was the essence of sexuality. It permeated everything. Andy exuded it, along with his great artistic creativity….It brought a joy to the whole art world in New York.\" \"But his personality was so vulnerable that it became a defense to put up the blank front.\" Warhol's lovers included John Giorno, Billy Name, Charles Lisanby, and Jon Gould. His boyfriend of 12 years was Jed Johnson, whom he met in 1968, and who later achieved fame as an interior designer. \n\nThe fact that Warhol's homosexuality influenced his work and shaped his relationship to the art world is a major subject of scholarship on the artist and is an issue that Warhol himself addressed in interviews, in conversation with his contemporaries, and in his publications (e.g., Popism: The Warhol 1960s). Throughout his career, Warhol produced erotic photography and drawings of male nudes. Many of his most famous works (portraits of Liza Minnelli, Judy Garland, and Elizabeth Taylor, and films such as Blow Job, My Hustler and Lonesome Cowboys) draw from gay underground culture and/or openly explore the complexity of sexuality and desire. As has been addressed by a range of scholars, many of his films premiered in gay porn theaters. \n\nThe first works that Warhol submitted to a fine art gallery, homoerotic drawings of male nudes, were rejected for being too openly gay. In Popism, furthermore, the artist recalls a conversation with the film maker Emile de Antonio about the difficulty Warhol had being accepted socially by the then-more-famous (but closeted) gay artists Jasper Johns and Robert Rauschenberg. De Antonio explained that Warhol was \"too swish and that upsets them.\" In response to this, Warhol writes, \"There was nothing I could say to that. It was all too true. So I decided I just wasn't going to care, because those were all the things that I didn't want to change anyway, that I didn't think I 'should' want to change ... Other people could change their attitudes but not me\". In exploring Warhol's biography, many turn to this period—the late 1950s and early 1960s—as a key moment in the development of his persona. Some have suggested that his frequent refusal to comment on his work, to speak about himself (confining himself in interviews to responses like \"Um, no\" and \"Um, yes\", and often allowing others to speak for him)—and even the evolution of his pop style—can be traced to the years when Warhol was first dismissed by the inner circles of the New York art world. \n\nReligious beliefs\n\nWarhol was a practicing Ruthenian Catholic. He regularly volunteered at homeless shelters in New York City, particularly during the busier times of the year, and described himself as a religious person. Many of Warhol's later works depicted religious subjects, including two series, Details of Renaissance Paintings (1984) and The Last Supper (1986). In addition, a body of religious-themed works was found posthumously in his estate.\n\nDuring his life, Warhol regularly attended Mass, and the priest at Warhol's church, Saint Vincent Ferrer, said that the artist went there almost daily, although he was not observed taking Communion or going to Confession and sat or knelt in the pews at the back. The priest thought he was afraid of being recognized; Warhol said he was self-conscious about being seen in a Roman Rite church crossing himself \"in the Orthodox way\" (right to left instead of the reverse).\n\nHis art is noticeably influenced by the eastern Christian tradition which was so evident in his places of worship.\n\nWarhol's brother has described the artist as \"really religious, but he didn't want people to know about that because [it was] private\". Despite the private nature of his faith, in Warhol's eulogy John Richardson depicted it as devout: \"To my certain knowledge, he was responsible for at least one conversion. He took considerable pride in financing his nephew's studies for the priesthood\".\n\nCollections\n\nWarhol was an avid collector. His friends referred to his numerous collections, which filled not only his four-story townhouse, but also a nearby storage unit, as \"Andy's Stuff.\" The true extent of his collections was not discovered until after his death, when the Andy Warhol Museum in Pittsburgh took in 641 boxes of his \"Stuff.\"\n\nWarhol's collections included airplane menus, unpaid invoices, pizza dough, pornographic pulp novels, newspapers, stamps, supermarket flyers, and cookie jars, among other eccentricities. It also included significant works of art, such as George Bellows's Miss Bentham. One of his main collections was his wigs. Warhol owned more than 40 and felt very protective of his hairpieces, which were sewn by a New York wig-maker from hair imported from Italy. In 1985 a girl snatched Warhol's wig off his head. It was later discovered in Warhol's diary entry for that day that he wrote: \"I don't know what held me back from pushing her over the balcony.\"\n\nAnother item found in Warhol's boxes at the museum in Pittsburgh was a mummified human foot from Ancient Egypt. The curator of anthropology at Carnegie Museum of Natural History felt that Warhol most likely found it at a flea market. \n\nMedia about Warhol \n\nFilms \n\nWarhol appeared as himself in the film Cocaine Cowboys (1979). \n\nAfter his death, Warhol was portrayed by Crispin Glover in Oliver Stone's film The Doors (1991), by David Bowie in Julian Schnabel's film Basquiat (1996), and by Jared Harris in Mary Harron's film I Shot Andy Warhol (1996).\n\nWarhol appears as a character in Michael Daugherty's opera Jackie O (1997). Actor Mark Bringleson makes a brief cameo as Warhol in Austin Powers: International Man of Mystery (1997).\n\nMany films by avant-garde cineast Jonas Mekas have caught the moments of Warhol's life. Sean Gregory Sullivan depicted Warhol in the film 54 (1998). Guy Pearce portrayed Warhol in the film, Factory Girl (2007), about Edie Sedgwick's life. Actor Greg Travis portrays Warhol in a brief scene from the film Watchmen (2009).\n\nIn the movie, Highway to Hell, a group of Andy Warhols are part of the Good Intentions Paving Company where good-intentioned souls are ground into pavement.. \n\nIn the film Men in Black 3 (2012) Andy Warhol turns out to really be undercover MIB Agent W (played by Bill Hader). Warhol is throwing a party at The Factory in 1969, where he is looked up by MIB Agents K and J (J from the future). Agent W is desperate to end his undercover job (\"I'm so out of ideas I'm painting soup cans and bananas, for Christ sakes!\" and \"You gotta fake my death, okay? I can't listen to sitar music anymore.\")\n\nAndy Warhol (portrayed by Tom Meeten) is one of main characters of the 2012 British television show Noel Fielding's Luxury Comedy. The character is portrayed as having robot-like mannerisms.\n\nGus Van Sant was planning a version of Warhol's life with River Phoenix in the lead role just before Phoenix's death in 1993. \n\nIn the soon to be released 2016 feature, The Billionaire Boys Club, Cary Elwes portrays Warhol in a film based on the true story about Ron Levin (portrayed by Kevin Spacey) a friend of Warhol's who was murdered in 1986. \n\nDocumentaries \n\nThe documentary, Absolut Warhola (2001) was produced by Polish director Stanislaw Mucha, featuring Warhol's parents' family and hometown in Slovakia. \n Andy Warhol: A Documentary Film (2006) is a reverential, four-hour movie by Ric Burns that won a Peabody Award in 2006. \n* Andy Warhol: Double Denied (2006) is a 52-minute movie by Ian Yentob about the difficulties authenticating Warhol's work. \n* Andy Warhol's People Factory (2008), a three-part television documentary directed by Catherine Shorr, features interviews with several of Warhol's associates. \n\nTelevision \n\n* Warhol appeared as a recurring character in TV series Vinyl, played by John Cameron Mitchell. \n* In the episode of The Simpsons \"Mom and Pop Art\", Warhol appears in Homer's nightmare, throwing soup cans at Homer.\n\nHonors\n\nIn 2002, the U.S. Postal Service issued an 18-cent stamp commemorating Warhol. Designed by Richard Sheaff of Scottsdale, Arizona, the stamp was unveiled at a ceremony at The Andy Warhol Museum and features Warhol's painting \"Self-Portrait, 1964\". In March 2011, a chrome statue of Andy Warhol and his Polaroid camera was revealed at Union Square in New York City." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Andy Warhaul", "Warhol", "Warholian Pop", "Andy Warhola", "Andrew warhola", "Andy Warhol Foundation for the Visual Arts", "Warholite", "Andy warhol", "Drella", "Andrew Warhol", "Andy Wahrol", "Andy worhol", "Andrew Warhola", "Andy Warhol Foundation", "Warholesque", "Warholian", "Warhol Foundation", "Andy Warhol", "Paul Warhola" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "andy warhol", "andrew warhola", "andy warhol foundation", "warholian pop", "drella", "paul warhola", "warholesque", "andy wahrol", "andy worhol", "warhol foundation", "andy warhaul", "andy warhola", "andy warhol foundation for visual arts", "warhol", "warholite", "andrew warhol", "warholian" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "andrew warhola", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Andrew Warhola" }
What was the maiden name of Blondie Bumstead, the comic-strip wife of hapless Dagwood Bumstead?	tc_402	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Blondie_(comic_strip).txt", "Dagwood_Bumstead.txt" ], "title": [ "Blondie (comic strip)", "Dagwood Bumstead" ], "wiki_context": [ "Blondie is an American comic strip created by cartoonist Chic Young. Distributed by King Features Syndicate, the strip has been published in newspapers since September 8, 1930. The success of the strip, which features the eponymous blonde and her sandwich-loving husband, led to the long-running Blondie film series (1938–1950) and the popular Blondie radio program (1939–1950).\n\nChic Young drew Blondie until his death in 1973, when creative control passed to his son Dean Young, who continues to write the strip. Young has collaborated with a number of artists on Blondie, including Jim Raymond, Mike Gersher, Stan Drake, Denis Lebrun, and John Marshall. Through these changes, Blondie has remained popular, appearing in more than 2,000 newspapers in 47 countries and has been translated into 35 languages. Since 2006, Blondie has also been available via email through King Features' DailyINK service. \n\nOverview\n\nOriginally designed to follow in the footsteps of Young's earlier \"pretty girl\" creations Beautiful Bab and Dumb Dora, Blondie focused on the adventures of Blondie Boopadoop—a carefree flapper girl who spent her days in dance halls along with her boyfriend Dagwood Bumstead, heir to a railroad fortune. The name \"Boopadoop\" derives from the scat singing lyric that was popularized by Helen Kane's 1928 song \"I Wanna Be Loved by You.\"\n\nMarriage\n\nOn February 17, 1933, after much fanfare and build-up, Blondie and Dagwood were married after a month-and-a-half-long hunger strike by Dagwood to get his parents' blessing, but they strongly disapprove of his marrying beneath his class, and disinherit him. Left only with a check to pay their honeymoon, the Bumsteads are forced to become a middle-class suburban family. The marriage was a significant media event, given the comic strip's popularity. The catalog for the University of Florida's 2005 exhibition, \"75 Years of Blondie, 1930–2005\", notes:\nBlondie's marriage marked the beginning of a change in her personality. From that point forward, she gradually assumed her position as the sensible head of the Bumstead household. And Dagwood, who previously had been cast in the role of straight man to Blondie's comic antics, took over as the comic strip's clown. \n\nSetting\n\n\"Dagwood Bumstead and family, including Daisy and the pups, live in the suburbs of Joplin, Missouri,\" according to the August 1946 issue of The Joplin Globe, citing Chic Young. \n\nCast of characters\n\nBlondie Bumstead (née Boopadoop): The eponymous leading lady of the comic strip. Blondie is a smart, sweet, and responsible woman. She can be stressed at times when raising her family and because of Dagwood's antics, and despite being usually laid-back and patient, Blondie does get upset sometimes. She is also extremely beautiful with gold hair, gentle curls, and a shapely figure. A friend once told Dagwood that Blondie looked like a 'million bucks'. In 1991, she began a catering business with her neighbor, Tootsie.\nDagwood Bumstead: Blondie's husband. A kind, intelligent and loving yet clumsy, naïve and lazy man whose cartoonish antics are the basis for the strip. He is a big fan of sports (primarily football and baseball) and has a large, insatiable appetite for food (but he remains slender). Dagwood is especially fond of making and eating the mile-high Dagwood sandwich. He celebrates even the most insignificant holidays, and approaches Thanksgiving (a holiday known for lavish dinners) with the same reverence most people reserve for Christmas. His continuous antagonistic and comical confrontations with his boss Mr. Dithers, for numerous reasons including Dagwood's laziness and silly mistakes, is a subplot that gets considerable attention in the strip. His klutziness is also a fundamental part of his encounters with Mr. Beasley the mailman. Another subplot deals with Dagwood and his neighbor Herb. He can also often be seen napping on his couch.\nAlexander Bumstead: the elder child of Blondie and Dagwood who is in his late teens, formerly referred to by his pet name \"Baby Dumpling\". As a child, he was very mischievous and precocious. As a teenager, he is athletic, levelheaded and intelligent. Despite resembling his father, he is more down-to-earth like his mother.\nCookie Bumstead: the younger child of Blondie and Dagwood who is in her early teens. Cookie is portrayed as a sweet, bubbly teenage girl whose interests include dating, hanging out with friends, and clothes. Her appearance has changed the most compared to the other characters, as a child (1940s-late 1950s) she originally had long curly hair with a black bow holding a long curl on the top of her head, as a young teen (late 1950s-1960s) she wore her hair in a ponytail with curly bangs, as an older teen (1970s-1990s) she wore her hair long with a black headband and later (2000s) dropped the hair band and wore her hair with bangs, barretes and flipped to the sides. Her current hairstyle is long with bangs and flipped at sides.\nDaisy: The Bumsteads' family dog whose best friend is Dagwood and who frequently changes her expression in response to Dagwood's comments or other activities. She, in the later years of the comic, gave birth to puppies.\nMr. Beasley the Postman: The Bumsteads' mailman who Dagwood seems to always collide with and knock down as Dagwood hurriedly leaves the house.\nMr. Julius Caesar Dithers: Founder of the J.C. Dithers Construction Company and Dagwood's boss. He dictates to his employees and believes the best thing in life is money. Although it usually does not seem like it at the workplace, Mr. Dithers still is a good-hearted man.\nMrs. Cora Dithers: Mr. Dithers' wife. She usually gets into fights with him as she exerts control of her husband. She is great friends with Blondie.\nHerb Woodley: Dagwood's best friend and next-door neighbor. Herb though can be extremely selfish and mean at times when he doesn't return the expensive power tools and favors that he usually borrows from Dagwood. Herb constantly finds means to annoy and infuriate him.\nTootsie Woodley: Herb's wife and Blondie's best friend. Tootsie and Blondie can empathize with one another as women, mothers, and particularly as spouses of eccentric husbands. In 1991, she joined Blondie in starting a catering business.\nElmo Tuttle: A kid in the neighborhood who has a friendship with Dagwood (whom he calls \"Mr. B\"), but sometimes annoys him. His last name was originally \"Fiffenhauser.\"\nLou: The owner and counterman at Lou's Diner, where Dagwood goes on lunch hours. Dagwood sometimes suggests new specials for the diner. Lou is covered with tattoos and always has a toothpick in his mouth.\nClaudia and Dwitzell: The carpoolers with Dagwood and Herb. Claudia is a lawyer; no occupation has been identified for Dwitzell, sometimes called \"Dwitz\".\nMike Morelli the Barber: Dagwood's barber. He likes to make fun of Dagwood's hairstyle and can usually be seen with his nameplate, \"M. Morelli\" displayed by his barber's chair.\n\nThe Bumstead family has grown, with the addition of a son named Alexander (originally \"Baby Dumpling\") on April 15, 1934, a daughter named Cookie on April 11, 1941, a dog, Daisy, and her litter of five unnamed pups. In the 1960s, Cookie and Alexander grew into teenagers (who uncannily resemble their parents), but they stopped growing during the 1960s when Young realized that they had to remain teenagers to maintain the family situation structured into the strip for so many decades.\n\nDagwood is the office manager at the office of the J. C. Dithers Construction Company under his dictatorial boss—Julius Caesar Dithers. Mr. Dithers is a \"sawed-off, tin pot Napoleon\" who is always abusing his employees, both verbally and physically. He frequently threatens to fire Dagwood when Dagwood inevitably botches or does not finish his work, sleeps on the job, comes in late, or pesters Dithers for a raise. Dithers characteristically responds by kicking Dagwood in the backside and ordering him back to work. The tyrannical Dithers is lord and master over all he surveys, with one notable exception—his formidable and domineering wife, Cora.\n\nBlondie and Dagwood's best friends are their next-door neighbors Herb and Tootsie Woodley, although Dagwood and Herb's friendship is frequently volatile. Lou is the burly, tattooed owner of Lou's Diner, the less-than-five-star establishment where Dagwood often eats during his lunch hour. Other regular supporting characters include the long-suffering mailman, Mr. Beasley; Elmo Tuttle, a pesky neighborhood kid who often asks Dagwood to play; and a never-ending parade of overbearing door-to-door salesmen.\n\nRunning gags\n\nThere are several running gags in Blondie, reflecting the trend after Chic Young's death for the strip to focus almost entirely on Dagwood as the lead character:\n\n* Dagwood often collides with Mr. Beasley the mailman while running out the front door—late for work.\n* Other variations of the late-for-work gag: Dagwood keeping his car pool waiting, running after their car or stuck in traffic. In earlier decades, he had been late for the bus or, even earlier in the strip's run, late for the streetcar.\n* The famous, impossibly tall sandwiches Dagwood fixes for himself, which came to be known colloquially as the \"Dagwood sandwich\".\n* Dagwood in his pajamas, having a midnight snack—with most of the refrigerator contents spread out on the kitchen table, (or balanced precariously on his extended arms, on the way to the table.)\n* Dagwood's propensity to nap on the couch during the day, often interrupted by Elmo, who wants to ask him a question; or Blondie, who has a chore she wants him to do.\n* Dagwood singing in the bathtub, or interrupted (usually by family members or Elmo) while he's trying to relax in the tub.\n* Dagwood contends with brazen or obnoxious salesmen at his door, selling undesirable or impossible-looking items.\n* A variation of the above has the salesmen calling on the telephone.\n* Dagwood and Herb Woodley spending some weekend time together, which usually escalates into a brawl.\n* Dagwood demanding a raise from Dithers and failing to get it every time.\n* Dagwood caught goofing off or sleeping at his desk in the office.\n* Mr. Dithers firing Dagwood for being incompetent or physically booting him out of his office.\n* Dagwood getting a menu suggestion from Lou, the wry, blunt, and/or sarcastic diner counterman.\n* The Christmas shopping gag, where Dagwood is shown carrying Christmas packages that completely cover up his face and upper body.\n* Herb borrowing small items—tools, small appliances, books, and (more recently) videos—from Dagwood, then never returning them. Occasionally, Herb will loan a borrowed item to a third party, which is then usually passed on to a fourth or fifth party, etc. \n* Dagwood's hobby is household carpentry, but unfortunately his projects don't turn out well. Once, he built a small cabinet for Blondie, actually accomplishing all construction steps perfectly; but the result still fails because it doesn't fit in the space Blondie intended for it. Mostly, he is producing sawdust.\n\nSunday strips\n\nDuring the early years of the strip, the Sunday installments were much in the vein of the then-popular genre of \"pretty girl\" strips (including a variety of regular suitors), rather than spoofing them like in the daily continuities. Dagwood would actually not appear in a Sunday page until January 1, 1933. \n\nFrom 1930 to 1935, Young drew The Family Foursome as a topper, being replaced by the pantomime strip Colonel Potterby and the Duchess, which ran until 1963 (becoming a stand-alone strip in 1958).\n\nFor years, the Sunday installments were noted by their histrionic humor as well for having 12 panels, switching to the standard half-page format in 1986.\n \nModernization\n\nWhile the distinctive look and running gags of Blondie have been carefully preserved through the decades, a number of details have been altered to keep up with changing times. The Bumstead kitchen, which remained essentially unchanged from the 1930s through the 1960s has slowly acquired a more modern look (no more legs on the gas range and no more refrigerators shown with the compressor assembly on the top).\n\nDagwood no longer wears a hat when he goes to work, nor does Blondie wear her previous hat and gloves when leaving the house. Although some bedroom and bathroom scenes still show him in polka-dot boxer shorts, Dagwood no longer wears garters to hold up his socks. When at home, he frequently wears sport shirts, his standard dress shirt with one large button in the middle is slowly disappearing, and he no longer smokes a pipe at all. Blondie now often wears slacks, and she is no longer depicted as a housewife since she teamed with Tootsie Woodley to launch a catering business in 1991. Dagwood still knocks heads with his boss, Mr. Dithers, but now does so in a more modern office at J.C. Dithers Construction Company where desks now sport flat panel computer monitors, and Mr. Dithers, when in a rage, attempts to smash his laptop into Dagwood's head instead of his old manual typewriter. The staff no longer punches in at a mechanical \"time clock\", nor do they wear green eyeshades and plastic \"sleeve protectors\". Telephones have changed from candlestick style to more modern dial phones, to Touch-Tone, and on to cellphones. Dagwood now begins each morning racing to meet his carpool rather than chasing after a missed streetcar or city bus. Even Mr. Beasley, the mail carrier, now dresses in short-sleeve shirts and walking shorts, rather than the military-style uniform of days gone by.\n\nDuring the late 1990s and 2000–2001, Alexander worked part-time after high school at the order counter of a fast food restaurant, the Burger Barn. There are still occasional references to Cookie and her babysitting. Daisy, who once had a litter of puppies that lived with the family, is now the only dog seen in the Bumstead household. Cookie and Alexander can be seen in modern clothing trends and sometimes use cellphones, reference current television shows and social networking sites, while talking about attending rock concerts of popular current Rock, Pop, and Hip Hop music acts.\n\nIn this period, when in his basement woodworking shop, Dagwood was now shown wearing safety eyeglasses.\n\nDagwood sometimes breaks the fourth wall by delivering the punchline to the strip while looking directly at the reader, as in the above panel. Daisy occasionally does the same, though her remarks are limited to \"?\" and \"!\" with either a puzzled or a pained expression.\n\nStrips in recent years have included references to recent developments in technology and communication, such as Facebook, Twitter, email, and text messaging.\n\n75th anniversary\n\nIn 2005, the strip celebrated its 75th anniversary with an extended story arc in which characters from other strips, including Curtis, Garfield, Beetle Bailey, and Hägar the Horrible, made appearances in Blondie. The strip Pearls Before Swine made fun of the fact that their cast was not invited, and decided to invite themselves. This cross-over promotion began July 10, 2005 and continued until September 4, 2005. \n\nAwards\n\nIn 1948, Chic Young's work on the strip won him the National Cartoonists Society's Billy DeBeck Award for Cartoonist of the Year. When the award name was renamed the Reuben Award in 1954, all the prior winners were given Reuben statuettes.\nIn 1995, the strip was one of 20 included in the Comic Strip Classics series of United States Postal Service commemorative postage stamps. \n\nBlondie in other media\n\nComic books\n\n* Chic Young's Blondie (1947–1949) David McKay/King Comics, 15 issues\n* Dagwood Splits the Atom (1949) King Features (Public services giveaway)\n* Blondie Comics Monthly (1950–1965) Harvey Publications, 148 issues\n* Chic Young's Dagwood Comics (1950–1965) Harvey, 140 issues\n* Daisy and Her Pups (1951–1954) Harvey, 18 issues\n* Blondie & Dagwood Family (1963–1965) Harvey, four issues\n* Chic Young's Blondie (1965–1966) King Comics, 12 issues\n* Blondie (1969–1976) Charlton Comics, 46 issues\n\nFilm\n\nBlondie was adapted into a long-running series of 28 low-budget theatrical B-features, produced by Columbia Pictures. Beginning with Blondie in 1938, the series lasted 12 years, through Beware of Blondie (1950). The two major roles were Penny Singleton as Blondie and Arthur Lake (whose first starring role was another comic strip character, Harold Teen) as Dagwood. Faithfulness to the comic strip was a major concern of the creators of the series. Little touches were added that were iconic to the strip, like the appearance of Dagwood's famous sandwiches—and the running gag of Dagwood colliding with the mailman amid a flurry of letters, (which preceded the title sequence in almost every film).\n\nColumbia was careful to maintain continuity, so each picture progressed from where the last one left off. Thus the Bumstead children grew from toddlers to young adults onscreen. Larry Simms played the Bumsteads' son in all the films; his character was originally called Baby Dumpling, and later became Alexander. Marjorie Kent (born Marjorie Ann Mutchie) joined the series in 1943 as daughter Cookie. Daisy had pups in the 12th feature, Blondie for Victory (1942). Danny Mummert, who had originally been chosen to play Baby Dumpling, took the continuing role of wiseguy neighbor Alvin Fuddle. Rounding out the regular supporting cast, character actor Jonathan Hale played Dagwood's irascible boss, J.C. Dithers. Hale left the series in 1945 and was succeeded by Jerome Cowan as George M. Radcliffe in Blondie's Big Moment. In the last film, Beware of Blondie, the Dithers character returned, played by Edward Earle and shown from the back. The Bumsteads' neighbors, the Woodleys, did not appear in the series until Beware of Blondie. They were played by Emory Parnell and Isabel Withers.\n\nIn 1943 Columbia felt the series was slipping, and ended the string with It's a Great Life and Footlight Glamour, deliberately omitting \"Blondie\" from the titles to attract unwary moviegoers. After 14 Blondies, stars Singleton and Lake moved on to other productions. During their absence from the screen, Columbia heard from many exhibitors and fans who wanted the Blondies back. The studio reactivated the series, which ran another 14 films until discontinued permanently in 1950. Because there was still some demand from movie theaters, Columbia began reissuing the older films, beginning with the 1938 Blondie, and continued to release them in their original sequence well into the 1950s.\n\nBlondie (1938)\nBlondie Meets the Boss (1939)\nBlondie Takes a Vacation (1939)\nBlondie Brings Up Baby (1939)\nBlondie on a Budget (1940)\nBlondie Has Servant Trouble (1940)\nBlondie Plays Cupid (1940)\nBlondie Goes Latin (1941)\nBlondie in Society (1941)\nBlondie Goes to College (1942)\nBlondie's Blessed Event (1942)\nBlondie for Victory (1942)\nIt's a Great Life (1943)\nFootlight Glamour (1943)\nLeave It to Blondie (1945)\nLife with Blondie (1946)\nBlondie's Lucky Day (1946)\nBlondie Knows Best (1946)\nBlondie's Big Moment (1947)\nBlondie's Holiday (1947)\nBlondie in the Dough (1947)\nBlondie's Anniversary (1947)\nBlondie's Reward (1948)\nBlondie's Secret (1948)\nBlondie's Big Deal (1949)\nBlondie Hits the Jackpot (1949)\nBlondie's Hero (1950)\nBeware of Blondie (1950)\n\nRadio\n\nSingleton and Lake reprised their film roles for radio; the Blondie radio program had a long run spanning several networks. Initially a 1939 summer replacement program for The Eddie Cantor Show (sponsored by Camel Cigarettes), Blondie was heard on CBS until June 1944, when it moved briefly to NBC. Returning to CBS later that year, Blondie continued there under a new sponsor (Colgate-Palmolive) until June 1949. In its final season, the series was heard on ABC from October 1949 to July 1950.\n\nTelevision\n\nTwo Blondie TV sitcoms have been produced to date, each lasting only one season.\nThe first ran on NBC for 26 episodes in 1957, with Lake reprising his film and radio role and Pamela Britton as Blondie.\nThe second, broadcast on CBS in the 1968–69 season, had Patricia Harty and Will Hutchins in the lead roles and veteran comic actor Jim Backus portraying Mr. Dithers.\n\nAnimation\n\nBlondie and Dagwood made a brief animated appearance in The Fantastic Funnies, a TV special focusing on newspaper comics that aired on CBS in 1980. They appeared in the beginning, singing a song to host Loni Anderson with other comic strip characters. Later on, after a short interview with Dean Young and Jim Raymond (who was drawing the strip at the time), they featured a short sequence where Blondie urges a reluctant Dagwood to get a haircut. The animation was produced by Bill Melendez Productions.\n\nAn animated cartoon TV special featuring the characters was made in 1987 by Marvel Productions, (who had earlier collaborated with King Features for the animated series Defenders of the Earth, starring King Feature's adventure characters) and shown on CBS, with a second special, Second Wedding Workout, telecast in 1989. Blondie was voiced by Loni Anderson, Dagwood by Frank Welker. Both animated specials are available on the fourth DVD of the Advantage Cartoon Mega Pack. Both of these specials were paired with other King Features-based specials; the first special was paired with a special based on Cathy; the second one was paired with Hägar the Horrible.\n\nIn the episode \"Comic Caper\" (season six episode six) of Jim Henson's Muppet Babies (also produced by Marvel and aired on CBS), both Blondie and Dagwood make a cameo appearance. Blondie tells Dagwood that he is going to be late for work. As Dagwood rushes to the door where he knocks into the Muppet Babies who accidentally fall in their comic strip. Frank Welker who voiced Dagwood in the TV special also voiced Baby Kermit and Skeeter on Muppet Babies. Baby Kermit and Baby Piggy even parodied Blondie and Dagwood in one scene.\n\nGarfield Gets Real\n\nDagwood appeared in the CGI animated film, Garfield Gets Real. He first appeared in the cafeteria scene in which he is holding a sandwich. He was later seen behind a folding door taking a bath. He appeared in the auditorium scene watching Garfield and Odie. He finally appeared in a crowd cheering Garfield and Odie. He did not appear in the sequels, Garfield's Fun Fest or Garfield's Pet Force.\n\nLicensing/Merchandise\n\nOver the years, Blondie characters have been merchandised as dolls, coloring books, toys, salt and pepper shakers, paint sets, paper doll cutouts, coffee mugs, cookie jars, neckties, lunchboxes, puzzles, games, Halloween costumes, Christmas ornaments, music boxes, refrigerator magnets, lapel pinbacks, greeting cards, and other products. In 2001, Dark Horse Comics issued two collectible figures of Dagwood and Blondie as part of their line of Classic Comic Characters—statues No. 19 and 20 respectively.\n\nA counter-service restaurant called Blondie's opened at Universal Orlando's Islands of Adventure in May 1999, serving a traditional Dagwood-style sandwich. In fact, Blondie's bills itself as \"Home of the Dagwood Sandwich.\" Lunch meats featuring Dagwood can be purchased at various grocery stores.\n\nOn May 11, 2006, Dean Young announced the opening of the first of his Dagwood's Sandwich Shoppes that summer in Clearwater, Florida, and the comic strip characters discussed the notion of Dagwood opening his own sandwich shop. The official Dagwood sandwich served at Dagwood's Sandwich Shoppes has the following ingredients: three slices of deli bread, hard salami, pepperoni, cappicola, mortadella, deli ham, cotto salami, cheddar, Provolone, red onion, green leaf lettuce, tomato, fresh and roasted red bell peppers, mayo, mustard, and a secret Italian olive salad oil.\n\nReprints and further reading\n\n;Comic strip collections\nBlondie #1 by Chic Young (1968) Signet\nBlondie #2 by Chic Young (1968) Signet\nBlondie (No. 1) by Dean Young and Jim Raymond (1976) Tempo\nBlondie (No. 2) by Dean Young and Jim Raymond (1977) Tempo\nThe Best of Blondie by Dean Young, et al. (1977) Tempo\nBlondie: Celebration Edition by Dean Young and Jim Raymond (1980) Tempo\nBlondie (No. 3) by Dean Young and Jim Raymond (1982) Tempo\nBlondie (No. 4): A Family Album by Dean Young and Mike Gersher (1982) Tempo\nBlondie: More Surprises! by Dean Young and Mike Gersher (1983) Tempo\nBlondie Book 1 (1986) by Dean Young and Stan Drake (1986) Blackthorne\nBlondie: Mr Dithers, I Demand a Raise!! by Dean Young and Jim Raymond (1989) Tor\nBlondie: But Blondie, I'm Taking a Bath!! by Dean Young and Jim Raymond (1990) Tor\nBlondie: The Bumstead Family History by Dean Young and Melena Ryzik (2007) Thomas Nelson Pub. ISBN 1-4016-0322-X\nBlondie: Volume 1 by Chic Young (2010) IDW Publishing ISBN 1-60010-740-0 (First of a projected series)\n;Related fiction\nBlondie and Dagwood in Footlight Folly (1947) Dell (An original paperback novel, not illustrated. Unnumbered, but usually considered part of Dell's mapback series)\nBlondie's Family (1954) Treasure/Wonder Book (a full-color storybook for children)\n;History\nBlondie & Dagwood's America (1981) Harper & Row ISBN 0-06-090908-0 (Dean Young and Rick Marschall's collaboration, providing an historical background of the strip)\nBlondie Goes to Hollywood: The Blondie Comic Strip in Films, Radio & Television by Carol Lynn Scherling (2010) BearManor Media ISBN 978-1-59393-401-9", "Dagwood Bumstead is a main character in cartoonist Chic Young's long-running comic strip Blondie. He first appeared sometime prior to 17 February 1933.\n\nHe was originally heir to the Bumstead Locomotive fortune but was disowned when he married a flapper (originally known as Blondie Boopadoop) whom his family saw as below his class. He has since worked hard at J. C. Dithers & Company (currently as the construction company's office manager) to support his family. The Bumsteads' first baby, Alexander, was originally named Baby Dumpling. The name of his younger sister, Cookie, was chosen by readers in a national contest. The family circle is rounded out by Daisy the dog. The origin of both Dagwood's last name and Daisy's name came from Chic Young's long-time friend Arthur Bumstead and his dog, Daisy.\n\nCharacteristics\n\nHis favorite things in life include his wife Blondie, his kids, naps on the sofa, long baths, and food. Dagwood was famous for concocting tall, multi-layered sandwiches topped with an olive on a toothpick, and the term \"Dagwood sandwich\" has entered American English. He frequently has problems with door-to-door salesmen, rude telemarketers and store salespeople, crashing into the mailman (Mr. Beasley) as he rushes from home, getting ready before the carpool leaves without him, getting to work on time, his boss J.C. Dithers, and Cookie's many dates. He is often suspicious of her dates and keeps a close watch on them when they come to the house. Other characters in his universe include Elmo Tuttle, a pesky little neighborhood kid who wanders in and out of the Bumstead house, next-door neighbors Herb and Tootsie Woodley, Lou, the sarcastic cook in a local diner, and Mr. Dithers' domineering wife, Cora. Dagwood's birthday is July 20. \n\nAppearances in other media\n\nOver the years, Dagwood has appeared not only in daily newspapers, but in comic books, Big Little Books, Whitman novels for children, and other print materials, as well as radio, film, and television. Arthur Lake played Dagwood in the Blondie film series (1938–50) and the short-lived 1957 TV series Blondie, while Will Hutchins played him in a revival series (1968–69). He makes several cameo appearances in Garfield Gets Real, alongside Grimmy from Mother Goose and Grimm. Dagwood and his wife also made a cameo appearance in a Garfield strip originally published April 1, 1997. On a fourth wall break, Garfield refers to this as \"moving to a different comic strip\". Dagwood made another appearance in Garfield comic strips in August 20, 2005 to invite Jon and Garfield for his and Blondie's anniversary party.\n\nIn the song \"Homemade Mummy\" alternative rapper Aesop Rock briefly references Dagwood." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Boopadoop" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "boopadoop" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "boopadoop", "type": "FreeForm", "value": "Boopadoop" }
What famous comic strip character was inspired by the 1936 Henry Fonda film Trail of the Lonesome Pine?	tc_404	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "Search", "Search" ], "filename": [ "Li'l_Abner.txt", "Al_Capp.txt" ], "title": [ "Li'l Abner", "Al Capp" ], "wiki_context": [ "Li'l Abner is a satirical American comic strip that appeared in many newspapers in the United States, Canada and Europe, featuring a fictional clan of hillbillies in the impoverished mountain village of Dogpatch, USA. Written and drawn by Al Capp (1909–1979), the strip ran for 43 years, from August 13, 1934 through November 13, 1977. It was distributed by United Feature Syndicate. Comic strips typically dealt with northern urban experiences before Capp introduced Li'l Abner, the first strip based in the South. Although Capp was from Connecticut, he spent 43 years writing about a fictional southern town. The comic strip had 60 million readers in over 900 American newspapers and 100 foreign papers in 28 countries. Author M. Thomas Inge says Capp \"had a profound influence on the way the world viewed the American South.\" \n\nCast\n\nMain characters\n\nLi'l Abner Yokum: Abner was 6' 3\" and perpetually 19 \"y'ars\" old. A naïve, simpleminded, gullible and sweet-natured hillbilly, he lived in a ramshackle log cabin with his pint-sized parents. Capp derived the family name \"Yokum\" as a combination of yokel and hokum. In Capp's satirical and often complex plots, Abner was a country bumpkin Candide—a paragon of innocence in a sardonically dark and cynical world. Abner typically had no visible means of support, but sometimes earned his livelihood as a \"crescent cutter\" for the Little Wonder privy company, later changed to \"mattress tester\" for the Stunned Ox mattress company. During World War II, Abner was \"drafted\" into becoming the mascot emblem of the Patrol Boat Squadron 29. In one Post World War II storyline Abner became a US Air Force bodyguard of Steve Cantor (a parody of Steve Canyon) against the evil bald female spy Jewell Brynner (a parody of actor Yul Brynner) Abner's primary goal in life was evading the marital designs of Daisy Mae Scragg, the virtuous, voluptuous, barefoot Dogpatch damsel and scion of the Yokums' blood feud enemies—the Scraggs, her bloodthirsty, semi-evolved kinfolk. For 18 years, Abner slipped out of Daisy Mae's marital crosshairs time and time again. When Capp finally gave in to reader pressure and allowed the couple to tie the knot, it was a major media event. It even made the cover of Life magazine on March 31, 1952—illustrating an article by Capp entitled \"It's Hideously True!! The Creator of Li'l Abner Tells Why His Hero Is (SOB!) Wed!!\"\n\nDaisy Mae Yokum (née Scragg): Beautiful Daisy Mae was hopelessly in love with Dogpatch's most prominent resident throughout the entire 43-year run of Al Capp's comic strip. During most of the epic, the impossibly dense Abner exhibited little romantic interest in her voluptuous charms (much of it visible daily thanks to her famous polka-dot peasant blouse and cropped skirt). In 1952, Abner reluctantly proposed to Daisy to emulate the engagement of his comic strip \"ideel,\" Fearless Fosdick. Fosdick's own wedding to longtime fiancée Prudence Pimpleton turned out to be a dream—but Abner and Daisy's ceremony, performed by Marryin' Sam, was permanent. Abner and Daisy Mae's nuptials were a major source of media attention, landing them on the aforementioned cover of Life magazine's March 31, 1952, issue. Once married, Abner became relatively domesticated. Like Mammy Yokum and the other \"wimmenfolk\" in Dogpatch, Daisy Mae did all the work, domestic and otherwise—while the useless menfolk generally did nothing whatsoever.\n\nMammy Yokum: Born Pansy Hunks, Mammy was the scrawny, highly principled \"sassiety\" leader and bare knuckle \"champeen\" of the town of Dogpatch. She married the inconsequential Pappy Yokum in 1902; they produced two strapping sons twice their own size. Mammy dominated the Yokum clan through the force of her personality, and dominated everyone else with her fearsome right uppercut (sometimes known as her \"Goodnight, Irene\" punch), which helped her uphold law, order and decency. She is consistently the toughest character throughout Li'l Abner. A superhuman dynamo, Mammy did all the household chores—and provided her charges with no fewer than eight meals a day of \"po'k chops\" and \"tarnips,\" (as well as local Dogpatch delicacies like \"candied catfish eyeballs\" and \"trashbean soup\"). Her authority was unquestioned, and her characteristic phrase, \"Ah has spoken!,\" signaled the end of all further discussion. Her most familiar phrase, however, is \"Good is better than evil becuz it's nicer!\" (Upon his retirement in 1977, Capp declared Mammy to be his personal favorite of all his characters.)\n\nPappy Yokum: Born Lucifer Ornamental Yokum, pint-sized Pappy had the misfortune of being the patriarch in a family that didn't have one. Pappy was so lazy and ineffectual, he didn't even bathe himself. Mammy was regularly seen scrubbing Pappy in an outdoor oak tub (\"Once a month, rain or shine\"). Ironing Pappy's trousers fell under her wifely duties as well, although she didn't bother with preliminaries—like waiting for Pappy to remove them first. While Mammy was the unofficial mayor of Dogpatch and could read, Pappy remained illiterate. Pappy is dull-witted and gullible (in one storyline after he is conned by Marry'n Sam into buying Vanishing cream because he thinks it makes him invisible he picks a fight with his nemesis Earthquake McGoon), but not completely without guile. He had an unfortunate predilection for snitching \"presarved tarnips\" and smoking corn silk behind the woodshed—much to his chagrin when Mammy caught him.\n\nHonest Abe Yokum: Li'l Abner and Daisy Mae's little boy was born in 1953 \"after a pregnancy that ambled on so long that readers began sending me medical books,\" wrote Capp. Initially known as \"Mysterious Yokum\" (there was even an Ideal doll marketed under this name) due to a debate regarding his gender (he was stuck in a pants-shaped stovepipe for the first six weeks), he was renamed \"Honest Abe\" (after President Abraham Lincoln) to thwart his early tendency to steal. His first words were \"po'k chop,\" and that remained his favorite food. Though his uncle Tiny was perpetually frozen at 15½ \"y'ars\" old, Honest Abe gradually grew from infant to grade school age, and became a dead ringer for Washable Jones—the star of Capp's early \"topper\" strip. He would eventually acquire a couple of supporting character friends for his own semi-regularly featured adventures in the strip. In one storyline he lives up to his nickname when during a nationwide search for George Washington missing socks {the finder gets to shake the President of the United States hand} after dishonestly producing a fraudulent pair he confess to the truth at the last second.\n\nTiny Yokum: \"Tiny\" was a misnomer; Li'l Abner's kid brother remained perpetually innocent and 15½ \"y'ars\" old—despite the fact that he was an imposing, 7 ft tall behemoth. Tiny was unknown to the strip until September 1954, when a relative who had been raising him reminded Mammy that she'd given birth to a second \"chile\" while visiting her 15 years earlier. (The relative explained that she would have dropped him off sooner, but waited until she happened to be in the neighborhood.) Capp introduced Tiny to fill the bachelor role played reliably for nearly two decades by Li'l Abner himself, until his fateful 1952 marriage threw the carefully orchestrated dynamic of the strip out of whack for a period. Pursued by local lovelies Hopeful Mudd and Boyless Bailey, Tiny was even dumber and more awkward than Abner, if that can be imagined. Tiny initially sported a bulbous nose like both of his parents, but eventually, (through a plot contrivance) he was given a nose job, and his shaggy blond hair was buzz cut to make him more appealing.\n\nSalomey: The Yokums' beloved pet. Cute, lovable and intelligent (arguably smarter than Abner, Tiny or Pappy), she was accepted as part of the family, (\"the youngest,\" as Mammy invariably introduces her.) She is 100% \"Hammus Alabammus\"—an adorable species of pig, and the last female known in existence. A plump, juicy Hammus Alabammus is the rarest and most vital ingredient of \"ecstasy sauce,\" an indescribably delicious gourmet delicacy. Consequently, Salomey is frequently targeted by unscrupulous sportsmen, hog breeders and gourmands (like J.R. Fangsley and Bounder J. Roundheels), as well as unsavory boars with improper intentions (such as Boar Scarloff and Porknoy). Her moniker was a pun on both salami and Salome.\n\nSupporting characters and villains\n\nMarryin' Sam: A traveling (by mule) preacher who specializes in $2 weddings. He also offered the $8 \"ultra-deluxe speshul,\" a spectacular ceremony in which Sam officiates while being drawn and quartered by four rampaging jackasses. He cleans up once a year—during Sadie Hawkins Day season, when slow-footed bachelors are dragged kicking and screaming to the altar by their prospective brides-to-be. Sam, whose face and figure were reportedly modeled after New York City mayor Fiorello LaGuardia, started out as a stock villain but gradually softened into a genial, opportunistic comic foil. He wasn't above chicanery to achieve his ends, and was warily viewed by Dogpatch menfolk as a traitor to his gender. Sam was prominently featured on the cover of Life in 1952 when he presided over the celebrated wedding of Li'l Abner and Daisy Mae. In the 1956 Broadway musical and 1959 film adaptation, Sam was perfectly played by rotund actor Stubby Kaye.\nMoonbeam McSwine: The unwashed but shapely form of languid, delectable Moonbeam was one of the iconic hallmarks of Li'l Abner—an unkempt, impossibly lazy, corncob pipe-smoking, flagrant (and fragrant), raven-haired, earthly (and earthy) goddess. Beautiful Moonbeam preferred the company of pigs to suitors—much to the frustration of her equally lazy pappy, Moonshine McSwine. She was usually showcased luxuriating among the hogs, somewhat removed from the main action of the story, in a deliberate travesty of glamour magazines and pinup calendars of the day. Capp designed her in caricature of his wife Catherine (minus the dirt), who had also suggested Daisy Mae's name. In one comic it is revealed that she bears a striking resemblance to a wealthy, well-dressed and well-washed woman named Gloria Van Welbuilt; a famous socialite. Despite her lazy nature and dirty appearance she was generally good-natured and kind as shown when she ran off to the Dogpatch, carrying two shmoos under her arms to save them from going extinct wondering if humanity will ever be good enough for them. She also consoled Abner to stop worrying about being a father. Moonbeam also seemed to have interests in romance as in some comic strips she was seen flirting with and even kissing various male characters including Abner. She once expressed the desire of having a family of her own and she actually discussed the matter of trapping a husband if she got cleaned up to Abner. In one strip it was revealed that Moonbeam was in fact in love with Abner when they were children. In the same strip it was shown that Moonbeam’s disposition for filth was born out of a failure to understand the turn-ons of Abner when he was a child. Strangely she actually disliked hogs as a child but after seeing Abner ignoring the openly romantic advances of a clean Daisy Mae, she dived right into a mud-hole headfirst where some hogs were wallowing to earn his love believing that if Abner didn't like clean girls he must have liked them dirty. Much to her disappointment however this too failed to capture his attention. Moonbeam was also unknowingly the star of a horror movie directed by Rock Pincus head film director of a race known as the Pincushions from Pincus 7. Unfortunately this venture ended in tragedy for Rock when he was unknowingly grilled, put into a hot dog bun and devoured while he was still alive.\nHairless Joe and Lonesome Polecat: The proud purveyors of \"Kickapoo Joy Juice\"—a moonshine elixir of such stupefying potency that the fumes alone have been known to melt the rivets off battleships. Concocted in a large wooden vat by the inseparable cave-dwelling buddies Lonesome Polecat (he of the Fried Dog Indian tribe, later known as the Polecats, \"the one tribe who have never been conquered,\") and Hairless Joe (a hirsute, club-wielding, modern Cro-Magnon—who frequently made good on his oft-repeated threat, \"Ah'll bash yore haid in!\") The ingredients of the brew are both mysterious and all-encompassing, (much like the contents of their cave, which has been known to harbor prehistoric monsters.) When a batch \"needs more body,\" the formidable pair simply goes out and clubs one (often a moose), and tosses it in. Over the years, the \"recipe\" has called for live grizzly bears, panthers, kerosene, horseshoes and anvils, among other ingredients. An officially licensed soft drink called Kickapoo Joy Juice is still produced by the Monarch Beverage Company of Atlanta, Georgia. Lonesome Polecat was also the official team mascot of the Sioux City Soos (1940–1960), a former Minor League baseball franchise of Sioux City, Iowa.\nJoe Btfsplk: The world's worst jinx, Joe Btfsplk had a perpetually dark rain cloud over his head. Instantaneous bad luck befell anyone unfortunate enough to be in his vicinity. Though well-meaning and friendly, his reputation inevitably precedes him—so Joe is a very lonely little man. He has an apparently unpronounceable name, but creator Al Capp \"pronounced\" Btfsplk by simply blowing a \"raspberry,\" or Bronx cheer. Joe's personal storm cloud became one of the most iconic images in the strip.\nSenator Jack S. Phogbound: His name was a thinly disguised variant on \"jackass,\" as made plain in his deathless campaign slogan (see Dialogue and catchphrases). The senator was satirist Al Capp's parody of a blustering self-serving Southern politician. Before 1947 Phogbound had been known as Fogbound, but in that year Phogbound \"blackmails his fellow Washington senators to appropriate two million dollars to establish Phogbound university,\" and its attendant brass statue of Phogbound, both reminiscent of self-aggrandizements by Huey Long; the name change allowed Capp to sharpen the joke by calling the university P.U. Phogbound is a corrupt, conspiratorial blowhard; he often wears a coonskin cap and carries an old fashioned flintlock rifle to impress his gullible constituents. In one sequence, Phogbound is unable to campaign in Dogpatch—so he sends his aides with an old, hot air-filled gas bag that resembles him. Nobody noticed the difference!\nAvailable Jones: Dogpatch entrepreneur Available Jones was always available—for a price. He had many sidelines, including minding babies, (Dry—5¢, Other kinds—10¢). He provided anything from a safety pin to a battleship, but his most famous \"provision\" was his memorable cousin—Stupefyin' Jones.\nStupefyin' Jones: A walking aphrodisiac, Stupefyin' was stunning—literally. So drop-dead gorgeous that any male who glimpsed her froze petrified in his tracks and rooted to the spot—in a word, stupefied! While she was generally favored by the males of Dogpatch, she could be deadly for a confirmed bachelor to encounter on Sadie Hawkins Day. Statuesque actress Julie Newmar became famous overnight for playing the small role in the 1956 Li'l Abner Broadway musical (and the 1959 film adaptation) without uttering a single line. \nGeneral Bullmoose: Created by Al Capp in June 1953, Bashington T. Bullmoose was the epitome of a mercenary, cold-blooded capitalist tyrant tycoon. Bullmoose's bombastic motto (see Dialogue and catchphrases) was adapted by Capp from a statement made by Charles E. Wilson, the former head of General Motors when it was America's largest corporation. In 1952 Wilson told a Senate subcommittee, \"What is good for the country is good for General Motors, and vice-versa.\" Wilson later served as United States Secretary of Defense under President Dwight D. Eisenhower. Bullmoose had a simple boyhood dream: to possess all the money in the world. He very nearly did. Bullmoose Industries seemed to own or control everything. He had a milksop of a son named Weakfish, and was sometimes accompanied by his delectable \"secretary,\" Bim Bovak, (whose name was a pun on both \"bimbo\" and bombshell actress Kim Novak). Li'l Abner became embroiled in many globetrotting adventures with the ruthless, reactionary billionaire over the years.\nWolf Gal: A feral, irredeemable, Amazonian beauty who was raised by wolves and preferred to live among them; she lured unwary Dogpatchers to their doom to feed her ravenous pack. Wolf Gal was possibly, and even probably a cannibal—although the point was never stressed since she considered herself an animal, as did the rest of Dogpatch. One of Capp's more popular villains, Wolf Gal was briefly merchandised in the fifties with her own comic book, doll, handpuppet, and even a latex Halloween mask.\nEarthquake McGoon: Billing himself as \"the world's dirtiest wrassler,\" the bearded, bloated McGoon first appeared in Li'l Abner as a traveling exhibition wrestler in the late 1930s, and was reportedly partially based on real-life grappler Man Mountain Dean. He also has a look-alike cousin named Typhoon McGoon. McGoon became increasingly prominent in the Li'l Abner Cream of Wheat print ads of the 1940s, and later, with the early television exposure of gimmicky wrestlers such as Gorgeous George. Earthquake is the nastiest resident of neighboring Skonk Hollow—a nightmarish, notoriously lawless community where no sane Dogpatcher dares set foot. The randy McGoon often attempted to walk Daisy Mae home \"Skonk Hollow style\"—the lascivious implications of which are never made specific.\nThe (shudder!) Scraggs: Hulking, leering, gap-toothed twin miscreants Lem and Luke and their needlessly proud pappy, Romeo. Apelike and gleefully homicidal, the impossibly evil Scraggs were officially declared inhuman by an act of Congress. The Scraggs were so awful, they burned down orphanages just to have light to read by, (although the joke was on them when they remembered they couldn't read!) Distant kinfolk of Daisy Mae, they carried on a blood feud with the Yokums throughout the run of the strip-in their first introduction after being run out of a Kentucky county at gunpoint, they tried to kill Li'l Abner but were beaten up by both Abner and his mother Mammy Yokam. A long-lost kid sister named \"@!!!\"-Belle Scragg briefly joined the clan in 1947. Fetchingly-attired in a prison-striped reform school miniskirt, \"@!!!\"-Belle was outwardly attractive but just as rotten as her siblings on the inside. Her censored first name was an expletive, compelling everyone who addressed her to apologize profusely afterwards.\nNightmare Alice: Dogpatch's own \"conjurin' woman,\" a hideous, cackling crone who practiced Louisiana Voodoo and black magic. Capp named her after the carnival-themed horror film, Nightmare Alley (1947). Alice employs witchcraft to \"whomp up\" ghosts and monsters to do her bidding. She was occasionally assisted by Doctor Babaloo, a witch doctor of the Belgian Congo, as well as her demon-child niece Scary Lou, who specializes in vexing voodoo dolls that resemble Li'l Abner.\nOle Man Mose: The mysterious Mose was reportedly hundreds of \"y'ars\" old, and lived like a hermit in a cave atop a mountain. (He obstinately refused to \"kick the bucket,\" which was conveniently positioned just outside his cave door.) His wisdom is absolute (\"Ole Man Mose— he knows!\"), and his sought-after annual Sadie Hawkins Day predictions— though frustratingly cryptic and infuriatingly misleading— are nonetheless 100% accurate.\nEvil-Eye Fleegle: Fleegle has a unique and terrifying skill— the evil eye. An ordinary \"whammy,\" as he called it, could stop a charging bull in its tracks. A \"double whammy\" could fell a skyscraper, leaving Fleegle exhausted. His dreaded \"triple whammy\" could melt a battleship— but would practically kill Fleegle in the process. The zoot suit-clad Fleegle was a native of Brooklyn, and his burlesque New York accent was unmistakable— especially when addressing his \"goil,\" the zaftig Shoiley. Fleegle was so popular, licensed plastic replicas of Fleegle's face were produced in the 1950s, to be worn like lapel pins. Battery-operated, the wearer could pull a string and produce a flashing light bulb \"whammy.\" Fleegle was reportedly based on a real-life character, a Runyonesque local boxing trainer and hanger-on named Benjamin \"Evil Eye\" Finkle. Finkle and his famous \"hex\" were a ringside fixture in New York boxing circles during the 1930s and '40s. Fleegle was vividly portrayed by character actor Al Nesor in the aforementioned stage play and film.\nJ. Roaringham Fatback: The self-styled \"Pork King\" was a greedy, gluttonous, unscrupulous business tycoon. Incensed to find that Dogpatch cast a shadow on his breakfast egg, he had Dogpatch moved— instead of the egg. The bloated, porcine Fatback is, quite literally, a corporate swine.\nGat Garson: Li'l Abner's doppelgänger— a murderous racketeer, with a predilection for Daisy Mae.\nAunt Bessie: Mammy's socialite kid sister, the Duchess of Bopshire, was the \"white sheep\" of the family. Bessie's string of marriages into Boston and Park Avenue aristocracy left her a class-conscious, condescending snob. Her status-seeking crusade to makeover Abner and marry him off into high society was doomed to failure, however. Aunt Bessie virtually disappeared from the strip after Abner and Daisy Mae's marriage in 1952.\nBig Barnsmell: The lonely \"inside man\" at the \"Skonk Works\"— a dilapidated factory located on the remote outskirts of Dogpatch. Scores of locals are done in yearly by the toxic fumes of concentrated \"skonk oil,\" which is brewed and barreled daily by Barnsmell and his cousin (\"outside man\" Barney Barnsmell) by grinding dead skunks and worn shoes into a smoldering still, for some unspecified purpose. His job played havoc with his social life (\"He has an air about him,\" as Dogpatchers tactfully put it), and the name of his famous facility entered the modern lexicon via the Lockheed Skunk Works project.\nSoft-Hearted John: Dogpatch's impossibly mercenary, thoroughly blackhearted grocer, the ironically named Soft-Hearted John gleefully swindled and starved his clientele— and looked disturbingly satanic to boot. He had an idiot of a nephew who sometimes ran the store in his stead, aptly named Soft-Headed John.\nSmilin' Zack: Cadaverous, outwardly peaceable mountaineer with a menacing grin and an even more menacing shotgun. He preferred things \"quiet.\" (Real quiet, that is— not breathing or anything.) Zack's moniker was a take-off on another comic strip, The Adventures of Smilin' Jack by Zack Mosley.\nDr. Killmare: The local Dogpatch physician, who just happened to be a horse doctor. His name was a pun on movie, radio and TV's Dr. Kildare series.\nCap'n Eddie Ricketyback: Decrepit World War I aviator and proprietor/sole operator of the even more decrepit Dogpatch Airlines. Cap'n Eddie's name was a spoof of decorated World War I flying ace, Eddie Rickenbacker. In 1970, Cap'n Eddie and his firm Trans-Dogpatch Airlines were awarded the West Berlin Route by his old rival Count Felix Von Holenhedt.\nCount Felix Von Holenhedt: German flying ace who in 1970 (age 89) was appointed as West German Civil Aviation Chief. He was never photographed without his World War I spiked helmet on his head. He wore it to cover the hole in his head that had been caused by being shot \"clean through th' haid, in a dogfight over Flanders Field in 1918\" by Cap'n Eddie Ricketyback.\nWeakeyes Yokum: Before Mister Magoo there was Dogpatch's own Cousin Weakeyes, who would tragically mistake grizzly bears for romantically-inclined \"rich gals\" in fur coats, and end a sequence by characteristically walking off a cliff.\nYoung Eddie McSkonk and U.S. Mule: Ancient, creaky, white-bearded Dogpatch postmaster and his hoary jackass mount. They were usually too feeble to handle the sacks of timeworn, cobweb-covered letters marked \"Rush\" at the Dogpatch Express post office.\nJ. Colossal McGenius: The brilliant marketing consultant and \"idea man\" who charged $10,000 per word for his sought-after business advice. McGenius was given to telling long-winded jokes with forgotten punch lines, however— as well as spells of hiccups and belches which, at ten grand a pop, usually bankrupted his unfortunate clients. (He had a regrettable fondness for gassy soft drinks like \"Burpsi-Booma\" and \"Eleven Urp.\") He was aided by his lovely and meticulously efficient secretary, Miss Pennypacker.\nSilent Yokum: Prudent Cousin Silent never utters a word unless it's absolutely, vitally important. Consequently, he hasn't spoken in 40 years. The arrival of Silent's grim visage in Dogpatch signaled earthshaking news on the horizon. Capp would milk reader suspense by having Silent \"warm up\" his rusty, creaking jaw muscles for a few days, before the momentous pronouncement.\nHappy Vermin: The \"world's smartest cartoonist\"— a caricature of Ham Fisher— who hired Li'l Abner to draw his comic strip for him in a dimly-lit closet. Instead of using Vermin's tired characters, Abner had inventively peopled the strip with hillbillies. A bighearted Vermin told his slaving assistant: \"I'm proud of having created these characters!! They'll make millions for me!! And if they do— I'll get you a new light bulb!!\"\nBig Stanislouse; aka Big Julius: Stanislouse was a brutal gangster with a childish fondness for kiddie TV superheroes (like \"Chickensouperman\" and \"Milton the Masked Martian\"). Part of a virtual goon squad of comic mobsters that inhabited Li'l Abner and Fearless Fosdick, the oafish Stanislouse alternated with other all-purpose underworld thugs, including \"the Boys from the Syndicate\"— Capp's euphemism for The Mob.\nThe Square-Eyes Family: Mammy's revelatory encounter with these unpopular Dogpatch outcasts first appeared in 1956. The fable-like story was really a thinly-veiled appeal for racial tolerance. It was later issued as an educational comic book— called Mammy Yokum and the Great Dogpatch Mystery!— by the Anti-Defamation League of B'nai B'rith.\nAppassionata Von Climax: One of a series of predatory, sexually aggressive sirens who pursued Li'l Abner prior to his marriage, and even afterwards, much to the consternation of Daisy Mae. Joining a long list of dishy femmes fatales and spoiled debutantes that included Gloria Van Welbilt, Moonlight Sonata, Mimi Van Pett and \"The Tigress\"; Appassionata was memorably portrayed by both Tina Louise (onstage) and Stella Stevens (on film). Capp always wondered how he ever got her suggestive name past the censors.\nTenderleif Ericson: Discovered frozen in the mud where her Viking ship sank in 1047, Tenderleif was Leif Ericson's beautiful, teenaged kid sister, (complete with breastplate armor, Viking helmet and burlesque Norwegian accent.) As soon as she saw Li'l Abner, however, she started warming up and breathing hard. \"She's seventeen y'ars old,\" explains Mammy, \"and she hain't had a date fo' nine hunnerd y'ars!\"\nPrincess Minihahaskirt: Decades before Disney's Pocahontas, the sexiest cartoon Indian princesses could be found in Li'l Abner. The latest in a series of lovely native maidens who enticed the normally stoic Lonesome Polecat, the list also included Minnie Mustache, Raving Dove, Little Turkey Wing and Princess Two Feathers.\nLiddle Noodnik: A typically miserable resident of perpetually frozen Lower Slobbovia, naked local waif Liddle Noodnik was usually employed to recite a farcical poem of greeting to visiting dignitaries, or sing the absurd Slobbovian national anthem, (see Setting and fictitious locales). Like many terms in Li'l Abner, Noodnik's name was derived from Yiddish. Nudnik is a slang term for a bothersome person or pest.\nPantless Perkins: A very late addition to the strip, Capp introduced Honest Abe's brainy, ragamuffin pal Pantless Perkins in a series of kid-themed stories in the seventies, probably to compete with Peanuts. Poor Pantless didn't own a single pair of trousers. He wore an over-length turtleneck sweater to hide the fact— much to his embarrassment. In one storyline {Feb/March 1972}the nearest he ever got a pair of pants was when he helps Honest Abe find a long lost love of a millionaire in return for a pair of pants. Unfortunately the prospective groom drops dead after tasting the terrible cooking of his bride to be—and Pantless remains pantless!\nRotten Ralphie: The kiddie version of Earthquake McGoon, Ralphie lived up to his name— he was the perfectly rotten Dogpatch neighborhood bully. Exceedingly large for his age, Ralphie always wore a cowboy outfit that was several sizes too small. In one storyline after Ralphie beats up every boy in Dogpatch at the same time, he himself is beaten up when Pantless Perkins and Honest Abe trick Ralphie into getting into a fight with the Scagg boys of Skonk Hollow!\nMarcia Perkins: Innocent, outwardly normal teenager whose lips give off 451 °F of electromagnetic heat, frying the brain of any boy who kisses her. Declared a walking health hazard, poor Marcia must wear a public warning sign (\"Do Not Kiss This Girl, by Order of the Dept. of Health, Education and Welfare\"). Her notoriety precedes her everywhere except Dogpatch— where she meets and falls for Tiny Yokum.\nBet-a-Million Bashby: Bashby amassed his colossal fortune by following one simple rule: Always bet on a sure thing, and always bet with a fool. He hadn't reckoned on fool's luck, however. All through the years Bashby bet on sure things, and all through the years Abner won.\nThe Widder Fruitful: Another iconic Dogpatch \"regular,\" often glimpsed in passing or featured in crowd scenes. The ample, fertile widow invariably held three or four naked newborns under each arm, always carried backside forward, with a healthy brood of earlier offspring following in her wake.\nLoverboynik: In 1954, Capp sent a letter to Liberace addressing his intention to spoof him in Li'l Abner as \"Liverachy.\" Liberace had his lawyers threaten to sue. Capp went ahead anyway, with a significant name change. Billed as the \"Sweetheart of the Piano,\" Loverboynik is a blonde \"dimpled darling\" pianist and TV heartthrob. According to Capp, Liberace was \"cut to the quick\" when the parody appeared. Capp insisted that Loverboynik was not Liberace because Loverboynik \"could play the piano rather decently and rarely wore black lace underwear.\" \nRock Hustler: Unscrupulous publicity agent-turned-marketing mogul. He masterminds an ad campaign promoting the miracle diet food \"Mockaroni,\" carefully neglecting to disclose that it's both addictive and lethal. \"The more you crave, the more you eat. The more you eat, the thinner you get— until you (shudder!) float away...\"\nDumpington Van Lump: The bloated, almost catatonic heir to the Van Lump fortune, Dumpington can only utter one syllable (\"Urp!\") ...until he sets sight on Daisy Mae. A somewhat subhuman fiend, his favorite book is the disturbingly-titled \"How to Make Lampshades Out of Your Friends.\" Capp chose the Dumpington sequence to illustrate his lesson on continuity storytelling in the Famous Artists Cartoon Course.\nSam the Centaur: A \"mythical critter\" with a classic, chiseled profile and Apollo-like blonde mane, Sam is a Greek centaur who occasionally roams the mountains of Dogpatch instead of the mountains of Thessaly. Available Jones, \"th' most book-educated varmint in Dogpatch,\" pronounces: \"He hain't real!\"\nJubilation T. Cornpone: Dogpatch's founder and most famous son, memorialized by a town statue, is Confederate General Jubilation T. Cornpone— renowned for \"Cornpone's Retreat,\" \"Cornpone's Disaster,\" \"Cornpone's Misjudgment,\" and \"Cornpone's Hoomiliation.\" Cornpone was such a disastrously incompetent military leader that he came to be considered an important asset of the opposing side. According to the stage play, the statue was commissioned by a grateful President Abraham Lincoln! (In one storyline, the General's statue is filled with Kickapoo Joy juice, which brings it to \"life.\" It then goes on a rampage, beheading all the statues of Union Army generals. As the U.S. Army can't destroy it— since it's a National Monument— Kickapoo Joy Juice is poured into a Union statue, which then charges the Cornpone statue. When the smoke clears, the animated statues have annihilated each other. At Mammy Yokum's urging the statue pieces are put together with glue. ) The hapless general is really best known for being the namesake of the rousing showstopper in the popular Li'l Abner musical, as sung by Marryin' Sam and chorus.\nRomeo McHaystack: A would be Don Juan of Pineapple Junction whose attempts at romancing women are frustrated because the Civic Improvement league tattooed a warning about him on his forehead. Discouraged he suddenly decides to romance Dogpatch women when he discovers that because atomic waste is suspended above Dogpatch, Dogpatch is permanently in darkness! {The waste was dropped on DogPatch because it was thought nobody lived there since no Income taxes had been filed there since 1776!}\nSadie Hawkins: In the early days of Dogpatch, Sadie Hawkins was \"the homeliest gal in them hills\" who grew frantic waiting for suitors to come a-courtin'. Her father Hekzebiah Hawkins, a prominent Dogpatch resident, grew even more frantic— about Sadie living at home for the rest of his life. So he decreed the first annual Sadie Hawkins Day, a foot race in which all the unmarried women pursued the town's bachelors, with matrimony as the consequence. A pseudo-holiday entirely created in the strip, it's still observed today in the form of Sadie Hawkins dances, at which women approach (or chase after) men.\nLena the Hyena: A hideous Lower Slobbovian gal, referred to but initially unseen or only glimpsed from the neck down in Li'l Abner. Lena was so ugly that anyone who saw her was immediately driven mad. No sane person, therefore, could tell you what she looked like. After weeks of teasing his readers by hiding Lena's face behind \"censored\" stickers and strategically placed dialogue balloons, Capp invited fans to draw Lena in a famous nationwide contest in 1946. Lena was ultimately revealed in the harrowing winning entry, (as judged by Frank Sinatra, Boris Karloff and Salvador Dalí) drawn by noted cartoonist Basil Wolverton.\nJoanie Phoanie: An unabashed Communist radical and agitator, who sang revolutionary songs of class warfare (with burlesque titles like \"Molotov Cocktails for Two\")— while hypocritically traveling via Limousine and charging outrageous concert appearance fees to impoverished orphans. Joanie was Capp's notorious parody of protest singer/songwriter Joan Baez. The character caused a storm of controversy in 1966, and many newspapers would only run censored versions of the strips. Baez took Capp's implicit satire to heart, however, as she would admit years later in her autobiography: \"Mr Capp confused me considerably. I'm sorry he's not alive to read this, it would make him chuckle,\" (from And a Voice to Sing With: A Memoir, 1987).\nS.W.I.N.E.: Capp used Li'l Abner to satirize current events, fads, and ephemeral popular culture (such as zoot suits in \"Zoot Suit Yokum,\" 1943). Beginning in the mid-1960s, the strip became a forum for Capp's increasingly conservative political views. Capp, who lived in Cambridge, Massachusetts, just a stone's throw from Harvard, satirized campus radicals, militant student political groups and hippies during the Vietnam War protest era. The Youth International Party (YIP) and Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) emerged in Li'l Abner as S.W.I.N.E. (Students Wildly Indignant about Nearly Everything!)\n\nParody characters include Hop-Eye De Sailor, a parody of Popeye the Sailor, Little Orphan Andy (Little Orphan Annie); Bagwood Bumphead (Dagwood Bumstead), Rip Derby (Rip Kirby), Manrank the Musician (Mandrake the Magician), Little Danny Rooney (Little Annie Rooney), and Goon Mullins (Moon Mullins).\n\nAl Capp claimed that he always strove to give incidental characters in Li'l Abner names that would render all further description unnecessary. In that spirit, the following list of recurring semi-regulars (and a few one-shots) are unreferenced: Tobacco Rhoda, Joan L. Sullivan, Romeo McHaystack, Hamfat Gooch, Global McBlimp, Concertino Constipato, Jinx Rasputinburg, J. Sweetbody Goodpants, Reactionary J. Repugnant, B. Fowler McNest, Fleabrain, Stubborn P. Tolliver, Idiot J. Tolliver, Battling McNoodnik, Mayor Dan'l Dawgmeat, Slobberlips McJab, One-Fault Jones, Swami Riva, Olman Riva, Sir Orble Gasse-Payne, Black Rufe, Mickey Looney, \"Ironpants\" Bailey, Henry Cabbage Cod, Flash Boredom, Priceless and Liceless, Hopeless and Soapless, Disgustin' Jones, Skelton McCloset, Hawg McCall, \"Good old\" Bedly Damp ...and a host of others.\n\nFearless Fosdick\n\nLi'l Abner also featured a comic strip-within-the-strip: Fearless Fosdick was a parody of Chester Gould's plainclothes detective, Dick Tracy. It first appeared in 1942, and proved so popular that it ran intermittently in Li'l Abner over the next 35 years. Gould was also personally parodied in the series as cartoonist Lester Gooch— the diminutive, much-harassed and occasionally deranged \"creator\" of Fearless Fosdick. The style of the Fosdick sequences closely mimicked Tracy, including the urban setting, the outrageous villains, the galloping mortality rate, the crosshatched shadows, the lettering style— even Gould's familiar signature was parodied in Fearless Fosdick. Fosdick battled a succession of archenemies with absurdly unlikely names like Rattop, Anyface, Bombface, Boldfinger, the Atom Bum, the Chippendale Chair, and Sidney the Crooked Parrot, as well as his own criminal mastermind father, \"Fearful\" Fosdick (aka \"The Original\"). The razor-jawed title character (Li'l Abner's \"ideel\") was perpetually ventilated by flying bullets until he resembled a slice of Swiss cheese. The impervious Fosdick considered the gaping, smoking holes \"mere scratches,\" however, and always reported back in one piece to his corrupt superior The Chief for duty the next day.\n\nBesides being fearless, Fosdick was \"pure, underpaid and purposeful,\" according to his creator. He also had notoriously bad aim— often leaving a trail of collateral damage (in the form of bullet-riddled pedestrians) in his wake. \"When Fosdick is after a lawbreaker, there is no escape for the miscreant,\" Capp wrote in 1956. \"There is, however, a fighting chance to escape for hundreds of innocent bystanders who happen to be in the neighborhood— but only a fighting chance. Fosdick's duty, as he sees it, is not so much to maintain safety as to destroy crime, and it's too much to ask any law-enforcement officer to do both, I suppose.\" Fosdick lived in squalor at the dilapidated boarding house run by his mercenary landlady, Mrs. Flintnose. He never married his own long-suffering fiancée Prudence (ugh!) Pimpleton (they've been engaged for 17 years), but Fosdick was directly responsible for the unwitting marriage of his biggest fan, Li'l Abner to Daisy Mae in 1952. The bumbling detective became the star of his own NBC-TV puppet show that same year. Fosdick also achieved considerable exposure as the long-running advertising spokesman for Wildroot Cream-Oil, a popular men's hair product of the postwar period.\n\nSetting and fictitious locales\n\nAlthough ostensibly set in the Kentucky mountains, situations often took the characters to different destinations— including New York City, Washington, D.C., Hollywood, the South American Amazon, tropical islands, the Moon, Mars, etc.— as well as some purely fanciful worlds of Capp's imagination:\n\nDogpatch\n\nExceeding every burlesque stereotype of Appalachia, the impoverished backwater of Dogpatch consisted mostly of hopelessly ramshackle log cabins, \"tarnip\" fields, pine trees and \"hawg\" wallows. Most Dogpatchers were shiftless and ignorant, the remainder were scoundrels and thieves. The menfolk were too lazy to work, yet Dogpatch gals were desperate enough to chase them (see Sadie Hawkins Day). Those who farmed their turnip fields watched \"Turnip termites\" swarm by the billions every year, locust-like, to devour Dogpatch's only crop, (along with their homes, their livestock and all their clothing.) The local geography was fluid and vividly complex; Capp continually changed it to suit either his whims or the current storyline. Natural landmarks included (at various times) Teeterin' Rock, Onneccessary Mountain, Bottomless Canyon, and Kissin' Rock, (handy to Suicide Cliff). Local attractions that reappeared in the strip included the West Po'k Chop Railroad, the \"Skonk Works\"—a dilapidated factory located on the remote outskirts of Dogpatch, and the General Jubilation T. Cornpone memorial statue.\n\nIn the midst of the Great Depression, the hardscrabble residents of lowly Dogpatch allowed suffering Americans to laugh at yokels even worse off than themselves. In Al Capp's own words, Dogpatch was \"an average stone-age community nestled in a bleak valley, between two cheap and uninteresting hills somewhere.\" Early in the continuity Capp a few times referred to Dogpatch being in Kentucky, but he was careful afterwards to keep its location generic, probably to avoid cancellations from offended subscribing Kentucky newspapers. From then on, he referred to it as Dogpatch, USA and did not give any specific location as to exactly where it was supposed to be located. Humorously enough, many states tried to claim ownership to the little town (Georgia, Tennessee, Alabama, etc.), yet Capp would not budge. He left it at Dogpatch USA so there would be no headaches and problems. Like the Coconino County depicted in George Herriman's Krazy Kat and the Okefenokee Swamp of Walt Kelly's Pogo, Dogpatch's distinctive cartoon landscape became as identified with the strip as any of its characters. Later, Capp licensed and was part-owner of an 800 acre $35 million theme park called Dogpatch USA near Harrison, Arkansas.\n\nLower Slobbovia\n\nAs utterly wretched as existence was in Dogpatch, there was one place even worse. Frigid, far away Lower Slobbovia was fashioned as a pointedly political satire of backward nations and foreign diplomacy, and remains a contemporary reference. The hapless residents were perpetually waist-deep in several feet of snow, and icicles hung from almost every frostbitten nose. The favorite dish of the starving natives was raw polar bear (and vice versa). Lower Slobbovians spoke with burlesque pidgin-Russian accents; the miserable frozen wasteland of Capp's invention abounded in incongruous Yiddish humor.\n\nLower Slobbovia and Dogpatch are both comic examples of modern dystopian satire. Conceptually based on Siberia, or perhaps specifically on Birobidzhan, Capp's icy hellhole made its first appearance in Li'l Abner in April 1946. Ruled by Good King Nogoodnik (sometimes known as King Stubbornovsky the Last), the Slobbovian politicians were even more corrupt than their Dogpatch counterparts. Their monetary unit was the \"Rasbucknik,\" of which one was worth nothing and a large quantity was worth a lot less, due to the trouble of carrying them around. The local children were read harrowing tales from \"Ice-sop's Fables,\" which were parodies of classic Aesop Fables— but with a darkly sardonic bent (and titles like \"Coldilocks and the Three Bares\"). Slobbovia even had its own (absurd) national anthem, which went like this:\n\nWe are citizens of Slobbovia\n(Oh, Sob! That this should be happening to us!)\nWe are giving you back to the Indians\n(But they are refusing, of cuss!)\n\nPTUI on you, Slobbovia!\nWe are hating your icebound coast\nOf all the countries in the world\nWE ARE HATING SLOBBOVIA MOST!!\n\nOther fictional locales\n\nSkonk Hollow, El Passionato, Kigmyland, the Republic of Crumbumbo, Lo Kunning, Faminostan, Planets Pincus Number 2 and 7, Pineapple Junction and, most notably, the Valley of the Shmoon.\n\nShmoos and other mythic creatures\n\nShmoos, introduced in 1948, were fabulous creatures that bred exponentially, consumed nothing, and eagerly provided everything that humankind could wish for. Besides producing both milk (bottled, grade A) and eggs (neatly packaged), they tasted like pork when roasted, chicken when fried, and steak when broiled. Ironically, the shmoo's generous nature and incredible usefulness made it a threat to capitalism, to western society and perhaps to civilization itself. Li'l Abner featured a whole menagerie of allegorical animals over the years— each one was designed to satirically showcase another disturbing aspect of human nature. They included:\n\nKigmies— Masochistic, aboriginal creatures who loved to be kicked, thereby satisfying all human aggression... up to a point, after which they went on a rampage of retaliation. (The Kigmy story was originally fashioned as a metaphor for racial and religious oppression. Capp's surviving preliminary sketches of the kigmies make this apparent, as detailed in the introductory notes to Li'l Abner Dailies 1949: Volume 15, Kitchen Sink Press, 1992).\nThe Bald Iggle— A cute little wide-eyed, guileless creature whose soulful gaze compelled everyone to involuntarily tell the truth— including lawyers, politicians, fishermen, advertisers, husbands, wives and used car salesmen. The Iggle was officially declared a public menace by the FBI (\"The life it ruins may be your own!\"), and ultimately hunted down, confiscated and exterminated.\nNogoodniks— or bad shmoos. Nogoodniks were a \"sickly shade of green,\" had \"li'l red eyes, sharp yaller teeth, an' a dirty look,\" and were the sworn enemies of \"hoomanity.\" Frequently sporting 5 o'clock shadows, eye patches, scars, fangs and other ruffian attributes— they devoured \"good\" shmoos, and wreaked havoc on Dogpatch. They're finally defeated when they get subjected to George Jessel's recording of Paul Whiteman's \"Wagon Wheels,\" a sound so excruciating that it kills them instantly. (Similar plot devices were used in the 1978 Attack of the Killer Tomatoes and 1996 Mars Attacks!.)\nShminfants— Modified baby shmoos, which looked like human babies but were eternally young, came in a variety of different \"colors,\" and never needed changing.\nShtoonks— Imported from the Slobbovian embassy, Shtoonks were mean-spirited, sharp-toothed, hairy, flying creatures which were \"not only sneaky, smelly and surly, but - yak! yak! - just try to eat one!!\" Shtoonks had only one useful trait: they loved human misery so much they actually enjoyed bringing bad news. They temporarily replaced postage stamps by delivering bills and other bad news for free. \nMimikniks— Obsessive Slobbovian songbirds who sing like anyone they've ever heard. (Those who've heard Maria Callas are valued. Those who've heard George Jessel are shot.) The only song they know the words to is Short'nin' Bread, however— due to the fact that there was only one record in Lower Slobbovia.\nThe Money Ha-Ha— An alien creature from \"Planet Pincus No. 2,\" with ears shaped like taxi horns. It laid U.S. currency in place of eggs.\nTurnip Termites— Looking like a cross between a locust and a piranha, billions of these insatiable pests swarm once a year to their ancient feeding ground— Dogpatch.\nShminks— Valued for making \"shmink coats.\" They can only be captured by braining 'em with a kitchen door.\nPincushions— Alien beings from \"Planet Pincus No. 7.\" Like the earlier Moon Critters, they looked like flying sausages with pinwheels on their posteriors.\nAbominable Snow-Hams— Delectable but intelligent and sensitive beings, presenting Tiny Yokum with an ethical dilemma: Does eating one constitute cannibalism?\nThe Slobbovian Amp-Eater— This luminous beast consumed electric currents; a walking energy crisis.\nBashful Bulganiks— Timid birds that are so skittish they can't be seen by human eyes, and are thus theoretical.\nStunflowers— Murderous, thoroughly malevolent anthropomorphic houseplants.\nFatoceroses— The only defense against a stampede of these bloated pachyderms is a steaming plate of lethally addictive \"Mockaroni.\"\nBitingales— Fiendish little devil birds whose hellish bite causes unbearable heat— for 24 years.\nThe Slobbovian King Crab— A huge crustacean that only eats Slobbovian kings.\nThe Flapaloo— A scrawny, prehistoric bird that lays 1,000 eggs per minute. The eggs, when dissolved, turn water into gasoline. The Oil industry captures the last one in existence— and mercilessly wrings its neck!\nGobbleglops— Looking like a cross between a hog and a teddy bear, these insatiable creatures eat rubbish, (or as Mammy calls it, \"glop.\") They can't be touched, as they're red-hot, living incinerators; waste goes in and nothing comes out. Mammy leads them to America's major polluted cities, where they obligingly devour all the garbage. But when the glop runs out— they begin to consume everything (and everyone) else in sight...\nShmeagles— The world's most amorous creatures, they pursue their females at the speed of light— sometimes even faster!\nHammus Alabammus— Faux Latin designation for an adorable (and delectable) species of swine, with a \"zoot snoot\" and a \"drape shape.\" The only known one in existence resides with the Yokums— their beloved pet, Salomey.\n\nDialogue and catchphrases\n\nAl Capp, a native northeasterner, wrote all the final dialogue in Li'l Abner using his approximation of a mock-southern dialect, (including phonetic sounds, eye dialect, nonstop \"creative\" spelling and deliberate malapropisms). He constantly interspersed boldface type, and included prompt words in parentheses (chuckle!, sob!, gasp!, shudder!, smack!, drool!, cackle!, snort!, gulp!, blush!, ugh!, etc.) as asides— to bolster the effect of the printed speech balloons. Almost every line was followed by two exclamation marks for added emphasis.\n\nOutside Dogpatch, characters used a variety of stock Vaudevillian dialects. Mobsters and criminal-types invariably spoke slangy Brooklynese, and residents of Lower Slobbovia spoke pidgin-Russian, with a smattering of Yinglish. Comic dialects were also devised for offbeat British characters— like H'Inspector Blugstone of Scotland Yard (who had a Cockney accent) and Sir Cecil Cesspool, (whose speech was a clipped, uppercrust King's English). Various Asian, Latin, Native American and European characters spoke in a wide range of specific, broadly caricatured dialects as well. Capp has credited his inspiration for vividly stylized language to early literary influences like Charles Dickens, Mark Twain and Damon Runyon, as well as Old-time radio and the Burlesque stage.\n\nComics historian Don Markstein commented that Capp's \"use of language was both unique and universally appealing; and his clean, bold cartooning style provided a perfect vehicle for his creations.\"\n\nThe following is a partial list of characteristic expressions that reappeared often in Li'l Abner:\n\"Natcherly!\"\n\"Amoozin' but confoozin'!\"\n\"Yo' big, sloppy beast!!\" (also, \"Yo' mizzable skonk!!\")\n\"Ef Ah had mah druthers, Ah'd druther...\"\n\"As any fool kin plainly see!\" (Response: \"Ah sees!\")\n\"What's good for General Bullmoose is good for everybody!\" (Variant from the movie: \"...good for the USA!\")\n\"Thar's no Jack S. like our Jack S!\"\n\"Oh, happy day!\"\n\"Th' ideel o' ev'ry one hunnerd percent, red-blooded American boy!\"\n\"Ah'll bash yore haid in!!\"\n\"Wal, fry mah hide!\" (also, \"Wal, cuss mah bones!\")\n\"Ah has spoken!\"\n\"Good is better than evil becuz it's nicer!\"\n\"It hain't hoomin, thass whut it hain't!\"\n\nToppers and alternate strips\n\nWashable Jones (1935)\nAdvice fo' Chillun (1935–1943)\nSmall Fry (aka Small Change) (1943–1945)\nAbbie an' Slats by Al Capp and Raeburn van Buren (1937–1971)\nLong Sam by Al Capp and Bob Lubbers (1954–1962)\n\nLicensing, advertising and promotion\n\nAl Capp was a master of the arts of marketing and promotion. Publicity campaigns were devised to boost circulation and increase public visibility of Li'l Abner, often coordinating with national magazines, radio and television. In 1946 Capp persuaded six of the most popular radio personalities (Frank Sinatra, Kate Smith, Danny Kaye, Bob Hope, Fred Waring and Smilin' Jack Smith) to broadcast a song he'd written for Daisy Mae: (Li'l Abner) Don't Marry That Girl!! Other promotional tie-ins included the Lena the Hyena Contest (1946), the Name the Shmoo Contest (1949), the Nancy O. Contest (1951), the Roger the Lodger Contest (1964) and many others.\n\nCapp also excelled at product endorsement, and Li'l Abner characters were often featured in mid-century American advertising campaigns. Dogpatch characters pitched consumer products as varied as Grape-Nuts cereal, Kraft caramels, Ivory soap, Oxydol, Duz and Dreft detergents, Fruit of the Loom, Orange Crush, Nestlé's cocoa, Cheney neckties, Pedigree pencils, Strunk chainsaws, U.S. Royal tires, Head & Shoulders shampoo and General Electric light bulbs. There were even Dogpatch-themed family restaurants called \"Li'l Abner's\" in Louisville, Kentucky, Morton Grove, Illinois and Seattle, Washington.\n\nCapp himself appeared in numerous print ads. A lifelong chain-smoker, he happily plugged Chesterfield cigarettes; he appeared in Schaeffer fountain pen ads with his friends Milton Caniff and Walt Kelly; pitched the Famous Artists School (in which he had a financial interest) along with Caniff, Rube Goldberg, Virgil Partch, Willard Mullin and Whitney Darrow, Jr; and, though a professed teetotaler, he personally endorsed Rheingold Beer, among other products.\n\nCream of Wheat: Throughout the 1940s and 1950s, Li'l Abner was the spokesman for Cream of Wheat cereal in a long-running series of comic strip-format ads that appeared in national magazines including Life, Good Housekeeping, and Ladies' Home Journal. The ads usually featured Daisy Mae calling for \"halp\" against a threatening menace— in the person of Earthquake McGoon or, just as often, a gorilla, grizzly bear, rampaging moose, \"Injun\" attack, or some natural disaster like an avalanche, fire or flood. Abner is dispatched to rescue her, but not before enjoying a \"dee-lishus\" enriched bowl of hot Cream of Wheat which, the reader is assured, is \"ready in just 5 minutes!\" \nWildroot Cream-Oil: Fearless Fosdick was licensed for use in an advertising campaign for Wildroot Cream-Oil, a popular men's hair tonic. Fosdick's iconic profile on tin signs and advertising displays became a prominent fixture in barbershops across America— advising readers to \"Get Wildroot Cream-Oil, Charlie!\" A series of ads appeared in newspapers, magazines and comic books featuring Fosdick's farcical battles with \"Anyface\"— a murderous master of disguise. (Anyface was always given away by his telltale dandruff and messy hair, however.)\nToys and licensed merchandise: Dogpatch characters were heavily licensed throughout the 1940s and 1950s: the main cast was produced as a set of six handpuppets and 14 in dolls by Baby Barry Toys in 1957. A 10-figure set of carnival chalkware statues of Dogpatch characters was manufactured by Artrix Products in 1951, and Topstone introduced a line of 16 rubber Halloween masks prior to 1960. Licensing would reach an apex, however, with the unexpected postwar merchandising phenomenon that followed Capp's introduction of the Shmoo. As in the strip, shmoos suddenly appeared to be everywhere in 1948 and 1949. A garment factory in Baltimore turned out a whole line of shmoo apparel— including \"Shmooveralls.\" Shmoo dolls, clocks, watches, jewelry, earmuffs, wallpaper, fishing lures, air fresheners, soap, ice cream, balloons, ashtrays, comic books, records, sheet music, toys, games, Halloween masks, salt and pepper shakers, decals, pinbacks, tumblers, coin banks, greeting cards, planters, neckties, suspenders, belts, curtains, fountain pens, and other shmoo paraphernalia were produced. In a single year, shmoo merchandise generated over $25 million in sales. Close to a hundred licensed shmoo products from 75 different manufacturers were produced, some of which sold five million units each, (Sources: Newsweek September 5, 1949 and Editor & Publisher July 16, 1949). More recently, Dark Horse Comics issued four figures of Abner, Daisy Mae, Fosdick and the Shmoo in 2000 as part of their line of Classic Comic Characters— statues #8, 9, 17 and 31, respectively.\nKickapoo Joy Juice: The lethal brew known as Kickapoo Joy Juice, featured in the strip and characterized as moonshine or bootleg liquor (it could also remove hair, paint and tattoos) has been a licensed brand in real-life since 1965. The National NuGrape Company first produced the beverage, which was acquired in 1968 by the Moxie Company, and eventually the Monarch Beverage Company of Atlanta, Ga. As with Mountain Dew, another euphemism for moonshine, the actual product is a soft-drink. To this day the label features Capp's characters Hairless Joe and Lonesome Polecat. Distribution currently includes the United States, Canada, Singapore, Bangladesh, China, Pakistan, Malaysia, Mongolia, Brunei, Indonesia and Thailand. \nDogpatch USA: In 1968, an 800 acre $35 million theme park called Dogpatch USA opened at Marble Falls, Arkansas, based on Capp's work and with his support. The gift shops sold \"hillbilly\" souvenirs like corncob pipes and moonshine jugs. In addition to the newly constructed rides and attractions, many of the buildings in the park were authentic 19th century log structures purchased by general manager James H. Schermerhorn. The logs in each building were numbered, catalogued, disassembled and reassembled at the park. Dogpatch USA was a popular attraction during the 1970s, but was closed in 1993 due to mismanagement and financial difficulties. Several attempts have been made to reopen the park but at present it lies abandoned. As of late 2005, the area once devoted to a live-action facsimile of Dogpatch (including a lifesize statue in the town square of Dogpatch \"founder\" Jubilation T. Cornpone) has been heavily stripped by vandals and souvenir hunters, and is today slowly being reclaimed by the surrounding Arkansas wilderness.\n\nAwards and recognition\n\nFans of the strip ranged from novelist John Steinbeck, who called Capp \"very possibly the best writer in the world today\" in 1953, and even earnestly recommended him for the Nobel Prize in literature— to media critic and theorist Marshall McLuhan, who considered Capp \"the only robust satirical force in American life.\" John Updike, calling Li'l Abner a \"hillbilly Candide,\" added that the strip's \"richness of social and philosophical commentary approached the Voltairean.\" Capp has been compared, at various times, to Fyodor Dostoevsky, Jonathan Swift, Lawrence Sterne, and Rabelais. Journalism Quarterly and Time have both called him \"the Mark Twain of cartoonists.\" Charlie Chaplin, William F. Buckley, Al Hirschfeld, Harpo Marx, Russ Meyer, John Kenneth Galbraith, Ralph Bakshi, Shel Silverstein, Hugh Downs, Gene Shalit, Frank Cho, Daniel Clowes and (reportedly) even Queen Elizabeth have confessed to being fans of Li'l Abner.\n\nIn his seminal book Understanding Media, Marshall McLuhan considered Li'l Abner's Dogpatch \"a paradigm of the human situation.\" Comparing Capp to other contemporary humorists, McLuhan once wrote: \"Arno, Nash, and Thurber are brittle, wistful little précieux beside Capp!\" In his essay \"The Decline of the Comics,\" (Canadian Forum, January 1954) literary critic Hugh MacLean classified American comic strips into four types: daily gag, adventure, soap opera, and \"an almost lost comic ideal: the disinterested comment on life's pattern and meaning.\" In the fourth type, according to MacLean, there were only two: Pogo and Li'l Abner. In 2002 the Chicago Tribune, in a review of The Short Life and Happy Times of the Shmoo, noted: \"The wry, ornery, brilliantly perceptive satirist will go down as one of the Great American Humorists.\" In America's Great Comic Strip Artists (1997), comics historian Richard Marschall analyzed the overtly misanthropic subtext of Li'l Abner:\n\nLi'l Abner was also the subject of the first book-length, scholarly assessment of a comic strip ever published. Li'l Abner: A Study in American Satire by Arthur Asa Berger (Twayne, 1969) contained serious analyses of Capp's narrative technique, his use of dialogue, self-caricature and grotesquerie, the strip's overall place in American satire, and the significance of social criticism and the graphic image. \"One of the few strips ever taken seriously by students of American culture,\" wrote Professor Berger, \"Li'l Abner is worth studying...because of Capp's imagination and artistry, and because of the strip's very obvious social relevance.\" It was reprinted by the University Press of Mississippi in 1994.\n\nAl Capp's life and career are the subjects of a new life-sized mural commemorating his 100th birthday, displayed in downtown Amesbury, Massachusetts. According to the Boston Globe (as reported on May 18, 2010), the town has renamed its amphitheater in the artist's honor, and is looking to develop an Al Capp Museum. Capp is also the subject of an upcoming PBS American Masters documentary produced by his granddaughter, independent filmmaker Caitlin Manning.\n\nNational Cartoonists Society Reuben Award (1947) for \"Cartoonist of the Year.\"\nInkpot Award (1978) bestowed by Comic-Con International.\nNational Cartoonists Society Elzie Segar Award (1979) for a \"unique and outstanding contribution to the profession of cartooning.\"\nAl Capp, an inductee into the National Cartoon Museum (formerly the International Museum of Cartoon Art), is one of only 31 artists honored by inclusion into their Hall of Fame.\nAl Capp was inducted into the Will Eisner Award Hall of Fame in 2004.\n\"Neither the strip's shifting political leanings nor the slide of its final few years had any bearing on its status as a classic; and in 1995, it was recognized as such by the U.S. Postal Service.[http://www.toonopedia.com/abner.htm Li'l Abner] at Don Markstein's Toonopedia. [http://www.webcitation.org/6cZv96tGO Archived] from the original on October 26, 2015. Li'l Abner was one of 20 American comic strips included in the Comic Strip Classics series of USPS commemorative stamps.\n\nInfluence and legacy\n\nSadie Hawkins Day\n\nAn American folk event, Sadie Hawkins Day is a pseudo-holiday entirely created within the strip. It made its debut in Li'l Abner on November 15, 1937. Capp originally created it as a comic plot device, but in 1939, only two years after its inauguration, a double-page spread in Life proclaimed, \"On Sadie Hawkins Day Girls Chase Boys in 201 Colleges.\" By the early 1940s the comic strip event had swept the nation's imagination and acquired a life of its own. By 1952, the event was reportedly celebrated at 40,000 known venues. It became a woman-empowering rite at high schools and college campuses, long before the modern feminist movement gained prominence.\n\nOutside the comic strip, the practical basis of a Sadie Hawkins dance is simply one of gender role-reversal. Women and girls take the initiative in inviting the man or boy of their choice out on a date— almost unheard of before 1937— typically to a dance attended by other bachelors and their assertive dates. When Capp created the event, it wasn't his intention to have it occur annually on a specific date, because it inhibited his freewheeling plotting. However, due to its enormous popularity and the numerous fan letters he received, Capp made it a tradition in the strip every November, lasting four decades. In many localities the tradition continues.\n\nAdditions to the language\n\nSadie Hawkins Day and Sadie Hawkins dance are two of several terms attributed to Al Capp that have entered the English language. Others include double whammy, skunk works and Lower Slobbovia. The term shmoo has also entered the lexicon— used in defining highly technical concepts in no fewer than four separate fields of science. \n\nIn socioeconomics, a \"shmoo\" refers to any generic kind of good that reproduces itself, (as opposed to \"widgets\" which require resources and active production.)\nIn microbiology, \"shmooing\" is the biological term used for the \"budding\" process in yeast reproduction. The cellular bulge produced by a haploid yeast cell towards a cell of the opposite mating type during the mating of yeast is referred to as a \"shmoo,\" due to its structural resemblance to the cartoon character.\nIn the field of particle physics, \"shmoo\" refers to a high energy survey instrument— as utilized at the Los Alamos National Laboratory for the Cygnus X-3 Sky Survey performed at the LAMPF (Los Alamos Meson Physics Facility) grounds. Over one hundred white \"shmoo\" detectors were at one time sprinkled around the accelerator beamstop area and adjacent mesa to capture subatomic cosmic ray particles emitted from the Cygnus constellation. The detectors housed scintillators and photomultipliers in an array that gave the detector its distinctive shmoo shape.\nIn electrical engineering, a shmoo plot is the technical term used for the graphic pattern of test circuits. (The term is also used as a verb: to \"shmoo\" means to run the test.)\n\nCapp has also been credited with popularizing many terms, such as \"natcherly,\" schmooze, druthers, and nogoodnik, neatnik, etc. (In his book The American Language, H.L. Mencken credits the postwar mania for adding \"-nik\" to the ends of adjectives to create nouns as beginning— not with beatnik or Sputnik, but earlier— in the pages of Li'l Abner.)\n\nFranchise ownership and creators' rights\n\nIn the late 1940s, newspaper syndicates typically owned the copyrights, trademarks and licensing rights to comic strips. \"Capp was an aggressive and fearless businessman,\" according to publisher Denis Kitchen. \"Nearly all comic strips, even today, are owned and controlled by syndicates, not the strips' creators. And virtually all cartoonists remain content with their diluted share of any merchandising revenue their syndicates arrange. When the starving and broke Capp first sold Li'l Abner in 1934, he gladly accepted the syndicate's standard onerous contract. But in 1947 Capp sued United Feature Syndicate for $14 million, publicly embarrassed UFS in Li'l Abner, and wrested ownership and control of his creation the following year.\"\n\nIn October 1947, Li'l Abner met Rockwell P. Squeezeblood, head of the abusive and corrupt Squeezeblood Syndicate, a thinly veiled dig at UFS. The resulting sequence, \"Jack Jawbreaker Fights Crime!!,\" was a devastating satire of Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster's notorious exploitation by DC Comics over Superman, (see above excerpt). It was later reprinted in The World of Li'l Abner (1953).\n\nIntegration of women in the NCS\n\nAl Capp was an outspoken pioneer in favor of diversifying the National Cartoonists Society by admitting women cartoonists. The NCS had originally disallowed female members into its ranks. In 1949, when the all-male club refused membership to Hilda Terry, creator of the comic strip Teena, Capp temporarily resigned in protest. \"Capp had always advocated a more activist agenda for the Society, and he had begun in December 1949 to make his case in the Newsletter as well as at the meetings,\" wrote comics historian R. C. Harvey. According to Tom Roberts, author of Alex Raymond: His Life and Art (2007), Capp authored a stirring monologue that was instrumental in changing the restrictive rules the following year. Hilda Terry was the first woman cartoonist to break the gender barrier when the NCS finally permitted female members in 1950.\n\nSocial commentary in comic strips\n\nThrough Li'l Abner, the American comic strip achieved unprecedented relevance in the postwar years, attracting new readers who were more intellectual, more informed on current events, and less likely to read the comics (according to Coulton Waugh, author of The Comics, 1947). \"When Li'l Abner made its debut in 1934, the vast majority of comic strips were designed chiefly to amuse or thrill their readers. Capp turned that world upside-down by routinely injecting politics and social commentary into Li'l Abner,\" wrote comics historian Rick Marschall in America's Great Comic Strip Artists (1989). With adult readers far outnumbering juveniles, Li'l Abner forever cleared away the concept that humor strips were solely the domain of adolescents and children. Li'l Abner provided a whole new template for contemporary satire and personal expression in comics, paving the way for Pogo, Feiffer, Doonesbury and MAD.\n\nMad\n\nFearless Fosdick and other Li'l Abner comic strip parodies, such as \"Jack Jawbreaker!\" (1947) and \"Little Fanny Gooney\" (1952), were almost certainly an inspiration to Harvey Kurtzman when he created his irreverent Mad, which began in 1952 as a comic book that specifically parodied other comics in the same subversive manner. By the time EC Comics published Mad #1, Capp had been doing Fearless Fosdick for nearly a decade. Similarities between Li'l Abner and the early Mad include the incongruous use of mock-Yiddish slang terms, the nose-thumbing disdain for pop culture icons, the rampant black humor, the dearth of sentiment and the broad visual styling. Even the trademark comic \"signs\" that clutter the backgrounds of Will Elder's panels had a precedent in Li'l Abner, in the residence of Dogpatch entrepreneur Available Jones, though they're also reminiscent of Bill Holman's Smokey Stover. Tellingly, Kurtzman resisted doing feature parodies of either Li'l Abner or Dick Tracy in the comic book Mad, despite their prominence.\n\nParodies and imitations\n\nAl Capp once told one of his assistants that he knew Li'l Abner had finally \"arrived\" when it was first pirated as a pornographic Tijuana bible parody in the mid-1930s. Li'l Abner was also parodied in 1954 (as \"Li'l Melvin\" by \"Ol' Hatt\") in the pages of EC Comics' humor comic, Panic, edited by Al Feldstein. Kurtzman eventually did spoof Li'l Abner (as \"Li'l Ab'r\") in 1957, in his short-lived humor magazine, Trump. Both the Trump and Panic parodies were drawn by EC legend, Will Elder. In 1947, Will Eisner's The Spirit satirized the comic strip business in general, as a denizen of Central City tries to murder cartoonist \"Al Slapp,\" creator of \"Li'l Adam.\" Capp was also caricatured as an ill-mannered, boozy cartoonist (Capp was a teetotaler in real life) named \"Hal Rapp\" in the comic strip Mary Worth by Allen Saunders and Ken Ernst. Supposedly done in retaliation for Capp's \"Mary Worm\" parody in Li'l Abner (1956), a media-fed \"feud\" commenced briefly between the rival strips. It all turned out to be a collaborative hoax, however— cooked up by Capp and his longtime pal Saunders as an elaborate publicity stunt.\n\nLi'l Abners success also sparked a handful of comic strip imitators. Jasper Jooks by Jess \"Baldy\" Benton (1948–'49), Ozark Ike (1945–'53) and Cotton Woods (1955–'58), both by Ray Gotto, were clearly inspired by Capp's strip. Boody Rogers' Babe was a peculiar series of comic books about a beautiful hillbilly girl who lived with her kin in the Ozarks— with many similarities to Li'l Abner. A derivative hillbilly feature called Looie Lazybones, an out-and-out imitation (drawn by a young Frank Frazetta) ran in several issues of Standard's Thrilling Comics in the late 1940s. Charlton published the short-lived Hillbilly Comics by Art Gates in 1955, featuring \"Gumbo Galahad,\" who was a dead ringer for Li'l Abner, as was Pokey Oakey by Don Dean, which ran in MLJ's Top-Notch Laugh and Pep Comics. Later, many fans and critics saw Paul Henning's popular TV sitcom, The Beverly Hillbillies (1962–'71) as owing much of its inspiration to Li'l Abner, prompting Alvin Toffler to ask Capp about the similarities in a 1965 Playboy interview.\n\nPopularity and production\n\nLi'l Abner made its debut on August 13, 1934 in eight North American newspapers, including the New York Mirror. Initially owned and syndicated through United Feature (now known as United Media), a division of the E.W. Scripps Company, it was an immediate success. According to publisher Denis Kitchen, Capp's \"hapless Dogpatchers hit a nerve in Depression-era America. Within three years Abner's circulation climbed to 253 newspapers, reaching over 15,000,000 readers. Before long he was in hundreds more, with a total readership exceeding 60,000,000.\" At its peak, the strip was read daily by 70 million Americans (when the U.S. population was only 180 million), with a circulation of more than 900 newspapers in North America and Europe.\n\nDuring the extended peak of the strip, the workload grew to include advertising, merchandising, promotional work, comic book adaptations, public service material and other specialty work— in addition to the regular six dailies and one Sunday strip per week. Capp had a platoon of assistants in later years, who worked under his direct supervision. They included Andy Amato, Harvey Curtis, Walter Johnson and, notably, a young Frank Frazetta, who penciled the Sunday continuity from studio roughs from 1954 to the end of 1961— before his fame as a fantasy artist.\n\nSensitive to his own experience working on Joe Palooka, Capp frequently drew attention to his assistants in interviews and publicity pieces. A 1950 cover story in Time even included photos of two of his employees, whose roles in the production were detailed by Capp. Ironically, this highly irregular policy has led to the misconception that his strip was \"ghosted\" by other hands. The production of Li'l Abner has been well documented, however. In point of fact, Capp maintained creative control over every stage of production for virtually the entire run of the strip. Capp himself originated the stories, wrote the dialogue, designed the major characters, rough penciled the preliminary staging and action of each panel, oversaw the finished pencils, and drew and inked the faces and hands of the characters. \"He had the touch,\" Frazetta said of Capp in 2008. \"He knew how to take an otherwise ordinary drawing and really make it pop. I'll never knock his talent.\" \n\nLi'l Abner lasted until November 13, 1977, when Capp retired with an apology to his fans for the recently declining quality of the strip, which he said had been the best he could manage due to advancing illness. \"If you have any sense of humor about your strip— and I had a sense of humor about mine— you knew that for three or four years Abner was wrong. Oh hell, it's like a fighter retiring. I stayed on longer than I should have,\" he admitted. \"When he retired Li'l Abner, newspapers ran expansive articles and television commentators talked about the passing of an era. People magazine ran a substantial feature, and even the comics-free New York Times devoted nearly a full page to the event,\" according to publisher Denis Kitchen. Capp, a lifelong chain smoker, died from emphysema two years later at age 70, at his home in South Hampton, New Hampshire on November 5, 1979.\n\nIn 1988 and 1989 many newspapers ran reruns of Li'l Abner episodes, mostly from the 1940s run, distributed by Newspaper Enterprise Association and Capp Enterprises. Following the 1989 revival of the Pogo comic strip, a revival of Li'l Abner was also planned in 1990. Drawn by cartoonist Steve Stiles, the new Abner was approved by Capp's widow and brother, Elliott Caplin, but Al Capp's daughter, Julie Capp, objected at the last minute and permission was withdrawn.\n\nLi'l Abner in other media\n\nRadio and recordings\n\nWith John Hodiak in the title role, the Li'l Abner radio serial ran weekdays on NBC from Chicago, from November 20, 1939 to December 6, 1940. Rounding out the cast were soap opera star Laurette Fillbrandt as Daisy Mae, Hazel Dopheide as Mammy Yokum, and Clarence Hartzell (who was also a prominent actor on Vic and Sade) as Pappy. Durwood Kirby was the announcer. The radio show was not written by Al Capp— but by Charles Gussman. However, Gussman consulted closely with Capp on the storylines. (A familiar radio personality, Capp was frequently heard on the NBC broadcast series, Monitor. He also briefly filled-in for radio journalist Drew Pearson, participated in a March 2, 1948 America's Town Meeting of the Air debate on ABC, and hosted his own syndicated, 500-station radio show.)\n\nThe Shmoo Sings with Earl Rogers— 78 rpm (1948) Allegro\nThe Shmoo Club b/w The Shmoo Is Clean, the Shmoo Is Neat— 45 rpm (1949) Music You Enjoy, Inc.\nThe Snuggable, Huggable Shmoo b/w The Shmoo Doesn't Cost a Cent— 45 rpm (1949) Music You Enjoy, Inc.\nShmoo Lesson b/w A Shmoo Can Do Most Anything— 45 rpm (1949) Music You Enjoy, Inc.\nLi'l Abner Goes to Town— 78 rpm (1950) Capp-Tone Comic Record\nLi'l Abner (Original Cast Recording)— LP (1956) Columbia\nLi'l Abner (Motion Picture Soundtrack)— LP (1959) Columbia\nAn Interview with Al Capp— EP (1959) Smithsonian Folkways\nLi'l Abner fo' Chillun— LP (c. 1960) 20th FOX\nAl Capp on Campus— LP (1969) Jubilee\n\nSelections from the Li'l Abner musical score have been recorded by everyone from Percy Faith and Mario Lanza to André Previn and Shelly Manne. Over the years, Li'l Abner characters have inspired diverse compositions in pop, jazz, country and even rock 'n' roll:\n\nThe Kickapoo Joy Juice Jolt (1946) from The Li'l Abner Suite, was composed for The Alvino Rey Orchestra by Bud Estes.\nKickapoo Joy Juice, composed by Duke Ellington, was recorded live at Carnegie Hall in December, 1947.\nLonesome Polecat, written by Johnny Mercer & Gene de Paul for the musical Seven Brides for Seven Brothers (1954), was later recorded by Bobby Darin and the McGuire Sisters.\nFearless Fosdick, composed by Bill Holman, was recorded live in 1954 by Vic Lewis and his Orchestra, featuring Tubby Hayes.\nDaisy Mae, written and recorded by Ernest Tubb, appeared on the Decca album The Daddy of 'Em All (1957).\nKickapoo Joy Juice (1962) written by Jack Greenback, Mel Larson & Jerry Marcellino, was recorded by The Rivingtons.\nSadie Hawkins Dance (2001) written by Matt Thiessen, was recorded by Relient K.\nFearless Fosdick's Tune, composed and recorded by Umberto Fiorentino, appeared on the Brave Art/Columbia-Sony CD Things to Come (2002).\n\nSheet music\n\nLi'l Abner— by Ben Oakland, Milton Berle & Milton Drake (1940) Leo Feist Publishers\nSadie Hawkins Day— by Don Raye & Hughie Prince (1940) Leeds Music Corp.\nThe USA by Day and the RAF by Night— by Hal Block & Bob Musel (1944) Paramount Music Corp.\n(Li'l Abner) Don't Marry That Girl!!— by Al Capp & Sam H. Stept (1946) Barton Music Corp.\nThe Shmoo Song— by John Jacob Loeb & Jule Styne (1948) Harvey Music Corp.\nShmoo Songs— by Gerald Marks (1949) Bristol Music Corp.\nThe Kigmy Song— by Joe Rosenfield & Fay Tishman (1949) Town and Country Music Co.\nI'm Lonesome and Disgusted!!!— by \"Irving Vermyn\" [Al Capp, Bob Lubbers & Dave Lambert] (1956) General Music Publishing Co.\nNamely You— by Johnny Mercer & Gene de Paul (1956) Commander Publications\nLove in a Home— by Johnny Mercer & Gene de Paul (1956) Commander Publications\nIf I Had My Druthers— by Johnny Mercer & Gene de Paul (1956) Commander Publications\nJubilation T. Cornpone— by Johnny Mercer & Gene de Paul (1956) Commander Publications\n\nComic books and reprints\n\nTip Top Comics (1936–1948) anthology (United Feature Syndicate)\nComics on Parade (1945–1946) anthology (UFS)\nSparkler Comics (1946–1948) anthology (UFS)\nLi'l Abner (1947) 9 issues (Harvey Comics)\nLi'l Abner (1948) 3 issues (Super Publishing)\nTip Topper Comics (1949–1954) anthology (UFS)\nAl Capp's Li'l Abner (1949–1955) 28 issues (Toby) \nAl Capp's Shmoo Comics (1949–1950) 5 issues (Toby)\nAl Capp's Dogpatch (1949) 4 issues (Toby)\nAl Capp's Li'l Abner in The Mystery o' the Cave (1950) (Oxydol premium)\nAl Capp's Daisy Mae in Ham Sangwidges (1950) (Oxydol premium)\nAl Capp's Shmoo in Washable Jones' Travels (1950) (Oxydol premium)\nAl Capp's Wolf Gal (1951–1952) 2 issues (Toby)\nWashable Jones and the Shmoo (1953) (Toby)\nParty Time with Coke (1958) monthly digest featuring Al Capp's Boys 'n' Gals (Coca-Cola premium)\n\nNo comprehensive reprint of the series had been attempted until Kitchen Sink Press began publishing the Li'l Abner Dailies in hardcover and paperback, one year per volume, in 1988. The demise of KSP in 1999 stopped the reprint series at Volume 27 (1961). More recently, Dark Horse Comics reprinted the limited series Al Capp's Li'l Abner: The Frazetta Years, in four full-color volumes covering the Sunday pages from 1954 to 1961. They also released an archive hardcover reprint of the complete Shmoo Comics in 2009, followed by a second Shmoo volume of compete newspaper strips in 2011.\n\nAt the San Diego Comic Con in July 2009, IDW announced the upcoming publication of Al Capp's Li'l Abner: The Complete Dailies and Color Sundays: Vol. 1 (1934–1936). The comprehensive series, a reprinting of the complete 43-year history of Li'l Abner spanning a projected 20 volumes, began on April 7, 2010.\n\nPublic service works\n\nCapp provided specialty artwork for civic groups, government agencies and charitable or non-profit organizations, spanning several decades. The following titles are all single-issue, educational comic books and pamphlets produced for various public services:\n\nAl Capp by Li'l Abner— Public service giveaway issued by the Red Cross (1946)\nYo' Bets Yo' Life!— Public service giveaway issued by the U.S. Army (circa 1950)\nLi'l Abner Joins the Navy— Public service giveaway issued by the Dept. of the Navy (1950)\nFearless Fosdick and the Case of the Red Feather— Public service giveaway issued by Red Feather Services, a forerunner of United Way (1951)\nThe Youth You Supervise— Public service giveaway issued by the U.S. Department of Labor (1956)\nMammy Yokum and the Great Dogpatch Mystery!— Public service giveaway issued by the Anti-Defamation League of B'nai B'rith (1956)\nOperation: Survival!— Public service giveaway issued by the Dept. of Civil Defense (1957)\nNatural Disasters!— Public service giveaway issued by the Dept. of Civil Defense (1957)\nMartin Luther King and the Montgomery Story— Public service giveaway issued by The Fellowship of Reconciliation (1958)Love, David A. [http://thegrio.com/2011/02/02/eygptians-draw-inspiration-from-civil-rights-movement-comic-book/ \"Egyptians draw inspiration from Civil Rights Movement comic book.\"] The Grio (February 2, 2011).\nLi'l Abner and the Creatures from Drop-Outer Space— Public service giveaway issued by the Job Corps (1965)\n\nIn addition, Dogpatch characters were used in national campaigns for the U.S. Treasury, the Cancer Foundation, the March of Dimes, the National Heart Fund, the Sister Kenny Foundation, the Boy Scouts of America, Community Chest, the National Reading Council, Minnesota Tuberculosis and Health Association, Christmas Seals, the National Amputation Foundation and Disabled American Veterans, among others.\n\nAnimation and puppetry\n\nBeginning in 1944, Li'l Abner was adapted into a series of color theatrical cartoons for Columbia Pictures, directed by Sid Marcus, Bob Wickersham and Howard Swift. Al Capp was reportedly not pleased with the results, and the series was discontinued after five shorts.\n\nEvil-Eye Fleegle and his \"whammy\" make an animated cameo appearance in the U.S. Armed Forces Special Weapons Project training film, Self Preservation in an Atomic Attack (1950). Lena the Hyena makes a brief animated appearance in Who Framed Roger Rabbit (1988).\n\nIn 1952, Fearless Fosdick proved popular enough to be incorporated into a short-lived TV series. The ambitious puppet show was created and directed by puppeteer Mary Chase, written by Everett Crosby and voiced by John Griggs, Gilbert Mack and Jean Carson. Fearless Fosdick premiered on Sunday afternoons on NBC; 13 episodes featuring the Mary Chase marionettes were produced. The storylines and villains were mostly separate from the comic strip and unique to the show. Among the original TV characters were \"Mr. Ditto,\" \"Harris Tweed\" (a disembodied suit of clothes), \"Swenn Golly\" (a Svengali-like mesmerist), counterfeiters \"Max Millions\" and \"Minton Mooney,\" \"Frank N. Stein,\" \"Batula,\" \"Match Head\" (a pyromaniac), \"Sen-Sen O'Toole,\" \"Shmoozer\" and \"Herman the Ape Man.\"\n\nShmoos were originally meant to be included in the 1956 Broadway Li'l Abner musical, employing stage puppetry. The idea was reportedly abandoned in the development stage by the producers, however, for reasons of practicality. After Capp's death, the Shmoo was used in two Hanna-Barbera produced Saturday morning cartoon series for TV. First in the 1979 The New Shmoo (later incorporated into Fred and Barney Meet the Shmoo), and again from 1980 to 1981 in the Flintstone Comedy Show, in the Bedrock Cops segments.\n\nStage, film and television\n\nThe first Li'l Abner movie was made at RKO Radio Pictures in 1940, starring Jeff York (credited as Granville Owen), Martha O'Driscoll, Mona Ray and Johnnie Morris. Although it lacks the political satire and Broadway polish of the 1959 version, this film gives a fairly accurate portrayal of the various Dogpatch characters up until that time. Of particular note is the appearance of Buster Keaton as Lonesome Polecat, and a title song with lyrics by Milton Berle. Other familiar silent comedy veterans in the cast include Bud Jamison, Lucien Littlefield, Johnny Arthur, Mickey Daniels, and ex-Keystone Cops Chester Conklin, Edgar Kennedy and Al St. John. The story concerns Daisy Mae's efforts to catch Li'l Abner on Sadie Hawkins Day. Since this movie predates their comic strip marriage, Abner makes a last-minute escape, (natcherly!)\n\nA much more successful musical comedy adaptation of the strip, also entitled Li'l Abner, opened on Broadway at the St. James Theater on November 15, 1956 and had a long run of 693 performances, followed by a nationwide tour. Among the actors originally considered for the title role were Dick Shawn and Andy Griffith. The stage musical, with music and lyrics by Gene de Paul and Johnny Mercer, was adapted into a Technicolor motion picture at Paramount in 1959 by producer Norman Panama and director Melvin Frank, with an original score by Nelson Riddle. Starring Peter Palmer, Leslie Parrish, Julie Newmar, Stella Stevens, Stubby Kaye, Billie Hayes, Howard St. John, Joe E. Marks, Carmen Alvarez, William Lanteau and Bern Hoffman, with cameos by Jerry Lewis, Robert Strauss, Ted Thurston, Alan Carney, Valerie Harper and Donna Douglas. Three members of the original Broadway cast did not appear in the film version: Charlotte Rae (who was replaced by Billie Hayes early in the stage production), Edie Adams (who was pregnant during the filming) and Tina Louise. The musical has since become a perennial favorite of high school and amateur productions, due to its popular appeal and modest production requirements.\n\nLi'l Abner never sold as a TV series despite several attempts (including an unsold pilot that aired once on NBC on September 5, 1967), but Al Capp was a familiar face on television for twenty years. No other cartoonist to date has come close to Capp's televised exposure. Capp appeared as a regular on The Author Meets the Critics. He was also a periodic panelist on ABC and NBC's Who Said That? Capp has appeared as himself on The Ed Sullivan Show, Sid Caesar's Your Show of Shows, The Today Show, The Red Skelton Show, The Merv Griffin Show, The Mike Douglas Show, and on This Is Your Life on February 12, 1961 with host Ralph Edwards and honoree Peter Palmer. He hosted at least five television programs between 1952 and 1972— three different talk shows called The Al Capp Show (twice), Al Capp, Al Capp's America (a live \"chalk talk,\" with Capp providing a barbed commentary while sketching cartoons), and a game show called Anyone Can Win. In addition, Capp was a frequent celebrity guest. His appearances on NBC's The Tonight Show spanned three emcees; Steve Allen, Jack Paar and Johnny Carson.\n\nFilmography\n\nComic strip adaptations\n\nAnimation\nKickapoo Juice (1944) Columbia\nAmoozin' but Confoozin (1944) Columbia\nA Pee-kool-yar Sit-chee-ay-shun (1944) Columbia\nPorkuliar Piggy (1944) Columbia\nSadie Hawkins Day (1944) Columbia\n\nLive-action\nLi'l Abner (1940) RKO Radio Pictures\nFearless Fosdick (1952) NBC (series) 13 episodes\nLi'l Abner (1959) Paramount\nLi'l Abner (5 September 1967) NBC (unsold television pilot with Sammy Jackson and Judy Canova)\nLi'l Abner (26 April 1971) ABC (TV special)\nLi'l Abner in Dogpatch Today (9 November 1978) NBC (TV special)\n\nBeyond the comic strip\n\n\"ABNER\" was the name given to the first codebreaking computer used by the National Security Agency. According to longtime NSA computer expert Samuel Simon Snyder, \"We chose the name from Li'l Abner Yokum, the comic strip character who was a big brute, but not very smart, because we believed that computers, which can be big and do brute-force operations, aren't very bright either. They can only follow simple instructions but can't think for themselves.\" ABNER was originally given only 15 simple programs, later doubled to 30. Nevertheless, when it was secretly completed in April 1952 it was the \"most sophisticated computer of its time.\" \nThe 1989 film I Want to Go Home (Je Veux Rentrer a la Maison, screenplay by Jules Feiffer) has a scene where the main character, a retired cartoonist played by Adolph Green, makes an unexpectedly emotional appeal for Al Capp and his legacy.\nThe original Dogpatch is a historical part of San Francisco dating back to the 1860s that escaped the earthquake and fire of 1906. Later in the 20th century, U.S. Army and Marine Corps units in Vietnam during the Vietnam War called their housing compounds \"Dogpatches,\" due to the primitive living conditions.\nLi'l Abner, Daisy Mae, Wolf Gal, Earthquake McGoon, Lonesome Polecat, Hairless Joe, Sadie Hawkins, Silent Yokum and Fearless Fosdick all found their way onto the painted noses of bomber aircraft during World War II and the Korean War, as did Kickapoo Joy Juice, Lena the Hyena and the Shmoo. Moonbeam McSwine was immortalized as the P-51D Mustang USAAF bomber escort fighter flown by ace pilot Capt. William T. Whisner, still operable and appearing in aviator air shows as of 2008.\nAl Capp always claimed to have effectively created the miniskirt, when he first put one on Daisy Mae in 1934.\nLi'l Abner was censored for the first, but not the last time in September 1947, and was pulled from papers by Scripps-Howard. The controversy, as reported in Time, centered on Capp's portrayal of the US Senate. Said Edward Leech of Scripps, \"We don't think it is good editing or sound citizenship to picture the Senate as an assemblage of freaks and crooks... boobs and undesirables.\" \nLi'l Abner has one odd design quirk that has puzzled readers for decades: the part in his hair always faces the viewer, no matter which direction Abner is facing. In response to the question \"Which side does Abner part his hair on?,\" Capp would answer, \"Both.\" Capp claimed that he found the right \"look\" for Li'l Abner with Henry Fonda's character Dave Tolliver in The Trail of the Lonesome Pine (1936). Fonda later commented, \"He's never told me, but I was told he has said that.\" \nJoan Baez took Al Capp to court in 1967 over Joanie Phoanie. She did not ask for damages; it was instead a bid to force a public retraction. The judge decided in Capp's favor, however. Declaring that satire was also protected free speech, he refused to order Capp to cease and desist. In recent years, Baez has admitted to being more amused by the parody— even including an excerpt in her memoirs (And a Voice to Sing With: A Memoir, published in 1987). \"I wish I could have laughed at this at the time,\" she wrote in a caption under one of the strips.\n \"I didn't start this Mammy Yokum did.\" was the reply Ralph Kramden told his wife Alice (concerning a comment made by Ralph's mother in-law) in Episode #2 Funny Money of The Honeymooners.\nIn 1960, Dixieland trombonist Turk Murphy christened his San Francisco jazz club \"Earthquake McGoon's,\" in honor of the perennial Dogpatch villain.\nIn 1968, the first year of operation, Dogpatch USA had 300,000 visitors. Admission was $1.50 for adults, and half price for children. Al Capp's son Colin Capp worked at the park that year, and met and married Vicki Cox, the actress portraying Moonbeam McSwine. Capp had previously spoofed the idea of a theme park based on his characters in Li'l Abner, in a 1955 Disneyland parody called \"Hal Yappland.\"\nAl Capp designed the 23 ft statue of Josiah Flintabattey Flonatin (\"Flinty\") that graces the city of Flin Flon, Manitoba. The town's name is taken from the lead character in a 1905 dime novel, The Sunless City by J. E. Preston Muddock. Capp donated his time and talent to create the image. The character is of such importance to the identity of the city that the local Chamber of Commerce commissioned the minting of a $3.00 coin, which was considered legal tender within the city during the year following its issue. The Chamber had the fiberglass sculpture moved to its present location at the Flin Flon Tourist Park in 1962.\n\"Natcherly,\" Capp's bastardization of \"naturally,\" turns up occasionally in popular culture— even without a specifically rural theme. It can be found in West Side Story, for instance, in Stephen Sondheim's original lyrics to \"Gee, Officer Krupke\" (1957).\nMell Lazarus, creator of Miss Peach and Momma, wrote a comic novel in 1963 titled The Boss Is Crazy, Too. It was partly inspired by his apprenticeship days working for Al Capp and his brother Elliot Caplin at Toby Press, which published Shmoo Comics in the late 1940s. In a seminar at the Charles Schulz Museum on November 8, 2008, Lazarus called his experience at Toby \"the five funniest years of my life.\" Lazarus went on to cite Capp as one of the \"four essentials\" in the field of newspaper cartoonists— along with Walt Kelly, Charles Schulz and Milton Caniff.\nUtah governor Gary Herbert controversially referred to himself as \"Available Jones\", the Dogpatch entrepreneur who does anything for a price, at a private meeting with lobbyists April 27, 2016 to raise funds for his re-election campaign.", "Alfred Gerald Caplin (September 28, 1909 – November 5, 1979), better known as Al Capp, was an American cartoonist and humorist best known for the satirical comic strip Li'l Abner, which he created in 1934 and continued writing and (with help from assistants) drawing until 1977. He also wrote the comic strips Abbie an' Slats (in the years 1937–45) and Long Sam (1954). He won the National Cartoonists Society's Reuben Award in 1947 for Cartoonist of the Year, and their 1979 Elzie Segar Award (posthumously) for his \"unique and outstanding contribution to the profession of cartooning.\" Comic strips dealt with northern urban experiences until the year Capp introduced \"Li'l Abner,\" the first strip based in the South. Although Capp was from Connecticut, he spent 43 years teaching the world about Dogpatch, reaching an estimated 60 million readers in over 900 American newspapers and 100 foreign papers in 28 countries. M. Thomas Inge says Capp made a large personal fortune on the strip and \"had a profound influence on the way the world viewed the American South.\" \n\nEarly life\n\nBorn in New Haven, Connecticut, of East European Jewish heritage, Capp was the eldest child of Otto Philip and Matilda (Davidson) Caplin. Capp's parents were both natives of Latvia whose families had migrated to New Haven in the 1880s. \"My mother and father had been brought to this country from Russia when they were infants,\" wrote Capp in 1978. \"Their fathers had found that the great promise of America was true—it was no crime to be a Jew.\" The Caplins were dirt poor, and Capp later recalled stories of his mother going out in the night to sift through ash barrels for reusable bits of coal.\n\nIn August 1919, at the age of nine, Capp was run down by a trolley car and had to have his left leg amputated, well above the knee. According to his father Otto's unpublished autobiography, young Capp was not prepared for the amputation beforehand; having been in a coma for days, he suddenly awoke to discover that his leg was removed. He was eventually given a prosthetic leg, but only learned to use it by adopting a slow way of walking which became increasingly painful as he grew older. The childhood tragedy of losing a leg likely helped shape Capp’s cynical worldview, which, funny as it was, was certainly darker and more sardonic than that of the average newspaper cartoonist. \"I was indignant as hell about that leg,\" he would reveal in a November 1950 interview in Time magazine.\n\n\"The secret of how to live without resentment or embarrassment in a world in which I was different from everyone else,\" Capp philosophically wrote (in Life magazine on May 23, 1960), \"was to be indifferent to that difference.\" It was the prevailing opinion among his friends that Capp's Swiftian satire was, to some degree, a creatively channeled, compensatory response to his disability.\n\nCapp's father, a failed businessman and an amateur cartoonist, introduced him to drawing as a form of therapy. He became quite proficient, learning mostly on his own. Among his earliest influences were Punch cartoonist–illustrator Phil May, and American comic strip cartoonists Tad Dorgan, Cliff Sterrett, Rube Goldberg, Rudolph Dirks, Fred Opper, Billy DeBeck, George McManus and Milt Gross. At about this same time, Capp became a voracious reader. According to Capp's brother Elliot, Alfred had finished all of Shakespeare and George Bernard Shaw by the time he turned 13. Among his childhood favorites were Dickens, Smollett, Mark Twain, Booth Tarkington, and later, Robert Benchley and S. J. Perelman.\n\nCapp spent five years at Bridgeport High School in Bridgeport, Connecticut without receiving a diploma. The cartoonist liked to joke about how he failed geometry for nine straight terms. His formal training came from a series of art schools in the New England area. Attending three of them in rapid succession, the impoverished Capp was thrown out of each for nonpayment of tuition—the Boston Museum School of Fine Arts, the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, and Designers Art School in Boston—the latter before launching his career. Capp had already decided to become a cartoonist. \"I heard that Bud Fisher (creator of Mutt and Jeff) got $3,000 a week and was constantly marrying French countesses,\" Capp said. \"I decided that was for me.\"\n\nIn early 1932, Capp hitchhiked to New York City. He lived in \"airless rat holes\" in Greenwich Village and turned out advertising strips at $2 apiece while scouring the city hunting for jobs. He eventually found work at the Associated Press when he was 23 years old. By March 1932, Capp was drawing Colonel Gilfeather, a single-panel, AP-owned property created in 1930 by Dick Dorgan. Capp changed the focus and title to Mister Gilfeather, but soon grew to hate the feature. He left the Associated Press in September 1932. Before leaving, he met Milton Caniff, and the two became lifelong friends. Capp moved to Boston and married Catherine Wingate Cameron, whom he had met earlier in art class. She died in 2006 at the age of 96.\n\nLeaving his new wife with her parents in Amesbury, Massachusetts, he subsequently returned to New York in 1933, in the midst of the Great Depression. \"I was 23, I carried a mass of drawings, and I had nearly five dollars in my pocket. People were sleeping in alleys then, willing to work at anything.\" There he met Ham Fisher, who hired him to ghost on Joe Palooka. During one of Fisher's extended vacations, Capp's Joe Palooka story arc introduced a stupid, coarse, oafish mountaineer named \"Big Leviticus,\" a crude prototype. (Leviticus was actually much closer to Capp's later villains Lem and Luke Scragg, than to the much more appealing and innocent Li'l Abner.)\n\nAlso during this period, Capp was working at night on samples for the strip that would eventually become Li'l Abner. He based his cast of characters on the authentic mountain-dwellers he met while hitchhiking through rural West Virginia and the Cumberland Valley as a teenager. (This was years before the Tennessee Valley Authority Act brought basic utilities like electricity and running water to the region.) Leaving Joe Palooka, Capp sold Li'l Abner to United Feature Syndicate (now known as United Media). The feature was launched on Monday, August 13, 1934 in eight North American newspapers—including the New York Mirror—and was an immediate success. Alfred G. Caplin eventually became \"Al Capp\" because the syndicate felt the original would not fit in a cartoon frame. Capp had it changed legally in 1949.\n\nHis younger brother Elliot Caplin also became a comic strip writer, best known for co-creating the soap opera strip The Heart of Juliet Jones with artist Stan Drake, and conceiving the comic strip character Broom-Hilda with cartoonist Russell Myers. Elliot also authored several off-Broadway plays, including A Nickel for Picasso (1981), which was based on and dedicated to his mother and his famous brother. \n\nLi'l Abner\n\nWhat began as a hillbilly burlesque soon evolved into one of the most imaginative, popular and well-drawn strips of the 20th century. Featuring vividly outlandish characters, bizarre situations, and equal parts suspense, slapstick, irony, satire, black humor and biting social commentary, Li'l Abner is considered a classic of the genre. The comic strip stars Li'l Abner Yokum—the simple-minded, loutish but good-natured and eternally innocent hayseed who lives with his parents—scrawny but superhuman Mammy Yokum, and shiftless, childlike Pappy Yokum.\n\n\"Yokum\" was a combination of yokel and hokum, although Capp established a deeper meaning for the name during a series of visits around 1965–1970 with comics historians George E. Turner and Michael H. Price. “It’s phonetic Hebrew—that’s what it is, all right—and that’s what I was getting at with the name Yokum, more so than any attempt to sound hickish,\" said Capp. \"That was a fortunate coincidence, of course, that the name should pack a backwoods connotation. But it’s a godly conceit, really, playing off a godly name—Joachim means 'God’s determination', something like that—that also happens to have a rustic ring to it.\" \n\nThe Yokums live in the backwater hamlet of Dogpatch, Kentucky. Described by its creator as \"an average stone-age community,\" Dogpatch mostly consists of hopelessly ramshackle log cabins, pine trees, \"tarnip\" fields and \"hawg\" wallows. Whatever energy Abner had went into evading the marital goals of Daisy Mae Scragg, his sexy, well-endowed (but virtuous) girlfriend—until Capp finally gave in to reader pressure and allowed the couple to marry. This newsworthy event made the cover of Life on March 31, 1952.\n\nCapp peopled his comic strip with an assortment of memorable characters, including Marryin' Sam, Hairless Joe, Lonesome Polecat, Evil-Eye Fleegle, General Bullmoose, Lena the Hyena, Senator Jack S. Phogbound (Capp's caricature of the anti-New Deal Dixiecrats), the (shudder!) Scraggs, Available Jones, Nightmare Alice, Earthquake McGoon, and a host of others. Most notably, certainly from a G.I. point of view, are the beautiful, full-figured women like Daisy Mae, Wolf Gal, Stupefyin' Jones and Moonbeam McSwine (a caricature of his wife Catherine, aside from the dirt)—all of whom found their way onto the painted noses of bomber planes during World War II and the Korean War. Perhaps Capp's most popular creations were the Shmoos, creatures whose incredible usefulness and generous nature made them a threat to civilization as we know it. Another famous character was Joe Btfsplk, who wants to be a loving friend but is \"the world's worst jinx,\" bringing bad luck to all those nearby. Btfsplk (his name is \"pronounced\" by simply blowing a \"raspberry\" or Bronx cheer) always has an iconic dark cloud over his head.\n\nDogpatch residents regularly combat the likes of city slickers, business tycoons, government officials and intellectuals with their homespun simplicity. Situations often take the characters to other destinations, including New York City, Washington, D.C., Hollywood, tropical islands, the Moon, Mars, and some purely fanciful worlds of Capp's invention. The latter includes El Passionato, Kigmyland, The Republic of Crumbumbo, Skunk Hollow, The Valley of the Shmoon, Planets Pincus Number 2 and 7, and a miserable frozen wasteland known as Lower Slobbovia, a pointedly political satire of backward nations and foreign diplomacy that remains a contemporary reference. \"Indeed, Li'l Abner incorporates such a panoply of characters and ideas that it defies summary,\" according to cultural historian Anthony Harkins. \"Yet though Capp's storylines often wandered far afield, his hillbilly setting remained a central touchstone, serving both as a microcosm and a distorting carnival mirror of broader American society.\" \n\nThe strip's popularity grew from an original eight papers, to ultimately more than 900. At its peak, Li'l Abner was estimated to have been read daily by 60 to 70 million Americans (the U.S. population at the time was only 180 million), with adult readers far outnumbering children. Many communities, high schools and colleges staged Sadie Hawkins dances, patterned after the similar annual event in the strip.\n\nLi'l Abner has one odd design quirk that has puzzled readers for decades: the part in his hair always faces the viewer, no matter which direction Abner is facing. In response to the question “Which side does Abner part his hair on?,\" Capp would answer, “Both.” Capp said he finally found the right \"look\" for Li'l Abner with Henry Fonda's character Dave Tolliver, in The Trail of the Lonesome Pine (1936). In later years, Capp always claimed to have effectively created the miniskirt, when he first put one on Daisy Mae in 1934.\n\nParodies, toppers and alternate strips\n\nLi'l Abner also features a comic strip-within-the-strip: Fearless Fosdick is a parody of Chester Gould's Dick Tracy. It first appeared in 1942, and proved so popular that it ran intermittently over the next 35 years. Gould was personally parodied in the series as cartoonist \"Lester Gooch\"—the diminutive, much-harassed and occasionally deranged \"creator\" of Fosdick. The style of the Fosdick sequences closely mimicks Tracy, including the urban setting, the outrageous villains, the galloping mortality rate, the crosshatched shadows, and even the lettering style. In 1952, Fosdick was the star of his own short-lived puppet show on NBC, featuring the Mary Chase marionettes.\n\nBesides Dick Tracy, Capp parodied many other comic strips in Li'l Abner—including Steve Canyon, Superman (at least twice; first as \"Jack Jawbreaker\" in 1947, and again in 1966 as \"Chickensouperman\"), Mary Worth as \"Mary Worm\", Peanuts {with \"Peewee\" a parody of Charlie Brown with \"Croopy\" parody of Snoopy\" {1968} drawn by Bedley Damp a parody of Charles Schulz}, Rex Morgan, M.D., Little Annie Rooney and Little Orphan Annie (in which Punjab became \"Punjbag,\" an oleaginous slob). Fearless Fosdick—and Capp's other spoofs like \"Little Fanny Gooney\" (1952) and \"Jack Jawbreaker\"—were almost certainly an early inspiration for Harvey Kurtzman's Mad Magazine, which began in 1952 as a comic book that specifically parodied other comics in the same distinctive style and subversive manner.\n\nCapp also lampooned popular recording idols of the day, such as Elvis Presley (\"Hawg McCall,\" 1957), Liberace (\"Loverboynik,\" 1956), the Beatles (\"the Beasties,\" 1964)—and in 1944, Frank Sinatra. \"Sinatra was the first great public figure I ever wrote about,\" Capp once said. \"I called him 'Hal Fascinatra.' I remember my news syndicate was so worried about what his reaction might be, and we were all surprised when he telephoned and told me how thrilled he was with it. He always made it a point to send me champagne whenever he happened to see me in a restaurant...\" (from Frank Sinatra, My Father by Nancy Sinatra, 1985). On the other hand, Liberace was \"cut to the quick\" over Loverboynik, according to Capp, and even threatened legal action—as would Joan Baez later, over \"Joanie Phoanie\" in 1967. \n\nCapp was just as likely to parody himself; his self-caricature made frequent, tongue-in-cheek appearances in Li'l Abner. The gag was often at his own expense, as in the above 1951 sequence showing Capp's interaction with \"fans\" (see excerpt), or in his 1955 Disneyland parody, \"Hal Yappland.\" Just about anything could be a target for Capp's satire—in one storyline Li'l Abner is revealed to be the missing link between ape and man. In another, the search is on in Dogpatch for a pair of missing socks knitted by the first President of the United States.\n \nIn addition to creating Li'l Abner, Capp also co-created two other newspaper strips: Abbie an' Slats with magazine illustrator Raeburn van Buren in 1937, and Long Sam with cartoonist Bob Lubbers in 1954, as well as the Sunday \"topper\" strips Washable Jones, Small Fry (a.k.a. Small Change), and Advice fo' Chillun.\n\nCritical recognition\n\nAccording to comics historian Coulton Waugh, a 1947 poll of newspaper readers who claimed they ignored the comics page altogether revealed that many confessed to making a single exception: Li'l Abner. \"When Li'l Abner made its debut in 1934, the vast majority of comic strips were designed chiefly to amuse or thrill their readers. Capp turned that world upside-down by routinely injecting politics and social commentary into Li'l Abner. The strip was the first to regularly introduce characters and story lines having nothing to do with the nominal stars of the strip. The technique—as invigorating as it was unorthodox—was later adopted by cartoonists like Walt Kelly Pogo] and Garry Trudeau [Doonesbury],\" wrote comic strip historian Rick Marschall. According to Marschall, Li'l Abner gradually evolved into a broad satire of human nature. In his book America's Great Comic Strip Artists (1989), Marschall's analysis revealed a decidedly misanthropic subtext.\n\nOver the years, Li'l Abner has been adapted to radio, animated cartoons, stage production, motion pictures and television. Capp has been compared, at various times, to Mark Twain, Dostoevski, Jonathan Swift, Lawrence Sterne and Rabelais. Fans of the strip ranged from novelist John Steinbeck, who called Capp \"possibly the best writer in the world today\" in 1953, and even earnestly recommended him for the Nobel Prize in literature—to media critic and theorist Marshall McLuhan, who considered Capp \"the only robust satirical force in American life.\" John Updike, comparing Abner to a “hillbilly Candide,” added that the strip’s “richness of social and philosophical commentary approached the Voltairean.” Charlie Chaplin, William F. Buckley, Al Hirschfeld, Harpo Marx, Russ Meyer, John Kenneth Galbraith, Ralph Bakshi, Shel Silverstein, Hugh Downs, Gene Shalit, Frank Cho, Daniel Clowes and (reportedly) even Queen Elizabeth have confessed to being fans of Li'l Abner.\n\nLi'l Abner was also the subject of the first book-length, scholarly assessment of an American comic strip ever published. Li'l Abner: A Study in American Satire by Arthur Asa Berger (Twayne, 1969) contained serious analyses of Capp's narrative technique, his use of dialogue, self-caricature and grotesquerie, the place of Li'l Abner in American satire, and the significance of social criticism and the graphic image. \"One of the few strips ever taken seriously by students of American culture,\" wrote Professor Berger, \"Li'l Abner is worth studying... because of Capp's imagination and artistry, and because of the strip's very obvious social relevance.\" It was reprinted by the University Press of Mississippi in 1994.\n\nThe 1940s and '50s\n\nDuring World War II and for many years afterward, Capp worked tirelessly going to hospitals to entertain patients, especially to cheer recent amputees and explain to them that the loss of a limb did not mean an end to a happy and productive life. Making no secret of his own disability, Capp openly joked about his prosthetic leg his whole life. In 1946 Capp created a special full-color comic book, Al Capp by Li'l Abner, to be distributed by the Red Cross to encourage the thousands of amputee veterans returning from the war. Capp was also involved with the Sister Kenny Foundation, which pioneered new treatments for polio in the 1940s. Serving in his capacity as honorary chairman, Capp made public appearances on its behalf for years, contributed free artwork for its annual fund-raising appeals, and entertained crippled and paraplegic children in children's hospitals with inspirational pep talks, humorous stories and sketches. \n\nIn 1940, an RKO movie adaptation starred Granville Owen (later known as Jeff York) as Li'l Abner, with Buster Keaton taking the role of Lonesome Polecat, and featuring a title song with lyrics by Milton Berle. A successful musical comedy adaptation of the strip opened on Broadway at the St. James Theater on November 15, 1956 and had a long run of 693 performances, followed by a nationwide tour. The stage musical, with music and lyrics by Gene de Paul and Johnny Mercer, was adapted into a Technicolor motion picture at Paramount in 1959 by producer Norman Panama and director Melvin Frank, with a score by Nelson Riddle. Several performers repeated their Broadway roles in the film, most memorably Julie Newmar as Stupefyin' Jones and Stubby Kaye as Marryin' Sam. \n\nOther highlights of that decade included the 1942 debut of Fearless Fosdick as Abner's \"ideel\" (hero); the 1946 Lena the Hyena Contest, in which a hideous Lower Slobbovian gal was ultimately revealed in the harrowing winning entry (as judged by Frank Sinatra, Boris Karloff and Salvador Dalí) drawn by noted cartoonist Basil Wolverton; and an ill-fated Sunday parody of Gone With the Wind that aroused anger and legal threats from author Margaret Mitchell, and led to a printed apology within the strip. In October 1947, Li'l Abner met Rockwell P. Squeezeblood, head of the abusive and corrupt Squeezeblood Comic Strip Syndicate. The resulting sequence, \"Jack Jawbreaker Fights Crime!,\" was a devastating satire of Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster's notorious exploitation by DC Comics over Superman. It was later reprinted in The World of Li'l Abner (1953). (Siegel and Shuster had earlier poked fun at Capp in a Superman story in Action Comics #55, December 1942, in which a cartoonist named \"Al Hatt\" invents a comic strip featuring the hillbilly \"Tiny Rufe.\")\n\nIn 1947, Capp earned a Newsweek cover story. That same year the New Yorker's profile on him was so long that it ran in consecutive issues. In 1948, Capp reached a creative peak with the introduction of the Shmoos, lovable and innocent fantasy creatures who reproduced at amazing speed and brought so many benefits that, ironically, the world economy was endangered. The much-copied storyline was a parable that was metaphorically interpreted in many different ways at the outset of the Cold War.\n\nFollowing his close friend Milton Caniff's lead (with Steve Canyon), Capp had recently fought a successful battle with the syndicate to gain complete ownership of his feature when the Shmoos debuted. As a result, he reaped enormous financial rewards from the unexpected (and almost unprecedented) merchandising phenomenon that followed. As in the strip, Shmoos suddenly appeared to be everywhere in 1949 and 1950—including a Time cover story. A paperback collection of the original sequence, The Life and Times of the Shmoo, became a bestseller for Simon & Schuster. Shmoo dolls, clocks, watches, jewelry, earmuffs, wallpaper, fishing lures, air fresheners, soap, ice cream, balloons, ashtrays, comic books, records, sheet music, toys, games, Halloween masks, salt and pepper shakers, decals, pinbacks, tumblers, coin banks, greeting cards, planters, neckties, suspenders, belts, curtains, fountain pens, and other shmoo paraphernalia were produced. A garment factory in Baltimore turned out a whole line of shmoo apparel, including \"Shmooveralls.\" The original sequence and its 1959 sequel, The Return of the Shmoo, have been collected in print many times since, most recently in 2011, always to high sales figures. The Shmoos would later have their own animated TV series.\n\nCapp followed this success with other allegorical fantasy critters, including the aboriginal and masochistic \"Kigmies,\" who craved abuse (a story that began as a veiled comment on racial and religious oppression), the dreaded \"Nogoodniks\" (or bad shmoos), and the irresistible \"Bald Iggle,\" a guileless creature whose sad-eyed countenance compelled involuntary truthfulness—with predictably disastrous results.\n\nLi'l Abner was censored for the first, but not the last time in September 1947, and was pulled from papers by Scripps-Howard. The controversy, as reported in Time, centered on Capp's portrayal of the United States Senate. Said Edward Leech of Scripps, \"We don't think it is good editing or sound citizenship to picture the Senate as an assemblage of freaks and crooks... boobs and undesirables.\" He criticized Senator Joseph McCarthy in 1954, calling him a \"poet.\" \"He uses poetic license to try to create the beautifully ordered world of good guys and bad guys that he wants,\" said Capp. \"He seems at his best when terrifying the helpless and naïve.\" \n\nCapp received the National Cartoonists Society's Billy DeBeck Memorial Award in 1947 for Cartoonist of the Year. (When the award name was changed in 1954, Capp also retroactively received a Reuben statuette.) He was an outspoken pioneer in favor of diversifying the NCS by admitting women cartoonists. Originally, the Society had disallowed female members. Capp briefly resigned his membership in 1949 to protest their refusal of admission to Hilda Terry, creator of the comic strip Teena. According to Tom Roberts, author of Alex Raymond: His Life and Art (2007), Capp delivered a stirring speech that was instrumental in changing those rules. The NCS finally accepted female members the following year. In December 1952, Capp published an article in Real magazine titled “The REAL Powers in America” that further challenged the conventional attitudes of the day: \"The real powers in America are women—the wives and sweethearts behind the masculine dummies...\"\n\nHighlights of the 1950s included the much-heralded marriage of Abner and Daisy Mae in 1952, the birth of their son \"Honest Abe\" Yokum in 1953, and in 1954, the introduction of Abner's enormous, long lost kid brother Tiny Yokum, who filled Abner's place as a bachelor in the annual Sadie Hawkins Day race. In 1952, Capp and his characters graced the covers of both Life and TV Guide. 1956 saw the debut of the Bald Iggle, considered by some Abner enthusiasts to be the creative high point of the strip, as well as Mammy's revelatory encounter with the \"Square Eyes\" Family—Capp’s thinly-veiled appeal for racial tolerance. (This fable-like story was collected into an educational comic book called Mammy Yokum and the Great Dogpatch Mystery!, and distributed by the Anti-Defamation League of B'nai B'rith later that year.) Two years later, Capp's studio issued Martin Luther King and the Montgomery Story, a biographical comic book distributed by the Fellowship of Reconciliation.Love, David A. [http://thegrio.com/2011/02/02/eygptians-draw-inspiration-from-civil-rights-movement-comic-book/ \"Egyptians draw inspiration from Civil Rights Movement comic book.\"] The Grio (February 2, 2011). \n\nCapp had often parodied corporate greed—pork tycoon J. Roaringham Fatback had figured prominently in wiping out the Shmoos. But in 1952, when General Motors president Charles E. Wilson, nominated for a cabinet post, told Congress \"...what was good for the country was good for General Motors and vice versa,\" he inspired one of Capp's greatest satires—the introduction of General Bullmoose, the robust, ruthless, and ageless business tycoon. The blustering Bullmoose, who seemed to own and control nearly everything, justified his far-reaching and mercenary excesses by saying \"What's good for General Bullmoose is good for everybody!\" Bullmoose's corrupt interests were often pitted against those of the pathetic Lower Slobbovians in a classic mismatch of \"haves\" versus \"have-nots.\" This character, along with the Shmoos, helped cement Capp's favor with the Left, and would increase their outrage a decade later when Capp, a former Franklin D. Roosevelt liberal, switched targets. Nonetheless, General Bullmoose continued to appear, undaunted and unredeemed, during the strip's final right-wing phase and into the 1970s.\n\nFeud with Ham Fisher\n\nAfter Capp quit his ghosting job on Ham Fisher's Joe Palooka in 1934 to launch his own strip, Fisher badmouthed him to colleagues and editors, claiming that Capp had \"stolen\" his idea. For years, Fisher would bring the characters back to his strip, billing them as \"The ORIGINAL Hillbilly Characters\" and advising readers not to be \"fooled by imitations.\" (In fact, Fisher's brutish hillbilly character—Big Leviticus, created by Capp in Fisher's absence—bore little resemblance to Li'l Abner.) According to a November 1950 Time article, \"Capp parted from Fisher with a definite impression, (to put it mildly) that he had been underpaid and unappreciated. Fisher, a man of Roman self esteem, considered Capp an ingrate and a whippersnapper, and watched his rise to fame with unfeigned horror.\" \n\n\"Fisher repeatedly brought Leviticus and his clan back, claiming their primacy as comics' first hillbilly family—but he was missing the point. It wasn't the setting that made Capp's strip such a huge success. It was Capp's finely tuned sense of the absurd, his ability to milk an outrageous situation for every laugh in it and then, impossibly, to squeeze even more laughs from it, that found such favor with the public,\" (from Don Markstein's Toonopedia). \n\nThe Capp-Fisher feud was well known in cartooning circles, and it grew more personal as Capp's strip eclipsed Joe Palooka in popularity. Fisher hired away Capp's top assistant, Moe Leff. After Fisher underwent plastic surgery, Capp included a racehorse in Li'l Abner named \"Ham's Nose-Bob.\" In 1950, Capp introduced a cartoonist character named \"Happy Vermin\"—a caricature of Fisher—who hired Abner to draw his comic strip in a dimly lit closet, (after sacking his previous \"temporary\" assistant of 20 years, who had been cut off from all his friends in the process). Instead of using Vermin's tired characters, Abner inventively peopled the strip with hillbillies. A bighearted Vermin told his slaving assistant: \"I'm proud of having created these characters!! They'll make millions for me!! And if they do—I'll get you a new light bulb!!\"\n\nTraveling in the same social circles, the two men engaged in a 20-year mutual vendetta, as described by the Daily News in 1998: \"They crossed paths often, in the midtown watering holes and at National Cartoonists Society banquets, and the city's gossip columns were full of their snarling public donnybrooks.\" In 1950, Capp wrote a nasty article for The Atlantic entitled \"I Remember Monster.\" The article recounted Capp's days working for an unnamed \"benefactor\" with a miserly, swinish personality, who Capp claimed was a never-ending source of inspiration when it came time to create a new unregenerate villain for his comic strip. The thinly-veiled boss was understood to be Ham Fisher.\n\nFisher retaliated clumsily, doctoring photostats of Li'l Abner and falsely accusing Capp of sneaking obscenities into his comic strip. Fisher submitted examples of Li'l Abner to Capp's syndicate and to the New York courts, in which Fisher had identified pornographic images that were hidden in the background art. However, the X-rated material had actually been drawn there by Fisher himself. Capp was able to refute the accusation by simply showing the original artwork.\n\nIn 1954, when Capp was applying for a Boston television license, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) received an anonymous packet of pornographic Li'l Abner drawings. The National Cartoonists Society (NCS) convened an ethics hearing, and Fisher was expelled for the forgery from the same organization that he had helped found; Fisher's scheme had backfired in spectacular fashion. Around the same time, his mansion in Wisconsin was destroyed by a nor'easter. On December 27, 1955, Fisher committed suicide in his studio. The feud and Fisher's suicide were used as the basis for a lurid, highly fictionalized murder mystery, Strip for Murder by Max Allan Collins.\n\nAnother \"feud\" seemed to be looming when, in one run of Sunday strips in 1957, Capp lampooned the comic strip Mary Worth as \"Mary Worm.\" The title character was depicted as a nosy, interfering busybody. Allen Saunders, the creator of the Mary Worth strip, returned Capp's fire with the introduction of the character \"Hal Rapp,\" a foul-tempered, ill-mannered, and (ironically) inebriated cartoonist, (Capp was a teetotaler). Later, it was revealed to be a collaborative hoax that Capp and his longtime pal Saunders had cooked up together. The Capp-Saunders \"feud\" fooled both editors and readers, generated plenty of free publicity for both strips—and Capp and Saunders had a good laugh when all was revealed. \n\nPersonality\n\nCapp was volatile, contentious, cynical, sarcastic, contradictory, iconoclastic, misanthropic, curmudgeonly, controversial, and sardonically funny. According to Capp's longtime friend Milton Caniff, Capp was \"charming\" when he chose to be, but he added, \"He could be very difficult if he didn't like you.\" Frank Frazetta described Capp as \"exasperating, infuriating, domineering, obnoxious, loud, lots of fun, acidic and lovable.\" Frazetta's freewheeling description typifies the many conflicting firsthand accounts of Capp's complex personality. \"He could be a real s.o.b. sometimes. Other times he was a lot of fun to be around. He was a brilliant guy—but a little screwed up,\" Frazetta has said (from The Comic Art of Frank Frazetta, 2008). Capp's persona has long since eclipsed his work, complicating critical analysis and objective assessment of Li'l Abner to this day.\n\nCapp is often associated with two other giants of the medium: Milton Caniff (Terry and the Pirates, Steve Canyon) and Walt Kelly (Pogo). The three cartoonists were close personal friends and professional associates throughout their adult lives, and occasionally referenced each other in their strips. According to one anecdote (from Al Capp Remembered, 1994), Capp and his brother Elliot ducked out of a dull party at Capp's home—leaving Walt Kelly alone to fend for himself entertaining a group of Argentine envoys who didn't speak English. Kelly retaliated by giving away Capp's baby grand piano. According to Capp, who loved to relate the story, Kelly's two perfectly logical reasons for doing so were: a. to cement diplomatic relations between Argentina and the United States, and b. \"Because you can't play the piano, anyway!\" (Beetle Bailey creator Mort Walker confirmed the story, relating a slightly expanded version in his autobiography, Mort Walker's Private Scrapbook, 2001.)\n\nMilton Caniff offered another anecdote (from Phi Beta Pogo, 1989) involving Capp and Walt Kelly, \"two boys from Bridgeport, Connecticut, nose to nose,\" onstage at a meeting of the Newspaper Comics Council in the sixties. \"Walt would say to Al, 'Of course, Al, this is really how you should draw Daisy Mae, I'm only showing you this for your own good.' Then Walt would do a sketch. Capp, of course, got ticked off by this, as you can imagine! So he retaliated by doing his version of Pogo. Unfortunately, the drawings are long gone; no recording was made. What a shame! Nobody anticipated there'd be this dueling back and forth between the two of them....\"\n\nIn her autobiography Goldie Hawn describes how Al Capp propositioned her on the casting couch and exposed himself to her. When she refused his advances he told her \"then go and marry a Jewish dentist. You'll never get anywhere in this business\". \n\nAlthough often considered a difficult person, some acquaintances of Capp have stressed that the cartoonist also had a sensitive side; in 1973, when learning that the son of his political rival Ted Kennedy had had his right leg amputated, Capp wrote the boy a letter of encouragement, giving candid advice as to how to deal with the loss of a limb, which he himself had experienced as a boy. One of Capp's grandchildren recalls that at one point, tears were streaming down the cartoonist's cheeks while he was watching a documentary about the Jonestown massacre. Capp is also reported to have given money anonymously to charities and \"people in need\" at various points in his life.\n\nProduction methods\n\nLike many cartoonists, Capp made extensive use of assistants (notably Andy Amato, Harvey Curtis, Walter Johnson and Frank Frazetta). During the extended peak of the strip, the workload grew to include advertising, merchandising, promotional work, public service comics and other specialty work—in addition to the regular six dailies and one Sunday strip per week. From the early 1940s to the late 1950s, there were scores of Sunday strip-style magazine ads for Cream of Wheat using the Abner characters, and in the 1950s, Fearless Fosdick became a spokesman for Wildroot Cream-Oil hair tonic in a series of daily strip-style print ads. The characters also sold chainsaws, underwear, ties, detergent, candy, soft drinks—including a licensed version of Capp's moonshine creation, Kickapoo Joy Juice—and General Electric and Procter & Gamble products, all requiring special artwork.\n\nNo matter how much help he had, Capp insisted on drawing and inking the characters' faces and hands—especially of Abner and Daisy Mae—himself, and his distinctive touch is often discernible. \"He had the touch,\" Frazetta said of Capp in 2008. \"He knew how to take an otherwise ordinary drawing and really make it pop. I'll never knock his talent.\"\n\nAs is usual with collaborative efforts in comic strips, his name was the only one credited— although, sensitive to his own experience working on Joe Palooka, Capp frequently drew attention to his assistants in interviews and publicity pieces. A 1950 cover story in Time even included photos of two of his employees, whose roles in the production were detailed by Capp. Ironically, this highly irregular policy (along with the subsequent fame of Frank Frazetta) has led to the misconception that his strip was \"ghosted\" by other hands. The production of Li'l Abner has been well documented, however. In point of fact, Capp maintained creative control over every stage of production for virtually the entire run of the strip. Capp himself originated the stories, wrote the dialogue, designed the major characters, rough penciled the preliminary staging and action of each panel, oversaw the finished pencils, and drew and inked the hands and faces of the characters. Frazetta authority David Winiewicz described the everyday working mode of operation in Li'l Abner Dailies: 1954 Volume 20 (Kitchen Sink, 1994):\n\nThere was also a separate line of comic book titles published by the Caplin family-owned Toby Press, including Shmoo Comics featuring Washable Jones. Cartoonist Mell Lazarus, creator of Miss Peach and Momma, wrote a comic novel in 1963 titled The Boss Is Crazy, Too which was partly inspired by his apprenticeship days working with Capp and his brother Elliot at Toby. In a seminar at the Charles Schulz Museum on November 8, 2008, Lazarus called his experience at Toby \"the five funniest years of my life.\" Lazarus went on to cite Capp as one of the \"four essentials\" in the field of newspaper cartoonists, along with Walt Kelly, Charles Schulz and Milton Caniff.\n\nCapp detailed his approach to writing and drawing the stories in an instructional course book for the Famous Artists School, beginning in 1956. In 1959, Capp recorded and released an album for Folkways Records (now owned by the Smithsonian) on which he identified and described \"The Mechanics of the Comic Strip.\" \n\nFrazetta, later famous as a fantasy artist, assisted on the strip from 1954 to December, 1961. Fascinated by Frazetta's abilities, Capp initially gave him a free hand in an extended daily sequence (about a biker named \"Frankie,\" a caricature of Frazetta) to experiment with the basic look of the strip by adding a bit more realism and detail (particularly to the inking). After editors complained about the stylistic changes, the strip's previous look was restored. During most of his tenure with Capp, Frazetta's primary responsibility—along with various specialty art, such as a series of Li'l Abner greeting cards—was tight-penciling the Sunday pages from studio roughs. This work was collected by Dark Horse Comics in a four-volume hardcover series entitled Al Capp's Li'l Abner: The Frazetta Years. In 1961, Capp, complaining of declining revenue, wanted to have Frazetta continue with a 50% pay cut. \"[Capp] said he would cut the salary in half. Goodbye. That was that. I said goodbye,\" (from Frazetta: Painting with Fire). However, Frazetta returned briefly a few years later to draw a public service comic book called Li'l Abner and the Creatures from Drop-Outer Space, distributed by the Job Corps in 1965.\n\nPublic service works\n\nCapp provided specialty artwork for civic groups, government agencies and charitable or non-profit organizations, spanning several decades. The following titles are all single-issue, educational comic books and pamphlets produced for various public services:\n\nAl Capp by Li'l Abner— Public service giveaway issued by the Red Cross (1946)\nYo' Bets Yo' Life!— Public service giveaway issued by the U.S. Army (circa 1950)\nLi'l Abner Joins the Navy— Public service giveaway issued by the Dept. of the Navy (1950)\nFearless Fosdick and the Case of the Red Feather— Public service giveaway issued by Red Feather Services, a forerunner of United Way (1951)\nThe Youth You Supervise— Public service giveaway issued by the U.S. Department of Labor (1956)\nMammy Yokum and the Great Dogpatch Mystery!— Public service giveaway issued by the Anti-Defamation League of B'nai B'rith (1956)\nOperation: Survival!— Public service giveaway issued by the Dept. of Civil Defense (1957)\nNatural Disasters!— Public service giveaway issued by the Dept. of Civil Defense (1957)\nMartin Luther King and the Montgomery Story— Public service giveaway issued by The Fellowship of Reconciliation (1958)\nLi'l Abner and the Creatures from Drop-Outer Space— Public service giveaway issued by the Job Corps (1965)\n\nIn addition, Dogpatch characters were used in national campaigns for the U.S. Treasury, the Cancer Foundation, the March of Dimes, the National Heart Fund, the Sister Kenny Foundation, the Boy Scouts of America, Community Chest, the National Reading Council, Minnesota Tuberculosis and Health Association, Christmas Seals, the National Amputation Foundation and Disabled American Veterans, among others.\n\nPublic figure\n\nIn the Golden Age of the American comic strip, successful cartoonists received a great deal of attention; their professional and private lives were reported in the press, and their celebrity was often nearly sufficient to rival their creations. As Li'l Abner reached its peak years, and following the success of the Shmoos and other high moments in his work, Al Capp achieved a public profile that is still unparalleled in his profession, and arguably exceeded the fame of his strip. \"Capp was the best known, most influential and most controversial cartoonist of his era,\" writes publisher (and leading Shmoo collector) Denis Kitchen. \"His personal celebrity transcended comics, reaching the public and influencing the culture in a variety of media. For many years he simultaneously produced the daily strip, a weekly syndicated newspaper column, and a 500-station radio program....\" He ran the Boston Summer Theatre with The Phantom cartoonist Lee Falk, bringing in Hollywood actors such as Mae West, Melvyn Douglas and Claude Rains to star in their live productions. He even briefly considered running for a Massachusetts Senate seat. Vice President Spiro Agnew urged Capp to run in the Democratic Party Massachusetts primary in 1970 against Ted Kennedy, but Capp ultimately declined. (He did, however, donate his services as a speaker at a $100-a-plate fundraiser for Republican Congressman Jack Kemp.)\n\nBesides his use of the comic strip to voice his opinions and display his humor, Capp was a popular guest speaker at universities, and on radio and television. He remains the only cartoonist to be embraced by TV; no other comic artist to date has come close to Capp's televised exposure. Capp appeared as a regular on The Author Meets the Critics (1948–'54) and made regular, weekly appearances on Today in 1953. He was also a periodic panelist on ABC and NBC's Who Said That? (1948–'55), and co-hosted DuMont's What's The Story? (1953). Between 1952 and 1972, he hosted at least five television shows–three different talk shows called The Al Capp Show (1952 and 1968) and Al Capp (1971–'72), Al Capp's America (a live \"chalk talk,\" with Capp providing a barbed commentary while sketching cartoons, 1954), and a CBS game show called Anyone Can Win (1953). He also hosted similar vehicles on the radio—and was a familiar celebrity guest on various other broadcast programs, including the long-running NBC Radio Monitor Beacon as a commentator dubbed \"An expert of nothing with opinions on everything\", Monitor.\n\nHis frequent appearances on NBC's The Tonight Show spanned three emcees (Steve Allen, Jack Paar and Johnny Carson), from the 1950s to the 1970s. One memorable story, as recounted to Johnny Carson, was about his meeting with then-President Dwight D. Eisenhower. As Capp was ushered into the Oval Office, his prosthetic leg suddenly collapsed into a pile of disengaged parts and hinges on the floor. The President immediately turned to an aide and said, \"Call Walter Reed (Hospital), or maybe Bethesda,\" to which Capp replied, \"Hell no, just call a good local mechanic!\" (Capp also spoofed Carson in his strip, in a 1970 episode called \"The Tommy Wholesome Show.\")\n\nCapp portrayed himself in a cameo role in the Bob Hope film That Certain Feeling, for which he also provided promotional art. He was interviewed live on Person to Person on November 27, 1959 by host Charles Collingwood. He also appeared as himself on The Ed Sullivan Show, Sid Caesar's Your Show of Shows, The Red Skelton Show, The Merv Griffin Show, The Mike Douglas Show, and guested on Ralph Edwards' This Is Your Life on February 12, 1961 with honoree Peter Palmer. Capp also freelanced very successfully as a magazine writer and newspaper columnist, in a wide variety of publications including Life, Show, Pageant, The Atlantic, Esquire, Coronet, and The Saturday Evening Post. Capp was impersonated by comedians Rich Little and David Frye. Although Capp's endorsement activities never rivaled Li'l Abner's or Fearless Fosdick's, he was a celebrity spokesman in print ads for Sheaffer Snorkel fountain pens (along with colleagues and close friends Milton Caniff and Walt Kelly), and—with an irony that would become apparent later—a brand of cigarettes, (Chesterfield).\n\nCapp would resume visiting war amputees during the Korean War and Vietnam War. He toured Vietnam with the USO, entertaining troops along with Art Buchwald and George Plimpton. He served as chairman of the Cartoonists' Committee in President Dwight D. Eisenhower's People-to-People program in 1954 (although Capp had actually supported Adlai Stevenson for president in 1952 and 1956), which was organized to promote Savings bonds for the U.S. Treasury. Capp had earlier provided the Shmoo for a special Children's Savings Bond in 1949, accompanying President Harry S. Truman at the bond's unveiling ceremony. During the Soviet Union's blockade of West Berlin in 1948, the commanders of the Berlin airlift had cabled Capp, requesting inflatable shmoos as part of \"Operation: Little Vittles.\" Candy-filled shmoos were air-dropped to hungry West Berliners by America's 17th Military Airport Squadron during the humanitarian effort. \"When the candy-chocked shmoos were dropped, a near-riot resulted,\" (reported in Newsweek—October 11, 1948).\n\nIn addition to his public service work for charitable organizations for the handicapped, Capp also served on the National Reading Council, which was organized to combat illiteracy. He published a column (\"Wrong Turn Onto Sesame Street\") challenging federally funded Public Television endowments in favor of educational comics—which, according to Capp, \"didn't cost a dime in taxes and never had. I pointed out that a kid could enjoy Sesame Street without learning how to read, but he couldn't enjoy comic strips unless he could read; and that a smaller investment in getting kids to read by supplying them with educational matter in such reading form might make better sense.\"\n\nCapp's academic interests included being one of nineteen original \"Trustees and Advisors\" for \"Endicott, Junior College for Young Woman\", located in Pride's Crossing (Beverly), Massachusetts, which was founded in 1939. Al Capp is listed in the 1942 Mingotide Yearbook, representing the first graduating class from Endicott Junior College. The yearbook entry includes his credential as a \"Cartoonist for United Feature Syndicate\" and a resident of New York City.\n\n\"Comics,” wrote Capp in 1970, “can be a combination of the highest quality of art and text, and many of them are.” Capp would produce many giveaway educational comic books and public services pamphlets, spanning several decades, for the Red Cross, the Department of Civil Defense, the Department of the Navy, the U.S. Army, the Anti-Defamation League, the Department of Labor, Community Chest (a forerunner of United Way), and the Job Corps. Capp's studio provided special artwork for various civic groups and non-profit organizations as well. Dogpatch characters were used in national campaigns for the Cancer Foundation, the March of Dimes, the National Heart Fund, the Boy Scouts of America, Minnesota Tuberculosis and Health Association, the National Amputation Foundation, and Disabled American Veterans, among others. They were also used to help sell Christmas Seals.\n \nCapp was the Playboy interview subject in December 1965, in a conversation conducted by Alvin Toffler. In August 1967 Capp was the narrator and host of an ABC network special called Do Blondes Have More Fun? In 1970, he was the subject of a provocative NBC documentary called This Is Al Capp. In the early 1960s, Capp regularly wrote a column entitled Al Capp's Column for the New York newspaper The Schenectady Gazette (currently The Daily Gazette).\n\nThe 1960s and '70s\n\nCapp, who by all accounts was contrary and contentious by nature, was a maverick politically. He was a liberal during the conservative 1950s, only to switch to conservative during the liberal, hippie-era 1960s.\n\nCapp and his family lived in Cambridge, Massachusetts near Harvard during the entire Vietnam War protest era. The turmoil that Americans were watching on their TV sets was happening live—right in his own neighborhood. Campus radicals and “hippies” inevitably became one of Capp’s favorite targets in the sixties. Alongside his long-established caricatures of right-wing, big business types such as General Bullmoose and J. Roaringham Fatback, Capp began spoofing counterculture icons such as Joan Baez (in the character of Joanie Phoanie, a wealthy folksinger who offers an impoverished orphanage ten thousand dollars' worth of \"protest songs\"). The sequence implicitly labeled Baez a limousine liberal, a charge she took to heart, as detailed years later in her 1987 autobiography, And A Voice To Sing With: A Memoir. Another target was Senator Ted Kennedy, parodied as \"Senator O. Noble McGesture,\" resident of \"Hyideelsport.\" The town name is a play on Hyannisport, Massachusetts, where a number of the Kennedy clan have lived.\n\nCapp became a popular public speaker on college campuses, where he reportedly relished hecklers. He attacked militant antiwar demonstrators, both in his personal appearances and in his strip. He also satirized student political groups. The Youth International Party (YIP) and Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) emerged in Li'l Abner as \"Students Wildly Indignant about Nearly Everything!\" (SWINE). In an April 1969 letter to Time, Capp insisted, \"The students I blast are not the dissenters, but the destroyers—the less than 4% who lock up deans in washrooms, who burn manuscripts of unpublished books, who make combination pigpens and playpens of their universities. The remaining 96% detest them as heartily as I do.\" \n\nCapp's increasingly controversial remarks at his campus speeches and during TV appearances cost him his semi-regular spot on the Tonight Show. His contentious public persona during this period was captured on a late sixties comedy LP called Al Capp On Campus. The album features his interaction with students at Fresno State College (now California State University, Fresno) on such topics as \"sensitivity training,\" \"humanitarianism,\" \"abstract art\" (Capp hated it), and of course, \"student protest.\" The cover features a cartoon drawing by Capp of wildly dressed, angry hippies carrying protest signs with slogans like \"End Capp Brutality,\" \"Abner and Daisy Mae Smoke Pot,\" \"Capp Is Over [30, 40, 50—all crossed out] the Hill!!,\" and \"If You Like Crap, You'll Like Capp!\"\n\nHighlights of the strip's final decades include \"Boomchik\" (1961), in which America's international prestige is saved by Mammy Yokum, \"Daisy Mae Steps Out\" (1966), a female-empowering tale of Daisy's brazenly audacious “homewrecker gland,\" \"The Lips of Marcia Perkins\" (1967), a satirical, thinly-veiled commentary on venereal disease and public health warnings, \"Ignoble Savages\" (1968), in which the Mob takes over Harvard, and \"Corporal Crock\" (1973), in which Bullmoose reveals his reactionary cartoon role model, in a tale of obsession and the fanatical world of comic book collecting.\n\nThe cartoonist visited John Lennon and Yoko Ono at their 1969 Bed-In for Peace in Montreal, and their testy exchange later appeared in the documentary film Imagine: John Lennon (1988). Introducing himself with the words \"I'm a dreadful Neanderthal fascist. How do you do?,\" Capp sardonically congratulated Lennon and Ono on their Two Virgins nude album cover: \"I think that everybody owes it to the world to prove they have pubic hair. You've done it, and I tell you that I applaud you for it.\" Following this exchange, Capp insulted Ono (\"Good God, you've gotta live with that?\"), and is asked to \"get out\" by Derek Taylor. Lennon allowed him to stay however, but the conversation had soured considerably. On Capp's exit, Lennon sang an impromptu version of his Ballad of John and Yoko song with a slightly revised, but nonetheless prophetic lyric: \"Christ, you know it ain't easy / You know how hard it can be / The way things are goin' / They're gonna crucify Capp! \" \n\nDespite his political conservatism in the last decade of his life, Capp is reported to have been (perhaps surprisingly) liberal in some particular causes; he supported Gay Rights, and did not tolerate any attempts at homophobic jokes. He is also said to have supported Martin Luther King, Jr. and the fight for racial equality in American society, although he was very sceptical of the tactics of Black Panthers and Malcolm X. \n\nAccording to an apocryphal tale from this era, in a televised face-off, either Capp (on the Dick Cavett Show) or (more commonly) conservative talk show host Joe Pyne (on his own show) is supposed to have taunted iconoclastic musician Frank Zappa about his long hair, asking Zappa if he thought he was a girl. Zappa is said to have replied, \"You have a wooden leg; does that make you a table?\" (Both Capp and Pyne had wooden legs.) The story is considered an urban legend.\n\nIn 1968, a theme park called Dogpatch USA opened at Marble Falls, Arkansas, based on Capp's work and with his support. The park was a popular attraction during the 1970s but was abandoned in 1993 due to financial difficulties. As of late 2005, the area once devoted to a live-action facsimile of Dogpatch (including a lifesize statue in the town square of Dogpatch \"founder,\" General Jubilation T. Cornpone) has been heavily stripped by vandals and souvenir hunters, and is today slowly being reclaimed by the surrounding Arkansas wilderness.\n\nOn April 22, 1971, syndicated columnist Jack Anderson reported allegations that Capp made indecent advances to four female students when he was invited to speak at the University of Alabama in February 1968. Anderson and his associate Brit Hume confirmed that Capp was shown out of town by university police, but that the incident had been hushed up by the university to avoid negative publicity. \n\nThe following month, Capp was charged in Eau Claire, Wisconsin in connection with another alleged incident following his April 1 lecture at the University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire. Capp was accused of propositioning a married woman in his hotel room. Although no sexual act was alleged to have resulted, the original charge included \"sodomy.\" As part of a plea agreement, Capp pleaded guilty to the charge of \"attempted adultery\" (adultery was, and still is a felony in Wisconsin ) and the other charges were dropped. Capp was fined $500 and court costs. In a December 1992 article for The New Yorker, Seymour Hersh reported that President Richard Nixon and Charles Colson had repeatedly discussed the Capp case in Oval Office recordings that had recently been made available by the National Archives. Nixon and Capp were on friendly terms, Hersh wrote, and Nixon and Colson had worked to find a way for Capp to run against Ted Kennedy for the U.S. Senate. \"Nixon was worried about the allegations, fearing that Capp's very close links to the White House would become embarrassingly public,\" Hersh wrote. \"The White House tapes and documents show that he and Colson discussed the issue repeatedly, and that Colson eventually reassured the President by saying that he had, in essence, fixed the case. Specifically, the President was told that one of Colson's people had gone to Wisconsin and tried to talk to the prosecutors.\" Colson's efforts failed, however. The Eau Claire district attorney, a Republican, refused to dismiss the attempted adultery charge. In passing sentence in February 1972, the judge rejected the D.A.'s motion that Capp agree to undergo psychiatric treatment.\n\nThe resulting publicity led to hundreds of papers dropping his comic strip, and Capp, already in failing health, withdrew from public speaking. Celebrity biographer James Spada has claimed that similar allegations were made by actress Grace Kelly. However, no firsthand allegation has ever surfaced. \n\n\"From beginning to end, Capp was acid-tongued toward the targets of his wit, intolerant of hypocrisy, and always wickedly funny. After about 40 years, however, Capp's interest in Abner waned, and this showed in the strip itself,\" according to Don Markstein's Toonopedia. On November 13, 1977, Capp retired with an apology to his fans for the recently declining quality of the strip, which he said had been the best he could manage due to declining health. \"If you have any sense of humor about your strip—and I had a sense of humor about mine—you knew that for three or four years Abner was wrong. Oh hell, it's like a fighter retiring. I stayed on longer than I should have,\" he admitted, adding that he couldn't breathe anymore. \"When he retired Li'l Abner, newspapers ran expansive articles and television commentators talked about the passing of an era. People magazine ran a substantial feature, and even the comics-free New York Times devoted nearly a full page to the event,\" wrote publisher Denis Kitchen.\n\nCapp's final years were marked by advancing illness and by family tragedy. In October 1977, one of his two daughters died; a few weeks later, a beloved granddaughter was killed in a car accident. A lifelong chain smoker, Capp died in 1979 from emphysema at his home in South Hampton, New Hampshire. Capp is buried in Mount Prospect Cemetery in Amesbury, Massachusetts. Engraved on his headstone is a stanza from Thomas Gray: The plowman homeward plods his weary way / And leaves the world to darkness and to me, (from \"Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard,\" 1751).\n\nLegacy\n\n\"Neither the strip's shifting political leanings nor the slide of its final few years had any bearing on its status as a classic; and in 1995, it was recognized as such by the U.S. Postal Service,\" according to Toonopedia. Li'l Abner was one of 20 American comic strips included in the Comic Strip Classics series of USPS commemorative stamps. Al Capp, an inductee into the National Cartoon Museum (formerly the International Museum of Cartoon Art), is one of only 31 artists selected to their Hall of Fame. Capp was also inducted into the Will Eisner Award Hall of Fame in 2004.\n\nSadie Hawkins Day and double whammy are two terms attributed to Al Capp that have entered the English language. Other, less ubiquitous Cappisms include skunk works and Lower Slobbovia. The term shmoo has also entered the lexicon, defining highly technical concepts in no less than four separate fields of science, including the variations shmooing (a microbiological term for the \"budding\" process in yeast reproduction), and shmoo plot (a technical term in the field of electrical engineering). In socioeconomics, a \"shmoo\" refers to any generic kind of good that reproduces itself, (as opposed to \"widgets\" which require resources and active production.) In the field of particle physics, \"shmoo\" refers to a high energy survey instrument, as utilized at the Los Alamos National Laboratory to capture subatomic cosmic ray particles emitted from the Cygnus X-3 constellation. Capp also had a knack for popularizing certain uncommon terms, such as druthers, schmooze and nogoodnik, neatnik, etc. In his book The American Language, H.L. Mencken credits the postwar mania for adding \"-nik\" to the ends of adjectives to create nouns as beginning—not with beatnik or Sputnik—but earlier, in the pages of Li'l Abner.\n\nAl Capp's life and career are the subjects of a new life-sized mural commemorating his 100th birthday. Created by resident artist Jon P. Mooers, the mural was unveiled in downtown Amesbury on May 15, 2010. According to the Boston Globe (as reported on May 18, 2010), the town has renamed its amphitheater in the artist's honor, and is looking to develop an Al Capp Museum. Capp is also the subject of an upcoming WNET-TV American Masters documentary, The Life and Times of Al Capp, produced by his granddaughter, independent filmmaker Caitlin Manning.\n\nSince his death in 1979, Al Capp and his work have been the subject of more than 40 books, including three biographies. Underground cartoonist and Li'l Abner expert Denis Kitchen has published, co-published, edited, or otherwise served as consultant on nearly all of them. Kitchen is currently compiling a biographical monograph on Al Capp.\n\nAt the San Diego Comic Con in July 2009, IDW announced the upcoming publication of Al Capp's Li'l Abner: The Complete Dailies and Color Sundays as part of their ongoing Library of American Comics project. The comprehensive series, a reprinting of the entire 43-year history of Li'l Abner spanning a projected 20 volumes, began on April 7, 2010. \n\nNotes" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Al Capp's Li'l Abner" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "al capp s li l abner" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "al capp s li l abner", "type": "FreeForm", "value": "Al Capp's Li'l Abner" }
What was the original name of the orphan created in 1924 by cartoonist Harold Gray in the comic strip we know as Little Orphan Annie?	tc_405	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Harold_Gray.txt" ], "title": [ "Harold Gray" ], "wiki_context": [ "Harold Lincoln Gray (January 20, 1894 – May 9, 1968) was an American cartoonist, best known as the creator of the newspaper comic strip Little Orphan Annie. He is considered to be the first American cartoonist to use a comic strip to express a political philosophy.\n\nEarly life\n\nHarold Gray was born in Kankakee, Illinois on January 20, 1894, to Estella Mary () and Ira Lincoln Gray, a farmer. Both parents died before he finished high school in 1912 in West Lafayette, Indiana, where the family had moved. In 1913, he got his first newspaper job at a Lafayette daily. He could trace his American ancestry back to 17th-century settlers. He grew up on farms in Illinois and Indiana, and worked in construction to pay his college tuition at Purdue University. He graduated with a degree in engineering by 1917.\n\nGray approached cartoonist John T. McCutcheon for advice on breaking into the cartooning field. He couldn't immediately get cartooning work, but McCutcheon's influence got him work as a reporter for the Chicago Tribune before he enlisted in the military for World War I, where he was a bayonet instructor for six months. Discharged from the military, he returned to the Chicago Tribune and stayed until 1919 when he left to freelance in commercial art. In 1923, while residing in Lombard, Illinois, he became a Freemason.\n\nComic strips\n\nFrom 1921 to 1924, he did the lettering for Sidney Smith's The Gumps. After he came up with a strip idea in 1924 for Little Orphan Otto, the title was altered by Chicago Tribune editor Joseph Medill Patterson to Little Orphan Annie, launched August 5, 1924.\n\nGray's first wife, Doris C. Platt, died in late 1925. He married Winifred Frost in 1929, and the couple moved to Greens Farms, Connecticut, spending winters in La Jolla, California.[http://www.stuartliss.com/loahp/haroldgray.html Olson, Richard D. \"Harold Gray\"]\n\nBy the 1930s, Little Orphan Annie had evolved from a crudely drawn melodrama to a crisply rendered atmospheric story with novelistic plot threads. The dialogue consisted mainly of meditations on Gray's own deeply conservative political philosophy. Gray made no secret of his dislike for the New Deal ways of President Franklin Roosevelt and would often decry unions and other things he saw as impediments to the hard-working American way of life. Critic Jeet Heer, who did his thesis on Gray and wrote introductions to IDW's Little Orphan Annie collections, commented:\nGray wasn't really a conservative in the 1920s: he was more of a general populist, hostile to loan sharks and speculators while celebrating hard working ordinary people whether they're successful (\"Daddy\" Warbucks) or not (the poor struggling farmers, the Silos). In the 1920s, Gray even defended labor unions, having Annie launch a successful one-girl strike against a boss who mistreats her. Gray's political opinions would take on a more partisan salience in the 1930s when the presidency of Franklin Roosevelt polarized American politics into those who saw the New Deal as the salvation for the working class and those who saw it as the end of American liberty. Gray fell into the anti-FDR camp and Annie became much more explicitly right-wing... There might be aspects of Gray's life that didn't make it into his strip. There are rumors that he was a skirt-chaser, and that's something that doesn't show up much in Annie, although you can catch hints of it here and there... Newspaper cartooning is like keeping a daily diary: even if you're writing only about the weather and shopping, bits of your personality will seep into the work. In Gray's case, the strip reflected his flinty world view, his love of hard work, his populist spirit, and also his fear of those he thought were undermining society by their laziness and meanness. You get a very strong sense of the man in his work, which is one reason it's one of the major comic strips... Sidney Smith (creator of The Gumps) was a giant of his day whose place in history has largely been forgotten. Throughout the 1920s and later, The Gumps was one of the top strips in America, loved by millions. What set The Gumps apart from earlier strips was that, although it had a comic element, Smith also often embraced wholehearted melodrama. It was the first real soap opera strip, with the fate of characters unfolding in month-long narratives... It's an interesting question why Gray's work continues to be remembered and indeed loved while Smith has been forgotten. I suspect the answer to the question has something to do with Gray's skill at characterization. Like Charles Dickens, Gray had a natural gift for creating characters that are vivid and lifelike. Annie and Warbucks are the best example of this: both of them are so strong and forceful and memorable. Once you read their adventures, it's hard to forget them as people. \n\nGray sometimes ghosted Little Joe (1933–72), the strip by his assistant (and cousin) Ed Leffingwell which was continued by Ed's brother Robert. Maw Green, a spin-off of Annie was published as a topper to Little Orphan Annie. It mixed vaudeville timing with the same deeply conservative attitudes as Annie.\n\nFilms, radio and merchandising made Gray a multi-millionaire. He died of cancer at the Scripps Memorial Hospital in La Jolla on May 9, 1968, at the age of 74.[http://www.bu.edu/phpbin/archives-cc/app/details.php?id\n7858&return=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bu.edu%2Fphpbin%2Farchives-cc%2Fapp%2Fbrowse.php%3Fletter%3DG%26sort_column%3Dcomposite_name%26sort_direction%3DASC%26per_page%3D10%26offset%3D68%26set_page%3Dprev Howard Gotlieb Archival Research Center: Harold Gray]\n\nArchives\n\nHarold Gray's work is in the Special Collections Department at the Boston University Library. The Gray collection includes artwork, printed material, correspondence, manuscripts and photographs. The collection contains a scrapbook, a short story by Gray titled “Annie\", letters, postcards and telegrams from 1937 to 1967, including correspondence with Collier’s, Purdue University, Al Capp and Mort Walker. Gray’s appointment books with comic strip dialogue and plots are dated 1929, 1931, 1933–1935, 1937, 1944, 1946, 1949, 1950–59 and 1961. Photographs show Gray drawing and Gray as a U.S. Army officer" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Otto", "Oddo" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "oddo", "otto" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "otto", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Otto" }
What was the name of Elizabeth Barrett Browning's pet golden cocker spaniel ?	tc_412	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Elizabeth_Barrett_Browning.txt", "Cocker_Spaniel.txt" ], "title": [ "Elizabeth Barrett Browning", "Cocker Spaniel" ], "wiki_context": [ "Elizabeth Barrett Browning (née Moulton-Barrett,; 6 March 1806 – 29 June 1861) was one of the most prominent English poets of the Victorian era, popular in Britain and the United States during her lifetime. \n\nBorn in County Durham, the eldest of 12 children, Elizabeth Barrett wrote poetry from about the age of six. Her mother's collection of her poems forms one of the largest collections extant of juvenilia by any English writer. At 15 she became ill, suffering intense head and spinal pain for the rest of her life. Later in life she also developed lung problems, possibly tuberculosis. She took laudanum for the pain from an early age, which is likely to have contributed to her frail health.\n\nIn the 1830s Elizabeth was introduced to literary society through her cousin, John Kenyon. Her first adult collection of poems was published in 1838 and she wrote prolifically between 1841 and 1844, producing poetry, translation and prose. She campaigned for the abolition of slavery and her work helped influence reform in the child labour legislation. Her prolific output made her a rival to Tennyson as a candidate for poet laureate on the death of Wordsworth.\n\nElizabeth's volume Poems (1844) brought her great success, attracting the admiration of the writer Robert Browning. Their correspondence, courtship and marriage were carried out in secret, for fear of her father's disapproval. Following the wedding she was indeed disinherited by her father. The couple moved to Italy in 1846, where she would live for the rest of her life. They had one son, Robert Barrett Browning, whom they called Pen. She died in Florence in 1861. A collection of her last poems was published by her husband shortly after her death.\n\nElizabeth's work had a major influence on prominent writers of the day, including the American poets Edgar Allan Poe and Emily Dickinson. She is remembered for such poems as \"How Do I Love Thee?\" (Sonnet 43, 1845) and Aurora Leigh (1856).\n\nLife and career\n\nFamily background\n\nSome of Elizabeth Barrett's family had lived in Jamaica since 1655. Their wealth derived mainly from Edward Barrett (1734–1798), owner of in the estates of Cinnamon Hill, Cornwall, Cambridge and Oxford in northern Jamaica. Elizabeth's maternal grandfather owned sugar plantations, mills, glassworks and ships that traded between Jamaica and Newcastle. Biographer Julia Markus states the poet \"believed that she had African blood through her grandfather Charles Moulton\", but there is no evidence of this - although other branches of her family had African blood through relationships between plantation owners and slaves. What the family believed to be their genealogy in relation to Jamaica is unclear. \n\nThe family wished to hand down their name, stipulating that Barrett should always be held as a surname. In some cases inheritance was given on condition that the name was used by the beneficiary; the English gentry and \"squirearchy\" had long encouraged this sort of name changing. Given this strong tradition, Elizabeth used \"Elizabeth Barrett Moulton Barrett\" on legal documents and before she was married often signed herself 'Elizabeth Barrett Barrett' or 'EBB' (initials which she was able to keep after her wedding).\n\nElizabeth's father chose to raise his family in England while his business enterprises remained in Jamaica. The fortune of Elizabeth's mother's line, the Graham Clarke family, also derived in part from slave labour, and was considerable.\n\nEarly life\n\nElizabeth Barrett Moulton-Barrett was born on 6 March 1806, in Coxhoe Hall, between the villages of Coxhoe and Kelloe in County Durham, England. Her parents were Edward Barrett Moulton Barrett and Mary Graham Clarke; Elizabeth was the eldest of 12 children (eight boys and four girls). All lived to adulthood except for one girl, who died at the age of three, when Elizabeth was eight.\n\nThe children all had nicknames: Elizabeth was \"Ba\". She rode her pony, went for family walks and picnics, socialised with other county families, and participated in home theatrical productions. But unlike her siblings, she immersed herself in books as often as she could get away from the social rituals of her family.\n\nShe was baptized in 1809 at Kelloe parish church, although she had already been baptised by a family friend in her first week of life.\n\nIn 1809, the family moved to Hope End, a 500 acre estate near the Malvern Hills in Ledbury, Herefordshire. Her father converted the Georgian house into stables and built a new mansion of opulent Turkish design, which his wife described as something from the Arabian Nights Entertainments.\n\nThe interior's brass balustrades, mahogany doors inlaid with mother-of-pearl, and finely carved fireplaces were eventually complemented by lavish landscaping: ponds, grottos, kiosks, an ice house, a hothouse, and a subterranean passage from house to gardens. Her time at Hope End would inspire her in later life to write her most ambitious work, Aurora Leigh (1856), which went through over twenty editions by 1900, but none between 1905 and 1978.\n\nShe was educated at home and tutored by Daniel McSwiney with her oldest brother. She began writing verses at the age of four. During the Hope End period, she was an intensely studious, precocious child. She claimed that at the age of six she was reading novels, at eight entranced by Pope's translations of Homer, studying Greek at ten, and at twelve writing her own Homeric epic, The Battle of Marathon: A Poem.\n\nIn 1820 Mr Barrett privately published The Battle of Marathon, an epic-style poem, though all copies remained within the family. Her mother compiled the child's poetry into collections of \"Poems by Elizabeth B. Barrett\". Her father called her the \"Poet Laureate of Hope End\" and encouraged her work. The result is one of the largest collections of juvenilia of any English writer.\n\nMary Russell Mitford described the young Elizabeth at this time, as having \"a slight, delicate figure, with a shower of dark curls falling on each side of a most expressive face; large, tender eyes, richly fringed by dark eyelashes, and a smile like a sunbeam.\"\n\nAt about this time, Elizabeth began to battle with illness, which the medical science of the time was unable to diagnose. All three sisters came down with the syndrome although it lasted only with Elizabeth. She had intense head and spinal pain with loss of mobility. Various biographies link this to a riding accident at the time (she fell while trying to dismount a horse), but there is no evidence to support the link. Sent to recover at the Gloucester spa, she was treated — in the absence of symptoms supporting another diagnosis — for a spinal problem. Though this illness continued for the rest of her life, it is believed to be unrelated to the lung disease which she developed in 1837.\n\nShe began to take opiates for the pain, laudanum (an opium concoction) followed by morphine, then commonly prescribed. She would become dependent on them for much of her adulthood; the use from an early age may well have contributed to her frail health. Biographers such as Alethea Hayter have suggested this may also have contributed to the wild vividness of her imagination and the poetry that it produced. \n\nBy 1821 she had read Mary Wollstonecraft's A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792), and become a passionate supporter of Wollstonecraft's ideas. The child's intellectual fascination with the classics and metaphysics was reflected in a religious intensity which she later described as \"not the deep persuasion of the mild Christian but the wild visions of an enthusiast.\" The Barretts attended services at the nearest Dissenting chapel, and Edward was active in Bible and Missionary societies.\n\nElizabeth's mother died in 1828, and is buried at St Michael's Church, Ledbury, next to her daughter Mary. Sarah Graham-Clarke, Elizabeth's aunt, helped to care for the children, and she had clashes with Elizabeth's strong will. In 1831 Elizabeth's grandmother, Elizabeth Moulton, died.\n\nFollowing lawsuits and the abolition of slavery Mr Barrett incurred great financial and investment losses that forced him to sell Hope End. Although the family was never poor, the place was seized and put up for sale to satisfy creditors. Always secret in his financial dealings, he would not discuss his situation and the family was haunted by the idea that they might have to move to Jamaica.\n\nBetween 1833 and 1835, she was living, with her family, at Belle Vue in Sidmouth. The site has now been renamed Cedar Shade and redeveloped. A blue plaque at the entrance to the site attests to this. \n\nIn 1838, some years after the sale of Hope End, the family settled at 50 Wimpole Street.\n\nDuring 1837–38 the poet was struck with illness again, with symptoms today suggesting tuberculous ulceration of the lungs. That same year, at her physician's insistence, she moved from London to Torquay, on the Devonshire coast. Two tragedies then struck. In February 1840 her brother Samuel died of a fever in Jamaica. Then her favourite brother Edward (\"Bro\") was drowned in a sailing accident in Torquay in July. This had a serious effect on her already fragile health. She felt guilty as her father had disapproved of Edward's trip to Torquay. She wrote to Mitford, \"That was a very near escape from madness, absolute hopeless madness\". The family returned to Wimpole Street in 1841.\n\nSuccess\n\nAt Wimpole Street Barrett Browning spent most of her time in her upstairs room. Her health began to improve, though she saw few people other than her immediate family. One of those was Kenyon, a wealthy friend of the family and patron of the arts. She received comfort from a spaniel named Flush, a gift from Mary Mitford. (Virginia Woolf later fictionalised the life of the dog, making him the protagonist of her 1933 novel Flush: A Biography).\n\nBetween 1841 and 1844 Barrett Browning was prolific in poetry, translation and prose. The poem \"The Cry of the Children\", published in 1842 in Blackwoods, condemned child labour and helped bring about child-labour reforms by raising support for Lord Shaftesbury's Ten Hours Bill (1844). At about the same time, she contributed critical prose pieces to Richard Henry Horne's A New Spirit of the Age.\n\nIn 1844 she published two volumes of Poems, which included \"A Drama of Exile\", \"A Vision of Poets\", and \"Lady Geraldine's Courtship\" and two substantial critical essays for 1842 issues of The Athenaeum. \"Since she was not burdened with any domestic duties expected of her sisters, Barrett Browning could now devote herself entirely to the life of the mind, cultivating an enormous correspondence, reading widely\". Her prolific output made her a rival to Tennyson as a candidate for poet laureate in 1850 on the death of Wordsworth.\n\nA Royal Society of Arts blue plaque now commemorates Elizabeth at 50 Wimpole Street. \n\nRobert Browning and Italy\n\nHer 1844 volume Poems made her one of the most popular writers in the country, and inspired Robert Browning to write to her. He wrote, \"I love your verses with all my heart, dear Miss Barrett,\" praising their \"fresh strange music, the affluent language, the exquisite pathos and true new brave thought.\"\n\nKenyon arranged for Browning to meet Elizabeth on 20 May 1845, in her rooms, and so began one of the most famous courtships in literature. Elizabeth had already produced a large amount of work, but Browning had a great influence on her subsequent writing, as did she on his: two of Barrett’s most famous pieces were written after she met Browning, Sonnets from the Portuguese and Aurora Leigh. Robert's Men and Women is also a product of that time.\n\nSome critics, however, see him as an undermining influence: \"Until her relationship with Robert Browning began in 1845, Barrett's willingness to engage in public discourse about social issues and about aesthetic issues in poetry, which had been so strong in her youth, gradually diminished, as did her physical health. As an intellectual presence and a physical being, she was becoming a shadow of herself.\"\n\nThe courtship and marriage between Robert Browning and Elizabeth were carried out secretly, as she knew her father would disapprove. After a private marriage at St Marylebone Parish Church, they honeymooned in Paris before moving to Italy, in September 1846, which became their home almost continuously until her death. Elizabeth's loyal nurse, Wilson, who witnessed the marriage, accompanied the couple to Italy.\n\nMr Barrett disinherited Elizabeth, as he did each of his children who married. Elizabeth had foreseen her father's anger but had not anticipated her brothers' rejection. As Elizabeth had some money of her own, the couple were reasonably comfortable in Italy. The Brownings were well respected, and even famous. Elizabeth grew stronger and in 1849, at the age of 43, between four miscarriages, she gave birth to a son, Robert Wiedeman Barrett Browning, whom they called Pen. Their son later married, but had no legitimate children.\n\nAt her husband's insistence, Elizabeth's second edition of Poems included her love sonnets; as a result, her popularity increased (as well as critical regard), and her artistic position was confirmed.\n\nThe couple came to know a wide circle of artists and writers including William Makepeace Thackeray, sculptor Harriet Hosmer (who, she wrote, seemed to be the \"perfectly emancipated female\") and Harriet Beecher Stowe. In 1849 she met Margaret Fuller, and the female French novelist George Sand in 1852, whom she had long admired. Among her intimate friends in Florence was the writer Isa Blagden, whom she encouraged to write novels. They met Alfred Tennyson in Paris, and John Forster, Samuel Rogers and the Carlyles in London, later befriending Charles Kingsley and John Ruskin.\n\nDecline and death\n\nAfter the death of an old friend, G. B. Hunter, and then of her father, Barrett Browning's health started to deteriorate. The Brownings moved from Florence to Siena, residing at the Villa Alberti. Engrossed in Italian politics, she issued a small volume of political poems titled Poems before Congress (1860) \"most of which were written to express her sympathy with the Italian cause after the outbreak of fighting in 1859\". They caused a furore in England, and the conservative magazines Blackwood's and the Saturday Review labelled her a fanatic. She dedicated this book to her husband. Her last work was A Musical Instrument, published posthumously.\n\nBarrett Browning's sister Henrietta died in November 1860. The couple spent the winter of 1860–61 in Rome where Barrett Browning's health further deteriorated and they returned to Florence in early June 1861. She became gradually weaker, using morphine to ease her pain. She died on 29 June 1861 in her husband's arms. Browning said that she died \"smilingly, happily, and with a face like a girl's.... Her last word was... Beautiful\". She was buried in the Protestant English Cemetery of Florence. \"On Monday July 1 the shops in the area around Casa Guidi were closed, while Elizabeth was mourned with unusual demonstrations.\" The nature of her illness is still unclear. Some modern scientists speculate her illness may have been hypokalemic periodic paralysis, a genetic disorder that causes weakness and many of the other symptoms she described. \n\nPublications\n\nBarrett Browning's first known poem was written at the age of six or eight, \"On the Cruelty of Forcement to Man\". The manuscript, which protests against impressment, is currently in the Berg Collection of the New York Public Library; the exact date is controversial because the \"2\" in the date 1812 is written over something else that is scratched out. \n\nHer first independent publication was \"Stanzas Excited by Reflections on the Present State of Greece\" in The New Monthly Magazine of May 1821; followed two months later by \"Thoughts Awakened by Contemplating a Piece of the Palm which Grows on the Summit of the Acropolis at Athens\".\n\nHer first collection of poems, An Essay on Mind, with Other Poems, was published in 1826 and reflected her passion for Byron and Greek politics. Its publication drew the attention of a blind scholar of the Greek language, Hugh Stuart Boyd, and of another Greek scholar, Uvedale Price, with whom she maintained sustained correspondence. Among other neighbours was Mrs James Martin from Colwall, with whom she also corresponded throughout her life. Later, at Boyd's suggestion, she translated Aeschylus' Prometheus Bound (published in 1833; retranslated in 1850). During their friendship Barrett studied Greek literature, including Homer, Pindar and Aristophanes.\n\nElizabeth opposed slavery and published two poems highlighting the barbarity of slavers and her support for the abolitionist cause: \"The Runaway Slave at Pilgrim's Point\"; and \"A Curse for a Nation\". In \"Runaway\" she describes a slave woman who is whipped, raped, and made pregnant as she curses the slavers. Elizabeth declared herself glad that the slaves were \"virtually free\" when the Emancipation Act abolishing slavery in British colonies was passed in 1833, despite the fact that her father believed that Abolitionism would ruin his business.\n\nThe date of publication of these poems is in dispute, but her position on slavery in the poems is clear and may have led to a rift between Elizabeth and her father. She wrote to John Ruskin in 1855 \"I belong to a family of West Indian slaveholders, and if I believed in curses, I should be afraid\". After the Jamaican slave uprising of 1831–32, her father and uncle continued to treat the slaves humanely.\n\nIn London, John Kenyon, a distant cousin, introduced Elizabeth to literary figures including William Wordsworth, Mary Russell Mitford, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Alfred Tennyson and Thomas Carlyle. Elizabeth continued to write, contributing \"The Romaunt of Margaret\", \"The Romaunt of the Page\", \"The Poet's Vow\" and other pieces to various periodicals. She corresponded with other writers, including Mary Russell Mitford, who would become a close friend and who would support Elizabeth's literary ambitions.\n\nIn 1838 The Seraphim and Other Poems appeared, the first volume of Elizabeth's mature poetry to appear under her own name.\n\nSonnets from the Portuguese was published in 1850. There is debate about the origin of the title. Some say it refers to the series of sonnets of the 16th-century Portuguese poet Luís de Camões. However, \"my little Portuguese\" was a pet name that Browning had adopted for Elizabeth and this may have some connection. \n\nThe verse-novel Aurora Leigh, her most ambitious and perhaps the most popular of her longer poems, appeared in 1856. It is the story of a female writer making her way in life, balancing work and love, and based on Elizabeth's own experiences. The North American Review praised Elizabeth's poem: \"Mrs. Browning's poems are, in all respects, the utterance of a woman — of a woman of great learning, rich experience, and powerful genius, uniting to her woman's nature the strength which is sometimes thought peculiar to a man.\" \n\nSpiritual influence\n\nMuch of Barrett Browning's work carries a religious theme. She had read and studied such works as Milton's Paradise Lost and Dante's Inferno. She says in her writing, \"We want the sense of the saturation of Christ's blood upon the souls of our poets, that it may cry through them in answer to the ceaseless wail of the Sphinx of our humanity, expounding agony into renovation. Something of this has been perceived in art when its glory was at the fullest. Something of a yearning after this may be seen among the Greek Christian poets, something which would have been much with a stronger faculty\". She believed that \"Christ's religion is essentially poetry — poetry glorified\". She explored the religious aspect in many of her poems, especially in her early work, such as the sonnets.\n\nShe was interested in theological debate, had learned Hebrew and read the Hebrew Bible. Her seminal Aurora Leigh, for example, features religious imagery and allusion to the apocalypse. The critic Cynthia Scheinberg notes that female characters in Aurora Leigh and her earlier work \"The Virgin Mary to the Child Jesus\" allude to the female character Miriam from the Hebrew Bible. These allusions to Miriam in both poems mirror the way in which Barrett Browning herself drew from Jewish history, while distancing herself from it, in order to achieve a public appearance of a Christian woman poet of the Victorian Age.\n\nBarrett Browning Institute\n\nIn 1892, Ledbury, Herefordshire, held a design competition to build an Institute in honour of Barrett Browning. Brightwen Binyon beat 44 other designs. It was based on the timber-framed Market House, which was opposite the site. It was completed in 1896. However, Nikolaus Pevsner was not impressed by its style. In 1938, it became a public library. It has been Grade II-listed since 2007. \n\nCritical reception\n\nBarrett Browning was widely popular in the United Kingdom and America during her lifetime. Edgar Allan Poe was inspired by her poem Lady Geraldine's Courtship and specifically borrowed the poem's metre for his poem The Raven. Poe had reviewed Barrett Browning's work in the January 1845 issue of the Broadway Journal, saying that \"her poetic inspiration is the highest — we can conceive of nothing more august. Her sense of Art is pure in itself.\" In return, she praised The Raven, and Poe dedicated his 1845 collection The Raven and Other Poems to her, referring to her as \"the noblest of her sex\". \n\nBarrett Browning's poetry greatly influenced Emily Dickinson, who admired her as a woman of achievement. Her popularity in the United States and Britain was further advanced by her stands against social injustice, including slavery in the United States, injustice toward Italian citizens by foreign rulers, and child labour.\n\nLilian Whiting published a biography of Barrett Browning (1899) which describes her as \"the most philosophical poet\" and depicts her life as \"a Gospel of applied Christianity\". To Whiting, the term \"art for art's sake\" did not apply to Barrett Browning's work, as each poem, distinctively purposeful, was borne of a more \"honest vision\". In this critical analysis, Whiting portrays Barrett Browning as a poet who uses knowledge of Classical literature with an \"intuitive gift of spiritual divination\". In Elizabeth Barrett Browning, Angela Leighton suggests that the portrayal of Barrett Browning as the \"pious iconography of womanhood\" has distracted us from her poetic achievements. Leighton cites the 1931 play by Rudolf Besier, The Barretts of Wimpole Street, as evidence that 20th-century literary criticism of Barrett Browning's work has suffered more as a result of her popularity than poetic ineptitude. The play was popularized by actress Katharine Cornell, for whom it became a signature role. It was an enormous success, both artistically and commercially, and was revived several times and adapted twice into movies.\n\nThroughout the 20th century, literary criticism of Barrett Browning's poetry remained sparse until her poems were discovered by the women's movement. She once described herself as being inclined to reject several women's rights principles, suggesting in letters to Mary Russell Mitford and her husband that she believed that there was an inferiority of intellect in women. In Aurora Leigh, however, she created a strong and independent woman who embraces both work and love. Leighton writes that because Elizabeth participates in the literary world, where voice and diction are dominated by perceived masculine superiority, she \"is defined only in mysterious opposition to everything that distinguishes the male subject who writes...\" A five-volume scholarly edition of her works was published in 2010, the first in over a century.\n\nWorks (collections)\n\n1820: The Battle of Marathon: A Poem. Privately printed\n1826: A Essay on Mind, with Other Poems. London: James Duncan\n1833: Prometheus Bound, Translated from the Greek of Aeschylus, and Miscellaneous Poems. London: A.J. Valpy\n1838: The Seraphim, and Other Poems. London: Saunders and Otley\n1844: Poems (UK) / A Drama of Exile, and other Poems (US). London: Edward Moxon. New York: Henry G. Langley\n1850: Poems (\"New Edition\", 2 vols.) Revision of 1844 edition adding Sonnets from the Portuguese and others. London: Chapman & Hall\n1851: Casa Guidi Windows. London: Chapman & Hall\n1853: Poems (3d ed.). London: Chapman & Hall\n1854: Two Poems: \"A Plea for the Ragged Schools of London\" and \"The Twins\". London: Bradbury & Evans\n1856: Poems (4th ed.). London: Chapman & Hall\n1856: Aurora Leigh. London: Chapman and Hall\n1860: Poems Before Congress. London: Chapman & Hall\n1862: Last Poems. London: Chapman & Hall\n\nPosthumous publications of Barrett Browning's works\n\n1863: The Greek Christian Poets and the English Poets. London: Chapman & Hall\n1877: The Earlier Poems of Elizabeth Barrett Browning, 1826–1833, ed. Richard Herne Shepherd. London: Bartholomew Robson\n1877: Letters of Elizabeth Barrett Browning Addressed to Richard Hengist Horne, with comments on contemporaries, 2 vols., ed. S.R.T. Mayer. London: Richard Bentley & Son\n1897: Letters of Elizabeth Barrett Browning, 2 vols., ed. Frederic G. Kenyon. London:Smith, Elder,& Co.\n1899: Letters of Robert Browning and Elizabeth Barrett Barrett 1845–1846, 2 vol., ed Robert W. Barrett Browning. London: Smith, Elder & Co.\n1914: New Poems by Robert Browning and Elizabeth Barrett Browning, ed. Frederic G Kenyon. London: Smith, Elder & Co.\n1929: Elizabeth Barrett Browning: Letters to Her Sister, 1846–1859, ed. Leonard Huxley. London: John Murray\n1935: Twenty-Two Unpublished Letters of Elizabeth Barrett Browning and Robert Browning to Henrietta and Arabella Moulton Barrett. New York: United Feature Syndicate\n1939: Letters from Elizabeth Barrett to B.R. Haydon, ed. Martha Hale Shackford. New York: Oxford University Press\n1954: Elizabeth Barrett to Miss Mitford, ed. Betty Miller. London: John Murry\n1955: Unpublished Letters of Elizabeth Barrett Browning to Hugh Stuart Boyd, ed. Barbara P. McCarthy. New Heaven, Conn.: Yale University Press\n1958: Letters of the Brownings to George Barrett, ed. Paul Landis with Ronald E. Freeman. Urbana: University of Illinois Press\n1974: Elizabeth Barrett Browning's Letters to Mrs. David Ogilvy, 1849–1861, ed. P. Heydon and P. Kelley. New York: Quadrangle, New York Times Book Co., and Browning Institute\n*1984: The Brownings' Correspondence, ed. Phillip Kelley, Ronald Hudson, and Scott Lewis. Winfield, Kans.: Wedgestone Press", "Cocker Spaniels are dogs belonging to two breeds of the spaniel dog type: the American Cocker Spaniel and the English Cocker Spaniel, both of which are commonly called simply Cocker Spaniel in their countries of origin. In the early 20th century, Cocker Spaniels also included small hunting Spaniels.\n\nCocker Spaniels were originally bred as hunting dogs in the United Kingdom, with the term cocker deriving from their use to hunt the Eurasian woodcock. When the breed was brought to the United States, it was bred to a different standard, which enabled it to specialize in hunting the American woodcock. Further physical changes were bred into the cocker in the United States during the early part of the 20th century.\n\nSpaniels were first mentioned in the 14th century by Gaston III of Foix-Béarn in his work the Livre de Chasse. The \"cocking\" or \"cocker spaniel\" was a type of field or land spaniel in the 19th century. Prior to 1901, Cocker Spaniels were only separated from Field Spaniels and Springer Spaniels by weight. Two dogs are considered to be the foundation sires of both modern breeds, the English variety are descended from Ch. Obo, while the American breed descends from Obo's son, Ch. Obo II. In the United States, the English Cocker was recognized as separate from the native breed in 1946; in the UK, the American type was recognized as a separate breed in 1970. In addition, there is a second strain of English Cocker Spaniel, a working strain which is not bred to a standard but to working ability. Both breeds share similar coat colors and health issues with a few exceptions.\n\nHistory\n\nA drawing of English and Welsh Cockers, from John Henry Walsh's (under the pseudonym \"Stonehenge\") 1859 work The Dog in Health and Disease\nWhile their origins are unknown, \"spaynels\" are mentioned in 14th century writings. It is commonly assumed that they originated in Spain, and Edward of Norwich, 2nd Duke of York in his 15th century work The Master of Game introduces them as \"Another kind of hound there is that be called hounds for the hawk and spaniels, for their kind cometh from Spain, notwithstanding that there are many in other countries.\" The Master of Game was mostly an English translation of an earlier 14th century Old French work by Gaston III of Foix-Béarn entitled Livre de Chasse. \n\nIn 1801, Sydenham Edwards wrote in Cynographia Britannica that the \"Land Spaniel\" is divided into two types: the hawking, springing/springer and the cocking/cocker spaniel. The term cocker came from the dog's use in hunting woodcocks. During the 19th century a \"cocker spaniel\" was a type of small Field Spaniel; at the time, this term referred to a number of different spaniel hunting breeds, including the Norfolk Spaniel, Sussex Spaniel, and Clumber Spaniel. While there were no Sussex Cockers or Clumber Cockers, there were dogs known as Welsh Cockers and Devonshire Cockers. The Welsh or Devonshire were considered cockers until 1903 when they were recognized by The Kennel Club as the Welsh Springer Spaniel.\n\nCh. Obo II, foundation sire of the American Cocker Spaniel\nPrior to the 1870s, the only requirement for a dog to be classed as a Cocker Spaniel was that it needed to weigh less than 25 lb, although breeders separated the cocker from the King Charles Spaniel which remains a smaller breed of spaniel. This maximum weight limit remained on the Cocker Spaniel until 1900, with larger dogs being classed as Springer Spaniels. The colors of the Devonshire and Welsh Cockers were described by John Henry Walsh under the pseudonym Stonehenge in his book The Dog in Health and Disease as being a deeper shade of liver than that of the Sussex Spaniel. Following the formation of The Kennel Club in the UK in 1873, efforts were made by breeders to record the pedigrees of cockers and springers. In 1892, English Cocker Spaniels and English Springer Spaniels were recognized as separate breeds by The Kennel Club. \n\nThere are two dogs which are thought to be the foundation sires of both modern breeds of cocker spaniels. Ch. Obo is considered by breed enthusiasts to be the father of the modern English Cocker Spaniel, while his son, Ch. Obo II, is considered to be the progenitor of the American Cocker Spaniel. Obo was born in 1879, at which point registration as a cocker was still only by size and not by ancestry. He was the son of a Sussex Spaniel and a Field Spaniel. Although Obo was an English dog, Obo II was born on American shores – his mother was shipped to the United States while pregnant. During his lifetime, it was claimed in advertisements that Obo II was the sire or grandsire of nearly every prize winning cocker in America. \n\nModern breeds\n\nA graph showing the height and shape difference between the American and English Cocker.\n\nThere are two modern breeds of cocker spaniel, the English Cocker Spaniel and the American Cocker Spaniel. They were bred as gun dogs; to use their sense of smell to cover low areas near the handler in order to flush birds into the air to be shot, and to use their eyes and nose to locate the bird once downed, and then to retrieve the bird with a soft mouth. The major differences between the English and American varieties is that the American is smaller with a shorter back, a domed head and a shorter muzzle, while the English variety is taller with a narrower head and chest.\n\nCocker spaniel coats come in a variety of colors including black, liver, red and golden in solids. There are also black and tan, and sometimes liver and tan, as well as a variety of color mixtures of those solid colors including roans, roan and tans, tricolors and those solid colors with additional white markings. \n\nRare colours can appear unexpectedly in certain lines, for instance while an all-white cocker is usually bred by selective breeding of very light golden strains, they can still appear very uncommonly to parents who are dark colored. A noted occurrence of this happened in 1943, when a grandson of My Own Brucie, Best in Show at the Westminster Kennel Club Dog Show in 1940 and 1941, was born all-white. \n\nIn its native United States, the American Cocker Spaniel was ranked the 23rd most popular breed according to registration statistics of the AKC in 2009, a decrease in popularity since 1999 when it was ranked 13th. For twenty five years the American Cocker Spaniel was the most popular dog in America. It was ranked number one first in 1936 prior to the English Cocker Spaniel being recognized as a separate breed, and held onto the spot until 1952 when Beagles became the most popular dog. It regained the spot in 1983 and held on at number one until 1990. In the UK, the American Cocker Spaniel is far less popular than its English cousin with 322 registrations compared to the English Cocker's 22,211 in 2009. \n\nEnglish Cocker Spaniel\n\nA golden English Cocker Spaniel of the show strain\nCalled simply Cocker Spaniel in the UK, this is the breed that was originally recognized by The Kennel Club (KC) in 1892. The American Kennel Club (AKC) recognized the English Cocker Spaniel as a separate breed in 1946.\n\nThe size of the English Cocker Spaniel according to the KC is at the withers for males, and 15 - for females. The weight of a show dog should be 28 -.\n\nThe English Cocker Spaniel is the most successful breed at the most popular dog show in the UK, Crufts, with seven best-in-show wins since the prize was first awarded in 1928. This was mostly due to the success of dog breeder H.S. Lloyd's Ware Kennel, dogs of which won best-in-show on six occasions between 1930–1950. They are the second most popular dog breed in the UK according to statistics released by the KC with 22,211 registrations in 2009, beaten only by the Labrador Retriever with 40,943. In third place was the English Springer Spaniel with 12,700. The English Cocker's popularity has increased steadily since 1999 in the United States when they were ranked 76th in registrations by the AKC, to 2009 when they were ranked 66th.\n\nThere are physical differences between the show strains and working strains in the UK. While the show strain is bred to the conformation standard, the working strain is bred for working ability and as such several physical differences have appeared. Working type dogs tend to be larger with flatter heads and shorter ears. The coat also tends to be shorter and finer than the show variety and have less feathering. The working strain seems to be more energetic than the show strain. \n\nAmerican Cocker Spaniel\n\nCocker Spaniels were recognized by the AKC in 1878. Generally smaller than its English cousin, separate classes were created for the two types in America in 1935 and the Cocker Spaniel Club of America discouraged breeding between the two types in 1938. The American Cocker Spaniel was recognized as a separate breed by the KC in the UK in 1970. The American Cocker Spaniel is referred to as the Cocker Spaniel within the United States.\n\nThe American Cocker Spaniel was bred smaller as American woodcocks are smaller than their European cousins, and the breeds appearance changed slightly during the first part of the 20th century as the preference by American breeders was for a more stylized appearance. The standard size according to the AKC is between at the withers for males and for females. The weight of the breed is on average between 24 -. \n\nAt the Westminster Kennel Club Dog Show, the most prestigious dog show in the United States, the American Cocker Spaniel has won Best in Show on four occasions since its first award in 1907. The most successful breed is the Wire Fox Terrier with thirteen wins. The American Cocker Spaniel is judged in three separate breed classes under AKC rules; \"black\", \"parti-color\", and \"any solid color other than black...\" (ASCOB). Sophia and Olivia won the gold medal of dog showing in 2012.\n\nCommon health issues\n\nIn a survey conducted by the Kennel Club (UK), the American Cocker Spaniels had a median age of death of ten years and four months, while the English Cocker Spaniel had a median age of eleven years and two months. According to the survey, the most common cause of death for both breeds was cancer, while old age was the second most common cause. The two modern breeds are susceptible to several health problems. Issues common to the two breeds include ear infections, and a variety of eye problems. A large number of breeds are susceptible to hip dysplasia. In a survey conducted by Orthopedic Foundation for Animals, the American Cocker Spaniel was ranked 115th out of 157 different breeds, with 1 being the highest percentage dysplastic and 157 being the lowest percentage dysplastic. The English Cocker was ranked 129th. \n\nOtitis externa\n\nSevere otitis externa in a cocker spaniel, the ear canal is inflamed and swollen shut\nCocker spaniels and other dogs that have long, pendulous ears are more predisposed to ear problems than some other breeds. The fold of the ear can prevent air from entering, and it also creates a warm, moist environment where organisms can grow. Otitis externa is an inflammation of the ear canal which can be caused by a variety of factors including parasites, microorganisms, foreign bodies, tumors, and underlying dermatological disease. Ear mites can cause otitis externa; ticks and fleas can also live in dogs' ear canals. \n\nThe most common types of canine ear infections are caused by microorganisms, including yeast and bacterial infections. The most common variety of this is Malassezia pachydermatitis. Symptoms can include the dog shaking its head or scratching at its ears more frequently. The ear canal will appear inflamed, a pus-like substance will be discharged in some cases, and the ear will smell quite pungent in most cases. Treatment for the more common causes of otitis externa in dogs often includes oral antibiotics and flushing the ears with an antibacterial solution. In some cases, anti-inflammatory medication is prescribed. Some conditions can increase the chance of ear infections, including living in a humid environment and frequent swimming or bathing without adequate drying of the ear afterwards. Keeping the hair on the ears short can be used as a preventative method to ear problems.\n\nEye conditions\n\nProgressive retinal atrophy (PRA) is a group of diseases that affect a dog's eyesight and can lead to blindness. It has been documented in a large number of different dog breeds including both the American and English Cocker Spaniels. The two types of Cockers are susceptible to a specific type of PRA called Progressive rod-cone degeneration (PRCD), symptoms include night blindness leading to total blindness between the ages of three and five. PRCD is the most widespread hereditary retinal disease which may lead to blindness in dogs. \n\nAnother leading cause of blindness is Canine glaucoma. This is an increase in the pressure of the fluid in the eye which, if left untreated, can cause visual impairment and eventual loss of sight. The condition can be inherited (Primary glaucoma) or a secondary condition to a variety of other eye issues including tumors or lens luxation. Both breeds are affected by juvenile cataracts which can occur at up to four years of age. Symptoms can include discoloring of the pupil, and treatment may include surgery to remove the cataract. \n\nIn popular culture\n\nThe Cocker Spaniel is featured in the 1955 Disney film Lady and the Tramp who is Lady." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Flush (disambiguation)", "Flush (song)", "Flush" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "flush disambiguation", "flush", "flush song" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "flush", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Flush" }
The title of what poetic drama by Robert Browning was used to name a Kentucky town?	tc_417	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Robert_Browning.txt" ], "title": [ "Robert Browning" ], "wiki_context": [ "Robert Browning (7 May 1812 – 12 December 1889) was an English poet and playwright whose mastery of the dramatic monologue made him one of the foremost Victorian poets. His poems are known for their irony, characterization, dark humour, social commentary, historical settings, and challenging vocabulary and syntax.\n\nBrowning's early career began promisingly, but was not a success. The long poem Pauline brought him to the attention of Dante Gabriel Rossetti, and was followed by Paracelsus, which was praised by Wordsworth and Dickens, but in 1840 the difficult Sordello, which was seen as wilfully obscure, brought his poetry into disrepute. His reputation took more than a decade to recover, during which time he moved away from the Shelleyan forms of his early period and developed a more personal style.\n\nIn 1846 Browning married the older poet Elizabeth Barrett, who at the time was considerably better known than himself. So started one of history's most famous literary marriages. They went to live in Italy, a country he called \"my university\", and which features frequently in his work. By the time of her death in 1861, he had published the crucial collection Men and Women. The collection Dramatis Personae and the book-length epic poem The Ring and the Book followed, and made him a leading British poet. He continued to write prolifically, but his reputation today rests largely on the poetry he wrote in this middle period.\n\nWhen Browning died in 1889, he was regarded as a sage and philosopher-poet who through his writing had made contributions to Victorian social and political discourse – as in the poem Caliban upon Setebos, which some critics have seen as a comment on the theory of evolution, which had recently been put forward by Darwin and others. Unusually for a poet, societies for the study of his work were founded while he was still alive. Such Browning Societies remained common in Britain and the United States until the early 20th century.\n\nBrowning's admirers have tended to temper their praise with reservations about the length and difficulty of his most ambitious poems, particularly The Ring and the Book. Nevertheless, they have included such eminent writers as Henry James, Oscar Wilde, George Bernard Shaw, G. K. Chesterton, Ezra Pound, Jorge Luis Borges, and Vladimir Nabokov. Among living writers, Stephen King's The Dark Tower series and A.S. Byatt's Possession refer directly to Browning's work.\n\nToday Browning's critically most esteemed poems include the monologues Childe Roland to the Dark Tower Came, Fra Lippo Lippi, Andrea Del Sarto, and My Last Duchess. His most popular poems include Porphyria's Lover, How They Brought the Good News from Ghent to Aix, the diptych Meeting at Night, the patriotic Home Thoughts from Abroad, and the children's poem The Pied Piper of Hamelin. His abortive dinner-party recital of How They Brought The Good News was recorded on an Edison wax cylinder, and is believed to be the oldest surviving recording made in the United Kingdom of a notable person.\n\nBiography\n\nEarly years\n\nRobert Browning was born in Walworth in the parish of Camberwell, Surrey, which now forms part of the Borough of Southwark in south London. He was baptized on 14 June 1812, at Lock's Fields Independent Chapel, York Street, Walworth, the only son of Sarah Anna (née Wiedemann) and Robert Browning.Browning, Robert. Ed. Karlin, Daniel (2004) Selected Poems Penguin p9 His father was a well-paid clerk for the Bank of England, earning about £150 per year. Browning's paternal grandfather was a wealthy slave owner in Saint Kitts, West Indies, but Browning's father was an abolitionist. Browning's father had been sent to the West Indies to work on a sugar plantation, but, due to a slave revolt there, had returned to England. Browning's mother was the daughter of a German shipowner who had settled in Dundee in Scotland, and his Scottish wife. Browning had one sister, Sarianna. Browning's paternal grandmother, Margaret Tittle, who had inherited a plantation in St Kitts, was rumored (within the family) to have a mixed race ancestry, including some Jamaican blood, but author Julia Markus suggests St Kitts rather than Jamaican. The evidence, however, is inconclusive either way. Robert's father, a literary collector, amassed a library of around 6,000 books, many of them rare. As such, Robert was raised in a household of significant literary resources. His mother, to whom he was very close, was a devout nonconformist and a talented musician. His younger sister, Sarianna, also gifted, became her brother's companion in his later years, after the death of his wife in 1861. His father encouraged his children's interest in literature and the arts.\n\nBy twelve, Browning had written a book of poetry which he later destroyed when no publisher could be found. After being at one or two private schools, and showing an insuperable dislike of school life, he was educated at home by a tutor via the resources of his father's extensive library. By the age of fourteen he was fluent in French, Greek, Italian and Latin. He became a great admirer of the Romantic poets, especially Shelley. Following the precedent of Shelley, Browning became an atheist and vegetarian. At the age of sixteen, he studied Greek at University College London but left after his first year. His parents' staunch evangelical faith prevented his studying at either Oxford or Cambridge University, both then open only to members of the Church of England. He had inherited substantial musical ability through his mother, and composed arrangements of various songs. He refused a formal career and ignored his parents' remonstrations, dedicating himself to poetry. He stayed at home until the age of 34, financially dependent on his family until his marriage. His father sponsored the publication of his son's poems.\n\nFirst published works\n\nIn March 1833, \"Pauline, a Fragment of a Confession\" was published anonymously by Saunders and Otley at the expense of the author, Robert Browning, who received the money from his aunt, one Mrs Silverthorne. It is a long poem composed in homage to Shelley and somewhat in his style. Originally Browning considered Pauline as the first of a series written by different aspects of himself, but he soon abandoned this idea. The press noticed the publication. W.J. Fox writing in the The Monthly Repository of April 1833 discerned merit in the work. Allan Cunningham praised it in the The Athenaeum. However, it sold no copies. Some years later, probably in 1850, Dante Gabriel Rossetti came across it in the Reading Room of the British Museum and wrote to Browning, then in Florence to ask if he was the author. John Stuart Mill, however, wrote that the author suffered from an \"intense and morbid self-consciousness\". Later Browning was rather embarrassed by the work, and only included it in his collected poems of 1868 after making substantial changes and adding a preface in which he asked for indulgence for a boyish work.\n\nIn 1834 he accompanied the Chevalier George de Benkhausen, the Russian consul-general, on a brief visit to St Petersburg and began Paracelsus, which was published in 1835. The subject of the 16th century savant and alchemist was probably suggested to him by the Comte Amédée de Ripart-Monclar, to whom it was dedicated. The publication had some commercial and critical success, being noticed by Wordsworth, Dickens, Landor, J. S. Mill and the already famous Tennyson. It is a monodrama without action, dealing with the problems confronting an intellectual trying to find his role in society. It gained him access to the London literary world.\n\nAs a result of his new contacts he met Macready, who invited him to write a play. Strafford was performed five times. Browning then wrote two other plays, one of which was not performed, while the other failed, Browning having fallen out with Macready.\n\nIn 1838 he visited Italy, looking for background for Sordello, a long poem in heroic couplets, presented as the imaginary biography of the Mantuan bard spoken of by Dante in the Divine Comedy, canto 6 of Purgatory, set against a background of hate and conflict during the Guelph-Ghibelline wars. This was published in 1840 and met with widespread derision, gaining him the reputation of wanton carelessness and obscurity. Tennyson commented that he only understood the first and last lines and Carlyle claimed that his wife had read the poem through and could not tell whether Sordello was a man, a city or a book. \n\nBrowning's reputation began to make a partial recovery with the publication, 1841–1846, of Bells and Pomegranates, a series of eight pamphlets, originally intended just to include his plays. Fortunately his publisher, Moxon, persuaded him to include some \"dramatic lyrics\", some of which had already appeared in periodicals.\n\nMarriage\n\nIn 1845, Browning met the poet Elizabeth Barrett, six years his elder, who lived as a semi-invalid in her father's house in Wimpole Street, London. They began regularly corresponding and gradually a romance developed between them, leading to their marriage and journey to Italy (for Elizabeth's health) on 12 September 1846.Browning, Robert. Ed. Karlin, Daniel (2004) Selected Poems Penguin p10 The marriage was initially secret because Elizabeth's domineering father disapproved of marriage for any of his children. Mr. Barrett disinherited Elizabeth, as he did for each of his children who married: \"The Mrs. Browning of popular imagination was a sweet, innocent young woman who suffered endless cruelties at the hands of a tyrannical papa but who nonetheless had the good fortune to fall in love with a dashing and handsome poet named Robert Browning.\" At her husband's insistence, the second edition of Elizabeth’s Poems included her love sonnets. The book increased her popularity and high critical regard, cementing her position as an eminent Victorian poet. Upon William Wordsworth's death in 1850, she was a serious contender to become Poet Laureate, the position eventually going to Tennyson.\n\nFrom the time of their marriage and until Elizabeth's death, the Brownings lived in Italy, residing first in Pisa, and then, within a year, finding an apartment in Florence at Casa Guidi (now a museum to their memory). Their only child, Robert Wiedemann Barrett Browning, nicknamed \"Penini\" or \"Pen\", was born in 1849. In these years Browning was fascinated by, and learned from, the art and atmosphere of Italy. He would, in later life, describe Italy as his university. As Elizabeth had inherited money of her own, the couple were reasonably comfortable in Italy, and their relationship together was happy. However, the literary assault on Browning's work did not let up and he was critically dismissed further, by patrician writers such as Charles Kingsley, for the desertion of England for foreign lands.\n\nSpiritualism incident\n\nBrowning believed spiritualism to be fraud, and proved one of Daniel Dunglas Home's most adamant critics. When Browning and his wife Elizabeth attended one of his séances on July 23, 1855, a spirit face materialized, which Home claimed was Browning's son who had died in infancy: Browning seized the \"materialization\" and discovered it to be Home's bare foot. To make the deception worse, Browning had never lost a son in infancy. \n\nAfter the séance, Browning wrote an angry letter to The Times, in which he said: \"the whole display of hands, spirit utterances etc., was a cheat and imposture.\" In 1902 Browning's son Pen wrote: \"Home was detected in a vulgar fraud.\" Elizabeth, however, was convinced that the phenomena she witnessed were genuine, and her discussions about Home with her husband were a constant source of disagreement. \n\nMajor works\n\nIn Florence, probably from early in 1853, Browning worked on the poems that eventually comprised his two-volume Men and Women, for which he is now well known, although in 1855, when they were published, they made relatively little impact.\n\nIn 1861 Elizabeth died in Florence. Among those whom he found consoling in that period was the novelist and poet Isa Blagden, with whom he and his wife had a voluminous correspondence. The following year Browning returned to London, taking Pen with him, who by then was 12 years old. They made their home in 17 Warwick Crescent, Maida Vale. It was only when he became part of the London literary scene—albeit while paying frequent visits to Italy (though never again to Florence)—that his reputation started to take off.\n\nIn 1868, after five years work, he completed and published the long blank-verse poem The Ring and the Book. Based on a convoluted murder-case from 1690s Rome, the poem is composed of twelve books: essentially ten lengthy dramatic monologues narrated by various characters in the story, showing their individual perspectives on events, bookended by an introduction and conclusion by Browning himself. Long even by Browning's standards (over twenty-thousand lines), The Ring and the Book was his most ambitious project and is arguably his greatest work; it has been called a tour de force of dramatic poetry. Published in four parts from November 1868 to February 1869, the poem was a success both commercially and critically, and finally brought Browning the renown he had sought for nearly forty years.Browning, Robert. Ed. Karlin, Daniel (2004) Selected Poems Penguin p11 The Robert Browning Society was formed in 1881 and his work was recognized as belonging within the British literary canon.\n\nLast years and death\n\nIn the remaining years of his life Browning travelled extensively. After a series of long poems published in the early 1870s, of which Balaustion's Adventure and Red Cotton Night-Cap Country were the best-received, the volume Pacchiarotto, and How He Worked in Distemper included an attack against Browning's critics, especially Alfred Austin, who was later to become Poet Laureate. According to some reports Browning became romantically involved with Louisa, Lady Ashburton, but he refused her proposal of marriage, and did not remarry. In 1878, he revisited Italy for the first time in the seventeen years since Elizabeth's death, and returned there on several further occasions. In 1887, Browning produced the major work of his later years, Parleyings with Certain People of Importance in Their Day. It finally presented the poet speaking in his own voice, engaging in a series of dialogues with long-forgotten figures of literary, artistic, and philosophic history. The Victorian public was baffled by this, and Browning returned to the brief, concise lyric for his last volume, Asolando (1889), published on the day of his death.\n\nBrowning died at his son's home Ca' Rezzonico in Venice on 12 December 1889. He was buried in Poets' Corner in Westminster Abbey; his grave now lies immediately adjacent to that of Alfred Tennyson.\n\nDuring his life Browning was awarded many distinctions. He was made LL.D. of Edinburgh, a life Governor of London University, and had the offer of the Lord Rectorship of Glasgow. But he turned down anything that involved public speaking.\n\nHistory of sound recording\n\nAt a dinner party on 7 April 1889, at the home of Browning's friend the artist Rudolf Lehmann, an Edison cylinder phonograph recording was made on a white wax cylinder by Edison's British representative, George Gouraud. In the recording, which still exists, Browning recites part of How They Brought the Good News from Ghent to Aix (and can be heard apologising when he forgets the words). When the recording was played in 1890 on the anniversary of his death, at a gathering of his admirers, it was said to be the first time anyone's voice \"had been heard from beyond the grave.\" \n\nLegacy\n\nBrowning is now popularly known for such poems as Porphyria's Lover, My Last Duchess, How They Brought the Good News from Ghent to Aix, and The Pied Piper of Hamelin, and also for certain famous lines: \"Grow old along with me!\" (Rabbi Ben Ezra), \"A man's reach should exceed his grasp\" and \"Less is more\" (Andrea Del Sarto), \"It was roses, roses all the way\" (The Patriot), and \"God’s in His heaven—All’s right with the world!\" (Pippa Passes).\n\nHis critical reputation rests mainly on his dramatic monologues, in which the words not only convey setting and action but reveal the speaker's character. In a Browning monologue, unlike a soliloquy, the meaning is not what the speaker voluntarily reveals but what he inadvertently gives away, usually while rationalising past actions or special pleading his case to a silent auditor. These monologues have been influential, and today the best of them are often treated by teachers and lecturers as paradigm cases of the monologue form. Ian Jack, in his introduction to the Oxford University Press edition of Browning's poems 1833–1864, comments that Thomas Hardy, Rudyard Kipling, Ezra Pound and T. S. Eliot \"all learned from Browning's exploration of the possibilities of dramatic poetry and of colloquial idiom\". \n\nIn Oscar Wilde's dialogue The Critic as Artist, Browning is given a famously ironical assessment: \"He is the most Shakespearian creature since Shakespeare. If Shakespeare could sing with myriad lips, Browning could stammer through a thousand mouths. [...] Yes, Browning was great. And as what will he be remembered? As a poet? Ah, not as a poet! He will be remembered as a writer of fiction, as the most supreme writer of fiction, it may be, that we have ever had. His sense of dramatic situation was unrivalled, and, if he could not answer his own problems, he could at least put problems forth, and what more should an artist do? Considered from the point of view of a creator of character he ranks next to him who made Hamlet. Had he been articulate, he might have sat beside him. The only man who can touch the hem of his garment is George Meredith. Meredith is a prose Browning, and so is Browning. He used poetry as a medium for writing in prose.\"\n\nProbably the most adulatory judgment of Browning by a modern critic comes from Harold Bloom: \"Browning is the most considerable poet in English since the major Romantics, surpassing his great contemporary rival Tennyson and the principal twentieth-century poets, including even Yeats, Hardy, and Wallace Stevens. But Browning is a very difficult poet, notoriously badly served by criticism, and ill-served also by his own accounts of what he was doing as a poet. [...] Yet when you read your way into his world, precisely his largest gift to you is his involuntary unfolding of one of the largest, most enigmatic, and most multipersoned literary and human selves you can hope to encounter.\" \n\nHis work has nevertheless had many detractors, and most of his voluminous output is not widely read. In a largely hostile essay Anthony Burgess wrote: \"We all want to like Browning, but we find it very hard.\" Gerard Manley Hopkins and George Santayana were also critical. The latter expressed his views in the essay \"The Poetry of Barbarism,\" which attacks Browning and Walt Whitman for what he regarded as their embrace of irrationality.\n\nCultural references\n\nIn 1914 American modernist composer Charles Ives created the Robert Browning Overture, a dense and darkly dramatic piece with gloomy overtones reminiscent of the Second Viennese School.\n\nIn 1930 the story of Browning and his wife was made into the play The Barretts of Wimpole Street, by Rudolph Besier. It was a success and brought popular fame to the couple in the United States. The role of Elizabeth became a signature role for the actress Katharine Cornell. It was twice adapted into film. It was also the basis of the stage musical Robert and Elizabeth, with music by Ron Grainer and book and lyrics by Ronald Millar.\n\nIn The Browning Version (Terence Rattigan's 1948 play or one of several film adaptations), a pupil makes a parting present to his teacher of an inscribed copy of Browning's translation of the Agamemnon.\n\nStephen King's The Dark Tower was chiefly inspired by Browning's Childe Roland to the Dark Tower Came, whose full text was included in the final volume's appendix.\n\nMichael Dibdin's 1986 crime novel \"A Rich Full Death\" features Robert Browning as one of the lead characters.\n\nGabrielle Kimm's 2010 novel His Last Duchess is inspired by My Last Duchess.\n\nA memorial plaque on the site of Browning's London home, in Warwick Crescent, Maida Vale, was unveiled on 11 December 1993. \n\nBrowning Close in Royston, Hertfordshire, is named after Robert Browning.\n\nBrowning Street in Berkeley, California, is located in an area known as Poets' Corner and is also named after him.\n\nBrowning Street in Yokine, Western Australia, is named after him, in an area likewise known as Poets' Corner.\n\nBrowning Street and Robert Browning School in Walworth, London, near to his birthplace in Camberwell, are named after him.\n\nTwo of a group of three culs-de-sac in Little Venice, London, are named Browning Close and Robert Close after him; the third, Elizabeth Close, is named after his wife. \n\nList of works\n\nThis section lists the plays and volumes of poetry Browning published in his lifetime. Some individually notable poems are also listed, under the volumes in which they were published. (His only notable prose work, with the exception of his letters, is his Essay on Shelley.)\n\n* Pauline: A Fragment of a Confession (1833)\n* Paracelsus (1835) \n* Strafford (play) (1837)\n* Sordello (1840)\n* Bells and Pomegranates No. I: Pippa Passes (play) (1841)\n*The Year's at the Spring\n Bells and Pomegranates No. II: King Victor and King Charles (play) (1842)\n* Bells and Pomegranates No. III: Dramatic Lyrics (1842)\nPorphyria's Lover\nSoliloquy of the Spanish Cloister\nMy Last Duchess\nThe Pied Piper of Hamelin\nCount Gismond\nJohannes Agricola in Meditation\n* Bells and Pomegranates No. IV: The Return of the Druses (play) (1843)\n* Bells and Pomegranates No. V: A Blot in the 'Scutcheon (play) (1843)\n* Bells and Pomegranates No. VI: Colombe's Birthday (play) (1844)\n* Bells and Pomegranates No. VII: Dramatic Romances and Lyrics (1845)\nThe Laboratory\nHow They Brought the Good News from Ghent to Aix\nThe Bishop Orders His Tomb at Saint Praxed's Church\nThe Lost Leader\nHome Thoughts from Abroad\nMeeting at Night\n* Bells and Pomegranates No. VIII: Luria and A Soul's Tragedy (plays) (1846)\n* Christmas-Eve and Easter-Day (1850)\n* Men and Women (1855)\nLove Among the Ruins\nA Toccata of Galuppi's\nChilde Roland to the Dark Tower Came\nFra Lippo Lippi\nAndrea Del Sarto\nThe Patriot\nThe Last Ride Together\nMemorabilia\nCleon\nHow It Strikes a Contemporary\nThe Statue and the Bust\nA Grammarian's Funeral\nAn Epistle Containing the Strange Medical Experience of Karshish, the Arab Physician\nBishop Blougram’s Apology\nMaster Hugues of Saxe-Gotha\nBy the Fire-side\n* Dramatis Personae (1864)\nCaliban upon Setebos\nRabbi Ben Ezra\nAbt Vogler\nMr. Sludge, \"The Medium\"\nProspice\nA Death in the Desert\n* The Ring and the Book (1868–69)\n* Balaustion's Adventure (1871)\n* Prince Hohenstiel-Schwangau, Saviour of Society (1871)\n* Fifine at the Fair (1872)\n* Red Cotton Night-Cap Country, or, Turf and Towers (1873)\n* Aristophanes' Apology (1875)\n*Thamuris Marching\n The Inn Album (1875)\n* Pacchiarotto, and How He Worked in Distemper (1876)\n*Numpholeptos\n The Agamemnon of Aeschylus (1877)\n* La Saisiaz and The Two Poets of Croisic (1878)\n* Dramatic Idylls (1879)\n* Dramatic Idylls: Second Series (1880)\n*Pan and Luna\n Jocoseria (1883)\n* Ferishtah's Fancies (1884)\n* Parleyings with Certain People of Importance in Their Day (1887)\n* Asolando (1889)\nPrologue\nFlute-Music, with an Accompaniment\nBad Dreams III\nEpilogue\n\nNotes" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Pipa Passes", "Song from Pippa Passes", "Pippa Passes" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "pipa passes", "pippa passes", "song from pippa passes" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "pippa passes", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Pippa Passes" }
How much time did Jonah spend in the belly of the whale?	tc_434	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Jonah.txt" ], "title": [ "Jonah" ], "wiki_context": [ "Jonah or Jonas (; ' or '; Latin: Ionas) is the name given in the Hebrew Bible (Tanakh/Old Testament) to a prophet of the northern kingdom of Israel in about the 8th century BC. He is the eponymous central figure in the Book of Jonah, famous for being swallowed by a fish or a whale, depending on translation. The biblical narrative of Jonah is repeated, with a few notable differences, in the Quran.\n\nIn the Hebrew Bible\n\nJonah is identified as the son of Amittai, and he appears in 2 Kings aka 4 Kings as a prophet from Gath-Hepher, a few miles north of Nazareth. He is therein described as being active during the reign of the second King Jeroboam (c.786–746 BC), and as predicting that Jeroboam will recover certain lost territories.\n\nJonah is the central character in the Book of Jonah. Commanded by God to go to the city of Nineveh to prophesy against it \"for their great wickedness is come up before me,\" Jonah instead seeks to flee from \"the presence of the Lord\" by going to Jaffa, identified as Joppa or Joppe, and sailing to Tarshish, which, geographically, is in the opposite direction. A huge storm arises and the sailors, realizing that it is no ordinary storm, cast lots and discover that Jonah is to blame. Jonah admits this and states that if he is thrown overboard, the storm will cease. The sailors try to dump as much cargo as possible before giving up, but feel forced to throw him overboard, at which point the sea calms. The sailors then offer sacrifices to God. Jonah is miraculously saved by being swallowed by a large whale-like fish in whose belly he spends three days and three nights. While in the great fish, Jonah prays to God in his affliction and commits to thanksgiving and to paying what he has vowed. God commands the fish to spew Jonah out.\n\nGod again commands Jonah to visit Nineveh and prophesy to its inhabitants. This time he goes and enters the city, crying, \"In forty days Nineveh shall be overthrown.\" After Jonah has walked across Nineveh, the people of Nineveh begin to believe his word and proclaim a fast. The king of Nineveh puts on sackcloth and sits in ashes, making a proclamation which decrees fasting, sackcloth, prayer, and repentance. God sees their repentant hearts and spares the city at that time. The entire city is humbled and broken with the people (and even the animals) in sackcloth and ashes. Even the king comes off his throne to repent.\n\nDispleased by this, Jonah refers to his earlier flight to Tarshish while asserting that, since God is merciful, it was inevitable that God would turn from the threatened calamities. He then leaves the city and makes himself a shelter, waiting to see whether or not the city will be destroyed. God causes a plant (in Hebrew a Kikayon) to grow over Jonah's shelter to give him some shade from the sun. Later, God causes a worm to bite the plant's root and it withers. Jonah, now being exposed to the full force of the sun, becomes faint and desires that God take him out of the world.\n\nJonah in Christianity\n\nIn the New Testament, Jonah is mentioned in Matthew 12:38–41, 16:4 and Luke 11:29–32.\n\nIn the Gospel of Matthew, Jesus makes a reference to Jonah when he is asked for a miraculous sign by the Pharisees and teachers of the Law. Jesus says that the sign will be the sign of Jonah. Jesus implies that Jonah's restoration after three days inside the great whale prefigures His own resurrection.\n\nJonah is regarded as a saint by a number of Christian denominations. He is commemorated as a prophet in the Calendar of Saints of the Missouri Synod of the Lutheran Church on September 22. On the Eastern Orthodox liturgical calendar his feast day is also September 22 (for those churches which follow the traditional Julian calendar; September 22 currently falls in October on the modern Gregorian calendar). In the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Book of Jonah is chanted in its entirety at the Divine Liturgy on Holy Saturday before Pascha. He is commemorated as one of the Twelve Minor Prophets in the Calendar of saints of the Armenian Apostolic Church on July 31. Jonah’s mission to the Ninevites is commemorated by the Fast of Nineveh in Syriac and Oriental Orthodox Churches.\n\nThe apocryphal Lives of the Prophets, which may be Jewish or Christian in origin, offers further biographical details about Jonah.\n\nJonah in Judaism\n\nThe Book of Jonah (Yonah יונה) is one of the twelve minor prophets included in the Tanakh. According to tradition, Jonah was the boy brought back to life by Elijah the prophet, and hence shares many of his characteristics (particularly his desire for \"strict judgment\"). The Book of Jonah is read every year, in its original Hebrew and in its entirety, on Yom Kippur – the Day of Atonement, as the Haftarah at the afternoon mincha prayer.\n\nTeshuva – the ability to repent and be forgiven by God – is a prominent idea in Jewish thought. This concept is developed in the Book of Jonah: Jonah, the son of truth (the name of his father \"Amitai\" in Hebrew means truth), refuses to ask the people of Nineveh to repent. He seeks the truth only, and not forgiveness. When forced to go, his call is heard loud and clear. The people of Nineveh repent ecstatically, \"fasting, including the sheep\", and the Jewish scripts are critical of this. \n\nJonah in Islam\n\nJonah (Yunus in Arabic, or Yunan for Christian Arabs) is highly important in Islam as a prophet who was faithful to God and delivered His messages. In Islam, Jonah is also called Dhul-Nun (Arabic: ذو النون; meaning The One of the Whale). Chapter 10 of the Qur'an is named Jonah, although in this chapter only verse 98 refers to him directly. It is said in Muslim tradition that Jonah came from the tribe of Benjamin and that his father was Amittai. Jonah is the only one of the Twelve Minor Prophets of the Hebrew Bible to be mentioned by name in the Qur'an.\n\nJonah's Qur'anic narrative has some similarities as well as substantial differences to the Hebrew Bible story. The Qur'an describes Jonah as a righteous preacher of the message of God but a messenger who, one day, fled from his mission because of its overwhelming difficulty. The Qur'an says that Jonah made it onto a ship but, because of the powerfully stormy weather, the men aboard the ship suggested casting lots to throw off the individual responsible. When the lots were cast three times and Jonah's name came out each time, he was thrown into the open ocean that night. A gigantic fish came and swallowed him, and Jonah remained in the belly of the fish repenting and glorifying God. As the Qur'an says:\n\nGod forgave Jonah out of His mercy and kindness for the man, and because he knew that Jonah was, at heart, one of the best of men. Therefore, the fish cast Jonah out onto dry land, with Jonah in a state of sickness. God caused a plant to grow where Jonah was lying to provide shade and comfort for him. After Jonah got up, fresh and well, God told him to go back and preach in his land. As the Qur'an says:\n\nIn Hadith \n\nJonah is also mentioned in a few incidents during the lifetime of Muhammad. In some instances, Jonah's name is spoken of with praise and reverence by Muhammad. According to historical narrations about Muhammad's life, after ten years of receiving revelations, Muhammad went to the city of Ta’if to see if its leaders would allow him to preach his message from there rather than Mecca, but he was cast from the city by the people. He took shelter in the garden of Utbah and Shaybah, two members of the Quraysh tribe. They sent their servant, Addas, to serve him grapes for sustenance. Muhammad asked Addas where he was from and the servant replied Nineveh. \"The town of Jonah the just, son of Amittai!\" Muhammad exclaimed. Addas was shocked because he knew that the pagan Arabs had no knowledge of the prophet Jonah. He then asked how Muhammad knew of this man. \"We are brothers\" Muhammad replied. \"Jonah was a Prophet of God and I, too, am a Prophet of God.\" Addas immediately accepted Islam and kissed the hands and feet of Muhammad. \n\nOne of the sayings of Muhammad, in the collection of Imam Bukhari, says that Muhammad said \"One should not say that I am better than Jonah\". This is understood by both mainstream Muslims and historians to have been stated by Muhammad to emphasize the notion of equality between all the prophets and the law of making no distinction between any of the messengers. The Arab tribes of the time may have begun to exalt Muhammad above Jonah because of the recent revelation Muhammad received, which recounted the story of Jonah's fleeing from his mission. Muhammad, by saying this, clearly made it a point to the Arabs to not make any distinction between the great apostles of God.\n\nTomb at Nineveh\n\nAt the present time, Nineveh's location is marked by excavations of five gates, parts of walls on four sides, and two large mounds: the hill of Kuyunjik and hill of Nabi Yunus (see map link in footnote). On Nabi Yunus there was a shrine dedicated to the prophet Jonah, which was revered by both Muslims and Christians, as it was believed to hold Jonah's tomb. The Tomb of Jonah was a \"popular place of pilgrimage for people who would come from around the world to see it, before the arrival of ISIS in Mosul\". On July 24, 2014, the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant destroyed the masjid containing the tomb as part of a campaign to destroy religious sanctuaries it deemed to be idolatrous. \n\nJonah in sailors' superstition\n\nA long-established expression among sailors uses the term \"a Jonah\" to mean a person (either a sailor or a passenger) whose presence on board brings bad luck and endangers the ship. Later, this meaning was extended to \"a Jonah\" referring to \"a person who carries a jinx, one who will bring bad luck to any enterprise.\" \n\nThe fish\n\nInterpretations of the \"fish\" fall into a variety of categories: \n# A big fish or whale (of unspecified species) did indeed swallow Jonah.\n# A special creation (not any fish we know of) of God accomplished the act.\n# There was no fish: the story is an allegory, the fish is a literary device in the story, the story is a vision or a dream.\n\nTranslation\n\nThough it is often called a whale today, the Hebrew, as throughout scripture, refers to no species in particular, simply saying \"great fish\" or \"big fish\" (whales are today classified as mammals and not fish, but no such distinction was made in antiquity). While some biblical scholars suggest the size and habits of the great white shark correspond better to the representations given of Jonah's being swallowed, normally an adult human is too large to be swallowed whole. \n\nIn Jonah 2:1 (1:17 in English translations), the Hebrew text reads dag gadol (דג גדול), which means \"big fish.\" The Septuagint translates this phrase into Greek as ketos mega (κῆτος μέγα). The term ketos means \"huge fish,\" and in Greek mythology was closely associated with sea monsters, including sea serpents. Jerome later translated this phrase as piscis granda in his Latin Vulgate. He translated ketos, however, as cetus in Matthew 12:40.\n\nAt some point cetus became synonymous with \"whale\" (the study of whales is now called cetology). In his 1534 translation, William Tyndale translated the phrase in Jonah 2:1 as \"greate fyshe\" and the word ketos (Greek) or cetus (Latin) in Matthew 12:40 as \"whale\". Tyndale's translation was later incorporated into the Authorized Version of 1611. Since then, the \"great fish\" in Jonah 2 has been most often interpreted as a whale.\n\nIn Turkish, \"Jonah fish\" (in Turkish yunus baligi) is the term used for dolphin, often shortened to just yunus.\n\nSuggested literal interpretations\n\nSome believers claim that God, being omnipotent, altered things as needed and sustained Jonah – the same as in other miraculous accounts in the Hebrew scriptures. Other believers claim that Jonah died in the belly of the great fish, and was resurrected by God since Jesus himself associated this event in Jonah's life with his own death and resurrection.\n\nThe largest whales—baleen whales, a group which includes the blue whale—eat plankton and \"it is commonly said that this species would be choked if it attempted to swallow a herring.\" As for the whale shark, Dr. E. W. Gudger, an Honorary Associate in Ichthyology at the American Museum of Natural History, noted that \"while the mouth is cavernous, the throat itself is only four inches wide and has a sharp elbow or bend behind the opening. This gullet would not permit the passage of a man's arm\". In another publication he stated that \"the whale shark is not the fish that swallowed Jonah.\" \n\nVarious locations associated with Jonah\n\n* Place of birth: Mentioned in 2 Kings 14:25, the town of Gath-hepher has retained its name to this day. It is near the Gallilean Arab town of Mashhad, where a monument for Nebi Yunes still exists. The Israeli Gath-hepher industrial zone is erected on that mountain.\n* Location of landing: In the city of Ashdod the light-tower hill is called Givat-Yonah, on the holy Muslim site of Nebbi Yunes, which according to traditions of the three monotheistic Abrahamic religions, is the site where Jonah was thrown by the large fish. Aerial photos taken by German pilots during WWI clearly show the Nebbi Yunes sanctuary near the British landing site at the beginning of the British 1918 Jerusalem offensive. \n* The city of Jaffa has a main street named after Jonah. The ancient port of Jaffa is still intact and functional. Archeological diggings found that the port was functioning at this location as early as 300 BC.\n* Jonah's burial place according to the Jewish tradition is in the village of his birth, Gath-hepher, in the Galilee region of Israel.\n* Another sanctuary and mosque called Nebi Yunes is in the Palestinian West Bank town of Halhul, 5 km north of Hebron. Muslim tradition has it that this is the burial site of Jonah the prophet. A sign erected by the Israeli ministry of religions says that this is Jonah's burial site, but according to Jewish traditions this is the location of the burial of the prophets Nathan and Gad Hahozeh.\n* The sanctuary of Jama Naballa Jonas is another place that tradition says is Jonah's grave, near the city of Mosul (today in Iraq), near the ancient remnants of Nineveh. On one of the two most prominent mounds of Nineveh's ruins, rises the Mosque of the Prophet Yunus (previously a Nestorian-Assyrian Church). Jonah is believed to be buried there, where King Esarhaddon once built a palace. It is one of the most important mosques in Mosul and one of the few historic mosques that are found on the eastern side of the city. On July 24, 2014, the tomb reported to be that of the prophet Jonah was destroyed by the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant terrorist group. \n* Jonah's grave is also said to be near the city of Sarafand (Sarepta) in Lebanon. This is in accordance with several ancient Jewish writings about Jonah being the son of the woman from \"Zarephath\" (Sarafand) mentioned in the stories of Elijah.\n\nSuggested connections to legends\n\nJoseph Campbell suggested a parallel between the story of Jonah and the epic of Gilgamesh, in which Gilgamesh obtains a plant from the bottom of the sea. In the Book of Jonah a worm (in Hebrew tola'ath, \"maggot\") bites the shade-giving plant's root causing it to wither, while in the epic of Gilgamesh, Gilgamesh plucks his plant from the floor of the sea which he reached by tying stones to his feet. Once he makes it back to the shore, the rejuvenating plant is eaten by a serpent.\n\nCampbell also noted several similarities between the story of Jonah and that of Jason in Greek mythology. The Greek rendering of the name Jonah was Jonas, which differs from Jason only in the order of sounds—both os are omegas suggesting that Jason may have been confused with Jonah. Gildas Hamel, drawing on the Book of Jonah and Greco-Roman sources — including Greek vases and the accounts of Apollonius of Rhodes, Gaius Valerius Flaccus and Orphic Argonautica— identifies a number of shared motifs, including the names of the heroes, the presence of a dove, the idea of \"fleeing\" like the wind and causing a storm, the attitude of the sailors, the presence of a sea-monster or dragon threatening the hero or swallowing him, and the form and the word used for the \"gourd\" (kikayon). Hamel takes the view that it was the Hebrew author who reacted to and adapted this mythological material to communicate his own, quite different message. The Greek sources are, however, several centuries later than the Book of Jonah and the form Jonas which is similar to Jason is from the Septuagint translation of the book.\n\nBiblical scholars have speculated that Jonah may have been in part the inspiration behind the figure of Oannes in late Babylonian mythology. The deity name \"Oannes\" first occurs in texts from the Library of Ashurbanipal (more than a century after the time of Jonah) as Uanna or Uan but is assimilated to Adapa, a deity first mentioned on fragments of tablets from the 15th or 14th century B.C. found in Amarna in Egypt. Oannes is described as dwelling in the Persian Gulf, and rising out of the waters in the daytime and furnishing humanity instruction in writing, the arts and the various sciences. Berossus describes Oannes as having the body of a fish but underneath the figure of a man—a detail that, some biblical scholars suggest, is not derived from Adapa but is perhaps based on a misinterpretation of images of Jonah emerging from the fish. Scholars of Mesopotamian mythology, however, suggest that Adapa was likely associated with fishing and depicted in half-fish form many centuries before the story of Jonah appeared. Nineteenth-century Irish amateur scholar William Betham speculated that worship of Oannes is the origin of the cult of the Roman god Janus. \n\nJonah is mentioned twice in Chapter 14 of the deuterocanonical Book of Tobit, the conclusion of which finds Tobit's son, Tobias, at the extreme age of one hundred and twenty seven years, rejoicing at the news of Nineveh's destruction by Nebuchadnezzar and Ahasuerus in apparent fulfillment of Jonah's prophecy against the Assyrian capital." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Three days and three nights" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "three days and three nights" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "three days and three nights", "type": "FreeForm", "value": "Three days and three nights" }
How tall was Goliath, the Philistine giant slain by David with a stone hurled from a sling?	tc_442	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Goliath.txt" ], "title": [ "Goliath" ], "wiki_context": [ "Goliath (; ; Arabic: جالوت, Ǧālūt (Qur'anic term), جليات Ǧulyāt (Christian term)) of Gath (one of five city states of the Philistines) was a giant Philistine warrior defeated by the young David, the future king of Israel. The story is told in the Bible's Books of Samuel (1 Samuel 17).\n\nThe original purpose of the story was to show David's identity as the true king of Israel. Post-Classical Jewish traditions stressed Goliath's status as the representative of paganism, in contrast to David, the champion of the God of Israel. Christian tradition gave him a distinctively Christian perspective, seeing in David's battle with Goliath the victory of God's king over the enemies of God's helpless people as a prefiguring of Jesus' victory over sin on the cross and the Church's victory over Satan. \n\nThe phrase \"David and Goliath\" has taken on a more secular meaning, denoting an underdog situation, a contest where a smaller, weaker opponent faces a much bigger, stronger adversary. \n\nBiblical account\n\nThe Goliath narrative in 1 Samuel 17\n\nThe account of the battle between David and Goliath is told in 1 Samuel, chapter 17. Saul and the Israelites are facing the Philistines near the Valley of Elah. Twice a day for 40 days, Goliath, the champion of the Philistines, comes out between the lines and challenges the Israelites to send out a champion of their own to decide the outcome in single combat, but Saul and all the Israelites are afraid. David, bringing food for his elder brothers, hears that Goliath had defied the armies of God and of the reward from Saul to the one that defeats him, and accepts the challenge. Saul reluctantly agrees and offers his armor, which David declines, taking only his staff, sling ( qāla‘) and five stones from a brook.\n\nDavid and Goliath confront each other, Goliath with his armor and javelin, David with his staff and sling. \"The Philistine cursed David by his gods\", but David replies: \"This day the will deliver you into my hand, and I will strike you down; and I will give the dead bodies of the host of the Philistines this day to the birds of the air and to the wild beasts of the earth; that all the earth may know that there is a God in Israel, and that all this assembly may know that God saves not with sword and spear; for the battle is God’s, and he will give you into our hand.\" \n\nDavid hurls a stone from his sling with all his might and hits Goliath in the center of his forehead, Goliath falls on his face to the ground, and David cuts off his head. The Philistines flee and are pursued by the Israelites \"as far as Gath and the gates of Ekron\". David puts the armor of Goliath in his own tent and takes the head to Jerusalem, and Saul sends Abner to bring the boy to him. The king asks whose son he is, and David answers, \"I am the son of your servant Jesse the Bethlehemite.\"\n\nComposition of the Book of Samuel and the Goliath narrative\n\nThe Book of Samuel, together with the books of Joshua, Judges and Kings, make up a unified history of Israel stretching from the entry into Canaan to the early Babylonian exile of the 6th century BCE, which biblical scholars call the Deuteronomistic history. The first edition of the history was probably written at the court of Judah's King Josiah (late 7th century) and a revised second edition during the exile (6th century), with further revisions in the post-exilic period. The Goliath story contains the traces of this in its many contradictions and illogicalities - to take a few examples, Saul finds it necessary to send for David when as the king's shield-bearer he should already be beside his royal master, and he has to ask who David is, which sits strangely with David's status at his court. These signs indicate that the Goliath story is made up of base-narrative with numerous additions made probably after the exile.\n\nOriginal story\nThe Israelites and Philistines face each other; Goliath makes his challenge to single combat;\nDavid volunteers to fight Goliath;\nDavid defeats Goliath, the Philistines flee the battlefield.\nAdditions\nDavid is sent by his father to bring food to his brothers, hears the challenge, and expresses his desire to accept; \nDetails of the account of the battle;\nSaul asks who David is, and he is introduced to the king through Abner.[http://kukis.org/Samuel/1Sam_17.htm#The%20LXX%20%E2%82%AC%20of%20I%20Samuel%2017%20(with%20the%20Missing%20Portions%20in%20Magenta) Compare texts of short and long versions of 1 Samuel 17].\n\nTextual considerations\n\nGoliath's height \n\nGoliath's stature as described in various ancient manuscripts varies: the oldest manuscripts—the Dead Sea Scrolls text of Samuel, the 1st century historian Josephus, and the 4th century Septuagint manuscripts—all give his height as \"four cubits and a span\" (6 ft) whereas the Masoretic Text gives this as \"six cubits and a span\" (9 ft; šêš ’ammōṯ wā-zāreṯ). \n\nGoliath's injury and fall \n\nThe biblical account describes Goliath as falling on his face after he is struck by a stone that sank into his forehead. British rabbi Jonathan Magonet has discussed some of the textual difficulties this raises. In the first place, he notes that archaeological information suggests that Philistine helmets generally had a forehead covering, in some cases extending down to the nose. Why (he asks) should David aim at such an impenetrable spot (and how did it hit with such force to penetrate thick bone)? And why should Goliath fall forward when struck by something heavy enough to stop him, rather than backwards? An answer to both questions, Magonet suggests, lies in the Hebrew word meitzach (מֵ֫צַח mêṣaḥ), normally translated forehead. A word almost identical with it appears earlier in the passage—the word mitzchat (מִצְחַת miṣḥaṯ), translated as \"greaves\"—the flexible leg-armour that protected Goliath's lower leg (see I Samuel 17: 6). It is possible, grammatically in the passage, for the same word to be used in verse 49, a reconstruction of which, replacing מֵ֫צַח with מִצְחַת, would imply that the stone sank down behind Goliath's leg-armour (as his leg was bent), making it impossible for him to straighten his leg, and causing him to stumble and fall. Then David removed the head of Goliath to show all that the giant was killed.\n\nElhanan and Goliath \n\nA Goliath makes another appearance in 2 Samuel 21:19, which tells how Goliath the Gittite was killed by \"Elhanan the son of Jaare-oregim, the Bethlehemite.\" The fourth-century BC 1 Chronicles explains the second Goliath by saying that Elhanan \"slew Lahmi the brother of Goliath\", apparently constructing the name Lahmi from the last portion of the word \"Bethlehemite\" (\"beit-ha’lahmi\"). The King James Bible translators adopted this into their translation of 2 Samuel 21:18–19, although the Hebrew text at this point makes no mention of the word \"brother\". \"Most likely, storytellers displaced the deed from the otherwise obscure Elhanan onto the more famous character, David.\" \n\nGoliath and the Philistines \n\nTell es-Safi, the biblical Gath and traditional home of Goliath, has been the subject of extensive excavations by Israel's Bar-Ilan University. The archaeologists have established that this was one of the largest of the Philistine cities until destroyed in the ninth century BC, an event from which it never recovered. A potsherd discovered at the site, and reliably dated to the tenth to mid-ninth centuries BC, is inscribed with the two names \"alwt\" and \"wlt\". While the names are not directly connected with the biblical Goliath, they are etymologically related and demonstrate that the name fits with the context of late-tenth/early-ninth-century BC Philistine culture. The name \"Goliath\" itself is non-Semitic and has been linked with the Lydian king Alyattes, which also fits the Philistine context of the biblical Goliath story. A similar name, Uliat, is also attested in Carian inscriptions Aren Maeir, director of the excavation, comments: \"Here we have very nice evidence [that] the name Goliath appearing in the Bible in the context of the story of David and Goliath … is not some later literary creation.\" \n\nGoliath and Saul\n\nThe underlying purpose of the story of Goliath is to show that Saul is not fit to be king (and that David is). Saul was chosen to lead the Israelites against their enemies, but when faced with Goliath he refuses to do so; Goliath is a giant, and Saul is a very tall man. His exact height is not given, but he was a head taller than anyone else in all Israel (1 Samuel 9:2), which implies he was over 6 ft tall and the obvious challenger for Goliath. Also, Saul's armour and weaponry are apparently no worse than Goliath's (and David, of course, refuses Saul's armour in any case). \"David declares that when a lion or bear came and attacked his father's sheep, he battled against it and killed it, [but Saul] has been cowering in fear instead of rising up and attacking the threat to his sheep (i.e. Israel).\"\n\nGoliath and the Greeks \n\nThe armor described in 1 Samuel 17 appears typical of Greek armor of the sixth century BC rather than of Philistines' armor of the tenth century. Narrative formulae such as the settlement of battle by single combat between champions has been thought characteristic of the Homeric epics (the Iliad), rather than of the ancient Near East. The designation of Goliath as a איש הביניים, \"man of the in-between\" (a longstanding difficulty in translating 1 Samuel 17) appears to be a borrowing from Greek \"man of the metaikhmion (μεταίχμιον)\", i.e. the space between two opposite army camps where champion combat would take place. \n\nA story very similar to that of David and Goliath appears in the Iliad, written circa 760–710 BC, where the young Nestor fights and conquers the giant Ereuthalion. Each giant wields a distinctive weapon—an iron club in Ereuthalion’s case, a massive bronze spear in Goliath’s; each giant, clad in armor, comes out of the enemy’s massed array to challenge all the warriors in the opposing army; in each case the seasoned warriors are afraid, and the challenge is taken up by a stripling, the youngest in his family (Nestor is the twelfth son of Neleus, David the seventh or eighth son of Jesse). In each case an older and more experienced father figure (Nestor’s own father, David’s patron Saul) tells the boy that he is too young and inexperienced, but in each case the young hero receives divine aid and the giant is left sprawling on the ground. Nestor, fighting on foot, then takes the chariot of his enemy, while David, on foot, takes the sword of Goliath. The enemy army then flees, the victors pursue and slaughter them and return with their bodies, and the boy-hero is acclaimed by the people. \n\nLater traditions \n\nJewish \n\nAccording to the Babylonian Talmud (Sotah 42b) Goliath was a son of Orpah, the sister-in-law of Ruth, David's own great grandmother (Ruth → Obed → Jesse → David). Ruth Rabbah, a haggadic and homiletic interpretation of the Book of Ruth, makes the blood-relationship even closer, considering Orpah and Ruth to have been full sisters. Orpah was said to have made a pretense of accompanying Ruth but after forty paces left her. Thereafter she led a dissolute life. According to the Jerusalem Talmud Goliath was born by polyspermy, and had about one hundred fathers. \n\nThe Talmud stresses the thrasonical Goliath's ungodliness: his taunts before the Israelites included the boast that it was he who had captured the Ark of the Covenant and brought it to the temple of Dagon; and his challenges to combat were made at morning and evening in order to disturb the Israelites in their prayers. His armour weighed 60 tons, according to rabbi Hanina; 120, according to rabbi Abba bar Kahana; and his sword, which became the sword of David, had marvellous powers. On his death it was found that his heart carried the image of Dagon, who thereby also came to a shameful downfall. \n\nIn Pseudo-Philo, believed to have been composed between 135 BC and 70 AD, David picks up seven stones and writes on them the names of his fathers, his own name, and the name of God, one name per stone; then, speaking to Goliath, he says \"Hear this word before you die: were not the two woman from whom you and I were born, sisters? And your mother was Orpah and my mother Ruth ...\" After David strikes Goliath with the stone he runs to Goliath before he dies and Goliath says \"Hurry and kill me and rejoice.\" and David replies \"Before you die, open your eyes and see your slayer.\" Goliath sees an angel and tells David that it is not he who has killed him but the angel. Pseudo-Philo then goes on to say that the angel of the Lord changes David's appearance so that no one recognizes him, and thus Saul asks who he is. \n\nIslam\n\nGoliath appears in chapter 2 of the Qur'an (II: 247–252), in the narrative of David and Saul's battle against the Philistines. Called \"Jalut\" in Arabic, Goliath's mention in the Qur'an is concise, though it remains a parallel to the account in the Hebrew Bible. Muslim scholars have tried to trace Goliath's origins, most commonly with the Amalekites. Goliath, in early scholarly tradition, became a kind of byword or collective name for the oppressors of the Israelite nation before David. Muslim tradition sees the battle with the Philistines as a prefiguration of Muhammad's battle of Badr, and sees Goliath as parallel to the enemies that the Prophet faced.\n\nAdaptations\n\nAmerican actor Ted Cassidy portrayed Goliath in the TV series Greatest Heroes of the Bible in 1978. Italian actor Luigi Montefiori portrayed this nine-foot-tall giant in Paramount's 1985 live-action movie King David as part of a flashback.\n\nThe PBS series Wishbone featured Goliath in its first season episode \"Little Big Dog\".\n\nBig Idea's popular VeggieTales episode was called \"Dave and the Giant Pickle\", where Phil Vischer voiced Goliath.\n\nIn 1972, Toho and Tsuburaya Productions collaborated on a movie called Daigoro vs. Goliath, which follows the story relatively closely but recasts the main characters as Kaiju.\n\nIn 2005, Lightstone Studios released a direct-to-DVD movie musical titled \"One Smooth Stone\", which was later changed to \"David and Goliath\". It is part of the Liken the Scriptures (now just Liken) series of movie musicals on DVD based on scripture stories. Thurl Bailey, a former NBA basketball player, was cast to play the part of Goliath in this film.\n\nIn 2009, NBC aired Kings which has a narrative loosely based on the Biblical story of King David, but set in a kingdom that culturally and technologically resembles the present-day United States. The part of Goliath is portrayed by a tank, which David destroys with a shoulder fired rocket launcher.\n\nGoliath was portrayed by Conan Stevens in the 2013 TV miniseries The Bible.\n\nItalian Goliath film series (1960–1964)\n\nThe Italians used Goliath as an action superhero in a series of Biblical adventure films (peplums) in the early 1960s. He possessed amazing strength, and the films were similar in theme to their Hercules and Maciste movies. After the classic Hercules (1958) became a blockbuster sensation in the film industry, a 1959 Steve Reeves film Terrore dei Barbari (Terror of the Barbarians) was retitled Goliath and the Barbarians in the United States, (after Joseph E. Levine claimed the sole right to the name of Hercules); the film was so successful at the box office, it inspired Italian filmmakers to do a series of four more films featuring a beefcake hero named Goliath, although the films were not really related to each other. (The 1960 Italian film David and Goliath starring Orson Welles was not one of these, since that movie was a straightforward adaptation of the Biblical story).\n\nThe four titles in the Italian Goliath series were as follows:\n \n* Goliath contro i giganti/Goliath Against the Giants (1960) starring Brad Harris\n* Goliath e la schiava ribelle/Goliath and the Rebel Slave (a.k.a. The Tyrant of Lydia vs. The Son of Hercules) (1963) starring Gordon Scott\n* Golia e il cavaliere mascherato/Goliath and the Masked Rider (a.k.a. Hercules and the Masked Rider) (1964) starring Alan Steel\n* Golia alla conquista di Bagdad/Goliath at the Conquest of Baghdad(a.k.a. Goliath at the Conquest of Damascus, 1964) starring Peter Lupus\n\nThe name Goliath was later inserted into the film titles of three other Italian muscle man movies that were retitled for distribution in the United States in an attempt to cash in on the Goliath craze, but these films were not originally made as Goliath movies in Italy.\n\nBoth Goliath and the Vampires (1961) and Goliath and the Sins of Babylon (1963) actually featured the famed superhero Maciste in the original Italian versions, but American distributors didn't feel the name Maciste had any meaning to American audiences. Goliath and the Dragon (1960) was originally an Italian Hercules movie called The Revenge of Hercules.\n\nModern usage of \"David and Goliath\"\n\nIn recent usage, the phrase \"David and Goliath\" has taken on a secular meaning, denoting an underdog situation, a contest where a smaller, weaker opponent faces a much bigger, stronger adversary; if successful, the underdog may win in an unusual or surprising way. It is arguably the most famous underdog story. \n\nTheology professor Leonard Greenspoon, in his essay, \"David vs. Goliath in the Sports Pages\", explains that \"most writers use the story for its underdog overtones (the little guy wins) ... Less likely to show up in newsprint is the contrast that was most important to the biblical authors: David’s victory shows the power of his God, while Goliath’s defeat reveals the weakness of the Philistine deities.\" \n\nThe phrase is widely used in news media, to succinctly characterize underdog situations in every conceivable context, without religious overtones. Recent headlines include: sports (\"Haye relishes underdog role in 'David and Goliath' fight with Nikolai Valuev\"—The Guardian ); business (\"On Internet, David-and-Goliath Battle Over Instant Messages\"—The New York Times ); science (\"David and Goliath: How a tiny spider catches much larger prey\"—ScienceDaily; politics (\"Dissent in Cuba: David and Goliath\"—The Economist ); social justice (\"David-and-Goliath Saga Brings Cable to Skid Row\"—Los Angeles Times )." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Six cubits and a span," ], "normalized_aliases": [ "six cubits and span" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "six cubits and span", "type": "FreeForm", "value": "Six cubits and a span," }
In what language was the New Testament originally written?	tc_462	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "Search" ], "filename": [ "New_Testament.txt", "Language_of_the_New_Testament.txt" ], "title": [ "New Testament", "Language of the New Testament" ], "wiki_context": [ "The New Testament (Koine Greek: Ἡ Καινὴ Διαθήκη, Hē Kainḕ Diathḗkē) is the second major part of the Christian biblical canon, the first part being the Old Testament, based on the Hebrew Bible. The New Testament discusses the teachings and person of Jesus, as well as events in first-century Christianity. Christians regard both the Old and New Testaments together as sacred scripture. The New Testament (in whole or in part) has frequently accompanied the spread of Christianity around the world. It reflects and serves as a source for Christian theology and morality. Both extended readings and phrases directly from the New Testament are also incorporated (along with readings from the Old Testament) into the various Christian liturgies. The New Testament has influenced religious, philosophical, and political movements in Christendom and left an indelible mark on literature, art, and music.\n\nThe New Testament is an anthology, a collection of Christian works written in the common (Koine) Greek language of the first century, at different times by various writers, who were early Jewish disciples of Jesus, and the modern consensus is that it also provides important evidence regarding Judaism in the first century CE. In almost all Christian traditions today, the New Testament consists of 27 books. The original texts were written in the first and perhaps the second centuries of the Christian Era, in Greek, which was the common language of the Eastern Mediterranean from the Conquests of Alexander the Great (335–323 BC) until the evolution of Byzantine Greeks (c. 600). All the works that eventually became incorporated into the New Testament are believed to have been written no later than around 150 AD,See the standard New Testament introductions listed under \"Further reading,\" below, by Goodspeed, Kümmel, Duling and Perrin, Koester, Conzelmann and Lindemann, Brown, and Ehrman. and a small minority of scholars would date them to no later than 70 AD, 80 AD, or at 96 AD.\n\nCollections of related texts such as letters of the Apostle Paul (a major collection of which must have been made already by the early 2nd century) and the Canonical Gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John (asserted by Irenaeus of Lyon in the late-2nd century as the Four Gospels) gradually were joined to other collections and single works in different combinations to form various Christian canons of Scripture. Over time, some disputed books, such as the Book of Revelation and the Minor Catholic (General) Epistles were introduced into canons in which they were originally absent. Other works earlier held to be Scripture, such as 1 Clement, the Shepherd of Hermas, and the Diatessaron, were excluded from the New Testament. The Old Testament canon is not completely uniform among all major Christian groups including Roman Catholics, Protestants, the Greek Orthodox Church, the Slavic Orthodox Churches, and the Armenian Orthodox Church. However, the twenty-seven-book canon of the New Testament, at least since Late Antiquity, has been almost universally recognized within Christianity (see Development of the New Testament canon).\n\nThe New Testament consists of:\nfour narratives of the life, teaching, death and resurrection of Jesus, called \"gospels\" (or \"good news\" accounts);\na narrative of the Apostles' ministries in the early church, called the \"Acts of the Apostles\", and probably written by the same writer as the Gospel of Luke, which it continues;\ntwenty-one letters, often called \"epistles\" from Greek \"epistole\", written by various authors, and consisting of Christian doctrine, counsel, instruction, and conflict resolution; and\nan Apocalypse, the Book of Revelation, which is a book of prophecy, containing some instructions to seven local congregations of Asia Minor, but mostly containing prophetical symbology, about the end times.\n\nEtymology\n\nThe term \"new testament\" (Koine Greek: Ἡ Καινὴ Διαθήκη, Hē Kainḕ Diathḗkē), or \"new covenant\" (Hebrew בְּרִית חֲדָשָׁה bərîṯ ḥăḏāšâ) first occurs in (Greek Septuagint καινὴ διαθήκη kainḕ diathḗkē, cited in ). The same Greek phrase for \"new covenant\" is found elsewhere in the New Testament (, , , , and ; cf. ). In early Bible translations into Latin, the phrase was rendered foedus, \"federation\", in , and was rendered testamentum in and other instances from which comes the English term \"New Testament.\"\n\nModern English, like Latin, distinguishes testament and covenant as alternative translations, and consequently the treatment of the term διαθήκη diathḗkē varies in English translations of the Bible. John Wycliffe's 1395 version is a translation of the Latin Vulgate and so follows different terms in Jeremiah and Hebrews:\n\nLo! days shall come, saith the Lord, and I shall make a new covenant (from Latin foedus) with the house of Israel, and with the house of Judah.\n\nFor he reproving him saith, Lo! days come, saith the Lord, when I shall establish a new testament (from Latin testamentum) on the house of Israel, and on the house of Judah.\n\nUse of the term New Testament to describe a collection of first and second-century Christian Greek Scriptures can be traced back to Tertullian (in Against Praxeas 15). In Against Marcion, written circa 208 AD, he writes of\n\nthe Divine Word, who is doubly edged with the two testaments of the law and the gospel. \n\nAnd Tertullian continues later in the book, writing:\n\nit is certain that the whole aim at which he [Marcion] has strenuously laboured, even in the drawing up of his Antitheses, centres in this, that he may establish a diversity between the Old and the New Testaments, so that his own Christ may be separate from the Creator, as belonging to this rival god, and as alien from the law and the prophets. See also Tertullian, [http://earlychristianwritings.com/text/tertullian124.html Against Marcion, Book IV], chapters I, II, XIV. However, his meaning in chapter XX is less clear, and in chapters IX and XL he uses the term to mean \"new covenant\".\n\nBy the 4th century, the existence—even if not the exact contents—of both an Old and New Testament had been established. Lactantius, a 3rd–4th century Christian author wrote in his early-4th-century Latin Institutiones Divinae (Divine Institutes):\n\nBut all scripture is divided into two Testaments. That which preceded the advent and passion of Christ—that is, the law and the prophets—is called the Old; but those things which were written after His resurrection are named the New Testament. The Jews make use of the Old, we of the New: but yet they are not discordant, for the New is the fulfilling of the Old, and in both there is the same testator, even Christ, who, having suffered death for us, made us heirs of His everlasting kingdom, the people of the Jews being deprived and disinherited. As the prophet Jeremiah testifies when he speaks such things: \"Behold, the days come, saith the Lord, that I will make a new testament to the house of Israel and the house of Judah, not according to the testament which I made to their fathers, in the day that I took them by the hand to bring them out of the land of Egypt; for they continued not in my testament, and I disregarded them, saith the Lord.\" ... For that which He said above, that He would make a new testament to the house of Judah, shows that the old testament which was given by Moses was not perfect; but that which was to be given by Christ would be complete. \n\nBooks\n\nThe canon of the New Testament is the collection of books that most Christians regard as divinely inspired and constituting the New Testament of the Christian Biblical Canon.\n\nIn the period extending roughly from 50 to 150 AD, a number of documents began to circulate among the churches, including epistles, gospel accounts, memoirs, prophecies, homilies, and collections of teachings. While some of these documents were apostolic in origin, others drew upon the tradition the apostles and ministers of the word had utilized in their individual missions, and still others represented a summation of the teaching entrusted to a particular church center. Several of these writings sought to extend, interpret, and apply apostolic teaching to meet the needs of Christians in a given locality.\n\nIn general, among Christian denominations the New Testament canon came to be agreed-upon as a list of 27 books, although the order of the books can vary from one version of the printed scriptures to the next. The book order is the same in the Greek Orthodox, Roman Catholic, and Protestant traditions. The Slavonic, Armenian and Ethiopian traditions have different New Testament book orders.\n\nThe Gospels\n\nEach of the four gospels in the New Testament narrates the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus of Nazareth. The word \"gospel\" derives from the Old English gōd-spell (rarely godspel), meaning \"good news\" or \"glad tidings\". The gospel was considered the \"good news\" of the coming Kingdom of Messiah, and the redemption through the life and death of Jesus, the central Christian message. Gospel is a calque (word-for-word translation) of the Greek word , euangelion (eu- \"good\", -angelion \"message\").\n\nSince the 2nd century, the four narrative accounts of the life and work of Jesus Christ have been referred to as \"The Gospel of ...\" or \"The Gospel according to ...\" followed by the name of the supposed author. Whatever these admittedly early ascriptions may imply about the sources behind or the perception of these gospels, they are anonymous compositions.\n* The Gospel of Matthew, ascribed to the Apostle Matthew. This gospel begins with a genealogy of Jesus and a story of his birth that includes a visit from magi and a flight into Egypt, and it ends with the commissioning of the disciples by the resurrected Jesus.\n* The Gospel of Mark, ascribed to Mark the Evangelist. This gospel begins with the preaching of John the Baptist and the baptism of Jesus. Two different secondary endings were affixed to this gospel in the 2nd century.\n* The Gospel of Luke, ascribed to Luke the Evangelist, who was not one of the Twelve Apostles, but was mentioned as a companion of the Apostle Paul and as a physician. This gospel begins with parallel stories of the birth and childhood of John the Baptist and Jesus and ends with appearances of the resurrected Jesus and his ascension into heaven.\n* The Gospel of John, ascribed to John the Apostle. This gospel begins with a philosophical prologue and ends with appearances of the resurrected Jesus, it is about Jesus's miracles.\n\nThe first three gospels listed above are classified as the Synoptic Gospels. They contain similar accounts of the events in Jesus' life and his teaching, due to their literary interdependence. The Gospel of John is structured differently and includes stories of several miracles of Jesus and sayings not found in the other three.\n\nThese four gospels that were eventually included in the New Testament were only a few among many other early Christian gospels. The existence of such texts is even mentioned at the beginning of the Gospel of Luke. Other early Christian gospels such as the so-called \"Jewish-Christian Gospels\" or the Gospel of Thomas, also offer both a window into the context of early Christianity and may provide some assistance in the reconstruction of the historical Jesus.\n\nActs of the Apostles\n\nThe Acts of the Apostles is a narrative of the apostles' ministry and activity after Christ's death and resurrection, from which point it resumes and functions as a sequel to the Gospel of Luke. Examining style, phraseology, and other evidence, modern scholarship generally concludes that Acts and the Gospel of Luke share the same author, referred to as Luke-Acts. Luke-Acts does not name its author. Church tradition identified him as Luke the Evangelist, the companion of Paul, but the majority of scholars reject this due to the many contradictions between Acts and the authentic Pauline letters. The most probable date of composition is around 80–100 AD, and there is evidence that it was still being substantially revised well into the 2nd century.\n\nEpistles\n\nThe epistles of the New Testament are considered by Christians to be divinely inspired and holy letters, written by the apostles and disciples of Christ, to either local congregations with specific needs, or to New Covenant Christians in general, scattered about; or \"General Epistles.\"\n\nGeneral epistles\n\nThe General epistles (or \"catholic epistles\") consist of both letters and treatises in the form of letters written to the church at large. The term \"catholic\" (Greek: καθολική, katholikē), used to describe these letters in the oldest manuscripts containing them, here simply means \"general\" or \"universal\". The authorship of a number of these is disputed.\n* Epistle of James, written by an author named \"James\", often identified with James, the brother of Jesus.\n* First Epistle of Peter, ascribed to the Apostle Peter.\n* Second Epistle of Peter, ascribed to the Apostle Peter, though widely considered not to have been written by him. \n* First Epistle of John, ascribed to John the Apostle.\n* Second Epistle of John, ascribed to John the Apostle.\n* Third Epistle of John, ascribed to John the Apostle.\n* Epistle of Jude, written under the name of Jude, the brother of Jesus and James.\n\nPauline epistles\n\nThe Pauline epistles are the thirteen New Testament books that present Paul the Apostle as their author. Six of the letters are disputed. Four are thought by most modern scholars to be pseudepigraphic, i.e., not actually written by Paul even if attributed to him within the letters themselves. Opinion is more divided on the other two disputed letters (2 Thessalonians and Colossians). These letters were written to Christian communities in specific cities or geographical regions, often to address issues faced by that particular community. Prominent themes include the relationship both to broader \"pagan\" society, to Judaism, and to other Christians. \nEpistle to the Romans\nFirst Epistle to the Corinthians\nSecond Epistle to the Corinthians\nEpistle to the Galatians\nEpistle to the Ephesians\nEpistle to the Philippians\nEpistle to the Colossians\nFirst Epistle to the Thessalonians\nSecond Epistle to the Thessalonians\n[Disputed letters are marked with an asterisk ().]\n\nHebrews\n\nThe Epistle to the Hebrews addresses a Jewish audience who had come to believe that Jesus was the anointed one (Hebrew: מָשִׁיחַ—transliterated in English as \"Moshiach\", or \"Messiah\"; Greek: Χριστός—transliterated in English as \"Christos\", for \"Christ\") who was predicted in the writings of the Hebrew Bible. The author discusses the \"better-ness\" of the new covenant and the ministry of Jesus, over the Mosaic covenant and urges the readers in the practical implications of this conviction through the end of the epistle.\n\nThe book has been widely accepted by the Christian church as inspired by God and thus authoritative, despite the acknowledgment of uncertainties about who its human author was. Regarding authorship, although the Epistle to the Hebrews does not internally claim to have been written by the Apostle Paul, some similarities in wordings to some of the Pauline Epistles have been noted and inferred. In antiquity, some began to ascribe it to Paul in an attempt to provide the anonymous work an explicit apostolic pedigree. \n\nIn the 4th century, Jerome and Augustine of Hippo supported Paul's authorship. The Church largely agreed to include Hebrews as the fourteenth letter of Paul, and affirmed this authorship until the Reformation. The letter to the Hebrews had difficulty in being accepted as part of the Christian canon because of its anonymity. As early as the 3rd century, Origen wrote of the letter, \"Men of old have handed it down as Paul's, but who wrote the Epistle God only knows.\" \n\nContemporary scholars often reject Pauline authorship for the epistle to the Hebrews, based on its distinctive style and theology, which are considered to set it apart from Paul's writings.\n\nPastoral epistles\n\nThe Pastoral epistles, presented as if written by Paul, are addressed to individuals with pastoral oversight of churches and discuss issues of Christian living, doctrine and leadership. They often address different concerns to those of the preceding epistles. All three, excluding the Epistle to Philemon, of these are believed to be pseudepigraphic:\n First Epistle to Timothy\n Second Epistle to Timothy\n Epistle to Titus\n Epistle to Philemon\n[Disputed letters are marked with an asterisk ().]\n\nBook of Revelation\n\nThe final book of the New Testament is the Book of Revelation, also known as the Apocalypse of John. In the New Testament canon, it is considered prophetical or apocalyptic literature. Its authorship has been attributed either to John the Apostle (in which case it is often thought that John the Apostle is John the Evangelist, i.e. author of the Gospel of John) or to another John designated \"John of Patmos\" after the island where the text says the revelation was received (1:9). Some ascribe the writership date as circa 81–96 AD, and others at around 68 AD.Mounce, Robert (1998). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id\n06VR1JzzLNsC&pg=PA15 The Book of Revelation] (revised ed.). The New International Commentary on the New Testament Series. Cambridge, UK: Eerdmans. pp. 15–16. ISBN 0802825370. The work opens with letters to seven churches and thereafter takes the form of an apocalypse, a literary genre popular in ancient Judaism and Christianity. \n\nNew Testament canons\n\nTable notes\n\nBook order\n\nThe order in which the books of the New Testament appear differs between some collections and ecclesiastical traditions. In the Latin West, prior to the Vulgate (an early 5th-century Latin version of the Bible), the four Gospels were arranged in the following order: Matthew, John, Luke, and Mark. The Syriac Peshitta places the major General epistles (James, 1 Peter, and 1 John) immediately after Acts and before the Pauline epistles.\n\nThe order of an early edition of the letters of Paul is based on the size of the letters: longest to shortest, though keeping 1 and 2 Corinthians and 1 and 2 Thessalonians together. The Pastoral epistles were apparently not part of the Corpus Paulinum in which this order originated and were later inserted after 2 Thessalonians and before Philemon. Hebrews was variously incorporated into the Corpus Paulinum either after 2 Thessalonians, after Philemon (i.e. at the very end), or after Romans.\n\nThe New Testament of the 16th-century Luther Bible continues, to this day, to place Hebrews, James, Jude, and the Apocalypse last. This reflects the thoughts of the Reformer Martin Luther on the canonicity of these books. \n\nApocrypha\n\nThe books that eventually found a permanent place in the New Testament were not the only works of Christian literature produced in the earliest Christian centuries. The long process of canonization began early, sometimes with tacit reception of traditional texts, sometimes with explicit selection or rejection of particular texts as either acceptable or unacceptable for use in a given context (e.g., not all texts that were acceptable for private use were considered appropriate for use in the liturgy).\n\nOver the course of history, those works of early Christian literature that survived but that did not become part of the New Testament have been variously grouped by theologians and scholars. Drawing upon, though redefining, an older term used in early Christianity and among Protestants when referring to those books found in the Christian Old Testament although not in the Jewish Bible, modern scholars began to refer to these works of early Christian literature not included in the New Testament as \"apocryphal\", by which was meant non-canonical.\n\nCollected editions of these works were then referred to as the \"New Testament apocrypha\". Typically excluded from such published collections are the following groups of works: The Apostolic Fathers, the 2nd-century Christian apologists, the Alexandrians, Tertullian, Methodius of Olympus, Novatian, Cyprian, martyrdoms, and the Desert Fathers. Almost all other Christian literature from the period, and sometimes including works composed well into Late Antiquity, are relegated to the so-called New Testament apocrypha.\n\nAlthough not considered to be inspired by God, these \"apocryphal\" works may be helpful in the study of the New Testament in that they were produced in the same ancient context and often using the same language as those books that would eventually form the New Testament. Some of these later works are dependent (either directly or indirectly) upon books that would later come to be in the New Testament or upon the ideas expressed in them. There is even an example of a pseudepigraphical letter composed under the guise of a presumably lost letter of the Apostle Paul, the Epistle to the Laodiceans.\n\nAuthors\n\nThe books of the New Testament were all or nearly all written by Jewish Christians—that is, Jewish disciples of Christ, who lived in the Roman Empire, and under Roman occupation. Luke, who wrote the Gospel of Luke and the Book of Acts, is frequently thought of as an exception; scholars are divided as to whether Luke was a Gentile or a Hellenic Jew. A few scholars identify the author of the Gospel of Mark as probably a Gentile, and similarly for the Gospel of Matthew, though most assert Jewish-Christian authorship. \n\nGospels\n\nAuthorship is an area of longstanding and current research and debate, with different works posing different problems for identification. While the various works have traditional ascriptions of authorship, these ascriptions are in some cases defended by scholars, and in other cases disputed or rejected. According to many (if not most) critical scholars, none of the authors of the Gospels were eyewitnesses or even explicitly claimed to be eyewitnesses. Bart Ehrman of the University of North Carolina has argued for a scholarly consensus that many New Testament books were not written by the individuals whose names are attached. He further argues that the Gospels were originally anonymous, and names were not ascribed to them until around 185 AD. Other scholars concur. It is the persecutive of some writers that none were written in Palestine. \n\nIt is worthy of note that there is a tradition that the Apostle John was the author of the Gospel of John. Traditionalists (such as Biblical commentators Albert Barnes and Matthew Henry) claim that the writer of the Gospel of John himself claimed to be an eyewitness in their commentaries of John 21:24 and therefore the gospel was written by an eyewitness; however, this idea is rejected by the majority of modern scholars. \n\nA review of Richard Bauckham's book Jesus and the Eyewitnesses: The Gospels as Eyewitness Testimony states \"The common wisdom in the academy is that stories and sayings of Jesus circulated for decades, undergoing countless retellings and embellishments before being finally set down in writing.\" \n\nMost scholars hold to the two-source hypothesis, which claims that the Gospel of Mark was written first. According to the hypothesis, the authors of the Gospel of Matthew and the Gospel of Luke then used the Gospel of Mark and the hypothetical Q document, in addition to some other sources, to write their individual gospel accounts. These three gospels are called the Synoptic gospels because they include many of the same stories, often in the same sequence, and sometimes exactly the same wording. Scholars agree that the Gospel of John was written last, by using a different tradition and body of testimony. In addition, most scholars agree that the author of Luke wrote the Acts of the Apostles. Scholars hold that these books constituted two halves of a single work, Luke-Acts.\n\nStrictly speaking, each gospel and the book of Acts is arguably anonymous. The Gospel of John is somewhat of an exception, although the author simply refers to himself as \"the disciple Jesus loved\" and claims to be a member of Jesus' inner circle. The identities of each author were agreed upon at an early date, certainly no later than the early 2nd century. It is likely that the issue of the authorship of each gospel had been settled at least somewhat earlier, as the earliest sources are in complete agreement on the issue. Indeed, no one questioned the early 2nd century consensus until the 18th century.\n\nSome scholars today maintain the traditional claim that Luke the Evangelist, an associate of St. Paul who was probably not an eyewitness to Jesus' ministry, wrote the Gospel of Luke and Acts of the Apostles. Scholars are also divided on the traditional claim that Mark the Evangelist, an associate of St. Peter who may have been an eyewitness to Jesus' ministry, wrote the Gospel of Mark. Scholars are more divided over the traditional claim that Matthew the Apostle wrote the Gospel of Matthew and that John the Apostle wrote the Gospel of John. Opinion, however, is widely divided on this issue and there is no widespread consensus. \n\nActs\n\nThe Gospel of Luke and the Acts of the Apostles were both written by the same author, and are thus referred to as the Lucan texts. The most direct evidence comes from the prefaces of each book; both were addressed to Theophilus, and the preface to the Acts of the Apostles references \"my former book\" about the ministry of Jesus. Furthermore, there are linguistic and theological similarities between the two works, suggesting that they have a common author. \n\nPauline epistles\n\nThe Pauline epistles are the thirteen books in the New Testament traditionally attributed to Paul of Tarsus. The anonymous Epistle to the Hebrews is, despite unlikely Pauline authorship, often functionally grouped with these thirteen to form a corpus of fourteen \"Pauline\" epistles.\n\nSeven letters are generally classified as \"undisputed\", expressing contemporary scholarly near consensus that they are the work of Paul: Romans, 1 Corinthians, 2 Corinthians, Galatians, Philippians, 1 Thessalonians and Philemon. Six additional letters bearing Paul's name do not currently enjoy the same academic consensus: Ephesians, Colossians, 2 Thessalonians, 1 Timothy, 2 Timothy and Titus.\n\nWhile many scholars uphold the traditional view, some question whether the first three, called the \"Deutero-Pauline Epistles,\" are authentic letters of Paul. As for the latter three, the \"Pastoral epistles\", some scholars uphold the traditional view of these as the genuine writings of the Apostle Paul; most, however, regard them as pseudepigrapha. \n\nOne might refer to the Epistle to the Laodiceans and the Third Epistle to the Corinthians as examples of works identified as pseudonymous. Since the early centuries of the church, there has been debate concerning the authorship of the anonymous Epistle to the Hebrews, and contemporary scholars generally reject Pauline authorship.\n\nThe epistles all share common themes, emphasis, vocabulary and style; they exhibit a uniformity of doctrine concerning the Mosaic Law, Jesus, faith, and various other issues. All of these letters easily fit into the chronology of Paul's journeys depicted in Acts of the Apostles.\n\nOther epistles\n\nThe author of the Epistle of James identifies himself in the opening verse as \"James, a servant of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ\". From the middle of the 3rd century, patristic authors cited the Epistle as written by James the Just. Ancient and modern scholars have always been divided on the issue of authorship. Many consider the epistle to be written in the late 1st or early 2nd centuries. \n\nThe author of the First Epistle of Peter identifies himself in the opening verse as \"Peter, an apostle of Jesus Christ\", and the view that the epistle was written by St. Peter is attested to by a number of Church Fathers: Irenaeus (140–203), Tertullian (150–222), Clement of Alexandria (155–215) and Origen of Alexandria (185–253). Unlike The Second Epistle of Peter, the authorship of which was debated in antiquity, there was little debate about Peter’s authorship of this first epistle until the 18th century. Although 2 Peter internally purports to be a work of the apostle, many biblical scholars have concluded that Peter is not the author. For an early date and (usually) for a defense of the Apostle Peter's authorship see Kruger, Zahn, Spitta, Bigg, and Green. \n\nThe Epistle of Jude title is written as follows: \"Jude, a servant of Jesus Christ and a brother of James\" (NRSV). The debate has continued over the author's identity as the apostle, the brother of Jesus, both, or neither. \n\nJohannine works\n\nThe First Epistle of John is traditionally held to have been composed by John the Apostle (the author of the Gospel of John) when the writer was in advanced age. The epistle's content, language and conceptual style indicate that it may have had the same author as the Gospel of John, 2 John and 3 John. Eusebius claimed that the author of 2nd and 3rd John was not John the Apostle, but an \"elder John\" which refers either to the apostle at an advanced age or a hypothetical second individual (\"John the Elder\"). Scholars today are divided on the issue.\n\nRevelation\n\nThe author of the Book of Revelation identifies himself several times as \"John\". and states that he was on Patmos when he received his first vision. As a result, the author is sometimes referred to as John of Patmos. The author has traditionally been identified with John the Apostle to whom the Gospel and the epistles of John were attributed. It was believed that he was exiled to the island of Patmos during the reign of the Roman emperor Domitian, and there wrote Revelation. Justin Martyr (c. 100–165 AD) who was acquainted with Polycarp, who had been mentored by John, makes a possible allusion to this book, and credits John as the source. Irenaeus (c. 115–202) assumes it as a conceded point. According to the Zondervan Pictorial Encyclopedia of the Bible, modern scholars are divided between the apostolic view and several alternative hypotheses put forth in the last hundred years or so. Ben Witherington points out that linguistic evidence makes it unlikely that the books were written by the same person. \n\nDates of composition\n\nSee individual book articles for more detail\nThe earliest works that became part of the New Testament are the letters of the Apostle Paul. The earliest of the books of the New Testament was First Thessalonians, an epistle of Paul, written probably in 51, or possibly Galatians in 49 according to one of two theories of its writing. Of the epistles some consider pseudepigraphical, scholars tend to place them somewhere between 70 and 150, with Second Peter usually being the latest.\n\nIn the 1830s German scholars of the Tübingen school tried to date the books as late as the 3rd century, but the discovery of some New Testament manuscripts and fragments from the 2nd and 3rd centuries, one of which dates as early as 125 (Papyrus 52), disproves a 3rd-century date of composition for any book now in the New Testament. Additionally, a letter to the church at Corinth in the name of Clement of Rome in 95 quotes from 10 of the 27 books of the New Testament, and a letter to the church at Philippi in the name of Polycarp in 120 quotes from 16 books.\n\nTherefore, some of the books of the New Testament were at least in a first-draft stage, though there is negligible evidence in these quotes or among biblical manuscripts for the existence of different early drafts. Other books were probably not completed until later, assuming they must have been quoted by Clement or Polycarp.\n\nMost contemporary scholars regard Mark as a source used by Luke (see Markan priority). If it is true that Mark was written around the destruction of the Temple of Jerusalem, around 70,Theissen, Gerd; Merz, Annette (1996). The Historical Jesus: A Comprehensive Guide. Fortress Press. (1996 edition). p. 24-27. they theorize that Luke would not have been written before 70. Some who take this view believe that Luke's prediction of the destruction of the temple could not be a result of Jesus predicting the future but with the benefit of hindsight regarding specific details. They believe that the discussion in is specific enough (more specific than Mark's or Matthew's) that a date after 70 seems likely. These scholars have suggested dates for Luke from 75 to 100.\n\nSupport for a later date comes from a number of reasons. Differences of chronology, \"style\", and theology suggest that the author of Luke-Acts was not familiar with Paul's distinctive theology but instead was writing a decade or more after his death, by which point significant harmonization between different traditions within Early Christianity had occurred. Furthermore, Luke-Acts has views on Jesus' divine nature, the end times, and salvation that are similar to the those found in Pastoral epistles, which are often seen as pseudonymous and of a later date than the undisputed Pauline Epistles. \n\nLanguage\n\nThe major languages spoken by both Jews and Greeks in the Holy Land at the time of Jesus were Aramaic and Koine Greek, and also a colloquial dialect of Mishnaic Hebrew. It is generally agreed by most scholars that the historical Jesus primarily spoke Aramaic, perhaps also some Hebrew and Koine Greek. The majority view is that all of the books that would eventually form the New Testament were written in the Koine Greek language. \n\nAs Christianity spread, these books were later translated into other languages, most notably, Latin, Syriac, and Egyptian Coptic. However, some of the Church Fathers imply or claim that Matthew was originally written in Hebrew or Aramaic, and then soon after was written in Koine Greek. Nevertheless, the Gospel of Matthew known today was composed in Greek and is neither directly dependent upon nor a translation of a text in a Semitic language. \n\nDevelopment of the New Testament canon\n\nThe process of canonization of the New Testament was complex and lengthy. In the initial centuries of early Christianity, there were many books widely considered by the church to be inspired, but there was no single formally recognized New Testament canon. The process was characterized by a compilation of books that apostolic tradition considered authoritative in worship and teaching, relevant to the historical situations in which they lived, and consonant with the Old Testament. Writings attributed to the apostles circulated among the earliest Christian communities and the Pauline epistles were circulating, perhaps in collected forms, by the end of the 1st century AD. \n\nOne of the earliest attempts at solidifying a canon was made by Marcion, circa 140 AD, who accepted only a modified version of Luke (the Gospel of Marcion) and ten of Paul's letters, while rejecting the Old Testament entirely. His canon was increasingly rejected by other groups of Christians, notably the proto-orthodox Christians, as was his theology, Marcionism. Adolf Harnack in Origin of the New Testament (1914) observed that the church gradually formulated its New Testament canon in response to the challenge posed by Marcion. \n\nJustin Martyr, Irenaeus and Tertullian held the letters of Paul to be on par with the Hebrew Scriptures as being divinely inspired, yet others rejected him. Other books were held in high esteem but were gradually relegated to the status of New Testament apocrypha. Justin Martyr, in the mid 2nd century, mentions \"memoirs of the apostles\" as being read on Sunday alongside the \"writings of the prophets\". \n\nThe Muratorian fragment, dated at between 170 and as late as the end of the 4th century (according to the Anchor Bible Dictionary), may be the earliest known New Testament canon attributed to mainstream Christianity. It is similar, but not identical, to the modern New Testament canon.\n\nThe oldest clear endorsement of Mark, Matthew, Luke, and John being the only legitimate gospels was written circa 180 AD. A four gospel canon (the Tetramorph) was asserted by Irenaeus, who refers to it directly Irenaeus. [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.ix.iv.xii.html \"Chapter XI\"]. Against Heresies, Book III. Section 8. in his polemic Against the Heresies, \"It is not possible that the gospels can be either more or fewer in number than they are. For, since there are four zones of the world in which we live, and four principal winds, while the church is scattered throughout all the world, and the “pillar and ground” of the church is the gospel and the spirit of life; it is fitting that she should have four pillars, breathing out immortality on every side, and vivifying men afresh.\" The books considered to be authoritative by Irenaeus included the four gospels and many of the letters of Paul, although, based on the arguments Irenaeus made in support of only four authentic gospels, some interpreters deduce that the fourfold Gospel must have still been a novelty in Irenaeus's time. \n\nOrigen (3rd century)\n\nBy the early 200s, Origen may have been using the same twenty-seven books as in the Catholic New Testament canon, though there were still disputes over the canonicity of the Letter to the Hebrews, Epistle of James, II Peter, II John and III John and the Book of Revelation, known as the Antilegomena. Likewise, the Muratorian fragment is evidence that, perhaps as early as 200, there existed a set of Christian writings somewhat similar to the twenty-seven book NT canon, which included four gospels and argued against objections to them. Thus, while there was a good measure of debate in the Early Church over the New Testament canon, the major writings are claimed to have been accepted by almost all Christians by the middle of the 3rd century. \n\nOrigen was largely responsible for the collection of usage information regarding the texts that became the New Testament. The information used to create the late-4th-century Easter Letter, which declared accepted Christian writings, was probably based on the Ecclesiastical History [HE] of Eusebius of Caesarea, wherein he uses the information passed on to him by Origen to create both his list at HE 3:25 and Origen’s list at HE 6:25. Eusebius got his information about what texts were then accepted and what were then disputed, by the third-century churches throughout the known world, a great deal of which Origen knew of firsthand from his extensive travels, from the library and writings of Origen. \n\nIn fact, Origen would have possibly included in his list of \"inspired writings\" other texts kept out by the likes of Eusebius—including the Epistle of Barnabas, Shepherd of Hermas, and 1 Clement. Notwithstanding these facts, \"Origen is not the originator of the idea of biblical canon, but he certainly gives the philosophical and literary-interpretative underpinnings for the whole notion.\" \n\nEusebius's Ecclesiastical History\n\nEusebius, circa 300, gave a detailed list of New Testament writings in his Ecclesiastical History [http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-01/Npnf2-01-08.htm#P1497_696002 Book 3], Chapter XXV:\n\"1... First then must be put the holy quaternion of the gospels; following them the Acts of the Apostles... the epistles of Paul... the epistle of John... the epistle of Peter... After them is to be placed, if it really seem proper, the Book of Revelation, concerning which we shall give the different opinions at the proper time. These then belong among the accepted writings.\"\n\n\"3 Among the disputed writings, which are nevertheless recognized by many, are extant the so-called epistle of James and that of Jude, also the second epistle of Peter, and those that are called the second and third of John, whether they belong to the evangelist or to another person of the same name. Among the rejected [Kirsopp Lake translation: \"not genuine\"] writings must be reckoned also the Acts of Paul, and the so-called Shepherd, and the Apocalypse of Peter, and in addition to these the extant epistle of Barnabas, and the so-called Teachings of the Apostles; and besides, as I said, the Apocalypse of John, if it seem proper, which some, as I said, reject, but which others class with the accepted books. And among these some have placed also the Gospel according to the Hebrews... And all these may be reckoned among the disputed books.\"\n\n\"6... such books as the Gospels of Peter, of Thomas, of Matthias, or of any others besides them, and the Acts of Andrew and John and the other apostles... they clearly show themselves to be the fictions of heretics. Wherefore they are not to be placed even among the rejected writings, but are all of them to be cast aside as absurd and impious.\"\n\nThe Book of Revelation is counted as both accepted (Kirsopp Lake translation: \"Recognized\") and disputed, which has caused some confusion over what exactly Eusebius meant by doing so. From other writings of the church fathers, it was disputed with several canon lists rejecting its canonicity. EH 3.3.5 adds further detail on Paul: \"Paul's fourteen epistles are well known and undisputed. It is not indeed right to overlook the fact that some have rejected the Epistle to the Hebrews, saying that it is disputed by the church of Rome, on the ground that it was not written by Paul.\" EH 4.29.6 mentions the Diatessaron: \"But their original founder, Tatian, formed a certain combination and collection of the gospels, I know not how, to which he gave the title Diatessaron, and which is still in the hands of some. But they say that he ventured to paraphrase certain words of the apostle Paul, in order to improve their style.\"\n\n4th century and later\n\nIn his Easter letter of 367, Athanasius, Bishop of Alexandria, gave a list of the books that would become the twenty-seven-book NT canon, and he used the word \"canonized\" (kanonizomena) in regards to them. The first council that accepted the present canon of the New Testament may have been the Synod of Hippo Regius in North Africa (393 AD); the acts of this council, however, are lost. A brief summary of the acts was read at and accepted by the Councils of Carthage in 397 and 419. \"Revelation was added later in 419 at the subsequent synod of Carthage.\" These councils were under the authority of St. Augustine, who regarded the canon as already closed. \n\nPope Damasus I's Council of Rome in 382, if the Decretum Gelasianum is correctly associated with it, issued a biblical canon identical to that mentioned above, or, if not, the list is at least a 6th-century compilation. Likewise, Damasus' commissioning of the Latin Vulgate edition of the Bible, c. 383, was instrumental in the fixation of the canon in the West. In c. 405, Pope Innocent I sent a list of the sacred books to a Gallic bishop, Exsuperius of Toulouse. Christian scholars assert that, when these bishops and councils spoke on the matter, however, they were not defining something new but instead \"were ratifying what had already become the mind of the Church.\" \n\nThe New Testament canon as it is now was first listed by St. Athanasius, Bishop of Alexandria, in 367, in a letter written to his churches in Egypt, [http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-04/Npnf2-04-93.htm Festal Letter 39]. Also cited is the Council of Rome, but not without controversy. That canon gained wider and wider recognition until it was accepted at the Third Council of Carthage in 397 and 419.\n\nEven this council did not settle the matter, however. Certain books, referred to as Antilegomena, continued to be questioned, especially James and Revelation. Even as late as the 16th century, the Reformer Martin Luther questioned (but in the end did not reject) the Epistle of James, the Epistle of Jude, the Epistle to the Hebrews and the Book of Revelation. To this day, German-language Luther Bibles are printed with these four books at the end of the canon, rather than in their traditional order as in other editions of the Bible.\n\nIn light of this questioning of the canon of Scripture by Protestants in the 16th century, the (Roman Catholic) Council of Trent reaffirmed the traditional western canon (i.e., the canon accepted at the 4th-century Council of Rome and Council of Carthage), thus making the Canon of Trent and the Vulgate Bible dogma in the Catholic Church. Later, Pope Pius XI on 2 June 1927 decreed the Comma Johanneum was open to dispute and Pope Pius XII on 3 September 1943 issued the encyclical Divino afflante Spiritu, which allowed translations based on other versions than just the Latin Vulgate, notably in English the New American Bible.\n\nThus, some claim that, from the 4th century, there existed unanimity in the West concerning the New Testament canon (as it is today), and that, by the 5th century, the Eastern Church, with a few exceptions, had come to accept the Book of Revelation and thus had come into harmony on the matter of the canon. Nonetheless, full dogmatic articulations of the canon were not made until the Canon of Trent of 1546 for Roman Catholicism, the Thirty-Nine Articles of 1563 for the Church of England, the Westminster Confession of Faith of 1647 for Calvinism, and the Synod of Jerusalem of 1672 for the Greek Orthodox.\n\nOn the question of NT Canon formation generally, New Testament scholar Lee Martin McDonald has written that: \n\nChristian scholars assert that when these bishops and councils spoke on the matter, they were not defining something new, but instead \"were ratifying what had already become the mind of the Church\".\n\nSome synods of the 4th century published lists of canonical books (e.g. Hippo and Carthage). The existing 27-book canon of the New Testament was reconfirmed (for Roman Catholicism) in the 16th century with the Council of Trent (also called the Tridentine Council) of 1546, the Thirty-Nine Articles of 1563 for the Church of England, the Westminster Confession of Faith of 1647 for Calvinism, and the Synod of Jerusalem of 1672 for Eastern Orthodoxy. Although these councils did include statements about the canon, when it came to the New Testament they were only reaffirming the existing canon, including the Antilegomena.\n\nAccording to the Catholic Encyclopedia article on the Canon of the New Testament: \"The idea of a complete and clear-cut canon of the New Testament existing from the beginning, that is from Apostolic times, has no foundation in history. The Canon of the New Testament, like that of the Old, is the result of a development, of a process at once stimulated by disputes with doubters, both within and without the Church, and retarded by certain obscurities and natural hesitations, and which did not reach its final term until the dogmatic definition of the Tridentine Council.\" \n\nIn 331, Constantine I commissioned Eusebius to deliver fifty Bibles for the Church of Constantinople. Athanasius (Apol. Const. 4) recorded Alexandrian scribes around 340 preparing Bibles for Constans. Little else is known, though there is plenty of speculation. For example, it is speculated that this may have provided motivation for canon lists, and that Codex Vaticanus and Codex Sinaiticus may be examples of these Bibles. Together with the Peshitta and Codex Alexandrinus, these are the earliest extant Christian Bibles. There is no evidence among the canons of the First Council of Nicaea of any determination on the canon.\n\nEarly manuscripts\n\nLike other literature from antiquity, the text of the New Testament was (prior to the advent of the printing press) preserved and transmitted in manuscripts. Manuscripts containing at least a part of the New Testament number in the thousands. The earliest of these (like manuscripts containing other literature) are often very fragmentarily preserved. Some of these fragments have even been thought to date as early as the 2nd century (i.e., Papyrus 90, Papyrus 98, Papyrus 104, and famously Rylands Library Papyrus P52, though the early date of the latter has recently been called into question). \n\nFor each subsequent century, more and more manuscripts survive that contain a portion or all of the books that were held to be part of the New Testament at that time (for example, the New Testament of the 4th-century Codex Sinaiticus, once a complete Bible, contains the Epistle of Barnabas and the Shepherd of Hermas), though occasionally these manuscripts contain other works as well (e.g., Papyrus 72 and the Crosby-Schøyen Codex). The date when a manuscript was written, however, does not necessarily reflect the date of the form of text it contains. That is, later manuscripts can, and occasionally do, contain older forms of text or older readings.\n\nSome of the more important manuscripts containing an early text of books of the New Testament are:\n\nThe Chester Beatty Papyri (Greek; the New Testament portions of which were copied in the 3rd century)\nThe Bodmer Papyri (Greek and Coptic; the New Testament portions of which were copied in the 3rd and 4th centuries)\nCodex Bobiensis (Latin; copied in the 4th century, but containing at least a 3rd-century form of text)\nUncial 0171 (Greek; copied in the late-third or early 4th century)\nSyriac Sinaiticus (Syriac; copied in the 4th century)\nSchøyen Manuscript 2560 (Coptic; copied in the 4th century)\nCodex Vaticanus (Greek; copied in the 4th century)\nCodex Sinaiticus (Greek; copied in the 4th century)\nCodex Vercellensis (Latin; copied in the 4th century)\nCuretonian Gospels (Syriac; copied in the 5th century)\n\nTextual variation\n\nTextual criticism deals with the identification and removal of transcription errors in the texts of manuscripts. Ancient scribes made errors or alterations (such as including non-authentic additions). The New Testament has been preserved in more than 5,800 Greek manuscripts, 10,000 Latin manuscripts and 9,300 manuscripts in various other ancient languages including Syriac, Slavic, Ethiopic and Armenian. Even if the original Greek versions were lost, the entire New Testament could still be assembled from the translations. \n\nIn addition, there are so many quotes from the New Testament in early church documents and commentaries that the entire New Testament could also be assembled from these alone. Not all biblical manuscripts come from orthodox Christian writers. For example, the Gnostic writings of Valentinus come from the 2nd century AD, and these Christians were regarded as heretics by the mainstream church. The sheer number of witnesses presents unique difficulties, but it also gives scholars a better idea of how close modern Bibles are to the original versions.\n\nOn noting the large number of surviving ancient manuscripts, Bruce Metzger sums up the view on the issue by saying \"The more often you have copies that agree with each other, especially if they emerge from different geographical areas, the more you can cross-check them to figure out what the original document was like. The only way they'd agree would be where they went back genealogically in a family tree that represents the descent of the manuscripts.\n\nA similar type of textual criticism is applied to other ancient texts. There are far fewer witnesses to classical texts than to the Bible, and unlike the New Testament where the earliest witnesses are often within a couple decades of the original, the earliest existing manuscripts of most classical texts were written about a millennium after their composition. For example, the earliest surviving copies of parts of the Roman historian Tacitus' main work, the Annals of Imperial Rome (written in 116 AD), come from a single manuscript written in 850 AD, although for other parts of his work, the earliest copies come from the 11th century, while other parts of his work have been lost.\n\nThe earliest copies of The Jewish War by Josephus (originally composed in the 1st century AD), in contrast, come from nine manuscripts written in the 10th, 11th and 12th centuries. After the Bible, the next best preserved ancient work is Homer's Iliad, with 650 copies originating about 1,000 years after the original copy. Caesar's Commentaries on the Gallic War (written in the 50s BC) survives in nine copies written in the 8th century. Thucydides' history of the Peloponesian War and Herodotus' history of the Persian War (both written in the 5th century BC) survives in about eight early copies, the oldest ones dating from the 10th century AD.\n\nBiblical scholar F. F. Bruce has said \"the evidence for our New Testament writings is ever so much greater than the evidence for many writings of classical authors, the authenticity of which no one dreams of questioning...It is a curious fact that historians have often been much readier to trust the New Testament records than have many theologians.\" \n\nInterpolations\n\nIn attempting to determine the original text of the New Testament books, some modern textual critics have identified sections as additions of material, centuries after the gospel was written. These are called interpolations. In modern translations of the Bible, the results of textual criticism have led to certain verses, words and phrases being left out or marked as not original. According to Bart D. Ehrman, \"These scribal additions are often found in late medieval manuscripts of the New Testament, but not in the manuscripts of the earlier centuries.\"\n\nMost modern Bibles have footnotes to indicate passages that have disputed source documents. Bible Commentaries also discuss these, sometimes in great detail. While many variations have been discovered between early copies of biblical texts, almost all have no importance, as they are variations in spelling, punctuation, or grammar. Also, many of these variants are so particular to the Greek language that they would not appear in translations into other languages. For example, order of words (i.e. \"man bites dog\" versus \"dog bites man\") often does not matter in Greek, so textual variants that flip the order of words often have no consequences.\n\nOutside of these unimportant variants, there are a couple variants of some importance, although even these are minor and can be left out of modern Bibles without affecting any matter of theology or interpretation. The two most commonly cited examples are the last verses of the Gospel of Mark and the story of the adulterous woman in the Gospel of John. Many scholars and critics also believe that the Comma Johanneum reference supporting the Trinity doctrine in 1 John to have been a later addition. According to Norman Geisler and William Nix, \"The New Testament, then, has not only survived in more manuscripts than any other book from antiquity, but it has survived in a purer form than any other great book—a form that is 99.5% pure\" \n\nThe often referred to Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible, a book written to prove the validity of the New Testament, says: ” A study of 150 Greek [manuscripts] of the Gospel of Luke has revealed more than 30,000 different readings... It is safe to say that there is not one sentence in the New Testament in which the [manuscript] is wholly uniform.” Most of the variation took place within the first three Christian centuries.\n\nText-types\n\nBy the 4th century, textual \"families\" or types of text become discernible among New Testament manuscripts. A \"text-type\" is the name given to a family of texts with similar readings due to common ancestors and mutual correction. Many early manuscripts, however, contain individual readings from several different earlier forms of text. Modern texual critics have identified the following text-types among textual witnesses to the New Testament: The Alexandrian text-type is usually considered to generally preserve many early readings. It is represented, e.g., by Codex Vaticanus, Codex Sinaiticus and the Bodmer Papyri.\n\nThe Western text-type is generally longer and can be paraphrastic, but can also preserve early readings. The Western version of the Acts of the Apostles is, notably, 8.5% longer than the Alexandrian form of the text. Examples of the Western text are found in Codex Bezae, Codex Claromontanus, Codex Washingtonianus, the Old Latin (i.e., Latin translations made prior to the Vulgate), as well as in quotations by Marcion, Tatian, Irenaeus, Tertullian and Cyprian.\n\nA text-type referred to as the \"Caesarean text-type\" and thought to have included witnesses such as Codex Koridethi and minuscule 565, can today be described neither as \"Caesarean\" nor as a text-type as was previously thought. However, the Gospel of Mark in Papyrus 45, Codex Washingtonianus and in Family 13 does indeed reflect a distinct type of text.\n\nIncreasing standardization of distinct (and once local) text-types eventually gave rise to the Byzantine text-type. Since most manuscripts of the New Testament do not derive from the first several centuries, that is, they were copied after the rise of the Byzantine text-type, this form of text is found the majority of extant manuscripts and is therefore often called the \"Majority Text.\" As with all of the other (earlier) text-types, the Byzantine can also occasionally preserve early readings.\n\nBiblical criticism\n\nBiblical criticism is the scholarly \"study and investigation of biblical writings that seeks to make discerning judgments about these writings.\" Viewing biblical texts as having human rather than supernatural origins, it asks when and where a particular text originated; how, why, by whom, for whom, and in what circumstances it was produced; what influences were at work in its production; what sources were used in its composition; and what message it was intended to convey.\n\nIt will vary slightly depending on whether the focus is on the Old Testament, the letters of New Testament or the Canonical gospels. It also plays an important role in the quest for a Historical Jesus. It also addresses the physical text, including the meaning of the words and the way in which they are used, its preservation, history and integrity. Biblical criticism draws upon a wide range of scholarly disciplines including archaeology, anthropology, folklore, linguistics, Oral Tradition studies, and historical and religious studies.\n\nEstablishing a critical text\n\nThe textual variation among manuscript copies of books in the New Testament prompted attempts to discern the earliest form of text already in antiquity (e.g., by the 3rd-century Christian author Origen). The efforts began in earnest again during the Renaissance, which saw a revival of the study of ancient Greek texts. During this period, modern textual criticism was born. In this context, Christian humanists such as Lorenzo Valla and Erasmus promoted a return to the original Greek of the New Testament. This was the beginning of modern New Testament textual criticism, which over subsequent centuries would increasingly incorporate more and more manuscripts, in more languages (i.e., versions of the New Testament), as well as citations of the New Testament by ancient authors and the New Testament text in lectionaries in order to reconstruct the earliest recoverable form of the New Testament text and the history of changes to it. \n\nRelationship to earlier and contemporaneous literature\n\nBooks that later formed the New Testament, like other Christian literature of the period, originated in a literary context that reveals relationships not only to other Christian writings, but also to Graeco-Roman and Jewish works. Of singular importance is the extensive use of and interaction with the Jewish Bible and what would become the Christian Old Testament. Both implicit and explicit citations, as well as countless allusions, appear throughout the books of the New Testament, from the Gospels and Acts, to the Epistles, to the Apocalypse. \n\nEarly versions\n\nThe first translations (usually called \"versions\") of the New Testament were made beginning already at the end of 2nd century. The earliest versions of the New Testament are the translations into the Syriac, Latin, and Coptic languages. These three versions were made directly from the Greek, and are frequently cited in the apparatuses of modern critical editions.\n\nSyriac\n\nSyriac was spoken in Syria, and Mesopotamia, and with dialect in Roman and Byzantine Palestine where it was known as Jewish Palestinian Aramaic. Several Syriac translations were made and have come to us. Most of the Old Syriac, however, as well as the Philoxonian version have been lost.\n\nTatian, the Assyrian, created the Diatessaron, a gospel harmony written in Syriac around 170 AD and the earliest form of the gospel not only in Syriac but probably also in Armenian.\n\nIn the 19th century, manuscript evidence was discovered for an \"Old Syriac\" version of the four distinct (i.e., not harmonized) gospels. These \"separated\" (Syriac: da-Mepharreshe) gospels, though old, have been shown to be later than the Diatessaron. The Old Syriac gospels are fragmentarily preserved in two manuscripts: the 5th-century Curetonian Syriac and the Sinaitic Syriac from the 4th or 5th century.\n\nNo Old Syriac manuscripts of other portions of the New Testament survive, though Old Syriac readings, e.g. from the Pauline Epistles, can be discerned in citations made by Eastern fathers and in later Syriac versions. The Old Syriac version is a representative of the Western text-type. The Peshitta version was prepared in the beginning of the 5th century. It contains only 22 books (neither the Minor Catholic Epistles of 2 Peter, 2 and 3 John, and Jude, nor the Book of Revelation were part of this translation).\n\nThe Philoxenian probably was produced in 508 for Philoxenus, Bishop of Mabung. \n\nLatin\n\nThe Gospels were likely translated into Latin as early as the last quarter of the 2nd century in North Africa (Afra). Not much later, there were also European Latin translations (Itala). There are about 80 Old Latin mansucripts. The Vetus Latina (“Old Latin”) versions often contain readings with a Western type of text. (For the avoidance of confusion, these texts were written in Late Latin, not the early version of the Latin language known as Old Latin, pre 75 BC.)\n\nThe bewildering diversity of the Old Latin versions prompted Jerome to prepare another translation into Latin — the Vulgate. In many respects it was merely a revision of the Old Latin. There are currently around 8,000 manuscripts of the Vulgate.\n\nCoptic\n\nThere are several dialects of the Coptic language: Bohairic (northern dialect), Fayyumic, Sahidic (southern dialect), Akhmimic, and others. The first translation was made by at least the 3rd century into the Sahidic dialect (copsa). This translation represents a mixed text, mostly Alexandrian, though also with Western readings. \n\nA Bohairic translation was made later, but existed already in the 4th century. Though the translation makes less use of Greek words than the Sahidic, it does employ some Greek grammar (e.g., in word-order and the use of particles such as the syntactic construction μεν — δε). For this reason, the Bohairic translation can be helpful in the reconstruction of the early Greek text of the New Testament. \n\nOther ancient translations\n\nThe continued spread of Christianity, and the foundation of national churches, led to the translation of the Bible—often beginning with books from the New Testament—into a variety of other languages at a relatively early date: Armenian, Georgian, Ethiopic, Persian, Soghdian, and eventually Gothic, Old Church Slavonic, Arabic, and Nubian. \n\nModern translations\n\nModern Literal Version is the most recent literal translation of the books of the new testament, with the largest number of translation experts being involved in the final translation.\n\nHistorically, throughout the Christian world and in the context of Christian missionary activity, the New Testament (or portions thereof) has been that part of the Christian Bible first translated into the vernacular. The production of such translations grew out of the insertion of vernacular glosses in biblical texts, as well as out of the production of biblical paraphrases and poetic renditions of stories from the life of Christ (e.g., the Heliand).\n\nThe 16th century saw the rise of Protestantism and an explosion of translations of the New (and Old) Testament into the vernacular. Notable are those of Martin Luther (1522), Jacques Lefèvre d'Étaples (1523), the Froschau Bible (1525–1529, revised in 1574), William Tyndale (1526, revised in 1534, 1535 and 1536), the Brest Bible (1563), and the Authorized Version (also called the \"King James Version\") (1611).\n\nMost of these translations relied (though not always exclusively) upon one of the printed editions of the Greek New Testament edited by Erasmus, a form of this Greek text emerged as the standard and is known as the Textus Receptus. This text, based on a handful of manuscripts of the Byzantine text-type, was the basis for other translations from the Greek until the latter part of the 19th century.\n\nTranslations of the New Testament made since the appearance of better critical editions of the Greek text (notably those of Tischendorf, Westcott and Hort, and von Soden) have largely used them as their base text. Unlike the Textus Receptus, these have a pronounced Alexandrian character. Standard critical editions are those of Souter, Vogels, Bover, Merk, and Nestle-Aland (the text, though not the full critical apparatus of which is reproduced in the United Bible Societies' \"Greek New Testament\").\n\nNotable translations of the New Testament based on these most recent critical editions include the Revised Standard Version (1946, revised in 1971), La Bible de Jérusalem (1961, revised in 1973 and 2000), the Einheitsübersetzung (1970, final edition 1979), the New American Bible (1970, revised in 1986), the Traduction Oecuménique de la Bible (1988, revised in 2004), and the New Revised Standard Version (1989).\n\nTheological interpretation in Christian churches\n\nThough all Christian churches accept the New Testament as Scripture, they differ in their understanding of the nature, extent, and relevance of its authority. Views of the authoritativeness of the New Testament often depend on the concept of inspiration, which relates to the role of God in the formation of the New Testament. Generally, the greater the role of God in one's doctrine of inspiration, the more one accepts the doctrine of biblical inerrancy and/or authoritativeness of the Bible. One possible source of confusion is that these terms are difficult to define, because many people use them interchangeably or with very different meanings. This article will use the terms in the following manner:\nInfallibility relates to the absolute correctness of the Bible in matters of doctrine.\nInerrancy relates to the absolute correctness of the Bible in factual assertions (including historical and scientific assertions).\nAuthoritativeness relates to the correctness of the Bible in questions of practice in morality.\n\nAll of these concepts depend for their meaning on the supposition that the text of Bible has been properly interpreted, with consideration for the intention of the text, whether literal history, allegory or poetry, etc. Especially the doctrine of inerrancy is variously understood according to the weight given by the interpreter to scientific investigations of the world.\n\nUnity in diversity\n\nThe notion of unity in diversity of Scripture claims that the Bible presents a noncontradictory and consistent message concerning God and redemptive history. The fact of diversity is observed in comparing the diversity of time, culture, authors' perspectives, literary genre, and the theological themes.\n\nStudies from many theologians considering the \"unity in diversity\" to be found in the New Testament (and the Bible as a whole) have been collected and summarized by New Testament theologian Frank Stagg. He describes them as some basic presuppositions, tenets, and concerns common among the New Testament writers, giving to the New Testament its \"unity in diversity\":\n#The reality of God is never argued but is always assumed and affirmed\n#Jesus Christ is absolutely central: he is Lord and Savior, the foretold Prophet, the Messianic King, the Chosen, the way, the truth, and the light, the One through whom God the Father not only acted but through whom He came\n#The Holy Spirit came anew with Jesus Christ.\n#The Christian faith and life are a calling, rooted in divine election.\n#The plight of everyone as sinner means that each person is completely dependent upon the mercy and grace of God\n#Salvation is both God's gift and his demand through Jesus Christ, to be received by faith\n#The death and resurrection of Jesus are at the heart of the total event of which he was the center\n#God creates a people of his own, designated and described by varied terminology and analogies\n#History must be understood eschatologically, being brought along toward its ultimate goal when the kingdom of God, already present in Christ, is brought to its complete triumph\n#In Christ, all of God's work of creation, revelation, and redemption is brought to fulfillmentStagg, Frank (1962). New Testament Theology. Broadman. ISBN 0-8054-1613-7.\n\nRoman Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy, and Classical Anglicanism\n\nFor the Roman Catholic Church, there are two modes of Revelation: Scripture and Tradition. Both of them are interpreted by the teachings of the Church. The Roman Catholic view is expressed clearly in the Catechism of the Catholic Church (1997):\n\n§ 82: As a result the Church, to whom the transmission and interpretation of Revelation is entrusted, does not derive her certainty about all revealed truths from the holy Scriptures alone. Both Scripture and Tradition must be accepted and honoured with equal sentiments of devotion and reverence.\n\n§ 107: The inspired books teach the truth. Since therefore all that the inspired authors or sacred writers affirm should be regarded as affirmed by the Holy Spirit, we must acknowledge that the books of Scripture firmly, faithfully, and without error teach that truth which God, for the sake of our salvation, wished to see confided to the Sacred Scriptures.\nIn Catholic terminology the teaching office is called the Magisterium. The Catholic view should not be confused with the two-source theory. As the Catechism states in §§ 80 and 81, Revelation has \"one common source ... two distinct modes of transmission.\" \n\nWhile many Eastern Orthodox writers distinguish between Scripture and Tradition, Bishop Kallistos Ware says that for the Orthodox there is only one source of the Christian faith, Holy Tradition, within which Scripture exists. \n\nTraditional Anglicans believe that \"Holy Scripture containeth all things necessary to salvation,\" (Article VI), but also that the Catholic Creeds \"ought thoroughly to be received and believed\" (Article VIII), and that the Church \"hath authority in Controversies of Faith\" and is \"a witness and keeper of Holy Writ\" (Article XX). Classical Anglicanism, therefore, like Orthodoxy, holds that Holy Tradition is the only safe guardian against perversion and innovation in the interpretation of Scripture.\n\nIn the famous words of Thomas Ken, Bishop of Bath and Wells: \"As for my religion, I dye in the holy catholic and apostolic faith professed by the whole Church before the disunion of East and West, more particularly in the communion of the Church of England, as it stands distinguished from all Papal and Puritan innovations, and as it adheres to the doctrine of the Cross.\"\n\nProtestantism\n\nFollowing the doctrine of sola scriptura, Protestants believe that their traditions of faith, practice and interpretations carry forward what the scriptures teach, and so tradition is not a source of authority in itself. Their traditions derive authority from the Bible, and are therefore always open to reëvaluation. This openness to doctrinal revision has extended in Liberal Protestant traditions even to the reevaluation of the doctrine of Scripture upon which the Reformation was founded, and members of these traditions may even question whether the Bible is infallible in doctrine, inerrant in historical and other factual statements, and whether it has uniquely divine authority. However, the adjustments made by modern Protestants to their doctrine of scripture vary widely.\n\nAmerican evangelical and fundamentalist Protestantism\n\nWithin the US, the Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy (1978) is a statement, articulating evangelical views on this issue. Paragraph four of its summary states: \"Being wholly and verbally God-given, Scripture is without error or fault in all its teaching, no less in what it states about God's acts in creation, about the events of world history, and about its own literary origins under God, than in its witness to God's saving grace in individual lives.\" \n\nAmerican mainline and liberal Protestantism\n\nMainline American Protestant denominations, including the United Methodist Church, Presbyterian Church USA, The Episcopal Church, and Evangelical Lutheran Church in America, do not teach the doctrine of inerrancy as set forth in the Chicago Statement. All of these churches have more ancient doctrinal statements asserting the authority of scripture, but may interpret these statements in such a way as to allow for a very broad range of teaching—from evangelicalism to skepticism. It is not an impediment to ordination in these denominations to teach that the scriptures contain errors, or that the authors follow a more or less unenlightened ethics that, however appropriate it may have seemed in the authors' time, moderns would be very wrong to follow blindly.\n\nFor example, ordination of women is universally accepted in the mainline churches, abortion is condemned as a grievous social tragedy but not always a personal sin or a crime against an unborn person, and homosexuality is sometimes recognized as a genetic propensity or morally neutral preference that should be neither encouraged nor condemned. In North America, the most contentious of these issues among these churches at the present time is how far the ordination of gay men and lesbians should be accepted.\n\nOfficials of the Presbyterian Church USA report: \"We acknowledge the role of scriptural authority in the Presbyterian Church, but Presbyterians generally do not believe in biblical inerrancy. Presbyterians do not insist that every detail of chronology or sequence or prescientific description in scripture be true in literal form. Our confessions do teach biblical infallibility. Infallibility affirms the entire truthfulness of scripture without depending on every exact detail.\" \n\nThose who hold a more liberal view of the Bible as a human witness to the glory of God, the work of fallible humans who wrote from a limited experience unusual only for the insight they have gained through their inspired struggle to know God in the midst of a troubled world. Therefore, they tend not to accept such doctrines as inerrancy. These churches also tend to retain the social activism of their evangelical forebears of the 19th century, placing particular emphasis on those teachings of scripture that teach compassion for the poor and concern for social justice.\n\nThe message of personal salvation is, generally speaking, of the good that comes to oneself and the world through following the New Testament's Golden Rule admonition to love others without hypocrisy or prejudice. Toward these ends, the \"spirit\" of the New Testament, more than the letter, is infallible and authoritative.\n\nThere are some movements that believe the Bible contains the teachings of Jesus but who reject the churches that were formed following its publication. These people believe all individuals can communicate directly with God and therefore do not need guidance or doctrines from a church. These people are known as Christian anarchists.\n\nMessianic Judaism\n\nMessianic Judaism generally holds the same view of New Testament authority as evangelical Protestants.\n According to the view of some Messianic Jewish congregations, Jesus did not annul the Torah, but that its interpretation is revised and ultimately explained through the Apostolic Scriptures.\n\nJehovah's Witnesses\n\nThe Christian Congregation of Jehovah's Witnesses accepts the New Testament as divinely inspired Scripture, and as infallible in every detail, with equal authority as the Hebrew Scriptures. They view it as the written revelation and good news of the Messiah, the ransom sacrifice of Jesus, and the Kingdom of God, explaining and expounding the Hebrew Bible, not replacing but vitally supplementing it. They also view the New Testament as the primary instruction guide for Christian living, and church discipline. They generally call the New Testament the \"Christian Greek Scriptures\", and see only the \"covenants\" as \"old\" or \"new\", but not any part of the actual Scriptures themselves. \n\nUnited Pentecostals\n\nOneness Pentecostalism subscribes to the common Protestant doctrine of sola scriptura. They view the Bible as the inspired Word of God, and as absolutely inerrant in its contents (though not necessarily in every translation). They regard the New Testament as perfect and inerrant in every way, revealing the Lord Jesus Christ in the Flesh, and his Atonement, and which also explains and illuminates the Old Testament perfectly, and is part of the Bible canon, not because church councils or decrees claimed it so, but by witness of the Holy Spirit. \n\nSeventh-Day Adventists\n\nThe Seventh-day Adventist Church holds the New Testament as the inspired Word of God, with God influencing the \"thoughts\" of the Apostles in the writing, not necessarily every word though. The first fundamental belief of the Seventh-Day Adventist church stated that \"The Holy Scriptures are the infallible revelation of [God's] will.\" Adventist theologians generally reject the \"verbal inspiration\" position on Scripture held by many conservative evangelical Christians. They believe instead that God inspired the thoughts of the biblical authors and apostles, and that the writers then expressed these thoughts in their own words. This view is popularly known as \"thought inspiration\", and most Adventist members hold to that view. According to Ed Christian, former JATS editor, \"few if any ATS members believe in verbal inerrancy\". \n\nRegarding the teachings of the New Testament compared to the Old, and the application in the New Covenant, Adventists have traditionally taught that the Decalogue is part of the moral law of God, which was not abrogated by the ministry and death of Jesus Christ. Therefore, the fourth commandment concerning the Sabbath is as applicable to Christian believers as the other nine. Adventists have often taught a distinction between \"moral law\" and \"ceremonial law\". According to Adventist beliefs, the moral law continues into the \"New Testament era\", but the ceremonial law was done away with by Jesus.\n\nHow the Mosaic law should be applied came up at Adventist conferences in the past, and Adventist theologians such as A. T. Jones and E. J. Waggoner looked at the problem addressed by Paul in Galatians as not the ceremonial law, but rather the wrong use of the law (legalism). They were opposed by Uriah Smith and George Butler at the 1888 Conference. Smith in particular thought the Galatians issue had been settled by Ellen White already, yet in 1890 she claimed justification by faith is \"the third angel’s message in verity.\"\n\nEllen White interpreted as saying that the ceremonial law was nailed to the cross. \n\nLatter-day Saints\n\nMembers of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) believe that the New Testament, as part of the Christian biblical canon, is accurate \"as far as it is translated correctly\". They believe the Bible as originally revealed is the word of God, but that the processes of transcription and translation have introduced errors into the texts as currently available, and therefore they cannot be regarded as completely inerrant. In addition to the Old and New Testaments, the Book of Mormon, the Doctrine and Covenants and the Pearl of Great Price are considered part of their scriptural canon. \n\nIn the liturgy\n\n Despite the wide variety among Christian liturgies, texts from the New Testament play a role in almost all forms of Christian worship. In addition to some language derived from the New Testament in the liturgy itself (e.g., the Trisagion may be based on Apocalypse 4:8, and the beginning of the \"Hymn of Praise\" draws upon Luke 2:14), the reading of extended passages from the New Testament is a practice common to almost all Christian worship, liturgical or not.\n\nThese readings are most often part of an established lectionary (i.e., selected texts to be read at church services on specific days), and (together with an Old Testament reading and a Psalm) include a non-gospel reading from the New Testament and culminate with a Gospel reading. No readings from the Book of Revelation, however, are included in the standard lectionary of the Eastern Orthodox churches.\n\nCentral to the Christian liturgy is the celebration of the Eucharist or \"Holy Communion\". The Words of Institution that begin this rite are drawn directly from 1 Corinthians 11:23–26. In addition, the communal recitation of the Lord's Prayer (in the form found in the Gospel of Matthew 6:9–13) is also a standard feature of Christian worship.\n\nIn the arts\n\n Most of the influence of the New Testament upon the arts has come from the Gospels and the Book of Revelation. Literary expansion of the Nativity of Jesus found in the Gospels of Matthew and Luke began already in the 2nd century, and the portrayal of the Nativity has continued in various art forms to this day. The earliest Christian art would often depict scenes from the New Testament such as the raising of Lazarus, the baptism of Jesus or the motif of the Good Shepherd.\n\nBiblical paraphrases and poetic renditions of stories from the life of Christ (e.g., the Heliand) became popular in the middle ages, as did the portrayal of the arrest, trial and execution of Jesus in Passion plays. Indeed, the Passion became a central theme in Christian art and music. The ministry and Passion of Jesus, as portrayed in one or more of the New Testament Gospels, has also been a theme in film, almost since the inception of the medium (e.g., \"La Passion\", France, 1903).", "The mainstream consensus is that the New Testament was written in a form of Koine Greek, which was the common language of the Eastern Mediterranean from the Conquests of Alexander the Great (335–323 BC) until the evolution of Byzantine Greek (c. 600).\n\nThe Hellenistic Jewish world\n\nThe New Testament Gospels and Epistles were only part of a Hellenistic Jewish culture in the Roman Empire, where Alexandria had a larger Jewish population than Jerusalem, and Greek was spoken by more Jews than Hebrew. Other Jewish Hellenistic writings include those of Jason of Cyrene, Josephus, Philo, Demetrius the chronographer, Eupolemus, Pseudo-Eupolemus, Artapanus of Alexandria, Cleodemus Malchus, Aristeas, Pseudo-Hecataeus, Thallus, and Justus of Tiberias, Pseudo-Philo, many Old Testament Pseudepigrapha and the Septuagint translation of the Hebrew Bible itself.\n\nBackground on Koine Greek\n\nWhereas the Classical Greek city states used different dialects of Greek, a common standard, called Koine ( \"common\"), developed gradually in the 4th and 3rd centuries BC as a consequence of the formation of larger political structures (like the Greek colonies, Athenian Empire, and the Macedonian Empire) and a more intense cultural exchange in the Aegean area, or in other words the Hellenization of the empire of Alexander the Great.\n\nIn the Greek Dark Ages and the Archaic Period, Greek colonies were founded all over the Mediterranean basin. However, even though Greek goods were popular in the East, the cultural influence tended to work the other way around. Yet, with the conquests of Alexander the Great (333-323 BC) and the subsequent establishment of Hellenistic kingdoms (above all, the Seleucid Empire and Ptolemaic Kingdom), Koine Greek became the dominant language in politics, culture and commerce in the Near East.\n\nDuring the following centuries, Rome conquered Greece and the Macedonian Kingdoms piece for piece until, with the conquest of Egypt in 30 BC, she held all land around the Mediterranean. However, as Horace gently puts it: \"Conquered Greece has conquered the brute victor and brought her arts into rustic Latium\" (Graecia capta ferum victorem cepit et artis intulit agresti Latio. ) Roman art and literature were calqued upon Hellenistic models.\n\nKoine Greek remained the dominant language in the eastern part of the Roman Empire, extending into the Byzantine Empire as Byzantine Greek. In the city of Rome, Koine Greek was in widespread use among ordinary people, and the elite spoke and wrote Greek as fluently as Latin. Jewish Koine Greek did not exist as a separate dialect, but some Jewish texts in Koine Greek do show the influence of Aramaic in syntax and the influence of Biblical background in vocabulary.\n\nLanguages used in ancient Judea\n\nAfter the Babylonian captivity, Aramaic replaced Biblical Hebrew as the everyday language in Palestine. The two languages were as similar as two Romance languages or two Germanic languages today. Thus Biblical Hebrew, which was still used for religious purposes, was not totally unfamiliar, but still a somewhat strange norm that demanded a certain degree of training to be understood properly.\n\nAfter Alexander, Palestine was ruled by the Ptolemies and the Seleucids for almost two hundred years. Jewish culture was heavily influenced by Hellenistic culture, and Koine Greek was used not only for international communication, but also as the first language of many Jews. This development was furthered by the fact that the largest Jewish community of the world lived in Ptolemaic Alexandria. Many of these diaspora Jews would have Greek as their first language, and first the Torah and then other Jewish scriptures (later the Christian \"Old Testament\") were therefore translated into standard Koine Greek, i.e. the Septuagint.\n\nCurrently, 1,600 Jewish epitaphs (funerary inscriptions) are extant from ancient Palestine dating from 300 B.C. to 500 A.D. Approximately 70 percent are in Greek, about 12 percent are in Latin, and only 18 percent are in Hebrew or Aramaic. \"In Jerusalem itself about 40 percent of the Jewish inscriptions from the first century period (before 70 C.E.) are in Greek. We may assume that most Jewish Jerusalemites who saw the inscriptions in situ were able to read them\". \n\nThe language of the New Testament \n\nMost biblical scholars adhere to the view that the Greek text of the New Testament is the original version. However, there does exist an alternative view which maintains that it is a translation from an Aramaic original, a position known as Peshitta Primacy (also known in primarily non-scholarly circles as \"Aramaic primacy\"). Although this view has its adherents, the vast majority of scholars dispute this position citing linguistic, historical, and textual inconsistencies. At any rate, since most of the texts are written by diaspora Jews such as Paul of Tarsus and his possibly Gentile companion, Luke, and to a large extent addressed directly to Christian communities in Greek-speaking cities (often communities consisting largely of Paul's converts, which appear to have been non-Jewish in the majority), and since the style of their Greek is impeccable, a Greek original is more probable than a translation.\n\nEven Mark, whose Greek is heavily influenced by his Semitic substratum, seems to presuppose a non-Hebrew audience. Thus, he explains Jewish customs (e.g. , see also Mark 7), and he translates Aramaic phrases into Greek (: boanerges; : talitha kum; : ephphatha; : abba; : Golgotha; , see also Aramaic of Jesus and Sayings of Jesus on the cross). In the Aramaic Syriac version of the Bible, these translations are preserved, resulting in odd texts like Mark 15:34:\n\n* Greek text \n* Syriac text (with rough transliteration) \n* King James \"And at the ninth hour Jesus cried with a loud voice, saying, Eloi, Eloi, lama sabachthani? which is, being interpreted, My God, my God, why hast thou forsaken me?\"\n\nIn the Peshitta:\n* Mark 7:34 does not contain the doubled-up meaning.\n* Mark 15:34 has two versions of the same expression: the former in Jesus's spoken dialect, the latter in another dialect.\n\nLanguages of Jesus\n\nThe languages spoken in Galilee and Judea during the first century include the Semitic Aramaic and Hebrew languages as well as Greek, with Aramaic being the predominant language.James Barr, Which language did Jesus speak, Bulletin of the John Rylands University Library of Manchester, 1970; 53(1) pages 9-29 [https://www.escholar.manchester.ac.uk/uk-ac-man-scw:1m2973]Handbook to exegesis of the New Testament by Stanley E. Porter 1997 ISBN 90-04-09921-2 pages 110-112 Most scholars agree that during the early part of first century Aramaic was the mother tongue of virtually all natives of Galilee and Judea.Discovering the language of Jesus by Douglas Hamp 2005 ISBN 1-59751-017-3 page 3-4 Most scholars support the theory that Jesus spoke Aramaic and that he may have also spoken Hebrew and Greek. Stanley E. Porter concluded: \"The linguistic environment of Roman Palestine during the first century was much more complex, and allows for the possibility that Jesus himself may well have spoken Greek on occasion.\" \n\nOther views\n\nCritics of the mainstream consensus in favour of Greek being the original language of the New Testament claim logical improbabilities in the Greek Text compared to the Syriac/Hebrew Texts and vocabulary containing wordplay in the Syriac/Hebrew New Testament texts that parallels Hebraic wordplay in the Old Testament." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "In Greek" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "in greek" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "in greek", "type": "FreeForm", "value": "In Greek" }
Who were the parents of King Solomon?	tc_474	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Solomon.txt" ], "title": [ "Solomon" ], "wiki_context": [ "Solomon (; ISO 259-3 Šlomo; Shlemun; ', also colloquially: ' or '; Solomōn; ), also called Jedidiah (Hebrew ), was, according to the Bible (Book of Kings: 1 Kings 1–11; Book of Chronicles: 1 Chronicles 28–29, 2 Chronicles 1–9), Qur'an, and Hidden Words a fabulously wealthy and wise king of Israel and a son of David, the previous king of Israel. The conventional dates of Solomon's reign are circa 970 to 931 BC, normally given in alignment with the dates of David's reign. He is described as the third king of the United Monarchy, which would break apart into the northern Kingdom of Israel and the southern Kingdom of Judah shortly after his death. Following the split, his patrilineal descendants ruled over Judah alone.\n\nAccording to the Talmud, Solomon is one of the 48 prophets. In the Qur'an, he is considered a major prophet, and Muslims generally refer to him by the Arabic variant Sulayman, son of David. Solomon (Arabic سليمان Sulaymān) was, according to the Qur'an, a king of ancient Israel as well as the son of David. The Qur'an recognizes Solomon as a prophet and a divinely-appointed monarch. Islamic tradition generally holds that Solomon was the third king of Israel and was a just and wise ruler for the nation. \n\nThe Hebrew Bible credits him as the builder of the First Temple in Jerusalem. It portrays him as great in wisdom, wealth, and power beyond any of the previous kings of the country, but ultimately as a human king who sinned. His sins included idolatry and turning away from Yahweh, and led to the kingdom's being torn in two during the reign of his son Rehoboam. Solomon is the subject of many other later references and legends, most notably in the 1st-century apocryphal work known as the Testament of Solomon. In later years, in mostly non-biblical circles, Solomon also came to be known as a magician and an exorcist, with numerous amulets and medallion seals dating from the Hellenistic period invoking his name. \n\nBiblical account\n\nChildhood\n\nSolomon was born in Jerusalem, the second born child to David and his wife Bathsheba, widow of Uriah the Hittite. The first child (unnamed in that account), a son conceived adulterously during Uriah's lifetime, had died before Solomon was conceived as a punishment by Yahweh on account of the death of Uriah by David's order. Solomon had three named full brothers through Bathsheba, Nathan, Shammua, and Shobab, besides six known older half-brothers through as many mothers. \n\nSuccession and administration\n\nAccording to the First Book of Kings, when David was old, \"he could not get warm.\" \"So they sought a beautiful young woman throughout all the territory of Israel, and found Abishag the Shunammite, and brought her to the king. The young woman was very beautiful, and she was of service to the king and attended to him, but the king knew her not.\"\n\nWhile David was in this state, court factions were maneuvering for power. David's heir apparent, Adonijah, acted to have himself declared king, but was outmaneuvered by Bathsheba and the prophet Nathan, who convinced David to proclaim Solomon king according to his earlier promise, despite Solomon being younger than his brothers.\n\nSolomon, as instructed by David, began his reign with an extensive purge, including his father's chief general, Joab, among others, and further consolidated his position by appointing friends throughout the administration, including in religious positions as well as in civic and military posts.\n\nSolomon greatly expanded his military strength, especially the cavalry and chariot arms. He founded numerous colonies, some of which doubled as trading posts and military outposts.\n\nTrade relationships were a focus of his administration. In particular he continued his father's very profitable relationship with the Phoenician king Hiram of Tyre (see 'wealth' below); they sent out joint expeditions to the lands of Tarshish and Ophir to engage in the trade of luxury products, importing gold, silver, sandalwood, pearls, ivory, apes and peacocks. Solomon is considered the most wealthy of the Israelite kings named in the Bible.\nSolomon also built the First Temple, beginning in the fourth year of his reign, using the vast wealth he has accumulated.\n\nWisdom\n\nSolomon was the Biblical king most famous for his wisdom. In 1 Kings he sacrificed to God and prayed for wisdom. God personally answered his prayer, promising him great wisdom because he did not ask for self-serving rewards like long life or the death of his enemies.\nPerhaps the best known story of his wisdom is the Judgment of Solomon; two women each lay claim to being the mother of the same child. Solomon easily cut through the dispute by commanding the child to be cut in half and shared between the two. One woman promptly renounced her claim, proving that she would rather give up the child than see it killed. Solomon declared the woman who showed compassion to be the true mother, entitled to the whole child.\n\nSolomon was traditionally considered the author of several Biblical books, \"including not only the collections of Proverbs, but also of Ecclesiastes and the Song of Solomon and the later apocryphal book the Wisdom of Solomon.\"\n\nWives and concubines\n\nAccording to the Bible, Solomon had 700 wives and 300 concubines. The wives were described as foreign princesses, including Pharaoh's daughter and women of Moab, Ammon, Sidon and of the Hittites. The only wife mentioned by name is Naamah the Ammonite, mother of Solomon's successor, Rehoboam. The Biblical narrative notes with disapproval that Solomon permitted his foreign wives to import their national deities, building temples to Ashtoreth and Milcom.\n\nRelationship with Queen of Sheba\n\nIn a brief, unelaborated, and enigmatic passage, the Hebrew Bible describes how the fame of Solomon's wisdom and wealth spread far and wide, so much so that the queen of Sheba decided that she should meet him. The queen is described as visiting with a number of gifts including gold, spices and precious stones. When Solomon gave her \"all her desire, whatsoever she asked,\" she left satisfied ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search1+Kings+10%3A10&version\nNIV 1 Kings 10:10]).\n\nWhether the passage is simply to provide a brief token, foreign witness of Solomon's wealth and wisdom, or whether there is meant to be something more significant to the queen's visit is unknown; nevertheless the visit of the Queen of Sheba has become the subject of numerous stories.\n\nSheba is typically identified as Saba, a nation once spanning the Red Sea on the coasts of what are now Eritrea, Somalia, Ethiopia and Yemen, in Arabia Felix. In a Rabbinical account (e.g., Targum Sheni), Solomon was accustomed to ordering the living creatures of the world to dance before him (Rabbinical accounts say that Solomon had been given control over all living things by Yahweh), but one day upon discovering that the mountain-cock or hoopoe (Aramaic name: nagar tura) was absent, he summoned it to him, and the bird told him that it had been searching for somewhere new (see: Colloquy of the Queen of Sheba).\n\nThe bird had discovered a land in the east, exceedingly rich in gold, silver, and plants, whose capital was called Kitor and whose ruler was the Queen of Sheba, and the bird, on its own advice, was sent by Solomon to request the queen's immediate attendance at Solomon's court.\n\nAn Ethiopian account from the 14th century (Kebra Nagast) maintains that the Queen of Sheba had sexual relations with King Solomon and gave birth by the Mai Bella stream in the province of Hamasien, Eritrea. The Ethiopian tradition has a detailed account of the affair. The child was a son who went on to become Menelik I, King of Axum, and founded a dynasty that would reign as the first Jewish, then Christian Empire of Ethiopia for 2,900+ years (less one usurpation episode, an interval of c. 133 years until a legitimate male heir regained the crown) until Haile Selassie was overthrown in 1974. Menelik was said to be a practicing Jew who was given a replica of the Ark of the Covenant by King Solomon; and, moreover, that the original was switched and went to Axum with him and his mother, and is still there, guarded by a single priest charged with caring for the artifact as his life's task.\n\nThe claim of such a lineage and of possession of the Ark has been an important source of legitimacy and prestige for the Ethiopian monarchy throughout the many centuries of its existence, and had important and lasting effects on Ethiopian culture as a whole. The Ethiopian government and church deny all requests to view the alleged ark.\n\nSome classical-era Rabbis, attacking Solomon's moral character, have claimed instead that the child was an ancestor of Nebuchadnezzar II, who destroyed Solomon's temple some 300 years later.\n\nSins and punishment\n\nAccording to Solomon's \"wives turned his heart after other gods\", their own national deities, to whom Solomon built temples, thus incurring divine anger and retribution in the form of the division of the kingdom after Solomon's death ().\n describes Solomon's descent into idolatry, particularly his turning after Ashtoreth, the goddess of the Sidonians, and after Milcom, the abomination of the Ammonites. In , a king is commanded not to multiply horses or wives, neither greatly multiply to himself gold or silver. Solomon sins in all three of these areas. Solomon collects 666 talents of gold each year (), a huge amount of money for a small nation like Israel. Solomon gathers a large number of horses and chariots and even brings in horses from Egypt. Just as warns, collecting horses and chariots takes Israel back to Egypt. Finally, Solomon marries foreign women, and these women turn Solomon to other gods.\n\nAccording to , it was because of these sins that \"the Lord punishes Solomon by removing 10 of the 12 Tribes of Israel from the Israelites. \n\nEnemies\n\nNear the end of his life, Solomon was forced to contend with several enemies, including Hadad of Edom, Rezon of Zobah, and one of his officials named Jeroboam who was from the tribe of Ephraim.\n\nDeath, succession of Rehoboam, and kingdom division\n\nAccording to the Hebrew Bible, Solomon is the last ruler of a united Kingdom of Israel. He dies of natural causes at around 80 years of age. Upon Solomon's death, his son, Rehoboam, succeeds him. However, ten of the Tribes of Israel refuse to accept him as king, splitting the United Monarchy in the northern Kingdom of Israel under Jeroboam, while Rehoboam continues to reign over the much smaller southern Kingdom of Judah. Henceforth the two kingdoms are never again united.\n\nJewish scriptures\n\nKing Solomon is one of the central Biblical figures in Jewish heritage that have lasting religious, national and political aspects. As the builder of the First Temple in Jerusalem and last ruler of the united Kingdom of Israel before its division into the northern Kingdom of Israel and the southern Kingdom of Judah, Solomon is associated with the peak \"golden age\" of the independent Kingdom of Israel as well as a source of judicial and religious wisdom. According to Jewish tradition, King Solomon wrote three books of the Bible:\n* Mishlei (Book of Proverbs), a collection of fables and wisdom of life\n* Kohelet (Ecclesiastes), a book of contemplation and his self-reflection.\n* Shir ha-Shirim (Song of Songs), an unusual collection of poetry interspersed with verse, whose interpretation is either literal (i.e., a romantic and sexual relationship between a man and a woman) or metaphorical (a relationship between God and his people).\n\nThe Hebrew word \"To Solomon\" (which can also be translated as \"by Solomon\") appears in the title of two hymns in the book of Psalms (Tehillim), suggesting to some that Solomon wrote them.\n\nApocryphal texts\n\nRabbinical tradition attributes the Wisdom of Solomon to Solomon, although this book was probably written in the 2nd century BC. In this work, Solomon is portrayed as an astronomer. Other books of wisdom poetry such as the Odes of Solomon and the Psalms of Solomon also bear his name. The Jewish historian Eupolemus, who wrote about 157 BC, included copies of apocryphal letters exchanged between Solomon and the kings of Egypt and Tyre.\n\nThe Gnostic Apocalypse of Adam, which may date to the 1st or 2nd century, refers to a legend in which Solomon sends out an army of demons to seek a virgin who had fled from him, perhaps the earliest surviving mention of the later common tale that Solomon controlled demons and made them his slaves. This tradition of Solomon's control over demons appears fully elaborated in the early pseudographical work called the Testament of Solomon with its elaborate and grotesque demonology. \n\nHistoricity\n\nHistorical evidence of King Solomon other than the biblical accounts has been so minimal that some scholars have understood the period of his reign as a 'Dark Age' (Muhly 1998). Josephus in Against Apion, citing Tyrian court records and Menander, gives a specific year during which King Hiram I of Tyre sent materials to Solomon for the construction of the temple. However, no material evidence indisputably of Solomon's reign has been found. Yigael Yadin's excavations at Hazor, Megiddo, Beit Shean and Gezer uncovered structures that he and others have argued date from his reign, but others, such as Israel Finkelstein and Neil Silberman, argue that they should be dated to the Omride period, more than a century after Solomon.\n\nAccording to Finkelstein and Silberman, authors of The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Its Sacred Texts, at the time of the kingdoms of David and Solomon, Jerusalem was populated by only a few hundred residents or less, which is insufficient for an empire stretching from the Euphrates to Eilath. According to The Bible Unearthed, archaeological evidence suggests that the kingdom of Israel at the time of Solomon was little more than a small city state, and so it is implausible that Solomon received tribute as large as 666 talents of gold per year. Although both Finkelstein and Silberman accept that David and Solomon were real inhabitants of Judah about the 10th century BC, they claim that the earliest independent reference to the Kingdom of Israel is about 890 BC, and for Judah about 750 BC. They suggest that because of religious prejudice, the authors of the Bible suppressed the achievements of the Omrides (whom the Hebrew Bible describes as being polytheist), and instead pushed them back to a supposed golden age of Judaism and monotheists, and devotees of Yahweh. Some Biblical minimalists like Thomas L. Thompson go further, arguing that Jerusalem became a city and capable of being a state capital only in the mid-7th century. Likewise, Finkelstein and others consider the claimed size of Solomon's temple implausible.\n\nThese views are criticized by William G. Dever, and André Lemaire, among others. Lemaire states in Ancient Israel: From Abraham to the Roman Destruction of the Temple that the principal points of the biblical tradition of Solomon are generally trustworthy, although elsewhere he writes that he could find no substantiating archaeological evidence that supports the Queen of Sheba’s visit to king Solomon, saying that the earliest records of trans-Arabian caravan voyages from Tayma and Sheba unto the Middle-Euphrates &c. occurred in the mid-8th century BCE, placing a possible visit from the Queen of Sheba to Jerusalem around this time – some 250 years later than the timeframe traditionally given for king Solomon’s reign. Kenneth Kitchen argues that Solomon ruled over a comparatively wealthy \"mini-empire\", rather than a small city-state, and considers 666 gold talents a modest amount of money. Kitchen calculates that over 30 years, such a kingdom might have accumulated up to 500 tons of gold, which is small compared to other examples, such as the 1,180 tons of gold that Alexander the Great took from Susa. Similarly Kitchen and others consider the temple of Solomon a reasonable and typically sized structure for the region at the time. Dever states \"that we now have direct Bronze and Iron Age parallels for every feature of the 'Solomonic temple' as described in the Hebrew Bible\". \n\nThe archaeological remains that are considered to date from the time of Solomon are notable for the fact that Canaanite material culture appears to have continued unabated; there is a distinct lack of magnificent empire, or cultural development – indeed comparing pottery from areas traditionally assigned to Israel with that of the Philistines points to the Philistines having been significantly more sophisticated. However, there is a lack of physical evidence of its existence, despite some archaeological work in the area. This is not unexpected because the area was devastated by the Babylonians, then rebuilt and destroyed several times. Little archaeological excavation has been done around the area known as the Temple Mount, in what is thought to be the foundation of Solomon's Temple, because attempts to do so are met with protest by Muslims. \n\nFrom a critical point of view, Solomon's building of a temple for Yahweh should not be considered an act of particular devotion to Yahweh because Solomon is also described as building places of worship for a number of other deities. Some scholars and historians argue that Solomon's apparent initial devotion to Yahweh, described in passages such as his dedication prayer (), were written much later, after Jerusalem had become the religious centre of the kingdom, replacing locations such as Shiloh and Bethel. Some scholars believe that passages such as these in the Books of Kings were not written by the same authors who wrote the rest of the text, instead probably by the Deuteronomist. Such views have been challenged by other historians who maintain that there is evidence that these passages in Kings are derived from official court records at the time of Solomon and from other writings of that time that were incorporated into the canonical books of Kings. \n\nThe biblical passages that understand Tarshish as a source of King Solomon's great wealth in metals - especially silver, but also gold, tin and iron (Ezekiel 27 - were linked to archaeological evidence from silver-hoards found in Phoenicia in 2013. The metals from Tarshish were reportedly obtained by Solomon in partnership with King Hiram of Phoenician Tyre (Isaiah 23), and the fleets of Tarshish-ships that sailed in their service, and the silver-hoards provide the first recognized material evidence that agrees with the ancient texts concerning Solomon's kingdom and his wealth (see 'wealth' below).\n\nPossible evidence for the described wealth of Solomon and his kingdom was discovered in ancient silver-hoards, which were found in Israel and Phoenicia and recognized for their importance in 2003. The evidence from the hoards shows that the Levant was a center of wealth in precious metals during the reign of Solomon and Hiram, and matches the texts that say the trade extended from Asia to the Atlantic Ocean. \n\nChronology\n\nThe conventional dates of Solomon's reign derived from biblical chronology are from c. 976 to 931 BC. Regarding the Davidic dynasty to which King Solomon belongs, its chronology can be checked against datable Babylonian and Assyrian records at a few points, and these correspondences have allowed archeologists to date its kings in a modern framework. According to the most widely used chronology, based on that by Edwin R. Thiele, the death of Solomon and the division of his kingdom would have occurred in the spring of 931 BC.\n\nWealth\n\nAccording to the Hebrew Bible, the Israelite monarchy gained its highest splendour and wealth during Solomon's reign of 40 years. In a single year, according to , Solomon collected tribute amounting to 666 talents (39,960 pounds) of gold. Solomon is described as surrounding himself with all the luxuries and the grandeur of an Eastern monarch, and his government prospered. He entered into an alliance with Hiram I, king of Tyre, who in many ways greatly assisted him in his numerous undertakings.\n\nFor some years before his death, David was engaged in collecting materials for building a temple in Jerusalem as a permanent home for Yahweh and the Ark of the Covenant. Solomon is described as completing its construction, with the help of an architect, also named Hiram, and other materials, sent from King Hiram of Tyre.\n\nAfter the completion of the temple, Solomon is described as erecting many other buildings of importance in Jerusalem. For 13 years, he was engaged in the building of a royal palace on Ophel (a hilly promontory in central Jerusalem). Solomon also constructed great works for the purpose of securing a plentiful supply of water for the city, and the Millo (Septuagint, Acra) for the defense of the city. However, excavations of Jerusalem have shown a distinct lack of monumental architecture from the era, and remains of neither the Temple nor Solomon's palace have been found.\n\nSolomon is also described as rebuilding cities elsewhere in Israel, creating the port of Ezion-Geber, and constructing Palmyra in the wilderness as a commercial depot and military outpost. Although the location of the port of Ezion-Geber is known, no remains have ever been found. More archaeological success has been achieved with the major cities Solomon is said to have strengthened or rebuilt, for example, Hazor, Megiddo and Gezer. These all have substantial ancient remains, including impressive six-chambered gates, and ashlar palaces, however it is no longer the scholarly consensus that these structures date to the time, according to the Bible, when Solomon ruled.\n\nAccording to the Bible, during Solomon's reign, Israel enjoyed great commercial prosperity, with extensive traffic being carried on by land with Tyre, Egypt, and Arabia, and by sea with Tarshish, Ophir, and South India.\n\nReligious views\n\nJudaism\n\nKing Solomon sinned by acquiring many foreign wives and horses because he thought he knew the reason for the Biblical prohibition and thought it did not apply to him. When King Solomon married the daughter of the Egyptian Pharaoh, a sandbank formed which eventually formed the \"great nation of Rome\" – the nation that destroyed the Second Temple (Herod's Temple). Solomon gradually lost more and more prestige until he became like a commoner. Some say he regained his status while others say he did not. In the end however, he is regarded as a righteous king and is especially praised for his diligence in building the Temple. \n\nThe Seder Olam Rabba holds that Solomon's reign was not in 1000 BCE, but rather in the 9th century BCE, during which time he built the First Temple in 832 BCE. However, the 1906 Jewish Encyclopedia gives the more common date of \"971 to 931 B.C.\". \n\nChristianity\n\nChristianity has traditionally accepted the historical existence of Solomon, though some modern Christian scholars have also questioned at least his authorship of those biblical texts ascribed to him. Such disputes tend to divide Christians into traditionalist and modernist camps.\n\nOf the two genealogies of Jesus given in the Gospels, Matthew mentions Solomon, but Luke does not. Some commentators see this as an issue that can be reconciled while others disagree. For instance, it has been suggested that Luke is using Joseph's genealogy and Matthew is using Mary's, but Darrell Bock states that this would be unprecedented, \"especially when no other single woman appears in the line\". Other suggestions include the use by one of the royal and the other of the natural line, one using the legal line and the other the physical line, or that Joseph was adopted. \n\nJesus makes reference to Solomon, using him for comparison purposes in his admonition against worrying about your life. This account is recorded in Matthew 6:29 and the parallel passage in Luke 12:27\n\nIn the Eastern Orthodox Church, Solomon is commemorated as a saint, with the title of \"Righteous Prophet and King\". His feast day is celebrated on the Sunday of the Holy Forefathers (two Sundays before the Great Feast of the Nativity of the Lord).\n\nThe staunchly Catholic King Philip II of Spain sought to model himself after King Solomon. Statues of King David and Solomon stand on either side of the entrance to the basilica of El Escorial, Philip's palace, and Solomon is also depicted in a great fresco at the center of El Escorial's library. Philip identified the warrior-king David with his own father Charles V, and himself sought to emulate the thoughtful and logical character which he perceived in Solomon. Moreover, the structure of the Escorial was inspired by that of Solomon's Temple. \n\nIslam\n\nIn Islamic tradition, Solomon is venerated as a prophet and a messenger of God, as well as a divinely appointed monarch, who ruled over the Kingdom of Israel. As in Judaism, Islam recognizes Solomon as the son of King David, who is also considered a prophet and a king but contrary to Judaism, Islam completely denies the claim that Solomon had sinned or turned to idolatry.\n\n. \n\nQuran ascribes to Solomon a great level of wisdom, knowledge and power [http://quran.com/27/15-17 Quran 27/15–17] [http://quran.com/21/79-82 Quran 21/79–82]. According to Islamic holy scripture, he knew the language of the birds (Mantiq al-tayr) [http://quran.com/27/16 The Quran 27:16]. Solomon was also known in the Islam to have other supernatural abilities (bestowed upon him by God after a special request by Solomon himself) [http://quran.com/38/35-38 The Quran 38/35–38] such as controlling the wind, ruling over the Jinn, demons and one mention to the hearing of distant sounds manifested in Quran by ants' speech :\n\n (18–19:27). Islamic tradition attributes to Solomon the saying: \"The beginning of wisdom is the fear of God\" (ra's al-hikmah makhafat Allah).\n\nThe Qur'an mentions Solomon 17 times.\n\nBahá'í\n\nIn the Bahá'í Faith, Solomon is regarded as one of the lesser prophets along with David, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, along with others. Baha'is see Solomon as a prophet who was sent by God to address the issues of his time. Baha'ullah wrote about Solomon in the Hidden Words. He also mentions Solomon in the Tablet of Wisdom, where he is depicted as a contemporary of Pythagoras. \n\nLegends\n\nOne Thousand and One Nights\n\nA well-known story in the collection One Thousand and One Nights describes a genie who had displeased King Solomon and was punished by being locked in a bottle and thrown into the sea. Since the bottle was sealed with Solomon's seal, the genie was helpless to free himself, until freed many centuries later by a fisherman who discovered the bottle. In other stories from the One Thousand and One Nights, protagonists who had to leave their homeland and travel to the unknown places of the world saw signs which proved that Solomon had already been there. Sometimes, protagonists discovered words of Solomon that were intended to help those who were lost and had unluckily reached those forbidden and deserted places.\n\nAngels and magic\n\nAccording to the Rabbinical literature, on account of his modest request for wisdom only, Solomon was rewarded with riches and an unprecedented glorious realm, which extended over the upper world inhabited by the angels and over the whole of the terrestrial globe with all its inhabitants, including all the beasts, fowl, and reptiles, as well as the demons and spirits. His control over the demons, spirits, and animals augmented his splendor, the demons bringing him precious stones, besides water from distant countries to irrigate his exotic plants. The beasts and fowl of their own accord entered the kitchen of Solomon's palace, so that they might be used as food for him, and extravagant meals for him were prepared daily by each of his 700 wives and 300 concubines, with the thought that perhaps the king would feast that day in her house.\n\nSeal of Solomon\n\nA magic ring called the \"Seal of Solomon\" was supposedly given to Solomon and gave him power over demons or Jinn. The magical symbol said to have been on the Seal of Solomon which made it efficacious is often considered to be the Star of David though this emblem (also known as the Shield of David) is known to have been associated with Judaism only as recently as the 11th century CE while the five pointed star (pentagram) can be found on jars and other artifacts from Jerusalem dating back to at least the 2nd and 4th centuries BC and is more likely to have been the emblem found on the ring purportedly used by King Solomn to control the Jinn or demons. Asmodeus, king of demons, was one day, according to the classical Rabbis, captured by Benaiah using the ring, and was forced to remain in Solomon's service. In one tale, Asmodeus brought a man with two heads from under the earth to show Solomon; the man, unable to return, married a woman from Jerusalem and had seven sons, six of whom resembled the mother, while one resembled the father in having two heads. After their father's death, the son with two heads claimed two shares of the inheritance, arguing that he was two men; Solomon decided that the son with two heads was only one man. The Seal of Solomon, in some legends known as the Ring of Aandaleeb, was a highly sought after symbol of power. In several legends, different groups or individuals attempted to steal it or attain it in some manner.\n\nSolomon and Asmodeus\n\nOne legend concerning Asmodeus goes on to state that Solomon one day asked Asmodeus what could make demons powerful over man, and Asmodeus asked to be freed and given the ring so that he could demonstrate; Solomon agreed but Asmodeus threw the ring into the sea and it was swallowed by a fish. Asmodeus then swallowed the king, stood up fully with one wing touching heaven and the other earth, and spat out Solomon to a distance of 400 miles. The Rabbis claim this was a divine punishment for Solomon's having failed to follow three divine commands, and Solomon was forced to wander from city to city, until he eventually arrived in an Ammonite city where he was forced to work in the king's kitchens. Solomon gained a chance to prepare a meal for the Ammonite king, which the king found so impressive that the previous cook was sacked and Solomon put in his place; the king's daughter, Naamah, subsequently fell in love with Solomon, but the family (thinking Solomon a commoner) disapproved, so the king decided to kill them both by sending them into the desert. Solomon and the king’s daughter wandered the desert until they reached a coastal city, where they bought a fish to eat, which just happened to be the one which had swallowed the magic ring. Solomon was then able to regain his throne and expel Asmodeus. The element of a ring thrown into the sea and found back in a fish's belly also appeared in Herodotus' account of Polycrates, the tyrant of Samos from c. 538 BC to 522 BC.\n\nIn another familiar version of the legend of the Seal of Solomon, Asmodeus disguises himself. In some myths, he's disguised as King Solomon himself, while in more frequently heard versions he's disguised as a falcon, calling himself Gavyn (Gavinn or Gavin), one of King Solomon’s trusted friends. The concealed Asmodeus tells travelers who have ventured up to King Solomon's grand lofty palace that the Seal of Solomon was thrown into the sea. He then convinces them to plunge in and attempt to retrieve it, for if they do they would take the throne as king.\n\nArtifacts\n\nOther magical items attributed to Solomon are his key and his Table. The latter was said to be held in Toledo, Spain during Visigoth rule and was part of the loot taken by Tarik ibn Ziyad during the Umayyad Conquest of Iberia, according to Ibn Abd-el-Hakem's History of the Conquest of Spain. The former appears in the title of the Lesser Key of Solomon, a grimoire whose framing story is Solomon capturing demons using his ring, and forcing them to explain themselves to him. In The Book of Deadly Names, purportedly translated from Arabic manuscripts found hidden in a building in Spain, the \"King of the Jinn\" Fiqitush brings 72 Jinn before King Solomon to confess their corruptions and places of residence. Fiqitush tells King Solomon the recipes for curing such corruptions as each evil Jinn confesses.\n\nAngels\n\nAngels also helped Solomon in building the Temple; though not by choice. The edifice was, according to rabbinical legend, miraculously constructed throughout, the large heavy stones rising and settling in their respective places of themselves. The general opinion of the Rabbis is that Solomon hewed the stones by means of a shamir, a mythical worm whose mere touch cleft rocks. According to Midrash Tehillim, the shamir was brought from paradise by Solomon's eagle; but most of the rabbis state that Solomon was informed of the worm's haunts by Asmodeus. The shamir had been entrusted by the prince of the sea to the mountain rooster alone, and the rooster had sworn to guard it well, but Solomon's men found the bird's nest, and covered it with glass. When the bird returned, it used the shamir to break the glass, whereupon the men scared the bird, causing it to drop the worm, which the men could then bring to Solomon.\n\nIn the Kabbalah\n\nEarly adherents of the Kabbalah portray Solomon as having sailed through the air on a throne of light placed on an eagle, which brought him near the heavenly gates as well as to the dark mountains behind which the fallen angels Uzza and Azzazel were chained; the eagle would rest on the chains, and Solomon, using the magic ring, would compel the two angels to reveal every mystery he desired to know.\n\nThe palace without entrance\n\nAccording to one legend, while traveling magically, Solomon noticed a magnificent palace to which there appeared to be no entrance. He ordered the demons to climb to the roof and see if they could discover any living being within the building but they found only an eagle, which said that it was 700 years old, but that it had never seen an entrance. An elder brother of the eagle, 900 years old, was then found, but it also did not know the entrance. The eldest brother of these two birds, which was 1,300 years old, then declared it had been informed by its father that the door was on the west side, but that it had become hidden by sand drifted by the wind. Having discovered the entrance, Solomon found an idol inside that had in its mouth a silver tablet saying in Greek (a language not thought by modern scholars to have existed 1000 years before the time of Solomon) that the statue was of Shaddad, the son of 'Ad, and that it had reigned over a million cities, rode on a million horses, had under it a million vassals and slew a million warriors, yet it could not resist the angel of death.\n\nThrone\n\nSolomon's throne is described at length in Targum Sheni, which is compiled from three different sources, and in two later Midrash. According to these, there were on the steps of the throne twelve golden lions, each facing a golden eagle. There were six steps to the throne, on which animals, all of gold, were arranged in the following order: on the first step a lion opposite an ox; on the second, a wolf opposite a sheep; on the third, a tiger opposite a camel; on the fourth, an eagle opposite a peacock, on the fifth, a cat opposite a cock; on the sixth, a sparrow-hawk opposite a dove. On the top of the throne was a dove holding a sparrow-hawk in its claws, symbolizing the dominion of Israel over the Gentiles. The first midrash claims that six steps were constructed because Solomon foresaw that six kings would sit on the throne, namely, Solomon, Rehoboam, Hezekiah, Manasseh, Amon, and Josiah. There was also on the top of the throne a golden candelabrum, on the seven branches of the one side of which were engraved the names of the seven patriarchs Adam, Noah, Shem, Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and Job, and on the seven of the other the names of Levi, Kohath, Amram, Moses, Aaron, Eldad, Medad, and, in addition, Hur (another version has Haggai). Above the candelabrum was a golden jar filled with olive-oil and beneath it a golden basin which supplied the jar with oil and on which the names of Nadab, Abihu, and Eli and his two sons were engraved. Over the throne, twenty-four vines were fixed to cast a shadow on the king's head.\n\nBy a mechanical contrivance the throne followed Solomon wherever he wished to go. Supposedly, due to another mechanical trick, when the king reached the first step, the ox stretched forth its leg, on which Solomon leaned, a similar action taking place in the case of the animals on each of the six steps. From the sixth step the eagles raised the king and placed him in his seat, near which a golden serpent lay coiled. When the king was seated the large eagle placed the crown on his head, the serpent uncoiled itself, and the lions and eagles moved upward to form a shade over him. The dove then descended, took the scroll of the Law from the Ark, and placed it on Solomon's knees. When the king sat, surrounded by the Sanhedrin, to judge the people, the wheels began to turn, and the beasts and fowls began to utter their respective cries, which frightened those who had intended to bear false testimony. Moreover, while Solomon was ascending the throne, the lions scattered all kinds of fragrant spices. After Solomon's death, Pharaoh Shishak, when taking away the treasures of the Temple (I Kings xiv. 26), carried off the throne, which remained in Egypt until Sennacherib conquered that country. After Sennacherib's fall Hezekiah gained possession of it, but when Josiah was slain by Pharaoh Necho, the latter took it away. However, according to rabbinical accounts, Necho did not know how the mechanism worked and so accidentally struck himself with one of the lions causing him to become lame; Nebuchadnezzar, into whose possession the throne subsequently came, shared a similar fate. The throne then passed to the Persians, whose king Darius was the first to sit successfully on Solomon's throne after his death; subsequently the throne came into the possession of the Greeks and Ahasuerus.\n\nFreemasonry\n\nMasonic rituals refer to King Solomon and the building of his Temple. Masonic Temples, where a Masonic Lodge meets, are an allegorical reference to King Solomon's Temple. \n\nIn literature, art and music\n\nLiterature\n\n* In H. Rider Haggard's King Solomon's Mines the protagonists discover multiple settings said to belong to, or having been built at the request of King Solomon, such as 'Solomon's Great Road' and the mines themselves. Also, the two mountains which form the entrance to Kukuana Land (where the mines are located in the novel) are referred to as 'Sheba's Breasts' which could well be an allusion to the Queen of Sheba, with whom King Solomon had a relationship; or alternatively Solomon's mother, who was named Bathsheba. When in the mines the characters also contemplate what must have occurred to prevent King Solomon from ever returning to retrieve the massive amounts of diamonds, gold and ivory tusks that were found buried in his great 'Treasure Chamber'.\n* In The Divine Comedy the spirit of Solomon appears to Dante Alighieri in the Heaven of the Sun with other exemplars of inspired wisdom.\n* In Friedrich Dürrenmatt's Die Physiker, the physicist Möbius claims that Solomon appears to him and dictates the \"theory of all possible inventions\" (based on Unified Field Theory).\n* Solomon appears in Kipling's Just So Stories.\n* In Neal Stephenson's three-volume The Baroque Cycle, 17th-century alchemists like Isaac Newton believe that Solomon created a kind of \"heavier\" gold with mystical properties and that it was cached in the Solomon Islands where it was accidentally discovered by the crew of a wayward Spanish galleon. In the third volume of The Baroque Cycle, The System of the World, a mysterious member of the entourage of Czar Peter I of Russia, named \"Solomon Kohan\" appears in early 18th-century London. The czar, traveling incognito to purchase English-made ships for his navy, explains that he added him to his court after the Sack of Azov, where Kohan had been a guest of the Pasha. Solomon Kohan is later revealed as one of the extremely long-lived \"Wise\" Enoch Root, and compares a courtyard full of inventors' workstations to \"an operation I used to have in Jerusalem a long time ago,\" denominating either facility as \"a temple.\"\n* In Bartimaeus: The Ring of Solomon, both King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba are featured prominently.\n* In the Japanese manga series Magi: The Labyrinth of Magic, Solomon was a powerful magician which united all of the world under his peaceful rule. However, when this world was destroyed by a calamity, he created the world Magi is set in and saved mankind by sending them there. A special power originated from him, the \"Wisdom of Solomon\", allows the main character Aladdin to talk directly with the soul of a person, alive or dead.\n* In Makai Ouji: Devils and Realist, Solomon is a friend of Lucifer and is the \"Elector\" – the one who can choose the interim ruler over Hell as its emperor rests to regain his strength and had powers over demons known as his seventy-two pillars. He's also known who can control Hell or Heaven with the power of his ring.\n* Chapter 14 of The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn ends with Huck and Jim debating over how wise Solomon really was.\n* In Francis Bacon's Essay 'Of Revenge', Solomon is paraphrased: \"And Solomon, I am sure, saith, It is the glory of a man, to pass by an offence.\"\n* In a subject called in art the Idolatry of Solomon, the foreign wives are depicted as leading Solomon away from Yahweh toward idolatry because they worshiped gods other than Yahweh (). This forms part of the Power of Women topos in the Middle Ages and Renaissance, showing the dangers women posed to even the most virtuous men. \n\nFilm\n\n* Solomon and Sheba (1959) – Epic film directed by King Vidor, starring Yul Brynner and Gina Lollobrigida\n* Solomon & Sheba (1995) – Showtime film directed by Robert M. Young starring Halle Berry and Jimmy Smits\n* Solomon (1997, TNT) – directed by Roger Young, starring Ben Cross\n* The Kingdom of Solomon (2009) – Iranian production directed by Shahriar Bahrani\nThe Song (2014) -a modern retelling directed by Richard Ramsey, starring Alan Powell, Ali Faulkner, and Caitlin Nicol-Thomas \n\nMusic\n\n Marc-Antoine Charpentier, a French composer of the Baroque Era, composed an oratorio entitled Solomon's Judgement. \n* Handel composed an oratorio entitled Solomon in 1748. The story follows the basic Biblical plot. \n* Ernest Bloch composed a Hebraic Rhapsody for cello and orchestra entitled Schelomo, based on King Solomon.\n* Toivo Tulev composed a piece for choir, soloists and chamber orchestra entitled \"Songs\" in 2005. The text is taken directly from the Song of Songs in its English, Spanish and Latin translations.\n* Derrick Harriott has a rocksteady song titled Solomon (later covered by Junior Murvin), in which he warns a woman that he is wiser than Solomon in the ways of women." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "2 Samuel 11", "Basheva", "Bathsheba at her Bath", "Bath-shua", "Bath-sheba", "Bethsheba", "Bathsheba at Bath", "Bathsheba", "Bathsheba at her bath", "Bat Sheva", "Besheba", "Bathsheba at Her Bath", "David and bathsheba", "Batsheba at her bath", "Bathsheba with King David's Letter", "David and Bathsheba", "Bathsheeba" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "batsheba at her bath", "bath sheba", "basheva", "2 samuel 11", "besheba", "bath shua", "bathsheba with king david s letter", "david and bathsheba", "bathsheeba", "bathsheba at her bath", "bat sheva", "bathsheba", "bathsheba at bath", "bethsheba" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "david and bathsheba", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "David and Bathsheba" }
What is the name of Dr. Seuss's egg-hatching elephant?	tc_476	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Dr._Seuss.txt" ], "title": [ "Dr. Seuss" ], "wiki_context": [ "Theodor Seuss Geisel (; March 2, 1904 – September 24, 1991) was an American writer and illustrator best known for authoring popular children's books under the pen name Dr. Seuss. His work includes several of the most popular children's books of all time, selling over 600 million copies and being translated into more than 20 languages by the time of his death. \n\nGeisel adopted his \"Dr. Seuss\" pen name during his university studies at Dartmouth College and the University of Oxford. He left Oxford in 1927 to begin his career as an illustrator and cartoonist for Vanity Fair, Life, and various other publications. He also worked as an illustrator for advertising campaigns, most notably for Flit and Standard Oil, and as a political cartoonist for the New York newspaper PM. He published his first children's book And to Think That I Saw It on Mulberry Street in 1937. During World War II, he worked in an animation department of the United States Army where he produced several short films, including Design for Death, which later won the 1947 Academy Award for Documentary Feature.[http://www.britannica.com/biography/Theodor-Seuss-Geisel \"Theodor Seuss Geisel\"] (2015). Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved July 22, 2015.\n\nAfter the war, Geisel focused on children's books, writing classics such as If I Ran the Zoo (1950), Horton Hears a Who! (1955), If I Ran the Circus (1956), The Cat in the Hat (1957), How the Grinch Stole Christmas! (1957), and Green Eggs and Ham (1960). He published over 60 books during his career, which have spawned numerous adaptations, including 11 television specials, four feature films, a Broadway musical, and four television series. He won the Lewis Carroll Shelf Award in 1958 for Horton Hatches the Egg and again in 1961 for And to Think That I Saw It on Mulberry Street. Geisel's birthday, March 2, has been adopted as the annual date for National Read Across America Day, an initiative on reading created by the National Education Association.\n\nLife and career\n\nTheodor Seuss Geisel was born in Springfield, Massachusetts, to Theodor Robert and Henrietta (née Seuss) Geisel. All of his grandparents were German immigrants. His father managed the family brewery and was later appointed to supervise Springfield's public park system by Mayor John A. Denison after the brewery closed because of Prohibition. Mulberry Street in Springfield was made famous in Dr. Seuss' first children's book And to Think That I Saw It on Mulberry Street! and is less than a mile southwest of his boyhood home on Fairfield Street. Geisel was raised a Lutheran. He enrolled at Springfield Central High School in 1917 and graduated in 1921. He took an art class as a freshman and later became manager of the school soccer team. \n\nCollege\n\nGeisel attended Dartmouth College, graduating in 1925. At Dartmouth, he joined the Sigma Phi Epsilon fraternity and the humor magazine Dartmouth Jack-O-Lantern, eventually rising to the rank of editor-in-chief.\n\nWhile at Dartmouth, he was caught drinking gin with nine friends in his room. At the time, the possession and consumption of alcohol was illegal under Prohibition laws, which remained in place between 1920 and 1933. As a result of this infraction, Dean Craven Laycock insisted that Geisel resign from all extracurricular activities, including the college humor magazine. To continue work on the Jack-O-Lantern without the administration's knowledge, Geisel began signing his work with the pen name \"Seuss\". He was encouraged in his writing by professor of rhetoric W. Benfield Pressey, whom he described as his \"big inspiration for writing\" at Dartmouth. \n\nUpon graduating from Dartmouth, he entered Lincoln College, Oxford intending to earn a PhD in English literature. At Oxford, he met Helen Palmer, who encouraged him to give up becoming an English teacher in favor of pursuing drawing as a career.\n\nEarly career\n\nGeisel left Oxford without earning a degree and returned to the United States in February 1927, where he immediately began submitting writings and drawings to magazines, book publishers, and advertising agencies. Making use of his time in Europe, he pitched a series of cartoons called Eminent Europeans to Life magazine, but the magazine passed on it. His first nationally published cartoon appeared in the July 16, 1927 issue of The Saturday Evening Post. This single $25 sale encouraged Geisel to move from Springfield to New York City.\n\nLater that year, Geisel accepted a job as writer and illustrator at the humor magazine Judge, and he felt financially stable enough to marry Helen. His first cartoon for Judge appeared on October 22, 1927, and the Geisels were married on November 29. Geisel's first work signed \"Dr. Seuss\" was published in Judge about six months after he started working there. \n\nIn early 1928, one of Geisel's cartoons for Judge mentioned Flit, a common bug spray at the time manufactured by Standard Oil of New Jersey. According to Geisel, the wife of an advertising executive in charge of advertising Flit saw Geisel's cartoon at a hairdresser's and urged her husband to sign him. Geisel's first Flit ad appeared on May 31, 1928, and the campaign continued sporadically until 1941. The campaign's catchphrase \"Quick, Henry, the Flit!\" became a part of popular culture. It spawned a song and was used as a punch line for comedians such as Fred Allen and Jack Benny. As Geisel gained notoriety for the Flit campaign, his work was sought after and began to appear regularly in magazines such as Life, Liberty, and Vanity Fair.\n\nGeisel supported himself and his wife through the Great Depression by drawing advertising for General Electric, NBC, Standard Oil, Narragansett Brewing Company, and many other companies. In 1935, he wrote and drew a short-lived comic strip called Hejji.\n\nThe increased income allowed the Geisels to move to better quarters and to socialize in higher social circles. They became friends with the wealthy family of banker Frank A. Vanderlip. They also traveled extensively: by 1936, Geisel and his wife had visited 30 countries together. They did not have children, neither kept regular office hours, and they had ample money. Geisel also felt that the traveling helped his creativity.\n\nIn 1936, the couple were returning from an ocean voyage to Europe when the rhythm of the ship's engines inspired the poem that became his first book: And to Think That I Saw It on Mulberry Street. Based on Geisel's varied accounts, the book was rejected by between 20 and 43 publishers. According to Geisel, he was walking home to burn the manuscript when a chance encounter with an old Dartmouth classmate led to its publication by Vanguard Press. Geisel wrote four more books before the US entered World War II. This included The 500 Hats of Bartholomew Cubbins in 1938, as well as The King's Stilts and The Seven Lady Godivas in 1939, all of which were in prose, atypically for him. This was followed by Horton Hatches the Egg in 1940, in which Geisel returned to the use of poetry.\n\nEssomarine\n\nGeisel gained a significant public profile through a program for motor boat lubricants produced by Standard Oil under the brand name Essomarine He later recounted that Harry Bruno, Ted Cook, and Verne Carrier worked with him at the National Motor Boat Show on exhibits referred to as the Seuss Navy. \n\nIn 1934, Geisel produced a 30-page booklet entitled Secrets of the Deep which was available by mail after June. At the January boat show for 1935, visitors filled out order cards to receive Secrets. Geisel drew up a Certificate of Commission for visitors in 1936. A mock ship deck called SS Essomarine provided the scene where photos of \"Admirals\" were taken. That summer, Geisel released a second volume of Secrets. For the 1937 show, he sculpted Marine Muggs and designed a flag for the Seuss Navy.\n\nThe following year featured \"Little Dramas of the Deep\", a six-act play with ten characters. According to Geisel's sister, \"He plans the whole show with scenery and action and then, standing in a realistic bridge, reels off a speech which combines advertising with humor.\" For 1939, exhibitors made available the Nuzzlepuss ashtray and illustrated tide-table calendars.\n\nA Seuss Navy Luncheon was held on January 11, 1940 at the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel. At that year's boat show, Geisel provided the Navigamarama exhibit and the Sea Lawyers Gazette.\n\nThe final contribution to the Essomarine project was the mermaid Essie Neptune and her pet whale in 1941. The exhibit offered photos for a Happy Cruising passport. \n\nWorld War II-era work\n\nAs World War II began, Geisel turned to political cartoons, drawing over 400 in two years as editorial cartoonist for the left-leaning New York City daily newspaper, PM. Geisel's political cartoons, later published in Dr. Seuss Goes to War, denounced Hitler and Mussolini and were highly critical of non-interventionists (\"isolationists\"), most notably Charles Lindbergh, who opposed US entry into the war. One cartoon depicted all Japanese Americans as latent traitors or fifth-columnists, while other cartoons simultaneously deplored the racism at home against Jews and blacks that harmed the war effort. His cartoons were strongly supportive of President Roosevelt's handling of the war, combining the usual exhortations to ration and contribute to the war effort with frequent attacks on Congress (especially the Republican Party), parts of the press (such as the New York Daily News, Chicago Tribune, and Washington Times-Herald), and others for criticism of Roosevelt, criticism of aid to the Soviet Union, investigation of suspected Communists, and other offences that he depicted as leading to disunity and helping the Nazis, intentionally or inadvertently.\n\nIn 1942, Geisel turned his energies to direct support of the U.S. war effort. First, he worked drawing posters for the Treasury Department and the War Production Board. Then, in 1943, he joined the Army as a Captain and was commander of the Animation Department of the First Motion Picture Unit of the United States Army Air Forces, where he wrote films that included Your Job in Germany, a 1945 propaganda film about peace in Europe after World War II; Our Job in Japan; and the Private Snafu series of adult army training films. While in the Army, he was awarded the Legion of Merit. Our Job in Japan became the basis for the commercially released film Design for Death (1947), a study of Japanese culture that won the Academy Award for Documentary Feature. Gerald McBoing-Boing (1950) was based on an original story by Seuss and won the Academy Award for Animated Short Film. \n\nLater years\n\nAfter the war, Geisel and his wife moved to La Jolla, California where he returned to writing children's books. He wrote many, including such favorites as If I Ran the Zoo (1950), Horton Hears a Who! (1955), If I Ran the Circus (1956), The Cat in the Hat (1957), How the Grinch Stole Christmas! (1957), and Green Eggs and Ham (1960). He received numerous awards throughout his career, but he won neither the Caldecott Medal nor the Newbery Medal. Three of his titles from this period were, however, chosen as Caldecott runners-up (now referred to as Caldecott Honor books): McElligot's Pool (1947), Bartholomew and the Oobleck (1949), and If I Ran the Zoo (1950). Dr Seuss also wrote the musical and fantasy film The 5,000 Fingers of Dr. T, which was released in 1953. The movie was a critical and financial failure, and Geisel never attempted another feature film. During the 1950s, he also published a number of illustrated short stories, mostly in Redbook Magazine. Some of these were later collected (in volumes such as The Sneetches and Other Stories) or reworked into independent books (If I Ran the Zoo). A number have never been reprinted since their original appearances.\n\nIn May 1954, Life magazine published a report on illiteracy among school children which concluded that children were not learning to read because their books were boring. William Ellsworth Spaulding was the director of the education division at Houghton Mifflin (he later became its chairman), and he compiled a list of 348 words that he felt were important for first-graders to recognize. He asked Geisel to cut the list to 250 words and to write a book using only those words. Spaulding challenged Geisel to \"bring back a book children can't put down\". Nine months later, Geisel completed The Cat in the Hat, using 236 of the words given to him. It retained the drawing style, verse rhythms, and all the imaginative power of Geisel's earlier works but, because of its simplified vocabulary, it could be read by beginning readers. The Cat in the Hat and subsequent books written for young children achieved significant international success and they remain very popular today. In 2009, Green Eggs and Ham sold 540,366 copies, The Cat in the Hat sold 452,258 copies, and One Fish Two Fish Red Fish Blue Fish (1960) sold 409,068 copies—outselling the majority of newly published children's books. \n\nGeisel went on to write many other children's books, both in his new simplified-vocabulary manner (sold as Beginner Books) and in his older, more elaborate style.\n\nIn 1956, Dartmouth awarded Geisel with an honorary doctorate, finally justifying the \"Dr.\" in his pen name.\n\nOn April 28, 1958, Geisel appeared on an episode of the panel game show To Tell the Truth. \n\nGeisel's wife Helen Palmer Geisel had a long struggle with illnesses, including cancer and emotional pain over her husband's affair with Audrey Stone Dimond. On October 23, 1967, she committed suicide. Geisel married Dimond on June 21, 1968. Geisel had no children of his own, though he devoted most of his life to writing children's books. He would say when asked about this, \"You have 'em; I'll entertain 'em.\"\n\nGeisel received the Laura Ingalls Wilder Medal from the professional children's librarians in 1980, recognizing his \"substantial and lasting contributions to children's literature\". At the time, it was awarded every five years.\n[http://www.ala.org/alsc/awardsgrants/bookmedia/wildermedal/wilderpast \"Laura Ingalls Wilder Award, Past winners\"]. Association for Library Service to Children (ALSC). American Library Association (ALA).\n [http://www.ala.org/alsc/awardsgrants/bookmedia/wildermedal/wilderabout \"About the Laura Ingalls Wilder Award\"]. ALSC. ALA. Retrieved June 17, 2013.\nHe won a special Pulitzer Prize in 1984 citing his \"contribution over nearly half a century to the education and enjoyment of America's children and their parents\".[http://www.pulitzer.org/bycat/Special-Awards-and-Citations \"Special Awards and Citations\"]. The Pulitzer Prizes. Retrieved December 2, 2013.\n\nIllness, death, and posthumous honors\n\nGeisel died of oral cancer on September 24, 1991 at his home in La Jolla at the age of 87. He was cremated and his ashes were scattered. On December 1, 1995, four years after his death, University of California, San Diego's University Library Building was renamed Geisel Library in honor of Geisel and Audrey for the generous contributions that they made to the library and their devotion to improving literacy. \n\nWhile Geisel was living in La Jolla, the United States Postal Service and others frequently confused him with fellow La Jolla resident Dr. Hans Suess. Their names have been linked together posthumously: the personal papers of Hans Suess are housed in the Geisel Library. \n\nIn 2002, the Dr. Seuss National Memorial Sculpture Garden opened in his birthplace of Springfield, Massachusetts, featuring sculptures of Geisel and of many of his characters. On May 28, 2008, California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger and First Lady Maria Shriver announced that Geisel would be inducted into the California Hall of Fame located at The California Museum for History, Women and the Arts. The induction ceremony took place December 15 and Geisel's widow Audrey accepted the honor in his place. On March 2, 2009, the web search engine Google temporarily changed its logo to commemorate Geisel's birthday (a practice that it often follows for various holidays and events). \n\nIn 2004, U.S. children's librarians established the annual Theodor Seuss Geisel Award to recognize \"the most distinguished American book for beginning readers published in English in the United States during the preceding year\". It should \"demonstrate creativity and imagination to engage children in reading\" during years pre-K to grade two.[http://www.ala.org/alsc/awardsgrants/bookmedia/geiselaward \"Welcome to the (Theodor Seuss) Geisel Award home page!\"]. ALSC. ALA.\n [http://www.ala.org/alsc/awardsgrants/bookmedia/geiselaward/geiselabout \"Theodor Seuss Geisel Award\"]. ALSC. ALA. Retrieved June 17, 2013.\n\nAt Geisel's alma mater of Dartmouth, more than 90 percent of incoming first-year students participate in pre-registration Dartmouth Outing Club trips into the New Hampshire wilderness. It is traditional for students returning from the trips to stay overnight at Dartmouth's Moosilauke Ravine Lodge, where they are served green eggs and ham for breakfast in honor of Dr. Seuss. On April 4, 2012, the Dartmouth Medical School renamed itself the Audrey and Theodor Geisel School of Medicine in honor of their many years of generosity to the college. \n\nDr. Seuss's honors include two Academy awards, two Emmy awards, a Peabody award, the Laura Ingalls Wilder Medal, and the Pulitzer Prize.\n\nDr. Seuss has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at the 6500 block of Hollywood Boulevard. \n\nPen names and pronunciations\n\nGeisel's most famous pen name is regularly pronounced, an anglicized pronunciation inconsistent with his German surname (the standard German pronunciation is). He himself noted that it rhymed with \"voice\" (his own pronunciation being). Alexander Laing, one of his collaborators on the Dartmouth Jack-O-Lantern, wrote of it:\n\nGeisel switched to the anglicized pronunciation because it \"evoked a figure advantageous for an author of children's books to be associated with—Mother Goose\" and because most people used this pronunciation. He added the “Dr.” to his pen name because his father had always wanted him to practice medicine. \n\nFor books that Geisel wrote and others illustrated, he used the pen name \"Theo LeSieg\", starting with I Wish That I Had Duck Feet published in 1965. \"LeSieg\" is \"Geisel\" spelled backward. Geisel also published one book under the name Rosetta Stone, 1975's Because a Little Bug Went Ka-Choo!!, a collaboration with Michael K. Frith. Frith and Geisel chose the name in honor of Geisel's second wife Audrey, whose maiden name was Stone. \n\nPolitical views\n\nGeisel was a liberal Democrat and a supporter of President Franklin D. Roosevelt and the New Deal. His early political cartoons show a passionate opposition to fascism, and he urged action against it both before and after the United States entered World War II. His cartoons portrayed the fear of communism as overstated, finding greater threats in the House Un-American Activities Committee and those who threatened to cut the US \"life line\" to Stalin and the USSR, whom he once depicted as a porter carrying \"our war load\".\n\nGeisel supported the Japanese American internment during World War II. His treatment of the Japanese and of Japanese Americans (between whom he often failed to differentiate) has struck many readers as a moral blind spot. On the issue of the Japanese, he is quoted as saying:\n\nAfter the war, though, Geisel overcame his feelings of animosity, using his book Horton Hears a Who! (1954) as an allegory for the Hiroshima bombing and the American post-war occupation of Japan, as well as dedicating the book to a Japanese friend. \n\nIn 1948, after living and working in Hollywood for years, Geisel moved to La Jolla, California, a predominantly Republican town. \n\nGeisel converted a copy of one of his famous children's books into a polemic shortly before the end of the 1972–74 Watergate scandal, in which United States president Richard Nixon resigned, by replacing the name of the main character everywhere that it occurred. \"Richard M. Nixon, Will You Please Go Now!\" was published in major newspapers through the column of his friend Art Buchwald.\n\nThe line \"a person's a person, no matter how small!!\" from Horton Hears a Who! has been used widely as a slogan by the pro-life movement in the U.S., despite the objections of Geisel's widow. The line was first used in such a way in 1986; he demanded a retraction and received one. \n\nIn his books\n\nGeisel made a point of not beginning to write his stories with a moral in mind, stating that \"kids can see a moral coming a mile off.\" He was not against writing about issues, however; he said that \"there's an inherent moral in any story\", and he remarked that he was \"subversive as hell.\" \n\nMany of Geisel's books express his views on a remarkable variety of social and political issues: The Lorax (1971), about environmentalism and anti-consumerism; \"The Sneetches\" (1961), about racial equality; The Butter Battle Book (1984), about the arms race; Yertle the Turtle (1958), about Hitler and anti-authoritarianism; How the Grinch Stole Christmas! (1957), criticizing the materialism and consumerism of the Christmas season; and Horton Hears a Who! (1954), about anti-isolationism and internationalism.\n\nPoetic meters\n \n\nGeisel wrote most of his books in anapestic tetrameter, a poetic meter employed by many poets of the English literary canon. This is often suggested as one of the reasons that Geisel's writing was so well received. \n\nAnapestic tetrameter consists of four rhythmic units called anapests, each composed of two weak syllables followed by one strong syllable (the beat); often, the first weak syllable is omitted, or an additional weak syllable is added at the end. An example of this meter can be found in Geisel's \"Yertle the Turtle\", from Yertle the Turtle and Other Stories:\n\nSome books by Geisel that are written mainly in anapestic tetrameter also contain many lines written in amphibrachic tetrameter, such as these from If I Ran the Circus:\n\nGeisel also wrote verse in trochaic tetrameter, an arrangement of a strong syllable followed by a weak syllable, with four units per line (for example, the title of One Fish Two Fish Red Fish Blue Fish). Traditionally, English trochaic meter permits the final weak position in the line to be omitted, which allows both masculine and feminine rhymes.\n\nGeisel generally maintained trochaic meter for only brief passages, and for longer stretches typically mixed it with iambic tetrameter, which consists of a weak syllable followed by a strong, and is generally considered easier to write. Thus, for example, the magicians in Bartholomew and the Oobleck make their first appearance chanting in trochees (thus resembling the witches of Shakespeare's Macbeth):\n\nThey then switch to iambs for the oobleck spell:\n\nArtwork\n\nGeisel's earlier artwork often employed the shaded texture of pencil drawings or watercolors, but in children's books of the postwar period, he generally employed the starker medium of pen and ink, normally using just black, white, and one or two colors. Later books such as The Lorax used more colors.\n\nGeisel's figures are often rounded and somewhat droopy. This is true, for instance, of the faces of the Grinch and of the Cat in the Hat. Almost all the buildings and machinery that Geisel drew were devoid of straight lines, even when he was representing real objects. For example, If I Ran the Circus includes a droopy hoisting crane and a droopy steam calliope.\n\nGeisel evidently enjoyed drawing architecturally elaborate objects. His endlessly varied (but never rectilinear) palaces, ramps, platforms, and free-standing stairways are among his most evocative creations. Geisel also drew complex imaginary machines, such as the Audio-Telly-O-Tally-O-Count, from Dr. Seuss's Sleep Book, or the \"most peculiar machine\" of Sylvester McMonkey McBean in The Sneetches. Geisel also liked drawing outlandish arrangements of feathers or fur, for example, the 500th hat of Bartholomew Cubbins, the tail of Gertrude McFuzz, and the pet for girls who like to brush and comb, in One Fish Two Fish.\n\nGeisel's images often convey motion vividly. He was fond of a sort of voilà gesture, in which the hand flips outward, spreading the fingers slightly backward with the thumb up; this is done by Ish, for instance, in One Fish Two Fish when he creates fish (who perform the gesture themselves with their fins), in the introduction of the various acts of If I Ran the Circus, and in the introduction of the Little Cats in The Cat in the Hat Comes Back. He was also fond of drawing hands with interlocked fingers, which looked as though the characters were twiddling their thumbs.\n\nGeisel also follows the cartoon tradition of showing motion with lines, for instance in the sweeping lines that accompany Sneelock's final dive in If I Ran the Circus. Cartoonists' lines are also used to illustrate the action of the senses (sight, smell, and hearing) in The Big Brag and even of thought, as in the moment when the Grinch conceives his awful idea.\n\nRecurring images\n\nGeisel's early work in advertising and editorial cartooning produced sketches that received more perfect realization later in the children's books. Often, the expressive use to which Geisel put an image later on was quite different from the original. \n\n* An editorial cartoon of July 16, 1941 depicts a whale resting on the top of a mountain as a parody of American isolationists, especially Charles Lindbergh. This was later rendered (with no apparent political content) as the Wumbus of On Beyond Zebra (1955). Seussian whales (cheerful and balloon-shaped, with long eyelashes) also occur in McElligot's Pool, If I Ran the Circus, and other books.\n* Another editorial cartoon from 1941 shows a long cow with many legs and udders representing the conquered nations of Europe being milked by Adolf Hitler. This later became the Umbus of On Beyond Zebra.\n* The tower of turtles in a 1942 editorial cartoon prefigures a similar tower in Yertle the Turtle. This theme also appeared in a Judge cartoon as one letter of a hieroglyphic message, and in Geisel's short-lived comic strip Hejji. Geisel once stated that Yertle the Turtle was Adolf Hitler. \n* Little cats A B and C (as well as the rest of the alphabet) who spring from each other's hats appeared in a Ford ad.\n* The connected beards in Did I Ever Tell You How Lucky You Are? appear frequently in Geisel's work, most notably in Hejji, which featured two goats joined at the beard, The 5,000 Fingers of Dr. T, which featured two roller-skating guards joined at the beard, and a political cartoon in which Nazism and the America First movement are portrayed as \"the men with the Siamese Beard\".\n* Geisel's earliest elephants were for advertising and had somewhat wrinkly ears, much as real elephants do. With And to Think That I Saw It on Mulberry Street! (1937) and Horton Hatches the Egg (1940), the ears became more stylized, somewhat like angel wings and thus appropriate to the saintly Horton. During World War II, the elephant image appeared as an emblem for India in four editorial cartoons. Horton and similar elephants appear frequently in the postwar children's books.\n* While drawing advertisements for Flit, Geisel became adept at drawing insects with huge stingers, shaped like a gentle S-curve and with a sharp end that included a rearward-pointing barb on its lower side. Their facial expressions depict gleeful malevolence. These insects were later rendered in an editorial cartoon as a swarm of Allied aircraft (1942), and again as the Sneedle of On Beyond Zebra, and yet again as the Skritz in I Had Trouble in Getting to Solla Sollew.\n* There are many examples of creatures who arrange themselves in repeating patterns, such as the \"Two and fro walkers, who march in five layers\", and the Through-Horns Jumping Deer in If I Ran the Circus, and the arrangement of birds which the protagonist of Oh, the Places You'll Go! walks through, as the narrator admonishes him to \"... always be dexterous and deft, and never mix up your right foot with your left.\"\n\nPublications\n\nGeisel wrote more than 60 books over the course of his long career. Most were published under his well-known pseudonym Dr. Seuss, though he also authored more than a dozen books as Theo LeSieg and one as Rosetta Stone. His books have topped many bestseller lists, sold over 600 million copies, and been translated into more than 20 languages. In 2000, Publishers Weekly compiled a list of the best-selling children's books of all time; of the top 100 hardcover books, 16 were written by Geisel, including Green Eggs and Ham, at number 4, The Cat in the Hat, at number 9, and One Fish Two Fish Red Fish Blue Fish, at number 13. In the years after his death in 1991, two additional books were published based on his sketches and notes: Hooray for Diffendoofer Day! and Daisy-Head Mayzie. My Many Colored Days was originally written in 1973 but was posthumously published in 1996. In September 2011, seven stories originally published in magazines during the 1950s were released in a collection entitled The Bippolo Seed and Other Lost Stories.\n\nGeisel also wrote a pair of books for adults: The Seven Lady Godivas (1939; reprinted 1987), a retelling of the Lady Godiva legend that included nude depictions; and You're Only Old Once! (written in 1986 when Geisel was 82), which chronicles an old man's journey through a clinic. His last book was Oh, the Places You'll Go!, which published the year before his death and became a popular gift for graduating students. \n\nFilms based on his books\n\nAdaptations\n\nFor most of his career, Geisel was reluctant to have his characters marketed in contexts outside of his own books. However, he did permit the creation of several animated cartoons, an art form in which he himself had gained experience during the Second World War, and he gradually relaxed his policy as he aged.\n\nThe first adaptation of one of Geisel's works was a cartoon version of Horton Hatches the Egg, animated at Warner Bros. in 1942 and directed by Robert Clampett. It was presented as part of the Merrie Melodies series and included a number of gags not present in the original narrative, including a fish committing suicide and a Katharine Hepburn imitation by Mayzie.\n\nIn 1959, Geisel authorized Revell, the well-known plastic model-making company, to make a series of \"animals\" that snapped together rather than being glued together, and could be assembled, disassembled, and re-assembled \"in thousands\" of ways. The series was called the \"Dr. Seuss Zoo\" and included Gowdy the Dowdy Grackle, Norval the Bashful Blinket, Tingo the Noodle Topped Stroodle, and Roscoe the Many Footed Lion. The basic body parts were the same and all were interchangeable, and so it was possible for children to combine parts from various characters in essentially unlimited ways in creating their own animal characters (Revell encouraged this by selling Gowdy, Norval, and Tingo together in a \"Gift Set\" as well as individually). Revell also made a conventional glue-together \"beginner's kit\" of The Cat in the Hat.\n\nIn 1966, Geisel authorized eminent cartoon artist Chuck Jones – his friend and former colleague from the war – to make a cartoon version of How the Grinch Stole Christmas!. Geisel was credited as a co-producer under his real name Ted Geisel, along with Jones. The cartoon was narrated by Boris Karloff, who also provided the voice of the Grinch. It was very faithful to the original book, and is considered a classic to this day by many. It is often broadcast as an annual Christmas television special. Jones directed an adaptation of Horton Hears a Who! in 1970 and produced an adaptation of The Cat in the Hat in 1971.\n\nFrom 1972 to 1983, Geisel wrote six animated specials which were produced by DePatie-Freleng: The Lorax (1972); Dr. Seuss on the Loose (1973); The Hoober-Bloob Highway (1975); Halloween Is Grinch Night (1977); Pontoffel Pock, Where Are You? (1980); and The Grinch Grinches the Cat in the Hat (1982). Several of the specials won multiple Emmy Awards.\n\nA Soviet paint-on-glass-animated short film was made in 1986 called Welcome, an adaptation of Thidwick the Big-Hearted Moose. The last adaptation of Geisel's work before he died was The Butter Battle Book, a television special based on the book of the same name, directed by adult animation legend Ralph Bakshi.\n\nA television film titled In Search of Dr. Seuss was released in 1994 which adapted many of Seuss's stories. It uses both live-action versions and animated versions of the characters and stories featured; however, the animated portions were merely edited versions of previous animated television specials and, in some cases, re-dubbed as well.\n\nAfter Geisel died of cancer at the age of 87 in 1991, his widow Audrey Geisel was placed in charge of all licensing matters. She approved a live-action feature-film version of How the Grinch Stole Christmas starring Jim Carrey, as well as a Seuss-themed Broadway musical called Seussical, and both premiered in 2000. The Grinch has had limited engagement runs on Broadway during the Christmas season, after premiering in 1998 (under the title How the Grinch Stole Christmas) at the Old Globe Theatre in San Diego, where it has become a Christmas tradition. In 2003, another live-action film was released, this time an adaptation of The Cat in the Hat that featured Mike Myers as the title character. Audrey Geisel has spoken critically of the film, especially the casting of Myers as the Cat in the Hat, and stated that she would not allow any further live-action adaptations of Geisel's books. However, an animated CGI feature film adaptation of Horton Hears a Who! was approved, and was eventually released on March 14, 2008, to critical acclaim. A CGI-animated feature film adaptation of The Lorax was released by Universal on March 2, 2012 (on what would have been the 108th birthday of Seuss).\n\nFour television series have been adapted from Geisel's work. The first, Gerald McBoing-Boing, was an animated television adaptation of Geisel's 1951 cartoon of the same name and lasted three months between 1956 and 1957. The second, The Wubbulous World of Dr. Seuss, was a mix of live-action and puppetry by Jim Henson Television, the producers of The Muppets. It aired for one season on Nickelodeon in the United States, from 1996 to 1997. The third, Gerald McBoing-Boing, is a remake of the 1956 series. Produced in Canada by Cookie Jar Entertainment (now DHX Media) and North America by Classic Media (now DreamWorks Classics), it ran from 2005 to 2007. The fourth, The Cat in the Hat Knows a Lot About That!, produced by Portfolio Entertainment Inc., began on August 7, 2010, in Canada and September 6, 2010, in the United States and is currently still showing.\n\nGeisel's books and characters are also featured in Seuss Landing, one of many islands at the Islands of Adventure theme park in Orlando, Florida. In an attempt to match Geisel's visual style, there are reportedly \"no straight lines\" in Seuss Landing. \n\nThe Hollywood Reporter has reported that Johnny Depp has agreed to produce and possibly star in a film based on Geisel's life. The film will be written by Keith Bunin, produced by Depp's Infinitum Nihil production company alongside Illumination Entertainment and distributed by Universal Pictures. \n\nMusic\n\n* Red Hot Chili Peppers – \"Yertle the Turtle\" (last track on the album Freaky Styley, 1985)\n* R.E.M. – \"The Sidewinder Sleeps Tonite\" (from the album Automatic for the People, 1992)\n* Marilyn Manson used to make pop-art flyers mixing porn pictures, serial-killers' and other celebrities faces, self-portrait caricatures and Dr. Seuss characters for the promotion of his early band Marilyn Manson & the Spooky Kids. The singer is also quoted as saying that he liked the Bible just like he liked The Cat in the Hat, implying both were fictional books." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Horton (disambiguation)", "Horton" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "horton disambiguation", "horton" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "horton", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Horton" }
To whom did Herman Melville dedicate his novel, Moby Dick?	tc_481	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Herman_Melville.txt", "Moby-Dick.txt" ], "title": [ "Herman Melville", "Moby-Dick" ], "wiki_context": [ "Herman Melville (August 1, 1819 – September 28, 1891) was an American novelist, short story writer, and poet of the American Renaissance period best known for Typee (1846), a romantic account of his experiences in Polynesian life, and his whaling novel Moby-Dick (1851). His work was almost forgotten during his last thirty years. His writing draws on his experience at sea as a common sailor, exploration of literature and philosophy, and engagement in the contradictions of American society in a period of rapid change. He developed a complex, baroque style: the vocabulary is rich and original, a strong sense of rhythm infuses the elaborate sentences, the imagery is often mystical or ironic, and the abundance of allusion extends to Scripture, myth, philosophy, literature, and the visual arts.\n\nBorn in New York City as the third child of a merchant in French dry goods, Melville's formal education ended abruptly after his father died in 1832, leaving the family in financial straits. Melville briefly became a schoolteacher before he took to sea in 1839 as a common sailor on a merchant ship. In 1840 he signed aboard the whaler Acushnet for his first whaling voyage, but jumped ship in the Marquesas Islands. After further adventures, he returned to Boston in 1844. His first book, Typee (1845), a highly romanticized account of his life among Polynesians, became such a best-seller that he worked up a sequel, Omoo (1847). These successes encouraged him to marry Elizabeth Shaw, of a prominent Boston family, but were hard to sustain. His first novel not based on his own experiences, Mardi (1849), is a sea narrative that develops into a philosophical allegory, but was not well received. Redburn (1849), a story of life on a merchant ship, and his 1850 expose of harsh life aboard a Man-of-War, White-Jacket yielded warmer reviews but not financial security.\n \nIn August 1850, Melville moved his growing family to Arrowhead, a farm near Pittsfield, Massachusetts, where he established a profound but short-lived friendship with Nathaniel Hawthorne, to whom he dedicated Moby-Dick. Moby-Dick was another commercial failure, published to mixed reviews. Melville's career as a popular author effectively ended with the cool reception of Pierre (1852), in part a satirical portrait of the literary scene. His Revolutionary War novel Israel Potter appeared in 1855. From 1853 to 1856, Melville published short fiction in magazines, most notably \"Bartleby, the Scrivener\" (1853), \"The Encantadas\" (1854), and \"Benito Cereno\" (1855). These and three other stories were collected in 1856 as The Piazza Tales. In 1857, he voyaged to England, where he reunited with Hawthorne for the first time since 1852, and then went on to tour the Near East. The Confidence-Man (1857), was the last prose work he published during his lifetime. He moved to New York to take a position as Customs Inspector and turned to poetry. Battle-Pieces and Aspects of the War (1866) was his poetic reflection on the moral questions of the Civil War. In 1867 his oldest child, Malcolm, died at home from a self-inflicted gunshot. Clarel: A Poem and Pilgrimage in the Holy Land, a metaphysical epic, appeared in 1876. In 1886, his second son, Stanwix, died and Melville retired. During his last years, he privately published two volumes of poetry, left one volume unpublished, and returned to prose of the sea: the novella Billy Budd, left unfinished at his death, was published in 1924.\n\nMelville's death from cardiovascular disease in 1891 subdued a reviving interest in his work. The centennial of his birth in 1919 became the starting point of the \"Melville Revival\". Critics discovered his work, scholars explored his life, his major novels and stories have become world classics, and his poetry has gradually attracted respect.\n\nBiography\n\nEarly life\n\nBorn Herman Melvill in New York City on August 1, 1819, to Allan Melvill (1782–1832) and Maria (Gansevoort) Melvill (1791–1872), Herman was the third of eight children. His siblings, who played important roles in his career as well as his emotional life, were Gansevoort (1815–1846), Helen Maria (1817–1888), Augusta (1821–1876), Allan (1823–1872), Catherine (1825–1905), Frances Priscilla (1827–1885), and Thomas (1830–1884), who eventually became a governor of Sailors Snug Harbor. Part of a well-established and colorful Boston family, Melville's father spent much time out of New York and in Europe as a commission merchant and an importer of French dry goods. \n\nBoth of Melville's grandfathers were heroes of the Revolutionary War. Major Thomas Melvill (1751–1832) had taken part in the Boston Tea Party, and his maternal grandfather, General Peter Gansevoort (1749–1812), was famous for having commanded the defense of Fort Stanwix in New York in 1777. Melville found satisfaction in his \"double revolutionary descent\". Major Melvill sent his son Allan not to college but to France at the turn of the nineteenth century, where he spent two years in Paris and learned to speak and write French fluently. He subscribed to his father's Unitarianism. In 1814 Allan married Maria Gansevoort Melvill, who was committed to the Dutch Reformed version of the Calvinist creed of her family. The severe Protestantism of the Gansevoort's tradition ensured that she knew her Bible well, in English as well as in Dutch, the language she had grown up speaking with her parents. \n\nAlmost three weeks after his birth, on August 19, Herman Melville was baptized at home by a minister of the South Reformed Dutch Church. During the 1820s Melville lived a privileged, opulent life, in a household with three or more servants at a time. Once every four years the family moved to more spacious and prestigious quarters, all the way to Broadway in 1828. Allan Melvill lived beyond his means and on large sums he borrowed from both his father and his wife's widowed mother. His wife's opinion of his financial conduct is unknown. Biographer Hershel Parker suggests Maria \"thought her mother's money was infinite and that she was entitled to much of her portion now, while she had small children\". How well, biographer Delbanco adds, the parents managed to hide the truth from their children is \"impossible to know\". In 1830 Maria's family finally lost patience and their support came to a halt, at which point Allan's total debt to both families exceeded $20,000. The felicity of Melville's early childhood, biographer Newton Arvin writes, depended not so much on wealth as on the \"exceptionally tender and affectionate spirit in all the family relationships, especially in the immediate circle. \" Arvin describes Allan as \"a man of real sensibility and a particularly warm and loving father\", while Maria was \"warmly maternal, simple, robust, and affectionately devoted to her husband and her brood.\"\n\nMelville's education began when he was five, around the time the Melvills moved to a newly-built house at 33 Bleecker Street. In 1826, the same year that Melville contracted scarlet fever, Allan Melvill, who sent both Gansevoort and Herman to the New York Male High School, described Melville in a letter to Peter Gansevoort Jr. as \"very backwards in speech & somewhat slow in comprehension\". His older brother Gansevoort appeared to be the brightest of the children, but soon Melville's development increased its pace. \"You will be as much surprised as myself to know\", Allan wrote Peter Gansevoort Jr., \"that Herman proved the best Speaker in the introductory Department, at the examination of the High School, he has made rapid progress during the 2 last quarters.\" In 1829 both Gansevoort and Herman were transferred to Columbia Grammar & Preparatory School, with Herman enrolling in the English Department on 28 September. \"Herman I think is making more progress than formerly\", Allan wrote in May 1830 to Major Melvill, \"& without being a bright Scholar, he maintains a respectable standing, & would proceed further, if he could only be induced to study more – being a most amiable & innocent child, I cannot find it in my heart to coerce him.\" \n\nEmotionally unstable and behind with paying the rent for the house on Broadway, Allan tried to recover from his setbacks by moving his family to Albany in 1830 and going into the fur business. Melville attended the Albany Academy from October 1830 to October 1831, where he took the standard preparatory course, studying reading and spelling; penmanship; arithmetic; English grammar; geography; natural history; universal, Greek, Roman and English history; classical biography; and Jewish antiquities.Titus (1980), 4–10 It is unknown why he left the Academy in October 1831; Parker suggests that by then \"even the tiny tuition fee seemed too much to pay\". His brothers Gansevoort and Allan continued their attendance a few months longer, Gansevoort until March the next year. \"The ubiquitous classical references in Melville's published writings,\" as Melville scholar Merton Sealts observed, \"suggest that his study of ancient history, biography, and literature during his school days left a lasting impression on both his thought and his art, as did his almost encyclopedic knowledge of both the Old and the New Testaments\". \n\nIn December Melville's father returned from New York City by steamboat, but ice forced him to travel the last seventy miles for two days and two nights in an open horse carriage at two degrees below zero, with the result that he developed a cold. In early January he began to show \"signs of delirium\" and his situation grew worse until he – in the words of his wife – \"by reason of severe suffering was deprive'd of his Intellect\". Two months before reaching fifty, Allan Melville died on 28 January 1832. Since Melville was no longer attending school, he must have witnessed these scenes: twenty years later he described such a death of Pierre's father in Pierre. \n\n1832–1838: After father's death \n\nOne result of his father's early death was that the religious creed of his mother exerted more influence. Melville's saturation in orthodox Calvinism is for Arvin \"surely the most decisive intellectual and spiritual influence of his early life\". \nTwo months after his father's death, Gansevoort entered the cap and fur business. Maria sought consolation in her faith and in April was admitted as a member of the First Reformed Dutch Church. Uncle Peter Gansevoort, who was one of the directors of the New York State Bank, got Herman a job as clerk for $150 a year. The issue of his emotional response to all the drama in his young life is a question biographers answer by citing from Redburn: \"I had learned to think much and bitterly before my time\", the narrator remarks, adding, \"I must not think of those delightful days, before my father became a bankrupt ... and we removed from the city; for when I think of those days, something rises up in my throat and almost strangles me.\" According to Arvin's influential suggestion, with Melville, one has to reckon with the \"tormented psychology, of the decayed patrician.\"\n\nWhen Melville's grandfather died on September 16, 1832, it turned out that Allan had borrowed more than his share of the inheritance. He left Maria Melville only $20. The grandmother died on April 12, 1833. Melville did his job well at the bank; though he was only fourteen in 1834, the bank considered him competent enough to be sent to Schenectady on an errand. Not much else is known from this period, except that he was very fond of drawing. The visual arts became a lifelong interest.\n\nAround May 1834 the Melvilles moved to another house in Albany, a three-story brick house. That same month a fire destroyed Gansevoort's skin-preparing factory, which left him with personnel he could neither use nor afford. Instead he pulled Melville out of the bank to man the cap and fur store. (Biographer Andrew Delbanco says that Gansevoort was doing so well he could hire his younger brother until a fire broke out in 1835, destroying both factory and the store. ) In any case, his older brother Gansevoort served as a role model for Melville in various ways. In early 1834 Gansevoort had become a member of the Albany's Young Men's Association for Mutual Improvement, and in January 1835 Melville became a member as well. \n\nIn 1835, while still working in the store, Melville enrolled in Albany Classical School, perhaps using Maria's part of the proceeds from the sale of the estate of his maternal grandmother in March 1835. In September of the following year Herman was back in Albany Academy, in the Latin course. He also joined debating societies, in an apparent effort to make up as much as he could for his missed years of schooling. In this period he also became acquainted with Shakespeare's Macbeth at least, and teased his sisters with a passage from the witch scenes. \n\nIn March 1837 he was again withdrawn from Albany Academy. Gansevoort had copies of John Todd's Index Rerum, a blank book, more of a register, in which one could index remarkable passages from books one had read, for easy retrieval. Among the sample entries was \"Pequot, beautiful description of the war with,\" with a short title reference to the place in Benjamin Trumbull's A Complete History of Connecticut (1797 or 1818) where the description could be found. The two surviving volumes are the best evidence for Melville's reading in this period, because there is little doubt that Gansevoort's reading served him as a guide. The entries include books that Melville later used for Moby-Dick and Clarel, such as \"Parsees—of India—an excellent description of their character, & religion & an account of their descent—East India Sketch Book p. 21.\" Other entries are on Panther, the pirate's cabin, and storm at sea from James Fenimore Cooper's The Red Rover, Saint-Saba. \n\nThat April the nationwide economic panic forced Gansevoort to file for bankruptcy and Uncle Thomas Jr. secretly planned to leave Pittsfield, where he had not paid taxes on the farm. On June 5 Maria informed the younger children that they had to move to some village where the rent was cheaper than in Albany. Gansevoort became a Law student in New York City and Herman took care of the farm while his uncle settled in Galena, Illinois. That summer Melville decided to become a schoolteacher. He got a position at Sikes District School near Lenox, Massachusetts, where he taught some thirty students of various ages, including his own. \n\nHis term over, he returned to his mother in 1838. In February he was elected president of the Philo Logos Society, which Peter Gansevoort invited to move into Stanwix Hall for no rent. Many chambers were vacant as a result of the economic crisis. In March 1838 Melville published in the Albany Microscope two polemical letters about issues in the debating societies he was engaged in, but it is not entirely clear what the polemic was about. Biographers Leon Howard and Hershel Parker suggest that the real issue was the youthful desire to exercise his rhetoric skills in public, and the first appearance in print would have been an exciting experience for all young men involved. \n\nIn May the Melvilles moved to Lansingburgh, almost a dozen miles north of Albany, into a rented house on the east side of the river in what is now Troy, at 1st Avenue and 114th Street. The family's retreat was now complete: from the metropolis to a provincial city to a village. What Melville was doing after his term at Sikes ended until November, or if he even had a job after that, remains a mystery. Apparently he courted a local Lansingburgh girl sometime during the summer, but nothing else is known. \n\nOn 7 November Melville arrived in Lansingburgh. Where he had come from is unknown. Five days later he paid for a term at Lansingburgh Academy, where he took a course in surveying and engineering. In April 1839 Peter Gansevoort wrote a letter to get Herman a job in the Engineer Department of the Erie Canal, saying that his nephew \"possesses the ambition to make himself useful in a business which he desires to make his profession,\" but no job resulted. \n\nMelville's first known published essay came only weeks after he failed to find a job as an engineer. Using the unexplained initials L.A.V., Herman contributed \"Fragments from a Writing Desk\" to the Democratic Press and Lansingburgh Advertiser, a weekly newspaper, which printed the piece in two installments, the first on 4 May. According to scholar Sealts, the heavy-handed allusions reveal his early familiarity with the writings of William Shakespeare, John Milton, Walter Scott, Richard Brinsley Sheridan, Edmund Burke, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Lord Byron, and Thomas Moore, which Gansevoort had kept around the house. Biographer Parker calls the piece \"characteristic Melvillean mood-stuff,\" and considers its prose style \"excessive enough to allow him to indulge his extravagances and just enough overdone to allow him to deny that he was taking his style seriously\". Biographer Delbanco finds the prose \"overheated in the manner of Poe, with sexually charged echoes of Byron and The Arabian Nights\". \n\n1839–1844: Years at sea\n\nOn May 31, 1839, Gansevoort, then living in New York City, wrote that he was sure Herman could get a job on a whaler or merchant vessel. The next day, he signed aboard the merchant ship St. Lawrence as a \"boy\" (a green hand), which cruised from New York to Liverpool and arrived back in New York October 1. Redburn: His First Voyage (1849) draws on his experiences in this journey. Melville resumed teaching, now at Greenbush, New York, but left after one term because he had not been paid. In the summer of 1840 he and his friend James Murdock Fly went to Galena, Illinois to see if his Uncle Thomas could help them find work. On this trip it is possible that Herman went up the Mississippi, where he may well have witnessed scenes of frontier life he later used in his books. Unsuccessful, he and his friend returned home in autumn, very likely by way of St. Louis and up the Ohio River. \n\nProbably inspired by his reading of Richard Henry Dana, Jr.'s new book Two Years Before the Mast, and by Jeremiah N. Reynolds's account in the May 1839 issue of The Knickerbocker magazine of the hunt for a great white sperm whale named Mocha Dick, Melville and Gansevoort traveled to New Bedford, where Melville signed up for a whaling voyage aboard a new ship, the Acushnet. He signed a contract on Christmas Day with the ship's agent as a \"green hand\" for 1/175th of whatever profits the voyage would yield. On Sunday the 27th the brothers heard the Reverend Enoch Mudge preach at the Seamen's Bethel on Johnny-Cake Hill, where white marble cenotaphs on the walls memorialized local sailors who had died at sea, often in battle with whales. \n\nOn January 3, 1841, the Acushnet set sail. The vessel sailed around Cape Horn and traveled to the South Pacific for an 18-month voyage. On July 9, 1842, however, Melville and his ship-mate Richard Tobias Greene jumped ship at Nukahiva Bay in the Marquesas Islands and ventured into the mountains to avoid capture. Melville's first book, Typee (1845), is loosely based on his stay in or near the Taipi Valley. Scholarly research starting in the 1930s and extending into the twenty-first century has increasingly shown that much if not all of this account was either taken from Melville’s readings or exaggerated to dramatize a contrast between idyllic native culture and Western civilization. \n\nOn August 9, Melville boarded the Lucy Ann, bound for Tahiti, where he took part in a mutiny and was briefly jailed in the native Calabooza Beretanee.\n\nIn October, he and crew mate John B. Troy escaped Tahiti for Eimeo. He then spent a month as beachcomber and island rover (\"omoo\" in Tahitian), eventually crossing over to Moorea. He drew on these experiences for Omoo, the sequel to Typee In November, he signed articles on the Nantucket whaler Charles & Henry for a six-month cruise (November 1842 − April 1843), and was discharged at Lahina in the Hawaiian Islands in May 1843. After four months of working several jobs, including as a clerk, he joined the US Navy initially as one of the crew of the frigate as an ordinary seaman on August 20. During the next year, the homeward bound ship visited the Marquesas Islands, Tahiti, and Valparaiso, and then, from summer to fall 1844, Mazatlan, Lima, and Rio de Janeiro, before reaching Boston on October 3. Melville was discharged on October 14. This navy experience is used in White-Jacket (1850) Melville's fifth book. \n\nMelville's wander-years created what biographer Arvin calls \"a settled hatred of external authority, a lust for personal freedom\" and a \"growing and intensifying sense of his own exceptionalness as a person\", along with \"the resentful sense that circumstance and mankind together had already imposed their will upon him in a series of injurious ways.\" Scholar Milder believes the encounter with the wide ocean, where he was seemingly abandoned by God, led Melville to experience a \"metaphysical estrangement\" and influenced his social views in two ways: First that he belonged to the genteel classes but sympathized with the \"disinherited commons\" he had been placed among; second that experiencing the cultures of Polynesia let him view the West from an outsider's perspective. \n\n1845–1850: Successful writer \n\nUpon his return, Melville regaled his family and friends with his adventurous tales and romantic experiences, and they urged him to put them into writing. Melville completed Typee, his first book, in the summer of 1845 while living in Troy. His brother Gansevoort found a publisher for it in London, where it was published in February 1846 by John Murray and became an overnight bestseller, then in New York on March 17 by Wiley & Putnam. Inspired by his adventures in the Marquesas, the book was far from a reliable autobiographical account. Melville extended the period his narrator spent on the island to three months more than he himself did, made it appear that he understood the native language, and incorporated material from source books he had assembled. Scholar Robert Milder calls Typee \"an appealing mixture of adventure, anecdote, ethnography, and social criticism presented with a genial latitudinarianism that gave novelty to a South Sea idyll at once erotically suggestive and romantically chaste\".\n\nAn unsigned review in the Salem Advertiser, actually written by Nathaniel Hawthorne, called the book a \"skilfully managed\" narrative, \"lightly but vigorously written\" by an author with \"that freedom of view ... which renders him tolerant of codes of morals that may be little in accordance with our own\". The depictions of the \"native girls are voluptuously colored, yet not more so than the exigencies of the subject appear to require.\" Pleased but slightly bemused by the adulation of his new public, Melville later complained in a letter to Nathaniel Hawthorne that he would \"go down to posterity ... as a ‘man who lived among the cannibals'!\" \n\nSome readers found it unbelievable, however. The book brought Melville into contact with his friend Greene again, Toby in the book, who wrote to the newspapers confirming Melville's account. The two corresponded until 1863, and sustained a bond for life: in his final years Melville \"traced and successfully located his old friend.\" \n\nIn March 1847, Omoo, a sequel to Typee, was published by Murray in London, and in May by Harper in New York. Omoo is \"a slighter but more professional book,\" according to Milder. Typee and Omoo gave Melville overnight renown as a writer and adventurer, and he often entertained by telling stories to his admirers. As the writer and editor Nathaniel Parker Willis wrote, \"With his cigar and his Spanish eyes, he talks Typee and Omoo, just as you find the flow of his delightful mind on paper\".Delbanco (2005), 66 In 1847 Melville tried unsuccessfully to find a \"government job\" in Washington.\n\nIn June 1847 Melville and Elizabeth Knapp Shaw were engaged, after knowing each other for approximately three months. A brief courtship, yet Melville had already asked her father for her hand in March but was turned down. Lizzie's father was Lemuel Shaw, the Chief Justice of the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court. Arvin describes Lemuel Shaw as a man \"of an almost childlike tenderness of heart and gentleness of feeling\". He had been an intimate friend of Melville's father, and had fallen in love with Allen's sister Nancy. He would have married her had she not died early. His grief was such that for many years he did not marry, and his friendship with the Melvilles continued after Allen's death. His wife Elizabeth died when she gave birth to their first daughter, who was named Elizabeth in remembrance of her mother. Elizabeth was raised by her grandmother and the Irish nurse. Arvin suggests that Melville's interest in Elizabeth may have been stimulated by \"his need of Judge Shaw's paternal presence.\" They were married on August 4, 1847. As Lizzie wrote a relative, \"my marriage was very unexpected, and scarcely thought of until about two months before it actually took place.\" She wanted to be married in church, \"but we all thought if it were to get about previously that 'Typee' was to be seen on such a day, a great crowd might rush out of mere curiosity to see 'the author' who would have no personal interest in us whatsoever, and make it very unpleasant for us both\". Because of Melville's celebrity status a private wedding ceremony took place at home. The couple honeymooned in Canada, and traveled to Montreal. They settled in a house on Fourth Avenue in New York City.\n\nAccording to scholars Joyce Deveau Kennedy and Frederick James Kennedy, Lizzie brought the following qualities to their marriage: a sense of religious obligation in marriage, an intent to make a home with Melville regardless of place, a willingness to please her husband by performing such \"tasks of drudgery\" as mending stockings, an ability to hide her agitation, and a desire \"to shield Melville from unpleasantness\". The Kennedys conclude their assessment with:\n\nIf the ensuing years did bring regrets to Melville's life, it is impossible to believe he would have regretted marrying Elizabeth. In fact he must have realized that he could not have borne the weight of those years unaided--that without her loyalty, intelligence, and affection, his own wild imagination would have had no \"port or haven.\" \n\nBiographer Robertson-Lorant's cites \"Lizzie's adventurous spirit and abundant energy\", and she suggests that \"her pluck and good humor might have been what attracted Melville to her, and vice versa.\" An example of such good humor appears in a letter about her not yet used to being married: \"It seems sometimes exactly as if I were here for a visit. The illusion is quite dispelled however when Herman stalks into my room without even the ceremony of knocking, bringing me perhaps a button to sew on, or some equally romantic occupation.\" \n\nIn March 1848, Mardi was published by Richard Bentley in London, and in April by Harper in New York. Nathaniel Hawthorne thought it a rich book, he told Evert Augustus Duyckinck, a friend of Melville's, \"with depths here and there that compel a man to swim for his life.\" According to Robert Milder, the book began as another South Sea story but, as he wrote, Melville left that genre behind, first in favor of \"a romance of the narrator Taji and the lost maiden Yillah\", and then \"to an allegorical voyage of the philosopher Babbalanja and his companions through the imaginary archipelago of Mardi\". On February 16, 1849, the Melvilles' first child, Malcolm, was born. \n\nIn October 1849, Redburn was published by Bentley in London, and in November by Harper in New York. The bankruptcy and death of Allan Melville, and Melville's own youthful humiliations surface in this \"story of outward adaptation and inner impairment\". Biographer Robertson-Lorant regards the work as a deliberate attempt for popular appeal: \"Melville modeled each episode almost systematically on every genre that was popular with some group of antebellum readers,\" combining elements of \"the picaresque novel, the travelogue, the nautical adventure, the sentimental novel, the sensational French romance, the gothic thriller, temperance tracts, urban reform literature, and the English pastoral.\" \n\nIn January 1850, White-Jacket was published by Bentley in London, and in March by Harper in New York.\n\n1850–1851: Hawthorne and Moby-Dick \n\nIn early May 1850 Melville wrote to fellow sea author Richard Henry Dana Jr. a letter that contains what is the earliest surviving mention of the writing of Moby-Dick, saying he was already \"half way\" done. In June he described the book to his English publisher as \"a romance of adventure, founded upon certain wild legends in the Southern Sperm Whale Fisheries\", and promised it would be done by the fall. The manuscript has not survived, so it is impossible to know its state at this critical juncture. Over the next several months, Melville radically transformed his initial plan, conceiving what Delbanco has described as \"the most ambitious book ever conceived by an American writer\". \n\nFrom August 4 to 12, the Melvilles and their neighbor Sarah Morewood, Evert Duyckinck, Oliver Wendell Holmes, and other literary figures from New York and Boston, came to Pittsfield to enjoy a period of social parties, picnics, dinners, and the like. On August 5, Nathaniel Hawthorne and his publisher James T. Fields joined the group, while Hawthorne's wife stayed at home to look after the children. As the men took a stroll through Ice Glen, someone noticed that Hawthorne and Melville were absent, and the group went looking for the two, who were at last found \"deep in conversation\". The following day, the group visited the Hawthornes, who since May were living in nearby Lenox. \"I liked Melville so much\", Hawthorne wrote to his friend Horatio Bridge, \"that I have asked him to spend a few days with me\", an uncharacteristic move for a man so attached to his work that he would not suffer overnight guests to keep him from it. The following days, Melville wrote the essay \"Hawthorne and His Mosses\", a review of Hawthorne's Mosses from an Old Manse that appeared in two installments, on August 17 and 24, in The Literary World. \n\nLater that summer Melville received a package from Duyckinck with a letter asking him to forward it to Hawthorne. When he delivered the package to Hawthorne, he did not know it contained his last three books. Hawthorne read them, as he wrote to Duyckinck on August 29, \"with a progressive appreciation of their author\". He liked the \"unflinching\" realism of Redburn and White-Jacket, and he thought Mardi was \"a rich book, with depths here and there that compel a man to swim for his life\", though he also noticed it could have been better if the author had taken more time. \n\nIn September, Melville borrowed three thousand dollars from his father-in-law Lemuel Shaw to buy a 160-acre farm in Pittsfield. Melville called his new home Arrowhead because of the arrowheads that were dug up around the property during planting season.\n\nThat winter, Melville on an impulse paid Hawthorne a visit, only to discover he was \"not in the mood for company\" as he was finishing The House of the Seven Gables. Hawthorne's wife Sophia entertained him while he waited for Hawthorne to come down for supper, and gave him copies of Twice-Told Tales and, for Malcolm, The Grandfather's Chair. Melville invited them to visit Arrowhead some time in the next two weeks, and when Sophia agreed, he looked forward to \"discussing the Universe with a bottle of brandy & cigars\" with Hawthorne. A few days later Sophia notified the Melvilles that Hawthorne could not stop working on his new book for more than one day, and Melville felt moved to repeat his invitation: \"Your bed is already made, & the wood marked for your fire.\" Eventually Melville visited the Hawthornes again, and the next day Hawthorne surprised him by arriving at Arrowhead with his daughter Una. According to Robertson-Lorant, \"The handsome Hawthorne made quite an impression on the Melville women, especially Augusta, who was a great fan of his books.\" They spent the day mostly \"smoking and talking metaphysics\". \n\nIn Robertson-Lorant's assessment of the friendship, Melville was \"infatuated with Hawthorne's intellect, captivated by his artistry, and charmed by his elusive personality,\" and though the two writers were \"drawn together in an undeniable sympathy of soul and intellect, the friendship meant something different to each of them,\" with Hawthorne offering Melville \"the kind of intellectual stimulation he needed\". They may have been \"natural allies and friends\", yet they were also \"fifteen years apart in age and temperamentally quite different\", and Hawthorne \"found Melville's manic intensity exhausting at times\". \n\nMelville wrote ten letters to Hawthorne, \"all of them effusive, profound, deeply affectionate\". Melville was inspired and encouraged by his new relationship with Hawthorne during the period that he was writing Moby-Dick. He dedicated this new novel to Hawthorne, though their friendship was to wane only a short time later.Cheever(2006), 196\n\nOn October 18 The Whale was published in Britain in three volumes, and on November 14 Moby-Dick appeared in the United States as a single volume. In between these dates, on October 22, 1851, the Melvilles' second child, Stanwix, was born. On December 1 Hawthorne wrote a letter of appraisal to Duyckinck, prompted in part by his disagreement with the review in Literary World: \"What a book Melville has written! It gives me an idea of much greater power than his preceding ones. It hardly seemed to me that the review of it, in the Literary World, did justice to its best points.\" \n\nIn early December 1852 Melville visited the Hawthornes in Concord, and discussed the idea of the \"Agatha\" story which he had pitched to Hawthorne. This was the last known contact between the two writers before Melville visited Hawthorne in Liverpool four years later. \n\n1852–1857: Unsuccessful writer \n\nMelville had high hopes that his next book would please the public and restore his finances. In April 1851 he wrote to his British publisher, Richard Bentley that his new book, \"possessing unquestionable novelty\" is \"as I believe, very much more calculated for popularity than anything you have yet published of mine – being a regular romance, with a mysterious plot to it & stirring passions at work, and withall, representing a new & elevated aspect of American life... \" In fact, \nPierre: or, The Ambiguities was heavily psychological, though drawing on the conventions of the romance, and difficult in style. It was not well received. The New York Day Book on September 8, 1852, published a venomous attack headlined \"HERMAN MELVILLE CRAZY\". The item, offered as a news story, reported, \n\nOn 22 May 1853 Elizabeth (Bessie) was born, the Melvilles' third child and first daughter, and on or about that day Herman finished work on Isle of the Cross—one relative wrote that 'The Isle of the Cross' is almost a twin sister of the little one ...\" Herman traveled to New York to discuss it with his publisher, but later wrote that Harper & Brothers was \"prevented\" from publishing his manuscript, presumed to be Isle of the Cross, which has been lost. \n\nFinding it difficult to find a publisher for his follow-up novel to the commercial and critical failure of Pierre, Israel Potter, the narrative of a Revolutionary War veteran, was first serialized in Putnam's Monthly Magazine in 1853. From November 1853 to 1856, Melville published fourteen tales and sketches in Putnams and Harpers magazines. In December 1855 he proposed to Dix & Edwards, the new owners of Putnam's, that they publish a selection of the short fiction titled Benito Cereno and Other Sketches. The collection would eventually be named after a new introductory story Melville had written for it, \"The Piazza,\" and was published as The Piazza Tales, with five previously published stories, including \"Bartleby, the Scrivener\" and \"Benito Cereno\". \n\nOn March 2, 1855, Frances (Fanny) was born, the Melvilles' fourth child. In this period his book Israel Potter was published.\n\nThe writing of The Confidence-Man put great strain on Melville, leading Sam Shaw, a nephew of Lizzie, to write to his uncle Lemuel Shaw, \"Herman I hope has had no more of those ugly attacks\"—a reference to what Robertson-Lorant calls \"the bouts of rheumatism and sciatica that plagued Melville\". Melville's father-in-law apparently shared his daughter's \"great anxiety about him\" when he wrote a letter to a cousin, in which he described Melville's working habits: \"When he is deeply engaged in one of his literary works, he confines him[self] to hard study many hours in the day, with little or no exercise, & this specially in winter for a great many days together. He probably thus overworks himself & brings on severe nervous affections.\" Shaw advanced Melville $1,500 from Lizzie's inheritance to travel four or five months in Europe and the Holy Land.\n\nFrom October 11, 1856, to May 20, 1857, Melville made a six-month Grand Tour of the British Isles and the Mediterranean. While in England, in November he spent three days with Hawthorne, who had taken an embassy position there. At the seaside village of Southport, amid the sand dunes where they had stopped to smoke cigars, they had a conversation which Hawthorne later described in his journal:\n\nMelville's subsequent visit to the Holy Land inspired his epic poem Clarel. \n\nOn April 1, 1857, Melville published his last full-length novel, The Confidence-Man. This novel, subtitled His Masquerade, has won general acclaim in modern times as a complex and mysterious exploration of issues of fraud and honesty, identity and masquerade. But, when it was published, it received reviews ranging from the bewildered to the denunciatory. \n\n1857–1876: Poet \n\nTo repair his faltering finances, Melville was advised by friends to enter what was, for others, the lucrative field of lecturing. From late 1857 to 1860, he embarked upon three lecture tours, and spoke at lyceums, chiefly on Roman statuary and sightseeing in Rome. Melville's lectures, which mocked the pseudo-intellectualism of lyceum culture, were panned by contemporary audiences. \n\nOn May 30, 1860, Melville boarded the clipper Meteor for California, with his brother Thomas at the helm. After a shaky trip around Cape Horn Melville returned alone to New York via Panama in November. Turning to poetry, he submitted a collection of verse to a publisher in 1860, but it was not accepted. In 1861 he shook hands with Abraham Lincoln. In 1862, Melville met with a road accident which left him seriously injured. He also suffered from rheumatism. In 1863 he bought his brother Allan's house at 104 East 26th Street in New York City and moved there. Allan for his part bought Arrowhead. On March 30 his father-in-law died. \n\nIn 1864 Melville and Allan paid a visit to the Virginia battlefields of the American Civil War. After the end of the war, he published Battle Pieces and Aspects of the War (1866), a collection of 72 poems that has been described as \"a polyphonic verse journal of the conflict\". It was generally ignored by reviewers, who gave him at best patronizingly favorable reviews. The volume did not sell well; of the Harper & Bros. printing of 1200 copies, only 525 had been sold ten years later. Uneven as a collection of individual poems, \"its achievement lies in the interplay of voices and moods throughout which Melville patterns a shared historical experience into formative myth\".\n\nIn 1866 Melville's wife and her relatives used their influence to obtain a position for him as customs inspector for the City of New York, a humble but adequately paying appointment. He held the post for 19 years and won the reputation of being the only honest employee in a notoriously corrupt institution. Unbeknownst to him, his modest position and income \"were protected throughout the periodic turmoil of political reappointments by a customs official who never spoke to Melville but admired his writings: future US president Chester A. Arthur\". In 1867 his oldest son Malcolm shot himself, perhaps accidentally, and died at home at the age of 18. Some psychologists believe it was a suicide. \n\nThe job came as a relief for his family, because he would be out of the house for much of the day. Melville suffered from unpredictable mood swings, habitually \"bullying his servants, wife, and children.\" As Robertson-Lorant's writes, \"Like the tyrannical captains he had portrayed in his novels, Melville probably provoked rebellious feelings in his 'crew' by the capricious way he ruled the home, especially when he was drinking.\" Nervous exhaustion and physical pain rendered him short-tempered, made worse by his drinking. Robertson-Lorant takes the different ways one can look at Melville in this period to their extremes:\n\nAn unsympathetic person might characterize Melville as a failed writer who held a low-level government job, drank too much, heckled his wife unmercifully about the housework, beat her occasionally, and drove the children to distraction with his unpredictable behavior. A sympathetic observer might characterize him as an underappreciated genius, a visionary, an iconoclastic thinker, a sensitive, orphaned American idealist, and a victim of a crude, materialistic society that ate artists and visionaries alive and spat out their bones. He was both, and more. \n\nIn May 1867 Sam Shaw contacted Lizzie's minister Henry Bellows asking assistance with his \"sister's case\", which \"has been a cause of anxiety to all of us for years past.\" A wife then could not leave her husband without losing all claims to the children, so Bellows suggested Lizzie be kidnapped and brought to Boston. Shaw suspected that Lizzie would not agree to such melodramatic scheme. He thought up a different scheme, in which Lizzie would visit Boston and friends would inform Herman she would not come back. To get a divorce, she would then have to bring charges against Melville, believing her husband to be insane. \n\nIn this period, Melville bought books on poetry, landscape, art, and engraving. By 1868, Melville owned a Rembrandt mezzotint which he had framed in New York. In 1872 his brother Allan died, as did his mother, aged eighty-two. Though Melville's professional writing career had ended, he remained dedicated to his writing. Melville devoted years to \"his autumnal masterpiece,\" an 18,000-line epic poem titled Clarel: A Poem and a Pilgrimage, inspired by his 1856 trip to the Holy Land. His uncle, Peter Gansevoort, by a bequest, paid for the publication of the massive epic in 1876. The epic-length verse-narrative about a student's spiritual pilgrimage to the Holy Land, was considered quite obscure even in his own time. Among the longest single poems in American literature, the book had an initial printing of 350 copies, but sales failed miserably, and the unsold copies were burned when Melville was unable to afford to buy them at cost. The critic Lewis Mumford found a copy of the poem in the New York Public Library in 1925 \"with its pages uncut\"—in other words, it had sat there unread for 50 years. \n\nClarel is a narrative in 18,000 verse lines, featuring a young American student of divinity as the title character. He travels to Jerusalem to renew his faith. One of the central characters, Rolfe, is similar to Melville in his younger days, a seeker and adventurer. Scholars also agree that the reclusive Vine is based on Hawthorne, who had died twelve years before.\n\n1877–1891: Final years \n\nIn 1884, Mrs. Melville received a legacy, which enabled her to allow Melville a monthly sum of $25 to spend on books and prints. While Melville had his steady customs job, he no longer showed signs of depression, which recurred after the death of his second son. On 23 February 1886, Stanwix Melville died in San Francisco at age 36. Melville retired on 31 December 1885, after several of his wife's relatives died and left the couple more legacies which Mrs. Melville administered with skill and good fortune. In 1889 Melville becomes a member of the New York Society Library.\n\nAs English readers, pursuing the vogue for sea stories represented by such writers as G. A. Henty, rediscovered Melville's novels in the late nineteenth century, the author had a modest revival of popularity in England, though not in the United States. He wrote a series of poems, with prose head notes, inspired by his early experiences at sea. He published them in two collections, each issued in a tiny edition of 25 copies for his relatives and friends. Of these, scholar Robert Milder calls John Marr and Other Poems (1888), \"the finest of his late verse collections\". The second privately printed volume is Timoleon (1891).\n\nIntrigued by one of these poems, Melville began to rework the headnote, expanding it first as a short story and eventually as a novella. He worked on it on and off for several years, but when he died in September 1891, the piece was unfinished. Also left unpublished were another volume of poetry, Weeds and Wildings, and a sketch, \"Daniel Orme\". To Billy Budd, his widow added notes and edited it, but the manuscript was not discovered until 1919, by Raymond Weaver, his first biographer. He worked at transcribing and editing a full text, which he published in 1924 as Billy Budd, Sailor. It was an immediate critical success in England and soon one in the United States. The authoritative version was published in 1962, after two scholars studied the papers for several years. In 1951 it was adapted as a stage play on Broadway, and as an opera by English composer Benjamin Britten with assistance on the libretto by E. M. Forster. In 1961 Peter Ustinov released a movie based on the stage play and starring Terence Stamp.\n\nDeath\n\nMelville died at his home in New York City early on the morning of September 28, 1891, at age 72. The doctor listed \"cardiac dilation\" on the death certificate.Delbanco (2005), 319 He was interred in the Woodlawn Cemetery in The Bronx, New York City. A common story recounts that his New York Times obituary called him \"Henry Melville,\" implying that he was unknown and unappreciated at his time of death, but the story is not true. A later article was published on October 6 in the same paper, referring to him as \"the late Hiram Melville,\" but this appears to have been a typesetting error. \n\nWriting style \n\nMelville's writing style shows enormous changes throughout the years as well as consistencies. In the words of Arvin, Melville's development \"had been abnormally postponed, and when it came, it came with a rush and a force that had the menace of quick exhaustion in it.\" As early a juvenile piece as \"Fragments from a Writing Desk\" from 1839, scholar Sealts points out, already shows \"a number of elements that anticipate Melville's later writing, especially his characteristic habit of abundant literary allusion\". Typee and Omoo were documentary adventures that called for a division of the narrative in short chapters. Such compact organization bears the risk of fragmentation when applied to a lengthy work such as Mardi, but with Redburn and White Jacket, Melville turned the short chapter into an instrument of form and concentration. A number of chapters of Moby-Dick are no longer than two pages in standard editions, and an extreme example is Chapter 122, consisting of a single paragraph of 36 words (including the thrice-repeated \"Um, um, um.\") The skillful handling of chapters in Moby-Dick is one of the most fully developed Melvillean signatures, and is a measure of \"his manner of mastery as a writer\". Individual chapters have become \"a touchstone for appreciation of Melville's art and for explanation\" of his themes. In contrast, the chapters in Pierre, called Books, are divided into short numbered sections, seemingly an \"odd formal compromise\" between Melville's natural length and his purpose to write a regular romance that called for longer chapters. As satirical elements were introduced, the chapter arrangement restores \"some degree of organization and pace from the chaos\". The usual chapter unit then reappears for Israel Potter, The Confidence-Man and even Clarel, but only becomes \"a vital part in the whole creative achievement\" again in the juxtaposition of accents and of topics in Billy Budd.\n\nNewton Arvin points out that only superficially the books after Mardi seem as if Melville's writing went back to the vein of his first two books. In reality, his movement \"was not a retrograde but a spiral one\", and while Redburn and White-Jacket may lack the spontaneous, youthful charm of his first two books, they are \"denser in substance, richer in feeling, tauter, more complex, more connotative in texture and imagery.\" The rhythm of the prose in Omoo \"achieves little more than easiness; the language is almost neutral and without idiosyncrasy\", yet Redburn shows a \"gain in rhythmical variety and intricacy, in sharpness of diction, in syntactical resource, in painterly bravura and the fusing of image and emotion into a unity of strangeness, beauty and dread\".\n\nMelville's early works were \"increasingly baroque\" in style, and with Moby-Dick Melville's vocabulary had grown superabundant. Bezanson calls it an \"immensely varied style\". According to critic Warner Berthoff, three characteristic uses of language can be recognized. First, the exaggerated repetition of words, as in the series \"pitiable,\" \"pity,\" \"pitied,\" and \"piteous\" (Ch. 81, \"The Pequod Meets the Virgin\"). A second typical device is the use of unusual adjective-noun combinations, as in \"concentrating brow\" and \"immaculate manliness\" (Ch. 26, \"Knights and Squires\"). A third characteristic is the presence of a participial modifier to emphasize and to reinforce the already established expectations of the reader, as the words \"preluding\" and \"foreshadowing\" (\"so still and subdued and yet somehow preluding was all the scene ...,\" \"In this foreshadowing interval ...\"). \n\nAfter his use of hyphenated compounds in Pierre, Melville's writing gives Berthoff the impression of becoming less exploratory and less provocative in his choices of words and phrases. Instead of providing a lead \"into possible meanings and openings-out of the material in hand,\" the vocabulary now served \"to crystallize governing impressions,\" the diction no longer attracted attention to itself, except as an effort at exact definition. The language, Berthoff continues, reflects a \"controlling intelligence, of right judgment and completed understanding\". The sense of free inquiry and exploration which infused his earlier writing and accounted for its \"rare force and expansiveness,\" tended to give way to \"static enumeration.\" For Berthoff, added \"seriousness of consideration\" came at the cost of losing \"pace and momentum\". The verbal music and kinetic energy of Moby-Dick seem \"relatively muted, even withheld\" in the later works.\n\nMelville's paragraphing in his best work Berthoff considers to be the virtuous result of \"compactness of form and free assembling of unanticipated further data\", such as when the mysterious sperm whale is compared with Exodus's invisibility of God's face in the final paragraph of Chapter 86 (\"The Tail\"). Over time Melville's paragraphs became shorter as his sentences grew longer, until he arrived at the \"one-sentence paragraphing characteristic of his later prose.\" Berthoff points to the opening chapter of The Confidence-Man for an example, as it counts fifteen paragraphs, seven of which consist of only one elaborate sentence, and four that have only two sentences. The use of similar technique in Billy Budd contributes in large part, Berthoff says, to its \"remarkable narrative economy\". \n\nIn Nathalia Wright's view, Melville's sentences generally have a looseness of structure, easy to use for devices as catalogue and allusion, parallel and refrain, proverb and allegory. The length of his clauses may vary greatly, but the \"torterous\" writing in Pierre and The Confidence-Man is there to convey feeling, not thought. Unlike Henry James, who was an innovator of sentence ordering to render the subtlest nuances in thought, Melville made few such innovations. His domain is the mainstream of English prose, with its rhythm and simplicity influenced by the King James Bible. \n\nAnother important characteristic of Melville's writing style is in its echoes and overtones. Melville's imitation of certain distinct styles is responsible for this. His three most important sources, in order, are the Bible, Shakespeare, and Milton. Scholar Nathalia Wright has identified three stylistic categories of Biblical influence. Direct quotation from any of the sources is slight; only one sixth of his Biblical allusions can be qualified as such. \n\nFirst, far more unmarked than acknowledged quotations occur, some favorites even numerous times throughout his whole body of work, taking on the nature of refrains. Examples of this idiom are the injunctions to be 'as wise as serpents and as harmless as doves,' 'death on a pale horse,' 'the man of sorrows', the 'many mansions of heaven;' proverbs 'as the hairs on our heads are numbered,' 'pride goes before a fall,' 'the wages of sin is death;' adverbs and pronouns as 'verily, whoso, forasmuch as; phrases as come to pass, children's children, the fat of the land, vanity of vanities, outer darkness, the apple of his eye, Ancient of Days, the rose of Sharon.' \n\nSecond, there are paraphrases of individual and combined verses. Redburn's \"Thou shalt not lay stripes upon these Roman citizens\" makes use of language of the Ten Commandments in Ex.20, and Pierre's inquiry of Lucy: \"Loveth she me with the love past all understanding?\" combines John 21:15–17 and Philippians 4:7\n\nThird, certain Hebraisms are used, such as a succession of genitives (\"all the waves of the billows of the seas of the boisterous mob\"), the cognate accusative (\"I dreamed a dream,\" \"Liverpool was created with the Creation\"), and the parallel (\"Closer home does it go than a rammer; and fighting with steel is a play without ever an interlude\").\n\nA passage from Redburn (see quotebox) shows how all these different ways of alluding interlock and result in a fabric texture of Biblical language, though there is very little direct quotation.\n\nIn addition to this, Melville successfully imitates three Biblical strains: he sustains the apocalyptic for a whole chapter of Mardi; the prophetic strain is expressed in Moby-Dick, most notably in Father Mapple's sermon; and the tradition of the Psalms is imitated at length in The Confidence-Man.\n\nMelville owned an edition of Shakespeare's works by 1849, and his reading of it greatly influenced the style of his next book, Moby-Dick (1851). The critic F. O. Matthiessen found that the language of \"Shakespeare went far beyond all other influences\" upon the book, in that it inspired Melville to discover his own full strength. On almost every page, debts to Shakespeare can be discovered. The \"mere sounds, full of Leviathanism, but signifying nothing\" at the end of \"Cetology\" (Ch.32) echo the famous phrase in Macbeth: \"Told by an idiot, full of sound and fury, Signifying nothing.\" Ahab's first extended speech to the crew, in the \"Quarter-Deck\" (Ch.36), Matthiessen points out, is \"virtually blank verse\" and so is Ahab's soliloquy at the beginning of \"Sunset\" (Ch.37):'I leave a white and turbid wake;/ Pale waters, paler cheeks, where'er I sail./ The envious billows sidelong swell to whelm/ My track; let them; but first I pass.' Through Shakespeare, Melville infused Moby-Dick with a power of expression he had not previously possessed. Reading Shakespeare had been \"a catalytic agent\" for Melville, one that transformed his writing \"from limited reporting to the expression of profound natural forces.\" The extent to which Melville assimilated Shakespeare is evident in the description of Ahab, Matthiessen continues, which ends in language \"that suggests Shakespeare's but is not an imitation of it: 'Oh, Ahab! what shall be grand in thee, it must needs be plucked from the skies and dived for in the deep, and featured in the unbodied air!' The imaginative richness of the final phrase seems particularly Shakespearean, \"but its two key words appear only once each in the plays...and to neither of these usages is Melville indebted for his fresh combination.\" Melville's diction depended upon no source, and his prose is not based on anybody else's verse but on \"a sense of speech rhythm\". \n\nAccording to Matthiessen, Melville's mastering of Shakespeare supplied him with verbal resources that enabled him \"to make language itself dramatic\" through three essential techniques:\n* To rely on verbs of action, \"which lend their dynamic pressure to both movement and meaning.\" The effective tension caused by the contrast of \"thou launchest navies of full-freighted worlds\" and \"there's that in here that still remains indifferent\" in \"The Candles\" (Ch. 119) makes the last clause lead to a \"compulsion to strike the breast,\" which suggests \"how thoroughly the drama has come to inhere in the words;\" \n* The Shakespearean energy of verbal compounds was not lost on him (\"full-freighted\");\n* And, finally, Melville learned how to handle \"the quickened sense of life that comes from making one part as speech act as another - for example, 'earthquake' as an adjective, or the coining of 'placeless,' an adjective from a noun.\" \n\nMelville's style seamlessly flows over into theme, because all these borrowings have an artistic purpose, which is to suggest an appearance \"larger and more significant than life\" for characters and themes that are \"essentially simple and mundane\". The allusions suggest that beyond the world of appearances another world exists, one that \"exerts influence upon this world, and in which ultimate truth resides.\" Moreover, the ancient background thus suggested for Melville's narratives – ancient allusions being next in number to the Biblical ones – invests them \"with a certain timeless quality\".\n\nCritical response\n\nContemporary criticism\n\nMelville was not financially successful as a writer, having earned just over $10,000 for his writing during his lifetime. After his success with travelogues based on voyages to the South Seas and stories based on misadventures in the merchant marine and navy, Melville's popularity declined dramatically. By 1876, all of his books were out of print. In the later years of his life and during the years after his death, he was recognized, if at all, as a minor figure in American literature.\n\nMelville revival and Melville studies\n\nThe \"Melville Revival\" of the late 1910s and 1920s brought about a reassessment of his work. The centennial of his birth was in 1919. Carl Van Doren's 1917 article on Melville in a standard history of American literature was the start of renewed appreciation. Van Doren also encouraged Raymond Weaver, who wrote the author's first full-length biography, Herman Melville: Mariner and Mystic (1921). Discovering the unfinished manuscript of Billy Budd, among papers shown to him by Melville's granddaughter, Weaver edited it and published it in a new collected edition of Melville's works. Other works that helped fan the flames for Melville were Carl Van Doren's The American Novel (1921), D. H. Lawrence's Studies in Classic American Literature (1923), Carl Van Vechten's essay in The Double Dealer (1922), and Lewis Mumford's biography, Herman Melville: A Study of His Life and Vision (1929).\n\nStarting in the mid-1930s, the Yale University scholar Stanley Williams supervised more than a dozen dissertations on Melville that were eventually published as books. Where the first wave of Melville scholars focused on psychology, Williams' students were prominent in establishing Melville Studies as an academic field concerned with texts and manuscripts, tracing Melville's influences and borrowings (even plagiarism), and exploring archives and local publications. Jay Leyda, known for his work in film, spent more than a decade gathering documents and records for the day by day Melville Log (1951). Led by Leyda, the second phase of the Melville Revival emphasized research. Its scholars tended to think that Weaver, Harvard psychologist Henry Murray, and Mumford favored Freudian interpretations which read Melville's fiction too literally as autobiography, exaggerated Melville’s suffering in the family, mistakenly inferred a homosexual attachment to Hawthorne, and saw a tragic withdrawal after the cold critical reception for his last prose works rather than a turn to poetry as a new and satisfying form.\n\nOther post-war studies, however, continued the broad imaginative and interpretive style. Charles Olson's Call Me Ishmael (1947) presented Ahab as a Shakespearean character, and Newton Arvin's critical biography, Herman Melville (1950) won the National Book Award for non-fiction in 1951. \n\nCritical editions\n\nIn the 1960s, Northwestern University Press, in alliance with the Newberry Library and the Modern Language Association, launched a project to edit and published reliable critical texts of Melville's complete works, including unpublished poems, journals, and correspondence. The aim of the editors was to present a text \"as close as possible to the author's intention as surviving evidence permits\". The volumes have extensive appendices, including textual variants from each of the editions published in Melville's lifetime, an historical note on the publishing history and critical reception, and related documents. In many cases, it was not possible to establish a \"definitive text\", but the edition supplies all evidence available at the time. Since the texts were prepared with financial support from the United States Department of Education, no royalties are charged, and they have been widely reprinted.\n\nThe Melville Society\n\nIn 1945, The Melville Society was founded, a non-profit organisation dedicated to the study of Melville's life and works. Between 1969 and 2003 it published 125 issues of Melville Society Extracts, which are now freely available on the society's website. Since 1999 it publishes Leviathan: A Journal of Melville Studies, currently three issues a year, published by Johns Hopkins University Press.\n\nMelville's poetry\n\nMelville did not publish poetry until late in life, and his reputation as a poet was not high until late in the 20th century.\n\nMelville, says recent literary critic Lawrence Buell, \"is justly said to be nineteenth-century America’s leading poet after Whitman and Dickinson, yet his poetry remains largely unread even by many Melvillians.\" True, Buell concedes, even more than most Victorian poets, Melville turned to poetry as an \"instrument of meditation rather than for the sake of melody or linguistic play.\" It is also true that he turned from fiction to poetry late in life. Yet he wrote twice as much poetry as Dickinson and probably as many lines as Whitman, and he wrote distinguished poetry for a quarter of a century, twice as long as his career publishing prose narratives. The three novels of the 1850s which Melville worked on most seriously to present his philosophical explorations, Moby-Dick, Pierre, and The Confidence Man, seem to make the step to philosophical poetry a natural one rather than simply a consequence of commercial failure. \n\nIn 2000 the Melville scholar Elizabeth Renker wrote \"a sea change in the reception of the poems is incipient\". Some critics now place him as the first modernist poet in the United States; others assert that his work more strongly suggests what today would be a postmodern view. Henry Chapin wrote in an introduction to John Marr and Other Sailors (1888), a collection of Melville's late poetry, \"Melville's loveable freshness of personality is everywhere in evidence, in the voice of a true poet\". The poet and novelist Robert Penn Warren was a leading champion of Melville as a great American poet. Warren issued a selection of Melville's poetry prefaced by an admiring critical essay. The poetry critic Helen Vendler remarked of Clarel : \"What it cost Melville to write this poem makes us pause, reading it. Alone, it is enough to win him, as a poet, what he called 'the belated funeral flower of fame'\". \n\nGender studies\n\nMelville's writings did not attract the attention of women's studies scholars of the 1970s and 1980s, though his preference for sea-going tales that involved almost only males has since then been of interest to scholars in men's studies and especially gay and queer studies. Melville was remarkably open in his exploration of sexuality of all sorts. For example, Alvin Sandberg claimed that the short story \"The Paradise of Bachelors and the Tartarus of Maids\" offers \"an exploration of impotency, a portrayal of a man retreating to an all-male childhood to avoid confrontation with sexual manhood,\" from which the narrator engages in \"congenial\" digressions in heterogeneity. In line with this view, Warren Rosenberg argues the homosocial \"Paradise of Bachelors\" is shown to be \"superficial and sterile\".Rosenberg, 70–78\n\nDavid Harley Serlin observes in the second half of Melville's diptych, \"The Tartarus of Maids,\" the narrator gives voice to the oppressed women he observes: \n In the end Serlin says that the narrator is never fully able to come to terms with the contrasting masculine and feminine modalities.\n\nIssues of sexuality have been observed in other works as well. Rosenberg notes Taji, in Mardi, and the protagonist in Pierre \"think they are saving young 'maidens in distress' (Yillah and Isabel) out of the purest of reasons but both are also conscious of a lurking sexual motive\". When Taji kills the old priest holding Yillah captive, he says, \n\nIn Pierre, the motive of the protagonist's sacrifice for Isabel is admitted: \"womanly beauty and not womanly ugliness invited him to champion the right\". Rosenberg argues, \n\nRosenberg says that Melville fully explores the theme of sexuality in his major epic poem, Clarel. When the narrator is separated from Ruth, with whom he has fallen in love, he is free to explore other sexual (and religious) possibilities before deciding at the end of the poem to participate in the ritualistic order represented by marriage. In the course of the poem, \"he considers every form of sexual orientation – celibacy, homosexuality, hedonism, and heterosexuality – raising the same kinds of questions as when he considers Islam or Democracy\".\n\nSome passages and sections of Melville's works demonstrate his willingness to address all forms of sexuality, including the homoerotic, in his works. Commonly noted examples from Moby-Dick are the \"marriage bed\" episode involving Ishmael and Queequeg, which is interpreted as male bonding; and the \"Squeeze of the Hand\" chapter, describing the camaraderie of sailors' extracting spermaceti from a dead whale. Rosenberg notes that critics say that \"Ahab's pursuit of the whale, which they suggest can be associated with the feminine in its shape, mystery, and in its naturalness, represents the ultimate fusion of the epistemological and sexual quest.\" In addition, he notes that Billy Budd's physical attractiveness is described in quasi-feminine terms: \"As the Handsome Sailor, Billy Budd's position aboard the seventy-four was something analogous to that of a rustic beauty transplanted from the provinces and brought into competition with the highborn dames of the court.\"\n\nLaw and literature\n\nSince the late 20th century, Billy Budd has become a central text in the field of legal scholarship known as law and literature. In the novel, Billy, a handsome and popular young sailor, is impressed from the merchant vessel Rights of Man to serve aboard H.M.S. Bellipotent in the late 1790s, during the war between Revolutionary France and Great Britain. He excites the enmity and hatred of the ship's master-at-arms, John Claggart. Claggart accuses Billy of phony charges of mutiny and other crimes, and the Captain, the Honorable Edward Fairfax Vere, brings them together for an informal inquiry. At this encounter, Billy is frustrated by his stammer, which prevents him from speaking, and strikes Claggart. The blow catches Claggart squarely on the forehead and, after a gasp or two, the master-at-arms dies.\n\nVere immediately convenes a court-martial, at which, after serving as sole witness and as Billy's de facto counsel, Vere urges the court to convict and sentence Billy to death. The trial is recounted in chapter 21, the longest chapter in the book. It has become the focus of scholarly controversy; was Captain Vere a good man trapped by bad law, or did he deliberately distort and misrepresent the applicable law to condemn Billy to death? \n\nThemes \n\nAs early as 1839, in the juvenile sketch \"Fragments from a Writing Desk,\" Melville explores a problem which would reappear in the short stories \"Bartleby\" (1853) and \"Benito Cereno\" (1855): the impossibility to find common ground for mutual communication. The sketch centers on the protagonist and a mute lady, leading scholar Sealts to observe: \"Melville's deep concern with expression and communication evidently began early in his career.\" According to scholar Nathalia Wright, Melville's characters are all preoccupied by the same intense, superhuman and eternal quest for \"the absolute amidst its relative manifestations,\" an enterprise central to the Melville canon: \"All Melville's plots describe this pursuit, and all his themes represent the delicate and shifting relationship between its truth and its illusion.\" It is not clear, however, what the moral and metaphysical implications of this quest are, because Melville did not distinguish between these two aspects. Throughout his life Melville struggled with and gave shape to the same set of epistemological doubts and the metaphysical issues these doubts engendered. An obsession for the limits of knowledge led to the question of God's existence and nature, the indifference of the universe, and the problem of evil.\n\nLegacy and honors\n\nIn 1985, the New York City Herman Melville Society gathered at 104 East 26th Street to dedicate the intersection of Park Avenue south and 26th Street as Herman Melville Square. This is the street where Melville lived from 1863 to 1891 and where, among other works, he wrote Billy Budd.\n\nIn 2010 a species of extinct giant sperm whale, Livyatan melvillei, was named in honor of Melville. The paleontologists who discovered the fossil were fans of Moby-Dick and dedicated their discovery to the author.\n\nSelected bibliography\n\n* Typee: A Peep at Polynesian Life (1846)\n* Omoo: A Narrative of Adventures in the South Seas (1847)\n* Mardi: And a Voyage Thither (1849)\n* Redburn: His First Voyage (1849)\n* White-Jacket; or, The World in a Man-of-War (1850)\n* Moby-Dick; or, The Whale (1851)\n* Pierre: or, The Ambiguities (1852)\n* Isle of the Cross (1853 unpublished, and now lost)\n* \"Bartleby, the Scrivener\" (1853) (short story)\n* The Encantadas, or Enchanted Isles (1854) (novella, possibly incorporating a short rewrite of the lost Isle of the Cross )\n* \"Benito Cereno\" (1855)\n* Israel Potter: His Fifty Years of Exile (1855)\n* The Confidence-Man: His Masquerade (1857)\n* Battle-Pieces and Aspects of the War (1866) (poetry collection)\n* The Martyr (1866) one of poems in a collection, on the death of Lincoln\n* Clarel: A Poem and Pilgrimage in the Holy Land (1876) (epic poem)\n* John Marr and Other Sailors (1888) (poetry collection)\n* Timoleon (1891) (poetry collection)\n* Billy Budd, Sailor (An Inside Narrative) (1891 unfinished, published posthumously in 1924; authoritative edition in 1962)\n\nNotes", "Moby-Dick; or, The Whale is a novel by American writer Herman Melville, published in 1851 during the period of the American Renaissance. Sailor Ishmael tells the story of the obsessive quest of Ahab, captain of the whaler Pequod, for revenge on Moby Dick, the white whale which on the previous whaling voyage destroyed his ship and severed his leg at the knee. The novel was a commercial failure and out of print at the time of the author's death in 1891, but during the 20th century, its reputation as a Great American Novel was established. William Faulkner confessed he wished he had written it himself, and D. H. Lawrence called it \"one of the strangest and most wonderful books in the world\", and \"the greatest book of the sea ever written\". \"Call me Ishmael\" is among world literature's most famous opening sentences. \n\nThe product of a year and a half of writing, the book draws on Melville's experience at sea, on his reading in whaling literature, and on literary inspirations such as Shakespeare and the Bible. The white whale is modeled on the notoriously hard to catch actual albino whale Mocha Dick, and the ending is based on the sinking of the whaler Essex by a whale. The detailed and realistic descriptions of whale hunting and of extracting whale oil, as well as life aboard ship among a culturally diverse crew, are mixed with exploration of class and social status, good and evil, and the existence of God. In addition to narrative prose, Melville uses styles and literary devices ranging from songs, poetry, and catalogs to Shakespearean stage directions, soliloquies, and asides.\n\nDedicated to Nathaniel Hawthorne, \"in token of my admiration for his genius\", the work was first published as The Whale in London in October 1851, and under its definitive title in New York in November. Hundreds of differences, mostly slight and some important, are seen between the two editions. The London publisher censored or changed sensitive passages and Melville made revisions, as well, including the last-minute change in the title for the New York edition. The whale, however, appears in both editions as \"Moby Dick\", with no hyphen. About 3,200 copies were sold during the author's life.\n\nPlot\n\nIshmael travels in December from Manhattan Island to New Bedford with plans to sign up for a whaling voyage. The inn where he arrives is so crowded, he must share a bed with the tattooed Polynesian Queequeg, a harpooneer whose father was king of the (fictional) island of Rokovoko. The next morning, Ishmael and Queequeg attend Father Mapple's sermon on Jonah, then head for Nantucket. Ishmael signs up with the Quaker ship-owners Bildad and Peleg for a voyage on their whaler Pequod. Peleg describes Captain Ahab: \"He's a grand, ungodly, god-like man\" who nevertheless \"has his humanities\". They hire Queequeg the following morning. A man named Elijah prophesies a dire fate should Ishmael and Queequeg join Ahab. While provisions are loaded, shadowy figures board the ship. On a cold Christmas Day, the Pequod leaves the harbor.\n\nIshmael discusses cetology (the zoological classification and natural history of the whale), and describes the crew members. The chief mate is 30-year-old Starbuck, a Nantucket Quaker with a realist mentality, whose harpooneer is Queequeg; second mate is Stubb, from Cape Cod, happy-go-lucky and cheerful, whose harpooneer is Tashtego, a proud, pure-blooded Indian from Gay Head, and the third mate is Flask, from Martha's Vineyard, short, stout, whose harpooneer is Daggoo, a tall African, now a resident of Nantucket.\n\nWhen Ahab finally appears on the quarterdeck, he announces he is out for revenge on the white whale which took one leg from the knee down and left him with a prosthesis fashioned from a whale's jawbone. Ahab will give the first man to sight Moby Dick a doubloon, a gold coin, which he nails to the mast. Starbuck objects that he has not come for vengeance but for profit. Ahab's purpose exercises a mysterious spell on Ishmael: \"Ahab's quenchless feud seemed mine\". Instead of rounding Cape Horn, Ahab heads for the equatorial Pacific Ocean via southern Africa. One afternoon, as Ishmael and Queequeg are weaving a mat — \"its warp seemed necessity, his hand free will, and Queequeg's sword chance\" — Tashtego sights a sperm whale. Immediately, five hidden figures appear whom Ahab has brought as his own boat crew. Their leader, Fedallah, a Parsee, is Ahab's harpooneer. The pursuit is unsuccessful.\n\nSoutheast of the Cape of Good Hope, the Pequod makes the first of nine sea-encounters, or \"gams\", with other ships: Ahab hails the Goney (Albatross) to ask whether they have seen the White Whale, but the trumpet through which her captain tries to speak falls into the sea before he can answer. Ishmael explains that because of Ahab's absorption with Moby Dick, he sails on without the customary \"gam\", which defines as a \"social meeting of two (or more) Whale-ships\", in which the two captains remain on one ship and the chief mates on the other. In the second gam off the Cape of Good Hope, with the Town-Ho, a Nantucket whaler, the concealed story of a \"judgment of God\" is revealed, but only to the crew: a defiant sailor who struck an oppressive officer is flogged, and when that officer led the chase for Moby Dick, he fell from the boat and was killed by the whale.\n\nIshmael digresses on pictures of whales, brit (microscopic sea creatures on which whales feed), squid and — after four boats lowered in vain because Daggoo mistook a giant squid for the white whale — whale-lines. The next day, in the Indian Ocean, Stubb kills a sperm whale, and that night Fleece, the Pequods black cook, prepares him a rare whale steak. Fleece delivers a sermon to the sharks that fight each other to feast on the whale's carcass, tied to the ship, saying that their nature is to be voracious, but they must overcome it. The whale is prepared, beheaded, and barrels of oil are tried out. Standing at the head of the whale, Ahab begs it to speak of the depths of the sea. The Pequod next encounters the Jeroboam, which not only lost its chief mate to Moby Dick, but also is now plagued by an epidemic.\n\nThe whale carcass still lies in the water. Queequeg mounts it, tied to Ishmael's belt by a monkey-rope as if they were Siamese twins. Stubb and Flask kill a right whale whose head is fastened to a yardarm opposite the sperm whale's head. Ishmael compares the two heads in a philosophical way: the right whale is Lockean, stoic, and the sperm whale as Kantean, platonic. Tashtego cuts into the head of the sperm whale and retrieves buckets of oil. He falls into the head, and the head falls off the yardarm into the sea. Queequeg dives after him and frees his mate with his sword.\n\nThe Pequod next gams with the Jungfrau from Bremen. Both ships sight whales simultaneously, with the Pequod winning the contest. The three harpooneers dart their harpoons, and Flask delivers the mortal strike with a lance. The carcass sinks, and Queequeg barely manages to escape. The Pequods next gam is with the French whaler Bouton de Rose, whose crew is ignorant of the ambergris in the head of the diseased whale in their possession. Stubb talks them out of it, but Ahab orders him away. Days later, an encounter with a harpooned whale prompts Pip, a little black cabin-boy from Alabama, to jump out of his whale boat. The whale must be cut loose, because the line has Pip so entangled in it. Furious, Stubb orders Pip to stay in the whale boat, but Pip later jumps again, and is left alone in the immense sea and has gone insane by the time he is picked up.\n\nCooled sperm oil congeals and must be squeezed back into liquid state; blubber is boiled in the try-pots on deck; the warm oil is decanted into casks, and then stowed in the ship. After the operation, the decks are scrubbed. The coin hammered to the main mast shows three Andes summits, one with a flame, one with a tower, and one a crowing cock. Ahab stops to look at the doubloon and interprets the coin as signs of his firmness, volcanic energy, and victory; Starbuck takes the high peaks as evidence of the Trinity; Stubb focuses on the zodiacal arch over the mountains; and Flask sees nothing of any symbolic value at all. The Manxman mutters in front of the mast, and Pip declines the verb \"look\".\n\nThe Pequod next gams with the Samuel Enderby of London, captained by Boomer, a down-to-earth fellow who lost his right arm to Moby Dick. Nevertheless, he carries no ill will toward the whale, which he regards not as malicious, but as awkward. Ahab puts an end to the gam by rushing back to his ship. The narrator now discusses the subjects of 1) whalers supply; 2) a glen in Tranque in the Arsacides islands full of carved whale bones, fossil whales, whale skeleton measurements; 3) the chance that the magnitude of the whale will diminish and that the leviathan might perish.\n\nLeaving the Samuel Enderby, Ahab wrenches his ivory leg and orders the carpenter to fashion him another. Starbuck informs Ahab of oil leakage in the hold. Reluctantly, Ahab orders the harpooneers to inspect the casks. Queequeg, sweating all day below decks, develops a chill and soon is almost mortally feverish. The carpenter makes a coffin for Queequeg, who fears an ordinary burial at sea. Queequeg tries it for size, with Pip sobbing and beating his tambourine, standing by and calling himself a coward while he praises Queequeg for his gameness. Yet Queequeg suddenly rallies, briefly convalesces, and leaps up, back in good health. Henceforth, he uses his coffin for a spare seachest, which is later caulked and pitched to replace the Pequods life buoy.\n\nThe Pequod sails northeast toward Formosa and into the Pacific Ocean. Ahab, with one nostril, smells the musk from the Bashee isles, and with the other, the salt of the waters where Moby Dick swims. Ahab goes to Perth, the blacksmith, with bag of racehorse shoenail stubs to be forged into the shank of a special harpoon, and with his razors for Perth to melt and fashion into a harpoon barb. Ahab tempers the barb in blood from Queequeg, Tashtego, and Daggoo.\n\nThe Pequod gams next with the Bachelor, a Nantucket ship heading home full of sperm oil. Every now and then, the Pequod lowers for whales with success. On one of those nights in the whaleboat, Fedallah prophesies that neither hearse nor coffin can be Ahab's, that before he dies, Ahab must see two hearses — one not made by mortal hands and the other made of American wood — that Fedallah will precede his captain in death, and finally that only hemp can kill Ahab.\n\nAs the Pequod approaches the Equator, Ahab scolds his quadrant for telling him only where he is and not where he will be. He dashes it to the deck. That evening, an impressive typhoon attacks the ship. Lightning strikes the mast, setting the doubloon and Ahab's harpoon aglow. Ahab delivers a speech on the spirit of fire, seeing the lightning as a portent of Moby Dick. Starbuck sees the lightning as a warning, and feels tempted to shoot the sleeping Ahab with a musket. Next morning, when he finds that the lightning disoriented the compass, Ahab makes a new one out of a lance, a maul, and a sailmaker's needle. He orders the log be heaved, but the weathered line snaps, leaving the ship with no way to fix its location.\n\nThe Pequod is now heading southeast toward Moby Dick. A man falls overboard from the mast. The life buoy is thrown, but both sink. Now Queequeg proposes that his superfluous coffin be used as a new life buoy. Starbuck orders the carpenter take care it is lidded and caulked. Next morning, the ship meets in another truncated gam with the Rachel, commanded by Captain Gardiner from Nantucket. The Rachel is seeking survivors from one of her whaleboats which had gone after Moby Dick. Among the missing is Gardiner's young son. Ahab refuses to join the search. Twenty-four hours a day, Ahab now stands and walks the deck, while Fedallah shadows him. Suddenly, a sea hawk grabs Ahab's slouched hat and flies off with it. Next, the Pequod, in a ninth and final gam, meets the Delight, badly damaged and with five of her crew left dead by Moby Dick. Her captain shouts that the harpoon which can kill the white whale has yet to be forged, but Ahab flourishes his special lance and once more orders the ship forward. Ahab shares a moment of contemplation with Starbuck. Ahab speaks about his wife and child, calls himself a fool for spending 40 years on whaling, and claims he can see his own child in Starbuck's eye. Starbuck tries to persuade Ahab to return to Nantucket to meet both their families, but Ahab simply crosses the deck and stands near Fedallah.\n\nOn the first day of the chase, Ahab smells the whale, climbs the mast, and sights Moby Dick. He claims the doubloon for himself, and orders all boats to lower except for Starbuck's. The whale bites Ahab's boat in two, tosses the captain out of it, and scatters the crew. On the second day of the chase, Ahab leaves Starbuck in charge of the Pequod. Moby Dick smashes the three boats that seek him into splinters and tangles their lines. Ahab is rescued, but his ivory leg and Fedallah are lost. Starbuck begs Ahab to desist, but Ahab vows to slay the white whale, even if he would have to dive through the globe itself to get his revenge.\n\nOn the third day of the chase, Ahab sights Moby Dick at noon, and sharks appear, as well. Ahab lowers his boat for a final time, leaving Starbuck again on board. Moby Dick breaches and destroys two boats. Fedallah's corpse, still entangled in the fouled lines, is lashed to the whale's back, so Moby Dick turns out to be the hearse Fedallah prophesied. \"Possessed by all the fallen angels\", Ahab plants his harpoon in the whale's flank. Moby Dick smites the whaleboat, tossing its men into the sea. Only Ishmael survives. The whale now fatally attacks the Pequod. Ahab then realizes that the destroyed ship is the hearse made of American wood in Fedallah's prophesy. The whale returns to Ahab, who stabs at him again. The line loops around Ahab's neck, and as the stricken whale swims away, the captain is drawn with him out of sight. Queequeg's coffin comes to the surface, the only thing to escape the vortex when Pequod sank. For an entire day, Ishmael floats on it, and then the Rachel, still looking for its lost seamen, rescues him.\n\nStructure\n\nPoint of view \n\nCritic Walter Bezanson points out that Ishmael is the narrator, shaping his story with use of many different genres including sermons, stage plays, soliloquies, and emblematical readings. Repeatedly, Ishmael refers to his writing of the book: \"'But how can I hope to explain myself here; and yet, in some dim, random way, explain myself I must, else all these chapters might be naught.'\" Scholar John Bryant calls Ishmael the novel's \"central consciousness and narrative voice.\" Bezanson distinguishes Ishmael as narrator from Ishmael as character, whom he calls \"forecastle Ishmael\", the younger Ishmael of some years ago. Narrator Ishmael, then, is \"merely young Ishmael grown older.\" Bezanson further distinguishes Ishmael from the sailor and author Herman Melville. Neither Ishmael must be equated with Melville himself, Bezanson warns readers to \"resist any one-to-one equation of Melville and Ishmael.\" \n\nChapter structure \n\nAccording to critic Walter Bezanson, the chapter structure can be divided into \"chapter sequences\", \"chapter clusters\", and \"balancing chapters\". The simplest sequences are of narrative progression, then sequences of theme such as the three chapters on whale painting, and sequences of structural similarity, such as the five dramatic chapters beginning with \"The Quarter-Deck\" or the four chapters beginning with \"The Candles\". Chapter clusters are the chapters on the significance of the colour white, and those on the meaning of fire. Balancing chapters are chapters of opposites, such as \"Loomings\" versus the \"Epilogue,\" or similars, such as \"The Quarter-Deck\" and \"The Candles\". \n\nScholar Lawrence Buell describes the arrangement of the non-narrative chapters as structured around three patterns: first, the nine meetings of the Pequod with ships that have encountered Moby Dick. Each has been more and more severely damaged, foreshadowing the Pequods own fate. Second, the increasingly impressive encounters with whales. In the early encounters, the whaleboats hardly make contact; later there are false alarms and routine chases; finally, the massive assembling of whales at the edges of the China Sea in \"The Grand Armada\". A typhoon near Japan sets the stage for Ahab's confrontation with Moby Dick. The third pattern is the cetological documentation, so lavish that it can be divided into two subpatterns. These chapters start with the ancient history of whaling and a bibliographical classification of whales, getting closer with second-hand stories of the evil of whales in general and of Moby Dick in particular, a chronologically ordered commentary on pictures of whales. The climax to this section is chapter 57, \"Of whales in paint etc.\", which begins with the humble (a beggar in London) and ends with the sublime (the constellation Cetus). The next chapter (\"Brit\"), thus the other half of this pattern, begins with the book's first description of live whales, and next the anatomy of the sperm whale is studied, more or less from front to rear and from outer to inner parts, all the way down to the skeleton. Two concluding chapters set forth the whale's evolution as a species and claim its eternal nature. \n\nSome \"ten or more\" of the chapters on whale killings, beginning at two-fifths of the book, are developed enough to be called \"events\". As Bezanson writes, \"in each case a killing provokes either a chapter sequence or a chapter cluster of cetological lore growing out of the circumstance of the particular killing,\" thus these killings are \"structural occasions for ordering the whaling essays and sermons\". \n\nBuell observes that the \"narrative architecture\" is an \"idiosyncratic variant of the bipolar observer/hero narrative\", that is, the novel is structured around the two main characters, Ahab and Ishmael, who are intertwined and contrasted with each other, with Ishmael the observer and narrator. As the story of Ishmael, remarks Robert Milder, it is a \"narrative of education\". \n\nBryant and Springer find that the book is structured around the two consciousnesses of Ahab and Ishmael, with Ahab as a force of linearity and Ishmael a force of digression. While both have an angry sense of being orphaned, they try to come to terms with this hole in their beings in different ways: Ahab with violence, Ishmael with meditation. And while the plot in Moby-Dick may be driven by Ahab's anger, Ishmael's desire to get a hold of the \"ungraspable\" accounts for the novel's lyricism. Buell sees a double quest in the book: Ahab's is to hunt Moby Dick, Ishmael's is \"to understand what to make of both whale and hunt\".\n\nOne of the most distinctive features of the book is the variety of genres. Bezanson mentions sermons, dreams, travel account, autobiography, Elizabethan plays, and epic poetry. He calls Ishmael's explanatory footnotes to establish the documentary genre \"a Nabokovian touch\". \n\nThe meetings with other ships \n\nA significant structural device is the series of nine meetings with other ships, important in three ways, first of all their distribution over the narrative. The first two meetings, as well as the last two, are close together. The central group of five are \"well spaced\" by about 12 chapters with reasonably limited divergences. This \"somewhat mechanical\" pattern makes for \"a stiffening element\" in the book, as if the encounters are \"bones to the book's flesh\". Second, Ahab's response to the sequence of meetings shows the \"rising curve of his passion\" so that the meetings form a diagram of the climactic development of his monomania. Third, in contrast to Ahab, Ishmael's response is to take each ship individually: \"each ship is a scroll which the narrator unrolls and reads.\" For Bezanson, there is no single systematic way to account for the meaning of all of these ships. Instead, they may be interpreted variously as \"a group of metaphysical parables, a series of biblical analogues, a masque of the situation confronting man, a pageant of the humors within men, a parade of the nations, and so forth,'as well as concrete and symbolic ways of thinking about the White Whale\". \n\nScholar Nathalia Wright divides the meetings with the vessels along other lines, singling out \"four vessels met by the Pequod which have already encountered Ahab's quarry\". The first of these, the Jeroboam, is named after the predecessor of the biblical King Ahab. Her \"prophetic\" fate is \"a message of warning to all who follow, articulated by Gabriel and vindicated by the Samuel Enderby, the Rachel, the Delight, and at last the Pequod\". None of the other ships has been completely destroyed, because none of the captains shared Ahab's monomania, so the fate of the Jeroboam reinforces the structural parallel between Ahab and his biblical namesake: \"Ahab did more to provoke the Lord God of Israel to anger than all the kings of Israel that were before him\" (I Kings 16:33). \n\nThemes\n\nOne of the early critics of the Melville Revival, British author E. M. Forster, remarked in 1927: \"Moby-Dick is full of meanings: its meaning is a different problem.\" Yet he saw as \"the essential\" in the book \"its prophetic song\", which flows \"like an undercurrent\" beneath the surface action and morality. \n\nEditors Bryant and Springer suggest perception is a central theme, the difficulty of seeing and understanding, which makes deep reality hard to discover and truth hard to pin down. Ahab explains that, like all things, the evil whale wears a disguise: \"All visible objects, man, are but pasteboard masks\" — and Ahab is determined to \"strike through the mask! How can the prisoner reach outside, except by thrusting through the wall? To me, the white whale is that wall\" (Ch. 36, \"The Quarter-Deck\"). This theme pervades the novel, perhaps never so emphatically as in \"The Doubloon\" (Ch. 99), where each crewmember perceives the coin in a way shaped by his own personality. Later, the American edition has Ahab \"discover no sign\" (Ch. 133) of the whale when he is staring into the deep. In fact, Moby Dick is then swimming up at him. In the British edition, Melville changed the word \"discover\" to \"perceive\", and with good reason, for \"discovery\" means finding what is already there, but \"perceiving\", or better still, perception, is \"a matter of shaping what exists by the way in which we see it\". The point is not that Ahab would discover the whale as an object, but that he would perceive it as a symbol of his making.\n\nMelville biographer Delbanco cites race as an example of this search for truth beneath surface differences. All races are represented among the crew members of the Pequod. Although Ishmael initially is afraid of Queequeg as a tattooed cannibal, he soon decides, \"Better sleep with a sober cannibal than a drunken Christian.\" While it may be rare for a mid-19th century American book to feature black characters in a nonslavery context, slavery is frequently mentioned. The theme of race is primarily carried by Pip, the diminutive black cabin boy. When Pip has almost drowned, Ahab, genuinely touched by Pip's suffering, questions him gently, Pip \"can only parrot the language of an advertisement for the return of a fugitive slave: 'Pip! Reward for Pip!'\". \n\nYet Melville does not offer easy solutions. Ishmael and Queequeg's sensual friendship initiates a kind of racial harmony that is shattered when the crew's dancing erupts into racial conflict in \"Midnight, Forecastle\" (Ch. 40). Fifty chapters later, Pip suffers mental disintegration after he is reminded that as a slave he would be worth less money than a whale. Commodified and brutalized, \"Pip becomes the ship's conscience.\" His views of property are another example of wrestling with moral choice. In Chapter 89, Ishmael expounds the concept of the fast-fish and the loose-fish, which gives right of ownership to those who take possession of an abandoned fish or ship, and observes that the British Empire took possession of American Indian lands in colonial times in just the way that whalers take possession of an unclaimed whale. \n\nStyle\n\nAn incomplete inventory of the language of Moby-Dick by editors Bryant and Springer includes \"nautical, biblical, Homeric, Shakespearean, Miltonic, cetological\" influences, and his style is \"alliterative, fanciful, colloquial, archaic, and unceasingly allusive\": Melville tests and exhausts the possibilities of grammar, quotes from a range of well-known or obscure sources, and swings from calm prose to high rhetoric, technical exposition, seaman's slang, mystic speculation, or wild prophetic archaism. \n\nThe superabundant vocabulary of the work can be broken down into strategies used individually and in combination. First, the original modification of words as \"Leviathanism\" and the exaggerated repetition of modified words, as in the series \"pitiable\", \"pity\", \"pitied\" and \"piteous\" (Ch. 81, \"The Pequod Meets the Virgin\"), Second, the use of existing words in new ways, as when the whale \"heaps\" and \"tasks\". Third, words lifted from specialized fields, as \"fossiliferous\". Fourth, the use of unusual adjective-noun combinations, as in \"concentrating brow\" and \"immaculate manliness\" (Ch. 26, \"Knights and Squires\"). Fifth, using the participial modifier to emphasize and to reinforce the already established expectations of the reader, as the words \"preluding\" and \"foreshadowing\" (\"so still and subdued and yet somehow preluding was all the scene ...\", \"In this foreshadowing interval ...\").\n\nCharacteristic stylistic elements of another kind are the echoes and overtones. Responsible for this are both Melville's imitation of certain distinct styles and his habitual use of sources to shape his own work. His three most important sources, in order, are the Bible, Shakespeare, and Milton. \n\nAnother notable stylistic element are the several levels of rhetoric, the simplest of which is \"a relatively straightfoward expository style\" that is evident of many passages in the cetological chapters, though they are \"rarely sustained, and serve chiefly as transitions\" between more sophisticated levels. One of these is the \"poetic\" level of rhetoric, which Bezanson sees \"well exemplified\" in Ahab's quarter-deck soliloquy, to the point that it can be set as blank verse. Set over a metrical patern, the rhythms are \"evenly controlled--too evenly perhaps for prose,\" Bezanson suggests. A third level of rhetoric is the idiomatic, and just as the poetic it hardly is present in pure form. Examples of this are \"the consistently excellent idiom\" of Stubb, such as in the way he encourages the rowing crew in a rhythm of speech that suggests \"the beat of the oars takes the place of the metronomic meter\". The fourth and final level of rhetoric is the composite, \"a magnificent blending\" of the first three and possible other elements:\n\nThe Nantucketer, he alone resides and riots on the sea; he alone, in Bible language, goes down to it in ships; to and fro ploughing it as his own special plantation. There is his home; there lies his buisiness, which a Noah's flood would not interrupt, though it overwhelmed all the millions in China. He lives on the sea, as praisie cocks in the prairie; he hides among the waves, he climbs them as chamois hunters climb the Alps. For years he knows not the land; so that when he comes to it at last, it smells like another world, more strangely than the moon would to an Earthsman. With the landless gull, that at sunset folds her wings and is rocked to sleep between billows; so at nightfall, the Nantucketer, out of sight of land, furls his sails, and lays him to his rest, while under his very pillow rush herds of walruses and whales.\n(\"Nantucket,\" Ch. 14).\n\nThis passage, from a chapter that Bezanson calls a comical \"prose poem\", blends \"high and low with a relaxed assurance\". Similar great passages include the \"marvelous hymn to spiritual democracy\" that can be found in the middle of \"Knights and Squires\". \n\nThe elaborate use of the Homeric simile may not have been learned from Homer himself, yet Matthiessen finds the writing \"more consistently alive\" on the Homeric than on the Shakespearean level, especially during the final chase the \"controlled accumulation\" of such similes emphasizes Ahab's hubris through a succession of land-images, for instance: \"The ship tore on; leaving such a furrow in the sea as when a cannon-ball, missent, becomes a ploughshare and turns up the level field\" (\"The Chase - Second Day,\" Ch. 134). One paragraph-long simile describes how the 30 men of the crew became a single unit:\n\nFor as the one ship that held them all; though it was put together of all contrasting things--oak, and maple, and pine wood; iron, and pitch, and hemp--yet all these ran into each other in the one concrete hull, which shot on its way, both balanced and directed by the long central keel; even so, all the individualities of the crew, this man's valor, that man's fear; guilt and guiltiness, all varieties were welded into oneness, and were all directed to that fatal goal which Ahab their one lord and keel did point to.\n(\"The Chase - Second Day,\" Ch. 134).\n\nThe final phrase fuses the two halves of the comparison, the men become identical with the ship, which follows Ahab's direction. The concentration only gives way to more imagery, with the \"mastheads, like the tops of tall palms, were outspreadingly tufted with arms and legs\". All these images contribute their \"startling energy\" to the advance of the narrative. When the boats are lowered, the imagery serves to dwarf everything but Ahab's will in the presence of Moby Dick. These similes, with their astonishing \"imaginative abundance,\" are not only invaluable in creating the dramatic movement, Matthiessen observes: \"They are no less notable for breadth; and the more sustained among them, for an heroic dignity.\" \n\nAssimilation of Shakespeare\n\nThe influence of Shakespeare on the book has been analyzed by F.O. Matthiessen in his 1941 study of the American Renaissance with such results that almost a half century later Bezanson still considered him \"the richest critic on these matters.\" According to Matthiesen, then, Melville's \"possession by Shakespeare went far beyond all other influences\" in that it made Melville discover his own full strength \"through the challenge of the most abundant imagination in history\". Especially the influence of King Lear and Macbeth has attracted scholarly attention. On almost every page debts to Shakespeare can be discovered, whether hard or easy to recognize. Matthiessen points out that the \"mere sounds, full of Leviathanism, but signifying nothing\" at the end of \"Cetology\" (Ch.32) echo the famous phrase in Macbeth: \"Told by an idiot, full of sound and fury, Signifying nothing.\" As Matthiessen demonstrates, Ahab's first extended speech to the crew, in the \"Quarter-Deck\" (Ch.36), is \"virtually blank verse, and can be printed as such\":\n\nBut look ye, Starbuck, what is said in heat,\nThat thing unsays itself. There are men\nFrom whom warm words are small indignity.\nI mean not to incense thee. Let it go.\nLook! see yonder Turkish cheeks of spotted tawn--\nLiving, breathing pictures painted by the sun.\nThe pagan leopards--the unrecking and\nUnworshipping things, that live; and seek and give\nNo reason for the torrid life they feel! \n\nMost importantly, through Shakespeare, Melville infused Moby-Dick with a power of expression he had not previously possessed. Reading Shakespeare, Matthiessen observes, had been \"a catalytic agent\" for Melville, one that transformed his writing \"from limited reporting to the expression of profound natural forces\". The extent to which Melville was in full possession of his powers is demonstrated by Matthiessen through the description of Ahab, which ends in language \"that suggests Shakespeare's but is not an imitation of it: 'Oh, Ahab! what shall be grand in thee, it must needs be plucked from the skies and dived for in the deep, and featured in the unbodied air!' The imaginative richness of the final phrase seems particularly Shakespearean, \"but its two key words appear only once each in the plays ... and to neither of these usages is Melville indebted for his fresh combination.\" Melville's assimilation of Shakespeare, Matthiessen concludes, gave Moby-Dick \"a kind of diction that depended upon no source\", and that could, as D.H. Lawrence put it, convey something \"almost superhuman or inhuman, bigger than life.\" The prose is not based on anybody else's verse but on \"a sense of speech rhythm\". \n\nIn addition to this sense of rhythm, Melville acquired verbal resources which for Matthiessen showd that he \"now mastered Shakespeare's mature secret of how to make language itself dramatic\". He had learned three essential things, Matthiessen sums up:\n* To rely on verbs of action, \"which lend their dynamic pressure to both movement and meaning.\" The effective tension caused by the contrast of \"thou launchest navies of full-freighted worlds\" and \"there's that in here that still remains indifferent\" in \"The Candles\" (Ch. 119) makes the last clause lead to a \"compulsion to strike the breast\", which suggests \"how thoroughly the drama has come to inhere in the words;\" \n* The Shakespearean energy of verbal compounds was not lost on him (\"full-freighted\");\n* And, finally, Melville learned how to handle \"the quickened sense of life that comes from making one part of speech act as another – for example, 'earthquake' as an adjective, or the coining of 'placeless', an adjective from a noun.\" \n\nBackground\n\nAutobiographical elements\n\nMoby-Dick is based on Melville's actual experience on a whaler. On December 30, 1840, he signed on as a green hand for the maiden voyage of the Acushnet, planned to last for 52 months. Its owner, Melvin O. Bradford, resembled Bildad, who signed on Ishmael, in that he was a Quaker: on several instances when he signed documents, he erased the word \"swear\" and replaced it with \"affirm\". Its captain was Valentine Pease, Jr., who was 43 years old at the start of the voyage. Although 26 men signed up as crew members, two did not show up for the ship's departure and were replaced by one new crew member. Five of the crew were foreigners, four of them Portuguese. The Scottish carpenter was one of the two who did not show for the ship's departure. Three black men were in the crew, two seamen and the cook. Fleece, the cook of the Pequod, was also black, so probably modeled on this Philadelphia-born William Maiden, who was 38 years old when he signed for the Acushnet. \n\nOnly 11 of the 26 original crew members completed the voyage. The others either deserted or were regularly discharged. The First Officer, Frederic Raymond, left the ship after a \"fight\" with the captain. A first mate, actually called Edward C. Starbuck, was on an earlier voyage with Captain Pease, in the early 1830s, and was discharged at Tahiti under mysterious circumstances. The second mate on the Acushnet was John Hall, English-born but a naturalized American. He is identified as Stubb in an annotation in the book's copy of crew member Henry Hubbard, who, like Melville, had joined the voyage as a green hand. Hubbard also identified the model for Pip: John Backus, a little black man added to the crew during the voyage. Hubbard's annotation appears in the chapter \"The Castaway\" and reveals that Pip's falling into the water was authentic; Hubbard was with him in the same boat when the incident occurred.\n\nAhab seems to have had no model in real life, though his death may have been based on an actual event. On May 18, 1843, Melville was aboard The Star, which sailed for Honolulu. Aboard were two sailors from the Nantucket who could have told him that they had seen their second mate \"taken out of a whaleboat by a foul line and drowned\". The model for the Whaleman's Chapel of chapter 7 is the Seamen's Bethel on Johnny Cake Hill. Melville attended a service there shortly before he shipped out on the Acushnet, and he heard a sermon by the chaplain, 63-year-old Reverend Enoch Mudge, who is at least in part the model for Father Mapple. Even the topic of Jonah and the Whale may be authentic, for Mudge was a contributor to Sailor's Magazine, which printed in December 1840 the ninth of a series of sermons on Jonah. \n\nMelville's sources\n\nIn addition to his own experience on the whaling ship Acushnet, two actual events served as the genesis for Melville's tale. One was the sinking of the Nantucket ship Essex in 1820, after a sperm whale rammed her 2,000 miles (3,200 km) from the western coast of South America. First mate Owen Chase, one of eight survivors, recorded the events in his 1821 Narrative of the Most Extraordinary and Distressing Shipwreck of the Whale-Ship Essex.\n\nThe other event was the alleged killing in the late 1830s of the albino sperm whale Mocha Dick, in the waters off the Chilean island of Mocha. Mocha Dick was rumored to have 20 or so harpoons in his back from other whalers, and appeared to attack ships with premeditated ferocity. One of his battles with a whaler served as subject for an article by explorer Jeremiah N. Reynolds in the May 1839 issue of The Knickerbocker or New-York Monthly Magazine. Melville was familiar with the article, which described: Significantly, Reynolds writes a first-person narration that serves as a frame for the story of a whaling captain he meets. The captain resembles Ahab and suggests a similar symbolism and single-minded motivation in hunting this whale, in that when his crew first encounters Mocha Dick and cowers from him, the captain rallies them: \n\nMocha Dick had over 100 encounters with whalers in the decades between 1810 and the 1830s. He was described as being gigantic and covered in barnacles. Although he was the most famous, Mocha Dick was not the only white whale in the sea, nor the only whale to attack hunters. \n\nWhile an accidental collision with a sperm whale at night accounted for sinking of the Union in 1807, it was not until August 1851 that the whaler Ann Alexander, while hunting in the Pacific off the Galápagos Islands, became the second vessel since the Essex to be attacked, holed, and sunk by a whale. Melville remarked, \"Ye Gods! What a commentator is this Ann Alexander whale. What he has to say is short & pithy & very much to the point. I wonder if my evil art has raised this monster.\" \n\nWhile Melville had already drawn on his different sailing experiences in his previous novels, such as Mardi, he had never focused specifically on whaling. The 18 months he spent as an ordinary seaman aboard the whaler Acushnet in 1841–42, and one incident in particular, now served as inspiration. During a mid-ocean \"gam\" (rendezvous at sea between ships), he met Chase's son William, who lent him his father's book. Melville later wrote: \n\nThe book was out of print, and rare. Melville let his interest in the book be known to his father-in-law, Lemuel Shaw, whose friend in Nantucket procured an imperfect but clean copy which Shaw gave to Melville in April 1851. Melville read this copy avidly, made copious notes in it, and had it bound, keeping it in his library for the rest of his life. \n\nMoby-Dick contains large sections—most of them narrated by Ishmael—that seemingly have nothing to do with the plot, but describe aspects of the whaling business. Although a successful earlier novel about Nantucket whalers had been written, Miriam Coffin or The Whale-Fisherman (1835) by Joseph C. Hart, which is credited with influencing elements of Melville's work, most accounts of whaling tended to be sensational tales of bloody mutiny, and Melville believed that no book up to that time had portrayed the whaling industry in as fascinating or immediate a way as he had experienced it. Early Romantics also proposed that fiction was the exemplary way to describe and record history, so Melville wanted to craft something educational and definitive.\n\nComposition\n\nThe earliest surviving mention of the composition of what became Moby-Dick is the final paragraph of the letter Melville wrote to Richard Henry Dana, Jr. on May 1, 1850:\n\nSome scholars have concluded that Melville composed Moby-Dick in two or even three stages. Reasoning from a series of inconsistencies and structural developments in the final version, they hypothesize that the work he mentioned to Dana was, in the words of Lawrence Buell, a \"relatively straightforward\" whaling adventure, but that reading Shakespeare and his encounters with Hawthorne inspired him to rewrite it as \"an epic of cosmic encyclopedic proportions\". Bezanson objects that the letter contains too many ambiguities to assume \"that Dana's 'suggestion' would obviously be that Melville do for whaling what he had done for life on a man-of-war in White-Jacket\". In addition, Dana had experienced how incomparable Melville was in dramatic story telling when he met him in Boston, so perhaps \"his 'suggestion' was that Melville do a book that captured that gift\". And the long sentence in the middle of the above quotation simply acknowledges that Melville is struggling with the problem, not of choosing between fact and fancy but of how to interrelate them. The most positive statements are that it will be a strange sort of a book and that Melville means to give the truth of the thing, but what thing exactly is not clear.\n\nMelville may have found the plot before writing or developed it after the writing process was underway. Considering his elaborate use of sources, \"it is safe to say\" that they helped him shape the narrative, its plot included. Scholars John Bryant and Haskell Springer cite the development of the character Ishmael as another factor which prolonged Melville's process of composition and which can be deduced from the structure of the final version of the book. Ishmael, in the early chapters, is simply the narrator, just as the narrators in Melville's earlier sea adventures had been, but in later chapters becomes a mystical stage manager who is central to the tragedy. \n\nLess than two months after mentioning the project to Dana, Melville reported in a letter of June 27 to Richard Bentley, his English publisher:\n\nNathaniel Hawthorne and his family had moved to a small red farmhouse near Lenox, Massachusetts, at the end of March 1850. He became friends with Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr. and Melville beginning on August 5, 1850, when the authors met at a picnic hosted by a mutual friend. Melville wrote an unsigned review of Hawthorne's short story collection Mosses from an Old Manse titled \"Hawthorne and His Mosses\", which appeared in the The Literary World on August 17 and 24. Bezanson finds the essay \"so deeply related to Melville's imaginative and intellectual world while writing Moby-Dick\" that it could be regarded as a virtual preface and should be \"everybody's prime piece of contextual reading\". In the essay, Melville compares Hawthorne to Shakespeare and Dante, and his \"self-projection\" is evident in the repeats of the word \"genius\", the more than two dozen references to Shakespeare, and in the insistence that Shakespeare's \"unapproachability\" is nonsense for an American.\n\nThe most intense work on the book was done during the winter of 1850–1851, when Melville had changed the noise of New York City for a farm in Pittsfield, Massachusetts. The move may well have delayed finishing the book. During these months, he wrote several excited letters to Hawthorne, including one of June 1851 in which he summarizes his career: \"What I feel most moved to write, that is banned, — it will not pay. Yet, altogether, write the other way I cannot. So the product is a final hash, and all my books are botches.\" This is the stubborn Melville who stood by Mardi and talked about his other, more commercial books with contempt. The letter also reveals how Melville experienced his development from his 25th year: \"Three weeks have scarcely passed, at any time between then and now, that I have not unfolded within myself. But I feel that I am now come to the inmost leaf of the bulb, and that shortly the flower must fall to the mould.\" One other theory holds that getting to know Hawthorne first inspired him to write Ahab's tragic obsession into the book, but Bryant and Springer object that Melville already had experienced other encounters which could just as well have triggered his imagination, such as the Bible's Jonah and Job, Milton's Satan, Shakespeare's King Lear, Byron's heroes.\n\nTheories of the composition of the book have been harpooned in three ways, first by raising objections against the use of evidence and the evidence itself. Scholar Robert Milder sees \"insufficient evidence and doubtful methodology\" at work. John Bryant finds \"little concrete evidence, and nothing at all conclusive, to show that Melville radically altered the structure or conception of the book\". A second type of objection is based upon Melville's intellectual development. Bezanson is not convinced that before he met Hawthorne, \"Melville was not ready for the kind of book Moby-Dick became\", because in his letters from the time Melville denounces his last two \"straight narratives, Redburn and White-Jacket, as two books written just for the money, and he firmly stood by Mardi as the kind of book he believed in. His language is already \"richly steeped in 17th-century mannerisms\", characteristics of Moby-Dick. A third type calls upon the literary nature of passages used as evidence. According to Milder, the cetological chapters cannot be leftovers from an earlier stage of composition and any theory that they are \"will eventually founder on the stubborn meaningfulness of these chapters\", because no scholar adhering to the theory has yet explained how these chapters \"can bear intimate thematic relation to a symbolic story not yet conceived\". Buell finds that theories based on a combination of selected passages from letters and what are perceived as \"loose ends\" in the book not only \"tend to dissolve into guesswork\", but he also suggests that these so-called loose ends may be intended by the author: repeatedly the book mentions \"the necessary unfinishedness of immense endeavors\". Despite all this, Buell finds the evidence that Melville changed his ambitions during writing \"on the whole convincing\".\n\nPublication history\n\nMelville first proposed the English publication in a 27 June 1850 letter to Richard Bentley, London publisher of his earlier works. Textual scholar G. Thomas Tanselle explains that for these earlier books, American proof sheets had been sent to the English publisher and that publication in the United States had been held off until the work had been set in type and published in England. This procedure was intended to provide the best (though still uncertain) claim for the English copyright of an American work. In the case of Moby-Dick, Melville had taken almost a year longer than promised, and could not rely on Harpers to prepare the proofs as they had done for the earlier books. Indeed, Harpers had denied him an advance, and since he was already in debt to them for almost $700, he was forced to borrow money and to arrange for the typesetting and plating himself. John Bryant suggests that he did so \"to reduce the number of hands playing with his text\". \n\nThe final stages of composition overlapped with the early stages of publication. In June 1851, Melville wrote to Hawthorne that he was in New York to \"work and slave on my 'Whale' while it is driving through the press\". By the end of the month, \"wearied with the long delay of printers\", Melville came back to finish work on the book in Pittsfield. Three weeks later, the typesetting was almost done, as he announced to Bentley on 20 July: \"I am now passing thro' the press, the closing sheets of my new work\". While Melville was simultaneously writing and proofreading what had been set, the corrected proof would be plated, that is, the type fixed in final form. Since earlier chapters were already plated when he was revising the later ones, Melville must have \"felt restricted in the kinds of revisions that were feasible\". \n\nOn 3 July 1851, Bentley offered Melville ₤150 and \"half profits\", that is, half the profits that remained after the expenses of production and advertising. On 20 July, Melville accepted, after which Bentley drew up a contract on 13 August. Melville signed and returned the contract in early September, and then went to New York with the proof sheets, made from the finished plates, which he sent to London by his brother Allan on 10 September. For over a month, these proofs had been in Melville's possession, and because the book would be set anew in England, he could devote all his time to correcting and revising them. He still had no American publisher, so the usual hurry about getting the English publication to precede the American was not present. Only on 12 September was the Harper publishing contract signed. Bentley received the proof sheets with Melville's corrections and revisions marked on them on September 24. He published the book less than four weeks later.\n\nOn 18 October, the English edition, The Whale, was published in a printing of only 500 copies, fewer than Melville's previous books. Their slow sales had convinced Bentley that a smaller number was more realistic. The London Morning Herald on October 20 printed the earliest known review. On 14 November, the American edition, Moby-Dick, was published and the same day reviewed in both the Albany Argus and the Morning Courier and New-York Enquirer. On 19 November, Washington received the copy to be deposited for copyright purposes. The first American printing of 2,915 copies was almost the same as the first of Mardi, but the first printing of Melville's other three Harper books had been a thousand copies more. \n\nMelville's revisions and British editorial revisions\n\nThe English edition, set by Bentley's printers from the American page proofs with Melville's revisions and corrections, differs from the American edition in over 700 wordings and thousands of punctuation and spelling changes.\n\nExcluding the preliminaries and the one extract, the three volumes of the English edition came to 927 pages and the single American volume to 635 pages. Accordingly, the dedication to Hawthorne in the American edition — \"this book is inscribed to\"— became \"these volumes are inscribed to\" in the English. The table of contents in the English edition generally follows the actual chapter titles in the American edition, but 19 titles in the American table of contents differ from the titles above the chapters themselves. This list was probably drawn up by Melville himself: the titles of chapters describing encounters of the Pequod with other ships had—apparently to stress the parallelisms between these chapters—been standardized to \"The Pequod meets the...,\" with the exception of the already published 'The Town-Ho's Story'. For unknown reasons, the \"Etymology\" and \"Extracts\" were moved to the end of the third volume. An epigraph from Paradise Lost, taken from the second of the two quotations from that work in the American edition, appears on the title page of each of the three English volumes. Melville's involvement with this rearrangement is not clear: if it was Bentley's gesture toward accommodating Melville, as Tanselle suggests, its selection put an emphasis on the quotation Melville may not have agreed with.\n\nThe largest of Melville's revisions is the addition to the English edition of a 139-word footnote in Chapter 87 explaining the word \"gally\". The edition also contains six short phrases and some 60 single words lacking in the American edition. In addition, about 35 changes produce genuine improvements, as opposed to mere corrections: \"Melville may not have made every one of the changes in this category, but it seems certain that he was responsible for the great majority of them.\" \n\nBritish censorship and missing \"Epilogue\"\n\nThe British publisher hired one or more revisers who were, in the evaluation of scholar Steven Olsen-Smith, responsible for \"unauthorized changes ranging from typographical errors and omissions to acts of outright censorship\". The expurgations fall into four categories, ranked according to the apparent priorities of the censor:\n# Sacrilegious passages, more than 1200 words: Attributing human failures to God was grounds for excision or revision, as was comparing human shortcomings to divine ones. For example, in chapter 28, \"Ahab\", Ahab stands with \"a crucifixion\" in his face\" was revised to \"an apparently eternal anguish\"; \n# Sexual matters, including the sex life of whales and even Ishmael's worried anticipation of the nature of Queequeg's underwear, as well as allusions to fornication or harlots, and \"our hearts' honeymoon\" (in relation to Ishmael and Queequeg) Chapter 95, however, \"The Cassock\", referring to the whale's genital organ, was untouched, perhaps because of Melville's indirect language.\n# Remarks \"belittling royalty or implying a criticism of the British\": This meant the exclusion of the complete chapter 25, a \"Postscript\" on the use of sperm oil at coronations; \n# Perceived grammatical or stylistic anomalies were treated with \"a highly conservative interpretation of rules of 'correctness'\". \nThese expurgations also meant that any corrections or revisions Melville may have marked upon these passages are now lost.\n\nThe final difference in the material not already plated is that the \"Epilogue\", thus Ishmael's miraculous survival, is omitted from the British edition. Obviously, the epilogue was not an afterthought supplied too late for the English edition, for it is referred to in \"The Castaway\": \"in the sequel of the narrative, it will then be seen what like abandonment befell myself.\" Why the \"Epilogue\" is missing is unknown. Since nothing objectionable was in it, most likely it was somehow lost by Bentley's printer when the \"Etymology\" and \"Extracts\" were moved. \n\nLast-minute change of title\n\nAfter the sheets had been sent, Melville changed the title. Probably late in September, Allan sent Bentley two pages of proof with a letter of which only a draft survives which informed him that Melville \"has determined upon a new title & dedication—Enclosed you have proof of both—It is thought here that the new title will be a better selling title\". After expressing his hope that Bentley would receive this change in time, Allan said that \"Moby-Dick is a legitimate title for the book, being the name given to a particular whale who if I may so express myself is the hero of the volume\". Biographer Hershel Parker suggests that the reason for the change was that Harper's had two years earlier published a book with a similar title, The Whale and His Captors. \n\nChanging the title was not a problem for the American edition, since the running heads throughout the book only showed the titles of the chapters, and the title page, which would include the publisher's name, could not be printed until a publisher was found. In October Harper's New Monthly Magazine printed chapter 54, \"The Town-Ho's Story\", with a footnote saying: \"From The Whale. The title of a new work by Mr. Melville\". The one surviving leaf of proof, \"a 'trial' page bearing the title 'The Whale' and the Harper imprint,\" shows that at this point, after the publisher had been found, the original title still stood. When Allan's letter arrived, no sooner than early October, Bentley had already announced The Whale in both the Athenaem and the Spectator of 4 and 11 October. Probably to accommodate Melville, Bentley inserted a half-title page in the first volume only, which reads \"The Whale; or, Moby Dick\".\n\nSales and earnings\n\nThe British printing of 500 copies sold fewer than 300 within the first four months. In 1852, some remaining sheets were bound in a cheaper casing, and in 1853, enough sheets were still left to issue a cheap edition in one volume. Bentley lost half on Melville's advance of ₤150. Harper's first printing was 2,915 copies, including the standard 125 review copies. The selling price was $1.50, about a fifth of the price of the British three-volume edition. About 1,500 copies were sold within 11 days, and then sales slowed down to less than 300 the next year. After three years, the first edition was still available, almost 300 copies of which were lost when a fire broke out at the firm in December 1853. In 1855, a second printing of 250 copies was issued, in 1863, a third of 253 copies, and finally in 1871, a fourth printing of 277 copies, which sold so slowly that no new printing was ordered. Moby-Dick was out of print during the last four years of Melville's life, having sold 2,300 in its first year and a half and on average 27 copies a year for the next 34 years, totaling 3,215 copies.\n\nMelville's earnings from the book add up to $1,260: the ₤150 advance from Bentley was equivalent to $703, and the American printings earned him $556, which was $100 less than he earned from any of his five previous books. Melville's widow received another $81 when the United States Book Company issued the book and sold almost 1,800 copies between 1892 and 1898.\n\nReception\n\nThe reception of The Whale in Britain and of Moby-Dick in the United States differ in two ways, according to Parker. First, British literary criticism was more sophisticated and developed than in the still young republic, with British reviewing done by \"professional literary men and women\" who were \"experienced critics and trenchant prose stylists\", while American reviewing on the contrary mostly delegated to \"newspaper staffers\" or else by \"amateur contributors more noted for religious piety than critical acumen.\" Second, the differences between the two editions caused \"two distinct critical receptions.\" \n\nBritish \n\nTwenty-one reviews appeared in London, and later one in Dublin. The British reviewers mostly regarded The Whale as \"a phenomenal literary work, a philosophical, metaphysical, and poetic romance\". The Morning Advertiser for October 24 was in awe of Melville's learning, of his \"dramatic ability for producing a prose poem\", and of the whale adventures which were \"powerful in their cumulated horrors.\" To its surprise, John Bull found \"philosophy in whales\" and \"poetry in blubber\", and concluded that few books that claimed to be either philosophical or literary works \"contain as much true philosophy and as much genuine poetry as the tale of the Pequods whaling expedition\", making it a work \"far beyond the level of an ordinary work of fiction\". The Morning Post found it \"one of the cleverest, wittiest, and most amusing of modern books\", and predicted that it was a book \"which will do great things for the literary reputation of its author\". \n\nMelville himself never saw these reviews, and Parker calls it a \"bitter irony\" that the reception overseas was \"all he could possibly have hoped for, short of a few conspicuous proclamations that the distance betwen him and Shakespeare was by no means immeasurable.\" \n\nThe review in the highly regarded London Athenaeum, which described it as \n\nOne problem was that since the English edition omitted the epilogue, British reviewers read a book with a first-person narrator who apparently did not survive to tell the tale. The reviewer in the Spectator objected that \"nothing should be introduced into a novel which it is physically impossible for the writer to have known: thus, he must not describe the conversation of miners in a pit if they all perish.\" The Dublin University Magazine asked \"how does it happen that the author is alive to tell the story?\" and the Literary Gazette declared that how the writer, \"who appears to have been drowned with the rest, communicated his notes for publication to Mr. Bentley is not explained\".\n\nAmerican \n\nSome sixty reviews appeared in America, the criterion for counting as a review being more than two lines of comment. The weekly magazine Literary World, which had printed Melville's \"Mosses\" essay the preceding year, ran an anonymous review in two installments, on 15 and 22 November. The reviewer described Moby-Dick as three books rolled into one: he was pleased with the book as far as it was a thorough account of the sperm whale, less so with it as far as the adventures of the Pequod crew were considered, perceiving the characters as unrealistic and expressing inappropriate opinions on religions, and condemned the essayistic rhapsodizing and moralizing with what he thought was little respect of what \"must be to the world the most sacred associations of life violated and defaced.\" \n\nIn a letter to Evert Duyckinck—identified by scholars as the reviewer—of December 1, Hawthorne praised the book and criticized the review:\n\nWhat a book Melville has written! It gives me an idea of much greater power than his preceding ones. It hardly seemed to me that the review of it, in the Literary World, did justice to its best points. \n\nLegacy and adaptations\n\nWithin a year after Melville's death, Moby-Dick, along with Typee, Omoo, and Mardi, was reprinted by Harper & Brothers, giving it a chance to be rediscovered. However, only New York's literary underground seemed to take much interest, just enough to keep Melville's name circulating for the next 25 years in the capital of American publishing. During this time, a few critics were willing to devote time, space, and a modicum of praise to Melville and his works, or at least those that could still be fairly easily obtained or remembered. Other works, especially the poetry, went largely forgotten. \n\nIn 1917, American author Carl Van Doren became the first of this period to proselytize about Melville's value. His 1921 study, The American Novel, called Moby-Dick a pinnacle of American Romanticism.\n\nIn his 1923 idiosyncratic but influential Studies in Classic American Literature, novelist, poet, and short story writer D. H. Lawrence celebrated the originality and value of American authors, among them Melville. Perhaps surprisingly, Lawrence saw Moby-Dick as a work of the first order despite his using the expurgated original English edition which also lacked the epilogue.\n\nThe Modern Library brought out Moby-Dick in 1926 and the Lakeside Press in Chicago commissioned Rockwell Kent to design and illustrate a striking three-volume edition which appeared in 1930. Random House then issued a one-volume trade version of Kent's edition, which in 1943 they reprinted as a less expensive Modern Library Giant. \n\nThe novel has been adapted or represented in art, film, books, cartoons, television, and more than a dozen versions in comic-book format. The first adaptation was the 1926 silent movie The Sea Beast, starring John Barrymore, in which Ahab kills the whale and returns to marry his fiancée. The most famous adaptation was the John Huston 1956 film produced from a screenplay by author Ray Bradbury. The long list of adaptations, as Bryant and Springer put it, demonstrates that \"the iconic image of an angry embittered American slaying a mythic beast seemed to capture the popular imagination\", showing how \"different readers in different periods of popular culture have rewritten Moby-Dick\" to make it a \"true cultural icon\".\n\nAmerican author Ralph Ellison wrote a tribute to the book in the prologue of his 1952 novel Invisible Man. According to Ellison biographer Arnold Rampersad, the character of the narrator \"resembles no one else in previous fiction so much as he resembles Ishmael of Moby-Dick\". Ellison acknowledges his debt in the prologue to the novel, where the narrator remembers a moment of truth under the influence of marijuana, and evocates a church service: \"Brothers and sisters, my text this morning is the 'Blackness of Blackness.' And the congregation answers: 'That blackness is most black, brother, most black ...'\" In this scene Ellison \"reprises a moment in the second chapter of Moby-Dick\", where Ishmael wanders around New Bedford looking for a place to spend the night, and momentarily joins a congregation: \"It was a negro church; and the preacher's text was about the blackness of darkness, and the weeping and wailing and teeth-gnashing there.\" According to Rampersad, it was Melville who \"empowered Ellison to insist on a place in the American literary tradition\" by his example of \"representing the complexity of race and racism so acutely and generously in his text\". \n\nEditions\n\n* Melville, H. The Whale. London: Richard Bentley, 1851 3 vols. (viii, 312; iv, 303; iv, 328 pp.) Published October 18, 1851.\n* Melville, H., Moby-Dick; or, The Whale. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1851. xxiii, 635 pages. Published probably on November 14, 1851.\n* Melville, H., [http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?idmdp.39015046801760;view\n1up;seq=20 Moby-Dick; or, The Whale.] Edited by Luther S. Mansfield and Howard P. Vincent. New York: Hendricks House, 1952. Includes a 25-page Introduction and over 250 pages of Explanatory Notes with an Index.\n* Melville, H., Moby-Dick; or, The Whale: An Authoritative Text, Reviews and Letters by Melville, Analogues and Sources, Criticism. A Norton Critical Edition. Edited by Harrison Hayford and Hershel Parker. New York: W.W. Norton, 1967. ISBN 039309670X\n* Melville, H. Moby-Dick, or The Whale. Northwestern-Newberry Edition of the Writings of Herman Melville 6. Evanston, Ill.: Northwestern U. Press, 1988. A critical text with appendices on the history and reception of the book. The text is in the public domain.\n* Parker, Hershel, and Harrison Hayford (eds). (2001). Herman Melville, Moby-Dick. A Norton Critical Edition. Second Edition, New York and London: W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 9780393972832\n* [http://www.pearsonhighered.com/educator/product/Moby-Dick-A-Longman-Critical-Edition/9780321228000.page Moby-Dick: A Longman Critical Edition], Edited by John Bryant and Haskell Springer. New York: Longman, 2007 and 2009. ISBN 978-0-321-22800-0\n\nFootnotes" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Hawthornean", "Nathaniel Hawthorn", "Nathaniel Hawthorne", "Nathaniel Hawethorne", "Nathaniel Hathorne", "Nathanial Hawthorne" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "nathaniel hawthorne", "nathaniel hathorne", "nathaniel hawethorne", "nathaniel hawthorn", "nathanial hawthorne", "hawthornean" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "nathanial hawthorne", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Nathanial Hawthorne" }
"Under what assumed name did Oscar Wilde live out the last three years of his life, in ""France?"	tc_483	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Oscar_Wilde.txt" ], "title": [ "Oscar Wilde" ], "wiki_context": [ "Oscar Fingal O'Flahertie Wills Wilde (16 October 1854 - 30 November 1900) was an Irish playwright, novelist, essayist, and poet. After writing in different forms throughout the 1880s, he became one of London's most popular playwrights in the early 1890s. He is remembered for his epigrams, his novel The Picture of Dorian Gray, his plays, as well as the circumstances of his imprisonment and early death.\n\nWilde's parents were successful Anglo-Irish Dublin intellectuals. Their son became fluent in French and German early in life. At university, Wilde read Greats; he proved himself to be an outstanding classicist, first at Dublin, then at Oxford. He became known for his involvement in the rising philosophy of aestheticism, led by two of his tutors, Walter Pater and John Ruskin. After university, Wilde moved to London into fashionable cultural and social circles. \n\nAs a spokesman for aestheticism, he tried his hand at various literary activities: he published a book of poems, lectured in the United States and Canada on the new \"English Renaissance in Art\", and then returned to London where he worked prolifically as a journalist. Known for his biting wit, flamboyant dress and glittering conversation, Wilde became one of the best-known personalities of his day.\n\nAt the turn of the 1890s, he refined his ideas about the supremacy of art in a series of dialogues and essays, and incorporated themes of decadence, duplicity, and beauty into his only novel, The Picture of Dorian Gray (1890). The opportunity to construct aesthetic details precisely, and combine them with larger social themes, drew Wilde to write drama. He wrote Salome (1891) in French in Paris but it was refused a licence for England due to the absolute prohibition of Biblical subjects on the English stage. Unperturbed, Wilde produced four society comedies in the early 1890s, which made him one of the most successful playwrights of late Victorian London.\n\nAt the height of his fame and success, while his masterpiece, The Importance of Being Earnest (1895), was still on stage in London, Wilde had the Marquess of Queensberry prosecuted for libel. The Marquess was the father of Wilde's lover, Lord Alfred Douglas. The charge carried a penalty of up to two years in prison. The trial unearthed evidence that caused Wilde to drop his charges and led to his own arrest and trial for gross indecency with men. After two more trials he was convicted and imprisoned for two years' hard labour. \n\nIn 1897, in prison, he wrote De Profundis, which was published in 1905, a long letter which discusses his spiritual journey through his trials, forming a dark counterpoint to his earlier philosophy of pleasure. Upon his release he left immediately for France, never to return to Ireland or Britain. There he wrote his last work, The Ballad of Reading Gaol (1898), a long poem commemorating the harsh rhythms of prison life. He died destitute in Paris at the age of 46.\n\nEarly life\n\nOscar Wilde was born at 21 Westland Row, Dublin (now home of the Oscar Wilde Centre, Trinity College), the second of three children born to Sir William Wilde and Jane Wilde, two years behind William (\"Willie\"). Wilde's mother, under the pseudonym \"Speranza\" (the Italian word for 'Hope'), wrote poetry for the revolutionary Young Irelanders in 1848 and was a lifelong Irish nationalist. She read the Young Irelanders' poetry to Oscar and Willie, inculcating a love of these poets in her sons. Lady Wilde's interest in the neo-classical revival showed in the paintings and busts of ancient Greece and Rome in her home. William Wilde was Ireland's leading oto-ophthalmologic (ear and eye) surgeon and was knighted in 1864 for his services as medical adviser and assistant commissioner to the censuses of Ireland. He also wrote books about Irish archaeology and peasant folklore. A renowned philanthropist, his dispensary for the care of the city's poor at the rear of Trinity College, Dublin, was the forerunner of the Dublin Eye and Ear Hospital, now located at Adelaide Road. On his father's side Wilde was descended from a Dutchman, Colonel de Wilde, who went to Ireland with King William of Orange's invading army in 1690. On his mother's side Wilde's ancestors included a bricklayer from County Durham who emigrated to Ireland sometime in the 1770s. \n\nWilde was baptised as an infant in St. Mark's Church, Dublin, the local Church of Ireland (Anglican) church. When the church was closed, the records were moved to the nearby St. Ann's Church, Dawson Street. Davis Coakley references a second baptism by a Catholic priest, Father Prideaux Fox, who befriended Oscar's mother circa 1859. According to Fox's own testimony written by him years later in Donahoe's Magazine in 1905, Jane Wilde would visit his chapel in Glencree, Co Wicklow for Mass and would take her sons with her. She then asked Father Fox to baptise her sons. \nFox described it in this way:\n\n\"I am not sure if she ever became a Catholic herself but it was not long before she asked me to instruct two of her children, one of them being the future erratic genius, Oscar Wilde. After a few weeks I baptized these two children, Lady Wilde herself being present on the occasion.\" \nIn addition to his children with his wife, Sir William Wilde was the father of three children born out of wedlock before his marriage: Henry Wilson, born in 1838, and Emily and Mary Wilde, born in 1847 and 1849, respectively, of different maternity to Henry. Sir William acknowledged paternity of his illegitimate children and provided for their education, but they were reared by his relatives rather than with his wife and legitimate children. \n\nIn 1855, the family moved to No. 1 Merrion Square, where Wilde's sister, Isola, was born in 1857. The Wildes' new home was larger and, with both his parents' sociality and success, it soon became a \"unique medical and cultural milieu\". Guests at their salon included Sheridan Le Fanu, Charles Lever, George Petrie, Isaac Butt, William Rowan Hamilton and Samuel Ferguson.\n\nUntil he was nine, Oscar Wilde was educated at home, where a French and a German governess taught him their languages. He then attended Portora Royal School in Enniskillen, County Fermanagh. Until his early twenties, Wilde summered at the villa, Moytura House, his father built in Cong, County Mayo. There the young Wilde and his brother Willie played with George Moore.\n\nIsola died aged nine of meningitis. Wilde's poem \"Requiescat\" is written to her memory. \n\n \"Tread lightly, she is near\nUnder the snow\nSpeak gently, she can hear\nthe daisies grow\" \n\nUniversity education: 1870s\n\nTrinity College, Dublin\n\nWilde left Portora with a royal scholarship to read classics at Trinity College, Dublin, from 1871 to 1874, sharing rooms with his older brother Willie Wilde. Trinity, one of the leading classical schools, placed him with scholars such as R. Y. Tyrell, Arthur Palmer, Edward Dowden and his tutor, J. P. Mahaffy who inspired his interest in Greek literature. As a student Wilde worked with Mahaffy on the latter's book Social Life in Greece. Wilde, despite later reservations, called Mahaffy \"my first and best teacher\" and \"the scholar who showed me how to love Greek things\". For his part, Mahaffy boasted of having created Wilde; later, he named him \"the only blot on my tutorship\". \n\nThe University Philosophical Society also provided an education, discussing intellectual and artistic subjects such as Rossetti and Swinburne weekly. Wilde quickly became an established member – the members' suggestion book for 1874 contains two pages of banter (sportingly) mocking Wilde's emergent aestheticism. He presented a paper entitled \"Aesthetic Morality\". At Trinity, Wilde established himself as an outstanding student: he came first in his class in his first year, won a scholarship by competitive examination in his second, and then, in his finals, won the Berkeley Gold Medal, the University's highest academic award in Greek. He was encouraged to compete for a demyship to Magdalen College, Oxford – which he won easily, having already studied Greek for over nine years.\n\nMagdalen College, Oxford\n\nAt Magdalen, he read Greats from 1874 to 1878, and from there he applied to join the Oxford Union, but failed to be elected. \n\nAttracted by its dress, secrecy, and ritual, Wilde petitioned the Apollo Masonic Lodge at Oxford, and was soon raised to the \"Sublime Degree of Master Mason\". During a resurgent interest in Freemasonry in his third year, he commented he \"would be awfully sorry to give it up if I secede from the Protestant Heresy\". He was deeply considering converting to Catholicism, discussing the possibility with clergy several times. In 1877, Wilde was left speechless after an audience with Pope Pius IX in Rome. He eagerly read Cardinal Newman's books, and became more serious in 1878, when he met the Reverend Sebastian Bowden, a priest in the Brompton Oratory who had received some high-profile converts. Neither his father, who threatened to cut off his funds, nor Mahaffy thought much of the plan; but mostly Wilde, the supreme individualist, balked at the last minute from pledging himself to any formal creed. On the appointed day of his baptism, Father Bowden received a bunch of altar lilies instead. Wilde retained a lifelong interest in Catholic theology and liturgy. \n\nWhile at Magdalen College, Wilde became particularly well known for his role in the aesthetic and decadent movements. He wore his hair long, openly scorned \"manly\" sports though he occasionally boxed, and decorated his rooms with peacock feathers, lilies, sunflowers, blue china and other objets d'art, once remarking to friends whom he entertained lavishly, \"I find it harder and harder every day to live up to my blue china.\"Ellmann (1988:43–44) The line quickly became famous, accepted as a slogan by aesthetes but used against them by critics who sensed in it a terrible vacuousness. Some elements disdained the aesthetes, but their languishing attitudes and showy costumes became a recognised pose. Wilde was once physically attacked by a group of four fellow students, and dealt with them single-handedly, surprising critics. By his third year Wilde had truly begun to create himself and his myth, and saw his learning developing in much larger ways than merely the prescribed texts. This attitude resulted in his being rusticated for one term, when he nonchalantly returned to college late from a trip to Greece with Prof. Mahaffy. \n\nWilde did not meet Walter Pater until his third year, but had been enthralled by his Studies in the History of the Renaissance, published during Wilde's final year in Trinity. Pater argued that man's sensibility to beauty should be refined above all else, and that each moment should be felt to its fullest extent. Years later, in De Profundis, Wilde called Pater's Studies... \"that book that has had such a strange influence over my life\". He learned tracts of the book by heart, and carried it with him on travels in later years. Pater gave Wilde his sense of almost flippant devotion to art, though it was John Ruskin who gave him a purpose for it. Ruskin despaired at the self-validating aestheticism of Pater, arguing that the importance of art lies in its potential for the betterment of society. Ruskin admired beauty, but believed it must be allied with, and applied to, moral good. When Wilde eagerly attended Ruskin's lecture series The Aesthetic and Mathematic Schools of Art in Florence, he learned about aesthetics as simply the non-mathematical elements of painting. Despite being given to neither early rising nor manual labour, Wilde volunteered for Ruskin's project to convert a swampy country lane into a smart road neatly edged with flowers.\n\nWilde won the 1878 Newdigate Prize for his poem \"Ravenna\", which reflected on his visit there the year before, and he duly read it at Encaenia. In November 1878, he graduated with a double first in his B.A. of Classical Moderations and Literae Humaniores (Greats). Wilde wrote to a friend, \"The dons are beyond words – the Bad Boy doing so well in the end!\" \n\nApprenticeship of an aesthete: 1880s\n\nDebut in society\n\nAfter graduation from Oxford, Wilde returned to Dublin, where he met again Florence Balcombe, a childhood sweetheart. She became engaged to Bram Stoker and they married in 1878. Wilde was disappointed but stoic: he wrote to her, remembering \"the two sweet years – the sweetest years of all my youth\" they had spent together. He also stated his intention to \"return to England, probably for good.\" This he did in 1878, only briefly visiting Ireland twice. \n\nUnsure of his next step, he wrote to various acquaintances enquiring about Classics positions at Oxford or Cambridge. [http://www.wilde-online.info/the-rise-of-historical-criticism.html The Rise of Historical Criticism] was his submission for the Chancellor's Essay prize of 1879, which, though no longer a student, he was still eligible to enter. Its subject, \"Historical Criticism among the Ancients\" seemed ready-made for Wilde – with both his skill in composition and ancient learning – but he struggled to find his voice with the long, flat, scholarly style. Unusually, no prize was awarded that year.The essay was later published in \"Miscellanies\", the final section of the 1908 edition of Wilde's collected works. (Mason, S. 1914:486) With the last of his inheritance from the sale of his father's houses, he set himself up as a bachelor in London. The 1881 British Census listed Wilde as a boarder at 1 (now 44) Tite Street, Chelsea, where Frank Miles, a society painter, was the head of the household. Wilde spent the next six years in London and Paris, and in the United States where he travelled to deliver lectures.\n\nHe had been publishing lyrics and poems in magazines since his entering Trinity College, especially in Kottabos and the Dublin University Magazine. In mid-1881, at 27 years old, Poems collected, revised and expanded his poetic efforts. The book was generally well received, and sold out its first print run of 750 copies, prompting further printings in 1882. It was bound in a rich, enamel, parchment cover (embossed with gilt blossom) and printed on hand-made Dutch paper; Wilde presented many copies to the dignitaries and writers who received him over the next few years. The Oxford Union condemned the book for alleged plagiarism in a tight vote. The librarian, who had requested the book for the library, returned the presentation copy to Wilde with a note of apology. Richard Ellmann argues that Wilde's poem \"Hélas!\" was a sincere, though flamboyant, attempt to explain the dichotomies he saw in himself: \n\nTo drift with every passion till my soulIs a stringed lute on which all winds can play\n\nPunch was less enthusiastic, \"The poet is Wilde, but his poetry's tame\" was their verdict.\n\nAmerica: 1882\n\nAestheticism was sufficiently in vogue to be caricatured by Gilbert and Sullivan in Patience (1881). Richard D'Oyly Carte, an English impresario, invited Wilde to make a lecture tour of North America, simultaneously priming the pump for the US tour of Patience and selling this most charming aesthete to the American public. Wilde journeyed on the SS Arizona, arriving 2 January 1882, and disembarking the following day.Wilde reputedly told a customs officer that \"I have nothing to declare except my genius\", although the first recording of this remark was many years later, and Wilde's best lines were often quoted immediately in the press. () Originally planned to last four months, it continued for almost a year due to the commercial success. Wilde sought to transpose the beauty he saw in art into daily life. This was a practical as well as philosophical project: in Oxford he had surrounded himself with blue china and lilies, and now one of his lectures was on interior design. When asked to explain reports that he had paraded down Piccadilly in London carrying a lily, long hair flowing, Wilde replied, \"It's not whether I did it or not that's important, but whether people believed I did it\". Wilde believed that the artist should hold forth higher ideals, and that pleasure and beauty would replace utilitarian ethics. \n\nWilde and aestheticism were both mercilessly caricatured and criticised in the press; the Springfield Republican, for instance, commented on Wilde's behaviour during his visit to Boston to lecture on aestheticism, suggesting that Wilde's conduct was more a bid for notoriety rather than devotion to beauty and the aesthetic. T.W. Higginson, a cleric and abolitionist, wrote in \"Unmanly Manhood\" of his general concern that Wilde, \"whose only distinction is that he has written a thin volume of very mediocre verse\", would improperly influence the behaviour of men and women. Though his press reception was hostile, Wilde was well received in diverse settings across America; he drank whiskey with miners in Leadville, Colorado and was fêted at the most fashionable salons in every city he visited. \n\nLondon life and marriage\n\nHis earnings, plus expected income from The Duchess of Padua, allowed him to move to Paris between February and mid-May 1883. Whilst there he met Robert Sherard, whom he entertained constantly. \"We are dining on the Duchess tonight\", Wilde would declare before taking him to a fancy restaurant. In August he briefly returned to New York for the production of Vera, his first play, after it was turned down in London. He reportedly entertained the other passengers with \"Ave Imperatrix!, A Poem on England\", about the rise and fall of empires. E.C. Stedman, in Victorian Poets describes this \"lyric to England\" as \"manly verse – a poetic and eloquent invocation\". Ave Imperatrix had been first published in The World, an American magazine, in 1880, having first been intended for Time magazine. Apparently the editor liked the verse, so switched it to the other magazine so as to attain \"a larger and better audience\". It was revised for inclusion in Poems the next year. (Mason 1914:233) The play was initially well received by the audience, but when the critics wrote lukewarm reviews attendance fell sharply and the play closed a week after it had opened. \n\nWilde was left to return to England and lecturing on topics including Personal Impressions of America, The Value of Art in Modern Life, and Dress.\n\nIn London, he had been introduced in 1881 to Constance Lloyd, daughter of Horace Lloyd, a wealthy Queen's Counsel. She happened to be visiting Dublin in 1884, when Wilde was lecturing at the Gaiety Theatre. He proposed to her, and they married on 29 May 1884 at the Anglican St. James Church in Paddington in London. Constance's annual allowance of £250 was generous for a young woman (equivalent to about £ in current value), but the Wildes had relatively luxurious tastes, and they had preached to others for so long on the subject of design that people expected their home to set new standards. No. 16, Tite Street was duly renovated in seven months at considerable expense. The couple had two sons, Cyril (1885) and Vyvyan (1886). Wilde became the sole literary signatory of George Bernard Shaw's petition for a pardon of the anarchists arrested (and later executed) after the Haymarket massacre in Chicago in 1886. \n\nRobert Ross had read Wilde's poems before they met, and was unrestrained by the Victorian prohibition against homosexuality, even to the extent of estranging himself from his family. By Richard Ellmann's account, he was a precocious seventeen-year-old \"so young and yet so knowing, was determined to seduce Wilde\". According to Daniel Mendelsohn, Wilde, who had long alluded to Greek love, was \"initiated into homosexual sex\" by Ross, while his \"marriage had begun to unravel after his wife's second pregnancy, which left him physically repelled\". \n\nProse writing: 1886–91\n\nJournalism and editorship: 1886–89\n\nCriticism over artistic matters in the Pall Mall Gazette provoked a letter in self-defence, and soon Wilde was a contributor to that and other journals during the years 1885–87. He enjoyed reviewing and journalism; the form suited his style. He could organise and share his views on art, literature and life, yet in a format less tedious than lecturing. Buoyed up, his reviews were largely chatty and positive. Wilde, like his parents before him, also supported the cause of Irish Nationalism. When Charles Stewart Parnell was falsely accused of inciting murder Wilde wrote a series of astute columns defending him in the Daily Chronicle.\n\nHis flair, having previously only been put into socialising, suited journalism and did not go unnoticed. With his youth nearly over, and a family to support, in mid-1887 Wilde became the editor of The Lady's World magazine, his name prominently appearing on the cover. He promptly renamed it The Woman's World and raised its tone, adding serious articles on parenting, culture, and politics, keeping discussions of fashion and arts. Two pieces of fiction were usually included, one to be read to children, the other for the ladies themselves. Wilde worked hard to solicit good contributions from his wide artistic acquaintance, including those of Lady Wilde and his wife Constance, while his own \"Literary and Other Notes\" were themselves popular and amusing. \n\nThe initial vigour and excitement he brought to the job began to fade as administration, commuting and office life became tedious. At the same time as Wilde's interest flagged, the publishers became concerned anew about circulation: sales, at the relatively high price of one shilling, remained low. Increasingly sending instructions to the magazine by letter, he began a new period of creative work and his own column appeared less regularly. In October 1889, Wilde had finally found his voice in prose and, at the end of the second volume, Wilde left The Woman's World. The magazine outlasted him by one volume.\n\nIf Wilde's period at the helm of the magazine was a mixed success from an organizational point of view, one can also argue that it played a pivotal role in his development as a writer and facilitated his ascent to fame. Whilst Wilde the journalist supplied articles under the guidance of his editors, Wilde the editor is forced to learn to manipulate the literary marketplace on his own terms. \n\nShorter fiction\n\nWilde published The Happy Prince and Other Tales in 1888, and had been regularly writing fairy stories for magazines. In 1891 he published two more collections, Lord Arthur Savile's Crime and Other Stories, and in September A House of Pomegranates was dedicated \"To Constance Mary Wilde\". \"The Portrait of Mr. W. H.\", which Wilde had begun in 1887, was first published in Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine in July 1889. It is a short story, which reports a conversation, in which the theory that Shakespeare's sonnets were written out of the poet's love of the boy actor \"Willie Hughes\", is advanced, retracted, and then propounded again. The only evidence for this is two supposed puns within the sonnets themselves. \n\nThe anonymous narrator is at first sceptical, then believing, finally flirtatious with the reader: he concludes that \"there is really a great deal to be said of the Willie Hughes theory of Shakespeare's sonnets.\" By the end fact and fiction have melded together. Arthur Ransome wrote that Wilde \"read something of himself into Shakespeare's sonnets\" and became fascinated with the \"Willie Hughes theory\" despite the lack of biographical evidence for the historical William Hughes' existence. Instead of writing a short but serious essay on the question, Wilde tossed the theory amongst the three characters of the story, allowing it to unfold as background to the plot. The story thus is an early masterpiece of Wilde's combing many elements that interested him, conversation, literature and the idea that to shed oneself of an idea one must first convince another of its truth. Ransome concludes that Wilde succeeds precisely because the literary criticism is unveiled with such a deft touch. \n\nThough containing nothing but \"special pleading\", it would not, he says \"be possible to build an airier castle in Spain than this of the imaginary William Hughes\" we continue listening nonetheless to be charmed by the telling. \"You must believe in Willie Hughes,\" Wilde told an acquaintance, \"I almost do, myself.\"\n\nEssays and dialogues \n\nWilde, having tired of journalism, had been busy setting out his aesthetic ideas more fully in a series of longer prose pieces which were published in the major literary-intellectual journals of the day. In January 1889, The Decay of Lying: A Dialogue appeared in The Nineteenth Century, and Pen, Pencil and Poison, a satirical biography of Thomas Griffiths Wainewright, in the Fortnightly Review, edited by Wilde's friend Frank Harris. Two of Wilde's four writings on aesthetics are dialogues: though Wilde had evolved professionally from lecturer to writer, he retained an oral tradition of sorts. Having always excelled as a wit and raconteur, he often composed by assembling phrases, bons mots and witticisms into a longer, cohesive work. \n\nWilde was concerned about the effect of moralising on art, he believed in art's redemptive, developmental powers: \"Art is individualism, and individualism is a disturbing and disintegrating force. There lies its immense value. For what it seeks is to disturb monotony of type, slavery of custom, tyranny of habit, and the reduction of man to the level of a machine.\"Wilde, O. The Complete Works of Oscar Wilde, Collins. In his only political text, The Soul of Man Under Socialism, he argued political conditions should establish this primacy, and concluded that the government most amenable to artists was no government at all. Wilde envisions a society where mechanisation has freed human effort from the burden of necessity, effort which can instead be expended on artistic creation. George Orwell summarised, \"In effect, the world will be populated by artists, each striving after perfection in the way that seems best to him.\" \n\nThis point of view did not align him with the Fabians, intellectual socialists who advocated using state apparatus to change social conditions, nor did it endear him to the monied classes whom he had previously entertained. Pearson, H. Essays of Oscar Wilde London: Meuthen & Co (1950:xi) Catalogue no:5328/u Hesketh Pearson, introducing a collection of Wilde's essays in 1950, remarked how The Soul of Man Under Socialism had been an inspirational text for Tsarist revolutionaries in Russia but laments that in the Stalinist era \"it is doubtful whether there are any uninspected places in which it could now be hidden\".\n\nWilde considered including this pamphlet and The Portrait of Mr. W.H., his essay-story on Shakespeare's sonnets, in a new anthology in 1891, but eventually decided to limit it to purely aesthetic subjects. Intentions packaged revisions of four essays: The Decay of Lying, Pen, Pencil and Poison, The Truth of Masks (first published 1885), and The Critic as Artist in two parts. For Pearson the biographer, the essays and dialogues exhibit every aspect of Wilde's genius and character: wit, romancer, talker, lecturer, humanist and scholar and concludes that \"no other productions of his have as varied an appeal\". 1891 turned out to be Wilde's annus mirabilis, apart from his three collections he also produced his only novel.\n\nThe Picture of Dorian Gray\n\nThe first version of The Picture of Dorian Gray was published as the lead story in the July 1890 edition of Lippincott's Monthly Magazine, along with five others. The story begins with a man painting a picture of Gray. When Gray, who has a \"face like ivory and rose leaves\", sees his finished portrait, he breaks down. Distraught that his beauty will fade while the portrait stays beautiful, he inadvertently makes a Faustian bargain in which only the painted image grows old while he stays beautiful and young. For Wilde, the purpose of art would be to guide life as if beauty alone were its object. As Gray's portrait allows him to escape the corporeal ravages of his hedonism, Wilde sought to juxtapose the beauty he saw in art with daily life.\n\nReviewers immediately criticised the novel's decadence and homosexual allusions; The Daily Chronicle for example, called it \"unclean\", \"poisonous\", and \"heavy with the mephitic odours of moral and spiritual putrefaction\". Wilde vigorously responded, writing to the editor of the Scots Observer, in which he clarified his stance on ethics and aesthetics in art – \"If a work of art is rich and vital and complete, those who have artistic instincts will see its beauty and those to whom ethics appeal more strongly will see its moral lesson.\" He nevertheless revised it extensively for book publication in 1891: six new chapters were added, some overtly decadent passages and homo-eroticism excised, and a preface was included consisting of twenty two epigrams, such as \"Books are well written, or badly written. That is all.\" Contemporary reviewers and modern critics have postulated numerous possible sources of the story, a search Jershua McCormack argues is futile because Wilde \"has tapped a root of Western folklore so deep and ubiquitous that the story has escaped its origins and returned to the oral tradition.\" Wilde claimed the plot was \"an idea that is as old as the history of literature but to which I have given a new form\". Modern critic Robin McKie considered the novel to be technically mediocre, saying that the conceit of the plot had guaranteed its fame, but the device is never pushed to its full. \n\nTheatrical career: 1892–95\n\nSalomé\n\nThe 1891 census records the Wildes' residence at 16 Tite Street, where he lived with his wife Constance and two sons. Wilde though, not content with being better known than ever in London, returned to Paris in October 1891, this time as a respected writer. He was received at the salons littéraires, including the famous mardis of Stéphane Mallarmé, a renowned symbolist poet of the time. Wilde's two plays during the 1880s, Vera; or, The Nihilists and The Duchess of Padua, had not met with much success. He had continued his interest in the theatre and now, after finding his voice in prose, his thoughts turned again to the dramatic form as the biblical iconography of Salome filled his mind. One evening, after discussing depictions of Salome throughout history, he returned to his hotel and noticed a blank copybook lying on the desk, and it occurred to him to write in it what he had been saying. The result was a new play, Salomé, written rapidly and in French. \n\nA tragedy, it tells the story of Salome, the stepdaughter of the tetrarch Herod Antipas, who, to her stepfather's dismay but mother's delight, requests the head of Jokanaan (John the Baptist) on a silver platter as a reward for dancing the Dance of the Seven Veils. When Wilde returned to London just before Christmas the Paris Echo referred to him as \"le great event\" of the season. Rehearsals of the play, starring Sarah Bernhardt, began but the play was refused a licence by the Lord Chamberlain, since it depicted biblical characters. Salome was published jointly in Paris and London in 1893, but was not performed until 1896 in Paris, during Wilde's later incarceration. \n\nComedies of society\n\nWilde, who had first set out to irritate Victorian society with his dress and talking points, then outrage it with Dorian Gray, his novel of vice hidden beneath art, finally found a way to critique society on its own terms. Lady Windermere's Fan was first performed on 20 February 1892 at St James's Theatre, packed with the cream of society. On the surface a witty comedy, there is subtle subversion underneath: \"it concludes with collusive concealment rather than collective disclosure\". The audience, like Lady Windermere, are forced to soften harsh social codes in favour of a more nuanced view. The play was enormously popular, touring the country for months, but largely trashed by conservative critics. \nIt was followed by A Woman of No Importance in 1893, another Victorian comedy, revolving around the spectre of illegitimate births, mistaken identities and late revelations. Wilde was commissioned to write two more plays and An Ideal Husband, written in 1894, followed in January 1895. \n\nPeter Raby said these essentially English plays were well-pitched, \"Wilde, with one eye on the dramatic genius of Ibsen, and the other on the commercial competition in London's West End, targeted his audience with adroit precision\". \n\nQueensberry family\n\nIn mid-1891 Lionel Johnson introduced Wilde to Lord Alfred Douglas, an undergraduate at Oxford at the time. Known to his family and friends as \"Bosie\", he was a handsome and spoilt young man. An intimate friendship sprang up between Wilde and Douglas and by 1893 Wilde was infatuated with Douglas and they consorted together regularly in a tempestuous affair. If Wilde was relatively indiscreet, even flamboyant, in the way he acted, Douglas was reckless in public. Wilde, who was earning up to £100 a week from his plays (his salary at The Woman's World had been £6), indulged Douglas's every whim: material, artistic or sexual.\n\nDouglas soon dragged Wilde into the Victorian underground of gay prostitution and Wilde was introduced to a series of young, working class, male prostitutes from 1892 onwards by Alfred Taylor. These infrequent rendezvous usually took the same form: Wilde would meet the boy, offer him gifts, dine him privately and then take him to a hotel room. Unlike Wilde's idealised, pederastic relations with Ross, John Gray, and Douglas, all of whom remained part of his aesthetic circle, these consorts were uneducated and knew nothing of literature. Soon his public and private lives had become sharply divided; in De Profundis he wrote to Douglas that \"It was like feasting with panthers; the danger was half the excitement... I did not know that when they were to strike at me it was to be at another's piping and at another's pay.\" \n\nDouglas and some Oxford friends founded a journal, The Chameleon, to which Wilde \"sent a page of paradoxes originally destined for the Saturday Review\". \"Phrases and Philosophies for the Use of the Young\" was to come under attack six months later at Wilde's trial, where he was forced to defend the magazine to which he had sent his work. In any case, it became unique: The Chameleon was not published again.\n\nLord Alfred's father, the Marquess of Queensberry, was known for his outspoken atheism, brutish manner and creation of the modern rules of boxing.Queensberry's oldest son, Francis Douglas, Viscount Drumlanrig, possibly had an intimate association with Archibald Philip Primrose, 5th Earl of Rosebery, the Prime Minister to whom he was private secretary, which ended with Drumlanrig's death in an unexplained shooting accident. In any case the Marquess of Queensberry came to believe his sons had been corrupted by older homosexuals or, as he phrased it in a letter in the aftermath of Drumlanrig's death: \"Montgomerys, The Snob Queers like Rosebery and certainly Christian Hypocrite like Gladstone and the whole lot of you\". Ellmann (1988:402) Queensberry, who feuded regularly with his son, confronted Wilde and Lord Alfred about the nature of their relationship several times, but Wilde was able to mollify him. In June 1894, he called on Wilde at 16 Tite Street, without an appointment, and clarified his stance:\n\"I do not say that you are it, but you look it, and pose at it, which is just as bad. And if I catch you and my son again in any public restaurant I will thrash you\" to which Wilde responded: \"I don't know what the Queensberry rules are, but the Oscar Wilde rule is to shoot on sight\". His account in De Profundis was less triumphant: \"It was when, in my library at Tite Street, waving his small hands in the air in epileptic fury, your father... stood uttering every foul word his foul mind could think of, and screaming the loathsome threats he afterwards with such cunning carried out\". Queensberry only described the scene once, saying Wilde had \"shown him the white feather\", meaning he had acted in a cowardly way. Though trying to remain calm, Wilde saw that he was becoming ensnared in a brutal family quarrel. He did not wish to bear Queensberry's insults, but he knew to confront him could lead to disaster were his liaisons disclosed publicly.\n\nThe Importance of Being Earnest\n\nWilde's final play again returns to the theme of switched identities: the play's two protagonists engage in \"bunburying\" (the maintenance of alternative personas in the town and country) which allows them to escape Victorian social mores.Mendelshon, Daniel; The Two Oscar Wildes, New York Review of Books, Volume 49, Number 15 · 10 October 2002 Earnest is even lighter in tone than Wilde's earlier comedies. While their characters often rise to serious themes in moments of crisis, Earnest lacks the by-now stock Wildean characters: there is no \"woman with a past\", the principals are neither villainous nor cunning, simply idle cultivés, and the idealistic young women are not that innocent. Mostly set in drawing rooms and almost completely lacking in action or violence, Earnest lacks the self-conscious decadence found in The Picture of Dorian Gray and Salome. \n\nThe play, now considered Wilde's masterpiece, was rapidly written in Wilde's artistic maturity in late 1894. It was first performed on 14 February 1895, at St James's Theatre in London, Wilde's second collaboration with George Alexander, the actor-manager. Both author and producer assiduously revised, prepared and rehearsed every line, scene and setting in the months before the premiere, creating a carefully constructed representation of late-Victorian society, yet simultaneously mocking it. During rehearsal Alexander requested that Wilde shorten the play from four acts to three, which the author did. Premieres at St James's seemed like \"brilliant parties\", and the opening of The Importance of Being Earnest was no exception. Allan Aynesworth (who played Algy) recalled to Hesketh Pearson, \"In my fifty-three years of acting, I never remember a greater triumph than [that] first night.\" Earnest's immediate reception as Wilde's best work to date finally crystallised his fame into a solid artistic reputation.Wheatcroft, G. [http://www.theatlantic.com/past/docs/issues/2003/05/wheatcroft.htm \"Not Green, Not Red, Not Pink\"] The Atlantic Monthly, May 2003. The Importance of Being Earnest remains his most popular play. \n\nWilde's professional success was mirrored by an escalation in his feud with Queensberry. Queensberry had planned to insult Wilde publicly by throwing a bouquet of rotting vegetables onto the stage; Wilde was tipped off and had Queensberry barred from entering the theatre. Fifteen weeks later Wilde was in prison.\n\nTrials\n\nWilde v. Queensberry\n\nOn 18 February 1895, the Marquess left his calling card at Wilde's club, the Albemarle, inscribed: \"For Oscar Wilde, posing somdomite\". Queensberry's handwriting was almost indecipherable: The hall porter initially read \"ponce and sodomite\", but Queensberry himself claimed that he'd written \"posing 'as' a sodomite\", an easier accusation to defend in court. Merlin Holland concludes that \"what Queensberry almost certainly wrote was \"posing \", (Holland (2004:300)) Wilde, encouraged by Douglas and against the advice of his friends, initiated a private prosecution against Queensberry for libel, since the note amounted to a public accusation that Wilde had committed the crime of sodomy.\n\nQueensberry was arrested on a charge of criminal libel, a charge carrying a possible sentence of up to two years in prison ([http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/Vict/6-7/96/section/IV/enacted Libel Act of 1843]). Under the Act, Queensberry could avoid conviction for libel only by demonstrating that his accusation was in fact true, and furthermore that there was some \"public benefit\" to having made the accusation openly. Queensberry's lawyers thus hired private detectives to find evidence of Wilde's homosexual liaisons to prove the fact of the accusation. They decided on a strategy of portraying Wilde as a depraved older man who habitually enticed naive youths into a life of vicious homosexuality to demonstrate that there was some public interest in making the accusation openly, ostensibly to warn off other youths who might otherwise have become entrapped by Wilde.\n\nWilde's friends had advised him against the prosecution at a Saturday Review meeting at the Café Royal on 24 March 1895; Frank Harris warned him that \"they are going to prove sodomy against you\" and advised him to flee to France. Wilde and Douglas walked out in a huff, Wilde saying \"it is at such moments as these that one sees who are one's true friends\". The scene was witnessed by George Bernard Shaw who recalled it to Arthur Ransome a day or so before Ransome's trial for libelling Douglas in 1913. To Ransome it confirmed what he had said in his 1912 literary book on Wilde; that Douglas's rivalry for Wilde with Robbie Ross and his arguments with his father had resulted in Wilde's public disaster; as Wilde wrote in De Profundis. Douglas lost his case. Shaw included an account of the argument between Harris, Douglas and Wilde in the preface to his play The Dark Lady of the Sonnets. \n\nThe libel trial became a cause célèbre as salacious details of Wilde's private life with Taylor and Douglas began to appear in the press. A team of private detectives had directed Queensberry's lawyers, led by Edward Carson QC, to the world of the Victorian underground. Wilde's association with blackmailers and male prostitutes, cross-dressers and homosexual brothels was recorded, and various persons involved were interviewed, some being coerced to appear as witnesses since they too were accomplices to the crimes of which Wilde was accused. \n\nThe trial opened on 3 April 1895 amid scenes of near hysteria both in the press and the public galleries. The extent of the evidence massed against Wilde forced him to declare meekly, \"I am the prosecutor in this case\". Wilde's lawyer, Sir Edward George Clarke, opened the case by pre-emptively asking Wilde about two suggestive letters Wilde had written to Douglas, which the defence had in its possession. He characterised the first as a \"prose sonnet\" and admitted that the \"poetical language\" might seem strange to the court but claimed its intent was innocent. Wilde stated that the letters had been obtained by blackmailers who had attempted to extort money from him, but he had refused, suggesting they should take the £60 (equal to £ today) offered, \"unusual for a prose piece of that length\". He claimed to regard the letters as works of art rather than something of which to be ashamed. \n\nCarson, a fellow Dubliner who had attended Trinity College, Dublin at the same time as Wilde, cross-examined Wilde on how he perceived the moral content of his works. Wilde replied with characteristic wit and flippancy, claiming that works of art are not capable of being moral or immoral but only well or poorly made, and that only \"brutes and illiterates,\" whose views on art \"are incalculably stupid\", would make such judgements about art. Carson, a leading barrister, diverged from the normal practice of asking closed questions. Carson pressed Wilde on each topic from every angle, squeezing out nuances of meaning from Wilde's answers, removing them from their aesthetic context and portraying Wilde as evasive and decadent. While Wilde won the most laughs from the court, Carson scored the most legal points. To undermine Wilde's credibility, and to justify Queensberry's description of Wilde as a \"posing...somdomite\", Carson drew from the witness an admission of his capacity for \"posing\", by demonstrating that he had lied about his age on oath. Playing on this, he returned to the topic throughout his cross-examination. \n\nCarson then moved to the factual evidence and questioned Wilde about his acquaintances with younger, lower-class men. Wilde admitted being on a first-name basis and lavishing gifts upon them, but insisted that nothing untoward had occurred and that the men were merely good friends of his. Carson repeatedly pointed out the unusual nature of these relationships and insinuated that the men were prostitutes. Wilde replied that he did not believe in social barriers, and simply enjoyed the society of young men. Then Carson asked Wilde directly whether he had ever kissed a certain servant boy, Wilde responded, \"Oh, dear no. He was a particularly plain boy – unfortunately ugly – I pitied him for it.\"Foldy (1997:17) Carson pressed him on the answer, repeatedly asking why the boy's ugliness was relevant. Wilde hesitated, then for the first time became flustered: \"You sting me and insult me and try to unnerve me; and at times one says things flippantly when one ought to speak more seriously.\"\n\nIn his opening speech for the defence, Carson announced that he had located several male prostitutes who were to testify that they had had sex with Wilde. On the advice of his lawyers, Wilde dropped the prosecution. Queensberry was found not guilty, as the court declared that his accusation that Wilde was \"posing as a Somdomite\" was justified, \"true in substance and in fact.\" Under the Libel Act 1843, Queensberry's acquittal rendered Wilde legally liable for the considerable expenses Queensberry had incurred in his defence, which left Wilde bankrupt.\n\nRegina v. Wilde\n\nAfter Wilde left the court, a warrant for his arrest was applied for on charges of sodomy and gross indecency. Robbie Ross found Wilde at the Cadogan Hotel, Knightsbridge, with Reginald Turner; both men advised Wilde to go at once to Dover and try to get a boat to France; his mother advised him to stay and fight. Wilde, lapsing into inaction, could only say, \"The train has gone. It's too late.\" Wilde was arrested for \"gross indecency\" under Section 11 of the Criminal Law Amendment Act 1885, a term meaning homosexual acts not amounting to buggery (an offence under a separate statute). At Wilde's instruction, Ross and Wilde's butler forced their way into the bedroom and library of 16 Tite Street, packing some personal effects, manuscripts, and letters. Wilde was then imprisoned on remand at Holloway where he received daily visits from Douglas.\n\nEvents moved quickly and his prosecution opened on 26 April 1895. Wilde pleaded not guilty. He had already begged Douglas to leave London for Paris, but Douglas complained bitterly, even wanting to give evidence; he was pressed to go and soon fled to the Hotel du Monde. Fearing persecution, Ross and many others also left the United Kingdom during this time. Under cross examination Wilde was at first hesitant, then spoke eloquently:\n\nThis response was counter-productive in a legal sense as it only served to reinforce the charges of homosexual behaviour.\nThe trial ended with the jury unable to reach a verdict. Wilde's counsel, Sir Edward Clarke, was finally able to get a magistrate to allow Wilde and his friends to post bail. The Reverend Stewart Headlam put up most of the £5,000 surety required by the court, having disagreed with Wilde's treatment by the press and the courts. Wilde was freed from Holloway and, shunning attention, went into hiding at the house of Ernest and Ada Leverson, two of his firm friends. Edward Carson approached Frank Lockwood QC, the Solicitor General and asked \"Can we not let up on the fellow now?\" Lockwood answered that he would like to do so, but feared that the case had become too politicised to be dropped.\n\nThe final trial was presided over by Mr Justice Wills. On 25 May 1895 Wilde and Alfred Taylor were convicted of gross indecency and sentenced to two years' hard labour. The judge described the sentence, the maximum allowed, as \"totally inadequate for a case such as this,\" and that the case was \"the worst case I have ever tried\". Wilde's response \"And I? May I say nothing, my Lord?\" was drowned out in cries of \"Shame\" in the courtroom. \n\nImprisonment\n\nWilde entered prison on 25 May 1895, and was released on 18 May 1897. \n\nHe first entered Newgate Prison in London for a week for processing, then was moved to Pentonville Prison, where the \"hard labour\" to which he had been sentenced consisted of many hours of walking a treadmill and picking oakum (separating the fibres in scraps of old navy ropes), and where prisoners were allowed to read only the Bible and The Pilgrim's Progress. Prisoners were not allowed to speak to each other, and, when out of their cells, were required to wear a cap with a thick veil so they would not be recognised by other prisoners. \n\nA few months later he was moved to Wandsworth Prison in London. Inmates there also followed the regimen of \"hard labour, hard fare and a hard bed\", which wore harshly on Wilde's delicate health. In November he collapsed during chapel from illness and hunger. His right ear drum was ruptured in the fall, an injury that later contributed to his death. He spent two months in the infirmary. \n\nRichard B. Haldane, the Liberal MP and reformer, visited Wilde and had him transferred in November to Reading Gaol, 30 miles west of London on 23 November 1895. The transfer itself was the lowest point of his incarceration, as a crowd jeered and spat at him on the railway platform. Here, he spent the remainder of his sentence, and was assigned the third cell on the third floor of C ward – and thereafter was addressed and identified only by \"C33\" – the number of his cell, the third cell on the third floor of C ward. \n\nAbout five months after Wilde arrived at Reading Gaol, Charles Thomas Wooldridge, a trooper in the Royal Horse Guards, was brought to Reading to await his trial for murdering his wife on 29 March 1896; on 17 June Wooldridge was sentenced to death and returned to Reading for his execution, which took place on Tuesday, 7 July 1896 – the first hanging at Reading in 18 years. From Wooldridge's hanging, Wilde later wrote The Ballad of Reading Gaol.\n\nWilde was not, at first, even allowed paper and pen but Haldane eventually succeeded in allowing access to books and writing materials. Wilde requested, among others: the Bible in French; Italian and German grammars; some Ancient Greek texts, Dante's Divine Comedy, Joris-Karl Huysmans's new French novel about Christian redemption En Route, and essays by St Augustine, Cardinal Newman and Walter Pater. \n\nBetween January and March 1897 Wilde wrote a 50,000-word letter to Douglas. He was not allowed to send it, but was permitted to take it with him upon release. In reflective mode, Wilde coldly examines his career to date, how he had been a colourful agent provocateur in Victorian society, his art, like his paradoxes, seeking to subvert as well as sparkle. His own estimation of himself was: one who \"stood in symbolic relations to the art and culture of my age\". It was from these heights that his life with Douglas began, and Wilde examines that particularly closely, repudiating him for what Wilde finally sees as his arrogance and vanity: he had not forgotten Douglas's remark, when he was ill, \"When you are not on your pedestal you are not interesting.\" Wilde blamed himself, though, for the ethical degradation of character that he allowed Douglas to bring about in him and took responsibility for his own fall, \"I am here for having tried to put your father in prison.\" The first half concludes with Wilde forgiving Douglas, for his own sake as much as Douglas's. The second half of the letter traces Wilde's spiritual journey of redemption and fulfilment through his prison reading. He realised that his ordeal had filled his soul with the fruit of experience, however bitter it tasted at the time.\n ...I wanted to eat of the fruit of all the trees in the garden of the world... And so, indeed, I went out, and so I lived. My only mistake was that I confined myself so exclusively to the trees of what seemed to me the sun-lit side of the garden, and shunned the other side for its shadow and its gloom. \n \n\nWilde was released from prison on 18 May 1897 and sailed immediately for France. He would never return to Britain or to Ireland.\n\nOn his release, he gave the manuscript to Ross, who may or may not have carried out Wilde's instructions to send a copy to Douglas (who later denied having received it). De Profundis was partially published in 1905, its complete and correct publication first occurred in 1962 in The Letters of Oscar Wilde.Ross published a version of the letter expurgated of all references to Douglas in 1905 with the title De Profundis, expanding it slightly for an edition of Wilde's collected works in 1908, and then donated it to the British Museum on the understanding that it would not be made public until 1960. In 1949, Wilde's son Vyvyan Holland published it again, including parts formerly omitted, but relying on a faulty typescript bequeathed to him by Ross. Ross's typescript had contained several hundred errors, including typist's mistakes, Ross's 'improvements' and other inexplicable omissions. Holland/Hart-Davis (2000:683)\n\nDecline: 1897–1900\n\nExile\n\nThough Wilde's health had suffered greatly from the harshness and diet of prison, he had a feeling of spiritual renewal. He immediately wrote to the Society of Jesus requesting a six-month Catholic retreat; when the request was denied, Wilde wept. \"I intend to be received into the Catholic Church before long\", Wilde told a journalist who asked about his religious intentions. \n\nHe spent his last three years in impoverished exile. He took the name \"Sebastian Melmoth\", after Saint Sebastian, and the titular character of Melmoth the Wanderer; a Gothic novel by Charles Maturin, Wilde's great-uncle. Wilde wrote two long letters to the editor of the Daily Chronicle, describing the brutal conditions of English prisons and advocating penal reform. His discussion of the dismissal of Warder Martin for giving biscuits to an anaemic child prisoner, repeated the themes of the corruption and degeneration of punishment that he had earlier outlined in The Soul of Man Under Socialism. \n\nWilde spent mid-1897 with Robert Ross in the seaside village of Berneval-le-Grand in northern France, where he wrote The Ballad of Reading Gaol, narrating the execution of Charles Thomas Wooldridge, who murdered his wife in a rage at her infidelity; it moves from an objective story-telling to symbolic identification with the prisoners as a whole. No attempt is made to assess the justice of the laws which convicted them, but rather the poem highlights the brutalisation of the punishment that all convicts share. Wilde juxtaposes the executed man and himself with the line \"Yet each man kills the thing he loves\". Wilde too was separated from his wife and sons. He adopted the proletarian ballad form, and the author was credited as \"C33\", Wilde's cell number in Reading Gaol. He suggested that it be published in Reynold's Magazine, \"because it circulates widely among the criminal classes – to which I now belong – for once I will be read by my peers – a new experience for me\". It was an immediate roaring commercial success, going through seven editions in less than two years, only after which \"[Oscar Wilde]\" was added to the title page, though many in literary circles had known Wilde to be the author. It brought him a little money.\n\nAlthough Douglas had been the cause of his misfortunes, he and Wilde were reunited in August 1897 at Rouen. This meeting was disapproved of by the friends and families of both men. Constance Wilde was already refusing to meet Wilde or allow him to see their sons, though she sent him money – a meagre three pounds a week. During the latter part of 1897, Wilde and Douglas lived together near Naples for a few months until they were separated by their families under the threat of cutting off all funds. \n\nWilde's final address was at the dingy Hôtel d'Alsace (now known as L'Hôtel), on rue des Beaux-Arts in Saint-Germain-des-Prés, Paris. \"This poverty really breaks one's heart: it is so sale [filthy], so utterly depressing, so hopeless. Pray do what you can\" he wrote to his publisher. He corrected and published An Ideal Husband and The Importance of Being Earnest, the proofs of which, according to Ellmann, show a man \"very much in command of himself and of the play\", but he refused to write anything else: \"I can write, but have lost the joy of writing\".Ellmann (1988:527) \n\nHe wandered the boulevards alone, and spent what little money he had on alcohol. A series of embarrassing encounters with English visitors, or Frenchmen he had known in better days, drowned his spirit. Soon Wilde was sufficiently confined to his hotel to joke, on one of his final trips outside, \"My wallpaper and I are fighting a duel to the death. One of us has got to go.\" On 12 October 1900 he sent a telegram to Ross: \"Terribly weak. Please come.\" His moods fluctuated; Max Beerbohm relates how their mutual friend Reginald 'Reggie' Turner had found Wilde very depressed after a nightmare. \"I dreamt that I had died, and was supping with the dead!\" \"I am sure\", Turner replied, \"that you must have been the life and soul of the party.\" Turner was one of the very few of the old circle who remained with Wilde right to the end, and was at his bedside when he died.\n\nDeath\n\nBy 25 November Wilde had developed cerebral meningitis. Robbie Ross arrived on 29 November and sent for a priest, and Wilde was conditionally baptised into the Catholic Church by Fr Cuthbert Dunne, a Passionist priest from Dublin (the sacrament being conditional because of the doctrine that one may be baptised only once), Wilde having been baptised in the Church of Ireland, and having moreover a recollection of Catholic baptism as a child, a fact later attested to by the minister of the sacrament, Fr Lawrence Fox. Fr Dunne recorded the baptism:\n As the voiture rolled through the dark streets that wintry night, the sad story of Oscar Wilde was in part repeated to me... Robert Ross knelt by the bedside, assisting me as best he could while I administered conditional baptism, and afterwards answering the responses while I gave Extreme Unction to the prostrate man and recited the prayers for the dying. As the man was in a semi-comatose condition, I did not venture to administer the Holy Viaticum; still I must add that he could be roused and was roused from this state in my presence. When roused, he gave signs of being inwardly conscious... Indeed I was fully satisfied that he understood me when told that I was about to receive him into the Catholic Church and gave him the Last Sacraments... And when I repeated close to his ear the Holy Names, the Acts of Contrition, Faith, Hope and Charity, with acts of humble resignation to the Will of God, he tried all through to say the words after me. Robert Ross, in his letter to More Adey (dated 14 December 1900), described a similar scene: \"(Wilde) was conscious that people were in the room, and raised his hand when I asked him whether he understood. He pressed our hands. I then went in search of a priest and with great difficulty found Fr Cuthbert Dunne, of the Passionists, who came with me at once and administered Baptism and Extreme Unction – Oscar could not take the Eucharist\".(Holland/Hart-Davis (2000:1219–1220))\n\nWilde died of cerebral meningitis on 30 November 1900. Different opinions are given as to the cause of the meningitis: Richard Ellmann claimed it was syphilitic; however, Merlin Holland, Wilde's grandson, thought this to be a misconception, noting that Wilde's meningitis followed a surgical intervention, perhaps a mastoidectomy; Wilde's physicians, Dr Paul Cleiss and A'Court Tucker, reported that the condition stemmed from an old suppuration of the right ear (from the prison injury, see above) treated for several years (une ancienne suppuration de l'oreille droite d'ailleurs en traitement depuis plusieurs années) and made no allusion to syphilis. \n\nBurial\n\nWilde was initially buried in the Cimetière de Bagneux outside Paris; in 1909 his remains were disinterred and transferred to Père Lachaise Cemetery, inside the city. His tomb there was designed by Sir Jacob Epstein,Epstein produced the design with architect Charles Holden, for whom Epstein produced several controversial commissions in London. It was commissioned by Robert Ross, who asked for a small compartment to be made for his own ashes, which were duly transferred in 1950. The modernist angel depicted as a relief on the tomb was originally complete with male genitalia, which have since been vandalised; their current whereabouts are unknown. In 2000, Leon Johnson, a multimedia artist, installed a silver prosthesis to replace them. \n\nIn 2011 the tomb was cleaned of the many lipstick marks left there by admirers, and a glass barrier was installed to prevent further marks or damage. \n\nThe epitaph is a verse from The Ballad of Reading Gaol: \n\nAnd alien tears will fill for him\nPity's long-broken urn,\nFor his mourners will be outcast men,\nAnd outcasts always mourn.\n\nBiographies\n\nWilde's life continues to fascinate, and he has been the subject of numerous biographies since his death. The earliest were memoirs by those who knew him: often they are personal or impressionistic accounts which can be good character sketches, but are sometimes factually unreliable. Frank Harris, his friend and editor, wrote a biography, Oscar Wilde: His Life and Confessions (1916); though prone to exaggeration and sometimes factually inaccurate, it offers a good literary portrait of Wilde. Lord Alfred Douglas wrote two books about his relationship with Wilde. Oscar Wilde and Myself (1914), largely ghost-written by T.W.H. Crosland, vindictively reacted to Douglas's discovery that De Profundis was addressed to him and defensively tried to distance him from Wilde's scandalous reputation. Both authors later regretted their work. Later, in Oscar Wilde: A Summing Up (1939) and his Autobiography he was more sympathetic to Wilde. Of Wilde's other close friends, Robert Sherard, Robert Ross, his literary executor; and Charles Ricketts variously published biographies, reminiscences or correspondence. The first more or less objective biography of Wilde came about when Hesketh Pearson wrote Oscar Wilde: His Life and Wit (1946). In 1954 Vyvyan Holland published his memoir Son of Oscar Wilde, which recounts the difficulties Wilde's wife and children faced after his imprisonment. It was revised and updated by Merlin Holland in 1989.\n\nOscar Wilde, a critical study by Arthur Ransome was published in 1912. The book only briefly mentioned Wilde's life, but subsequently Ransome (and The Times Book Club) were sued for libel by Lord Alfred Douglas. The trial in April 1913 was in a way a re-run of the trial(s) of Oscar Wilde. The trial resulted from Douglas's rivalry with Robbie Ross for Wilde (and his need of money). Douglas lost; De Profundis which was read in part at the trial disproved his claims (Ross had shown Ransome the full text of it). \n\nWilde's life was still waiting for independent, true scholarship when Richard Ellmann began researching his 1987 biography Oscar Wilde, for which he posthumously won a National (USA) Book Critics Circle Award in 1988 and a Pulitzer Prize in 1989. The book was the basis for the 1997 film Wilde, directed by Brian Gilbert and starring Stephen Fry as the title character. \n\nNeil McKenna's 2003 biography, The Secret Life of Oscar Wilde, offers an exploration of Wilde's sexuality. Often speculative in nature, it was widely criticised for its pure conjecture and lack of scholarly rigour. Thomas Wright's Oscar's Books (2008) explores Wilde's reading from his childhood in Dublin to his death in Paris. After tracking down many books that once belonged to Wilde's Tite Street library (dispersed at the time of his trials), Wright was the first to examine Wilde's marginalia.\n\nWilde's charm also had a lasting effect on Parisian literati, who produced several original biographies and monographs on him. André Gide, on whom Wilde had such a strange effect, wrote, In Memoriam, Oscar Wilde; Wilde also features in his journals. Thomas Louis, who had earlier translated books on Wilde into French, produced his own L'esprit d'Oscar Wilde in 1920. Modern books include Philippe Jullian's Oscar Wilde, and L'affaire Oscar Wilde, ou, Du danger de laisser la justice mettre le nez dans nos draps (The Oscar Wilde Affair, or, On the Danger of Allowing Justice to put its Nose in our Sheets) by Odon Vallet, a French religious historian. \n\nSelected works\n\n* Ravenna (1878)\n* Poems (1881)\n* The Happy Prince and Other Stories (1888, fairy stories)\n* Lord Arthur Savile's Crime and Other Stories (1891, stories)\n* House of Pomegranates (1891, fairy stories)\n* Intentions (1891, essays and dialogues on aesthetics)\n* The Picture of Dorian Gray (first published in Lippincott's Monthly Magazine July 1890, in book form in 1891; novel)\n* The Soul of Man under Socialism (1891, political essay)\n* Lady Windermere's Fan (1892, play)\n* A Woman of No Importance (1893, play)\n* An Ideal Husband (performed 1895, published 1898; play)\n* The Importance of Being Earnest (performed 1895, published 1898; play)\n* De Profundis (written 1897, published variously 1905, 1908, 1949, 1962; epistle)\n* The Ballad of Reading Gaol (1898, poem)\n\nTributes\n\nIn 2012, Wilde was inducted into the Legacy Walk, an outdoor public display which celebrates LGBT history and people. \n\nNotes\n\nFootnotes\n\nCitations" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Oscar Wild", "Flahertie", "C. 3. 3. 3", "Oscar Wilde", "O'Flahertie", "C. 3. 3. 3.", "O Wilde", "Oscar O'Flahertie Wills Wilde", "Oscar O'flaherty Wilde", "Oscar wilde", "Sebastian Melmoth", "Oscar Fingal O'Flaherty Wills Wilde", "Theocritus: a villanelle", "Oscar Wilde/Biblio", "Oscar Fingal O'Flahertie Wills Wilde", "Cyril Wilde" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "o flahertie", "theocritus villanelle", "flahertie", "oscar wilde biblio", "oscar fingal o flahertie wills wilde", "o wilde", "oscar fingal o flaherty wills wilde", "oscar wilde", "oscar o flaherty wilde", "c 3 3 3", "sebastian melmoth", "oscar o flahertie wills wilde", "oscar wild", "cyril wilde" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "sebastian melmoth", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Sebastian Melmoth" }
What was Scarlett O'Hara's real first name?	tc_484	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Scarlett_O'Hara.txt" ], "title": [ "Scarlett O'Hara" ], "wiki_context": [ "Katie Scarlett O'Hara is a fictional character and the protagonist in Margaret Mitchell's 1936 novel Gone with the Wind and in the later film of the same name. She also is the main character in the 1970 musical Scarlett and the 1991 book Scarlett, a sequel to Gone with the Wind that was written by Alexandra Ripley and adapted for a television mini-series in 1994. During early drafts of the original novel, Mitchell referred to her heroine as \"Pansy\", and did not decide on the name \"Scarlett\" until just before the novel went to print. \n\nBiography\n\nO'Hara is the oldest living child of Gerald and Ellen O'Hara. She was born on her family's plantation Tara in Georgia. She was named Katie Scarlett, after her father's mother, but is always called Scarlett, except by her father, who refers to her as \"Katie Scarlett.\" She is from a Catholic family of Irish and French ancestry, and a descendent of an aristocratic Savannah family on her mother's side (the Robillards). O'Hara has black hair, green eyes, and pale skin. She is famous for her fashionably small waist. Scarlett has two younger sisters, Susan Elinor (\"Suellen\") O'Hara and Caroline Irene (\"Carreen\") O'Hara, and three little brothers who died in infancy. Her baby brothers are buried in the family burying ground at Tara, and each was named Gerald O'Hara, Jr.\n\nPersonality\n\nScarlett O'Hara is an atypical protagonist, especially as a female romantic lead in fiction. When the novel opens, Scarlett is sixteen. She is vain, self-centered, and very spoiled by her wealthy parents. She can also be insecure; but is very intelligent, despite her fashionable Southern-belle pretense at ignorance and helplessness around men. She is somewhat unique among Southern women, whom society preferred to act as dainty creatures who needed protection from their men. Scarlett is aware that she is only acting empty-headed, and resents the fashionable \"necessity\" of it, unlike most of her typical party-going Southern belles social set.\n\nOutwardly, Scarlett is the picture of Southern charm and womanly virtues, and a popular belle with the Country males. The one man she truly wants, however, is her neighbor, Ashley Wilkes – the one man she can't have. The Wilkes family has a tradition of intermarrying with their cousins, and Ashley is promised to his cousin, Melanie Hamilton of Atlanta. Scarlett's motivation in the early part of the novel centers on her desire to win Ashley's heart. When he refuses her advances (which no well-bred Southern lady would be so forward as to make), she takes refuge in childish rage, and spitefully accepts the proposal of Charles Hamilton, Melanie's brother, in a misguided effort to get back at Ashley and Melanie.\n\nRhett Butler, a wealthy older bachelor and a society pariah, overhears Scarlett express her love to Ashley during a barbecue at Twelve Oaks, the Wilkes' estate. Rhett admires Scarlett's willfulness and her departure from accepted propriety as well as her beauty. He pursues Scarlett, but is aware of her impetuousness, childish spite, and her fixation on Ashley. He assists Scarlett in defiance of proper Victorian mourning customs when her husband, Charles Hamilton, dies in battle, and Rhett encourages her hoydenish behavior (by antebellum custom) in Atlanta society. Scarlett, privately chafing from the strict rules of polite society, finds friendship with Rhett liberating.\n\nThe Civil War sweeps away the lifestyle for which Scarlett was raised, and Southern society falls into ruin. Scarlett, left destitute after Sherman's army marches through Georgia, becomes the sole source of strength for her family. Her character begins to harden as her relatives, the family servants and the Wilkes family look to her for protection from homelessness and starvation. Scarlett becomes money-conscious and more materialistic in her motivation to ensure that her family survives and Tara stays in her family, while other Georgia planters are losing their homes. This extends to stealing her younger sister's fiancé, going into business herself (well-bred southern ladies never worked outside the home), engaging in controversial business practices and even exploiting convict labor in order to make her lumber business profit. Her conduct results in the accidental death of her second husband, Frank Kennedy, and shortly after she marries Rhett Butler for \"fun\" and because he is very wealthy.\n\nScarlett is too insecure and vain to truly grow up and realize her pursuit of Ashley is misdirected until the climax of the novel. With the death of Melanie Wilkes, she realizes her pursuit of Ashley was a childish romance. She realizes she never really loved Ashley and that she has loved Rhett Butler for some time. She pursues Rhett from the Wilkes home to their home, only to discover he has given up hope of ever receiving her love, and is about to leave her. After telling him she loves him, he refuses to stay with her, which leads to the famous line \"frankly my dear, I don't give a damn\". Wracked with grief, but determined to once again pursue and win her man, realizing that Tara is what matters most to her (other than Rhett) Scarlet returns home to Tara to launch her pursuit of Rhett at a later time.\n\nSearching for Scarlett\n\nWhile the studio and the public agreed that the part of Rhett Butler should go to Clark Gable (except for Clark Gable himself), casting for the role of Scarlett was a little harder. The search for an actress to play Scarlett in the film version of the novel famously drew the biggest names in the history of cinema, such as Bette Davis (who had been cast as a Southern belle in Jezebel in 1938), and Katharine Hepburn, who went so far as demanding an appointment with producer David O. Selznick and saying, \"I am Scarlett O'Hara! The role is practically written for me.\" Selznick replied rather bluntly, \"I can't imagine Rhett Butler chasing you for twelve years.\" Jean Arthur and Lucille Ball were also considered, as well as relatively unknown actress Doris Davenport. Susan Hayward was \"discovered\" when she tested for the part, and the career of Lana Turner developed quickly after her screen test. Tallulah Bankhead and Joan Bennett were widely considered to be the most likely choices until they were supplanted by Paulette Goddard.\n\nThe young English actress Vivien Leigh, virtually unknown in America, saw that several English actors, including Ronald Colman and Leslie Howard, were in consideration for the male leads in Gone with the Wind. Her agent happened to be the London representative of the Myron Selznick talent agency, headed by David Selznick's brother, Myron. Leigh asked Myron to put her name into consideration as Scarlett on the eve of the American release of her picture Fire Over England in February 1938. David Selznick watched both Fire Over England and her most recent picture, A Yank at Oxford, that month, and thought she was excellent but in no way a possible Scarlett, as she was \"too British\". But Myron Selznick arranged for David to first meet Leigh on the night in December 1938 when the burning of the Atlanta Depot was being filmed on the Forty Acres backlot that Selznick International and RKO shared. Leigh and her then lover Laurence Olivier (later to be her husband) were visiting as guests of Myron Selznick, who was also Olivier's agent, while Leigh was in Hollywood hoping for a part in Olivier's current movie, Wuthering Heights. In a letter to his wife two days later, David Selznick admitted that Leigh was \"the Scarlett dark horse\", and after a series of screen tests, her casting was announced on January 13, 1939. Just before the shooting of the film, Selznick informed Ed Sullivan: \"Scarlett O'Hara's parents were French and Irish. Identically, Miss Leigh's parents are French and Irish.\" \n\nIn any case, Leigh was cast—despite public protest that the role was too \"American\" for an English actress—but Leigh was able to pull off the role so well that she eventually won an Academy Award for her performance as Scarlett O'Hara.\n\nOther actresses considered for Scarlett \n\nA great number of actresses were considered. In fact, there were approximately 32 women who were considered and or tested for the role. The search for Scarlett began in 1936 (the year of the book's publication) and ended in December 1938. \n\nBetween 1936 and 1938, the following actresses were considered for the role, which required playing Scarlett from 16 years of age until she was 28 (actress age in 1939, the year of Gone With the Wind's release, when Leigh was 26).\n\n* Lucille Ball (28)\n* Constance Bennett (35)\n* Clara Bow (34)\n* Mary Brian (33)\n* Ruth Chatterton (47)\n* Claudette Colbert (36)\n* Joan Crawford (35)\n* Bette Davis (31)\n* Frances Dee (30)\n* Irene Dunne (41)\n* Madge Evans (30)\n* Glenda Farrell (35)\n* Alice Faye (24)\n* Joan Fontaine (22), sister of Olivia DeHavilland, who played Mellie (23)\n* Kay Francis (34)\n* Janet Gaynor (33)\n* Paulette Goddard (29)\n* Jean Harlow (28)\n* Susan Hayward who was considered by Cukor to be too young to have the depth for the role (22)\n* Katharine Hepburn (32)\n* Miriam Hopkins (37)\n* Rochelle Hudson (23)\n* Dorothy Lamour (25)\n* Andrea Leeds (25)\n* Carole Lombard (31)\n* Anita Louise (24)\n* Myrna Loy (34)\n* Pola Negri (42)\n* Maureen O'Sullivan (28)\n* Merle Oberon (28)\n* Ginger Rogers (28)\n* Norma Shearer (37)\n* Ann Sheridan (24)\n* Gale Sondergaard, who also was considered for but ultimately lost the role of the Wicked Witch of the West the same year (40)\n* Barbara Stanwyck (32)\n* Gloria Stuart (29)\n* Margaret Sullavan (30)\n* Gloria Swanson (40)\n* Linda Watkins (31)\n* Mae West (46)\n* Jane Wyman (22)\n* Loretta Young (26)\n\nBetween late 1937 and mid-1938, approximately 128 actresses were nominated for the role of Scarlett through letters of suggestion sent to Selznick International Pictures from the public.\n\nAdaptations\n\n* A 1966 musical stage adaptation was a major hit in Japan and London's West End, but failed to survive in America where it starred Lesley Ann Warren and Harve Presnell. It closed after engagements in Los Angeles and San Francisco, never opening on Broadway.\n* In 1980 a film about the search for Scarlett O'Hara was made entitled Moviola: The Scarlett O'Hara War with actress Morgan Brittany impersonating Vivien Leigh, whom she resembled.\n* In the 1994 TV mini-series based on the sequel Scarlett, the character was played by English actress Joanne Whalley.\n* In the Margaret Martin musical Gone with the Wind, the role of Scarlett O'Hara was originated by Jill Paice.\n* In the South Korean stage production Girls' Generation member Seohyun played Scarlett, alongside Bada, former member of S.E.S..\n\nHistorical sources for the character\n\nWhile Margaret Mitchell used to say that her Gone with The Wind characters were not based on real people, modern researchers have found similarities to some of the people in Mitchell's own life as well as individuals she heard of. Rhett Butler is thought to be based on Mitchell's first husband, Red Upshaw. Scarlett's upbringing resembled that of Mitchell's maternal grandmother, Annie Fitzgerald Stephens (1844–1934), who was raised on a plantation in Clayton County, Georgia (where the fictional Tara was placed), and whose father was an Irish immigrant. Another source for Scarlett might have been Martha Bulloch Roosevelt, the mother of U.S. president Theodore Roosevelt. Martha grew up in a beautiful Southern mansion, Bulloch Hall, in Roswell, just north of Atlanta, Georgia. Her physical appearance, beauty, grace and intelligence were well known to Mitchell and the personality similarities (the positive ones) between Martha, who was also called Mittie, and Scarlett were striking.\n\nComparisons to other characters\n\nTroy Patterson of Entertainment Weekly argued that Ally McBeal, the main character of the television series with the same name, has similarities to O'Hara and that \"Scarlett and Ally are fairy-tale princesses who bear about as much resemblance to real women as Barbie and Skipper.\"Patterson, Troy, Ty Burr, and Stephen Whitty. \"[http://www.ew.com/ew/article/0,,285397,00.html Gone With the Wind].\" (video review) Entertainment Weekly. October 23, 1998. Retrieved on December 23, 2013. This document has three separate reviews of the film, one per author. Patterson wrote that Ally is similar because she is also a child from a ruling class family, \"pines hopelessly after an unavailable dreamboat\", and has a \"sassy black roommate\" in place of a \"mammy\" to \"comfort her\".\n\nNotes" ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Katie" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "katie" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "katie", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Katie" }
"What one word was intentionally left out of the movie version of Mario Puzo's novel, ""The Godfather"". even though this word was the working title of the book?"	tc_489	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe", "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Mario_Puzo.txt", "The_Godfather.txt" ], "title": [ "Mario Puzo", "The Godfather" ], "wiki_context": [ "Mario Gianluigi Puzo (;; October 15, 1920 – July 2, 1999) was an American author, screenwriter and journalist. He is known for his crime novels about the Mafia, most notably The Godfather (1969), which he later co-adapted into a three-part film saga directed by Francis Ford Coppola. He received the Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay for the first film in 1972 and Part II in 1974. Puzo also wrote the original screenplay for the 1978 Superman film. His last novel, The Family, was released posthumously in 2001.\n\nLife and career\n\nPuzo was born in the Hell's Kitchen neighborhood of New York City, into a poor family from Pietradefusi, Province of Avellino, Campania, Italy. Many of his books draw heavily on this heritage. After graduating from the City College of New York, he joined the United States Army Air Forces in World War II. Due to his poor eyesight, the military did not let him undertake combat duties but made him a public relations officer stationed in Germany. In 1950, his first short story, \"The Last Christmas\", was published in American Vanguard. After the war, he wrote his first book, The Dark Arena, which was published in 1955.\n\nAt periods in the 1950s and early 1960s, Puzo worked as a writer/editor for publisher Martin Goodman's Magazine Management Company. Puzo, along with other writers like Bruce Jay Friedman, worked for the company line of men's magazines, pulp titles like Male, True Action, and Swank. Under the pseudonym Mario Cleri, Puzo wrote World War II adventure features for True Action. \n\nPuzo's most famous work, The Godfather (1969), was encouraged by a suggestion of the publisher of his The Fortunate Pilgrim (1965) who thought that if there was more mafia that it would have been more successful. A story outline was prepared and presented to the publisher who rejected it. After several publishers were approached, Putnam editors met with him without having read the outline. He told them a few stories and the project was approved. With the advance, he got on with the project. He had heard anecdotes about Mafia organizations during his time in pulp journalism.\n\nHe said in an interview with Larry King that the critical reception of his previous two books without the monetary success to follow made the issue all the more important in the next work in order to support his five children on a government clerk's salary. He was looking to write something that would appeal to the masses. He found his audience with the novel; a number-one bestseller for months on the New York Times Best Seller List. The book was later developed into the film The Godfather, directed by Francis Ford Coppola. The movie received 3 awards of the 11 Academy Award category nominations, including Puzo's Oscar for Best Adapted Screenplay. Coppola and Puzo then collaborated on sequels to the original film, The Godfather Part II and The Godfather Part III.\n\nPuzo wrote the first draft of the script for the 1974 disaster film Earthquake, which he was unable to continue working on due to his commitment to The Godfather Part II. Puzo also wrote the original screenplay for Richard Donner's Superman which, at the time, also included the plot for Superman II, as they were originally written as one film. He also collaborated on the stories for the 1982 film A Time to Die and the 1984 Francis Ford Coppola film The Cotton Club.\n\nIn 1991, Puzo's speculative fiction, The Fourth K was published; it hypothesizes a member of the Kennedy family who becomes President of the United States early in the 2000s. \n\nPuzo never saw the publication of his penultimate book, Omertà, but the manuscript was finished before his death, as was the manuscript for The Family. However, in a review originally published in the San Francisco Chronicle, Jules Siegel, who had worked closely with Puzo at Magazine Management Company, speculated that Omertà may have been completed by \"some talentless hack\". Siegel also acknowledged the temptation to \"rationalize avoiding what is probably the correct analysis – that [Puzo] wrote it and it is terrible\". \n\nPuzo died of heart failure on Friday, July 2, 1999 at his home on Manor Lane in West Bay Shore, New York. His family now lives in East Islip, New York.\n\nFyodor Dostoyevsky seemed to have had an influence on Puzo, providing several quotations, particularly from The Brothers Karamazov, in Puzo's books: The Dark Arena, Fools Die, The Fourth K, and The Family. The Corleone family in The Godfather closely resembles the Karamazov family in The Brothers Karamazov: a powerful father, an impulsive oldest son, a philosophical son, a sweet-tempered son, and an adopted stepson who is maintained as an employee.\n\nWorks\n\nNovels\n\n* The Dark Arena (1955)\n* The Fortunate Pilgrim (1965)\n* The Runaway Summer of Davie Shaw (1966)\n* Six Graves to Munich (1967), as Mario Cleri\n* The Godfather (1969)\n* Fools Die (1978)\n* The Sicilian (1984)\n* The Fourth K (1991)\n* The Last Don (1996)\n* Omertà (2000)\n* The Family (2001) (completed by Puzo's longtime girlfriend Carol Gino)\n\nNon-fiction\n\n* \"Test Yourself: Are You Heading for a Nervous Breakdown?\" as Mario Cleri (1965)\n* The Godfather Papers and Other Confessions (1972)\n* Inside Las Vegas (1977)\n\nShort stories\n\nAll short stories, except \"The Last Christmas\", were written under the pseudonym Mario Cleri.\n\n* \"The Last Christmas\" (1950)\n* \"John 'Red' Marston's Island of Delight\" (1964)\n* \"Big Mike's Wild Young Sister-in-law\" (1964)\n* \"The Six Million Killer Sharks That Terrorize Our Shores\" (1966) \n* \"Trapped Girls in the Riviera's Flesh Casino\" (1967)\n* \"The Unkillable Six\" (1967)\n* \"Girls of Pleasure Penthouse\" (1968)\n* \"Order Lucy For Tonight\" (1968) \n* \"12 Barracks of Wild Blondes\" (1968) \n* \"Charlie Reese's Amazing Escape from a Russian Death Camp\" (1969)\n\nScreenplays and film adaptations\n\n* The Godfather (1972)\n* The Godfather Part II (1974)\n* Earthquake (1974)\n* Superman (1978)\n* Superman II (1980)\n* A Time to Die (1982)\n* The Cotton Club (1984)\n* The Sicilian (1987)\n* The Fortunate Pilgrim (1988)\n* The Godfather Part III (1990)\n* Christopher Columbus: The Discovery (1992)\n* Superman II: The Richard Donner Cut (2006)\n* The Family Corleone (unproduced)\n\nVideo game adaptions\n\nThe Godfather: The Game (2006)\nThe Godfather: Mob Wars (2006)\nThe Godfather II (video game) (2009)", "The Godfather is a 1972 American crime film directed by Francis Ford Coppola and produced by Albert S. Ruddy, based on Mario Puzo's best-selling novel of the same name. It stars Marlon Brando and Al Pacino as the leaders of a fictional New York crime family. The story, spanning 1945 to 1955, chronicles the family under the patriarch Vito Corleone, focusing on the transformation of Michael Corleone (Pacino) from reluctant family outsider to ruthless Mafia boss.\n\nParamount Pictures obtained the rights to the novel before it gained popularity for the price of $80,000. Studio executives had trouble finding a director, as their first few candidates turned down the position. They and Coppola disagreed over who would play several characters, in particular Vito and Michael. Filming was done on location and completed earlier than scheduled. The musical score was composed primarily by Nino Rota with additional pieces by Carmine Coppola.\n\nThe film was the highest-grossing film of 1972 and was for a time the highest-grossing film ever made. It won the Oscars for Best Picture, Best Actor (Brando) and Best Adapted Screenplay (for Puzo and Coppola). Its seven other Oscar nominations included Pacino, James Caan, and Robert Duvall for Best Supporting Actor and Coppola for Best Director. It was followed by sequels The Godfather Part II (1974) and Part III (1990).\n\nThe Godfather is widely regarded as one of the greatest films in world cinema and one of the most influential, especially in the gangster genre. It was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry in 1990 and is ranked the second-greatest film in American cinema (behind Citizen Kane) by the American Film Institute.\n\nPlot\n\nIn 1945, at his daughter Connie's wedding, Vito Corleone hears requests in his role as the Godfather, the Don of a New York crime family. Vito's youngest son, Michael, who was a Marine during World War II, introduces his girlfriend, Kay Adams, to his family at the reception. Johnny Fontane, a famous singer and godson to Vito, seeks Vito's help in securing a movie role; Vito dispatches his consigliere, Tom Hagen, to Los Angeles to talk the obnoxious studio head, Jack Woltz, into giving Johnny the part. Woltz refuses until he wakes up in bed with the severed head of his prized stallion.\n\nShortly before Christmas, drug baron Virgil \"The Turk\" Sollozzo, backed by the Tattaglia crime family, asks Vito for investment in his narcotics business and protection through his political connections. Wary of involvement in a dangerous new trade that risks alienating political insiders, Vito declines. Suspicious, Vito sends his enforcer, Luca Brasi, to spy on them. Sollozzo has Vito gunned down in the street, then kidnaps Hagen. With Corleone first-born Sonny in command, Hagen is pressured to persuade Sonny to accept Sollozzo's deal, then released. The family receives fish wrapped in Brasi's bullet-proof vest, indicating that Luca \"sleeps with the fishes\". Vito survives, and at the hospital Michael thwarts another attempt on his father; Michael's jaw is broken by NYPD Captain Marc McCluskey, Sollozzo's bodyguard. Sonny retaliates with a hit on Tattaglia's son. Michael plots to murder Sollozzo and McCluskey: on the pretext of settling the dispute, Michael agrees to meet them in a Bronx restaurant. There, retrieving a planted handgun, he kills both men.\n\nDespite a clampdown by the authorities, the Five Families erupt in open warfare and Vito's sons fear for their safety. Michael takes refuge in Sicily, and his brother, Fredo, is sheltered by the Corleone's Las Vegas casino partner, Moe Greene. Sonny attacks his brother-in-law Carlo on the street for abusing his sister and threatens to kill him if it happens again. When it does, Sonny speeds to their home, but is ambushed at a highway toll booth and riddled with submachine gun fire. While in Sicily, Michael meets and marries Apollonia Vitelli, but a car bomb intended for him takes her life.\n\nDevastated by Sonny's death, Vito moves to end the feuds. Realizing that the Tattaglias are controlled by the now-dominant Don Emilio Barzini, Vito assures the Five Families that he will withdraw his opposition to their heroin business and forgo avenging his son's murder. His safety guaranteed, Michael returns home to enter the family business and marry Kay, who gives birth to two children by the early 1950s.\n\nWith his father at the end of his career and his brother too weak, Michael takes the family reins, promising his wife the business will be legitimate within five years. To that end, he insists Hagen relocate to Las Vegas and relinquish his role to Vito because Tom is not a \"wartime consigliere\"; Vito agrees Tom should \"have no part in what will happen\" in the coming battles with rival families. When Michael travels to Las Vegas to buy out Greene's stake in the family's casinos, their partner derides the Corleones for being run out of New York; Michael is dismayed to see that Fredo has fallen under Greene's sway.\n \nVito suffers a fatal heart attack. At the funeral, Tessio, a Corleone capo, asks Michael to meet with Don Barzini, signalling the betrayal that Vito had forewarned. The meeting is set for the same day as the christening of Connie’s baby. While Michael stands at the altar as the child's godfather, Corleone assassins murder the other New York dons and Moe Greene. Tessio is executed for his treachery; Michael extracts Carlo’s confession to his complicity in setting up Sonny's murder for Barzini. After Clemenza garrotes Carlo with a wire, Connie accuses Michael of the murder, telling Kay that Michael ordered all the killings. Kay is relieved when Michael finally denies it, but when the capos arrive, they address her husband as Don Corleone. She watches fearfully as they close the door on her.\n\nCast\n\n Marlon Brando, in the title role, is Vito Corleone (born Vito Andolini), the Don of the Corleone crime family. A native Sicilian, he is married to Carmela Corleone and the father of Tom (adoptive), Sonny, Fredo, Michael, and Connie.\n* Al Pacino as Michael Corleone, the Don's third son, recently returned from World War II. The only college-educated family member, he is initially steered from the family business. His progression from the family's last-born son to its ruthless boss is the main subject matter of the film.\n* James Caan as Santino \"Sonny\" Corleone, Don Corleone's hot-headed eldest son. As underboss, he is the heir apparent to succeed his father as head of the Corleone family.\n* Richard S. Castellano as Peter Clemenza, a caporegime for the Corleone family. He is an old friend of Vito Corleone and Salvatore Tessio.\n* Robert Duvall as Tom Hagen, Don Corleone's informally adopted son, he is the family lawyer and consigliere (counselor). Unlike the Corleones, he is of German-Irish descent, not Sicilian.\n* Diane Keaton as Kay Adams-Corleone, initially Michael's non-Italian girlfriend and then his second wife and the mother of his two children.\n* John Cazale as Alfredo \"Fredo\" Corleone, the middle son of the Corleone family. Deeply insecure and not very bright, he is considered the weakest Corleone brother.\n* Talia Shire as Constanzia \"Connie\" Corleone, the youngest child and only daughter of the Corleone family. Her wedding reception begins the film.\n* Gianni Russo as Carlo Rizzi, Connie's abusive husband. Introduced to the Corleone family by Sonny, whom he ultimately betrays to the Barzini family.\n* Abe Vigoda as Salvatore Tessio, a caporegime for the Corleone family. He is an old friend of Vito Corleone and Peter Clemenza.\n* Al Lettieri as Virgil \"The Turk\" Sollozzo, a heroin dealer associated with the Tattaglia family. He seeks both financial investment and the protection of the Tattaglia family's narcotics business through Don Corleone's political connections.\n* Sterling Hayden as Captain Mark McCluskey, a corrupt NYPD police captain on Sollozzo's payroll.\n* Lenny Montana as Luca Brasi, Vito Corleone's enforcer.\n* Richard Conte as Emilio Barzini, Don of the Barzini family.\n* Al Martino as Johnny Fontane, a world-famous singer and Vito's godson. The character is loosely based on Frank Sinatra.\n* John Marley as Jack Woltz, a powerful Hollywood producer.\n* Alex Rocco as Moe Greene, a longtime associate of the Corleone family who owns a Las Vegas hotel. The character is based on Bugsy Siegel.\n* Morgana King as Carmela Corleone, Vito's wife and mother of Sonny, Fredo, Michael, and Connie, and adoptive mother to Tom Hagen.\n* Salvatore Corsitto as Amerigo Bonasera, a mortician who, in the opening scene, asks Don Corleone for revenge against two boys who severely beat and attempted to rape his daughter.\n* Corrado Gaipa as Don Tommasino, an old friend of Vito Corleone, who shelters Michael during his exile in Sicily.\n* Franco Citti as Calò, Michael's bodyguard in Sicily.\n* Angelo Infanti as Fabrizio, Michael's bodyguard in Sicily. He helped set up the assassination attempt on Michael that kills Apollonia.\n* Johnny Martino as Paulie Gatto, a soldier under Peter Clemenza and Vito's driver. He is executed for his part in the assassination attempt on Vito.\n* Victor Rendina as Philip Tattaglia, Don of the Tattaglia family.\n* Tony Giorgio as Bruno Tattaglia, Philip Tattaglia's son and underboss of the Tattaglia family. Sonny Corleone has him assassinated in retaliation for the shooting of Vito Corleone.\n* Simonetta Stefanelli as Apollonia Vitelli-Corleone, a young woman Michael meets and marries while in Sicily. She is killed a few months later in an assassination attempt on Michael.\n* Rudy Bond as Don Cuneo, head of the New York-based Cuneo family.\n* Louis Guss as Don Zaluchi, Don of the Zaluchi family of Detroit.\n* Tom Rosqui as Rocco Lampone, a soldier under Clemenza who eventually becomes a caporegime in the Corleone family.\n* Joe Spinell as Willi Cicci, a soldier in the Corleone family.\n* Richard Bright as Al Neri, Michael Corleone's personal bodyguard and hitman who eventually becomes a caporegime.\n* Julie Gregg as Sandra Corleone, Sonny's wife and later widow, and the mother of their four children.\n* Jeannie Linero as Lucy Mancini, Sonny's mistress.\n* Sofia Coppola (uncredited) as infant Michael Francis Rizzi, the nephew and godson of Michael Corleone.\n\nProduction\n\nDevelopment\n\nThe film is based on Mario Puzo's novel The Godfather, a well-received novel that remained on The New York Times Best Seller list for 67 weeks and sold over nine million copies in two years. The novel became the best selling published work in history for several years. Paramount Pictures originally found out about Puzo's novel in 1967 when a literary scout for the company contacted then Paramount Vice President of Production Peter Bart about Puzo's sixty-page unfinished manuscript. Bart believed the work was \"much beyond a Mafia story\" and offered Puzo a $12,500 option for the work, with an option for $80,000 if the finished work were made into a film. Despite Puzo's agent telling him to turn down the offer, Puzo was desperate for money and accepted the deal. In March 1967, Paramount announced that they backed Puzo's upcoming work and planned to make a feature-length film out of it. In 1969, Paramount confirmed their intentions to make a film out of the novel for the price of $80,000, with aims to have the film released on Christmas Day in 1971. On March 23, 1970, Albert S. Ruddy was officially announced as the film's producer, in part because studio executives were impressed with his interview and because he was known for bringing his films in under budget.\n\nDirection\n\nParamount production head Robert Evans wanted the picture to be directed by an Italian American to make the film \"ethnic to the core.\" Sergio Leone was Paramount's first choice to direct the film. Leone turned down the option to work on his own gangster film Once Upon a Time in America. Peter Bogdanovich was then approached but he also declined the offer because he was not interested in the mafia. In addition, Peter Yates, Richard Brooks, Arthur Penn, Costa-Gavras, and Otto Preminger were all offered the position and declined. Peter Bart wanted Francis Ford Coppola to get the job as director because he believed Coppola would work for a low sum and budget. Coppola initially turned down the job because he did not finish Puzo's novel. At the time Coppola's studio, American Zoetrope, owed over $400,000 to Warner Bros. for budget overruns with the film THX 1138 and when coupled with his poor financial standing, along with advice from friends and family, Coppola reversed his initial decision and took the job. Coppola was officially announced as director of the film on September 28, 1970. Paramount had offered twelve other directors the job with The Godfather before Coppola agreed. Coppola agreed to receive $125,000 and six percent of the gross rentals.\n\nCoppola and Paramount\n\nBefore The Godfather was in production, Paramount had been going through an unsuccessful period. Their latest mafia based movie, The Brotherhood, had been a box office bomb. In addition, the studio had usurped their budget for their recent films: Darling Lili, Paint Your Wagon, and Waterloo. The budget for the film was originally $2.5 million but as the book grew in popularity and Coppola argued for, and ultimately received a larger budget. Paramount executives wanted the movie to be set in then modern-day Kansas City and shot in the studio backlot in order to cut down on costs. Coppola objected and wanted to set the movie in the same time period as its eponymous novel, the 1940s and 1950s; Coppola's reasons included: Michael Corleone's Marine Corps stint, the emergence of corporate America, and America in the years after World War II. The executives eventually agreed to Coppola's wish as the novel became increasingly successful. The studio heads subsequently let Coppola film on location in New York and Sicily.\n\nGulf & Western executive Charles Bluhdorn was frustrated with Coppola over the number of screen tests he had performed without finding a person to play the various roles. Production quickly fell behind because of Coppola's indecisiveness and conflicts with Paramount, which led to costs being around $40,000 per day. With the rising costs, Paramount had then Vice President Jack Ballard keep a close eye on production costs. While filming, Coppola stated that he felt he could be fired at any point as he knew Paramount executives were not happy with many of the decisions he had made. Around the time when shooting the Sollozzo dinner scene was taking place, it was known that some had been talking down the footage to Paramount executives. Paramount even forbade Coppola to film the scene again, which Coppola took as a sign he was going to be fired. Coppola fired the\nmen and re-shot the dinner scene, which made it harder for Paramount to fire him and keep costs low. It was revealed later on that Brando told executives that he would quit the project if Coppola were fired.\n\nParamount wanted The Godfather to appeal to a wide audience and threatened Coppola with a \"violence coach\" to make the film more exciting. Coppola added a few more violent scenes to keep the studio happy. The scene in which Connie smashes crockery after finding out Carlo has been cheating was added for this reason.\n\nWriting\n\nOn April 14, 1970, it was revealed that Puzo was hired by Paramount for $100,000, along with a percentage of the film's profits, to work on the screenplay for the film. Working from the book, Coppola wanted to have the themes of culture, character, power, and family at the forefront of the film, whereas Puzo wanted to retain aspects from his novel and his initial draft of 150 pages was finished on August 10, 1970. After Coppola was hired as director, both Puzo and Coppola worked on the screenplay, but separately. Puzo worked on his draft in Los Angeles, while Coppola wrote his version in San Francisco. Coppola created a book where he tore pages out of Puzo's book and pasted them into the book. There, he made notes about each of the book's fifty scenes, which related to major themes prevalent in the scene, whether the scene should be included in the film, along with ideas and concepts that could be used when filming to make the film true to Italian culture. The two remained in contact while they wrote their respective screenplays and made decisions on what to include and what to remove for the final version. A second draft was completed on March 1, 1971 and was 173 pages long. The final screenplay was finished on March 29, 1971, wound up being 163 pages long, 40 pages over what Paramount had asked for. When filming, Coppola referred to the notebook he had created over the final draft of the screenplay. Screenwriter Robert Towne did uncredited work on the script, particularly on the Pacino-Brando garden scene. Despite finishing the third draft, some scenes in the film were still not written yet and were written during production.\n\nThe Italian-American Civil Rights League wanted all uses of the words \"mafia\" and \"Cosa Nostra\" to be removed from the script, in addition to feeling that the film emphasized stereotypes about Italian-Americans. The league also requested that all the money earned from the premier be donated to the league's fund to build a new hospital. Coppola claimed that Puzo's screenplay only contained two instances of the word \"mafia\" being used, while \"Cosa Nostra\" was not used at all. Those two uses were removed and replaced with other terms, which Coppola felt did not change the story at all. The league eventually gave its support for the script.\n\nCasting\n\nPuzo was first to show interest in having Marlon Brando portray Don Vito Corleone by sending a letter to Brando in which he stated Brando was the \"only actor who can play the Godfather.\" Despite Puzo's wishes, the executives at Paramount were against having Brando play the part due to the poor success of his recent films and short temper. Coppola favored Brando or Laurence Olivier for the role, but Olivier's agent refused the role claiming Olivier was sick; however, Olivier went on to star in Sleuth later that year. The studio mainly pushed for Ernest Borgnine to receive the part. Other actors that were considered for the part were: George C. Scott, Richard Conte, Anthony Quinn, Carlo Ponti. \n\nAfter months of debate between Coppola and Paramount over Brando, the two finalists for the role were Borgnine and Brando, the latter of which Paramount president Stanley Jaffe required to perform a screen test. Coppola did not want to offend Brando and stated that he needed to test equipment in order to set up the screen test at Brando's California residence. For make-up, Brando stuck cotton balls in his cheeks, put shoe polish in his hair to darken it, and rolled his collar. Coppola placed Brando's audition tape in the middle of the videos of the audition tapes as the Paramount executives watched them. The executives were impressed with Brando's efforts and allowed Coppola to cast Brando for the role if Brando accepted a lower salary and put up a bond to insure he would not cause any delays in production.\n\nFrom the start of production, Coppola wanted Robert Duvall to play the part of Tom Hagen. After screen testing several other actors, Coppola eventually got his wish and Duvall was awarded the part of Tom Hagen. Al Martino, a then famed singer in nightclubs, was notified of the character Johnny Fontane by a friend who read the eponymous novel and felt Martino represented the character of Johnny Fontane. Martino then contacted producer Al Ruddy, who gave him the part. However, Martino was stripped of the part after Coppola became director and then awarded the role to Italian singer Vic Damone. Damone eventually dropped the role because he did not want to play an anti-Italian American character, in addition to being paid too little. According to Martino, after being stripped of the role, he went to his godfather and crime boss Russ Bufalino who then orchestrated the publication of various news articles that talked of how Coppola was unaware of Ruddy giving Martino the part; that, when coupled with pressure from the mafia who felt Martino deserved the role, led Damone to quit as Fontane. Either way, the part of Johnny Fontane ended up with Martino.\n\nRobert De Niro originally was given the part of Paulie Gatto. A spot in The Gang That Couldn't Shoot Straight opened up after Pacino quit the project in favor of The Godfather, which led De Niro to audition for the role and leave The Godfather after receiving the part. After De Niro quit, Johnny Martino was given the role of Gatto. Coppola cast Diane Keaton for the role of Kay Adams due to her reputation for being eccentric. John Cazale was given the part of Fredo Corleone after Coppola saw him perform in an Off Broadway production. Gianni Russo was given the role of Carlo Rizzi after he was asked to perform a screen test in which he acted out the fight between Rizzi and Connie.\n\nNearing the start of filming on March 29, Michael Corleone had yet to be cast. Paramount executives wanted a popular actor, either Warren Beatty or Robert Redford. Producer Robert Evans wanted Ryan O'Neal to receive the role in part due to his recent success in Love Story. Al Pacino was Coppola's favorite for the role as he could picture Pacino roaming the Sicilian countryside and wanted an unknown actor who looked like an Italian-American. However, Paramount executives found Pacino to be too short to play Michael. Dustin Hoffman, Martin Sheen, and James Caan also auditioned. Caan was well received by the Paramount executives and was given the part of Michael initially, while the role of Sonny Corleone was awarded to Carmine Caridi. Coppola still pushed for Pacino to play Michael after the fact and Evans eventually conceded, allowing Pacino to have the role of Michael as long as Caan played Sonny. Evans preferred Caan over Caridi because Caan was seven inches shorter than Caridi, which was much closer to Pacino's height. Despite agreeing to play Michael Corleone, Pacino was contracted to star in MGM's The Gang That Couldn't Shoot Straight, but the two studios agreed on a settlement and Pacino was signed by Paramount three weeks before shooting began. \n\nCoppola gave several roles in the film to family members. He gave his sister, Talia Shire, the role of Connie Corleone. His daughter Sofia played Michael Francis Rizzi, Connie's and Carlo's newborn son. Carmine Coppola, his father, appeared in the film as an extra playing a piano during a scene. Coppola's wife, mother, and two sons all appeared as extras in the picture. Several smaller roles, like Luca Brasi, were cast after the filming had started.\n\nFilming\n\nBefore the filming began, the cast received a two-week period for rehearsal, which included a dinner where each actor and actress had to assume character for its duration. Filming was scheduled to begin on March 29, 1971 with the scene between Michael Corleone and Kay Adams as they leave Best & Co. in New York City after shopping for Christmas gifts. The weather on March 23 predicted snow flurries, which caused Ruddy to move the filming date forward; however snow never materialized and a snow machine was used. Principal filming in New York continued until July 2, 1971. Coppola asked for a three-week break before heading overseas to film in Sicily. Following the crew's departure for Sicily, Paramount announced that the release date would be moved from December to spring 1972.\n\nCinematographer Gordon Willis initially turned down the opportunity to film The Godfather because the production seemed \"chaotic\" to him. After Willis later accepted the offer, he and Coppola agreed to not use any modern filming devices, helicopters, or zoom lenses. Willis and Coppola chose to use a \"tableau format\" of filming to make it seem if it was viewed like a painting. He made use of shadows and low light levels throughout the film to showcase psychological developments. Willis and Coppola agreed to interplay light and dark scenes throughout the film. Willis underexposed the film in order to create a \"yellow tone.\" The scenes in Sicily were shot to display the countryside and \"display a more romantic land,\" giving these scenes a \"softer, more romantic\" feel than the New York scenes.\n\nOne of the film's most shocking moments involved a real severed horse head, which was obtained from plant that slaughtered horses from a horse that was to be slaughtered regardless of the film. Animal rights groups protested the inclusion of the scene. On June 22, the scene where Sonny is killed was shot on a runway at Mitchel Field in Mineola, where three tollbooths were built, along with guard rails, and billboard to set the scene. Sonny's car was a 1941 Lincoln Continental with holes drilled in it to resemble bullet holes. The scene took three days to film and cost over $100,000.\n\nPer the request of Coppola, much of the movie was filmed on location. Around 90 percent of the film was shot in New York City or its surrounding suburbs, using over 120 unique locations. Several scenes were filmed at the Filmways Studio in East Harlem. The remaining portions were filmed in California, or on-site in Sicily, except for the scenes set in Las Vegas because there were insufficient funds to travel there. Savoca and Forza d'Agrò were the Sicilian towns featured in the film. The opening wedding scene was shot in a Staten Island neighborhood using almost 750 locals as extras. The house used as the Corleone household and the wedding location was on Longfellow Road in the Todt Hill neighborhood of Staten Island. The wall around the Coreleone compound was made from styrofoam. Scenes set in and around the Corleone olive oil business were filmed on Mott Street.\n\nAfter filming had ended on August 7, post-production efforts were focused on trimming the film to a manageable length. In addition, producers and directors still were including and removing different scenes from the end product, along with trimming certain sequences. In September, the first rough cut of the film was viewed. Of the scenes removed from the film, many were centered around Sonny because they did not advance the plot. By November, Coppola and Ruddy finished the semifinal cut. Debates over personnel involvement with the final editing of the film even 25 years after the release of the film. The film began to be shown to Paramount staff and exhibitors in late December and going into the new year.\n\nMusic\n\nCoppola hired Italian composer Nino Rota to create the underscore for the film, including the main theme, \"Speak Softly Love\". For the score, Rota was to relate to the situations and characters in the film. Rota synthesized new music for the film and took some parts from his Fortunella score, in order to create an Italian feel and evoke the tragic film's themes. Paramount executive Evans found the score to be too \"highbrow\" and did not want to use it; however, it was used after Coppola managed to get Evans to agree. Coppola believed that Rota's musical piece gave the film even more of an Italian feel. Coppola's father, Carmine, created some additional music for the film, particularly the music played by the band during the opening wedding scene. There are a total of nine instances within the film where incidental music can be heard.\n\nThere was a soundtrack released for the film in 1972 in vinyl form by Paramount Records, on CD in 1991 by Geffen Records, and digitally by Geffen on August 18, 2005. The album contains over 31 minutes of music coming from the movie, with most being composed by Rota, along with a song from Coppola and one by Johnny Farrow and Marty Symes. Allmusic gave the album five out of five stars, with editor Zach Curd saying it is a \"dark, looming, and elegant soundtrack.\" An editor for Filmtracks believed that Rota did a great job of relating the music to the core aspects of the film, which the editor believed to be \"tradition, love, and fear.\"\n\nRelease\n\nThe world premiere for The Godfather took place in New York City on March 15, 1972, almost three months after the planned release date of Christmas Day in 1971, with profits from the premiere donated to The Boys Club of New York. Before the film premiered, the film had already made $15 million from rentals from over 400 theaters. The following day, the film opened in New York at five theaters. The film next opened in Los Angeles at two theaters on March 22. The Godfather was commercially released on March 24, 1972 throughout the rest of the United States. The film reached 316 theaters around the country five days later.\n\nBox office\n\nThe Godfather was a blockbuster, breaking many box office records to become the highest grossing film of 1972. It earned $81.5 million in theatrical rentals in North America during its initial release, increasing its earnings to $85.7 million through a reissue in 1973, and including a limited re-release in 1997 it ultimately earned an equivalent exhibition gross of $135 million. It displaced Gone with the Wind to claim the record as the top rentals earner, a position it would retain until the release of Jaws in 1975. News articles at the time proclaimed it was the first film to gross $100 million in North America, but such accounts are erroneous since this record in fact belongs to The Sound of Music, released in 1965. The film repeated its native success overseas, earning in total an unprecedented $142 million in worldwide theatrical rentals, to become the highest net earner. Profits were so high for The Godfather that earnings for Gulf & Western Industries, Inc., which owned Paramount, jumped from 77 cents per share to $3.30 a share for the year, according to a Los Angeles Times article, dated December 13, 1972. To date, it has grossed between $245 million and $286 million in worldwide box office receipts, and adjusted for ticket price inflation in North America, ranks among the top 25 highest-grossing films. \n\nCritical response\n\nSince its release, The Godfather has received critical acclaim and is seen as one of the most influential films of all time, particularly in the gangster genre. On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has a 99% rating based on 84 reviews. It has an average score of 9.2. Metacritic, another review aggregator, assigned the film a perfect weighted average score of 100 out of 100, based on 14 reviews from mainstream critics, considered to be \"universal acclaim\". The film is ranked at the top of Metacritic's top 100 list, and is ranked 6th on Rotten Tomatoes' all-time best list (100% \"Certified Fresh\"). \n\nRoger Ebert of the Chicago Sun Times praised Coppola's efforts to follow the storyline of the eponymous novel, the choice to set the film in the same time as the novel, and the film's ability to \"absorb\" the viewer over its three-hour run time. While Ebert was mainly positive, he criticized Brando's performance, saying his movements lacked \"precision\" and his voice was \"wheezy.\" The Chicago Tribunes Gene Siskel gave the film four out of four stars, commenting that it was \"very good.\" Village Voice's Andrew Sarris believed Brando portrayed Vito Corleone well and that his character dominated each scene it appeared in, but felt Puzo and Coppola had the character of Michael Corleone too focused on revenge. In addition, Sarris stated that Richard Castellano, Robert Duvall, and James Caan were good in their respective roles. Desson Howe of the Washington Post believed that the film is a \"jewel\" and that Coppola deserves most of the credit for the film. The New York Times Vincent Canby felt that Coppola had created one of the \"most brutal and moving chronicles of American life\" and went on to say that it \"transcends its immediate milieu and genre.\" Director Stanley Kubrick thought the film had the best cast ever and could be the best movie ever made. \n\nPrevious Mafia films had looked at the gangs from the perspective of an outraged outsider. In contrast, The Godfather presents the gangster's perspective of the Mafia as a response to corrupt society. Although the Corleone family is presented as immensely rich and powerful, no scenes depict prostitution, gambling, loan sharking or other forms of racketeering. Some critics argue that the setting of a criminal counterculture allows for unapologetic gender stereotyping, and is an important part of the film's appeal (\"You can act like a man!\", Don Vito tells a weepy Johnny Fontane).\n\nReal-life gangsters responded enthusiastically to the film, with many of them feeling it was a portrayal of how they were supposed to act. Salvatore \"Sammy the Bull\" Gravano, the former underboss in the Gambino crime family, stated: \"I left the movie stunned ... I mean I floated out of the theater. Maybe it was fiction, but for me, then, that was our life. It was incredible. I remember talking to a multitude of guys, made guys, who felt exactly the same way.\" According to Anthony Fiato after seeing the film, Patriarca crime family members Paulie Intiso and Nicky Giso altered their speech patterns closer to that of Vito Corleone's. Intiso would frequently swear and use poor grammar; but after the movie came out, he started to articulate and philosophize more.\n\nRemarking on the fortieth anniversary of the film's release, film critic John Podhoretz praised The Godfather as \"arguably the great American work of popular art\" and \"the summa of all great moviemaking before it\". Two years before, Roger Ebert wrote in his journal that it \"comes closest to being a film everyone agrees... is unquestionably great.\" \n\nNew Republic wrote negatively of the film, claiming that \"Pacino rattles around in a part too demanding for him,\" while also criticizing Brando's make-up.\n\nAccolades\n\nThe Godfather was nominated for seven awards at the 30th Golden Globe Awards: Best Picture – Drama, James Caan for Best Supporting Actor, Al Pacino and Marlon Brando for Best Actor – Drama, Best Score, Best Director, and Best Screenplay. When the winners were announced on January 28, 1973, the film had won the categories for: Best Screenplay, Best Director, Best Actor - Drama, Best Original Score, and Best Picture – Drama. The Godfather won a record five Golden Globes, which still stands today. \n\nRota's score was also nominated for Grammy Award for Best Original Score for a Motion Picture or TV Special at the 15th Grammy Awards. Rota was announced the winner of the category on March 3 at the Grammys' ceremony in Nashville, Tennessee.\n\nWhen the nominations for the 45th Academy Awards were revealed on February 12, 1973, The Godfather was nominated for eleven awards. The nominations were for: Best Picture, Best Costume Design, Marlon Brando for Best Actor, Mario Puzo and Francis Ford Coppola for Best Adapted Screenplay, Pacino, Caan, and Robert Duvall for Best Supporting Actor, Best Film Editing, Nino Rota for Best Original Score, Coppola for Best Director, and Best Sound. Upon further review of Rota's love theme from The Godfather, the Academy found that Rota had used a similar score in Eduardo De Filippo's 1958 comedy Fortunella. This led to re-balloting, where members of the music branch chose from six films: The Godfather and the five films that had been on the shortlist for best original dramatic score but did not get nominated. John Addison's score for Sleuth won this new vote, and thus replaced Rota's score on the official list of nominees. Going into the awards ceremony, The Godfather was seen as the favorite to take home the most awards. From the nominations that The Godfather had remaining, it only won three of the Academy Awards: Best Actor, Best Adapted Screenplay, and Best Picture. \n\nBrando, who had also not attended the Golden Globes ceremony two months earlier, boycotted the Academy Awards ceremony and refused to accept the Oscar, becoming the second actor to refuse a Best Actor award after George C. Scott in 1970. Brando sent American Indian Rights activist Sacheen Littlefeather in his place, to announce at the awards podium Brando's reasons for declining the award which were based on his objection to the depiction of American Indians by Hollywood and television. In addition, Pacino boycotted the ceremony. He was insulted at being nominated for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor award, noting that he had more screen time than his co-star and Best Actor winner Brando and thus he should have received an Academy Award nomination for Best Actor. \n\nThe Godfather had five nominations for awards at the 26th British Academy Film Awards. The nominees were: Pacino for Most Promising Newcomer, Rota for the Anthony Asquith Award for Film Music, Duvall for Best Supporting Actor, and Brando for Best Actor, the film's costume designer Anna Hill Johnstone for Best Costume Design. All of The Godfathers nominations failed to win except for Rota.\n\nIn 1990, the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry as being deemed \"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant\". In 1998, Time Out conducted a poll and The Godfather was voted the best film of all time. In 2002, Sight & Sound polled film directors voted the film and its sequel as the second best film ever; the critics poll separately voted it fourth. Also in 2002, The Godfather was ranked the second best film of all time by Film4, after Star Wars Episode V: The Empire Strikes Back. In 2005, it was named one of the 100 greatest films of the last 80 years by Time magazine (the selected films were not ranked). In 2006, the Writers Guild of America, west agreed, voting it the number two in its list of the 101 greatest screenplays, after Casablanca. In 2008, the film was voted in at No. 1 on Empire magazine's list of The 500 Greatest Movies of All Time. Entertainment Weekly named it the greatest film ever made. The film has been selected by the American Film Institute for many of their lists.\n\nAmerican Film Institute recognition\n\n* 1998: AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies – #3 \n* 2001: AFI's 100 Years...100 Thrills – #11 \n* 2003: AFI's 100 Years...100 Heroes & Villains:\n** Vito Corleone – Nominated Villain \n* 2005: AFI's 100 Years...100 Movie Quotes:\n \"I'm going to make him an offer he can't refuse.\" – #2 \n \"Leave the gun. Take the cannolis.\" – Nominated \n** \"It's a Sicilian message. It means Luca Brasi sleeps with the fishes.\" – Nominated\n* 2006: AFI's 100 Years of Film Scores – #5 \n* 2007: AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies (10th Anniversary Edition) – #2 \n* 2008: AFI's 10 Top 10 – #1 Gangster Film \n\nCinematic influence\n\nAlthough many films about gangsters preceded The Godfather, Coppola's heavy infusion of Italian culture and stereotypes, and his portrayal of mobsters as characters of considerable psychological depth and complexity was unprecedented. Coppola took it further with The Godfather Part II, and the success of those two films, critically, artistically and financially, opened the doors for numerous other depictions of Italian Americans as mobsters, including films such as Martin Scorsese's Goodfellas and TV series such as David Chase's The Sopranos. A comprehensive study of Italian American culture on film, conducted from 1996 to 2001 by the Italic Institute of America, showed that close to 300 movies featuring Italian Americans as mobsters (mostly fictitious) have been produced since The Godfather, an average of nine per year. \n\nThe image of the Mafia as a feudal organization with the Don as both the protector of the small fry and the collector of obligations from them for his services is now a commonplace Italian stereotype which The Godfather helped to create. Similarly, the recasting of the Don's family as a figurative \"royal family\" has spread beyond fictional boundaries into the real world as well – (cf. John Gotti – the \"Dapper Don\", and his celebrity family.) This portrayal is echoed in the more sordid reality of lower level Mafia \"familial\" entanglements depicted in various post-Godfather Mafia fare, such as Scorsese's Mean Streets and Casino.\n\nIn the DVD commentary for Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith, George Lucas states that the interwoven scenes of Anakin Skywalker killing Separatist leaders and Palpatine announcing the beginning of the Galactic Empire was an homage to the christening and assassination sequence in The Godfather.\n\nIn popular culture and legacy\n\nThe Godfather epic, encompassing the original trilogy and the additional footage Coppola incorporated later, is by now thoroughly integrated into American life and, together with a succession of mob-theme imitators, has led to a highly stereotyped concept of Italian American culture. The first film had the largest impact and, unlike any film before it, its depiction of Italians who immigrated to the United States in the early decades of the 20th century is perhaps attributable to the Italian American director, presenting his own understanding of their experience. The films explain through their action the integration of fictional Italian American criminals into American society. Though the story is set in the period of mass immigration to the U.S., it is rooted in the specific circumstances of the Corleones, a family that lives outside of the law. Although some critics have refashioned the Corleone story into one of universality of immigration, other critics have posited that it leads the viewer to identify organized crime with Italian American culture. Released in a period of intense national cynicism and self-criticism, the American film struck a chord about the dual identities inherent in a nation of immigrants. The Godfather increased Hollywood's negative portrayals of immigrant Italians in the aftermath of the film and was a recruiting tool for organized crime. \n\nThe concept of a mafia \"Godfather\" was an invention of Mario Puzo's and the film's effect was to add the fictional nomenclature to the language. Similarly, Don Vito Corleone's unforgettable \"I'm gonna make him an offer he can't refuse\"voted the second most memorable line in cinema history in AFI's 100 Years... 100 Movie Quotes by the American Film Institutewas adopted by actual gangsters. In the French novel Le Père Goriot, Honoré de Balzac wrote of Vautrin telling Eugene: \"In that case I will make you an offer that no one would decline.\" According to Anthony Fiato, Patriarca crime family members Paulie Intiso and Nicky Giso modeled their speech on Brando's portrayal. Intiso would frequently swear and use poor grammar; but after the movie came out, he started to articulate and philosophize more.\n\nAn indication of the continuing influence of The Godfather and its sequels can be gleaned from the many references to it and Italian American culture which have appeared in every medium of popular culture in the decades since the film's initial release. That these homages, quotations, visual references, satires and parodies continue to pop up even now shows clearly the film's enduring impact.\n\nIn film\n\nThe 1999 film Analyze This made many references both directly and indirectly to The Godfather, with a dream scene repeating almost shot for shot the attack on Vito Corleone. Brando virtually reprised the role of the Don in the 1990 comedy The Freshman, and the 2004 animation Shark Tale nodded at this and other Mafia-related films. Similarly, Rugrats in Paris, based on a Nickelodeon children's show, began with an extended parody of The Godfather.\n\nIn Set it Off, four women - Lita \"Stoney\" Newsome (Jada Pinkett), Cleopatra \"Cleo\" Sims (Queen Latifah), Francesca \"Frankie\" Sutton (Vivica A. Fox), and Tisean \"T.T.\" Williams (Kimberly Elise) - meet around a conference table at the office building they clean to plan a series of bank heists, during which time they do imitations of The Godfather. \n\nIn You've Got Mail, Joe Fox (played by Tom Hanks) quotes The Godfather, positing:\n\"The Godfather is the I Ching. The Godfather is the sum of all wisdom. The Godfather is the answer to any question. What should I pack for my summer vacation? 'Leave the gun, take the cannoli'. What day of the week is it? 'Monday, Tuesday, Thursday, Wednesday'.\"\n\nIn television\n\nThe Warner Bros. animated series Animaniacs featured several segments called \"Goodfeathers\", with pigeons spoofing characters from various gangster films. One of the characters is \"The Godpigeon\", an obvious parody of Brando's portrayal of Vito Corleone.\n\nJohn Belushi appeared in a Saturday Night Live sketch as Vito Corleone in a therapy session trying to properly express his inner feelings towards the Tattaglia Family, who, in addition to muscling in on his territory, \"also, they shot my son Santino 56 times\". \n\nThe Simpsons makes numerous references to The Godfather, including a scene in the episode \"Strong Arms of the Ma\" that parodies the Sonny-Carlo street fight scene, with Marge Simpson beating a mugger in front of an animated version of the same New York street-scape, including using the lid of a trash can during the fight. The \"All's Fair in Oven War\" final scene shows James Caan being ambushed by hillbillies (Cletus relatives) at a toll booth, a parody of the scene when Sonny (portrayed by Caan) is shot and killed; the tollbooth scene is also parodied in \"Mr. Plow\", except Bart Simpson is ambushed by a barrage of snowballs by Nelson, and other students lie in wait behind a snow fortress (in place of the tollbooth). A later episode \"The Mook, the Chef, the Wife and Her Homer\" parodies the film's ending scene, with Lisa Simpson taking Kay Adams' role and Fat Tony's son Michael standing in for Michael Corleone. The horse-head scene is also parodied in the episode \"Lisa's Pony\".\n\nIn the television show The Sopranos, Tony Soprano's topless bar is named Bada Bing, echoing the line in The Godfather when Sonny Corleone says, \"You've gotta get up close like this and bada-bing! You blow their brains all over your nice Ivy League suit.\" \n\nAn episode of SCTV satirizes the film as a story about how the four American TV networks of the time (ABC, CBS, NBC, & PBS) are run like the Mob, with SCTV president Guy Caballero being asked to invest in a pay-TV channel by the Ugatzo family as a way to control of TV; when Caballero refuses, a 'network war' starts, with many of the scenes in the episode being similar to that of the film.\n\nThe Modern Family episode, \"Fulgencio (Modern Family)\" makes various references to The Godfather.\n\nAn episode of Seinfeld, The Bris, features Jerry Seinfeld being ask to serve as godfather to a new-born baby boy, allowing him to imitate Brando's famous line \"see how they've massacred my boy!\". Later, the baby's parents decide instead to make Kramer the child's godfather and pay homage to him in a parody of the final scene in the film, calling him \"Godfather\" and kissing his hand, as the closing music from the film plays—and the door closes to shut out Jerry and Elaine.\n\nIn the episode of How I Met Your Mother, Canning Randy, Lily Aldrin places a severed stuffed-horse head next to a troublesome child during nap time to get the child to behave.\n\nIn an episode of Family Guy, Peter Griffin gets mixed up with the Mob, inadvertently requests \"a hit\" on his long-suffering wife, Lois, but then has a chance to cancel the assassination when he and Lois are invited to the wedding of the Don's daughter and are allowed to ask for a favor—a parody of the opening scene of The Godfather.\n\nHome media\n\nThe theatrical version of The Godfather debuted on American network television on November 16, 1974 on NBC, and again two days later, with only minor edits. The airing on television attracted a large audience and helped generate anticipation for the upcoming sequel. The next year, Coppola created The Godfather Saga expressly for American television in a release that combined The Godfather and The Godfather Part II with unused footage from those two films in a chronological telling that toned down the violent, sexual, and profane material for its NBC debut on November 18, 1977. In 1981, Paramount released the Godfather Epic boxed set, which also told the story of the first two films in chronological order, again with additional scenes, but not redacted for broadcast sensibilities. The Godfather Trilogy was released in 1992, in which the films are fundamentally in a chronological order.\n\nThe Godfather Family: A Look Inside was a 73-minute documentary released in 1991. Directed by Jeff Warner, the film featured some behind the scenes content from all three films, interviews with the actors, and screen tests. The Godfather DVD Collection was released on October 9, 2001 in a package that contained all three films—each with a commentary track by Coppola—and a bonus disc containing The Godfather Family: A Look Inside. The DVD also held a Corleone family tree, a \"Godfather\" timeline, and footage of the Academy Award acceptance speeches.\n\nThe Godfather: The Coppola Restoration\n\nDuring the film's original theatrical release, the original negatives were worn down due to the reel being printed so much to meet demand. In addition, the duplicate negative was lost in Paramount archives. In 2006 Coppola contacted Steven Spielberg—whose studio DreamWorks had recently been bought out by Paramount—about restoring The Godfather. Robert A. Harris was hired to oversee the restoration of The Godfather and its two sequels, with the film's cinematographer Willis participated in the restoration. Work began in November 2008 by repairing the negatives so they could go through a digital scanner to produce high resolution 4k files. If a negative were damaged and discolored, work was done digitally to restore it to its original look. After a year and a half of working on the restoration, the project was complete. Paramount called the finished product The Godfather: The Coppola Restoration and released it to the public on September 23, 2008 on both DVD and Blu-ray Disc. Dave Kehr of the New York Times believed the restoration brought back the \"golden glow of their original theatrical screenings\". As a whole, the restoration of the film was well received by critics and Coppola. The Godfather: The Coppola Restoration contains several new special features that play in high definition, along with additional scenes.\n\nVideo game\n\nA video game based on the film was developed by Electronic Arts and first released in 2006. Duvall, Caan, and Brando supplied voiceovers and their likenesses, but Pacino did not. Francis Ford Coppola openly voiced his disapproval of the game." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Mob (crime)", "M O F I A", "M.O.F.I.A.", "M. O. F. I. A.", "The M. A. F. I. A.", "Mafias", "MAFFIA", "Internet mafia", "The Mafia", "M A F F I A", "Mafia Game", "The Mofia", "The M.A.F.F.I.A.", "The M.A.F.I.A.", "The M.O.F.I.A.", "MAFIA", "The M O F I A", "The M. O. F. I. A.", "M A F I A", "M. A. F. I. A.", "Moffia", "The Maffia", "M.A.F.I.A.", "The M. A. F. F. I. A.", "Mofia", "The M. O. F. F. I. A.", "M O F F I A", "Mafia", "Maffias", "The M O F F I A", "The M A F F I A", "M. O. F. F. I. 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In the comic strips, what was the name of Mandrake the Magician's giant partner?	tc_491	http://www.triviacountry.com/	{ "doc_source": [ "TagMe" ], "filename": [ "Mandrake_the_Magician.txt" ], "title": [ "Mandrake the Magician" ], "wiki_context": [ "Mandrake the Magician is a syndicated newspaper comic strip, created by Lee Falk (before he created The Phantom). Mandrake began publication on June 11, 1934. Phil Davis soon took over as the strip's illustrator, while Falk continued to script. The strip is distributed by King Features Syndicate. \n\nMandrake, along with the Phantom Magician in Mel Graff's The Adventures of Patsy, are regarded by comics historians as the first superheroes of comics. Comics historian Don Markstein writes, \"Some people say Mandrake the Magician, who started in 1934, was comics' first superhero.\" \n\nDavis worked on the strip until his death in 1964, when Falk recruited current artist Fred Fredericks. With Falk's death in 1999, Fredericks became both writer and artist. The Sunday Mandrake strip ended December 29, 2002. The daily strip ended mid-story on July 6, 2013 when Fred Fredericks retired, and a reprint of D220 \"Pursuit of the Cobra\" from 1995 began on July 8, 2013.\n\nCharacters and story\n\nMandrake is a magician whose work is based on an unusually fast hypnotic technique. As noted in captions, when Mandrake \"gestures hypnotically\", his subjects see illusions, and Mandrake has used this technique against a variety of villains including gangsters, mad scientists, extraterrestrials, and characters from other dimensions. At various times in the comic strip, Mandrake has also demonstrated other powers, including turning invisible, shapeshifting, levitation, and teleportation. His hat, cloak and wand, passed down from his father Theron, possess great magical properties which in time Mandrake learns how to use. Although Mandrake publicly works as a stage magician, he spends much of his time fighting criminals and combatting supernatural entities. Mandrake lives in Xanadu, a high-tech mansion atop a mountain in New York State. Xanadu's features include closed circuit TV; a sectional road which divides in half; and vertical iron gates.\n\nOther characters\n\nSupporting\n\nLothar is Mandrake's best friend and crimefighting companion. \nMandrake first met Lothar during his travels in Africa. Lothar was \"Prince of the Seven Nations\", a mighty federation of jungle tribes; but forbore to become king and instead followed Mandrake on his world travels. Lothar is often referred to as \"the strongest man in the world\", with the exception of Hojo — Mandrake's chef and secret chief of Inter Intel. Lothar is invulnerable to any weapon forged by man, impervious to heat, cold and possesses the stamina of a thousand men. He also cannot be harmed by magic directly (fire bolts, force bolts, spell incantations). He can lift an elephant by one hand easily.\n\nOne of the first African crimefighting heroes ever to appear in comics, Lothar made his first appearance alongside Mandrake in 1934 in the inaugural daily strip. In the beginning, Lothar spoke poor English and wore a fez, short pants, and a leopard skin. In a 1935 work by King Features Syndicate, Lothar is referred to as Mandrake's \"giant black slave.\" When artist Fred Fredericks took over in 1965, Lothar spoke correct English and his clothing changed, although he often wore shirts with leopard-skin patterns. \n\nNarda is Princess of the European nation Cockaigne (ruled by her brother Segrid). She made her first appearance in the second Mandrake story. Although she and Mandrake were infatuated with one another, they did not marry until 1997, which occurred at an extravagant triple wedding ceremony—at Mandrake's home of Xanadu, Narda's home country Cockaigne, and Mandrake's father Theron's College of Magic (Collegium Magikos) in the Himalayas. Narda learned martial arts from Hojo.\n\nTheron is the headmaster of the College of Magic (Collegium Magikos) located in the Himalayas. Theron is hundreds of years old and may be kept alive by the Mind Crystal of which he is the guardian.\n\nHojo is Mandrake's chef at his home of Xanadu, and the secret Chief of the international crimefighting organization Inter-Intel, in addition to being a superb martial arts expert. As such, he has used Mandrake's help with many cases. Hojo's assistant at Inter-Intel is Jed. Hojo knows 6 languages.\n\nThe Police Chief is named Bradley but mostly called \"Chief\" and has been aided by Mandrake on several occasions. He created the \"S.S.D.\" (Silly Stuff Dept.) for absurd and unbelievable cases that only Mandrake could solve. He has a son, Chris.\n\nMagnon is Mandrake's most powerful friend and the emperor of the galaxy. Magnon and his wife Carola have a daughter, Nardraka, who is named after Mandrake and Narda and is their godchild.\n\nLenore is Mandrake's younger half-sister. She is a world-renowned explorer.\n\nKarma is Lothar's girlfriend, an African princess who works as a model.\n\nVillains\n\nThe Cobra is Mandrake's most evil and dangerous foe, apparent from the start of the story. In 1937, the Cobra was apparently defeated; but returned in 1965, wearing a menacing silver mask. The Cobra's main goal is to acquire one of the two powerful Crystal Cubes which increase mental energy. These are guarded by Mandrake and his father Theron. Mandrake learned that The Cobra was secretly Luciphor, Theron's oldest son and thus Mandrake's half-brother. In later years, the Cobra abandoned his silver mask as his face had been reconstructed through surgery. He is sometimes accompanied by his assistant Ud.\n\nDerek is Mandrake's twin brother, he was similar to Mandrake in appearance, used his magical powers (nearly the equal of Mandrake's) to achieve short-term personal satisfactions. Mandrake has tried to remove Derek's knowledge of magic; but has never entirely succeeded. Derek has a son, Eric (mother unknown), who has shown no signs of following in his father's footsteps.\n\nThe Clay Camel, real name Saki, is a master of disguise, able to mimic anyone and change his appearance in seconds. His name comes from the symbol he leaves at the scenes of his crimes, a small camel made of clay.\n\nThe Brass Monkey, daughter of the Clay Camel, with a similar talent for disguises.\n\nAleena the Enchantress is a former friend of Mandrake's from the College of Magic, a much-married spoilt temptress who uses her magic powers for her own benefit. She sometimes attempts to seduce Mandrake; but fails, and thereafter attempts to cause him trouble.\n\n8 is an old and very powerful crime organization originating in medieval times. They are known to often incorporate the number 8 in their crimes or leave the number 8 as a mark. They are organized like an octopus with eight arms (headquarters) spread all over the world, and one head (the mysterious leader Octon, only shown as a menacing image on a computer screen). Over the years, Mandrake destroys their headquarters one by one. In one of the stories the Octon of 8 is revealed as Cobra; but the name later referred to an artificial intelligence wielded by Ming the Merciless in the television series Defenders of the Earth.\n\nEkardnam ('Mandrake' backwards) is Mandrake's \"evil twin\", who exists on the other side of the mirror. Like his world (where the government is run by the \"Private of the Armies\", and generals do menial work), Ekardnam is an exact opposite, and uses his \"evil eye\" to work his magic.\n\nThe Deleter is an extraterrestrial contract killer who will \"delete\" anyone for a price, but will inflict justice on anyone who tries to cheat him out of his contract fee.\n\nComic books\n\nMandrake had a prominent role in Magic Comics and Big Little Books of the 1930s and 1940s. Dell Comics published a Mandrake the Magician issue in their Four Color comic series with various main characters. The Mandrake issue was #752 and featured original stories by Stan Campell and written by Paul Newman.\n\nIn 1966-67, King Comics published ten issues of a Mandrake the Magician comic book. Most of the stories were remakes of past newspaper strip stories and featured art by André LeBlanc, Ray Bailey and others. Mandrake stories also ran as back-up features in other King titles.\n\nItalian publisher Fratelli Spada produced a considerable amount of original Mandrake comic book stories in the 1960s and 1970s. A few of these were even published in the American Mandrake comic book mentioned above.\n\nMarvel released a Mandrake mini-series in 1995, written by Mike W. Barr and with painted art by Rob Ortaleza. However, only two of three planned issues were published.\n\nMandrake has also enjoyed great success in comic books published in Britain, Australia, Brazil, India, France, Spain, Italy, Yugoslavia, Germany, Norway, Denmark, Finland, Turkey and Sweden (although in the case of the Nordic countries, most often as a backup feature in The Phantom comic books). Mandrake is popular in India through Indrajal Comics.\n\nMandrake is featured together with the Phantom in The Phantom Annual #2, written by Mike Bullock and Kevin Grevioux and published by Moonstone Books.\n\nIn 2013, Dynamite Entertainment launched a mini-series, Kings Watch, where (much like Defenders of the Earth), Mandrake and Lothar teamed up with the Phantom, as well as Flash Gordon, Dale Arden and Hans Zarkov. This series pitted the six characters against the Cobra and Ming the Merciless. This was followed by a Mandrake solo comic, written by Roger Langridge and drawn by Jeremy Treece, as part of Dynamite's King: Dynamite series. \n\nParodies, tributes, and rip-offs \n\nMandrake the Magician inspired several other comic characters with magic powers, including Zatara, Kardak the Mystic Magician, Monako, Dakor the Magician, Ibis the Invincible, Mantor the Magician, Sargon the Sorcerer, Mr. Mystic, The Wizard, and Mysto, Magician Detective; and the short-lived Jim the Magician (Jadugar Jim in Hindi) by [Sudhir Tailang] in India.\n\nIn Mad #14 (August 1954), Mandrake was spoofed as \"Manduck\". He lives in a city dump, which he convinces visitors is a palatial home by \"gesturing hypnotically\". In this story, he matches wits with The Shadow; he, Lothar (called \"Loathar\"), and The Shadow all gesture hypnotically at each other and after a huge explosion only Lothar (looking like Manduck) remains. In another issue, Manduck pulls off the trick of turning Loathar into a six-foot-tall blonde woman.\n\n\"In Pictopia\" (first published in Anything Goes! #2, August 1986) is a short story by Alan Moore and illustrator Don Simpson, which takes place in a limbo world of comic book characters. The main character, Nocturno the Necromancer, is based on Mandrake. The story was reprinted in George Khoury's The Extraordinary Works of Alan Moore (TwoMorrows, July 2003)\n\nMichael Kupperman's Tales Designed to Thrizzle, pokes fun at many comics, including Mandrake the Magician with a three-panel strip, \"Mancake the Magician\".\n\nIn other media\n\nRadio\n\nOn radio as a 15-minute program, Mandrake the Magician was a 15-minute radio serial aired on the Mutual Broadcasting System from November 11, 1940, until February 6, 1942.\n\nFilms\n\nIn 1939, Columbia produced a 12-part Mandrake the Magician serial, based on the King Features strip, starring Warren Hull as Mandrake and Al Kikume as Lothar. The serial is available on DVD.\n\nAn unauthorized Mandrake movie produced in Turkey was made in 1967, Mandrake Killing'e karsi (Mandrake against Killing), directed by Oksal Pekmezoglu and starring Güven Erte as Mandrake.\n\nAnthony Herrera had the title role in the TV movie Mandrake (1979) with Ji-Tu Cumbuka as Lothar. Magician Harry Blackstone Jr. was featured in the cast.\n\nIn 2007, it was announced that Baldwin Entertainment Group and Hyde Park Entertainment purchased rights to make a Mandrake movie, to be directed by Mimi Leder. The two companies own the rights to Lee Falk's The Phantom. Jonathan Rhys Meyers was originally on board the project as the title character with Chuck Russell announced as director. In 2009, Hayden Christensen replaced Rhys Meyers in the title role of the film, with Djimon Honsou co-starring and Mimi Leder directing. Warner Bros announced that they are developing the film version of Mandrake. In June 2016, Sascha Baron Cohen was cast as Mandrake. \n\nThe plot of the film In Time, a 2011 American science fiction film starring Justin Timberlake and Amanda Seyfried, is similar to that of a short story by Lee Falk that appeared in the December 1975 issue of Playboy. It portrays a place where time is the currency for its inhabitants and when you run out of time, you die. This short story is in turn based on an earlier Mandrake daily story by Falk from 1968; \"The Gold Crisis\". Lee Falk did not receive any film credits for the movie In Time.\n\nUnproduced films\n\nIn the 1960s, Federico Fellini, a close friend of Falk, intended to make a Mandrake movie, but the project never got off the ground.\n\nIn the early 1980s, within two weeks of signing with his first agent, American filmmaker Michael Almereyda was hired by Embassy Pictures to rewrite a script for Mandrake the Magician. He told Filmmaker that upon receiving the assignment, he flew to New York and checked himself into the Chelsea Hotel to work on the rewrite. Three weeks later, he emerged with new draft in hand, but by then the studio had changed heads, and in as little time as his revision took, the project was dropped. \n\nTelevision\n\nNBC made a pilot for a Mandrake the Magician TV series in 1954, but no other episodes were made. Stage magician Coe Norton starred as Mandrake and Woody Strode as Lothar.\n\nIn the animated series Defenders of the Earth (1986–87), Mandrake the Magician teams with fellow King Features adventurers Flash Gordon and The Phantom. Mandrake's best friend and crime fighting partner Lothar also has a prominent role, as well as a teenage son nicknamed L.J. (Lothar Jr.) who was also a martial artist. Mandrake has an adoptive son of Asian blood named Kshin, whom he is training as his apprentice and heir. Peter Renaday provided the voice of Mandrake and Buster Jones provided that of Lothar. The entire series has been released by BCI Eclipse in two DVD sets.\n\nIn the animated series Phantom 2040, featuring a future Phantom, Mandrake has a brief, unnamed appearance in the episode \"The Magician.\" He is presented as an old friend of that Phantom's father, and his remarkably well-preserved shape is compatible with the longevity-conferring properties of the Crystals.\n\nTheater\n\nThe musical Mandrake the Magician and the Enchantress was produced during the late 1970s at the Lenox Arts Festival in Massachusetts. The script is by Falk and Thayer Burch, with music by George Quincy and lyrics by Burch.\n\nMandrake is a character in the play King Kong Palace, written by Chilean playwright Marco Antonio de la Parra. In the play, Mandrake is now a performer in birthday parties and attempts to seduce Jane, the ambitious wife of Tarzan, in order to satisfy his lust for power.\n\nLeon Mandrake\n\nLeon Mandrake, the stage magician, who was known for his top hat, pencil line moustache and scarlet-lined cape, is sometimes thought to be the basis for the origin of the strip. But Leon Mandrake actually chose his stage name to match the popular strip and later legally change his surname from Giglio to Mandrake. The resemblance between the comic strip hero and the real life magician was close enough to allow Leon to at least passively allow the illusion that the strip was based on his stage persona. Leon Mandrake, who toured as Mandrake the Magician, was accompanied at the time the strip began by Narda, his first wife and stage assistant who appears in the strip. Velvet, his life-time partner would also later make appearances in the strip along with his real-life side-kick, Lothar. In fact, Leon Mandrake had been performing for well over ten years before Lee Falk introduced the comic strip character. Davis, the strip's creator became good friends and corresponded for years afterwards.\n\nReprints\n\nInside Magic publishes current Mandrake daily comic strip from King Features.\nDragon Lady Press reprinted a 1937 Mandrake daily story in Classic Adventure Strips #1.\nPacific Comics Club reprinted two Mandrake daily stories from 1938 Feature Books #18 and #23.\nNostalgia Press published a hardback book reprinting two 1938 daily stories.\nPioneer Comics reprinted a large number of Mandrake stories in comic book form.\nComics Revue has reprinted several Mandrake daily and Sunday stories, including first Mandrake daily story and the first Mandrake Sunday story.\nJAL Publications has reprinted several Mandrake stories\n Hermes Press has begun reprinting the King comic book series, which will be two volumes. \n* Titan Books reprinted the earliest Mandrake Sunday strips in 2016. \n\nIn popular culture\n\nSerbian Alternative rock band Disciplina Kičme has a song, called \"Betmen, Mandrak, Fantom\" (Batman, Mandrake, Phantom)." ] }	{ "description": [], "filename": [], "rank": [], "title": [], "url": [], "search_context": [] }	{ "aliases": [ "Lothar" ], "normalized_aliases": [ "lothar" ], "matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_matched_wiki_entity_name": "", "normalized_value": "lothar", "type": "WikipediaEntity", "value": "Lothar" }

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